A HISTORY OF GERMANY; FROM THE EARLIEST PERIOD TO THE PRESENT TIME, BY FREDERICK KOHLRAUSCH, CHIEF COUNSELLOR OF THE BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE KINGDOM OF HANOVER, AND LATE PROFESSOR OF HISTORY IN THE POLYTECHNIC SCHOOL. TRANSLATED FROM THE LAST GERMAN EDITION, BY JAMES D. HAAS. WITH A COMPLETE INDEX, PREPARED EXPRESSLY FOR THE AMERICAN EDITION. NEW-YORK: D. APPLETON AND COMPANY, 200 BROADWAY. M.DCCC.LII. TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE. THE high merits and distinguished character of the original German work by Professor Kohlrausch, of which this is a translation, have long been acknowledged. A work which during a period of thirty years has enjoyed so much popularity as to have gone through several editions, embracing a circulation of many thousands of copies; a production which has extended and established its good repute, even in its original form, fat beyond its native clime, to England, France, Belgium, Italy, America, &c., (in several of which countries it has been reprinted in German,) and has thus become a standard book of reference in almost all the universities and principal public, as well as private educational institutions-such a publication possesses ample testimony proving it able to create a lasting interest, and confirming its claims to consideration and esteem. The aim of the distinguished author in this valuable history is thus simply but distinctly expressed by himself: " My sole object," he says, " has been to produce a succinct and connected development of the vivid and eventful course of our country's history, written in a style calculated to excite the interest and sympathy of my readers, and of such especially who, not seeking to enter upon a very profound study of the sources and more elaborate woriai connected with the annals of our empire, are nevertheless anxious to have presented to them the means of acquiring an accurate knowledge of the records of our Fatherland, in such a form as to leave upon the mind and heart an enduring, indelible impression." That our industrious historian has attained his object, the intelligent reader will find in the interest excited, the clear views imparted, and the deep impres sion effected by his animated portrayals of both events and individuals. This has been the original and acknowledged characteristic of Herr Kohlrausch's work throughout its entire existence; but in the new edition from which this translation has been rendered, he has endeavored to make it as perfect as possible, both in matter and style, and besides this has enriched it with many valuable 4 PREFACE. notes not contained in the former editions; thus making it in reality a concise, yet, in every respect, a complete history of Germany. It is important to remark, that Professor Kohlrausch is a Protestant, and one distinguished not less for his freedom from prejudice and partiality, than for the comprehensiveness of his views and the high tone of his philosophy. The general adoption of the work-alike by Protestant and Romanist-is proof sufficiently convincing of the impartiality of his statements, and of the justice of his reflections and sentiments. JAMES D. HAAS. London. 1844. TABLE OF CONTENTS. INTRODUCTION. SECOND PERIOD. ANCIENT GERMANY AND ITS INHABITANTS. FROM THE CONQUESTS OF CLOVIS TO CHARLEMAGNE; PAGE 486-768. The Sources of the most ancient German History-The Nature of the Country-The CHA IV. Natives-The Germanic Races-Manners PAGE and Customs-Civil Institutions-War- Clovis, King of the Franks, 482-511-TheoRegulations and Arms- Religion -Arts doric, surnamed Dieterich of Berne, 488and Manufactures-The Germanic Tribes 15 526 - The Longobardi in Italy, 568Changes il the Customs and Institutions of the Germans-The LanguageTHE MORE ANCIENT GERMAN HISTORY. Constitution - Feudal System - Laws - Pastimes-Christianity in Germany-The FIRST PERIOD. tenGrand Chamberlains-Chas. Martel against the Arabs, 732-Pepin the Little-The Carlovingians........ 77.'ROM THE MOST ANCIENT TIMES TO THE CONQUESTS Carlovingians77 OF THE FRANKS UNDER CLOVIS, 486 A. D. CHAPTER I. THIRD PERIOD. B. C. 113-6 A. D. THE CARLOVINGIANS FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO IHENRY I., 768-919. The Cimbri and Teutoni, 113-101 B. c.Cesar and Ariovistus, 58 B. c.-Julius CHAPTER V. Caesar on the Rhine —Commencement of the Great German Wars-Drusus in Ger- 768-814. many-Marbodius, King of the Marcomanni......... 43 Charlemagne, 768-814-The State in which Charlemagne found the Empire-The EastCHAPTER II. Roman, or Grecian Empire-EnglandThe North of Europe-The Spanish Pe7-374. ninsula-Italy-Austria and HungaryArminius or Hermann-Arminius and Varus Germany-The Wars of Charlemagne-Arminius and Germanicus-The Death The Saxons-The Longobardi-The Arabs -Arminius and Germancu-The Bavarians-The Empire of Charleof Arminius, 21 A. D.-Further Wars be- magne-Charlemagne, Empror of Rome, tween the Germans and Romans-War magne-Charlemagne, Emperor of Rome, 800 —Death of Charlemagne, 814 —His with the Marcomanni, 167-180-The Ger- 800-Death of Charlemagne, 814His manic Confederations-The Alemanni- Poaiture The Franks-The Saxon ConfederationThe Goths-The Decline of the Roman CHAPTER V Empire.54 CHAPTER VI. Empire............ 54 814-918. CHAPTER III. 375-476. Louis the Pious, 814-840-Division of the Empire among his Sons, Louis, Lothaire, The Hunns-Commencement of the Great and Charles the Bald, 843-The German Migration, 375-Irruption of the Western Sovereigns of the Race of the Carlovingians, Goths, Vandals, Suevi, Burgundians, and 843-911-Louis, or Ludwig, the German other Tribes into the Western Roman Em- - Charles the Fat-Arnulf - Louis the pire-Alaric-Attila, God's Scourge, 451 Child-The later and concluding Period of -The Fall of the Roman Empire in the the Carlovingians-Conrad I., of Franconia, West, 476........... 68 911-918............ 106 6 CONTENTS. FOURTH PERIOD. CHAPTER X. IOM HENRY I. TO RUDOLPHUS OF HAPSBURG, 919- FROM 1190 TO THE INTERREGNUM, 1273. 1273. PAGX Henry VI., 1190-1197-His Mercenary and CHAPTER VII. Cruel Character-Richard I. of England919-1024. Is Seized and Imprisoned by Henry-NaPAGE ples and Sicily-The Grandees-Their Henry I., 919-936-His Wars-The Hungari- Barbarous Treatment by the Emperorans-The Sclavonians-New Institutions- His Death, 1197-The Rival SovereignsOtho I., 936-973-The Hungarians-Bat- Philip of Swabia, 1197-1208, and Otho IV., tie of the Letchfeld —The Western Empire 1197-1215-Their Death-Frederick II., renewed, 962-Greece-Otho II., 973-983 1215-1250-His Noble Qualities-Love for -Otho III., 983-1003 —His Religious De- the Arts and Sciences —His Sarcastic Poetry votion-His Partiality for Roman and Gre- -Preference for Italy-Disputes with the cian Manners and Customs-Henry II., Popes-Is Excommunicated-His Crusade 1003-1024-Italy-Pavia-Bamburg-His to the Holy Land-Crowned King of JeruDeath, 1024-End of the Saxon Dynasty 117 salem-Marries a Princess of EnglandItaly-Pope Gregory IX.-Frederick DeCHAPTER VIII. nounced and Deposed-Dissensions in Germany-The Rival Kings-Death of FredTHE SALIC OR FRANCONIAN HOUSE, 1024-1125, TO erick II., 1250-His Extraordinary Genius LOTHAIRE THE SAXON, 1137. and Talents-His Zeal for Science and Education-A Glance at the East and Assemblage of the Ducal States-The Elec- North-Eastern parts of Germany-Progress tion-Conrad II., 1024-1039-Re-estab- in Civilization-William of Holland, 1247lishes Internal Peace-Italy-Canute, King 1256- Conrad IV., 1250-1254- Their of England and Denmark-Burgundy- Death- The Interregnum, 1256-1273Ernest, Duke of Swabia-The Faust-Recht Progress of the Germanic Constitution. 170 -Conrad's Death, 1039-Henry III., 1039. 1056-The Popes-Henry's Zeal for the C R Church-His Death, 1056-Henry IV., CR X 1056, 1106-His Minority-The Arch- THE MIDDLE AGES. bishops-Albert of Bremen-Henry and the Saxons-Their Hostility —Henry's Revenge Chivalry-The Cities-The Peasantry-The -Pope Gregory VII.-His Ambition-The Arts and Sciences-The Clergy and EccleRight of Investiture —Rupture with the siastical Institutions-The Monasteries and Emperor-Henry Excommunicated-The Convents —The Faust-Recht - The AdEmperor a Fugitive-The Rival Emperors ministration of Justice- The Vehm-Geand Popes-Rudolphus of Swabia and Pope richt, or Secret Tribunal..... 182 Clement III.-Henrv's Death, 1106-Henry V., 1106-1125-Rome-Pope Pascal II. -The Investiture Contest — Sanguinary FIFTH PERIOD. Battle — Henry Crowned Emperor- His Death, 1125-The First Crusade, 1096- FROM RUDOLPHUS I., OF HAPSBURG, TO CHARLES V., 1099-Lothaire the Saxon, 1125-1137.. 137 1273-1520.-EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES CHAPTER IX. CHAPTER XII. THE SWABIAN OR HOHENSTAUFEN HOUSE, 1138-1254. 1273-1347. 1138-1190. Rudolph I., of Hapsburg, 1273-1291-AdolConrad III., 1138-1152-The Guelphs and phus I., of Nassau, 1292-1298-Albert I., Ghibelines - Weinsberg -- The Faithful of Austria, 1298-1308-Switzerland-ConWives-Conrad's Crusade-Disastrous Re- federation of the Swiss-Gessler-William sults-His Death, 1152-Frederick I., or Tell-Henry VII., of Luxemburg, 1308Barbarossa, 1152-1190-His Noble Cha- 1313-Frederick, of Austria, 1314-1330, racter and Distinguished Qualities-Ex. and Lewis, of Bavaria, 1314-1347-Swittends his Dominions-The Cities of Lom- zerland-The Battle of Morgarten, 1315bardy and Milan-Pavia-Pope Adrian IV The Battle of Miihldorf, 1322-The First -The Emperor's Homage-Otho of Wit- Electoral Alliance, 1338-Death of Lewis, telsbach-Dispute between the Pope and 1347.......201 the Emperor-Milan taken and razedThe Confederation of the Lombardian CHAPTER XIII. Towns-The Battle of Lignano-Frederick Defeated-Pope Alexander and Frederick EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES. -Venice-Henry the Lion, of Brunswick 1347-1437. -His Rise and Fall-Reconciliation and Peace - Lombardy - Frederick's Crusade Charles IV., 1347-1378-Wenceslas, 1378and Death in Palestine, 1190..... 158 1400-Switzerland-The Battle of Sem CONTENTS. 7 PAGE PAGK pach, 1386-Leopold of Austria-Arnold of France-Frederick the Wise, Elector of Winkelried-His Heroism and Self-devo- Saxony-Charles V. elected Emperor of tion-Wenceslas Deposed-Rupert of the Germany-His Character-Jealousy and Palatinate, 1400-1410-Sigismund, 1410- Discontent of the Spaniards-Try to Dis1437-Grand Council of Constance-John suade Charles from accepting the Imperial Huss, and the Hussite Wars-Death of Crown-New Spain-Discovery of Mexico Sigismund, 1437........ 216 -Arrival of Charles in Germany-His Coronation, 1520-Schism in the Church CHAPTER XIV. -Causes which produced it-Ignorance of the Clergy-Their Vices-Murmurs and THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. Discontent of the People-A Reformation in the Church universally demanded - Albert II., 1438, 1439-His Death-Freder- Scholastic Wisdom-Theology-Enlightick III., 1440-1493-The Council of Basle, enment of Science-John Reuchlin...247 1448 —Eneas Sylvius-The Turks-Bel. grade-Defeat of the Turks-The Diets- CHAPTER XVII. The Emperor besieged in Vienna-His Resolution-His Brother, Duke Albert- Outbreak of the Reformation, 1517-Abuses The Count Palatine of the Rhine-His in the Church-Letters of IndulgenceHostility-Defeats the Imperialists-Albert Martin Luther, the Reformer-His Expo. of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Germany sure and Condemnation of these Proceed. -Feuds of the Nobles and Cities-Nurem- ings-Is summoned to appear in Romeberg-The Nobles Defeated-Austria and Withheld from going by the Elector of Burgundy-Charles the Rash-His Ambi- Saxony - The Pope's Nuncio, Cardinal tion - Attacks the Swiss -Defeated at Cajetan, and Luther at the Diet of AugsMurten-The Battle of Nancy-His Death burg, 1518-Refusal of Luther to retract-Mary of Burgundy-Marries Maximilian Luther's Appeal to the Pope for a fair Hearof Austria-Her Death-The Emperor ing-Controversial Discussion between LuFrederick a Fugitive-His Return-Maxi- ther and Dr. Eck-Luther maintains his milian, Roman King-The Laws-Their Ground-The Pope's Bull against Luther Improvement-Frederick's Obstinacy and -The Reformer burns the Bull, with the Refusal-Maximilian Appealed to-The Canon Law and Eck's Writings-PropaSwabian League-Death of Frederick III., gation of the New Doctrine-Luther ad1493-Prussia-The Teutonic Knights- dresses the People-Ulric of Hiitten, and Their Decline and Fall-Prussia under Francis of Sickingen-Frederick the Wise Polish Sway, 1466......226 of Saxony and the Princes in favor of ReCHAPTER X. ~ form-The Grand Diet at Worms, 1521CHAPTER XV. Charles V.-The Pope's Legate, Cardinal Alexander-Luther's Appearance and ExMaximilian I., 1493-1519-His Mental Ac- amination there-Solemn Refusal to Requirements and Chivalric Character-His tract-The Emperor's Declaration-LuGovernment-Italy-Charles VIII. and ther Excommunicated and his Writings Louis XII. of France-Switzerland-The burnt-Conveyed by the Elector of SaxVenetian Republic-The League of Cam. ony for Safety to the Castle of Wartburgbray-Maximilian's Honorable and Con- His Translation of the New Testamentsistent Conduct-The Battle of the Spurs Tumults and Revolutions of the Peasantry -Union of Hungary and Bohemia-Inter- -Miinzer the Fanatic-Battle of Frankennal Administration of Affairs-Perpetual hausen-Miinzer's Death-Tranquillity rePeace of the Land-End of the Faust. stored.......253 Recht-The Imperial Chamber and Aulic Council-Opposition of the States-The CHAPTER XVIII. Emperor triumphant-State of the Country-The Nobles, Cities, and PeasantryGotz von Berlichingen, &c.-Death of the Foreign Relations of Charles V.-Francis I. of France-War between these two rival Emperor Maximilian, 1519-Events of his MonarchIta an he Du o Reign, and End of the Middle Ages-Dis- Bourbon archs-Italy-Milan-The Duke of covery and Use of Gunpowder —Artillery Bourbon-The Chevalier Bayard-The covery and Use of Gunpowder-Artillery Battle of Pavia, 1525-Defeat of the French and Fire-Arms —Invention of Printing, 1457 234 Francis I. taken Prisoner-Madrid-The King of France liberated-His DishonorSIXTH PERIOD. able Breach of Stipulation-The Imperialists in Rome-The Pope a Prisoner-His FROM CHARLES v. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA, Ransom-War with France resumed1520-1648. Andrew Doria-Peace of Cambray, 1529 -Charles V. crowned Emperor and King CHAPTER XVI. of Lombardy in Bologna-His Generosity -Return to Germany-First League of the State of the Empire-Internal Anarchy- Protestant Princes, 1526-The Augsburg Charles V. of Spain, and Francis I. of Confession, 1530 —Melanchthon —His Cha 8 CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE racter of Charles V.-John, Elector of Elector of Saxony-Refuses to adhere to Saxony-His Determination-The Impe- the Interim-His Declaration-Shameful rial Council-The Emperor's Declaration Treatment in consequence-The Elector --— Reply of the Protestant Princes-Ferdi- Maurice-Magdeburg-Maurice marches nand, King of Rome, 1531-Religious against that City-The Emperor and MauPeace-The Turks in Hungary-Their De- rice-Maurice deserts the Emperor, and feat-Ulric, Duke of Wurtemberg-Re- with Albert of Brandenburg joins the Prostored to his Possessions by Philip of Hesse testants-Their Declaration against the -Insurrection of the Anabaptists-Their Emperor-His Reply-Albert's DepredaDefeat-The Emperor in Africa-Tunis- tions-Maurice's Separation from himHis Triumph and Liberation of 22,000 Charles V. at Inspruck-Pursued by MauChristian Slaves-Francis I. attacks Italy rice-The Emperor a Fugitive in the Moun-Charles V. enters France-Suspension of tains of the Tyrol-His Desolate and ForArms-Interview between the two Mo- lorn Condition-His Return to Augsburgnarchs at Aigues-Mortes-Revolt in Ghent Release of the Elector John Frederick-His -Progress of Charles V. through France Welcome Home-Jena-Treaty of Passau and Ghent-Hospitality received-Peace -Liberation of Philip of Hesse-Charles V. restored in Ghent-The Diet at Ratisbon, in France-Metz-Unsuccessful Campaign 1541-Charles V. in Algiers-Disastrous -Albert of Brandenburg-Defeated at LuiExpedition - His Fortitude - Return to neberg by Maurice-Death of Maurice and Italy-Francis I. resumes Hostilities-His Albert-Religious Peace of Augsburg-FiIll-success-Charles V. on the Rhine-At- nal Separation of the Two Religious Partacks the Duke of Cleves-Overcomes and ties-Abdication of Charles V.-Retreat to pardons him-Marches into France-Ad- a Hermit's Cell-Rehearsal of his Funeral vance upon Paris-The Peace of Crepi, Procession-His Death, 1558..... 292 1544.............263 CHAPTER XXI. CHAPTER XIX. Ferdinand I., 1556-1564-His Industrious State of Religious Affairs in Germany, from Habits-Moderation and Tolerance-The 1534 to 1546-Vain Attempts at Recon- Calvinists and Lutherans-Their Hostility ciliation-Rapid Propagation of the New towards each other-Ferdinand and ProDoctrine-Henry, Duke of Brunswick- testantism-The Foundation of the Order Death of Martin Luther, 1546-Charles V. of Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola, 1540-Its and the Pope-Their Alliance-Prepara. rapid and universal Dissemination-The tions for War-The League of Schmal- Council of Trent-Ferdinand's Ambassakald-The Elector of Saxony and the Land- dors-Their Propositions refused-Their grave of Hesse-Their Characters contrast- Letter to the Emperor-Death of Ferdinand ed-Maurice, Duke of Saxony-His extra- I., 1564-Maximilian II., 1564-1576-His ordinary Genius-His Adherence to the Qualifications and Good Character-BoheEmperor-The Pope's Bull-The Holy mia-Poland-State of Tranquillity-WilWar-The Schmalkaldian Army, 1546- liam of Grumbach in Franconia-His Re1547-General Schartlin-Division among volt and Excommunication-Gotha-The the Protestant Leaders-Inglorious Results Young Prince of Saxony-Joins Grumbach -The Imperial Camp besieged-Charles -His perpetual Captivity and Death in triumphant-Duke Maurice and the Elector Styria-Grumbach's Execution-The merof Saxony-Treachery of Duke Maurice- cenary Troops-Evils they produce-GerThe Emperor in Upper Germany-Con- man Soldiers in Foreign Service-Death of quers the Imperial Free Cities-Saxony- Maximilian II., 1576-Rudolphus II., 1576The Battle of Miihlberg-The Saxons de- 1612-His Indolence and Irresolutionfeated-The Elector taken Prisoner-De- Bad Counsellors - Religious Excitement posed and condemned to Death-The Game renewed-The Netherlands-The Duke of of Chess-The Elector's Firmness and Re- Alba-The Elector Gebhard of Cologne signation-His Life spared-Duke Maurice and Agnes of Mansfeld, Canoness of Germade Elector of Saxony-Wittenberg- resheim - Gebhard Excommunicated - Charles V. and Philip of Hesse-The Land- John Casimir, the Count Palatine-Calvingrave's Submission and Humiliation-De- ism - Donauwerth —Austria - Rudolphus tained a Prisoner, and his Lands seized by against the Protestants-Deprives them of the Emperor-The Elector Maurice-His their Churches-Hungary-Revolt of SteMortification and Projects against the Em- phen Botschkai-The Emperor an Astroloperor-The Spanish Troops in Germany- gist and Alchymist-Neglects his GovernTheir Insolence and Oppression.... 276 ment more and more-Tycho Bralh and Keppler-Rudolphus resigns Hungary to CHAPTER XX. his Brother Matthias-Bohemia-The Letter of Majesty- The Palatinate -The The Council of Trent-Rupture between the Evangelical Union-Juliers-Henry IV. of Emperor and the Pope-The Interim or France joins the Union —The Catholic Temporary Code of Doctrines-Its Con- League-Prague-Revolt-The Emperor demnation by both Parties-The Captive a Prisoner-His Death, 1612.. 302 CONTENTS. 9 CHAPTER XXII. PAGE PAGE Pursues Mansfeld- Death of Mansfeld, Matthias I., 1612-1619-His Coronation- 1626-Death of the Duke of BrunswickIts Pomp and Splendor deceptive-The Christian IV. of Denmark-His FlightProtestants-Increase of general Discon- Dukes Adolphus and John of Mecklenburg tent-Austria-Aix.la-Chapelle - Cologne banished-Their Estates seized by Wallen-The Prince Palatine Wolfgang William, stein-Created Duke of Mecklenburg and and the Elector of Brandenburg-Their a Prince of the Empire, 1628-Pomerania Quarrel-Box on the Ear-Baneful Conse- -Stralsund-Besieged by Wallensteinquences- Foreign Allies —The Young Its brave Resistance-Forces Wallenstein Archduke Ferdinand-Elected King of Bo- to retire-Peace between the King of Denhemia-His Character-His Devotion to mark and the Emperor, 1629-The Edict Catholicism and Hatred of the Protestants of Restitution, 1639-Its Effect-Augsburg -Banishes the New Faith from his Lands -The Catholic League —Tyranny and -The Electoral Princes-Ferdinand warn- Cruelty of Wallenstein and his Armyed against his Proceedings by the Elector Complaints of the Catholics and Protestants of Saxony-Bohemia-The Letter of Ma. against Wallenstein to the Emperor-The jesty shamefully infringed-The Protestant Princes and the Nation insist upon his DisChurches destroyed-Indignation and Re- missal-His Resignation. 32(0 volt of the Protestants-Their Defender, Count Matthias, of Thurn-Counts Marti- CHAPTER XXIV. nitz and Slavata-Their Hostility to the Protestants-Prague-The Council Hall- Gustavus Adolphus, King of Sweden, in GerMartinitz and Slavata thrown out of the many, 1630-1632-His Character —MIoWindow-General Revolution-The Em- tives and Plans in favor of Protestantismperor's Alarm and Desire for Peace-Fer- Stralsund-Gustavus declares War against dinand's Declaration in reply-Commence- Ferdinand-Lands with his Army in Pomement of the Thirty Years' War-Count Er- rania - Stettin - The Protestant Princes nest of Mansfeld, Leader of the Protestants hesitate to join Gustavus - Ciistrin and -His great Military Genius and heroic Spandau-The Elector of BrandenburgCharacter-Death of Matthias I., 1619- The Elector of Saxony-Siege of MagdeFerdinand II., 1619-1637-Count Thurn burg-Count Tilly-Conquers and burns and the Bohemians in Vienna-Surround the City-Dreadful Massacre-Gustavus the Emperor in his Palace-Ferdinand un- and Tilly-Battle of Leipsic-Defeat of the expectedly rescued-The Bohemians De- Imperialists-Glorious Results to Gustavus pose him-The Elector Palatine, Frederick -Surrender of the Cities-Ingolstadt-TilV., Son-in-Law of James I. of England, ly wounded-His Death-Munich-Prague King of Bohemia, 1619-His Irresolution - Ferdinand and Wallenstein - Regal and Pusillanimity-Ferdinand and Maxi- splendor of Wallenstein-His Palace-Remilian of Bavaria-Their Alliance-Supe- assembles an Army for the Emperor-Exriority of the Imperialists over the Bohe- travagant Conditions-Appointed Generalmians —Battle of Weissenberg, near Prague, issimo-The Camp of Nuremberg-The 1620-The Bohemians defeated and their Swedish and Imperial Armies-Gustavus King put to Flight - ris Abdication — in Saxony-Battle of Liitzen, 1632-GusPrague capitulates-Bohemia severely pun- tavus killed-His Death revenged by the ished by Ferdinand-Thirty thousand Fam- Swedes-Total Defeat of Wallensteinilies banished the Country... 311 Portraiture of Gustavus Adolphus... 327 CHAPTER XXIII. CHAPTER XXV. Military Expeditions in Germany, 1621-1624 Continuation of the War, 1632-1635-Chan-Generals Mansfeld and Tilly-Successes cellor Oxenstiern-Wallenstein's Inaction of Mansfeld-Joined by the Margrave of -Court Martial over his officers-Military Baden-Durlach and Christian-Duke of Executions-Count of Thurn taken PrisBrunswick-Tilly-The Palatinate-The oner and released by Wallenstein-The Heidelberg Library-Ferdinand resolves to Emperor's Remonstrance and Wallenstein's continue the War-The Duke of Bavaria Reply-The Swedes in Bavaria-Wallen. made Elector Palatine-Tilly defeats the stein withholds Assistance-Prohibits his Duke of Brunswick in Miinster-War with Officers from obeying the Imperial CornDenmark, 1624-1629 -The Protestant mands —Pilsen —Military Council, and ComForces under Christian IV. of Denmark- pact between Wallenstein and his Officers The Duke of Brunswick and Mansfeld- -Counts Terzka, Illo, and PiccolominiThe Emperor without a Leader-Count The Emperor divests Wallenstein of all Wallenstein-His extraordinary Character Command - Italian-Spanish Conspiracy -Ambition-Astrological Studies-Faith against Wallenstein-Piccolomini marches in Destiny-His Bravery-Weissenberg- against Wallenstein-Wallenstein negotiWallenstein, Duke of Friedland-His state- ates with France and Sweden for his Serly Palace and regal Style of Living-Raises vices-The Crown of Bohemia offered to an Imperial Army-His Appearance- him-Retreats to Eger-The Supper in t2 10 CONTENTS. PAGE CHAPTER XXVIII. Citadel-Murder of Counts Terzka, Illo,CHA R and Kinsky, by Dcveroux and Geraldin-sh War with France, 1688-169 Alli Assassination of Wallenstein, 1634-His ance of England, Holland, and Spain, Estates confiscated-Succeeded in Com- against Louis XIV.-The French inGermand by Ferdinand, King of Rome-The many-Dreadful Devastation and unheardBattle of Nordlingen-The Elector of Sax- of Cruelties committed by Orders of Louis ony —Peace of Prague, 1635 — Dreadful XIV. -Conflagration and complete DeCondition of Germany-Cardinal Richelieu Condition of Gerxany-Cardinal Richelieu struction of Heidelberg, Worms, and Spires ihAll Oxenstern-Fench and — Deplorable Condition of the Inhabitants Swedish Alliance against the Emperor- -The Tombs of the Emperors pillagedInglorious Character of the War-Death Pee o Ryswi 1697-Compensation of Ferdinand II., 1637.. 338 Peace of Ryswick, 1697 —Compensation of Ferdinand II., 1637..3.....338 demanded for Germany-Insolence of the French Ambassadors - Elevation of the CHAPTER XXVI. German Princes-The First Elector of Hanover-Frederick, Elector of Saxony, Ferdinand III., 1637-1657-Continuation of ascends the Throne of Poland, 1696the War-Duke Bernard of Weimar on the Frederick, Elector of Brandenburg, places Rhine-His Death-Cardinal Richelieu- the Crown on his own Head as King of The Swedish Generals-Banner-Torsten- Prussia, 1701-War of the Spanish Sucson-Wrangel-Negotiations for Peace- cession, between France and the House of Tedious Progress-French and Swedish Austria, 1701-1714-William III. of EngClaims of Indemnification-Humliliation land-Louis XIV. proclaims his Grandson, and Dismemberment of the Empire-Terri. Philip of Anjou, King of Spain-Prince torial Sovereignty of the Princes-Switzer- Eugene-His military Genius and private land-The Netherlands-Final Arrange- Character-Appointed Commander-in-chief ment and Conclusion of the Peace of West- of the Imperial Army-His Reply to Louis phalia, 1648...........342 XIV.-Marches into Italy-Defeats the French at Carpi and Chiari-EnglandLouis XIV. and the Exiled Stuarts-The SEVENTiH PERIOD. Duke of Marlborough, General of the Allied Army-The Elector of Bavaria-The FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA IN 1648, TO Bavarians in the Tyrol-Their Overthrow THE PRESENT TIME. by the Tyrolese-Battle of fIochstadtCHTAPTER XXVII Blenheim-Triumphant Victory gained by CHAPTER XAXV11. the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene, 1704-The Duke of Marlborough General Observations-State of the Empire- created a Prince of the Empire-Death of Agriculture-Commerce-The Nobility- Leopold., 705.....36f French Language, Fashions, and Customs -Decline of National Feeling in Germany -Death of Ferdinand III., 1657-Leopold CHAPTER XXIX. I., 1658-1705-The Rhenish LeagueLouis XIV. of France-His ambitious and Joseph I., 1705-1711-Continuation of the aggrandizing Spirit-Conquers the Nether- War-Riots in Bavaria-The Elector outlands-The Elector Frederick William of lawed-Marshal Villeroi-Battles of RaBrandenburg-Westphalia-The Rhine- millies and Turin, 1706-Triumph of MarlWar between France and Germany —Bat- borough and Eugene — Complete Overtie of Fehrbellin, 1675-Successes of the throw of the French-General Capitulation Elector of Brandenburg —His energetic -Naples-Spain-Battles of Oudenarde Character-Extends and improves his Ter. and Malplaquet, 1708-1709-Defeat of the ritories - Berlin - Konigsberg - Generals French under Bourgoyne, Vendome, and Montecuculli and Turenne-Peace of Nim- Villars-Humiliation of Louis XIV.-Engwegen, 1678-The four French Chambers land-Queen Anne-Marlborough recalled of Reunion-Treachery and Dishonesty of and dismissed-Death of Joseph I., 1711Louis XIV. towards Germany-Claims and Charles VI., 1711-1740-Peace of Utrecht, takes possession of Strasburg and other 1713-Peace of Rastadt and Baden, 1714 German Towns on the Rhine -Enters -Death of Louis XIV., 1715-The House Strasburg in Triumph, 1681 —-Pusillanimity of Austria in its Relations with the Gerand disgraceful Inertness of the Germans manic Empire-Peaceful Reign of Charles -The Turks in Hungary-Advance and VI.-His Death, 1740-Maria Theresa of lay siege to Vienna, 1683-Flight of Leo- Austria-Her Title to the Imperial Throne pold and his Court-Brave Defence of the disputed by Charles Albert of BavariaViennese under Count Riidiger of Stahren- Frederick II. of Prussia-His extraordinary berg-Relieved by Duke Charles of Lor- Genius and energetic Character-His Army raine and Sobieski, King of Poland-Hero- -Invades Austria —The First Silesian ism of Sobieski-Battle of Naussdorf-To- War, 1740-1742 - Glogau - Sanguinary tal Overthrow and Flight of the Turks by Battle of Molwitz-Defeat of the Austrians Sobieski-His Letter to his Queen-De- -Alliance of France, Spain, Bavaria, and scription of the Battle...... 349 Saxony, against Austria in support of CONTENTS. 11 PAGE PAGB Charles Albert-Hanover-George II. of and Army-Their Enthusiasm-Complete England-Charles Albert, King of Poland Overthrow of the Austrians-Glorious Re. -Election of Emperor in Frankfort.. 368 suits to Frederick-His Proposals of Peace rejected by Maria Theresa-France-RusCHAPTER XXX. sia-England's Enthusiasm for Frederick -William Pitt-England supports FrederCharlesVII., Emperorof Germany, 1742-1745 ick-Treaty of Closter-Seven disavowed-Maria Theresa in Hungary-Her Appeal Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick General-into the. Nobles-Their Devotion to her Cause Chief of the Allied Army-Defeats and -March into Bavaria-Seize that Country drives away the French from Germanyand banish its Elector-Charles VII. a Fu- Frederick in Silesia-Schweidnitz-Fredgitive-Battle of Czaslau, between the Aus- erick's rapid March into Moravia-Olmiitz trians and Prussians, 1742-Treaty of Peace -Bohemia-Pomerania - Battle between between Maria Theresa and Frederick II. the Russians and Prussians at Zorndorf, -Continuation of the Austrian Succession 1758-Dreadful Slaughter and Defeat of War, 1742-1744-The French in Prague the Russians-The Prussians attacked and under Marshal Belle-Isle-Prague besieged defeated by the Austrians at Hochkirch by the Austrians -Abandoned by the 1758-Frederick's Presence of Mind-The French-Charles VII. in Bavaria-Again Prussian Army-The Imperial Diet-The a Fugitive-George II. of England in Ger- Prince of Mecklenburg-The Imperial Ban many-Battle of Dettingen, 1743-Defeat against Frederick proposed-Negativedof the French-Alliance of Saxony and The Allied and French Armies-Battle of Austria-Second Silesian War, 1744-1745 Bergen, 1759 -Partial Success of the - Ill-success of Frederick- Death of FrenchBattle of Minden - Shameful Charles VII., 1745-Silesia-Battle of Ho- Conduct of the English General, Sackville henfriedberg-Frederick victorious-Battle -Defeat of the French-Battle of Kay of Sorr-The Princes of Brunswick-Fred- and Kiinersdorf, 1759-Total Defeat of the erick triumphant-Battle of Kesseldorf — Prussians-Frederick's Misfortunes- His Frederick conquers and enters Dresden- Despair-Prince Henry of Prussia-ConPeace of Dresden and End of the Second tinued Reverses of Frederick -Battle of Silesian War-Francis I. elected Emperor, Liegnitz, 1760-The Prussians defeat the 1745-1765-Austria and France-Peace Austrians-Beneficial Results to Frederick of Aix-]a-Chapelle, 1748-Brief Interval of -Battle of Torgau, 1760-Total Defeat of Repose, 1748-1756-State of Affairs-Alli- the Austrians-Frederick in Leipsic. 390 ance of England and Prussia, 1756-Alliance between France and Austria, 1756- CHAPTER XXXII. Saxony - Russia - Sweden-Combination of Powers against Prussia-The Seven Conclusion of the Seven Years' War, 1761Years' War, 1756-1763 - Frederick in 1762-The Austrian and Russian Armies, Saxony-Battle of Losowitz, 1756-Fred- -The Camp of Bunzelwitz-Frederick's erick victorious-The Saxons lay down difficult position-Jealousy between Gentheir Arms-Frederick Conqueror of Sax. erals Butterlin and Laudon-Schweidnitz, ony-Immense Armies opposed to Fred- Glatz, and Colberg - Saxony - Brlin erick-His Presence of Mind-Desperate threatened by the Russians-The Prussians Battle of Prague-Charles of Lorraine- rise en masse to expel them-Death of Death of the Prussian General Schwerin Elizabeth of Russia-Peter III..-Peace and the Austrian General Brown-Freder- and Alliance between Russia and Prussia ick victorious-Battle of Kollin-General -Sweden-Battle of Reichenbach-FredDaun- Frederick's grand Manceuvre - erick victorious-Schweidnitz-Final BatGenerals Ziethen and Hulsen-Frederick tle and Defeat of the Austrians at Freiberg and Prince Maurice of Dessau-Defeat of -Peace between France and England, Frederick-Shameful Conduct of the Duke 1763-Peace between Prussia and Austria of Cumberland- Convention of Closter- at Hubertsburg, 1763-Observations-The Seven between him and the French-Bat- Age of Frederick the Great-His Armytle between the Russians and Prussians at Exerts himself to repair the Calamities of Grossjagersdorf-Defeat of the Prussians- his Country-His indefatigable IndustryWithdrawal of the Russians-The Empress His Labors and Recreations-Genius for Elizabeth of Russia-The Grand Chancel- Poetry and Music-His Early Years-His lor Bestuschef-Retreat of the Swedes. 378 Father's Tyranny-Its sad Effects eventually proved-His Predilection for French CHAPTER XXXI. Education and Literature-Voltaire-Helvetius, &c.-His Anti-German Feelingas Continuation of the Seven Years' War, 1757. and Neglect of National Genius-Lessing 1760-Battle of Rossbach, 1757-Total - Klopstock - Goethe - Kant-FichteDefeat of the French-General Seidlitz Jacobi, &c.-Joseph II., 1765-1790-Disand the Prussian Cavalry-Reverses of memberment of Poland, 1773-Prussia and Frederick -- Silesia - Battle of Leuthen, Russia-Stanislaus Poniatowski-Bavarian 1757-Frederick's Appeal to his Officers War of Succession, 1778-Death of Maria 12 CONTENTS. PAGE PAGI Theresa, 1780-Innovations and intolerant -Dismemberment of the States of Ger. Measures of Joseph II.-Frederick and the many-Naples-Joseph Bonaparte -HolAllied Princes of Germany against Joseph land-Lou'is Bonaparte-Rhenish Confed. II.-Death of Frederick the Great, 1786- eration, or League of the German Princes Death of Joseph II., 1790-Leopold II., -Their Degeneration-The Emperor of 1790-1792.......... 404 Austria lays down his Title of Emperor of Germany, 1806-Prussia-Declares War against France-The Prussian ArmyCHAPTER XXXIII. Battle of Saalfeld-Death of Prince Lewis Ferdinand of Prussia-Battles of Jena and Leopold II. and the State of France-France Auerstadt-Defeat of the Prussians-Nadeclares War against Austria, the Imperial poleon enters Berlin-The Russian and States, Holland, Spain, &c., 1792-Francis Prussian Alliance-Battles of Eylau and II. Emperor of Germany, 1792-1806 - Friedland-Defeat of the Allies-Peace of Prussia-Successes of the Allies-General Tilsit between Russia and France, 1807Dumouriez and the Republican Army- Prussia's Dismemberment-WestphaliaThe Austrians defeated at Jemappes-The Hesse - Jerome Bonaparte - Prussia - Netherlands republicanized-Defeat of Du- -Lieutenant Schill-Napoleon's triumphmouriez at Neerwinden, 1793-Joins the ant Return to Paris.... 430 Allies-Continued Successes of the Allies under the Dukes of York and CoburgCarnot-Generals Pichegru and Jourdan- CHAPTER XXXV Battles of Tournay and Fleurus-Jourdan's Aerial Reconnoitring Messenger, or the Adjutant in the Balloon-Defeat of the Austria declares War against France, 1809 — Allies-Successes of the French —Con- Battles of Gross-Aspern and Esslingenquests in Flanders, Holland, and the Rhine Archduke Charles-The Austrians victon -Kaiserslautern-Peace of Basle, 1795- rious-Lieutenant Schill killed-Execution England and Austria-France-The Aus- of Palm, the Bookseller-The Tyrolesetrian Generals Beaulieu, Wurmser, and Battle of Wagram-Defeat of the Austrians Archduke Charles-Napoleon Bonaparte, -Peace of Vienna-The French in the 1796-Appointed General in Italy-His Tyrol-The Mountaineers overpoweredArmy - His Conquests and rich Booty Execution of Hofer, the Tyrolese Patriotmade in Italy-The French in Germany- The Duke of Brunswick-His Territory Archduke Charles-Moreau-His famous seized-His bold March —Embarks for Retreat-Mantua-Bonaparte in Germany England-His Heroic Death-Napoleon at -His rapid Marches-Vienna-Peace of the Height of his Power-Marriage with Campo-Formio, 1797 - Shameful Condi- the Archduchess Maria Louisa of Austria, tions-State of Europe-Alliance of Eng- 1810-His continued Usurpations in Gerland, Russia, Austria, and Turkey-Hos- many-His Campaign in Russia, 1812tilities resumed, 1798-Bonaparte in Egypt Conflagration of Moscow — The French -Cairo-Aboukir-His Fleet destroyed by Army destroyed-Nlooleon's Flight and Nelson - Italy - General Suwaroff- His Return to Parns- nle King of Prussia's Successes in Italy-Genoa-Switzerland Declaration and general arming of his Na-SuwarofPs Passage across the Alps-His tion against the Invaders, 1813 —Napodesperate Appeal to his Soldiers- His leon's Preparations-The French in GerRecall-The Emperor Paul and England many 438 -Bonaparte First Consul, 1799-GenoaBattle of Marengo, 1800-General Desaix -Moreau in Germany-Peace of Lun6- CHAPTER XXXVI. ville, 1801-Sad Results to, and Sacrifices made by, Germany-Resignation of Wil- Successes of the Prussians-The Duke of liam Pitt-Peace of Amiens, 1802-Eng- Mecklenburg-Strelitz-His Daughter, the land declares War against France, 1803- Queen of Prussia-Erfurt-Russia unites Bonaparte takes Possession of Hanover- with Prussia-Battle of Litzen-Napoleon The German Legion....... 418 in Dresden-The King of Saxony-Battle of Bautzen-Hamburg taken by Marshal Davoust-Heavy Contributions-The ArCHAPTER XXXIV. mistice-Prussia-The Liitzow Free Corps -Theodore Korner-Austria endeavors to Napoleon's Consulship-Gains the Nation's negotiate a Peace between France and the Confidence-Restores internal Tranquillity Allies-The Congress at Prague-Napoand improves the Institutions-Napoleon leon refuses all Concession-The Emperor Emperor of the French, 1804-His Usur- of Austria declares War, and joins Russia pations-Alliance of Austria, Russia, and and Prussia-Dresden-Renewal of HosEngland- War declared - Napoleon in tilities-Strength and Position of the Allied Germany, 1805-Defeats the Austrians- Forces - Bernadotte - Blicher - Prince Ulm-General Mack-Battle of Austerlitz Schwartzenberg-Marshal Oudinot-Battle -The Allies defeated-Peace of Presburg of Gross-Beeren-Defeat of the French. 444 CONTENTS. 13 CHAPTER XXXVII. CHAPTER XXXIX. PAGE PAGI Glorious Victory of the Prussians under Bli- Napoleon's Retreat across the Rhine-Bavacher at Katzbach-Bliicher created Prince ria-General Wrede-Hanau-The Allied of Wahlstadt-Battle of Dresden-Defeat Forces invade France-Their rapid March of the Austrians-Death of General Mo- -Napoleon against Bliicher- Battle of reau-Battle of Kulm-General Kleist Brienne-Battle of Rothiere-Repulse of -Generals Vandamme and Haxo made the French-Temporary Successes of NaPrisoners-Battle of Dennewitz-Battle of poleon-The Congress of Chatillon-NaWartenburg-General York-Preparations poleon's Confidence restored-His Declafor the Battle of Leipsic -The French ration-Bliicher's bold Movement-Sois. Army-Honors and Promotions conferred sons-Laon-Napoleon against Schwartzby Napoleon-The Allied Forces-Prince enberg-Rheims-Arcis-Napoleon's desSchwartzenberg......... 452 perate Courage and final Charge with his Cavalry......... 464 CHAPTER XXXVIII. The Three Days' Battle of Leipsic-Murat CHAPTER XL. -The Austrian General Meerveldt taken Prisoner-Battle of M6ckern-Marshals The French and Allied Armies in Battle Marmont and Bliicher-General Horn- Array-Napoleon's Sudden and Mysterious Total Defeat of the French-Bonaparte's Retreat before Action-His secret Designs Offers to negotiate rejected-Breitenfeld- for the Destruction of the Allies —His Plot Bernadotte - Bennigsen - The Prince of Discovered-The Allies before Paris-Its Hesse.Homburg - Prince Poniatowsky - Capitulation -Triumphant Entry of the Probstheyda- The Saxon Army deserts Allies into that City-Napoleon deposedBonaparte and joins the Allies-The Allied Louis XVIII. King of France-Napoleon Sovereigns-Night Scene on the Field of at Fontainebleau-His Abdication-BanBattle-Bonaparte's Slumber-Retreat of ishment to Elba-Peace signed at Paristhe French - Destruction of the Elster Conclusion..... 469 Bridge-Prince Poniatowsky's Death-Triumphant Entry of the Allies into Leipsic 458 INTRODUCTION. ANCIENT GERMANY AND ITS INHABITANTS. The Sources of the most ancient German History-The Nature of the Country-The Natives-The Germanic Races-Manners and Customs-Civil Institutions-War-Regulations and Arms-Religion-Arts and Manufactures-The Germanic Tribes. tors, possibly after they had dwelt for cenI. SOURCES OF OUR EARLIEST HISTORY. turies, or even a thousand years, in our THE history of the origin, and of the native country, first came into contact with earliest state of the German nation, is in- a nation that already knew and practised volved in impenetrable obscurity. No the art of historical writing. This haprecords tell us when, and under what cir- pened through the incursion of the Cimcumstances, our ancestors migrated out of brians and Teutonians into the country of Asia, the cradle of the human race, into the Romans, in the year 113 before the our fatherland; what causes urged them birth of Christ. But this intercourse was to seek the regions of the north, or what too transitory, and the strangers were too allied branches they left behind them in unknown, and too foreign to the Romans, the countries they quitted. A few scat- for them, who were sufficiently occupied tered and obscure historical traces, as well with themselves, and besides which, looked as a resemblance in various customs and haughtily upon all that was alien, to inregulations, but more distinctly the affini- quire very particularly into their origin ties of language, indicate a relationship and history. with the Indians, Servians, and the Greeks.* And even the relation of this contest This obscurity of our earliest history must against the German tribes, howsoever imnot surprise us; for every nation, as long portant it was to the Romans, we are as it lives in a half savage state, without a obliged to seek laboriously from many auwritten language, neglects every record thors; for the source whence we should of its history beyond mere traditions and draw most copiously, is precisely here songs, which pass down from generation dried up,-the books of the Roman author, to generation. But as these, even in their Livy, which treated of this war in detail, very origin, blend fiction with truth, they having been lost, together with many othnaturally become, in the course of centu- ers; and we only possess-which we may ries, so much disfigured, that scarcely the even consider as very fortunate-their least thread of historical fact is to be found mere table of contents, by means whereof, in them. Not a syllable or sound of even viz., those of the 63-68 books, we can at those traditions and songs, wherein, accord- least trace the course of the chief events ing to the testimony of the Romans, our of the war. Beyond this, we derive some ancestors also delighted to celebrate the solitary facts from Roman historians of the deeds and fate of their people, has, how- second and third class, who give but a ever, descended to posterity. short and partially mutilated account, and Our authentic history, consequently, collectively lived too long after this period commences at the period when our ances- to be considered as authentic sources. To those belong-1-, the " Epit. Rer. Rom."' According to more recent researches, it is con- thosef Flong-, to some, a book of eluded that the ancient Sanscrit and Zen languages of Florus, (according to some, a book of may have formed likewise the basis of the German the Augustan age, but according to others, tongue, or at least have approximated more closely r nn, who li with the common primitive dialect. the work of L. Annous Florus, who lived 16 INTRODUCTION. at the commencement of the second cen- corrupted state of civilization, could not tury under Adrian;) 2, the " History of possibly estimate the simple, natural digthe World" of Velleius Paterculus, in a nity of such a nation-and who, lastly, in brief outline, down to the period of Tibe- order to be considered worthy of belief in rius, who lived about the time of the birth every thing he relates, too well understood of Christ; 3, the "De Stratagematibus" the art of representing events to his own of Frontinus (about 150 years after Christ) advantage-such a writer, we say, cannot contains some good notices of the Cimbrian truly be regarded by us without some dewar; 4, the " Dicta et Facta Memorabilia" gree of mistrust. of Valerius Maximus, (about 20 years after After him there occurs another interval Christ;) 5, the " History of the World" of about fifty years, during which the obof Justin, (about the year 150;) and 6. scurity of our history is scarcely illumithe "Sketch of the Roman History" of nated by a single ray of foreign observaEutropius (about the year 375) present us tion, until about the period of the birth of with much; and again, much is supplied Christ, and when, immediately after, the us, incidentally, by the Roman writers Romans again set foot upon, and, for a who did not directly write history. longer period, traversed the German soil. Among those who wrote in Greek, must They then became tolerably well acstand: 1, Plutarch, (about 100 years B. c.,) quainted with the southwest and northin his biography of " Marius," besides west of Germany; or, rather, they might whom, good details may be gleaned from: have become well acquainted therewith, 2, Diodorus Siculus, (about the period of had their prejudiced and selfish minds, the birth of Christ,) in his " Historical which were barred against all foreign Library;" 3, Appian, (about the year peculiarities, been properly competent to 160,) in his ethnographically-arranged it, and had not the difficult extremities " History of the Romans," (particularly to which they were reduced in Germany in the cap. "De Reb. Celt." and "De too much occupied them, and rendered Reb. Illyr.;") 4. Dio Cassius, (about the them unjust in their judgment of the counyear 222,) in the fragments which are try and its inhabitants. In order to expose preserved of his " Roman History;" and themselves to less shame for being several among those who treat of geography, times severely cut up by the very force Strabo (about the period of the birth of of arms borne by those they called barbaChrist) especially. rians, by whom they were frequently surAfter the Cimbrian era, another half passed in prudence and warlike subtlety, century passes before the Romans again they necessarily, notwithstanding the demention the Germans. It was towards the cisive victories of which they boasted, middle of the last century before the birth when driven from the German soil, extenof Christ, when Julius Ceesar advanced to uated their own misfortunes, and exaggerthe frontiers of what may be truly consid- ated those of their opponents, whom they ered Germany. He himself mentions accused occasionally of deceit, when prohaving fought with Ariovistus in Gaul, and bably, on the contrary, the most open conafterwards with some German tribes on the duct prevailed, and generally, in fact, left bank of the Rhine, and that he twice they heaped upon the Germans and their united the banks of this river by means of a country the most opprobrious charges. bridge, and set foot upon the opposite side; No impartial man among them, who was besides which, he gives us all the informa- an eye-witness of their incursions, detion he could obtain from the Gauls, scribes to us faithfully the events themtravelling merchants, or German captives, selves, and the German nation generally. relative to the nature and condition of The only historian of the period who might Germany and its people. His information have done so, Velleius Paterculus, the seris invaluable to us, although it is but vant of the Emperor Tiberius, and the scanty, fragmentary, and, to a certain ex- friend of his favorite, Sejanus, who, in the tent, not to be depended upon. For this years immediately preceding and succeedgreat commander, who strove for absolute ing the birth of Christ, was himself in rule-who used mankind (he cannot be Germany-that is to say, on the banks of freed from the charge) as the means to his the Elbe, with the army of the emperorend-who, from the depth of an already shows himself, in the very scanty notices INTRODUCTION. 17 he gives, only as a flatterer of his despotic before his corrupted countrymen, it should lord, whose deeds he elevates to the skies present to their view a picture which might in inflated and extravagant language. bring many of those whose minds were as A second Roman writer, who also had yet not quite unsusceptible, to acknowledge seen Germany, Pliny the elder, (and who their own unnatural condition. For this died in the year 79 A. D.,) had been upon purpose he collected all that he could ob. the northern coast of Germany, among the tain from the earlier authors, from the oral Chauci, but certainly did not travel far into information of the Romans who had been the land. In his' Hist. Nat.," which is in Germany, and from the Germans who an Encyclopadia of general knowledge, were in the Roman service. Thus arose he gives us several valuable notices of the this invaluable book, which may be called natural condition of our country, and of a temple of honor to the German nation, its tribes and nations. His information and which illuminates, like a bright star, and judgment, however, must be used with the commencement of their otherwise ob. precaution, as his critical sagacity is often scure path. Some things, indeed, through questionable. But we have suffered an too great a predilection, may be placed by irreparable loss in his twenty books, which him in too favorable a light; but, even if treated of all the wars of the Romans with much be deducted, still sufficient that is the Germans, not the least fragment of praiseworthy remains, and that the matewhich has come down to us. He lived so rial portion is true, we may be assured of near the period, that he might have col by the incorruptible love of truth of the lected the information as correctly as it noble Roman, which speaks so triumphantwas to be obtained. We may, however, ly in all his works. in some degree console ourselves that Among the remainder of the less im.. Tacitus, (about 100 years A. D.,) who cites portant historians who contributed to our his precursors as testimonies, availed him- earliest history, and are already mentioned self of the work of Pliny; but Tacitus in the notice of the Cimbrian war, Dio< only relates the German wars in part, and Cassius may be included as important; fordoes not treat them as the principal sub- the later wars may be named, Suetonius,, ject, while, also, much from him that was (110 years A. D., esteemed by Trajan and important is lost to us. His "Annals," Adrian,) in his biography of the twelve which relate the Roman history from the first Caesars; the " Scriptores Hist. Au. death of Augustus to the death of Nero, gustae," towards the end of the third cen. commence after the great German battle tury; ATius Spartianus, Julius Capitoof liberty with Varus; but of these annals linus, and Flavius Vopiscus; Aurelius all from the seventh to the tenth book is Victor, (330,) in his biography of the also wanting, and the fifth and sixteenth Casars, from Augustus to Constantine; books have come down to us only in an and Paulus Orosius, (417,) in his history. imperfect state. We, nevertheless, ac- Among the geographical writers, besides knowledge him to be by far the chief and Strabo and Pomponius Mela, (48,) we may most important author as regards our ear- name in particular Claudius Ptolomeus, lier German history, and revere his ele- (140,) who constructed a system of geo. vated feeling for moral dignity, for truth graphy upon a lost work of Tyrian Maand justice, in what he also relates of the rinos, and was particularly careful in the contests between the Romans and Germans, determination of longitude and latitude. although, faultlessly on his part, he does But even when we have brought togethnot always draw his information from a er all of the best that ancient authors suppure source. But we value him for the ply us with upon Germany, and console treasure he has left us in his description ourselves over the great chasms they leave, of Germany and its people, (" De Situ ac with the idea that still something has de. Moribus Germ.") His deep feeling for scended to us both great and important, we simplicity of manners, and healthy energy must nevertheless consider it but as the tesof nature, had made him a warm friend timony of strangers,-of the people of the towards the German natives; and it ap- South, differing essentially from the Gerpeared to him that a faithful description mans in nature and character, ignorant ot of the German nation would be a work their language, and, with the exception of worthy of his pen, so that, when placed one instance, indifferent, br rather inimi. 3 18 INTRODUCTION. cally minded, towards them. Not a single tains which, to the south of the Thuringian German word, correcting the judgment of forest, enclose Bohemia, and in the east ex. the Romans, or elucidating the thread of tend to Moravia and Hungary. They also, events which the Romans could neither see as well as Ptolemy, subsequently, mention nor understand, resounds to us from yon- many individual mountains by peculiar der period. How much richer, and cer- names; for example, Mons Abnoba, the tainly more honorable, would the picture Black Forest, (Ptolemy seems to imply by develop itself before us, did we also possess this, the mountains between the Maine, the German records! Rhine, and the Weser;) the Melibokos But it was not until many centuries later, mountains, the present Harz; the Semana after multifarious convulsions had taken forest, to the south of the Harz, towards the place, and most of the constituent parts of Thuringian forest; the Sudeta forest, a por. ancient times had disappeared from their tion of the Thuringian forest; the Gabreta seat, that isolated and scanty sources of forest, the Bohemian forest; the Askibur. history commenced flowing from original gish mountains, according to some the Erz, German testimony, by writers who, driven or rather the Rzesen-Gebirg; the Taunus, with their countrymen to foreign lands, the heights between Wiesbaden and Homthere endeavored to relate their career and burg; the Teutsburger forest, the mountain fate. Their names will be mentioned at and forest tracts which extend from the the commencement of the second period. Weser through Paderborn, as far as Osna. After what is stated above, we must rest burg. Caesar mentions besides, the Bacenis contented with giving as true a picture as forest, probably the western portion of the possible of ancient German history, derived Thuringian forest, which extends into Ful as it is from the Roman and Greek writers, da, and in the middle ages was called Boand by conclusions drawn from later tes- cauna, or Buchonia; and Tacitus names timony upon earlier times, admitting that the Silvia Casia, between the Ems and the much must necessarily appear obscure, Issel, the remains of which may be the kTa. fragmentary, and contradictory, and that ser forest, and the Baumberge, near Coes. upon many points opinions will forever re- feld; and that town itself may probably main divided. The period to which the have preserved the name. Many other following description belongs, is about the less important or uncertain names we pass time of the birth of Christ, and the few im- over. mediately succeeding centuries. The large German forests consisted pro. bably, as now, principally of oaks, beeches, II. THE NATURE AND CONDITION OF THE and pines. The Romans admired, above COUNTRY. all, the immense oaks, which seemed to According to the description of the Ro- them coeval with the earth itself. Pliny, mans, Germany was, at the time they first who had been personally in the north of became acquainted with it, a rude and in- Westphalia, in the country of the Chauci, hospitable land, full of immense forests, expresses himself thus upon them: "Cremarshes, and desert tracts. The great Her- ated with the earth itself, untouched by cynian forest, by Caesar's account, extended centuries, the monstrous trunks surpass, by from the Alps over a space, that in its length their powerful vitality, all other wonders of occupied sixty, and in its width nine days' nature." journey; consequently, all the chief moun- The Romans were also acquainted with tain chains and forests of the present Ger- the majority of German rivers: Danubius, many, must be the remnants of that one stu- the Danube; Rhenus, the Rhine; Moenus, pendous wooded range. But Cwesar, from the Maine; Albis, the Elbe; Visurgis, the the indefinite information he received, owing Weser; Viadrus, the Oder; the Vistula; to his ignorance of the German language, Nicer, the Necker; Luppia, the Lippe; applied the general German word, Hart, or Amisia, the Ems; Adrana, the Eder; SaHarz, for mountain, to the collective moun- las, (in Strabo alone,) the Saale; and some tain forests of the land, which, however, others. It is remarkable that the Romans the natives certainly already distinguished do not mention the Lahn and the Ruhr, alby different appellations. Later authors, though they must surely have' become acviz., Pliny and Tacitus, circumscribe the quainted with them in their campaigns in Hercynian forests to those chains of moun. the north of Germany. The German riv. INTRODUCTION. 19 ers were not at that period made passable they know neither the name-nor its fruits." by means of bridges, which the native did The Romans found the country in general not require, as he easily swam across the so ungenial, that they considered it quite former, and for wider transits he had his impossible that any one should quit Italy to boats. dwell in Germany. The soil of the land was not cultivated But the ancient Germans loved this as now, although the Romans call portions country beyond all, because, as free men, of it extremely fertile, and agriculture and they were born in it, and the nature of the pasturage wore the chief occupations of the climate helped them to defend this freeGermans. Rye, barley, oats, and, accord- dom. The forests and marshes appalled ing to the opinions of some, wheat also, the enemy; the severity of the air as well were cultivated; flax was everywhere dis- as the chase of wild animals strengthened tributed; various sorts of carrots and tur- the bodies of the men, and, nourished by a nips it certainly produced; the Romans ad- simple diet, they grew to so stately a size mired radishes of the size of a child's head, that other nations admired them with astonand mention asparagus, whichthey, indeed, ishment. did not praise, and a species of parsley, which pleased them much. The superior III. THE NATIVES. fruits of southern climates which have been The Romans justly considered the Gersubsequently transplanted among them, man nation as an aboriginal, pure, and might probably not then thrive, although unmixed race of people. They resembled Pliny mentions a species of cherry found themselves alone; and like the specifically near the Rhine, and Tacitus names among similar plants of the field, which springing the food of the Germans wild-tree fruits, from a pure seed, not raised in the hotbed (agrestia poma,) which must certainly have of a garden, but germinating in the healthy, been better than our crab-apples. free, unsheltered soil, do not differ from The pastures were rich and beautiful, each other by varieties, so also, among the and the horned cattle as well as the horses, thousands of the simple German race, there although small and inconsiderable, yet of was but one determined and equal form of a good and durable kind. body. Their chest was wide and strong; The most important of all condiments, their hair yellow, and with young children salt, the Germans found upon their native it was of a dazzling white. Their skin soil, nor did it refuse them that most use- was also white, their eyes blue, and their ful of all metals, iron, and they understood glance bold and piercing. Their powerful, the art of procuring and manufacturing it; gigantic bodies, which the Romans and they do not, however, appear to have dug Gauls could not behold without fear, disfor silver. played the strength that nature had given Of the many strengthening mineral to this people, for according to the testi-.springs which the country numbers, the mony of some of the ancient writers their Romans already mention Spa and Wies- usual height was seven feet. baden. From their earliest youth upward they The climate, in consequence of the im- hardened their bodies byall devisable means. mense forests, whose density was impervi- New-born infants were dipped in cold water, ous to the rays of the sun, and owing to and the cold bath was continued during the undrained fens and marshes, was cold- their whole lives as the strengthening rener, more foggy and inclement than at pres- ovator by both boys and girls, men and ent, but was nevertheless not quite so bad women. Their dress was a broad short perhaps as represented by the Romans, mantle fastened by a girdle, or the skips spoiled as they were by the luxurious cli- of wild animals, the trophies of the suemate of Italy. According to them the cessful chase; in both sexes a great portrees were without leaves for eight months tion of the body was left uncovered, and in the year, and the large rivers were the winter did not induce them to clothe regularly so deeply and firmly frozen that themselves warmer. The children ran they could bear upon them the heavy field- about almost naked, and effeminate nations, equipages of the army. " The Germans," who with difficulty reared their children says Pliny, "know only three seasons, during the earliest infancy, wondered how winter, spring, and summer; of autumn those of the Germans, without cradles or 20 INTRODUCTION. swaddling bands, should grow up to the 300 years before the birth of Christ, and very fullest bloom of health. which again recurs in the Cimbrian war. The Romans called our nation, from its warlike and valiant mode of thinking, IV. THE GERMANIC RACES. GERMANS;* a name which the Tungi,-a Ancient authors mention several Gerbody of German warriors, who, at an man tribes, as well as their dwelling-places, earlier period, crossed the Rhine, and col- with greater or less precision. Several of onized, with arms in hand, among the them also speak of the chief tribes among Gauls,-first bore, and subsequently ap- which the single septs united themselves. plied to all their race, to express thereby But their statements are not sufficiently their warlike manners, and thus to impress unanimdus or precise, to give us that clear their enemies with terror. This name view which we would, however, so wilwas willingly adopted, as a name of hon- lingly obtain. For how desirable would it or, by all Germans, and thus it remain- not be for us to be able, even in the very ed. cradle of our history, to point out the ori. The aboriginal name of the people is, ginal distinctions of the races as yet dis. however, without doubt the same which covered, and which display themselves in they bear to the present day. It springs the different dialects of the German lanfrom the word Diot, (in the Gothic, Thiudu,) guage, as well as in many essential differwhich signifies Nation. A Teutscher or ences in the manners of the people, partiDeutscher, according to the harder or cularly in those of the less sophisticated softer pronunciation, was, therefore, one peasantry! But we are here upon too inbelonging to the nation, which styled itself secure a foundation, although it still yields so prerogatively. us some few features always important. According to history, it was some cen- The most obscure account presented to turies after the decline of the Roman do- us is the five-fold division of tribes given minion, that the name of the nation of by Pliny. Beginning at the extreme north Germans was again heard of, and it is coast, towards the estuary of the Vistula, found in but few records prior to Otto I., he first mentions the Vinilians or Windithe earliest of which bears the date of the ler; farther westward, towards the East year 813. Sea coast, and beyond the Cimbrian peninIt must not appear remarkable to us, sula, towards the North Sea, as far as the that the original collective name of the mouth of the Ems, the Ingavonians; in the people was little used in the earlier peri- neighborhood of the Rhine, as far as the ods, and was probably unknown to the Maine, and higher up on the left bank of Romans, In the intercourse with a nation the Rhine, the Istavonians; and in the composed of so many septs, the names of middle of Germany, particularly in the only those septs transpired with whom highlands along the Upper Weser, the that communication took place, because Werra, Fulda, and towards the south, as each held itself to be a nation, (Diot;) and far as the Hercynian forest, the Hermioso also later, when various tribes associat- nian tribes. He gives no general name to ed together in bodies, merely the name of the fifth tribe, but includes therein the the union appeared: as, the Suevi, the Peucinians and Bastarnians in the districts Marcomanni, the Allemanni, the Goths, the of the Lower Danube, as far as Dacia. Franks, and the Saxons. It is, however, Tacitus also mentions three of these remarkable enough, that we meet with the names, but he derives them from the mythoriginal national name in that of the Teu- ical origin of the people. Man, the son of tonians, which is already used by Pytheas, Tuisko, had three sons, Ingavon, Istavon, and Hermion, whose descendants formed Most probably from the word ger, spear or lance, the three principal tribes of the Ingavo. and the word man-the man, the lord or chief. Therefere, in any case, a warlike title of honor, which dis- nians, the Istavonians, and the Hermiotinguished the manliness and valor of the nation. It is nians. worthy of remark that the name Germanen, which, before Casar, no Roman author mentions, appears on We would willingly, as before mentiona marble slab discovered in the year 1547 and which is ed, bring- the fourth or fifth-fold division connected with the celebrated Fastis Capitolinis, in Ahe year, before the birth of Christ, 223. The consul of the tribes of Pliny, in conjunction with Marcellus gained in that year a victor: orr the Gallic the subsequent times, and, on this head, chief Viridomar, who is inscribed uron that captured aeb a leader of the Gauls and GermceiLn we are not altogether without some histori INTRODUCTION. 21 cal indications,-as, viz., when the Van- bank of the Havel, Spree, and Oder. Nay, dais, of their own accord, return later and Tacitus even places Suevic tribes beyond join in the great Gothic union; when the the Vistula, as well in the interior as on Suevi, the flower of the Allemannic alli- the coasts of the Baltic, and beyond it in ance, as the inhabitants of the internal and Sweden. Grounds of probability admit, southwestern parts of Germany, thus bring indeed, of our placing a third-the Gothicto mind the Hermionians, the Ingavonians Vandal tribe, between the Oder and the and Istavonians therefore remaining for Vistula, and along the latter stream; but the north and northwestern portions; so as distinct information is wanting, we can that as, even in the earlier times of the but allude to it, of which more below. Romans, an essential difference, nay, a de- The Suevi, as Caesar informs us, had early cided contrast, in comparison with the in- formed themselves into one large union, habitants of the North Sea, the Tresians whose principles were distinctly warlike. and Chaucians, evidently occurs between The love of arms was assiduously cherishthe inhabitants of the Middle and Lower ed in all, that they might be always ready Rhine, extending itself onward towards for any undertaking. Thence it was that the mountain districts of the Weser and individuals had no fixed landed possessions; the Harz, and which, in the subsequent but the princes and leaders yearly divided league of the Franks and Saxons, becomes the land among the families just as it pleased confirmed, we have thence furnished to us them; and none were allowed even to select already the third and fourth principal tribes the same pastures for two consecutive years, of Pliny. but were forced to exchange with each The fifth he refers to as before mention- other, that neither of them might accustom ed. Proceeding further onward we may himself to the ground, and, acquiring a love find again in Bavaria the remnant of the for his dwelling-place, be thus induced to Gothic tribe, which, after the period of the exchange the love of war for agriculture. migration of the people, remained stationa- They were afraid that, if an individual ry in Germany, so that between the later were permitted to acquire an extensive four principal nations in Germany, the tract, the powerful might chase away the Franks, the Saxons, the Swabians, and poor, build large and imposing dwellings, Bavarians, a connection is formed and es- and that the lust of wealth might give rise tablished even to the original tribes of to factions And divisions. Besides which, Pliny. Such links of connection convey they were obliged, from each of their hunassuredly a great charm; but we, never- dred districts, to supply the wars with a theless, wander upon ground too uncertain thousand men yearly, and those who reto enable us to succeed in acquiring au- mained at home cultivated the land for all. thentic historical data. The following year, on the other hand, the Much more importance attaches, on the latter marched under arms, and the former contrary, to what the ancients, but more remained athome, so that agriculture as well distinctly Caesar and Tacitus, relate of the as the art of war was in constant exercise. peculiarities of one German chief tribe, They considered it a proof of glory which included many individual septs, when the whole tract beyond their fronnamely the Suevi. From the combination tiers lay waste, as a sign that the neighof the picture sketched by them, in con- boring nations were not able to resist their junction with other descriptions of German force. They might also have considered manners and institutions, we can define, it perhaps as a greater security against with tolerable safety, the peculiarities of a sudden invasion. second tribe, although the Romans give it In these, although rude principles of the no general name. We will first portray the Suevic union, a great idea manifests itself, Suevi, as Caesar and Tacitus described them: and proves that the ancient Germans, about 1. The nations forming the Suevic race the period of the birth of Christ, were by dwelt in the large semi-circle traced by the no means to be reckoned among the savage Upper r-id Middle Rhine and the Danube, tribes. What Lycurgus wished to effect througi the middle of Germany, and farther by means of his legislation among the towards the north to the East Sea, so that they Spartans, and for the same reason that he occupied the country of the Necker, the allowed his citizens no fixed and exclusive Maine, the Saale, and then the right Elbe possession, seems to have been a principle 22 INTRODUCTION and combining power of the Suevic na- vations are more ingeniously than historition, viz. a public spirit, so general and cally founded. The name of Saxon is, operative, that the individual should sub- according to all probability, to be derived mit himself to the common good, and for from the short swords, called Saxens,(Sahs,) which and in which he should only live; of this people; but that of the Suevi in its and not by selfishness, faction, or by idle- derivation is not as yet thoroughly exness, desire to separate himself from the plained. Meantime, however, the contrast rest, or consider his own weal as more im- between the Suevi and the non-Suevi is not portant than that of the collective body. to be mistaken. In the latter we find the 2. The Romans mention many indi- greatest freedom and independence of the vidual tribes in the northwest of Germany, individual; in the former we perceive the between the Lower Elbe and the Lower combined power and unity of the whole, Rhine, consequently about the Aller, the wherein the individual self is merged; in Seine, the Harz, the Weser, the Lippe, the the latter again, domestic life in its entire Ruhr, and the Ems, as high up as the coasts privacy, and in the former, public life in of the Baltic, (later also on the opposite the-although as yet rude —accomplishside of the Rhine, in the vicinity of the ment of an acutely formed idea. Meuse and Scheldt,) without distinguish- Saxon institutions were not the most ing them by a collective name. Subse- favorable for the exercise of the strength quently, in the second century after the of a nation against the enemy. But it birth of Christ, the name of Saxon occurs gives a strong and self-dependent mind to in these districts, and in still later times it the individual man, to find himself sole lord becomes the dominant title in the above- and master upon his own property, and mentioned tracts of land; for in the third knowing that it is his own power that must century, the tribe of Saxons spread forth protect wife and child. In villages or even from Holstein over Lower Germany, and in towns where man dwells amidst a mass, gave its own name to all those tribes which he depends upon the protection of others, it-conquered or united by alliance. It has and thereby easily becomes indolent or been customary to apply the name of Sax- cowardly. But the isolated inhabitant, in ons, for even the earlier periods, as the his, frequently, defiance-bidding retreat, is collective appellation of all the tribes of nevertheless humane and hospitably mindLower Germany, and thereby to express ed, and offers to his neighbor and his friend, the very opposite character they presented and even to the stranger, an ever welcome in their whole mode of living to the Suevi. seat by his hearth. For he feels more inFor as these unwillingly confined them. tensely the pleasure derived from the selves to a fixed spot, and by their greater friendly glances of man, arid the refreshexercise and activity, kept themselves con- ment of social intercourse; while, on the stantly ready for every warlike undertak- contrary, the townsman, who meets a muling, so, on the other hand, the nations of titude at every step, accustoms himself to Lower Germany had early accustomed view the human countenance with indifferthemselves to settled dwellings, and had ence. When the Saxon, with his huntingmade agriculture their principal occupa- spear in his hand, had traversed, through tion. They dwelt upon scattered farms; snow and storm, the wilderness and forest, each farm had its boundaries around it, the huts of his friends smiled hospitably and was enclosed by a hedge and bank of towards him, like the happy islands of a earth. The owner was lord and priest desert sea. within his farm, and by voluntary union We shall enumerate subsequently the with a number of other proprietors was at- individual tribes of both branches, as well tached to a community; and several com- as the others mentioned by the authors of munities again were bound to a Gau or antiquity. It appeared necessary to notice district. The name of Saxon, which is thus early the chief distinction between derived from sitzen, to sit, and has the same the German nations, for many of the designification as to occupy, or hold, appear- scriptions given by the ancients of their ed effectively to characterize the peculiur- manners and customs, accord only with the ity of this people; while on the other hand, one or the other branch, and their appa the name of Suevi would indicate the roam- rent contradictions are to be explained ing life led bythe others. But these deri- only by the confused mixture of the in. INTRODUCTION. 23 formation. Caesar, for example, notices Ithat itself was a kind of warlike exercise. chiefly the Suevi; and Tacitus, the Saxon For the forests concealed, besides the usual tribes. Yet in the detail which we now deer, also wolves, bears, urocks, bisons, enter upon, it will be perceived that the elks, wild boars, and many species of the essential fundamental character of both larger birds of prey. The youth was, was the same. therefore, practised in the use of arms from childhood, and to him the greatest festival V. MANNERS AND CUSTOMS. of his life was when his father first took The Germans loved tne open country him forth to hunt wild animals. above every thing. They did not build " Agriculture, the herdsman's business, towns, they likened them to prisons. The and domestic occupations," says Tacitus, few places which occur in the Roman wri- "they leave to the women and slaves; for ters called towns-the later Ptolemy names it is easier to prevail upon the Germans to the most-were probably nothing more attack their enemies than to cultivate the than the dwellings of the chiefs, somewhat earth and await the harvest; nay, it even larger, and more artificially built, than appears cowardly to them to earn by the those of the common freemen, and in the sweat of the brow, what the sanguinary vicinity of which the servitors fixed their conflict would procure." But this descriphuts; the whole might possibly have been tion of our forefathers, as is so often the surrounded by a wall and ditch to secure case with the narratives of the Roman authem from the incursions of the enemy. thors, represents the individual feature as The Saxon tribes did not even willingly the general characteristic. The small build connecting villages, so great was proprietor, no doubt, like our peasant, their love for unlimited freedom. The necessarily applied his own hand to the huts lay, as is already mentioned, in the cultivation of his land, while the great midst of the enclosure that belonged to land-owner reserved time for hunting, for them, and which was surrounded by a festivities, and for all the pleasures of so. hedge. The construction of these huts cial intercourse. was most inartificial. Logs shaped by the And with respect to the description of axe were raised and joined together, the their dominantwarlike propensities, which sides filled with platted withy, and made preferred earning the necessaries of life by into a firm wall by the addition of straw blood rather than by the sweat of the brow, and lime. A thatched roof covered the this must be understood to refer more par. whole, which (as is still found in West- ticularly to the conquering warlike trains phalia) contained the cattle also; and by of bold leaders, such as an Ariovistus, or way of ornament they decorated the walls to the frontier safeguards of the German, with brilliant colors. against the Romans, as, for instance, the Tacitus says, they selected their dwell- Marcomanni. For when once among a ing wherever a grove or spring attracted nation agriculture and pasturage have bethem. Advantage and comfort were con- come prominent occupations, and without sequently frequently sacrificed to their love which life could not be supported, they of open and beautiful scenery, and it is can no longer belong to those employments probable that they so ardently loved their despised by the free man, and which as country from its presenting them with so such he leaves solely to the care and atgreat a variety of hill and dale, wood and tention of women and slaves. plains, and rivers in every part. It is, however, no doubt true, that among This strong love of nature, which may the Germans of the more ancient period, be traced from the very first in our fore- warlike desires, and powerful natural nclifathers, is a grand feature of the German nations for bold undertakings, and in particcharacter. As long as we retain it, it will ular for the display of an untamed strength preserve us from sensual enervation and with its violent concomitants, were a ruling the corruption of manners, wherein the passion. But the ennobling features of most cultivated nations of antiquity, by ex- higher virtues are seen through these decess of civilization and luxury, and com- fects. History rewards no people who, in pression into large cities, gradually sunk. conjunction with the faults of an unrestrict. Next to war, the most favorite occupa- ed natural power, possessed nobler capa. tion of the Germans was the chase; and bilities and qualifications, rule and order, 24 INTRODUCTION. a sublime patriotism, fidelity, and chastity, Such an alliance founded upon love and in a greater proportion than the Germans. virtue, and calculated to continue for bet" There," says the noble Roman, who had ter for worse, in firm union unto death, preserved a mind capable of appreciating must indeed be holy and inviolable; and, the dignity of uncorrupted nature; " there in fact, the infringement of the marriage no one smiles at vice, and to seduce or be vow was, according to the testimony of seduced, is not called fashionable; for Tacitus, almost unheard of. The deepest among the Germans, good morals effect more and most universal contempt followed a than elsewhere good laus." crime so very rare. This moral worth of the Germans, which The children of such a marriage were beams through all their rudeness, has its to their parents the dearest pledges of love. true source and basis in the sanctify of mar- From their very birth they were treated riage, and the consequent concentration of as free human beings. No trace was to domestic happiness; for it is these two be found in Germany of the tyrannical features chiefly which most decidedly de- power of the Roman father over his chiltermine the morality of a nation. The dren. The mother reared her infants at young man, at a period when his form had her own breast; they were not left to the taken its perfect growth, in the full energy care of nurses and servants. The Gerof youth, like the sturdy oaks of his native mans, therefore, highly venerated virtuous forests, and preserved by chastity and tern- women; they even superstitiously beperance from enervating desires, at the lieved there was something holy and protime that his physical and moral nature phetic in them, and they occasionally folbad attained their equilibrium, selected lowed their advice in important and decithen the maiden for his wife, little differing sive moments. in age from himself. The exceptions were This veneration for the female sex in few, says Tacitus, and that only perchance its human dignity, combined with their -as in the case of a prince, who might strongly impressed love of arms, of war, wish to increase his own importance by an and manhood, this noble feature in the alliance with another powerful house-that German nature, which elevates aim so a second wife was taken. high above the-in other senses, so gifted It was not the woman who brought the -Greeks and Romans, shows most clearly portion to the man, but the latter to the that nature had resolved her German son former, and who indicated the value he to be the entire man, who, by the univerattached to his alliance with her by the sal cultivation of the human powers, should quality of the present he made, according at some future period produce an age, to the extent of his means; and even this which, as now, in its liberal and many. custom displays the consideration the Ger- sided or multifarious views, should far sur. man nation had for the gentler sex. The pass that of the Greeks and Romans. bridal gift comprised, besides a team of The ancient German dress and food oxen, a war-horse, a shield, and arms; a were simple, and agreeable to nature. gift not useless among people with whom, Female decoration consisted in'their long particularly in long excursions, the wife, yellow hair, in the fresh color of their pure generally, accompanied her husband to the skin, and in their linen robes, spun and field. She was thus reminded not to con- woven by their own hands, ornamented sider valor, war, and arms, as wholly with a purple band as a girdle: the man strange to her, but these sacred symbols knew no other ornament than his warlike of the opening marriage told her to consid- weapons; the shield and his helmet, when er herself as the companion of the labors he wore one, he adorned as well as he and dangers of her husband, in war as could. Among the Suevi the hair was well as in peace, and as such to live and worn tied in a bundle on the top of the,die. She received what she was bound to head, for the sake of its warlike effect. transfer uncontaminated to her children, Among the Saxons it was parted, and hung and what her daughter-in-law was to in- down the shoulders, cut at a moderate herit in turn, in order to transmit to her length. grand-children. And this gift, as Tacitus Their simple fare consisted chiefly of says, was, as it were, the mystic holy con- meat and milk. They prepared their fasecration and guardian deity of marriage. vorite drink, beer from barley and oats. INTRODUCTION. 25 They made mead also from honey and sold as a slave; thus steadfastly did they water. Their honey was collected by the keep their word, even in a bad case: wild bees in great quantity, and good qual- "They call this good faith," says the Roity. Upon the Rhine they did not despise man writer. or neglect the cultivation of the vine introduced there by the Romans. VI. CIVIL INSTITUTIONS. No nation respected the laws of hospi- The entire people consisted of freemen tality more than the Germans. To refuse and slaves. Among the latter there seems a stranger, whoever he might be, admis- even to have been an essential difference. sion to the house, would have been dis- The one class, which may be compared to graceful. His table was free and open to the vassals pertaining to the land of the all, according to his means. If his own lord of the manor, and among whom the provisions were exhausted, he who was but freedmen of Tacitus may be also reckrecently the host, would become the guide oned, received from the land-proprietor and conductor of his guest, and together house and home, and yielded him in return they would enter, uninvited, the first best a certain acknowledgment in corn or cathouse. There also they were hospitably tie, or in the woven cloth which was made received. When the stranger took his under every roof. The second class, on leave, he received as a parting present the contrary, the true slaves, who were whatever he desired, and the giver asked bought and sold, and were mostly prisoners as candidly on his side for what he wished. of war, were employed in the more menial This good-natured people rejoiced in pre- services of the house, and the labors of sents. But they neither estimated the gift agriculture. But their lot even was enthey made too highly, nor held themselves durable, for their children grew up with much bound by that which they had re- those of their master, with scarcely any ceived in return. distinction, and thus in the simplicity of At these banquets the Germans not un- their living, there was formed a relation of frequently took counsel upon their most mutual adherence. But the slave was held important affairs, upon the conciliation of incapable of bearing arms; these were enemies, upon alliances and friendships, alone the privilege and prerogative of the upon the election of princes, even upon Free-men. war and peace; for the joyousness of the They were divided into the nobles, feast and society opened the secrets of the nobiles, as Tacitus calls them, and the breast. But on the following day they re- common Free-men, ingenui. In later peconsidered what had been discussed, so riods the German language distinguishes that they might view it coolly and dispas- Adelinge and Frilinge. The former word sionately; they took counsel when they is probably derived from Od, Estate, and could not deceive, and fixed their resolu- therefore denoted the large proprietor, who tion when fitted for quiet consideration. reckoned in his estate bondsmen and vasDuring these banquets they had also a sals, and who possessed already in his peculiar kind of festival. Naked youths domains the means of exercising a more danced between drawn swords and raised extensive influence. The Friling was, on spears; not for reward and gain; but the the contrary, the common free man, who compensation for this almost rash feat con- cultivated his small possessions with his sisted in the pleasure produced in the spec- own hands, or by the assistance of but a tator, and the honor reaped by the display few slaves. If Tacitus, as is probable, of such a dangerous art. indicates this distinction by his term nobiles They gambled with dice, as Tacitus and ingenui, we may therein trace the oriwith astonishment informs us, in a sober gin of the German nobility, founded as it state, and as a serious occupation, and is in the nature of all social relations. with so much eagerness for gain, that when From the importance given by possessions they had lost their all, they hazarded their and merit, individual as well as ancestral, freedom, and even their very persons upon those privileges may be adduced, which the last cast. The loser freely delivered him- are held over the poorer, unnoticed fami. self up to slavery, although even younger lies, and which in the course of time, and and stronger than his adversary, and pa- as it were by the antiquity of possession, tiently allowed himself to be bound and pass into rights. But the information given 4 26 INTRODUCTION by Tacitus does not, however, speak abso- regulations was welcome to the hereditary lutely of rights,-implying, for instance, love of freedom of the Germans. The the offices of director and president in corn- majority of these tribes appear to have munities and districts,-but merely of the had a very simple constitution of confed. custom of filling them from the superior eracy in the time of peace, inasmuch as families. all transactions in common were deter. A number of farms of great and small mined and regulated by the national comlandowners, specially united by close ties, munity. In the individual districts all constituted a community, (Gemeinde;) sev- continued according to the customary mode eral communities a league of the hundred, of administration, and it consequently did (Markgenossenschaft,)which exercised with- not require the permanent appointment of in a larger circuit the common right of a superior executive government. In war, herd and pasture; and, lastly, a number on the contrary, an election was made, of of these formed the larger confederacy of the common Herzog, or duke, according to a district, (Gau,) formally united for pro- valor and manly virtue, whose office closed tection against every enemy, and for in- with the war. (Duces ex virtute suternal security both of life and property. munt.-Tac.) As chief of the district, a judge was Among other tribes peace had also its elected from among the oldest and most chiefs or directors, selected originally by experienced, who probably may have borne the community from the most meritorious in ancient times the name Graf.* Cents of the people, which election, in the course or hundreds were subdivisions of the dis- of time, when a natural feeling placed the trict, probably consisting originally of a son in the situation of the father, became hundred farms, whose chiefs were the invested with an almost hereditary right. centners or Centgrafen. These gave judg- (Reges ex nobilitate sumunt.-Tac.) We ment in trifling affairs; and in matters of cannot ascertain whether these chiefs bore more importance they were the assistants everywhere, or merely among some tribes, of the Gaugrafen. The occupation of the title of King.; the Romans called them these functionaries was not limited to their Reges, because they found this name most judicial employments, but they had the applicable, and in contradistinction to the guidance also of other affairs in the corn transitory ducal dignity, which terminated munity; and together, they formed the with the war. The king could also natuPrincipes of the district, the foremost and rally be the leader in war, in which case first among their equals, whence is derived the duke was superfluous. But in smaller the German word Fiirst, (prince.) The expeditions, which were not to be consid. recompense for their trouble did not con- ered in the light of a national war, or sist in a regular stipend, but in presents when the king, by reason of age or natural received from the chiefs of families. infirmity, was unable to act, a duke may But the National assembly was at the have been appointed as his substitute. head of all, and counselled and decided Among some tribes we see a change of upon the most important affairs. Every constitution. Among the Cherusci, when freeman, high as well as low, was a mem- they fought.against the Romans, there apber of the national assembly, and took his pears to have been no king; Arminius Dart in the welfare of the whole. was the leader appointed by the people. In earlier times, perhaps, there never Later, however, in the year 47 after the existed in many circuits, and during peace- birth of Christ, the Cherusci appointed ful relations, a more extensive and firm Italicus, the son of the brother of Flivius, confederacy than that of the Gau. But who was brought up among the Romans, danger from without, and the relationship to be their king, in order to adjust the inof the septs, chiefly produced, without ternal factions. doubt, the establishment of Unions of whole The peculiarity of the Saxon people tribes, which may possibly have given to consisted altogether in their free form of their collective body a form variously government, a constitution most conforma. fashioned. A multifariousness of social ble to their origin, springing as they did from the union of the heads of free fami The derivation of the word Graf or Grav is uncer- lies, each of whom ruled his domain ac bin. That from grau, gray,'as well as from at, olrm, Is not tenable. cording to the ancient patriarchal form. INTRODUCTION. 27 A common general was required only sively, and not in a commanding tone, but during war, which, in general, was de- by the force of reason. If the proposition fensive, and consequently national. Among displeased them, it was rejected by the the Suevi, on the contrary, whose consti. multitude with hisses and murmurs; but tution was one warlike throughout, where- if approved, they signified their satisfaction in the individual was early accustomed to by the clashing of their arms, their most consider himself but a portion of the whole, honorable mode of testifying applause. a monarchical government became the In important affairs, the king and princes natural form of the constitution, and we first counselled together, prior to the matconsequently find among them an Ariovis- ter being brought before the people; a tus, a Marbodius, and a Vannius, as kings custom consistent with good government, of a warlike state. for tle multitude can form conclusions only These differences may assist in explain. upon a transaction being simply and clearing the various characteristics and forms ly explained. of the public institutions which the Ro- These few traits of aboriginal German mans mention, and which it is not always institutions display the sterling sense of our' easy to distinguish, from their having con- forefathers, who therein sought to establish founded and mixed the individual details. the principle, that the foundations of every In the larger confederations there also community should be based on individual occurred general assemblies, although good feeling, obedience to the laws, and more seldom than in the individual dis- respect for religion. Thus an internal tricts, and much that the Romans relate durability was given to the whole structure, refers to these said larger assemblies, while which no external means could replace, on the contrary the leading subjects were howsoever artificially applied. common to both large and small assemblies. We have yet a word to say upon the These were generally held at a return larger unions of several tribes. In a com. of the full moon and new moon; as they mon danger, they formed themselves into a considered those the most happy moments Confederation, at the head of which stood for any transaction. They came armed- one of the more powerful tribes. Thus it arms being the symbol of freedom, and was with the Cherusci alliance against the they preferred exposing themselves to the Romans; thus the Suevi, at whose head, possibility of their misuse, rather than come in earlier times, stood the Semnoni; and without them. The right enjoyed by the later, the confederations of the Goths, youth of bearing them as an ornament Franks, and Allemanni. In all that conwhen he had attained a fitting age, and was cerned the universal league, the laws were adjudged worthy, even in times of peace, very severe. The slightest breach of faith, was imparted by the national assembly it- and treachery as well as cowardice, were self; he was there solemnly invested by punished by death. one of the princes, his father or a relative, Their principle was, " One for all and with shield and spear. This was deemed all for one, for life or death!" May this among them the clothing of manhood, the through every century be the motto of all ornament of youth; previous to this the Germans! youth was considered only as a member of the domestic hearth, but henceforth he VII. WAR-REGULATIONS, AND ARMS. was received as the representative of the When the nation was threatened by imcommon fatherland. pending danger, or the country of the ene. Priests ruled the communities; God only my was to be invaded by a large force, all was the universally feared lord, whom it the freemen were summoned to arms by was no breach of freedom to obey; and in what was called the Heerbann.* The army his name the priests kept the multitude in thus proceeded under the banner of the order. They commanded silence; the national god, borne by the priests in ad. kings, dukes, counts, who derived experience from years-the nobles, who learned * In the language of the earlier times Heerbann. from their ancestors how the district was (Heribannus,) the penalty, which was inflicted upon those who, at the general summons to the war, neglectto be governed-the most valiant, who, by ed their duty. This word, however for its object, is their deeds in war, stood in general respect, at once so usual and significant, while it is so difficult I to replace with another, that it may be here retainod spoke in turn simply, briefly, and impres. in its original form. 28 INTRODUCTION. vance. The princes and judges of each tain, voluntarily joined those tribes which Gau or district were also its leaders in were at war. Repose was hateful to them; war; the confederates of one mark or hun- and, amidst danger, the valiant acquired dred, and of one race or sept, fought uni- fame and booty. The Gefolge received ted; and when the invasion became a re- from the leader their war-horse, and their gular migration, or when the invading foe conquering and deadly spear; a large Gechased all from their hearths, the women folge, consequently, supported itself most and children followed them. Thus was easily by war and booty. It is thus that all combined that could excite their valor; Tacitus describes the military institutions each warrior stood side by side to his near- of the Germans. He wrote, however, at a est relations, companions, and friends, and period when long wars and their attendant in the rear of the order of battle were chances may possibly have altered much. placed their wives and children, whose ap- Originally, perhaps, the alliance between peals could not fail to reach their ear. the Gefoige and their chieftain was bindWhen wounded, they retired to the matrons ing only during single excursions, and and females, who fearlessly investigated ceased at their termination. For it is not and numbered their wounds. We read, probable that a people so jealous of its liberindeed, of the women having occasionally ty would have allowed individual princes restored a faltering battle by their inces- to have surrounded themselves with such sant supplications, from the dread of slave- a troop, as with a body-guard. But when ry, and even by forcing, with arms in hand, the dangers of war continued for a longer the fugitives back to the contest. period, it became desirable, and even neBesides the general summons of the cessary, to be prepared for every casualty. Heerbann, there was a Companionship in The Gefolge remained long united, and arms, founded upon a voluntary union, they formed the experienced and elite por. which was called the Gefolge, the reserve tion of the army for attack, defence, or phalanx or sacred battalion. Warlike pursuit. In the migratory period, kingyouths collected themselves around their doms were founded by these Gefolges, and most tried and esteemed leader, and swore from the essence of their internal organiin union with him to live and die. There zation, the laws sprung which regulated was much contention among this Gefolge these new states, (feudal system.) who should take the first place next to the The chief arms of the ancient Germans leader, for this corps had its grades. It were the shield and the spear, called by was high fame for a leader, not merely them Framen, (Framea,*) with a narrow among his own tribes, but among all the and short blade, but so sharp and well adjacent ones, when he was distinguished adapted for use, that they could employ by the number and valor of his Gefolge. the same weapon, according to necessity, He was appealed to for assistance; embas- both far and near. Long heavy lances are sies were sent to him, he was honored by also spoken of in the description of many presents, and the mere celebrity of his battles. For close combat, the stone batname would frequently check a war. In tle-axe, which is still frequently dug up, battle it was considered a disgrace to the and the common club, were certainly used. chief to be outvied in valor, and to the Ge- From the scarcity of iron, few wore body. folge not to equal that of their leader; but armor, and but here and there a helmet; to return alive from battle, after the death even swords were scarce, and the shield of his chieftain, was a stigma that attached was formed of wood, or of the platted twigs for life to the individual, and their fidelity of the withy. Nevertheless, it was with was so great, that scarcely an instance of these simple weapons that they achieved so this occurs. It was considered the most much that was grand, inasmuch as natural sacred duty to protect and defend their courage and strength of limb effect more brave brother in arms, and to attribute than artificial weapons. their own valorous deeds to his fame. The Their horses were neither distinguished leaders contended for victory, and the Ge- by beauty nor speed, but they were very folge for the leaders. When the tribe to durable, and the Germans knew so well to which they belonged continued in a state manage them that they frequently overof long and monotonous peace, the majority of these bold youths, led by their cap- * Fromramen, to throw. INTRODUCTION. 29 threw the fully-armed and mounted Roman who had so debased himself durst not at. and Gallic cavalry. They held the latter tend religious worship nor appear in the in contempt because they used saddles, national assembly, and many who had thus which appeared to them unmanly and ef- effected their escape from the field of batfeminate; they themselves sat upon the tle could not endure so miserable a life, naked back of the horse. But the chief but ended it by a voluntary death. strength of their army lay in their infantry, and they placed the boldest and strong- VIII. RELIGION. est of their youth, mixed with their cavalry, The religious worship of the Germans in the van, in order to give an additional attached itself to, and was associated with solidity to the ranks. The cavalry them- nature. It was a veneration of her great selves selected their companions from powers and phenomena; but withal it was among the infantry, and thus, even in the more simple and sublime than the worship rude pursuit of war, esteem and affection of other ancient nations, and bore the imexerted their influence. They thus held press of its immediate and profound feeltogether in the tumult of the fight, and ing for nature. Although but rudely so, came to each other's assistance when the they yet had the presentiment of an inficontest was desperate. If a horseman fell nite and eternal divine power in their heavily wounded from his steed, the foot- breasts; for they considered it at variance soldiers immediately surrounded and shield- with the dignity of the divinity to enclose ed him. When sudden and rapid move- him within walls, or to conceive and reprements either in advancing or retreating sent him in a human shape. They built were necessary, the quickness of those on no temples, but they consecrated to holy foot, by means of incessant practice, was purposes groves and woods, of which naso great, that holding by the mane of the ture had formed the pillars, and whose horse, they equalled the swiftest in their canopy was the infinite heaven itself; and course. they named after their divinity the mystery Their order of battle was generally which their faith alone allowed them to wedge-shaped, that they might the more contemplate. Even their aboriginal poetispeedily break the ranks of the enemy. cal descriptions of their divinities display Before battle they sang the war-song re- the nobler sentiments of the Germans, who lating the deeds of their ancestors and the did not, like the Greeks and Romans, atcelebrity of their fatherland. Warlike tribute to their deities all the infirmities instruments also, horns of brass or of the of human nature, but represented in them wild bull, and large drums, formed of hides the portraiture of strength, valor, magnaexpanded over hampers, beat the measure nimity, and sublimity. And they still to their joined shields; and as they pro- more strongly distinguish themselves from ceeded they became more and more ex- all other ancient nations by their firm and cited. In the march against the enemy cheerful belief in the immortality of the the song became ruder and wilder, a soul, which entirely dissipated every fear courageous and stimulating cry, which of death; and in the confidence of a fuwas called Barrit; at first deep-sounding, ture state th-y committed suicide, when then stronger and fuller, and growing to a life itself could be purchased only by slaroar at the moment of meeting the foe. very. The chieftain felt excited with hope or fear, This sublime natural feeling, and this according to the louder or weaker tone of purity of their religious ideas, made them, the Barrit. Frequently, to maKe the sound in after times, better adapted for the remore strikingly fearful, they held their hol- ception of Christianity. They were the low shields before their mouths. This ter- vessel which God had selected for the rific war-song, combined with the sight of pure preservation of his doctrines. For their gigantic figures, and the fearful threat- Jews, Greeks, and Romans were already ening eyesof the Germans themselves, was enervated by sensuality and vice; they so terrible in its effects upon the Romans could neither comprehend nor retain the and the Gauls, that it was long before they new doctrines, just as, according to the could accustom themselves to it. scriptural image, the old drunkard could To leave their shield behind them was not retain the new wine. The ancient Ger. to the Germans an inexpiable disgrace; he mans revered, like the Persians, the sun 30 INTRODUCTION. and fire; but worshipped as their superior these were then strewed upon a white rai. God, Wodan, (Guodan, the Goden, Guten, ment. And then, on public occasions, the Gott.) They called him also by a beauti- priest, but in private the father of the family, ful name, the Universal Father. They prayed to the divinity, and, with upraised kept, in their sacred groves, white horses eyes, took up each individual rod thrice, for the sun, which were harnessed to the the characters upon which indicated the consecrated chariot and driven by the priest event. or prince, who paid particular attention to The holy prophetesses were highly es. their neighing, which they considered, as teemed, and history names some to whom did the Persians, prophetic of the future, the credulity of the tribes attached great inand indicative of the will of their divinity. fluence in the determination of public af. They venerated the mother earth as their fairs. Tacitus names Aurinia, (perhaps most beneficent deity; they called her Ner- Alruna, conversant with the mystic runio thus, (the nourishing,*) and we have the fol- characters;) again, the celebrated Veleda, lowing relation of her worship: " In the who, from a tower on the banks of the Lippe, midst of an island in the seat there was a directed the movements of the tribes of the sacred grove, in which was a consecrated Lower Rhine; and, lastly, a certain Gauna, chariot, covered with tapestry. Sometimes in the time of Domitian. In the incursions (as noticed by the priests) the goddess de- of the Cimbri, and in the army of Ariovis. scended from the sacred dwellings above, tus, notice is taken of prophesying females. and drove the chariot, drawn by conse- There was no ceremony at their funecrated cows, accompanied by the priests rals; only the bodies of the most distinguish. in the deepest reverence. The days were ed were burned with costly wood, and with then cheerful, and the places which she each, at the same time, was offered up his honored with her presence, solemn and arms or war-horse. The tomb which cov. holy; they then entered into no war, seized ered the ashes and the bones of the deceased no arms, and the iron spear reposed in was a mound of turf. Splendid monuments concealment; peace and tranquillity then they despised as oppressive to their dead. reigned in every bosom, until the priests re- Laments and tears they speedily gave over, conducted the goddess, satiated with her but grief they indulged in much longer. intercourse with mortals, back into the Lamentations they considered as appropri. temple. The chariot and carpet were im- ate to females, but to men remembrance mersed, and the goddess too, if we may be- alone was deemed suitable. lieve it, bathed in a secret lake; slaves performed the offices of service, whom the same IX. ARTS AND MANUFACTURES. lake immediately swallowed up. Thence Should we, after all that has preceded, arose a mysterious fear and holy ignorance inquire concerning the progress made by of what that might be which only those be- the ancient Germans in the arts of life, we held who were to die." shall find upon that subject the information The Germans placed great faith in pro- of the Roman writers unfortunately very phecies and indications of the future, as scanty. Looking down from the point of shown already in the neighing of the sacred their very superior culture, they did not horses of the sun. When they were at war consider it worth their trouble to attend to they often selected a prisoner taken from the origin of the arts, trades, and knowledge, their enemy, and caused him to fight with found among those nations which they con. one of their countrymen, each armed with sidered as barbarians. This silence has his national weapons; the victory of the misled to the supposition, that the Germans, one or the other was received as prophetic, about the period of the birth of Christ, were or as a divine judgment. They considered to be considered as half savages, resemthe raven and the owl as harbingers of evil; bling the North American Hurons. But histhe cuckoo announced length of life. They tory may, where she finds no express testiprophesied of the future also with small mony, draw conclusions from uncontested staves cut from a fruit-tree, having peculiar facts. Therefore we can, with certainty, or runic signs carved upon each staff, and infer that about the time, and shortly after the birth of Christ, the Germans-who in a Tacitus, Germ. xl t Much here indicates the island to be Rigen; but arms and warlike skill could contest with there are important grounds for contradiction. an enemy who had acquired in a war of five INTRODUCTION. 31 hundred years, with all the nations of the Although the art of building houses was earth, the highest grade in the art of war, and not carried to any extent, yet the towers consequent subjugation; these Germans, or burgs of the superior classes, some of who had already far advanced in their civil which are mentioned in the records of his. institutions; to whom marriage and the do- tory, must have been essentially different mestic hearth, and the honor of their nation, from the huts of the community; and that and their ancestors, were sacred; who in walls of stone were used in their constructheir religious symbols displayed a deep tion, we may infer from the subterranean feeling for the most profound ideas of the excavations in which provisions were prehuman mind; and who, lastly, by a digni- served, and wherein the women generally fled natural capacity, and exquisite moral wove their linen, and which must theretraits, in spite of the undeniable ferocity of fore have been walled in. unbridled passions, were enabled to inspire Trade and commerce Wvere not foreign that noble Roman, in whom dwelt a deep to the ancient Germans; they were even sense of all that was great and elevated in acquainted with that pivot of all commerce, human nature-these Germans, we say, a general medium of barter-money. Tacould not have been the rude barbarians citus remarks that they knew well how to described as resembling North American distinguish the old good coins of the Romans, savages. Their cultivation, as far as their and took silver in preference to gold in wild life and dispersed mode of dwelling their retail transactions. The great mul. admitted, advanced to a degree worthy of titude of Roman coins, which by degrees mention. have been dug out of the German earth, Agriculture and pasturage united, con- proves that their commercial intercourse sequently a regulated and settled rural was not trifling, although much may have economy, presupposes the use of the ne- fallen into the hands of the Germans as cessary implements, howsoever simple they booty upon the defeat of the Romans. Armight be. The German made them him- minius, before the battle of Idistavisus, self. The iron necessary for that purpose, offered to every Roman deserter daily 200 as well as for his weapons, he must have sesterces. known how to work, and the manipulation Their music was no doubt limited to of hard-melting iron is not easy; presum- their war-song, and the rude warlike ining they were only able to use that which struments previously named, and to the lay upon the surface without understand- heroic song at festivals. German antiquiing or practising the art of mining. Yet ty had without doubt its inspired singers, Tacitus names iron mines among the Goths, equally as the Greeks had their Homerin the present Silesia. That the prepara- ides; the testimony of Tacitus tells us so, tion of iron utensils must indicate already and the inclination of the people for all a higher degree of skill in art, in the earli- that was great, and worthy of fame, as it est ages of nations, is shown by the very evinces itself in their deeds, would even, frequent use of copper in such instruments without that testimony, have convinced us. for which iron is much better adapted. It has been disputed whether the Ger. Copper is much easier to manufacture. mans, about the time of the birth of Christ, In the irruptions and battles of the Ger- had a written character. Tacitus express. mans, namely, among the Cimbri and Teu- ly says, that neither men nor women untoni, chariots and cars are named, which derstood writing, (literarum secreta viri conveyed the women and children, and pariter ac feminae ignorant.-Germ. 19.) which were placed around to defend the And although this passage might be intercamp. The Germans appear also upon preted in a more restricted sense, were their rivers, and upon the coasts of their there express witnesses to the contrary seas in ships, and contest also with the extant; still, for the want of them, it is Romans in naval battles. Tribes which sufficiently conclusive of the ignorance of could build structures of this description, writing among the ancient Germans. There need no longer be considered savage. are, indeed, letters mentioned of Marbodius The art of spinning and weaving is also and Adgandaster, a prince of the Chatti, not possible without complicated machine- to Rome; but these were certainly written ry, and this formed the daily occupation of in Latin, and only prove, if they were writthe females. ten by the princes themselves, that the 32 INTRODUCTION. upper classes, who had intercourse with again neighbors, and dwelt in the duchy the Romans, and perhaps lived a long time of Berg and in a portion of Cleves. Finalin Rome itself, learned there the Roman art ly, the Tenchterians appear to have formed of writing. The people generally, how, a portion of the Franks.* ever, were, without doubt, ignorant of the 3. The Brukteri, a powerful tribe in the art. country north of the Lippe, as far as the more central Ems, and from the vicinity X. THE GERMANIC TRIBES. of the Rhine near the Weser, consequently The seats of the Saxon tribes are al- more properly in the present Minster land, ready generally stated in the fourth divi- and some of the approximate districts. sion; the following are the names and According to the most recent investigasituations of the individual septs: tions, the country in the south of the Lippe, 1. The Sigambri, a considerable tribe as far as the mountains of Sauerland, in the neighborhood of the Sieg, whence therefore, the so-called Hellweg, is conthey probably derived their name; and sidered a portion of the country of the farther inward towards the mountainous Brukterians. They were divided into lardistricts of Westphalia, which was called, ger and lesser bodies, took an active part later, the Suderland, or Sauerland. Casar as the confederates of the Cherusci, in the found them here about the year 56, and war of freedom against the Romans, and Drusus in the year 12, before the birth of they received as their booty, after the batChrist, at which time their domain extend- tle with Varus, one of the three conquered ed as far as the Lippe. Weakened by the eagles. About the year 98 after the birth attacks of the Romans, to whom they were of Christ, in an internal war with their most exposed, a portion of them were driv- neighbors, they were almost annihilated, en by Tiberius to the left bank of the so that Tacitus divides their domain beRhine, as far as its mouths, as well as that tween the Chamavrians and the Angrivaof the Issel; another portion remained in rians. But this account is certainly exagtheir ancient dwelling-places, and fought gerated, as their name occurs in Ptolemy with the Cherusci against Germanicus. In much later in the same district; and even the subsequent centuries, the name was afterwards they appear as a portion of the retained only by that portion which dwelt Frankish confederation. After the alliat the mouths of the Rhine, and which ance of the Saxons had more and more constituted the Salic Franks, and formed a widely extended itself towards Westphalia, leading tribe in the confederation of the the country and tribe of the Brukterians Franks.* became equally included therein; but 2. The Usipetri and Tenchteri, almost whether by force of arms, or by alliance, always neighbors, and sharing the same is not to be decided. The Brukterians casualties. Driven by the Suevi, about may possibly have derived their name from the year 56 before the birth of Christ, from the marshes (brichen) in their country. their original seat, probably in the Wette- 4. The Marsi, neighbors of the Brukterau, (the district between the Maine, the rians, also present themselves as active Rhine, and the Lahn,) farther towards the enemies of the Romans, about the time of north, they were, upon their crossing the the birth of Christ. In the battle with VaRhine, beat back again by Caesar, and rus they seized an eagle, which Germanipartly destroyed. The remainder were cusafterwards reconquered; and this same received by the Sigambrians; and in the leader commenced his campaign against time of Drusus, the Usipetrians dwelt north Lower Germany, in the year 14 after the of the Lippe, on the Rhine. But the birth of Christ, by an incursion from VeTenchterians had already, about the year tera Castra (near Xanten) through the Ce36 before the birth of Christ, when the sian forest, into the land of the Marsi, in Ubierians were driven to the left bank of which he destroyed the celebrated sancthe Rhine, occupied their domain upon its tuary of Tanfani. These events show us right bank, so that both the tribes became the Marsi as a Westphalian tribe, dwelling not far from the Rhine. Beyond this, we Clald. Claudianus (about 400 years after the birth cannot determine with certainty their of Christ) de iv. Cons. Honor. 449; Gregory of Tours, ii. 31; and others. Clovis, on being baptized, was addressed by the Bishop Rernigius: mitis Sicamber. Gregory of Tours, ii. 9. INTRODUCTION. 33 dwelling-place, and antiquarians conse- 9. The Dulgibini are placed, with probquently entertain different opinions with ability, in the neighborhood of the Weser, respect to it. Some place them on the perhaps precisely in the district of the Lippe, others eastward of the Ems, towards Lippe, where the legions of Varus were Tecklenburg and Osnaburg, which latter destroyed, and where the name still exists is the most probable. The sanctuary of on the heath of Dolger. In a stricter sense Tanfana, which' has been sought for in dif- they belonged to the confederation of the ferent places, and among the rest near Cherusci. Ptolemy places them on the Minster, would, therefore, henceforth be right bank of the Weser; therefole, they considered to lie in the land of Tecklen- very probably occupied both its banks. In burg. this neighborhood Ptolemy also names Tu. 5. The Tubanti, likewise neighbors of lisurgium, perhaps wrongly copied for Teu. the Brukterians, are placed by some in the tiburgium, in the vicinity of Detmold, and country between Paderborn, Hamur, and Tropcea Drusi, the monument of the victhe Arnsberg forest, (the Soester Borde;) tory of Drusus on the Weser, perhaps in by others, and with greater probability, on the neighborhood of Hoxter. the opposite side of the country of the The following are some other places, Brukterians, northwest of the Rhine, and mentioned by Ptolemy, in Westphalia, unthe Vechte, the Twente of the present fortunately without indicating the domain day. wherein they were, and which are, conse6. Southward of the Tubanti, on the quently, very variously referred to by an. Rhine, dwelt the Chamavi, and bordered tiquaries: farther southward on the Usipetrians, to a. Bogadium-Miinster, according to whom they had yielded a portion of the some, but according to others, Bochold, or pasturage on the Rhine and the Issel, even also Beckum; according to Ledebur, Beckbefore the time of Drusus. About the um on the Lippe, upon the great Romani year 98 after the birth of Christ, they de- road between Vetera and Aliso. prived the Brukterians of a portion of their b. Mediolanium-Also supposed to becountry, and they appear later as forming Miinster, but now, probably, Metelu on the a part of the confederation of the Franks. Vechte. In the middle ages, their domain was call- c. Munitium-is either Osnaburg, the ed the Hamaland. Ptolemy mentions the Castle Ravensberg, or Stromberg in the. Chamavi, as well as the Cherusci, at the neighborhood of Miinster. foot of the Harz mountains, but which for- d. Stereontium-Warendorf, Stromberg; mer were probably a very different tribe. Steinfort or Steveren, all in the land of 7. The Ansibari or Amsivarians, north- MUnster. ward from the Brukterians on the Ems, e. Amasia-probably the same place as (thence called Emsgauer or Emsbauer.) In the Amisia of Tacitus, the hold, on the left the year 59 after the birth of Christ, a por- bank of the Ems, not far from its estuary, tion of them were driven away by the which was built by Drusus. powerful Chauci; they long sought, in f. Ascalingium, near Minden on the Wevain, another dwelling among the neigh- ser. boring tribes, and they at last vanish g. With respect to Aliso, the castle built among the Cherusci. A portion, however, by Drusus, in the second year before the must have remained in their ancient dwell- birth of Christ, at the confluence of the Aliing-place, as they appear later, forming so and the Lippe, according to the inforpart of the Frankish confederation. mation of Dio Cassius, opinions are so far 8. The Chasuari and Chattuari were, unanimous that it was situated upon the according to some, two tribes, the first of Upper Lippe, not very far from the entrance which dwelt upon the Haase, northward of of the Teutoburgian forest. The majority the Marsi, and were thence called Hase- again have decided for Elsen, near Padergauer, but the latter at the mouth of the born, not far from the confluence of the Ruhr, where the Gau or district Hatterun Alme and the Lippe; the most recent, very gave testimony of them in the middle ages; careful investigation of Ledebur, however, but, according to others, they were but one has raised it to the highest probability that tribe, which had their dwelling northward Aliso lay in the present parish or district of the Chatti, on the Diemel. of Liesborn, in the space which is formed 5 34 INTRODUCTION. between the. junction of the Liese and the the East, united themselves with them. Glenne, and that of the Glenne and the Lip- But after the death of Armin:us the superipe, near the religious foundation of Cap- ority of the Cherusci diminished. They peln. became enervated in a protracted state of h. Arbalo-where Drusus was pressed inactivity, and were by degrees so weakhard by the Germans, upon the frontiers of ened by the Longobardi, Chauci, and Chatthe country of the Cherusci, Sigambri, and ti tribes, that the shadow alone of their forChatti, was, very probably, between Nuh- mer greatness remained. Once again only den and Gesecke, where the Haar moun- does their name appear as a constituent por. tains gradually dwindle into the plains of tion of the confederation of the Franks. the Hellweg, and where in the middle ages Ptolemy mentions in their domain Lupia or a Gau or district, Arpesfeld, was situated. Lupta, now Eimbeck, Callagri, Halle on the The syllable ending with lo in the name, Saale, Brieurdium, Erfurt. implies a forest; Feld, in contradistinction With the Cherusci sank also their conto Wald, indicates old forest land made federates, viz: arable. 11. The Fosi on the Fuse, or Brunswick Close to the left bank of the Weser, be- of the present day. yond the Dulgibini, dwelt also the remain- 12. The Angrivari, on both sides of the ing smaller tribes of the confederation of Weser, below Minden, the neighbors and the Cherusci; and on the opposite side of faithful confederates of the Chauci, with this river: whom they appear again later as a con10. The Cherusci themselves, the most stituent portion of the Saxon confederation celebrated Germanic tribe of ancient times, under the name of Engern. The Saxon when in their most flourishing state. About district on the Weser was called Angarza. the period of the birth of Christ they pos- 13. The Chauci dwelt on the Baltic, from sessed an extensive domain, but of which the estuary of the Ems to the Elbe, surit cannot be exactly stated how much was rounding the Weser, by which they were properly their own hereditary land, and divided into the greater and the lesser classhow much of the land belonged to their es.* Pliny, who had personally visited more closely attached confederates, who their country, sketches a melancholy picare often called by the Romans, off-hand- ture of the inhabitants on the coast: "The ledly, Cherusci. This domain extended ocean, twice a day," he says, "overflows from the Harz, its centre, eastward as far an extensive district, and produces a conas the Saale and the Elbe, northward near- stant contest in nature, so that we must ly as far as the Aller, westward as far as continue doubtful whether to call this part the Weser, and southward as far as the land or sea. The miserable natives dwell Werra and the Thuringian forest. From upon the hills of the coast, or rather heaps the time of Drusus to the generalship of of earth, thrown up by the hand upon the Varus, in the twenty years during which margin of the highest side. They dwell the Romans were almost settled in Lower there at flood-tide like mariners, and at its Germany, and already spoke of a Roman ebb like shipwrecked beings. The fish province, the Cherusci were on friendly driven hither by the sea they catch with terms with them; the sons of their princes nets of reeds and sea-grass. They have entered the Roman armies, Augustus had no cattle, and do not, like their neighbors, a German body-guard, and all seemed feed upon milk. They are not allowed peaceable. But underVarus the Cherusci even to hunt for game, for not a shrub placed themselves at the head of almost all grows near them. The turf, secured by the tribes between the Rhine and the We- hand, they dry more in the air than in the ser; the smaller tribes, particularly on the sun, wherewith to cook their food, and left bank of the Weser, united themselves thereby to warm their bowels frozen by the witth them, whom the Romans often called north wind. They have no other drink clients of the Cherusci, naming them often than rain-water, preserved in holes; and absolutely Cherusci, whence has arisen the yet, had these tribes been conquered by the error that the Cherusci dwelt on both sides error tha~t the Cherusci dwelt on both sides ~ Their name appears to have been derived from the of the Weser. Later, when Arminius went nature of their country; kauken, quaken, meais, in forth against Marbodius, the Longobardi the vulgar language, to quake; and the marshy ground of the country quakes under the feet. Quakenbriick and Semnoni, their powerful neighbors in still retains the original denomination. INTRODUCTION. 35 Romans, they would have called them- fbund one of the most remarkable of the selves slaves!" Tacitus, on the contrary, German tribes, which appears to belong to who had more in view the extensive tribe neither side; viz., of the Chauci in the interior of the coun- The Chatti or Katti, in high probability try, celebrates them as the most conside- the Hessians of the present day, (Chatten, rable tribe of the Germans, peaceably Chassen, Hessen ) They frequently came minded and yet warlike and valiant. They in contact with.he Romans, upon whom were long the faithful allies of the Romans, they bordered, and are often named by who frequently traversed their country, them. Caesar himself even knew them, against the tribes on the more central We- for the Suevi, against whom he defended ser, probably emanating in an original the Uberians, and whom he threatened by feud with the Cherusci. Indeed, in the his passage across the Rhine, must, accordreign of Nero they pressed hard upon the ing to the locality of the dwelling-place, Wehrmanni of the Cheruscian alliance- have been the Chatti. They even then, the Ansibarians, and spread themselves so probably, belonged to the great Suevic far towards the south, that Tacitus makes confederation. Tacitus, on the contrary, them even extend as far as the Chatti. In expressly separates them from the Suevi, the third century they devastated Gaul in and we may, therefore, most rightly conthe reign of the Emperor Didius Julianus, sider them as a self-dependent tribe, formand at last they disappear under the con- ing a separation between the two great federate name of Saxons. tribes, the Suevi and Saxons. At the time Ptolemy mentions some of the towns of of these great wars under Augustus, their the Chauci: Tuderium, probably Meppene; country was often visited by the Romans; Thuliphardum, Verden; Phabiranum, Bre- but in the age of Tacitus, after the entire men or Bremenvorder; Leuphana, Ltine- reduction of the Cherusci, their domain burg, and others. seems to have acquired its greatest extent, 14. The Frisz, on the Baltic, from the for they spread themselves from the neighmouths of the Rhine, to the Ems, allies of borhood of Hanau, and where they borthe Romans in the German wars. In the dered upon the Roman tithe-land beyond fourth and fifth centuries they again ap- the Spessart and the mountains of the pear in the Saxon alliance, and even em- Rhine as far as the Thuringian forest, and bark with these for Britain.* The Romans towards the southwest as far as the Francall the island Borkum, Burchana, and conian Saale, then towards the north, Ameland, Austeravia, on their coast, and somewhat beyond the country where the in their country: Fleum or Flevum, on the Werra and Fulda join, and northwest as Dollart. far as the heights of the Wester forest. 15. The Saxons, afterwards so impor- Tacitus celebrates the Chatti especially tant, are first mentioned by Ptolemy in the for their valor and prudent management middle of the second century, as inhabit- of war. Their infantry was the best of ants of the present Holstein. They were all the Germans. They were more acskilful sailors, and in the fourth and fifth customed than all the rest to discipline and centuries became dreaded from their pira- order, and knew how to form defensive cies. Tacitus and Pliny do not name camps; besides, they were large-formed, them, probably because they comprise powerful, and fearless, and their warlike them under the name of Cimbri. We glance was intimidating. " They can all shall speak further on of the confedera- fight," says Tacitus, " but the Chatti alone tion they founded and called by their name. know how to conduct a war; and what is 16. The Cimbri remained for many cen- very rare in savage nations, they depend turies after their great irruption, with more upon their leader than upon the which our history begins, still in their old army. Good fortune they reckon among the dwelling-place, called the Cimbrian penin- casual, valor among the certain things." sula, styled the present Jutland; Strabo Their youths allowed their hair and beard expressly says, " they still dwelt in their to grow long, and they wore an iron ring old seat."t upon their arm, the sign of minority, until Between the Saxon and Suevic septs is a slain enemy proved their manliness; over whose body, and captured arms, they * Procop. Goth. iv. 20 t Geogr. vii. 2, i. freed their face from the abundance of 36 INTRODUCTION. hair, and only then first boasted of having opposite the Semnoni in the Alt-Mark and paid the reward for their tenure of life, Luneburg districts, where the name of the and of being worthy of their fatherland city, Bardewik, the villages of Barleben and ancestors. and Bartensleben, and the Bardengau, still At a later period the Chatti joined the preserve their recollection. They thence extensive confederation of the Franks. spread to the eastern banks of the Elbe, as The ancient metropolis of the Chatti far as the Havel. Under Arminius, they was Mattium, which many consider to be fought against Marbodius, but subsequently Marburg; but it is probably the present they assisted towards the reduction of the village Maden, near Gudensberg, on the Cherusci, who appear to have been, for a periver Eder. riod, in a certain degree of dependency on The Mattiaci, a branch of the Chatti, them. Ptolemy gives them, in the second which, in the expeditions of Drusus and century, a very extensive domain, from the Germanicus, appear only under this latter Elbe over the country of the Cherusci, the name, but by Tacitus are called by their Tubanti, and Marsi, as far as the Rhine. individual name, dwelt between the Lahn They may possibly, if Ptolemy's relation and the Maine, as far as the Rhine, there- be true, have made successful, but short fore in the present Nassau. The Romans invasive expeditions. History then becomes located themselves very early in their silent concerning them, until towards the country, constructed defences upon the end of the fifth century, when they appear Taurus mountains, and treated the Mat- upon the Danube, in Hungary; and in tiaci as a conquered tribe. In the revolt the sixth, they establish their kingdom in of Civilis they took a part, and invested Italy. They derived their name, accordMentz. Subsequently, their name disap- ing to their ancient legend, (as handed down pears, and the Allemanni occupy their of king Rothari,) from their long beards, land. Pliny mentions warm springs here, but according to others, from their Helle which he calls Fontes Matiaci, doubtless barden or Halberts; more probably, how Wiesbaden, where many remains of Ro- ever, from their dwelling.place, on the hor.. man buildings, baths, &c., have been ders of the Elbe, where a tract of land is found; and Arctaunum, the Roman fort still called the long Borde, or fruitful plain. upon the heights near Homburg, of which Ptolemy names Mesuium among them, pertraces are yet extant. Ptolemy names haps the present Magdeburg. also Mattiacum, probably the present Mar- 3. Northward from the Longobardi and burg. Semnoni, in the present Lauenburg, MeckSUEVIC TRIBES. lenburg, and Pommerania, dwelt, accord1. The Semnoni are called by Tacitus ing to Tacitus, the Suevic tribes of the Vathe most ancient and considerable among rini, Angeli, Reudingi, Avioni, Eudosi, Suthe Suevi; and Ptolemy fixes their seat ardoni, and Nuithoni; but little known or between the Elbe and the Oder, in the remarkable. We have already referred southern part of Brandenburg, and in the to their common worship of the goddess Lausitz as far as the Bohemian frontiers. Nerthus. It is said that in their country the sanctu- The name of the Varini reminds us of ary of the confederation was a holy grove, the river Varne, in Mecklenburg; and, inwherein the*confederate sacrifices were deed, Ptolemy mentions, in their domain, a solemnized. They, consequently, appear series of towns, which, according to his to have stood, in more ancient times, in geographical determination, are comprised peculiar regard among all the Suevic in the district on the north of the Elbe, from tribes. After the second century of the Hamburg as far as the estuary of the Christian era, however, their name does Varne. Hamburg itself appears under the not again occur in the annals of history; name of Marionis; Liibeck under that of of the causes for this disappearance, we Marionis Altera. Laciburgium may be are ignorant. Wismar, and Alistus, Schwerin. 2. The Longobardi, few in number, but The Angeli, neighbors of the Varini, apthe most warlike of all the Suevi. They pear later in union with the Saxons, with dwelt, when history first becomes acquaint- whom they seemed to have joined themed with them, about the period of the birth selves, in the vicinity of Silesia and upon of Christ, westward from the Middle Elbe, the neighboring islands; then in England, INTRODUCTION 37 which has preserved their name nobly down Gauls, and later, against the Romansto the present day. thence called mark or frontier-men-guardOn the coasts of the Baltic, extending ed the boundaries of Germany between the farther towards the east, Tacitus names a Rhine, the Maine, and the Danube. Upon series of tribes, which he refers to the Sue- the increasing weakness of the Gauls, they vic race. Perhaps we may recognise in endeavored to make conquests in the counthem a third, namely, the Gothic, and we try of their enemies. Ariovistus was, actherefore quit, for the present, that direc- cording to all probability, a Marcoman. tion, to turn ourselves towards the undis- History will inform us how about the computed Suevic tribes in the interior of Ger- mencement of the Christian era, they, unmany. Here first we meet: der Marbodius, advanced, in front of the 4. The Hermunduri. The information Romans, towards Bohemia; and how, subof the dwelling-places of this tribe, which, sequently, they became the terrific enemies besides, is named by almost all the writers of the latter. Their name disappears in who mention the Germans, from Veil. Pa- the migration, probably merging in that of terculus to DioCassius, (with the exception the Suevi, under which collective name of Ptolemy,) is very contradictory, but they may have wandered, with other Suevic which may, perhaps, be owing to their fre. tribes, to Spain. quent change of locality. Tacitus is ac- 7. The Quadi, the most southeastern quainted with them as the friends and Suevic tribe, seated upon the Danube, in neighbors of the Romans on the northern Austria and Moravia, as far as the river shore of the Danube, whence they stood Grau, in Hungary, where they joined the witn the Romans in a peaceful commercial Sarmatian tribe of the Jazygi. They lived intercourse, namely, in the capital of Rhce- in peace with the Romans until the great tia, Augusta Vindelicorum, Augsburg, and Marcomannic war, under Mark Aurelius, he makes them contend with the Chatti, on in which they took a share. From this the Franconian Saale, for the possession of time they always remained the enemies of the salt springs, so that their domain, con- the Romans. In the fifth century, their sequently, stretched between the Danube name likewise disappears, and merges in and the Maine, across the present Franco- that of the Suevi, among whom they are nia. They had arrived here about the time again mentioned in Spain. Ptolemy names of the Christian era, when the Marcomanni, many towns in their country, as a great under Marbodius, were moving towards commercial road led from Carnuntum, Bohemia. They were received by the Pressburg, through the land of the Quadi, Roman general, Domitius AEnobarbus. and by this means conveyed life and spirit Thence arose their friendship with the into it. We name only Phurgisatis, CoRomans. They probably dwelt, previous- ridorgis, and Philecia, probably Znaim, ly, farther northeastward, in the Franco- Briinn, and Olmitz. nian and Bohemian mountains, as far as 8. Behind these, towards the east, an. the Elbe. The Hermunduri, from the mid- cient writers mention the names of many die of the second century, appear only un- other tribes, without, however, giving more der the collective name of Suevi; and it is particular information about them, or even they, probably, who, carrying it farther to being able to state precisely that they were the southwest, have preserved and brought of German origin. Thus it is with the it down to the present day under the name Gothini and Osi, in the mountains which of Swabians. border upon Moravia and Bohemia, runPtolemy mentions, in the present land of ning towards Upper Silesia, of whom Taci. Franconia, Segodunum, perhaps Wirzburg; tus himself says, that the former spoke the Bergium, Bamberg; Menosgada, Baireuth, Gallic, and the latter the Pannonian, ac&c. cordingly, the Sarmatian tongue. 5. The Nariski, in the Upper Palati- The Marsingi are mentioned by Tacinate, between the Hermunduri and the tus alone; according to whom, their dwellMarcomanni. ing-place seems to have occupied a por6. The Marcomanni, the most important tion of Lower Silesia, eastward from the of the southern Suevic tribes, or perhaps, Riesengebirge. It is, however, doubtful more properly, the advanced Wehrmannei whether the Marsingi of Tacitus were not of the Suevic confederation against the a branch of the Vandals. In the district 38 INTRODUCTION. of the above-mentioned tribes, belong many mentions many names of towns; among of the names of towns which occur in others, Budorgis, probably Ratibor; Ly. Ptolemy; viz., Strevinta, in the vicinity of gidunum, Liegnitz; Calisia, Kalisch, &c. Neisse; Casurgis, in that of Glatz. 10. The Goths. Tacitus, who only 9. The Lygi, a powerful union of tribes knew the Suevi and non-Suevi among the in the eastern portion of Silesia, and in German tribes, considers this tribe also, that part of Poland which is enclosed by which he calls Goths, as Suevi. Pliny, on the elbow of the Vistula, from its source the contrary, who makes a five-fold divias far as Bromberg. Tacitus considers sion of the tribes, regards them as belongthem, perhaps rightly, as Suevi, although ing to the stem of the Windili, namely, to their manners and mode of life partake that of the Vandals. That the tribes of much of that of their savage Sarmatian this stem dwelt, collectively, in the exneighbors, on which account several mod- treme east of ancient Germany, these two, ern historians class them with the Sclavo- as well as the rest of thd ancient authors nic tribes. They belonged, when we first who mention their names, are in opinion hear of them, to Marbodius' confederation unanimous. Later history finds many of of tribes, and their alliance with the Mar- these tribes likewise in combination, or, at comanni and Hermunduri seems to have least, acting under the same impulses and continued even much later. In the third towards the same purpose; and it was by century, they appear with the Burgundians them that the first grand blow was struck on the Rhine, and are defeated by the Em- against the Roman colossus. If, therefore, peror Probus.* The chief stem, however, nothing decided can be said upon these obwhich remained behind, probably attached scure relations, to the elucidation of which itself, at the time of the great migration, to the light cf history is wholly wanting, it the Goths, the name being no longer men- will not be objectionable, but rather contritioned. bute to the easier survey of this manifold Among the Lygian tribes, Tacitus names mixture, if we here collect these tribes tothe Ari, the Helveconi, Manimi, Elysi, and gether, as belonging, probably, to a third Naharvali; his Buri also, which he does chief stem, allied to the Suevi, which, with not join to the Lygian union, belonged Pliny, we may call the Vandalian, or, acprobably to it; they dwelt at the sources cording to the title of the later principal of the Oder and the Vistula. Tacitus de- tribe, the Gothic branch. scribes the Ari as the most powerful, but a. The true Goths, or Gothones, were also the most savage of the Lygians. They known to Pytheas, about the year 300 bepainted their shields black, colored their fore the birth of Christ, on the Amberbodies, selected dark nights for their bat- coast, near the estuary of the Vistula. ties, and excited terror in their enemies by Tacitus places them beyond the Lygi, the fearful and almost infernal appearance therefore still on the Vistula, but no longer of their ghastly, death-like ranks. extending to the sea; for on the coast he In the country of the Naharvali, there names the Rugi and the Lemovi. Ptolemy, was a sacred grove, wherein a youthful nearly fifty years later, places them likepair of twins, similar to Castor and Pollux, wise on the Vistula, in the interior of the were worshipped under the name of Alcis, country, and mentions, by name, the Veand were attended by a priest in female nedi, or Wendi upon the coast. We may raiment.t thence conclude that, even at this period, The whole domain of the Elysi, who the great movement of the Wendian and dwelt probably in Silesia, and perhaps gave Sclavonian nations, from the northeast toits name to the principality of Oels, was wards the southwest, had already comcertainly traversed by a Roman commer- menced, whereby the Germans were imcial road, which is proved by the many pelled forward in the same direction. Al Roman coins that have been, and still the beginning of the third century, we alcontinue to be found buried there in the ready find the Goths again further southearth. ward, namely, in Dacia, where they fixed In the great Lygian domain, Ptolemy themselves. At this time, also, they appear divided into two great branches, the Fosimus i., 67.Ostro-Goths and Westro-Goths, or East t Tacitus calls it the Sanctuary or deity Alcis, pro- Ostro-Gots and WestroGoths, or East bably the Gothic Alhs. and West Goths. Their progress and fate, INTRODUCTION. 39 at the time of the great migration, will be Oder; and who, after several separations further related in the history itself. and a variety of adventures, of which isoAs single tribes, the Gepidi, Mosogothi, lated notices occur in history, are again Therwingi, and Greuthungi, are named as found united under Odoacer. The Heru. branches of the Gothic stem, upon whose lians are, next to the Rugi, the most affinity and position towards each other a remarkable. They appear as a portion of variety of opinions are still maintained, the great kingdom of the Ostro.Gothic king, b. The Burgundians are placed by Pliny Hemanrich, and form, after Attila's death, at the head of the Vandal stem, but they a powerful empire on the banks of the are not named by Tacitus. Ptolemy points Danube, at last vanishing on different out as their dwelling-place the country be- sides, after encountering the most adventween the Oder and Vistula, where the turous fortunes.* A portion seems to have Netze and the Warthe flow. Driven by united itself into a nation with the Bojoarithe Gepidi from this district, a portion of ans or Bavarians. them turned towards the north and located d. The Vandals appear as an individual themselves upon the island Bornholm, (Bur- tribe in Dio Cassius only, who calls the ganda-holm,) between Sweden and Den- Riesengebirge the Vandalian mountains, mark; but the greater portion drew off to whence the Elbe has its source, and we the southwest, attacked Gaul, were beaten indeed find upon its northeast side the back by the emperor Probus, dwelt for a original dwelling-place of the Vandalian space of time in the vicinity of the Maine, tribes. We have already noticed that the then upon the Upper Rhine, and received Wendili race of Pliny is the Vandalian, and from the Roman governor, Aetius, at the that Tacitus speaks really of the Vandalian beginning of the fifth century, a dwelling- as received by some others; later writers place in the southeast of Gaul, where their expressly say, that the Vandals were of name still continues. In their ancient do- the same stem as the Goths, had a similar main Ptolemy names the city Ascaucalis, appearance, the same laws and institutions. where Bromberg now exists. We shall further relate their history at the c. The Rugi are placed by Tacitus on period of the migration. the Baltic; he attaches close to them the Tacitus does not allow his country of Lemovi, who are mentioned by no one the Suevi to end with the coasts of the else, and who do not even again appear in Baltic only, as far as the estuary of the the great migration. The name of the Vistula, but conveys his readers to the Rugi survives in the island of Rtigen and IEstyi, on the Amber coasts. They, acsome neighboring places. Tacitus does not cording to their manners and dress, were enumerate them among the tribes who Suevi, but approached nearer to the Britons took part in the Nerthus worship on the by their language. They zealously cultiisle of Rugen; but it was, perhaps, after vated grain, and collected amber, which the age of Tacitus that they spread them- they called hesum, (glass,) and received selves so wide towards the west, and gave with astonishment the high price Roman ts name to the island Riigen, with which luxury offered for it. Tacitus describes nie was unacquainted. At the time of the amber very distinctly and rightly. great migration they appear in the army of 11. Also, on the other side of the Baltic, Attila,whenhe advanced against the Gauls; in the present Sweden, according to him, after his death they settled themselves are found Suevi, viz. the Suioni. "Equal, upon the northern banks of the Danube in ly strong," says Tacitus, " by their fleets Austria and Hungary, which country was as by their men and arms, kings rule over called Rugiland; and, shortly afterwards, them with unlimited power. Beyond the Odoacer, king of the Heruli, Rugi, Sciri, Suioni there is another sea, calm and aland Turcilingi, (he being sometimes called most motionless. It is believed that this by one and sometimes by the other of these sea limits the earth, from the circumstance titles. although by birth a Scirian,) came that the last dying splendor of the setting forth and destroyed, in the year 476, the sun continues until its rise, and so brightwest Roman empire. The said four named ly, that it obscures the stars." Thus it is tribes were, according to all probability, evident that they had intelligence of the closely allied, originating from the vicinity of the Baltic, between the Vistula and the * Procop. de Bell. Goth. ii., 11 and 12. 40 INTRODUCTION. Polar circle. Tacitus also seems to hint Cesar for help, and after he had procured at the great northern lights, by citing the them peace for a short time, they allowed -tradition that particular rays are seen in themselves, in the year 36 before the birth the skies, and tones heard at the same of Christ, to be transplanted to the left time. To the Suioni are attached the bank by the Roman general Vispanius races of the Sitoni, over whom a woman Agrippa. They were always the faithful reigns. " Thus far," says Tacitus, " they allies of the Romans. Their country comare not only degenerated from freedom, menced at the confluence of the Nahe with but fallen into slavery. Here is the end the Rhine, and here was founded Bingtune, of the Suevi." Bingen, the first seat of their domain; furThat the Swedes are of German origin, ther, Bontobrice, Boppart; Confluentes, Cobmay be considered as decided, and that lentz; Antunnacum, Andernach; Bonna, they were closely related to the Goths is Bonn; on the opposite side, as a bridge extremely probable. The name of the head or sconce, built by Drusus, was esisland Gotland, and many other names in tablished Gesonia, the present village GeuSweden, corroborate this. The Gothic sen; Colonia Agrippina, Cologne, a chief historian, Jordanis, describes the Goths as city of the Romans on the Rhine, named having migrated and shipped themselves after the daughter of Germanicus, and direct from Scandia, (Scandinavia, the consort of the emperor Claudius, Agrippina, general name given by the ancients to the who was born in this city of the Ubi, and northern countries,) and settled on the in the year 50, after the birth of Christ, banks of the Vistula. But what he states sent hither a colony of veterans in order to assumes more the form of heroic tradition distinguish her birth-place. Constantine than a history of his people; and it may be also caused a bridge to be built here over received as equally correct, that the Goths the river, the remains of which are still to passed over to Sweden from our coasts. be seen at low water; on the right side was Divitia, the present Deutz, the bridge TRANS-RHENISH TRIBES head. Novesium, Neuss; Gelduba, (often In the west, the Rhine was not properly named by the Romans,) the present village the boundary of the German tribes, but Gelb, near the little town of Uerdingen. many of them had passed over it already, 3. The Gugerni, northward from the before the period of the birth of Christ, Ubi, commencing not far from Gelduba, and had located themselves on its left down the Rhine to where the Waal divides bank. To these belonged: itself from it. Places: Asciburgium, As1. The Vangioni, the Nemeti, and the burg, near Meurs; Vetera (castra,) Xanten Triboci, in the district on the left bank of or Buderich, opposite Wesel. the Rhine from Bingen, below Mentz, as 4. The Batavi and Canninefati, both of far as Breisach. In their domain are the Chattic race, were, according to Tacitus, many towns, which owe either their origin driven from their country by a revolt, and or enlargement to the Romans; viz., Mon- settled themselves near the mouth of the guntiacum, Mentz, an ancient Gallic city Rhine, in that part of the land surrounded in the country of the Vangioni; under by water, which was called the island of the Romans an important citadel. Al- the Batavians. They were allies of the ready, in the year 70 after the birth of Romans until they revolted under Civilis Christ, the 22d legion, which, on returning in the year 70, after the birth of Christ. In from the conquest of Jerusalem, was quar- their domain lay Lugdunum, Leyden; Ultered in this place, brought with them trajectum, Utrecht; Noviomagus, Nimweprobably, and introduced Christianity there. gen. Bonconica, Oppenheim; Borbetomagus, Besides these tribes, there were several Worms; Noviomagus, chief seat of the others in the Trans-Rhenish countries who Nemeti, Spires; Taberna, Rheinzabern; had formerly wandered thither, and were Argentoratum, Strasburg, in the country of still proud of their German origin, as if the the Triboci, containing the chief arsenal celebrity of their race separated them from throughout Gaul. a connection with, and a resemblance to 2. The Ubi dwelt earlier on the right the weak and cowardly Gauls. The chief bank of the Rhine, but were so hard pressed among them were the Treviri, with the by the Suevi, that they applied to Julius capital Augusta Trevirorum, the present INTRODUCTION. 41 Treves, the most important city of the Ro- miles from this river constantly northward, man empire in our northern countries; as far as the Oden forest. This wall was and the Nervi, between the Meuse and the built of a stone found in the earth near the Scheldt. spot, and at every half league was almost The south of the Danube was no longer regularly provided with towers. If here inhabited by the pure German tribes, but and there perhaps the traces of the line such as had become mixed with Gallic have become indistinct, we soon again meet and other emigrants. The Danube may with them more perfect. In the Oden forest be considered as the boundary of Germany we only discover the ruins of solitary towers at that period, and the Roman provinces on more distinctly marked; and it is highly its southern side from Switzerland to be- probable that here, where there was such yond Carinthia, and Carniola, were called: an abundance of wood, they were conHelvetia, Rhetia, Vindelicia, Noricum, and nected by a fence of piles, or a row of palPannonia. isades, all traces of which have naturally disappeared. But if we follow the remains ROMAN TITHELAND. of these isolated fortifications, we find at But more important for the ancient geo- last that near Obernburg and eastward from graphy of our country is the consideration Aschaffenburg, the line joins on the Maine, of the southern part of Germany, from the after it has completed from the Danube Rhine downward beyond the Maine, ac- onward a distance of nearly two hundred cording to others still further morthward, miles. and which was called the Roman titheland, Northward from the Maine, the traces (agri decumates.) From these districts the of the line are very slight, yet it traverses Germans, pressed hard by the superiority Hanau and Darmstadt, to the north of the of the Romans, who threatened them from Nidda, where the moat of piles begins to the Rhine and the Danube, had retired be again visible, and runs past Butzbach more and more into the interior-among towards Homburg. Here lies the Salburg, the rest the Marcomanni especially-and probably the fort or citadel of Arctaunum, the Romans considering the land now as a erected by Drusus on the Taunus mounportion of their own provinces, allowed tains. In this part the frontier wall is Gallic and other colonists to cultivate it, twenty feet high, and closed in by trees as upon the payment of a tithe. Thence the old as the forest itself. It runs over the country which was now considered as a whole of the Taunus mountains, then frontier or foreland against the barbarians, through the latter on the right bank of the received its Roman name; and as such it Rhine, as far as the Ems, and thence again was already known to Tacitus. To secure over mountain and through forest to the it from the predatory irruptions of the Ger- neighborhood of Neuwied. Its traces are mans, a long line of fortresses, walls, lost behind the Seven mountains. This ditches, walls with towers, and other de- Roman boundary line extended no doubt fences, were by degrees constructed, the as far as the Sieg, near Siegburg, perhaps traces whereof by unwearied research have also still further northward. Tiberius, at been discovered in the whole of the south least, according to Tacitus, built a border and middle of Germany, so that we are wall, limes, also in the Caesarean forest; enabled to follow these Roman frontier- but no trace of any connection between defences almost uninterruptedly. this and the southern defences has been Their commencement is found in con- discovered. It is clear that even under siderable remains of defensive works, three the later emperors, the defensive works miles beyond Ratisbon, near the influx of were constantly being extended, until the the Altmiihl into the Danube. The in- repeated irruptions of the Allemannic trenchment, well known to the natives un- hordes destroyed them. At the comder the name of the Devil's Wall and the mencement of the fourth century the Almoat of piles, runs from here, for twelve lemanni were in possession of the former miles uninterruptedly, towards the north- Titheland. west, sometimes raised three or four feet As Roman colonies within the boundary above the ground, then again southwest line of defences, besides those in the north and west into Wurtemberg, in the vicinity already mentioned, the following are fur. of the Necker, and at the distance of some ther cited: 6 42 INTRO DUCTION. 1. Castellum Valentiniani, in the neigh- 3. Tarodunum, near Friburg, in Breis. borhood of Manheim. gau, where the Mark or boundary, Zarten, 2. Civitas Aurelia Aquensis, called also is still found. merely Aquce, the present Baden; it is not 4. Ara Flavia, Rotweil, together with cited, it is true, in Roman authors, but from several others. The whole titheland is full inscriptions that have been found, it is at of the remains of Roman buildings, forts, least clear that a Roman garrison and baths citadels, and temples, bridges, streets, tow. were here already at the end of the second ers, pillars, and baths. century. THE MORE ANCIENT GERMAN "STORY, FIRST PERIOD. FROM THE MOST ANCIENT TIMES TO THE CONQUESTS OF THE FRANKS UNDER CLOVIS, 486, A. D. CHAPTER I the inquiry would produce no essential con. tribution towards a knowledge of our na. B. c. 113-6, A. D. tional records. We shall therefore comThe Cimbri and Teutoni, 113-101 B. c.-CEesar and mence the running thread of our history, Ariovistus, 58 B. c.-Julius Cssar on the Rhine- after, as before, with the incursion of the Commencement of the great German Wars-Drusus Cimbri and Teutoni. in Germany-Marbodius, King of the Marcomanni. It w n e 11 B It was in the year 113 B. c., that a wild THE Roman and Greek writers who and unknown tribe crossed the Danube, give information upon this period of our his- and appeared upon the Alps, where the tory, have already been mentioned at the Romans guarded the passes into Italy. In commencement of the Introduction. In this same year they defeated the Roman addition to those, we may include here the consul Papirius Carbo, who commanded subsequent chronicles of Prosper and his the army here, near Noreja, in the mouncontinuators, Marius especially, Idacius tains of the present Styria. Carbo had and Marcellinus, which are collected to- proved treacherous to them, for upon their gether by Roncallius, in his "Vetustiora request to remain on friendly terms with Latinorum Chronica," 2 vols. Further, is him, he had provided them with false to be named Beda Venerabilis, a very guides, who led them astray among the learned English monk, who died in the mountains, while he advanced by a shorter year 735, and who has left behind him a road and fell unexpectedly upon them. chronicle, " De Sex JEtatibus Mundi," to For this breach of faith they punished him 726, and a " Hist. Eccles. Gentis Angli- severely, and he and all his troops would canta." Finally, we have likewise col- have been utterly destroyed had not a lected largely, for this earlier epoch, from heavy storm intervened and assisted his Jordanis, who will be referred to in the flight. second period. No one knew whence these fearful Efforts have been made to trace back hordes originally came; they called them. the signs of migrations and contests of Ger- selves, according to the account of the man tribes on Roman and Greek ground Romans, Cimbri and Teutoni. Upon colto very early times, and especially to the lecting together the isolated narratives of invasion of the Gauls under Brennus into writers, it appears that the Cimbri had alItaly in the year 389 B. c., and the incur- ready, for a length of time, been wander. sion of the Gauls again, under a second ing about, and had fought with many na. Brennus, through Thracia and Macedonia, tions, especially with the Boi, and now, as far as Delphi, in the year 278, as refer- quitting the Danube, appeared upon the ring to German tribes from the vicinity of Roman frontiers. Whether they are to the Alps. But these indications are much be considered as collective tribes intent too obscure and fragmentary, and to pursue upon migrating, or only as troops of war. 44 THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI. riors seeking adventures, (as was subse- quest, when they determined to obtain by quently the practice of the Suevic warriors valor and the sword what they could not under Ariovistus,) or, forming themselves acquire by treaty. Four Roman armies, by degrees into one entire mass by the one after the other, were defeated and aljunction of women and children, they re- most annihilated by them and their confedquired a country wherein to settle, we erates-the first under the consul Junius cannot, owing to the deficiency of precise Silanus, the second under the consul Casinformation, positively decide. If the sius Longinus, who fell in the battle, the Cimbri, as is the general opinion, proceed- third under the legate Aurelius Scaurus, ed from the Cimbrian peninsula, so called who was taken prisoner. When he was by the Romans, but which now is the pre- brought before the council of the Germans, sent Jutland, it is very certain that only a in order to give them intelligence respectportion of the tribe could have left it, as it ing the passage over the Alps, he advised was still occupied by that tribe at a much them to forego their intention, calling the later period. But if the name Kimber, as Romans unconquerable. Angered at this, others have surmised, implied merely a young German prince, Bojorix, stood Kdmpfer, fighters, (Kamper, Strenuus,) forth and struck Scaurus to the ground they may then have belonged to other with his sword. German tribes, probably to the Suevi. The Romans, who already thought of Opinions likewise differ upon the name of conquering the whole earth, but saw themthe Teutoni. Some believe it was not the selves now defeated by a horde whose name of an individual tribe, but that the name they scarcely knew, collected toRomans, hearing that these Cimbri were gether another large army, under the conTeuten or Teutones, imagined that they sul Marcus Manlius, and sent it to the had a second tribe to contend with, which assistance of the consul Scipio, whose they called Teutoni. According to the legate, Scaurus, had just been vanquished. opinion of others, the Teutoni were wan- But envy and dissension existed between derers of several tribes between the Vis- the generals, and the Germans taking adtula and the Elbe, who, urged forward by vantage of this, gave such battle to this the eruption of the Cimbri from their large army, that 80,000 of the Romans northern peninsula, formed themselves into and their allies were left dead upon the an individual horde, and called themselves field, with 40,000 of their slaves. ManTeuten, or Teutones, the collective name lius fell with his two sons, but Scipio esof all the German races. Others fix the caped, with, it is said, but ten men. This home of the Teutoni in the northern Scan- day was, henceforth, considered by the dinavia, in favor of which their iron armor Romans as one of the most unlucky in appears to say much already. But we their calendar, and the city of Rome, as shall follow the accounts of the ancient well as the whole country, were seized writers, who always name the Teutoni as with such a panic, that in Rome for a very an individual tribe, and remind us that long time after, any uncommon alarm was Pytheas had already, more than three called a " Cimbrian panic." The enemy, hundred years B. c., heard the name of the however, did not take advantage of this Teutoni on our northern coasts. opportunity, the reason for which neglect After the Cimbri had fought near Nore- is not known; but, instead of advancing ja, they advanced through the fruitful upon Italy, they turned aside towards the district that lies between the Danube and south of France and Spain, and gave the the Alps, towards southern Gaul, which Romans time to recover themselves. appears originally to have been the aim of The Romans possessed but one man their exertions, and many tribes from Ger- who still sustained their hopes; this was many, Gaul, and Switzerland, strength- Caius Marius, a rude, proud man, but a ened their numbers, particularly the Am- valiant warrior. He was of low origin, broni from the Emmegau, and the Tigu- and had raised himself by his talents rini, (Zurichers,) a valiant tribe at the alone; he was, therefore, hated by the foot of the Alps. They demanded a patricians, but tney were obliged, in oppocountry from the Romans, for which they sition to all hitherto followed rules and promised military assistance for every war. against the laws, to make him consul sevThe Romans, however, refused their re. eral years in succession, in order that he THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI. 45 might free them from their terrific German secured." And the warriors, although unfoes. willingly, obeyed his orders; to such an Marius collected his army and conduct- extent had this strict leader been able to ed it over the Alps towards Gaul, as far re-establish military discipline. Of the as the river Rhodanus, (the Rhone,) and baggage men, however, many hastened in formed there a defensive camp. He re- a multitude to the river to procure water established the ancient discipline and order for themselves and the beasts of burden, in his army, which had been long neg- when, meeting with a few of the enemy lected, and to which was to be attributed who were indulging in bathing, they the mischances that had befallen them. speedily came to blows with them, and as He, therefore, kept himself for a long time the cries of the combatants drew to their quiet in his camp, that he might accustom aid more from both sides, there arose a his warriors to the view of the large gi- sharp skirmish with the Ambroni, whose gantic forms of these strangers, and to the camp lay on the Roman side of the river. tone of their fearful voices. And when- The Ambroni were driven back into their ever he observed that a small troop of his camp of wagons, and then a severe battle enemies were alone, he quickly took ad- took place with the women, who burst forth vantage of the favorable opportunity, and with swords and axes, attacking as well made a sortie upon them with great their own countrymen who retreated, as strength and superiority, that his troops the pursuing Romans. Night separated might learn to conquer them by degrees. the combatants. But this night was in This delay was irksome to the war-hunt- many ways terrific and dreadful. There ing Germans, and they often came to the arose from the camp of the Germans a very walls of the camp, mocked at the strange mixture of voices, not like lamenRoman army, and called them out to bat- tation and sorrow-although it might have tle, but Marius was not to be diverted from meant a mourning-cry for the dead-but his plan. resembling a deadened roar, as of wild The Germans had now divided them- beasts, which was re-echoed by the mounselves into two bodies. The Cimbri had tains around, and by the shores of the passed up the Rhodanus through Switzer- stream. Terror seized the Romans; they land and the Tyrol towards Italy, but the feared the enemy might make a night atTeutoni remained opposed to Marius. When tack, which would easily have thrown all these latter perceived that their challenge into confusion; for their camp, owing to was not accepted by their opponents, they the battle, was still without walls and also broke up, marched past his camp on ditches. But the enemy stirred not; they the road to Italy, and called out jeeringly remained quiet, and continued so up to to the Roman soldiers, asking them "if daybreak. Marius now laid down his they had any commissions to send to their plans for battle. He placed the infantry wives?" The multitude was so great that before the camp, but the cavalry he sent they were six days passing the camp in down into the plain, and he dispatched his uninterrupted ranks. lieutenant-general, Claudius Marcellus, Marius followed at their side, continuing with 3000 heavy armed soldiers forward always upon the heights, that they might to occupy the wooded heights behind the not unexpectedly attack him; he then re- enemy, with the command to advance from encamped himself opposite to them near his ambush at the commencement of the Aqume Sextiae, or which is the present town fray. of Aix, in the South of France. In the When the Teutoni observed the Romans spot he had selected there was but little place themselves in order of battle, they water, and when his warriors complained were seized with such a desire for the filht of thirst, he pointed with his hand to a river that they did not await them in the plain, that ran close by the enemy's camp, and but clambered the heights against them. said, "Behold, yonder is drink offered But as they arrived, breathless and pantyou-but only to be purchased with blood." ing, the Romans received them courageThey replied, " Why do you not then lead ously and with closed ranks, and drove us at once against them while our blood them back again into the plain. Marcelstill flows?' He however returned, in a lus did not waste this decisive moment, but steady voice, "The camp must first be broke forth in full gallop, and shouting 46 THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI. from the woods with his three thousand the rich and beautiful plains of Upper Italy, horsemen, fell upon the rear of the enemy, and delayed going at once and direct, as who, pressed on both sides, soon got into they should have done, upon Rome; the disorder, and took to flight. The Romans charms of the country completely enchantpursued them, and either killed or took ing them. Instead of their rude camp beprisoners more than one hundred thousand. neath the open sky. they now accustomed Shortly afterwards, the prince of the Teu- themselves to the shelter of a roof and its toni, Teutobod, was also taken prisoner in comforts; instead of their cold baths, they his flight across the mountains, and was now took warm; instead of plain meat, subsequently forced to form in Rome the they indulged in choice dishes; but, above chief ornament in the triumphant train of all, they sank into intemperance by wine Marius; and according to the account of drinking. Catulus, in the mean time, waitthe Romans, he was so tall and lofty that ed beyond the Po until Marius returned his figure rose above all the trophies, and from Gaul with his victorious army and so active, that he could leap over from four joined him; when they both advanced forto six horses. But Marius burnt the arms ward over the river. As soon as the Cimand entire booty as a great and splendid bri were apprized of this, they collected sacrifice to the gods, excepting only what their troops, and, in expectation of the Teuhe selected and preserved of the most toni, whose misfortune they were either igcostly and rare. This battle, near Aqua norant of or did not believe, they sent to Sextia, took place in the year 102 B. c., Marius once more to demand of the Roand eleven years after the battle of No. mans a country for themselves and their reja. brethren. When they named their breth. The exultation of Marius and his troops ren, the Teutoni, Marius ridiculed them, was speedily damped by the intelligence and said, "Think no more of your breththat the consul Catulus had been repulsed ren; they have their land already, and by the Cimbri in Upper Italy. These you likewise shall receive quite sufficient latter had, although late in the year, from us." The ambassadors censured him crossed the Alps, and drove before them for his ridicule, and said he would speedithe enemy, who guarded the mountain ly receive his punishment from the Cimbri passes. The latter looked with astonish- on that very spot, as also from the Teutoment upon these powerful strangers, who, ni the moment they arrived. "They are in their delight at their native snow and here already," said Marius; "and it would ice, as well as in the consciousness of their not be right to allow you to retire without hardy powers of endurance, revelled naked having greeted your brethren." And with in the snow, ascended over ice and deep that he ordered the captive princes of the snow to the summits of the mountains, and Teutoni to be brought forward in their then, sitting upon their broad shields, slid fetters. down from the peaks of the most precipi- Struck with amazement, the ambassa. tous declivities. The consul was obliged dors returned to their camp, and the Cimto retreat behind the river Athesis, (the bri immediately broke up; Bojorix, their Etsch,) but erected defences on each side prince, rode to the Roman camp, and chalof the bridge he had built. When the lenged Marius, with the Romans, to battle, Cimbri, advancing closer, had surveyed at any place which he might appoint. Mathe river, they commenced, giant-like, to rius replied, " It was not usual for the Robreak rocks from the surrounding sum- mans to make their enemies acquainted mits, and cast them, with stones and earth, beforehand with the day of battle, yet even into the stream, in order to check its in that he would show himself agreeable course; they loosened the piles of the to the Cimbri;" and he accordingly apRoman bridge with great weights, which pointed the Raudian plain, between Verwere driven crashing against them by the cellse and Verona, as the place of battle, floods, so that the Romans, in their terror, and fixed the time for the third day foldeserted their defences and their camp, lowing. and took to flight; and not until they had After the lapse of this interval, the Cimcrossed the river Po did they again take up bri quitted their camp in good order; they a position. placed their infantry in a square, but the The Cimbri now spread themselves over cavalry, 15,000 men strong, turned to the THE CIMBRI AND TEUTONI. 47 right, and endeavored, by this maneuvre, Thus it happened that the largest and to bring the Romans between themselves most warlike portion of the Cimbri were and the infantry. Their cavalry, for the killed. The foremost rank had bound themgreater portion, was equipped in the most selves together with long chains or cords, sumptuous manner possible; they wore fixed to their girdles, that they might not helmets which were made to resemble be forcibly separated; and they now lay the throats of terrific animals, or other on the field as it were strung together. frightful objects, with a full waving crest, When the Romans, pursuing those who which increased the size of their gigantic fled, arrived at their wagon-camp, their figures, and their iron armor and shining eyes beheld a sad and mournful scene. shields glittered afar. Every rider had a The wives of the Germans stood, dressed double javelin, and for close combat a large in black, upon their wagons, and themheavy sword. They had obtained these selves destroyed the fugitives as they archoice arms very probably in victorious rived, nay, even their own little children battles during their long incursions. The they cast beneath the wheels of the wainfantry, however, poured itself forth upon gons, and under the feet of the beasts of the plain like an immeasurable and moving burden, that they might not fall into the sea. Marius, at this moment, washed his hands of the Romans; and they then killed hands, raised them to the gods, and vowed themselves. Many of the men also slew to them a great sacrifice, should he con- themselves, for they feared slavery more quer: Catulus also, with raised hands, than death. Sixty thousand were, however, made a vow for the success of this day. taken prisoners, and as many more upon And when the entrails of the slaughtered this fatal day were exterminated. animal were shown to Marius by the priests, Thus was concluded this severe and bithe exclaimed with a loud voice, so that the ter war, which the Romans considered multitude might hear him, " Mine is the equally as critical as the earlier one, nearvictory!" ly three hundred years before, when the A severe and bloody battle now began. Gauls under Brennus burnt Rome; and The heat, and the sun which shone in the thence they called Marius the third foundeyes of the Germans, aided the Romans. er of the city. But the boys and youths For the former, brought up in cold and of the Cimbri and Teutoni, who were made shady parts, could endure the cold, but not prisoners in these battles, and conveyed the heat; profuse perspiration enervated away as slaves, amply revenged hereafter their bodies, and they held up their shields the blood of their fathers and their brothto shelter their eyes from the sun. It was ers in that of thousands of Romans, whom precisely in the month of July, when the they slew in the servile war under their summer's heat is most intense, that the leader, Spartaous. battle was fought. The dust also was op- Not quite fifty years had passed after posed to them, for it completely enveloped this first essay at arms of the Germans them, and concealed from the Romans both with the Romans, when the former again their numbers and their terrific aspect, so advanced towards the Roman frontiers, in that the latter, not being previously alarmed smaller numbers, certainly, than at the by their appearance, fell at once upon the first time, and perhaps not with the clearly ranks of their enemies. The most dread- defined purpose of invading Italy; but conful close conflict ensued, wherein the Ro- quest and the prospect of booty probably mans derived a vast advantage over their would speedily have increased their forces, enemies from their short broad-swords. and the fruitful pastures, as well as the They had also so accustomed their bodies full granaries, of the natives, would have to the labors and discipline of war, that allured them from province to province, not a single Roman was observed to per- until the fame of the smiling country bespire or to lose his breath, even in the most yond the Alps might have suggested to suffocating heat. Besides, Marius had in- them the path over these towering frontier vented a new weapon, a kind of long barbed walls, had they not found an opponent who spear, which the Romans hurled against knew at least' the art of war as well as Mathe shields of their enemies, and with which rius. they forced these down, so that the indivi- Ariovistus, a king of the Marcomannic dual remained exposed. Suevi, between the Danube and the Neck. 48 JULIUS CIESAR AND ARIOVISTUS. er, was appealed to for assistance by a not, Caesar would not behold the injuries of Gallic tribe, the Sequani, against another the 1Edui with indifference." tribe, the Edui; in the year 72 B. c., he Ariovistus, in his reply to this, referred passed over the Rhine at the head of an boldly and candidly to the right of arms, army, and obtained a victory for the Se- according to which the conqueror might quani; but the beautiful plains of the pre- treat the conquered as he pleased. It was sent Burgundy pleased him so much, that thus the Romans themselves were likewise he would not again quit them. At enmity accustomed to act, who well knew too how equally with the conquerors and conquered, to make use of their rights; he only required he seized a space of land, and when the therefore to be left to do the same. And, Gauls had united against him he put them with regard to Caesar's announcement, that to flight near Magetobria, (now Mumpel- he would not let the injuries of the iEdui gard.) He, perhaps, originally went forth remain unrevenged, Ariovistus replied: upon this adventure as a duke with his war- " No one had hitherto contended with him like train, but more and more Germans but to their ruin. If Cwesar wished, he flocked to him, attracted by the celebrity might begin the contest; he would then of this beautiful country, so that he speedily learn to know what unconquered Germans, had under him an army of 120,000 men. perfectly practised in the use of arms, and The whole of Gaul trembled before him; whom no roof had sheltered for fourteen the tribes believed themselves already van- years, could perform." Truly, the lanquished or driven from their ancient seats. guage of a hero of the great tribes-migraThe Romans, however, who possessed al- tion; to whom his sword stood in lieu of eady in Southern Gaul a subjected prov- hereditary right and title-deeds, and who, ince, acknowledged Ariovistus as king in with his brethren in arms, was determined his conquered territory, and called him to repose under no roof until he had con. friend. quered the sought-for country of his new But speedily afterwards Julius Caesar, home! one of the greatest and boldest of Roman With any other opponent this bold deleaders, appeared in Gaul. Burning am- claration might have produced its influbition excited him to great warlike under- ence, and been effective; but Caesar, who takings, and he had arrived in these districts even in Rome itself could not endure to be with no other view than to subject the whole the second, felt thereby the more excited of Gaul to the Romans. The Edui and to measure himself with such an enemy. other Gallic tribes, now turned to him and He advanced against him and occupied demanded aid of him against the Germans. Vesontio, (Besanmon,) the chief city of the Caesar gladly profited by this opportunity Sequani, which was very strong and richly of advancing further into Gaul, promised provided with all the munitions of war. them h'elp, and demanded an interview with While he remained here a few days, a very Ariovistus. dangerous despondency suddenly over. Ariovistus answered proudly and boldly, powered his army. The statements of the that, " If he himself desired aught of Caesar Gauls who had been so often beaten by the he should come to him, and if Caesar desired Germans, the descriptions given by the tra. aught of him he must do the same. Besides, ders who had travelled through their counhe could not understand what Caesar or the try, the close proximity of the terrific eneRoman people in general had to do in his my himself, tended, combined altogether, Gaul, which he had conquered by the force to present before the soul of the Romans so of arms."' fearful a picture of the strength, the valor, Caesar replied to him: " As he had refused and ferocity of the Germans, within whose his invitation to an interview, he at once annihilating glance it was impossible to would briefly state what he desired of him, stand, that many who had thus far volunviz., in the first place, that he should not tarily followed Casar, did not hesitate inbring any more Germans across the Rhine; venting any excuse to enable them to reand, secondly, that he should return to the turn home. Others whom shame retained, Gallic tribes their hostages, and treat them could however so little govern themselves, no longer as enemies. If he fulfilled these that they frequently broke forth in tears, conditions, the Roman people would hold and in their tents sorrowfully mourned their constant peace and friendship with him; if ill-fortune. Throughout the whole camp JULIUS CIESAR ON THE RHINE. 49 all were engaged making their wills pub- array with wagons and chariots, whereon licly; and, at last, even those became taint- sat the women with wild and loosely flowed by the panic, to whom the dangers of war ing hair, supplicating all the ranks as they were by no means strange. And, in fact, passed by, not to allow them to fall into there was a general murmur against their the bondage of the Romans. The battle rash leader, for thus unnecessarily seeking commenced, and they were soon furiously so perilous a battle. engaged on all sides. The Germans rushed Caesar, in order to subdue this impression forward with so much speed, that the Ro. in his army, summoned forth the whole mans had not time to cast their javelins, force of his eloquence. He collected to- and their left wing was driven to flight; gether the leaders of his host, and represent- but their right wing conquered on its side, ed to them that a war with Ariovistus was and now were displayed the advantage and as yet by no means certain; he much more superiority of perfect warlike order and disexpected that the latter would listen to the cipline. The broken wing of the Romans voice of justice and of peace. But should was re-formed, when the third division adhe, from a mad love of battle, absolutely de- vanced to its aid; the ranks of the Gersire it, they had only to remember the defeat mans, however, remained in confusion, for of the Cimbri and Teutoni, and the servile their army, although extremely valiant, war just ended, wherein the Germans also was deficient in strict discipline and order. were conquered as well as the Helvetians, They were therefore at last driven to flight not being able to resist the Roman arms. on all sides, and hastened towards the But if, notwithstanding, all these reasons Rhine. But the Roman cavalry overtook could not serve to tranquillize them, and the greater part, and but few, among whom. none would follow him, he would at once was Ariovistus, saved themselves by swimadvance against the foe with the tenth le- ming or by traversing the river in small gion alone, for on their fidelity he could boats. His two wives were killed in the depend. flight, and of his two daughters one was. This address made a deep impression likewise slain, and the other taken prisoner. upon their minds. The tenth legion thank- Of Ariovistus himself history says nothing. ed him immediately for his confidence, and further. all the rest emulated each other in display- When Caesar had driven Ariovistus; ing their readiness. Caesar broke up forth- across the Rhine he began the subjection. with, and advanced nearer to the German of the Gallic tribes, who were not equal to, army. An interview which he held with the Germans in valor. He conquered one: Ariovistus at his desire, was as fruitless as after the other, and kept constantly adthe previous negotiations, and Caesar now vancing to the Lower Rhine. Intelligence wished for nothing but a battle. But Ario- then came to him that two German tribes vistus took up a position in which he cut of the Lower Rhine, the Usipeti and Tenchoff from the Romans all the supplies, and teri, pressed by the Suevi, had passed over caused his cavalry, which, by its mixture the Rhine to seek a new settlement in Gaul. with the light infantry, was superior to that They had with them their wives and chilt.f the Romans, to make skirmishes. But dren, their slaves and herds, as well as the the battle, although daily offered by Caesar, rest of their property, and were upwards of he did not accept. 430,000 strong. As Caesar now, however, Caesar then learned from some prisoners considered Gaul to belong to him, he dethe cause of this delay, which otherwise was sired them to retrace their steps. They, not in accordance with German custom. however, replied, " That they had been The prophetic women, according to whose or- forced by the Suevi to wander from their acles the army acted, had announced mis. homes; they desired nothing but a land to fortune should they fight before the new dwell in; he ought therefore to leave them moon. Caesar now sought a battle more the fields they had conquered with their zealously than ever, and advanced close arms, or give them others instead. Be. up to the German camp. They then at sides, it was not German fashion to avert a last drew forth their troops, and each tribe battle by entreaties, but to make a stand took up its position-the Harudi, Marco- against those who desired the contest; he manni, Tribocki, Vangioni, Nemeti, Sedu- was therefore free to choose their friendsi, and Suevi; they surrounded their battle ship or war. They yielded to none but the 7 50 DEATH OF JULIUS C.ESAR. Suevi, to whom in battle even the immor. scarcely placed a foot in Germany, for the tal gods themselves were not equal; but Suevi had made their arrangements this excepting those there dwelt none on earth time as prudently as before. whom they could not conquer." According to the connection of events, They nevertheless were conquered by and of the locality where Caesar crossed Caesar, but only by Italian cunning, for as the Rhine, those whom he called Suevi their princes and chieftains came to an ar- must have been the Chatti, and these either ranged interview with him, he suddenly then have belonged to the Suevic confedeseized them as prisoners, fell immediately ration, or Caesar, in his ignorance of the upon their camps, and beat and scattered German relations, has included them as the whole tribe, which was now without a such. leader. Some of them fled back across the After this period Caesar did not again Rhine to the Sigambri. Caesar required pass into Germany, but he had become so them to be delivered up. The Sigambri well acquainted with the Germans, as beanswered: " The Rhine at least was the ing such strong and valiant men, that he limits of the Roman empire; if he did not endeavored to raise troops from among them wish the Germans to cross the Rhine to serve in his legions. This was easy to against his will, why did he presume to him among such a brave people, where give orders on their side of the river?" there were always bold men ready to go Such language vexed the proud Roman. forth for pay, booty, and the love of war. He likewise still bore fresh in mind, that Caesar was likewise a hero who well unthe Suevi under Ariovistus had already derstood how to win the hearts of his warfallen upon Gaul; therefore, he determined riors; he led them always to victory. to build a bridge over the Rhine, and make German subsidies helped him henceforth to the German tribes feel in their own coun- win his battles, and at Pharsalus, where try the power of the Romans. In ten days he fought the last battle against Pompey, he constructed with much ingenuity, in the and where it was decided which of the two country of the Ubi, below the place where should rule the world, they afforded him the Moselle falls into the Rhine, (according important aid. After the battle had been to some near Bonn, according to others hard fought, Pompey dispatched his cavnear Andernach,) a large wooden bridge, alry against the enemy, that they might and passed with his army over Germany's give decision to the battle; but these horsenoble stream. This was in the year 55 men were chiefly proud Roman youths, of B. c. He wished to attack the powerful the superior classes, who idly thought they confederation of the Suevi; these, how- could not be defeated. Caesar then gave ever, removed their whole property and command to his German infantry to drive their wives and children far back into the back the cavalry, and called out to them: interior of the forests, and collected all their "Comrades, strike only at the face!" He warlike forces in the middle of their do- well knew that the vain youths of the memain, there to await their enemy. It ap. tropolis preferred their smooth faces to pears they had selected their ground with scars. And the Germans, who were sufgreat prudence, for Caesar did not consider ficiently tall and strong, rushed against the it even advisable to follow them thus far. cavaliers as if they were themselves mountHe halted only eighteen days on the right ed, and not on foot, and frightened them so bank of the Rhine, devastated with fire and much that they speedily took to flight. sword the vicinity of the Sieg, where the Thus the day was by them won for Caesar.'Sigambri then dwelt, and then returned Henceforward, there were constantly Ger-:across the river. To the Ubi, who upon man soldiers in the Roman service, and the this occasion had been his faithful adhe- succeeding emperors even formed of them rents, he gave the name of Roman allies. their body-guard. But the Suevi had so little fear of the Julius Caesar was murdered as he was Romans, that they shortly afterwards sent about to make himself sole master of Rome; assistance to the Treviri against them. but the Romans were no longer worthy of Caesar then determined to cross the Rhine being a free people; they therefore speeda second time. He built a second bridge ily fell into the hands of masters who were a little above the former place, (according worse than Caesar. The first among them to the opinion of some near Neuwied,) but was the emperor Augustus, whose reign DRUSUS 51 lasted from the year 30 B. c. to the year They now annoyed the enemy at every 14 A. D. step he took; attacked solitary troops, During this time the Romans had sub- rushing upon them suddenly from the forjected a greater portion of the then known ests, in the most dangerous places, destroy. earth. Of Europe, besides Italy, Greece ed the wearied stragglers, seized upon and Macedonia, Hispania, and Gaul were their baggage, and allowed them no rest also subject to them; with that they were either by night or day; and thus the Ronot however satisfied, but coveted other mans never returned to the Rhine without countries which lay beyond the Alps and considerable loss. the Rhine; for the ambition and avarice The rapid and extensive incursions of of the Romans knew no limits, and no Drusus into Germany gave him, therefore, doubt it appeared very desirable to them to great fame among the Romans, but did gain dominion over the powerful men of little harm to the Germans. In the autumn, the German race, according to their own winter, and spring, they dwelt quietly in will, and to form the flower of their armies the places which the enemy had again from their ranks, and by their aid to hold quitted. But Drusus would certainly have the rest of the world in obedience. They found at last the means of establishing his at first attacked those tribes which dwelt dominion in Lower Germany had he lived upon the sides of the Alps towards Ger- longer. He had made one commencement many, in the mountains of Graubunden, towards it already. He built strong forts the Tyrol, Saltzburg, and Austria: wild at the mouths of the rivers which flowed tribes, partly of Gallic and partly of un- into the Rhine and the North Sea, that he known origin, who could not resist the su- might retain in his power all their naviga. periority of the Romans, and who were tion; thus being enabled to convey into not only conquered, but exterminated or the country a portion of his army with sold as slaves. This contest was concluded greater security upon a fleet of small vesin the year 15 B. c. Henceforward the sels, and to transport their provisions conriver Danube was on this side the boundary veniently after. For this purpose he also between the Romans and the Germans. commenced acanal, which was called after From the other side, however, the river him the Drusu's ditch, (and is still called Rhine was no longer to remain so, and the Drusus Vaart,) and united the Rhine Augustus, therefore, sent his step-son, between Doesberg and Isselort with the Claudius Drusus, to Gaul, to attack the Issel. By means of this canal the Rhine Germans in their own country, and he was was brought into connection with the Zuider certainly a hero competent to accomplish Zee, the Flevum ostium of the ancients, and what was great. the Romans henceforth, by means of this Diusus undertook four campaigns in outlet, were enabled to have communicaGermany, in the years 12-9 B. c. He tion with the North Sea from all their holds warred with the Suevi, Chatti, Sigambri, upon the Rhine. -Drusus himself took this Usipeti, Tenchteri, Brukteri, and Cherus- mode of uniting himself with the Friesi, ci. He passed on from the Lower Rhine and of reaching the mouth of the Ems by to the rivers Lippe and Ems, as far as the sea, and where he likewise built a fort, Weser, and in his fourth incursion ad- probably opposite to the present Emden. vanced even to the Elbe. But his irrup- On the Rhine he built as many as fifty of tions were no conquests. The Germans these forts, strongly fortified, especially well understood how to conduct war Bonn and Mentz, the last upon the borderagainst such an enemy. They retreated limits against the Suevi, and provided them from their isolated dwellings into the for- with bridges and flotillas for their defence; ests on both sides of the road he took, de- and upon the Taunus mountains, on the stroyed the supplies they could not take heights near the present Homburg, he built with them, placed their families in safety, the fort Arctaunum, intended against the and stayed there until the autumn. The Chatti. Had he, therefore, from year to Romans were then obliged once again to year advanced more and more with such return, as they could not winter in the fortresses into Germany, and so at last desert country, from the deficiency of pro- prevented his being obliged to quit the visions; and that was the moment the land again in autumn, the dominion of Germans had awaited with impatience. the Romans, together with the adoption of 52 TIBERIUS. theirlanguage and mannersmight, perhaps, haps in the vicinity of Barby.) It was have maintained a firm ground in Germany. while one day he was here standing alone But his course was already stopped in the on the banks of the Elbe, which in his fourth year of his impellent irruptions. mind was not yet to be the limits of his We will here give a brief sketch of progress, that, as it is related, a supernatu. these incursions. The first he made was ral figure in the form of a female appeared after his legate had revenged himself upon before him, and with a lofty, threatening the Sigambri for the defeat of Lollius, with air, addressed him thus: " How much furhis fleet down the Rhine, through his canal ther wilt thou advance, insatiable Drusus? and the Zuider Zee into the Northern Sea, It is not appointed for thee to behold all entering the mouth of the Ems. The these countries. Depart hence! the term Friesi were allies; however, the Brukteri of thy deeds and of thy life is at hand!" had collected a fleet in the Ems and op- Whether this was the creation of his posed him, but they were beaten. Here imagination, or was devised by the craft Drusus built his fort at the mouth of the of one of the prophetic women among the river, and then continued his course along Germans, inwardly bemoaning the fate of the Oldenburg coast, as far as the afflux her country, is uncertain;-suffice it, that of the Yade, where his ships got stranded, Drusus, on his return, fell from his horse, but by the aid of the Friesi and the flood and died a few weeks afterwards in conwere set afloat again. The winter, how- sequence. ever, obliged him to return. After him his brother Tiberius comIn the second campaign Drusus gained manded the legions which were opposed to the shore across the Lippe, as far as the the Germans. He was of an artful and Weser, in the vicinity of Hixter; but a deceptive disposition; and besides arms, he revolt of the tribes in his rear forced him employed other and worse means against to make a retreat, when he found himself them. By craft he caused disputes among suddenly surrounded near Arbalo by the the tribes, and by want of faith he led them Germans. Their too great confidence in into ruin. The Sigambri, who were one gaining a victory, which misled them to of the strongest and most valiant tribes make an irregular attack, as well as their upon the Rhine, he could not conquer with thirst for booty, were the means of his res- arms. He, therefore, demanded an emcue. He built here, at the junction of the bassy from them to him for the sake of Aliso and Lippe, the fort or castle Aliso,* peace, as he said; and as the princes and in order to have a point d'appui for his in- leaders came in great numbers, he caused cursions against the tribes on the Weser. them to be taken prisoners and dispersed The third campaign he made was against among the Gallic cities, transplanting also the Chatti, who, previously peaceable, had of the tribe, which was thus robbed of its now united with the Sigambri against him, chieftains, 40,000 towards the estuaries of because he had built opposite to them the the Rhine and the Issel.* The princes, fort upon the Taunus mountains; they however, to whom life among a strange were beaten but not subdued. people was an insupportable burden, and In the fourth campaign Drusus advanced who would not that on their account their from the fort on the Taunus mountains into people should be withheld from a retributhe land of the Chatti, beat them, as well tive war against the Romans, killed them. as the Marcomanni under Marbodius, and selves. forced the latter to retreat further east- By such means, indeed, it was not diffi. ward. These attacked the Bojians and cult to hold in trammels those districts forced them to yield. Thus did Drusus which bordered on the Rhine, or on the himself assist in causing the Germans to rivers which flowed into it; and by the aid completely drive before them the Gallic of the strong forts placed there, and of the tribes, and to extend their own settlements. frontier walls or land defences, (limites,) Upon this Drusus turned again to the left which enclosed the occupied country, the against the Cherusci, marched on across northwestern portion of Germany, as far the mountains to the Saale, and along this This transplantation of the Sigambri, by which river downward as far as the Elbe, (per- Tiberius thought to exterminate the tribe, only produced their salvation; for from these new settlements * Respecting the locality of Arbalo and Aliso, see arose afterwards the Issel-Franks, who laid the foundathe Introduction tion for the greatness of the kingdom of the Franks. MARBODIUS, KING OF THE MARCOMANNI 53 nearly as the Weser, appeared even al- sion of their country, they determined to ready subdued, and, as it were, a Roman employ for its redemption. province. Domitius JEnobarbus, the grand- Marbodius, a noble Suevian of the fronfather of the subsequent emperor Nero, tier tribe of the Marcomanni, was a youth who held the command in the years imme- of this stamp. The Romans describe him diately preceding the birth of Christ, pressed as tall and stately, self-willed in disposiforward, even across the Elbe. No one tion, and more by birth than intellect a hitherto had been so far. He also built a barbarian, which name they in their pride road between the Rhine and the Ems, call- gave to all who were not Romans or ed pontes longi, namely dikes and morass Greeks. He had been sent young to bridges, which led from vetera castra, near Rome, and at the court of the Emperor Wesel, onward to the vicinity of the Ems, Augustus he was particularly honored. over moors and marshes. When, however, he had seen sufficient of When Tiberius came a second time to Rome, he returned to his own country, and Germany, about the year 3 A. D., he com- as he saw that they could not, in their pletely subdued a recent rebellion among present settlements upon the Necker and the Lower German tribes, embarked upon the Rhine, well maintain themselves against the ocean, and sailing as far as the mouth the great power of the Romans, which of the Elbe, fought with the Longobardi, threatened them after the conquest of the and took up his winter-quarters among the Alps from the side of the Danube, and, quieted tribes near the sources of the Lippe, since the almost completed subjection of probably near the fort Aliso. Henceforth the north of Germany, menaced them also this place was the point whence the Ro- from the Maine, he persuaded his people mans directed all their undertakings against to quit their districts, and to withdraw to the middle of Germany, upon the frontiers other settlements towards the east. The of which they had now arrived; and with Marcomanni, who, by their warlike con. the nearest tribe therein, the Cherusci, they stitution, were speedily ready and resolved had just formed an alliance under the name for any movement, broke up, and Marboof friendship and confederation; which kind dius led them to Bohemia, a country well of union had, more safely than the force of defended on all sides by mountains; they arms, led to the subjection of the tribes. drove hence the Gallic tribe of the Boji, The internal organization of this province which had for generations past wandered appeared to be a task possible now to be thither, subjected many tribes around, and put into operation. But under this great founded a great, well-regulated Marcooppression of their country, the courage mannic kingdom. His capital was Buof the Germans did not sleep; for, the bienum, called also Marobudum, according same as in all times, although it was pos- to some the present Prague, according to sible to bend their proud spirit, still it had others Budweis. The Hermunduri, Longonever yet been broken. The sources of bardi, and Senoni, the flower of the Suevi, their aid sprung from among themselves. became dependent, and thus his power exA multitude of noble German youths tended from the Danube across the centre had by a variety of events arrived at of Germany to the Elbe. Henceforward Rome; some in the Roman service, others he addressed the Roman emperors not as deputies, or as hostages; some again humbly, as one subordinate and weak, but perhaps from ambition. But in the me- as their equal. tropolis of the world they beheld neither He had thus far conducted his affairs greatness nor freedom, on the contrary, laudably, and he might now have become, only slavery, which carries with it these as it were, a frontier defence for the freesins:-meanness by the side of arrogance, dom of the whole of Germany; but it alflattery, dissipation, enervation, and idle- most appears as if he had learned too much ness. To be ruled by such masters as the in Rome. He had acquired the love of Romans then were, seemed to them the dominion also from the Roman emperors, most disgraceful of all things. At the and had at the same time perceived the same time, however, they became ac- art whereby the exercise of power over quainted with Roman military affairs, their men otherwise free born, may be confirmed. art of government, and their craft; and He maintained a body-guard, introduced what the former had applied to the oppres- all other Roman regulations, and hitherto 54 THE ROMANS IN GERMANY. no single individual had ever practised so A. D.-Further Wars between the Germans and Romans-War with the Marcomanni 167-180-The much authority among the German tribes. Germanic Confederations-The Alemanni-The His army consisted of 70,000 infantry and Franks-The Saxon Confederation-The Goth — The Decline of the Roman Empire 4000 cavalry, and he kept it in constant practice by his continual wars with his THE campaigns and forts of Drusus, neighbors, so that it could be well seen and the crafty, cunningly-devised arts of that he was preparing it for still greater Tiberius, had effected so much in Lower purposes. This, however, constituted the Germany, as we have above seen, that as condemnable and distinctive feature in his far as the Weser, no armed tribe any character, whence, in truth, he cannot be longer openly opposed the Romans. All called a great man; inasmuch as all this was bowed down, the unions of the tribes was accomplished, not for the freedom and were sundered, and the minds of many of happiness of his people, but solely for the leading men had been poisoned by the himself, and in order that he might alone seductions of the Romans. They already be called great and powerful, and become began to appear a different race of men; honored and feared. habit and intercourse with the strangers He had already appeared so dangerous commenced already to obliterate their nato the Romans, that Tiberius, the son of tional manners. Markets sprang up and the emperor, in the year 7 A. D., advanced were established around the Roman camps, against him with a large army. He in- and enticed the Germans to purchase and tended to attack him from two sides with barter. Even the earth and heavens, twenty-two legions, and he was already in says a Roman writer, appeared to be more full march, when intelligence reached him gentle and mild, for theforests had become that a great rebellion had broken out in penetrated and passable, and bridges and Hungary, Dalmatia, and Illyria, and that dikes were built across the morasses. all the tribes from the Adriatic to the Three complete legions, the best of the Ro. Black Sea, who dwelt upon the Danube man army, kept guard in the numerous and among the mountains, had conspired forts and camps, and in the midst of our against the Romans, and had collected an lofty forests of oak, a Roman Prwetorship army of 200,000 infantry and 9000 caval- was established, together with Roman laws, ry, with which they were determined to legal institutions, and appointed functiona. invade Italy. Fright and terror seized ries. The Roman governor, Sentius Saturupon all in Rome, and the Emperor Au- ninus, who was in Germany in the year 5 gustus exclaimed in the senate, "Ten or 6 A. D., contributed much to these days hence the enemy may be within sight changes; he was a man who united old of Rome!" Roman honesty with affability. He took Tiberius immediately concluded a peace pleasure in feats and enjoyments, and imwith Marbodius, which was favorable to parted to the Germans a greater love for the latter, and hastened with his whole the refined mode of life among the Roarmy against the Pannonian tribes; and, mans. Quintilius Varus succeeded him after three years of the most obdurate war, in the autumn of the year 6; a man of a he succeeded in diverting the great danger, weak mind, who was more adapted for the and brought these tribes again under the occupations of peace than of war, and bedominion of his father. The latter re- sides which, was addicted to avarice. For joiced, however, but little in this good it was said of him, that he entered the rich fortune; for, on another side of his em- province of Syria, where he had just been pire, the Germans had caused him the governor, a poor man; but when he quitted greatest loss, and had involved him in it, he himself had become rich and left the calamities the most serious he had ever province itself poor. The Germans, to experienced during his whole life. this weak-minded man, appeared thoroughly subjected, because they were tranquil, — c~ —-and he endeavored to fix slavery among them by those gentle but effective means, C H A P T E R II. which are more pernicious and destructive 7-374. than the power of the sword, because they Arminius, or Hermann-ArminiusandVarus-Armi- assume an innocent garb. He sat in niti and (ermanicus-The death of Arminius, 21 judgment upon the Germans, as among VARUS AND ARMINIUS. 55 Romans; decided upon the freedom and bring up to maturity the saviour of German property of Germans, and the Roman freedom. This was Arminius, (whom we lawyers, instead of the straightforward are accustomed to call Hermann,) the son and simple German custom, sought to in. of Segimer, prince of the Cherusci; a youth troduce the subtle and perplexing arts of of valiant heart and arm, of a clear, quick Roman jurisprudence. If it be desired to mind, whose eyes proclaimed the fire of his fix within the heart of a nation, a secretly soul. By distinguished military service he devouring and destructive worm, which had acquired the right and dignity ofa Roshall gradually reduce it to that state of man citizen and knight, and had returned degradation that it becomes careless to all to his country well instructed and practised magnanimous ideas, the love of country in all the arts of war and peace. He here and compatriots-substituting instead, the perceived the disgrace and ruin which was more debasing, petty, selfish considerations being prepared for his native country; and -it is only necessary to imbue it with a his mind pondered upon the great means love of law and disputation, that all may of remedy. He speedily discovered a simibecome embittered against each other, and lar feeling to reign among the noblest of that every one shall know nothing greater the Cherusci and the neighboring tribes; than his own advantage. And as all ju- his inflaming word inspired their courage; dicial proceedings were conducted in the they prepared the grand blow of deliverRoman language, it was likewise intended ance, and in order to destroy the Romans thus to introduce and establish that tongue the more securely, they enticed Varus by among the Germans. For, in order to a planned rebellion to the frontiers-as it thoroughly annihilate the idiocracy, free- is related by the Roman writers-still fardom, and independent feelings of a people, ther away from the Rhine, into the depths and to mould it into an entirely new form, of the Teutoburger forest, which flanked it is only necessary to deprive it likewise the districts towards the Weser. of its peculiar hereditary possession-its Varus, however, might still have escaped mother tongue. his fate, through treachery: the traitor beVarus, however, had much miscalculated ing found among the Germans themselves, when he supposed the rude Germans were in the person of Segestes, a prince of the insensible to these cunning arts. The un- Cherusci, who was an enemy to Segimer; derstanding of uncultivated nations is keen- while he was envious also of Arminius's ly alive to those who wish to enclose them great reputation, and jealous because this within nets, and the Germans were supplied much younger man, by the powers of his by nature with a healthy mind and good mind and his heroic virtues, attracted the discernment. They quickly perceived the eyes of all the tribes upon him. Even the source and central point of ruin, and they day before the breaking out of the conspiwere beyond all things filled with inward racy, when Varus had collected the princes rage at the view of the lictors' rods or fasces at a banquet, Segestes entreated him most of the Roman governor, which were the earnestly to take Arminius prisoner on the attributes of his power of awarding corpo- spot; but a blind confidence in his own real punishment, or even death itself. No- power, concealed from the governor the thing was more degrading to the free Ger- abyss that yawned beneath his feet. He man than corporeal punishment, the dis- advanced still deeper into the forest which grace of the most abject slavery; and the covered the country of the Weser, and the power of punishing with death, they did not princes quitted him with the promise of imeven allow to their own princes, but con- mediately joining him with their auxiliary ceded it to the divinity alone, who pro- troops. They came-their plan being well claimed the sentence through the voice of and happily laid-and in the midst of the his priests. Teutoburger forest, (in the present princi. Their wrath, however, durst not give it- pality of Lippe-Detmol,) where there are self utterance, but it remained long con-' on all sides mountains and narrow valleys, cealed in the breasts of individuals, for they met him. Nowhere around was a there was no one near, who with a bold beaten path visible, nothing but a thickly mind could collect and fan the glimmering grown and impenetrable wood. Trees sparks into a broad flame. But it was were obliged to be hewn, pits and morasses Rome itself that was chosen to nurture and filled up, and bridges built. It was in the 56 VARUS AND ARMINIUS. stormy autumn season-the month of Sep- seemed to oppose them, and there was no tember; heavy rains had made the ground hope of salvation, the courage of the bravest slippery and every step unsafe, while the sank. Varus, seeing now that all was tempest roared at the summits of the oaks, lost, and having already received several whence the tutelary deities of the country wounds, cast himself upon his sword; maseemed wrathfully to threaten. Warriors, ny of the leaders followed his example, beasts of burden, loaded with baggage and while the whole army was either made munition, all passed heedlessly on, as in prisoners or killed, very few escaping. perfect security. This last battle took place, according to Amidst these terrors of nature, appear. the most recent researches, very probably ed suddenly, on all sides, occupying the between the present Horn and Lippe spring, heights, the Germans as foes, hurling forth on the southern borders of the Lippe.* their destructive weapons against the com- Thus was annihilated the finest and most pressed masses of Romans. These could valiant of all the Roman armies, with the but little defend themselves in their heavy auxiliaries, 40,000 men strong. This was armor, upon a slippery ground, and with the hour of the heavy retaliation that was arms which were spoiled for use by the con- to be expected upon some such day, from tinued rain. They, however, continued the fury of a severely oppressed, freedomtheir course under continual attacks, and loving, but still savage people. Many of arrived in the evening at a spot where a the most distinguished prisoners bled as camp might be constructed. Fatigued as sacrifices upon the altars of the native diall were, they nevertheless exerted their vinities, others, who retained their lives, utmost powers to raise defences which were used for the most degrading services; should keep the enemy off, in order to pro. and as the Romans themselves inform us, vide themselves with at least one quiet several of their distinguished countrymen, night, were it even to be their last. Thus to whom at home the gates of entrance into they awaited the dawn of day between hope the senate were open, concluded their miand fear. In the morning every thing un- serable lives as the herdsmen of German necessary was burnt; the soldiers were flocks, or as the keepers or porters of Gerthereby made lighter for battle, and the man gates. It is also related, how embit. baggage was also diminished; this, toge- tered the Germans showed themselves tother with the women and children, of whom wards the Roman judicial functionaries, there was a great number with the expedi- with the feeling, as it were, that it was by tion, (as no war had been anticipated,) they their arts that the greatest danger was preplaced in their centre, and commenced their pared against freedom and independence; retreat, probably in the direction of their and further, that a German tore out the fort Aliso. Their fate seemed to brighten; tongue of one of these functionaries with they came to a more open space, where the caustic words, "Now cease hissing, they could muster and regulate their ranks, adder!" Such is the account of the great and where the Germans did not venture to German battle of freedom, according to the attack them; but this was to be no resting- relation of our enemies themselves. In place for them, they were to resume their what a different light should we not behold march forward, and the terrific forest once it, had we the testimony thereupon of even more received them. The enemy renewed one German historian! and increased his attacks; the tempest still But the opinion of all is unanimous and continued, at which the Germans exclaimed fixed, and it is confirmed by the confession of as they pursued the Romans: " Behold this the Romans themselves, that our fatherland is done by our God, who will this day re- owes its freedom to this great victory in the venge our wrongs upon our enemies." Teutoburger forest, and we, the descendMany of the most valiant Romans sank ants of those races, are indebted to it for the beneath their wrathful, and unceasingly unmixed German blood which flows in our emboldened attacks. veins, and for the pure German sounds proIn this desperate position night appeared nounced by our tongue. But in Rome a second time, and they again endeavored there was universal alarm and mourning; to construct defences. But the attacking enemy, with his cries of victory, left them The three days of battle have been calculated by enemy*, withe his crie of victory, lef t them M. Schmidt, not without ingenuity, to have taken no time, and then, when heaven and earth place about the 9th, loth, and 11th of September. ARMINIUS AND GERMANICUS. 5'7 while the Germans were full of rejoicing, so much craft and valor resist those better and, storming the forts on this side of the chiefs who advanced with large armies, Rhine,* cleared the whole country of the that although he was not always victorious Romans. The Emperor Augustus was in his battles, he obliged his opponent, at beside himself; in his fury he struck the end of every campaign, to withdraw his head against the wall, and constantly to his fortresses on the Rhine. And thus, exclaimed: " Oh, Varus, Varus, restore on these occasions, he did not less for the me my legions!" For some months he freedom of his fatherland than he had preallowed his beard and hair to grow, the viously done in the annihilation of the leguards of the city were doubled, and that\ gions of Varus. no riot might occur, the Germans were Germanicus made his first campaign in dispatched from Rome, and even the Ger- the year 14 A. D., with 12,000 Romans man body-guard was conveyed across the and a multitude of allies from the Rhine, sea into the islands. At last Augustus where Biderich and Wesel now lie, vowed great festivals to his god Jupiter, through the Caesarean forest in the vicini" should his empire attain a more flourish- ty of the Marsi, and fell craftily from seving state."-Thus did it happen in the eral sides upon the unprepared enemy, Cimbrian war. (who, thinking themselves in the midst of In order to meet the more extensive in- peace, were at the time celebrating a great cursions of the Germans which were now festival,) and destroyed the country for expected as certain, consequent upon this fifty miles around with fire and sword. No victory, Tiberius was hastily dispatched to age, no sex was spared, and a widely the Rhine with a rapidly collected army; celebrated temple-that of Taufana-(acto his astonishment, however, he found cording to some, in Tecklenburg, accordevery thing quiet. The Germans did not ing to others, in the neighborhood of the desire conquest, they wished only to protect present Munster)-was destroyed. He their freedom, and according to the very did not press farther into Lower Germany, nature of their alliance, after the danger for now the Brukteri, the Tubanti, and was removed each returned to his home. Usipeti, speedily collected themselves to Tiberius held the vacillating Gaul in obe- revenge the misfortune of their friends. dience, and passed again across the Rhine, The retreat of the Romans was not unacbut without proceeding very far into the companied by difficulties. It was only by country; and as in a few years afterwards prudence and strict order that Germanicus he succeeded Augustus in the empire, he led his legions successfully back across transferred to his nephew, Germanicus, the the Rhine. son of Drusus, the management of the war In the following year, after he had first against the Germans. attacked the Chatti, who had joined the Germanicus, a young and ardent hero, confederation of the tribes under Arminhad before his mind the great example of ius, he rescued Segestes, who was hated his father, and he resolved to revenge the by his own tribe, and who applied to him defeat of Varus. He undertook three for assistance and rescue from the hands grand campaigns in Lower Germany, in of his opponents. The feud between the the same districts where war had previous- two hostile houses had again broke out. ly raged on the Lippe, and from the sea Arminius, who loved Thusnelda, third up the Ems towards the Weser and the daughter of Segestes, and whom the father Elbe. Germany was now again menaced refused to give to him in marriage, had with fresh danger, for Germanicus was a eloped with, and made her his wife. Her warrior worthy of the best ages of Rome. father, however, recaptured her, and But equally as Arminius had obtained vic- brought her back to his castle. Here he tory over bad leaders, so did he now with was besieged by Arminius, in order to recover his wife; but Germanicus meantime h Aliso held out the longest. It was so strong, that delivered Segestes, and upon this occasion the Germans, being without a knowledge of the art of he took prisoner Arminius's consort, Thusbesieging and the necessary instruments, could not nelda, and conducted her to Rome But conquer it by force. They had, therefore, recourse to Rome. But famine; but the Roman garrison managed, in an un- she never forgot her husband or her high watched moment, by a ruse de guerre, to slip out, and, rank, and in her sentiments she fortunately although with loss, they nevertheless succeeded inrank, and in er sentiments she ortunately reaching the Rhine. more resembled him than her father. Se. 8 58 ARMINIUS AND GERMANICUS. gestes, on the contrary, who had now found dom, rather than obey Segestes, who will a protector, addressed the Romans in the only conduct you to disgrace and slave. same sense as at all times is usual from ry!" such as have betrayed their country: By such fiery language he excited and " This is not the first day of my fidelity collected together the Cherusci and allied and constancy towards the Roman peo- tribes, and at their head appeared at his pie!" he exclaimed. "Since I was made side his uncle, Inguiomar, as the Romans a Roman citizen by the divine Augustus, call him, who stood in great respect and I have, in the selection of my friends and esteem among the people. enemies, had solely your advantage in Germanicus had already retired with view; not from hatred towards my coun- his legions to the Rhine: upon receiving try-for traitors are hateful to those to intelligence, however, of this fresh and whom they twin-but from the conviction great rising of the German tribes, he rethat the same thing is beneficial to both solved upon another expedition that same Romans and Germans, and because I pre- year, so as to prevent them from making fer peace to war, the old order of things to an attack upon the Rhine. In order to the new, and tranquillity to turmoil. And pass more rapidly, and from several sides, now that I am with you, I can become to into the heart of the country of the enemy, the German people a useful advocate, he, according to his father's example, led should they choose repentance instead of a portion of his army by sea to the estuaruin." ry of the Ems; two other divisions, under Thus spoke Segestes. Augustus prom- Cecina and Pedo, advanced from the ised him protection, and selected a dwell- Rhine through the interior of the country, ing for him on the Rhine. Arminius, and thus the infantry, cavalry, and the however, felt the most violent rage and in- flotilla met together in Westphalia. Undignation, and above all, it pained him fortunately the Romans were not without most deeply to think, that the child with German auxiliaries; they had Batavian which his consort was pregnant, must first cavalry with them-and besides these, behold the light of day in slavery among troops from the Tyrol and Salzburg, as the Romans. Acting upon these feelings, also from the left bank of the Rhine. he forthwith traversed the land of the The country that lay between the Ems Cherusci, summoning them all to the war and the Lippe was devastated; the Brukagainst Segestes, and against the Romans. teri destroyed their own country themHis words are rife with the most bitter en- selves, that a waste might lie before the ergy: "The noble father! the great lead- Romans; but the latter pressed onward, er! the valiant army!" he exclaimed, recaptured, in their pursuit of the Brukironically, "who all combined together to teri, the eagle of the (19th) legion, which carry off a weak woman! Before me the latter had taken in the battle with Vathree legions, and as many leaders, have rus, and arrived in the neighborhood of fallen; I do not conduct war by treach- the Teutoburger forest, where Varus had ery, and against pregnant women, but been destroyed. Germanicus glowed with openly against the armed; and in our the desire to show the last honor to the German groves are now to be seen the fallen leader and his army. He sent Roman banners which I have there conse- Cecina forward to inspect the mountains crated to our native divinities. Let Se- and passes, and to lay bridges and dams gestes continue to dwell upon the subjected over the deceptive morasses; and then he banks of the Rhine. Let him there obtain himself advanced and marched over the the priestly dignity for his son; but let melancholy scene, ghastly and terrific in him know that the Germans will never its appearance as well as in its associaforgive him, or forget that they have seen, tions. The vestiges of the first camp of between the Rhine and the Elbe, the Ro- Varus might still be recognised by the man fasces and the Roman toga. If, larger circuit of ground, capable of contherefore, my countrymen, your fatherland taining three complete legions; the second and families, and our ancient German encampment was smaller, the wall half manners, are dearer to you than alien ru- demolished, and the trench filled up and lers and their followers, then join Armin- level. It was perceptible that the last ius, who will lead you to glory and free- remnant of the army had encamped itself GERMANICUS AND ARMINIUS. 59 there, until they were at length overpow- bridges had become so ruined with age, ered. In the middle of the plain heaps of that it was found necessary to repair them, whitening bones, the remains of the van- while at the same time a camp was formquished army, lay strewed around, and ed, and efforts made to keep the enemy off. beside them were scattered about the frag- Many of the Romans sank into the morass, ments of lances, the bones of horses, and for the Cherusci, who knew the locality even heads transfixed to the trunks of well, drove them to the most dangerous trees. In the neighboring groves the al- parts, and as these people were accustomed tars still remained, upon which the com- to fight among bogs, they, by their great manders and most distinguished leaders length of body, and their monstrous javehad been sacrificed to the gods. And lins which they knew well how to cast some few, who, having survived the battle from a distance, brought the Romans into and escaped from slavery, had joined the great difficulties. Night alone saved the present army, pointed out, here a spot already wavering legions from the ruinous where a leader fell, there where an eagle battle. But the Germans even then inwas seized, yonder where Varus received dulged in no repose, for they guided the his first wound, and finally, where, further courses of the springs which rose among on, he gave himself his death blow. those hills, direct upon the Romans enThe Roman army then, in the sixth camped below. year after this defeat, buried the bones of This was the 40th year that Caecina had the three legions without any one of them either served or commanded as a Roman knowing whether he covered with earth warrior; to him the chances of war were the remains of his friend or enemy; the well known, and his mind, therefore, concommander himself planting the first turf tinued unalarmed in all situations. He upon the mound. The army now advanced accordingly gave his orders, and with with increased fury against the enemy. presence of mind commanded what was Arminius had well understood his own ad- most expedient in this necessity. The vantage, and retired into the forests and night was in a variety of ways most tumorasses; and when the Romans incau- multuous. The Germans with their retiously followed him, he broke forth, re- joicings and shouts made the very valleys pulsed the cavalry, and drove them back below resound, so that even the ravines reupon the infantry. But when Germanicus echoed with them; among the Romans advanced with the disciplined legions, he there were only to be seen isolated small retired, and the contest remained undecid- fires, and here and there was heard an ed. The results, however, were neverthe- abrupt voice, they themselves lying disless those of a victory; the Romans com- persed along the walls, or gliding about the menced their retreat: Ccecina, one of the tents, more because they were sleepless, before mentioned leaders, serving under than that they were watchful. Caecina Germanicus, proceeded with four legions himself was alarmed by a bad dream. He across the country towards the Rhine; thought he saw Varus rise, spotted with Vitellius, another leader, marched with blood, from the morass, and beckon to him; two legions towards the shores of the sea; but the Roman did not follow him, and and Germnanicus himself, with the third when the former extended his hand to. body, embarked upon the ships. wards him he struck it back. The road taken by Ccecina was that of At break of day the march was continuthe formerly noticed pontes longi, or long ed as Ccecina had arranged it, so that he bridges, a narrow dam road which ran was covered by two legions on each side. across immense morasses. All around They, however, quitted their position upon were gently rising wooded heights;* these the Germans attacking them with renewed heights Arminius now occupied, whence fury, led by Arminius, who called out to he courageously attacked the Romans, and them, " Here, Varus! here are the legions but little was wanting for Coecina to suffer already conquered by a like fate!" The the same fate as Varus. The dams and battle was severe and animated. Coecina himself fell with his wounded horse, and * Probably the forest heights of Mons Casius, the must have been destroyed had not the first so-called Baumberge, between Horstmar, Schapdetten, legion thrown themselves before him. The and Caesfeld, where the sources of the Aa, Stewer, t n eles eoe Berckel, and several rivulets are found. baggage and munition fell into the hands 60 GERMANICUS AND ARMINIUS. of the enemy, and tne loss of these was the banks of the Lippe, as far as Aliso, to raise salvation of the Romans, for they enticed the siege of this fort, which had been rethe booty-loving Germans from slaughter taken from the Germans and repaired, and to pillage, and the legions thus at last ar- which they were now again besieging. It rived on the open plain, where they en- succeeded, for the enemy dispersed on his camped.* Their condition was neverthe- approach, and he strengthened the highless deplorable, and the soldiers already way between Aliso and the Rhine with began to complain aloud, that only one new defences and dams. But as the chief day was now left for so many thousands to attack was to be made from a different side, live; and so great was their terror, that, he marched back again to the Rhine, and when a horse which had escaped, ran to- thence embarked his whole army of not wards a few soldiers standing in its way, less than 90,000 men, and passing through they all thought the Germans had now the fossa Drusiana into the North Sea, broken into the camp, and they fled towards landed at the mouth of the Ems. The its back gates. Ccecina, to bring them to Chauci were obliged to supply an auxiliary a stand, used entreaties, commands, and army, and the Angrivari were forced into threats of punishment, but in vain; and as subjection on the Lower Weser. The Roa last resource, he cast himself down across man army advanced as far as the present the gate, so that the fugitives could pass Minden. Arminius, at the head of the Cheonly over his body, and this desperate state rusci confederation, opposed it, and a battle of their old and honored leader, brought ensued at Idistavisus, on the Weser, (probthem at once to their senses and stopped ably between Prussian Minden and Vlotho.) their flight. After a long and warm contest, the GerIn the mean time the Germans had sur- mans were obliged to yield the field to the rounded the camp. Arminius, who knew Romans, after the latter had gained the hills the firmness of a Roman encampment, which commanded the plain. But the would not venture to storm it, but pre- Romans could only attribute their victory ferred conquering the enemy by famine. chiefly to the German auxiliaries who were His uncle, Inguiomar, on the contrary, in- with them, from the North Sea and from the sisted upon a speedy attack, and his advice, Danube; and thus, even at the very combecause it was bolder, pleased the Ger- mencement of our history, it appears that mans better. They stormed the camp ac- Germans aided aliens in the subjection of cordingly, but just in the decisive moment their compatriots. But in those rude ages Coecina caused his troops to sally out, beat this must not be severely censured, for these back the besiegers, and forced them to tribes from the Danube had probably never flight. Arminius left the battle without a heard of the name of the Cherusci. In this wound, but Inguiomar, his uncle, was se. battle Arminius himself was wounded, and verely wounded, and the legions, as many escaped only by the speed of his horse; as were left of them, arrived safely on the and so great was the slaughter, that from Rhine. mid-day to the very depth of night, the For the third campaign, in the 16th work of murder was continued, and the year, A. D., Germanicus made still greater land was covered with bodies and arms to preparations than he had for the former. the extent of fifty thousand feet. A fleet of a thousand vessels, small and The subjected tribes of these districts large, with deep and broad holds, and others had already determined to quit their seat with flat bottoms for landing, was collect- between the Weser and the Elbe, and reed to carry the whole army, without expo- tire beyond the latter river, when they persing it to the dangers previously experi- ceived the trophies, which the Romans had enced by an expedition by land, into the raised after the battle, and inscribed with heart of northern Germany, and if neces- the names of the conquered tribes; the sary, so fitted as to bring them also back sight of this inflamed their wrath more than again. During these preparations Ger- their own wounds and the remembrance manicus made a rapid expedition with six of their fallen friends. The populace, the legions, probably upon the road from the nobles, the young and the old, all seized Wesel towards Lippstadt, on the northern arms, and again advanced against the Romans. A second bloody battle took place m Possibly between Coesfeld and Velen. in a wooded district between the Weser ARMINIUS AND MARBOD1US. 61 and the Steinhuder Lake, which proved haps, have employed his usual ingenuitythat the nations' force was not yet broken; in order to conquer the Germans more by for although the Romans ascribed the vic- stratagem than arms-and have contribtory to themselves, they nevertheless im- uted his share also in this case, to produce a mediately afterwards commenced their re- division between the two German princes. treat, and Germany was saved. Hence- The power ofArminius was now strengthforth the Weser never again saw a Roman ened by the Senoni and Longobardi, who, army. wearied with the system of dominion exThe greatest portion of his warriors, ercised by Marbodius, at once renounced Germanicus led back by water down the him, and joined the Cherusci; but, on the Ems to the North Sea. But a tremendous other hand, Arminius was forced to behold storm overtook his fleet, destroyed a multi- his uncle, Inguiomar, desert his own ranks, tude of his vessels, and dispersed them on and pass over to those of the enemy. Hosthe coasts of Britain. He, himself, was tilities appear to have been commenced by shortly afterwards recalled from the com- Marbodius, inasmuch as he was the first to mand of the armies on the Rhine, by the advance beyond the frontiers; very probemperor Tiberius, who was jealous of his ably in order to overtake and chastise the military fame, and he was sent to Asia, renegade Senoni and Longobardi. A where he was destroyed by poison in the severe and sanguinary battle was fought, bloom of manhood. in which, as Tacitus states, they did not Thus did this truly German hero, Armi- fight in irregular array, but with perfect nius, who was equally great whether in vic- military order and discipline. The result tory or in a doubtful battle, behold his coun- of the action was against Marbodius; he try freed from the danger ofa foreign yoke. was forced to retire back to his country, The rapidity and strength with which he and thereby lost still more the confidence roused himself in misfortune, and instilled of his people; and finally, driven away new courage into his people, produced its by the Gothic prince, Katualda, he fled to salvation. And be it remembered, he had the Romans. The latter granted him a not to contend merely with the rising or pension, perhaps as a reward for having sinking power of the Romans, but while it remained neutral instead of joining Arnistood in its highest perfection and extent. nius; and, eighteen years afterwards, he Such an army as fought against the Ger- concluded his life-the means for prolongman forces in most beautifully regulated ing which had been furnished by Roman military array at Idistavisus, and near the charity-ingloriously at Ravenna. Steinhuder Lake, even the most powerful We have no records of the last years of empires of the earth could not, up to that Arminius, except what Tacitus relates in time, have resisted. a few words, viz.: that he himself having After he knew that the frontiers were become suspected of indulging a desire to secured, he turned against an internal rule despotically, a conspiracy was formed enemy, who had remained indifferent to against him, in which his relatives (possibly the contest for German liberty, and whose Segestes and Inguiomar) participated, and manners, aped from the Romans, together he was murdered in the year 21, in the with his despotism, made him doubly hate- thirty-seventh year of his age, and in the ful to his own tribe, as well as to his neigh- twelfth of his chief command. But we must bors. This was Marbodius, the king of not forget that the Romans had this tale, the Marcomanni. After the battle of the probably, from the assassins of Arminius, Teutoburger Forest, Arminius had sent and, perhaps, from their old friend, Segesthe head of Varus to Marbodius, probably tes, himself; for the whole spirit and tenor as a token of victory, to shame him, be- of his great life testify that he certainly cause he had not taken part in the league desired nothing more for himself than what against Rome; perhaps, also, as an ap- was justly his due. He may, however, peal to his patriotism to break forth, at this have endeavored to have given to the north decisive moment, from his position, so fa- German confederacy-whose chief in war vorable to the Germans, from its being so he was-a permanency and stability likenear and dangerous to the best Roman wise during peace, and thus have drawn provinces. But Marbodius remained inert. the confederation closer together, in order The emperor Tiberius may likewise, per- that a new enemy should not take them 62 CLAUDIUS CIVILIS unprepared; and as his great object in this revolt. Messengers were dispatched to all was misunderstood, his old enemy, Seges- the neighboring tribes, nay, even across tes, and his uncle, who was perhaps en- to Great Britain; and Civilis, without furvious of the great fame of a nephew so ther delay, forthwith attacked and defeated much his junior in years, may have avail- a Roman encampment, and conquered the ed themselves of the general feeling to fleet on the Rhine; but not content with promote his downfall. The testimony of small results, he swore not to cut his beard, the great historian of his enemies, does or the hair of his head, before he had gainespecial honor to the memory of our hero; ed a great and signal victory. He was for, after the short narrative of his death, now joined by the Caninefati, Friesi, and he thus speaks of him: "Arminius was, several tribes of the Saxon race; and as without dispute, the emancipator of Ger- soon as he had conquered the Castra Vetera, many. In battles not always the victor, and had destroyed or made captives several he nevertheless remained in war uncon- legions, the whole body of Germans, dwellquered; and he is still celebrated in the ing on the right bank of the Rhine, rose heroic songs of the Germans. He is un- up and joined him, as well as the Brukteri known in the chronicles of the Greeks, for and other tribes on the left bank; for their they admire themselves alone; neither prophetess, Velleda, a Brukterian virgin of among us Romans does his fame stand high high rank, had predicted that the power of enough, for we elevate and dignify only Rome was now approaching its end. Civilis that which is ancient, and have but too sent her the most valuable portion of the little regard for that which is modern." booty he made; and from her isolated Henceforth, the Romans thought no more tower, in the forest near the Lippe, she of subduing Germany, but applied them- herself directed the war. All the fortresses selves solely to the means of securing their beyond Mentz were taken, Cologne was frontiers from the incursions of the German made to pledge itself to abolish the Rhenish tribes. They therefore continued to add dues, at the decree pronounced by Velleda, to the strength of the banks of the Rhine that the German trade should be open and and the Danube, and kept a considerable free from taxation. Gallic tribes, also, army, consisting of their best legions, as a joined the confederation. The emperor guard upon the borders. The emperor Vespasian, who had, meantime, succeeded Claudius granted to the chief seat of the to the imperial throne, now dispatched Ubi the distinction of a colony of veterans, Cerealis, an experienced and active geneand, subsequently, in honor of his consort ral, to the head-quarters, where, on his arAgrippina, born in that spot, it was called, rival, he at once proceeded to sow dissenColonia Agrippina, (Cologne.) The strong sion, and produce suspicion among the camp upon the Taunus mountains, which army of Civilis against their leader; and the Romans likewise considered as one of the Gauls, in accordance with their usual the most important points in the district of changeable character, withdrew themthe Rhine, was re-established also by Clau- selves; while Civilis, twice defeated, was dius. forced to retreat among the marshes, and In the year 69, another serious revolt wade through the dikes. Numbers deagain broke forth in the Low Rhine, under serted him; Velleda was taken prisoner; Claudius Civilis, a leader of the Batavian and Cerealis, who gained over to him the auxiliary tribes, and of royal birth. Like passions of the majority, partly by mildness, Hannibal, one-eyed, and of independent, partly by cunning, as well as by mysterihaughty spirit, he nourished the greatest ous promises, offered terms of peace. Cihatred towards the Romans, and, under vilis then yielded; the generals met on a Nero, had been dragged in chains to Rome, river, according to the ancient German where he narrowly escaped death. When, custom, and peace was again restored under therefore, now a tribute was demanded the old conditions of furnishing military from the Batavians, although they were service only. Of the subsequent fate of only bound to do military service, Civilis Claudius Civilis, nothing more is known. invited all the chiefs to a festival in the After these fresh trials at superiority of sacred grove, where he communicated to arms, it was but occasionally that any them his plans, and, by his eloquence, emperor essayed to obtain military fame gained over the whole body to join in the against his unconquered neighbors, and THE MARCOMANNIC WAR. 63 these endeavors were generally very un- into his army slaves, gladiators, and others, successful, but in order to conceal the who were previously considered unworthy shame thereof, they were obliged to invent to bear arms. Even a band of robbers a variety of plausible excuses. No one, from Dalmatia were included in the serhowever, had conducted himself more vice; and the emperor, that he might hnd shamelessly and ridiculously than the means to carry on this severe war, sold emperor Domitianus, who reigned between every thing most precious in his treasury, the years 80 and 90. He commenced a together with his pictures, and his gold war with the Chatti, but did not venture to and silver vessels, the sale of which lasted attack them seriously, for he quickly re- two months. tired, leaving his purpose unfinished, and The Marcomanni, nevertheless, pressed in order that he might not return to Rome forward as far as Aquileja, which lies on with disgrace and obloquy, he purchased the frontier of Italy, causing a similar tall and strong-grown slaves in Gaul, panic and confusion in Rome as at the dressed them like Germans, caused their time when the Cimbri crossed the Alps. hair to be dyed yellow and arranged in the Had a weak emperor then governed the German fashion, and then led them as if Roman empire, its fate would probably they had been German captives in triumph have been decided. But Marcus Aurelius into Rome. In the second century after was a wise and valiant man, and saved the birth of Christ, the Romans had to Rome once more from great danger. He endure a very severe war with the Ger- maintained a war for thirteen years against mans which they called the Marcomannic the allied tribes, and had to endure several war, because the Marcomanni were best sanguinary battles, being even obliged to known to them from time immemorial, and maintain a warm skirmish with the Jazygi because their attack, combined with that on the frozen Danube; and although he of the tribes of the Danube, most imme- brought many of the tribes individually to diately threatened Italy. But a yet more peace and thereby weakened the enemy, extensive alliance of the tribes seems to and succeeded in irritating German tribes have taken place, for also on the Rhine, against each other, he, nevertheless, did and even on the coasts of the Baltic, the not survive the end of the war, but died Romans had to endure hard contests. But, from his exertions during the campaign at unfortunately, the accounts which we must Windobona, the present Vienna, in the collect from the later historians, (Jul. Cap- year 180. itolinus, Arl. Spartianus, Dio Cassius, as It now fell upon his son, Commodus, to extracted from Xiphilinus, Amm. Marcel- lead the army against the enemy, and he linus, Orosius and others,) are very imper- made a speech to tlhe soldiers, even over feet. The emperor Marcus Aurelius well the body of his father, of what great things understood the greatness of the danger; he purposed doing, and that the ocean he caused the priests to be collected from alone should set limits to his conquests; all parts, prayers and large sacrifices to be but his heart longed for the pleasures of made, and the oracles questioned respect- Italy and for the sensualities of his meing the issue of the war. It is also related tropolis. This was well known to his by Lucian, that a wise man from Egypt, flatterers and courtiers, and as they themof the name of Alexander, who had ac- selves were weary of the fatigues of the quired great fame, was questi(ned respect- camp, they thus addressed him: "How ing the Marcomannic war. He replied much longer will you exchange Rome for that two lions, well anointed with fragrant the rude banks of the Danube, where nothherbs and spices, should be made to swim ing is to be met with but cold, rain, and across the Danube into the enemy's coun- eternal winter, where not a fruit-bearing try, and that victory would not then fail. tree is to be seen and nothing to be met His advice was followed. The Germans, with to exhilarate life? When will you however, who held these lions to be for- cease to drink the frozen water of the eign dogs, killed them with clubs, and Danube while others indulge in the warm immediately afterwards gained a great wells and baths of Italy?" To such victory over the Romans. speeches Commodus listened eagerly and The war now became so desperate that said, " It is true what you say, and if I the emperor was necessitated to receive preserve my life, I can assuredly more 64 CONFEDERATIONS OF THE TRIBES. effectually weaken the enemy than if I duced four great confederations of the expose it to the dangers of war." Some tribes, which probably arose from small of the tribes were so reduced by his father beginnings, and had existed perhaps for that they willingly concluded a peace with some time, but had only become known him, but from others he purchased it in a and formidable to the Romans in the third disgraceful manner by means of large century after Christ. Their origin will presents, and then he hastened back to probably always remain obscure to us. Rome. So valiantly, however, had these The Roman writers here leave us entirely, tribes fought, that, upon peace being con- or are so scanty and uncertain in their included, the Quadi alone gave back 50,000, dications, that we cannot build upon them; and the Jazygi 100,000 Roman prisoners; and the historians who afterwards arose and all that the Romans had gained by the among the German tribes themselves, were effusion of so much blood was, that things so ignorant of their earlier history, that now remained for a short period tranquil they were only able to produce old tradiupon these frontiers of their empire. tions, and often placed them in the most The proximity of the Romans on the wonderful fashion in connection with the Rhine, the Danube, and the Necker, had narratives of the ancient writers; and thus by degrees effected alterations in the man- they connected the origin of the Gernan ners of the Germans. They had become tribes with the Trojan war, the expeditions acquainted with many new things, both of Alexander the Great, and other specialgood and bad. By means of the former ly celebrated events of the ancient world. they became acquainted with money, and The confederations of the tribes as they many luxuries. The Romans had planted occur in history, and as they are actually the vine on the Rhine, and constructed treated therein, are as follows: roads, cities, manufactories, theatres, fort- 1. The Alamanni, afterwards called the resses, temples, and altars; Roman mer- Alemanni, and Allemanni, between the chants brought their wares to Germany, Danube and the Maine; and subsequently, and fetched thence ambers, feathers,* furs, after they had won back the Roman titheslaves, and the very hair of the Germans, land, also upon the Upper Rhine and for it was now the fashion to wear light Necker. They spread themselves later flaxen wigs, instead of natural hair. Of northward as far as the Lahn. They the cities which the Romans built there were a confederation of Suevic tribes, are many yet remaining, as Salzburg, whose formation perhaps emanated from Ratisbonne, Augsburg, Basle, Strasburg, the Hermunduri, and, according to the Baden, Spires, Worms, Mentz, Treves, opinion, erroneously formed, of some anCologne, Bonn, &c. But in the interior of cients, derived their name from their being Germany, neither the Romans nor their composed of all kinds of men, or manni. habits and manners had found friends, nor But it is perhaps more correct to consider were cities built there according- to the the name Allemanni as a warlike, confedRoman style. erative name, equally as the Marcomanni The most important alteration that took signifies the War-manni on the frontiers, place among the Germans at this period, Germani, the army or Ger-manni in genewas their concentration into several exten- ral; the Allemanni may therefore mean sive confederations of the tribes. The the Manni, who formed the defence for the more ancient example of the Suevi, the whole. They were warlike, wild, and later combination of the Marcomanni and valiant, and gave the Romans no little unCherusci, and perhaps various successful easiness. Dio Cassius first mentions them results in other German districts, chiefly, in the history of the emperor Caracalla; however, the character presented by the accordingly, at the beginning of the third great Roman empire, which, notwithstand- century from this period-particularly ing its great corruption, was yet strong by after they had penetrated the limes, and to. its union: all this, as well as the predomi- wards the end of the third century, after nant power of individual tribes, and per- the death of the emperor Probus, when haps many other unknown causes, pro- they had conquered the tithe-land-they fell upon the effeminate Gauls (who hence* The Romans celebrated the white German goose, forward from terror, called all Germans which they even called by its German name, gans.- t lledman alt at er e mans Plin. Nat. H., x. 27. Allemands,) at another time made incur. CONFEDERATIONS OF THE TRIBES. 65 sions across the Danube, and even across and conquered so many of them, that in the Alps into Italy, and each time returned order to reduce them, he was enabled to home with rich spoil. Northward from transplant many thousands into other porthese dwelt: tions of his empire. He conveyed a body 2. The Franks, on the Lower Rhine, as of the Franks, who had their seat upon the far as the Netherlands and the North Sea; North Sea, more than a thousand miles likewise a confederation collected from into a distant country, to the coasts of the different tribes of the northwest of Ger- Black Sea. He expected the Germans many: the Sigambri, on the Issel, which would here forget their bleak fatherland, appears to have been the chief tribe, (the for here they dwelt in a most beautiful subsequent Salic Franks,) the Chamavi, and warm climate, and in a rich and deAmsibari, Tenchteri, Usipeti, Brukteri, lightful country. They, however, could Chlatti, Cherusci, Tubanti, and others. not banish from their recollection the cold The Friesi and Chauci also joined them shores of the stormy North Sea, but only afterwards. The name of Frank is va- planned how they could return. They riously derived by ancient and modern attacked and took possession of several learned men. The broadest derivation is ships, and in them passed, amidst a thouthat they wished to befrank and free peo- sand dangers and difficulties, through unple, and thence called their confederation. known waters, across the seas of Greece The name of Franks is much more proba- and Africa, and by the coasts of Italy,, bly supposed to be derived from their pe- Spain, and France, towards their home.. culiar weapon, a javelin armed with a They were often obliged to land, and fight barbed hook, which writers call Fran- with the natives for provisions; they even ziska, (perhaps the ancient framea of the conquered the large city of Syracuse in Germans.) History mentions the Franks Sicily, which the Athenians in ancient to us for the first time distinctly about the times had vainly invested for three years;; middle of the third century, as a union of and they at last came through the greati north German tribes. Flavius Vopiscus Ocean into the North Sea, and back toa first names them in the life of the emperor their German coasts. This took place in Aurelian, about 242; after which the the year 280.* emperor Julian and other later writers. 3. The Saxon confederation is named, They were also very strong and bold. together with the Franks, as early as the Their high opinion of themselves is ex- year 288, by Eutropius, and was formed pressed in the introduction to the Salic of the remaining Lower German tribes who~ law, where it states: " The high-famed had not joined the Franks, or had again nation of the Franks, who have God for separated themselves from them. Amm. their judge, are brave in war, profound in Marcellinus next mentions the Saxons as: council, firm in union, noble, manly in the neighbors of the Franks about the form, bold, prompt, firm; such is the na- middle of the fourth century, and after tion, which, small in number, by strength him they are named by many others. The and courage, burst the yoke of the Ro- greatest territorial extension which they mans." They traversed many Roman attained in the course of the following cencountries, particularly Gaul, from one end turies up to the time of Charlemagne, was to the other, whenever they were excited from the Danes, from whom they were by the lust of prey and booty. They separated by the Eider, over Lower Saxeven crossed the Pyrenees into Spain, and ony and the greatest portion of Wes'phalia, conquered the city of Tarragona. The and in addition they occupied the banks of Romans in the third century had so frail the Elbe, Weser, Aller, Seine, Ems, Lippe, a tenure of these countries, that the and Ruhr. The history of this command Franks and other German warlike hordes, of territory by the Saxons is entirely unamong whom are named the Burgundians known to us. If we fix upon the name of and Vandals, had possession of seventy the small tribe of the Saxons which is menconsiderable cities in Gaul. After a long tioned in the second century by Ptolemy period a hero again appeared among the alone, and who places them at the mouth Roman rulers, in the emperor Probus of the Elbe, and towards Holstein, it them (276-282;) he drove the Germans beyond the Rhine, fell upon their country, * Zosimus, i., 71; Eumenius in Panegyr., iv., 18. 9 616 CONFEDERATIONS OF THE TRIBES. becomes probable that these, together with on the one hand the Alemanni, Franks, the Chauci, Brukteri, Cherusci, and Friesi, and Saxons, attacked the country of the (who again detached themselves from the Romans, which lay towards the west, the Franconian league,) the Angrivari, the Goths, on the other, turned their attacks Fosi, and other tribes, formed an alliance towards the south and the east, the Black against the powerful confederation of the Sea and the Danube. Already, in the Franks, and drove these, who previously third century, the Romans had to maintain occupied the greater portion of Westphalia, severe contests with them. The Gothic farther towards the Rhine. king Eniva, crossing the Danube, invaded The Saxons appear subsequently divided Moesia and Thracia, conquered several into three circles: that of the Eastphalians, cities, laid the country waste, and when beyond the Weser, in the country of Han- the emperor Decius advanced to meet him, over and Brunswick; the Westphalians on he gained so great a victory over him at the Ems, and the Lippe in Minster, Osna- Abrutum, that the emperor himself and his brick, &c., as far as the Rhine; and the son remained slain upon the field. From Engerians, in the centre between both, in this battle, in the year 251, the superiority the vicinity of the Weser, continuing per- of the Germans, and the weakness of the haps the name of the Angrivari in an Romans, became more and more evident, abridged form. although several powerful emperors gained The Saxons likewise well understood victories over them. Even the successor navigation, although in the earlier times of Decius, the emperor Gallus, was obliges they possessed but poor ships, formed as to purchase peace with the Goths, by leavthey were principally of twisted branches ing them all the booty, as well as all the and boughs of trees lashed together, and distinguished prisoners, and promising then covered over with hides of oxen and them besides a yearly tribute. At a later bullocks-they were called by the name period they made, in conjunction with the of kiel.* They committed many piracies, Herulians, several bold and dangerous and became first known to the Romans at piratic expeditions, from the northern coasts the end of the third century as pirates on of the Black Sea, as well as beyond it, to the Gallic coasts. We shall find, subse- those of the Mediterranean. Athens, with quently, that they crossed over to England, many monuments of its flourishing period, and there founded new kingdoms. They the vicinity of Troy, and the splendid templaced themselves only during the wars ple of Diana at Ephesus, were overrun by under the leadership of dukes, who after- them, and the latter wholly destroyed. wards immediately withdrew into the ranks The great prince of the Goths, who, of of the nobility. In times of peace they all others, spread their dominion the most legislated by representation, and sent from extensively, was Armanarich, or Hermaneach of the three circles an equal number rich, who lived in the fourth century. He of chosen deputies to their assembly, whose ruled over them for more than two genedecisions were valid for all. Thus the rations, and attained himself the age of a idea of a representative parliament, of hundred and ten years. His empire exwhich the ancient nations knew nothing, tended from the Black Sea and the Danube originated with the Germans. over Moldavia, Wallachia, Hungary, PoBult still more powerful than all these land, and Prussia, to the Baltic. tribes were: The Goths early divided themselves into 4. The Goths. Their name we have two head divisions, which afterwards, after already found on the banks of the Vistula. many changes, appear in the history under Subsequently, however, it is mentioned the titles of the Eastern Goths and the frbm fee:shores of the Black Sea as far as Western Goths. Kings of the race of the the East Sea. They were evidently a Amalians (probably the pure, without union of many mixed nations, as it ap- stain) ruled over the Eastern Goths; and pears, belonging hereditarily to the Gothic the Western Goths were governed by the race, and perhaps founded already at the royal race of the Baltians, (from bait, period of the great war of the Eastern bold.) Among the Eastern Goths, the tribes against Mark Aurelius. And while Greuthungi, and among the Western * Kiel, a Danish port, still bears this sign in its city Goths, the Thervingi, were the chief tribes. arms. The Goths belonged to the noblest and DECLINE OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE. 67 most civilized German tribes, and had peror was destroyed every moment, but adopted Christianity at a very early pe- the murderers slew all his adherents with riod. Their bishop, Ulphilas, or Wulfila, him; so that blood was shed in streams, (Wolflein,) as early as the fourth century, and the majority, in their selfishness, took undertook the truly wonderful task of especial care not to adhere too faithfully translating the Bible* into their language, to their princes to the last. In such times, until then but little cultivated; and thus the Romans necessarily became a corrupt. was speedily diffused among them, togeth- ed, reckless, and contemptible people, who er with the belief in the Saviour of the only cared to pass their days in idleness, world, both gentler feelings and manners. luxury, and sensuality. For when man Besides these confederations, there were beholds before him no security for the fuother isolated tribes in Germany, particu- ture, and knows not if the fruits of his inlarly two, who will speedily appear among dustry will descend to his children, he then the rest, as distinguished for power and only considers how he himself shall enjoy dignity, viz., the Burgundi, earlier on the the present moment; and thus, in his senVistula, and the Longobardi, on the Elbe. sual voracity and brutality, he places himAt the period that the German tribes self upon a level with the irrational beasts, flourished in their prime, and collected and no longer thinking of a. future judgment combined their power in large unions, the and a retribution. Roman empire, in its declining strength, It is true that the doctrine of Jesus had became daily more and more reduced calmly diffused itself likewise among the within itself, and its magnitude was a bur- Romans, and had certainly saved many den to it. The majority of the Roman from the general ruin. The emperor emperors, from the year 180 downward, Constantine himself even, who removed became in a greater degree enervated, and the seat of empire from Rome to Constanwith their effeminacy, grew likewise either tinople, made it, in the year 311, the esmore and more malignant and suspicious, tablished religion of his empire; and, or they were avowed tyrants, and shed the indeed, from that time Roman affairs took blood of the best men without reserve or for a period a more favorable turn, but the shame. But even if a good ruler hap- improvement was not fundamental. The pened to appear, and sought to maintain Romans, during the dominion of vice, had right and order, he was speedily murdered lost the higher moral power of the soul, in by the wild horde of soldiers; for they it which alone the divine word can take deep was who, in fact, ruled the empire. Ac- root; the former sinfulness became intercording to their pleasure, they elevated or mixed with the modern doctrines, and deposed the emperors; and to such shame- thus, as pure spring-water, when flowing less extent did they carry their sway, that into a morass, becomes as bad as the stagthey publicly offered the imperial crown nant pool itself, so did the admixture of the for sale, and placed it upon the head of ancient wickedness with the new light of him who gave them the most money. In Christian virtue, destroy completely all the course of one hundred and twenty beneficial results. years, from 180-300, in which period, in In this condition of the world, it is easy the ordinary course of things, six rulers to understand that the attacks of the Gerwould have succeeded each other, no less man nations upon the Roman empire, must than six and thirty emperors governed the necessarily have become daily more sucRoman empire, of whom twenty-seven cessful; and it also explains how they were murdered, three fell in war, and only were urged by an irresistible natural imsix died a natural death. pulse to overpower such miserable neighIt did not, however, suffice that an em- bors, by whom they themselves had been,._,......,,,.,,. first attacked, and who, notwithstanding * This translation is the most ancient, and for us, an first attacked, and who, notwithstanding invaluable monument of our language. For a long their enervation and corruption, considered period there only existed two MS. copies thereof: the themselves a nobler race than the unpolso-called Codex Argentius, (of the silver letters,) in Upsala, and the Codex Carolinus, in Wolfenbiittel. ished Germans, whom they called barbaThese, however contain only the four Evangelists and rians. And thus in nature also it may be a portion of the Roman Epistles; while Ulphilas translated the whole Bible, with the exception of the books observed as a rule, that where there is a of Samuel and the Kings. In recent times, however, vacuum, the active, agitated powers of air considerable portions of the remaining translation have acuum, the active, agitated powers of air been discovered and made known in Milan. and water forthwith strive to break in. 68 THE HUNNS. C H A P T ER III. sell, eat and drink; and, leaning upon the 375-476. neck of his swift animal, the rider sinks The Hunns-Commencement of the Great Migration, into a deep sleep, even to the very phan375-Irruption of the Western Goths,Vandals, Suevi, tasma of dreams; and if a council is to be Burgundians, and other tribes, into the Western Roman Empire-Alaric-Attila, God's Scourge, 451-held upon serious matters, it is conducted The Fall of the Roman Empire in the West, 476. in this same manner. ABOUT the year 375, when the emperor " They commence battle with a terrific Valens reigned in Constantinople, and the howl; with the rapidity of lightning they western empire was under the dominion of advance and purposely disperse themselves his nephew, the youthful Gratian, a new in the same moment; return rapidly again, tribe, almost unknown and exceedingly hover about in irregular array, destroying savage, broke forth from Asia. They were heedlessly whatever they meet with here not of German but of Mongolian origin, and and there; and from their extraordinary were called Hunns. Terror and dread pre- speed, almost before they are observed, ceded them, and those who had seen them they are already engaged in storming the described them in the following terms:* wall, or plundering the camp of the enemy.' The tribe called Hunns surpass every At a distance they fight with javelins, degree of savageness. They have firm-set whose points are furnished with polished limbs and thick necks, and their whole fig- bones, prepared with extraordinary skill; ure is so misshapen and broad, that they but in close combat with the sabre, while might be considered as two-legged monsters, the enemy parries the thrust, they cast a or as posts that have been roughly hewn to noose over him and carry him off. support the balustrades of bridges. And as, "Agriculture is not practised among immediately after their birth, deep incis- them, and none touch the plough, for all ions are made in the cheeks of their chil- roam about without a dwelling, without a dren, so that the growth of hair may be home, without laws and fixed customs, hindered by cicatrizing the wounds, they always wanderers; the women dwell in remain beardless and most hateful to be- wagons, where they weave their coarse hold, even to the most advanced period of garments and brilngup their children. If life. In addition to their ill-favored and the question be put to them, whence they repulsive shapes, they are so savage that come, none can return an answer; for they they neither need fire, nor cook their vic- are begot at one place, born at another, and tuals; but the roots of wild plants and the brought up again elsewhere. Adherence half-raw flesh of the first good animal they to contracts they know not, and like insenmeet with, and which they place beneath sible animals, they scarcely know aught of them upon the backs of their horses and thus justice or injustice, but they precipitate ride it somewhat tender, is their whole sus- themselves with all the impetuosity of their tenance. They enter houses only when desires upon an object, and they waver at they are forced by the most extreme neces- every newly raised hope or prospect; nay, sity; they avoid them as the separated they are so changeable and irritable, that graves of life, but wandering through moun- even sometimes in the same day, without the tains and valleys, they learn to endure, least offence, they fall out with their allies, from their infancy, frost, hunger, and thirst. and again, without any persuasion, they They clothe themselves in a linen garment return and become friends with them again." or in furs, consisting of the skins of mice This lightly equipped and uncontrollable sewn together; they cover their heads with race, burning with a fearful and determinoverhanging caps, and their legs with the ed desire of booty from strangers, broke skins of goats. Their rough and clumsy forth from the sea of Asov, whither they boots prevent them from walking freely, were driven much earlier from their ancient and therefore they cannot fight on foot; pastures on the frontiers of China, and fell but are almost grown, as it were, to their first upon the Alani, thought by some to be horses, which are durable, but, in keeping an Asiatic tribe, by others again considered with their masters, as characteristically to be a branch of the Goths; but it is probugly. All their business is transacted upon ably a collective name, by which the Rohorseback, and thus this people buy and mans signify the tribes eastward of the Goths on the Wolga and the Don, who may * Amm. Marcell. xxi., 2; Dordanis, 24. possibly have been of different races. The THE HUNNS AND GOTHS. 69 Hunns are said to have sacrificed their first Fridigern, the Gothic prince, was invited European prisoners to the manes of their as a guest by Lupicinus to Marcianopolis. ancient princes. This immense swarm He was a valiant youth, full of the heroic then rushed onward upon the Goths. Her- courage of his ancestors; and on this ocmanrich, a brave old warrior, upwards of casion many young men, his brethren in a hundred years of age, and still suffering arms and other friends, accompanied him. from a severe wound received in battle, While he was eating, the cries of his fol. when he saw he could not resist the Hunns, lowers outside rose suddenly upon his ear, would not survive his formerly acquired for the Romans had fallen upon them and fame, and therefore, in despair, killed him- were murdering them. With his eyes self. His people were obliged to subject sparkling with vengeance, and his sword themselves to the power of these savages, in hand, he sprang up, and rushing out, and the Thervingians considering resist- saved his friends, and hastened away with ance useless, quitted their ancient seats, them.* The Goths, embittered at the and sent messengers to the emperor Va- treachery of the Romans, broke up, delens, at Constantinople, with a petition: feated Lupicinus, and traversed the nearest " that if he would give them land and pas- provinces with fire and sword; and from turage beyond the Danube, they would be the walls of Constantinople were seen the the defenders of the frontiers." As medi- flames of the villages and country-seats ator for the Thervingians, it is very prob- which they had lighted. able, that much was effected by the Gothic The emperor Valens advanced against Bishop Ulphilas, who, in a persecution Fridigern with an army; the assistance made against the Christians by the pagan which his nephew, Gratian, was bringing Gothic princes, had, some time previously, to his aid from the west, he would not wait together with several Gothic Christians, for, in order to retain alone the honor of taken refuge, and been granted an asylum victory; and he precipitately ventured a on Roman ground, at the foot of the Hce- battle near Adrianople. It was severely mus. This pious and patriotic prelate had, contested; but the Gothic infantry repulsed indeed, during a space of forty years, been at last the Roman cavalry, and then the continually occupied in working for the legions. The emperor fled wounded; his benefit of his people. The emperor receiv- horse falling, he had scarcely time to save ed them kindly. They were not pursued himself in a neighboring peasant's hut. by the Hunns, who now followed pastur- The Goths, far from thinking that the Roage, hunting, and pillage, for more than man emperor was concealed beneath a fifty years in the steppes and forests of the thatched roof, set fire to this as well as present southern Russia, Poland, and Hun- other huts; and Valens found his death gary. by which means they came into fre- in this miserable manner in the year 378. quent intercourse with the Romans, whom In this pitiable state the empire was once they often served in war; and, humanized more warded from its fall by the vigorous by this communication with the latter and and prudent emperor Theodosius, a Spanthe Germans, much of the uncouthness in iard by birth. He contrived to weaken their manners was removed. the Goths by divisions, and made FridiThe new seat of the Western Goths in gem's successor, Athanaric, conclude a Mnsia became very soon too narrow for peace. He promised the Goths a considthem; and as their herds did not supply erable supply of provisions, and they, in them with sufficient support, they begged return, lent him 40,000 men as auxilia. permission to barter for their necessary ries. wants. The Roman rulers, however, Lu- This emperor died in the year 395, and picinus and Maximus, took such shameful his two sons, Honorius and Arcadius, diviadvantage of their necessities, that for a ded the empire between them; Arcadius loaf and about ten pounds of miserable took his seat at Constantinople, Honorius meat, (frequently the flesh of dogs,) they in Italy, and the first division was called demanded a slave in return. The majority the eastern, and the second the western of their herds were consumed, their slaves empire. gone, and famine induced many to give up The sons did not resemble the father even their children for bread. While the people suffered from these grievances, Amm. Marcell., xxxi 5, and Jordanis, 26. 70 THE GOTHS-ALARIC. too indolent to undertake the government once more gave voice to their ancient themselves, they allowed their chancellors, haughtiness, and thus addressed Alaric:* the Gaul, Rufinius, and the Vandal, Stili- "The Roman people are numerous and cho, to rule. Rufinius, who was chancel- strong, and by their constant practice in lor in Constantinople, corrupt and selfish, arms are so bold and courageous that they thought by war and daring adventures to have no dread of war." But Alaric exalt himself and increase his power; ac- only laughed aloud at this, and replied: cordingly he excited the Goths under Ala- " Thickly standing grass is much easier ric to make an irruption. The presents mowed than thin." The ambassadors then promised them by Theodosius were not de- asked the conditions of peace. He delivered, and Alaric devastated Thracia manded all the gold and silver, together throughout; and Stilicho advanced against with the whole of the rich plate contained him, but was driven back by the jealous in the city, and all the slaves of German Rufinius, who was murdered by the ernbit- origin. On which they asked, "What tered army. Upon this, Alaric turned will you then leave us?" "Your souls!" against Greece, then quite defenceless, said he. Thus insolently spoke a man, which he robbed of its last treasures and born among a barbaric tribe, upon the islglories. Suddenly, Stilicho attacked and and of Peuce, (at the mouth of the Danpressed hard upon the Goths; but Arca- ube,) to that city which, for centuries, had dius ordered him to retire, negotiated with ruled the habitable earth, and through the Alaric, and made him general of Illyria, gates and streets of which the proudest that is-gave it up to him in 396. The heroes had marched in triumph, crowned Goths broke up from here in the year 402, with victories gained over foreign nations, and advanced across the Alps. Stilicho, and loaded with booty from Europe, Asia, nevertheless, once more succeeded, by a and Africa! determined resistance, in forcing his dan- At this moment, certain prophets from gerous enemy to retire beyond the boun- Tuscany, who were in the city, offered dary line of mountains. And in the same themselves to drive Alaric back from Rome manner he saved Italy in the year 405 from by prophetic threats, if, in return, they the attack of a large mixed army of Ger- might be allowed to institute feasts and man tribes, which, under Radagaisus, en- sacrifices to their ancient divinities. Doubtdeavored to break across the Alps from a less, when he heard of such weak and fudifferent side, and were perhaps in alliance tile proposals being made, the valorous with Alaric. The history of these times is Alaric treated the matter with merited convery confused, and it is therefore not clear tempt and derision. if that body was destroyed near Fcesulae, When now the Romans discovered no as some historians relate, or whether Stili- hopes of being rescued, they were obliged cho was enabled to remove them by treaty, to fulfil the wishes of their enemy, and and direct them to Gaul. But it appears promise him 5,000 pounds of gold and that Stilicho also pursued ambitious pro- 30,000 of silver, besides a multiplicity of jects; for he had combined with Alaric to rare and costly articles. But so much gold make an attack upon the eastern empire, and silver was not to be found in the posbut was accused of treachery by his ene- session of the inhabitants. They were, mies, and by command of the emperor therefore, obliged to have recourse to the Honorius, his own son-in-law, he was as. ornaments and decorations of the ancient sassinated in the year 408. As soon as temples; and it is said that, among the klaric heard of the death of Stilicho, he statues of their divinities, that of Valor was nuce more advanced against Italy, pressed also melted down-it thus appearing as if through the passes of the Alps, crossed the all that still remained in Rome of that noPo, and went direct to Rome; he left the ble quality in man was now annihilated for emperor in Ravenna, for he despised this ever. weak prince. In Rome all was terror and The emperor Honorius refused to enter confusion; for since 600 years the Ro- into any negotiation whatever with Alaric, mans had seen no enemy before, nor dur- who, therefore, returned next year to Rome, ing 800 years had they beheld an enemy and appointed another emperor, of the name within their walls, thence the city was call- of Attalus, as rival to Honorius; but as, ed the eternal city. They, nevertheless, * Zosimus, v., 34. MIGRATION OF THE TRIBES. 71 after one year's trial, he also proved him- youth Athaulf, or Adolphus, the brother-in. self to be wholly worthless, Alaric reduced law of Alaric. He advanced from Lower him again to the dust from which he had Italy to Rome, where he obliged the empe. raised him, and the city of Rome, which ror Honorius to give him his own sister, held out against him, he now took by storm. Placidia, as consort; he then quitted Italy, This happened on the 28d of August, in the passed with his nation into Gaul and Spain, year 410. The Goths entered the imperial and he and his successor, Wallia, were the palace and plundered it, as well as the founders of the extensive Westro-Gothic houses of the nobles; but they so far mod- kingdom, which comprised the south of erated their ire, that they did not burn the France as far as the Loire, and speedily city. It was a happy thing for the Romans embraced Spain also, the metropolis of that the Goths were Christians; for those which was Toulouse, on the river Garonne. who fled to the churches were not molested In the year 419, the Romans formally deor touched; nay, a singular occurrence, livered Southern Gaul up to Wallia. The which is related to us, displays very evi. commencement of the fifth century was dently the pious feeling of these people. A therefore in the highest degree turbulent, warrior, who entered the house of a female, from the violent movements of the various found gold and silver vessels there. She nations. Almost all the German tribes sent told him that they belonged to the holy out hordes of troops upon excursions of pilapostle St. Peter, and were given to her in lage or conquest; or they themselves, charge for the church; he might, there- pressed forward by the superior attacks of fore, act as he thought proper. The sol- other tribes, broke up their abode, that they dier communicated this to Alaric, who sent might, arms in hand, seek elsewhere for immediately thither, and caused the sacred new dwellings. The weak alone, who vessels to be carried with solemnity back could or would not quit their paternal dwellto the church. The Romans, animated by ing, remained behind, and became mingled such generous tolerance, accompanied the with and lost amidst the immediately suctrain, chanting solemn hymns; and the ceeding race. Besides the Goths, theVan. Gothic warriors, astonished at the unex- dals and Alans were pressed forward by pected spectacle, ceased to plunder, joined the Hunns, and advanced from the east the procession themselves, and thus was gradually towards the west. In their adthe fury of war transformed into genial vance, the Burgundians, who likewise had peace by mere Christian emotion. quitted their dwelling-place on the Vistula Alaric remained only a few days in and had arrived as far as the Upper DanRome; he then advanced towards Lower ube, with a portion of the Suevi, namely, Italy, indulging his imagination with mag- the Quadi, and other tribes joined them. nificent plans, for, as it appears, he pur. It was probably a swarm of these mixed posed embarking for the beautiful island of tribes which, under Radagaisus,or Radigast, Sicily, and thence to proceed to Africa, in made the attack upon Italy in the year 405, order to conquer likewise this granary of and which by great good fortune was ward. Italy. But death overtook him at Cosenza, ed off by Stilicho. This isolated horde disin his 34th year. The entire Westro- appears, as well as the name of its leader, Gothic nation bewailed his loss, and pre- without leaving a trace in history. But in pared a remarkable and memorable grave their attacks upon Gaul and Spain the befor him. They dug another bed for the fore-mentioned tribes were more fortunate. river Busento, conducting the water through Stilicbo had opened to them the road thith. it, and then buried their king, fully armed er, by withdrawing the legions from the and equipped, in the original bed of the Rhine and from Gaul for the defence of river, accompanied by his war-horse and Italy. They now desolated the country the trophies of his victories. They then from Strasburg to Amiens. Treves was conducted the course of the river back four times plundered, Mentz and Worms again, in order that neither Roman covet- destroyed, the inhabitants of Strasburg, ousness nor revenge should desecrate or Spires, Rheims, and other cities driven disturb the great Alaric, in the grave where forth as slaves. After these swarms had' he reposed from his victories. Upon his at last been driven back into the south of death, the Goths elected for their king the France by the Romans and the Franks, most handsome of their young nobles, the they, in the year 408, were called into 72 THE BRITONS-ATTILA, GOD'S SCOURGE. Spain by the rebellious Roman governor, they were entirely united with the Westro. Gervatius. Hitherto this country had been Gothic kingdom. spared during these fearful times, but its In the middle of the fifth century, 449, turn came at last. The Vandals, Alani, the Argeli, Saxons and Futi, passed over and Suevi, crossed the Pyrenees, and speed- into England, and there founded new ily conquered the greatest part of the coun- dynasties. Under the emperor Honorius, try. A portion of the Alani remained in and immediately after him, the Romans Gaul, and are found later on the side of had entirely quitted Britain. The Britons the Romans, in the great battle with Atti- had, however, become so enervated under la; after which they disappear. The Bur. their sway, that after the withdrawal of gundians also remained under their king, the Roman garrisons, they felt therselves Gundikar, (Giinther,) and first founded incompetent to protect their freedom. their kingdom in Alsace, where it speedily Their neighbors in the Scotch Highlands, extended towards the Rhone and Saone in- the warlike Picts and Scots, breaking forth to Switzerland, and from thence it spread from their mountains with undiminished to Savoy. In Northern Gaul, however, the power, pressed hard upon them; and they Franks appear about this time to have made found no other alternative but to call themselves masters, so that all that lies to- strangers once more to their defence. wards the north, from Boulogne on one side, Their choice fell upon the tribes of Saxon to Cologne on the other, was subject origin who inhabited the coasts of the to their sway. Before the middle of that North Sea, and whose valor they had often century Treves also, which they had had occasion to know when these fell in four times conquered, remained in their with their piratic squadrons on the coasts power. of Britain. Two Saxon brothers, Hengist The' Vandals, who with the Alani had and Horst, or Horsa, heroes of a noble taken their seat in the south of Spain, race, who derived their origin from Wodan, passed thence in the year 420, under their accepted the invitation of the British king, king, Geiserich or Genserich, upon the in- Vortigern, and with only three ships, which vitation of the discontented Roman gov- bore 1600 warriors, they landed. Their ernor, Bonifacius, over into Africa, and valor alone, supplied the place of numbers; conquering there the whole of the northern they beat the Picts near Stamford, and coast, founded for a century a flourishing speedily afterwards large troops of their kingdom, the chief city of which was countrymen followed them over from the Carthage. What a migration, from the continent. The Britons then would willingvery shores of the Baltic, where these ly have been freed of their new guests; tribes first appear in history, even to the they, however, preferred remaining, subborders of the African deserts! Geiserich, jected the whole of England as far as one of the great men of his age, but of a Wales, and founded the well-known Anglosavage disposition, ruled for 50 years, from Saxon kingdoms or heptarchy, of which 428-477. After him the kingdom of the Kent, established by Hengist, formed the Vandals fell, in the luxuriant climate of first. the country, produced by internal disturb- In a large village, seated in a plain be. ances, and by the enervation of this other- tween the Danube and the Theiss, in Hunwise powerful tribe. The emperor of Con- gary, and surrounded by palisades, which stantinople, Justinian, took advantage of had originated in a camp, there stood, in their reduced state, and in the year 553 the midst of a spacious court, an extensive sent his general, Belisarius, to Africa with wooden mansion, adorned with many pasan army, who overcame them in eight sages and halls, and which formed the Imonths. Their last king, Gelimer, was dwelling of Attila or Etzel, king of the led by him in chains on his triumphant Hunns. He had united his people-until entry into Constantinople. then dispersed under many leaders-under The Suevi remained in Spain, but be- his own dominion; and in effecting this, came, by degrees, more and more pressed had not hesitated even to slay his own upon by the Westro-Goths under Wallia brother, Bleda. All the tribes of the Hunns and his successors, being soon limited to and their subjected nations, distributed the northwestern portion of Spain and from the Wolga to Hungary, reverenced Portugal; and at last, in the year 585, his command. He was lord of the Gepidi, ATTILA AND THE HUNNS 73 Longobardi, Avari, Ostro-Goths, and many entered the hall and approached him, that nations in the south of Germany; they, his features relaxed into a smile, and whom however, retained their languages, their he greeted with affection; for of this son it customs, and their laws, and were ruled had been prophesied, that he alone would by their own princes; so that they were be the means of preserving the succession to be considered more as allies than sub- of the race of Attila.* jects; and besides the language of the This powerful ruler, of whom i- has Hunns, that of the Goths, or German, was been said that, when with his mysterious spoken at the court of Attila. sword-which had been found by a shepHe himself was small of stature, had a herd in the steppes of Scythia, and was large head, deeply-seated eyes, which he considered to be the sword of the god of proudly cast around, a broad chest, much war-he struck the earth, a hundred naanimation, and a manner and bearing tions trembled, and even Rome and Conwhich thoroughly displayed the ruler. stantinople shook to their foundations, arose Iis most favorite name, indeed, was Gode- with his army in the year 451, and turned giesel, the scourge of God, for the punish- his course towards the west. He advanced ment of the world. with 700,000 men, all under him as chief But as it may be assumed generally ruler, and every tribe under its particular with regard to rulers, the founders of prince; and although the princes themmighty empires, that they have not alone selves trembled before him, his whole army to thank their conquering swords for their had but one soul, and his nod alone directacquired power, so also on his part King ed every movement. His path was called Attila gave undoubted proofs that for gov- destruction; for what could not fly, or was erning he possessed capacities more mild not destroyed, as he progressed in his road, and intellectual than the mere rude cour- was forced to follow in his train. age and skill of a warrior. For if he was He advanced through Austria and the terrible towards his enemies, and in his Allemannic country, across the Rhine, wrath severe and exterminating, still, on overcame the Burgundian king, Gundikar, the other hand, he was gentle and kind to (Ginther,) even to the destruction of his those he took under his protection. And if whole tribe; conquered and plundered the in war he himself always led on his peo- cities of Strasburg, Spire, Worms, Mentz, pie to battle, he was nevertheless, in times Treves, and others, and vowed not to stop of peace, always to be found seated at until he reached the ocean itself. The their head before his palace gates, perform- military portions of the countries he traing the office of mediator and judge between versed joined him either spontaneously or each and all who came to him, without by force, and the gigantic horde increased distinction. at every step like an avalanche. He loved splendor around him, but he But the Romans and several German himself lived in a simple and plain style, nations had now armed themselves against as if his greatness did not require this foil. the great danger which threatened the The trappings of his horse were unadorned, west; for it was now to be decided wheand but little costly; at his banquets, gold ther Europe should be German or Monand silver vessels were placed before his golian, whether German races were to guests, while he alone had those of wood; found new kingdoms upon the tottering he ate but little meat, despising, according ruins of the Roman empire, or the great to the custom of his nation, even bread. king of the Hunns. The Romans had at After each dish was served, the cup or this time once again a good leader of the wassail-bowl was handed round, and his name of 1Etius, who had formerly, when health and prosperity drunk; while min- banished by Valentinian, sought refuge at strels sang heroic songs in praise of his the court of Attila; he collected an army valorous deeds. The court jester then fol- in Gaul, and applied for aid to the Westrolowed with his wit and fun, and hilarity Gothic king, Theodoric or Dieterich, who and merriment ruled at the board of the royal host; but he alone never intermit- * This description of Attila and his court is handed down to us by an eye-witness, the sophist, Priscus, ted his strict seriousness. He remained who attended in the suite of an embassy from the emthroughout grave and thoughtful; and it peror Theodosius II. at the court of Attila: Byzant. Hist. Script. i. Jordanis also describes Attila, cap. was only when his youngest son, Irnack, xxxv.-Both relate also about the sword of Mars 10 74 ATTILA AND THE GOTHS dwelt in Toulouse, and whose kingdom must die, you will die even when you flee. also was in great danger. To him Diete. Direct your eyes to me, for I shall go rich replied, although, in earlier times, first; he who does not follow-shall be a AEtius had been his enemy: " A just war corpse!" has never appeared to fall too heavy upon Both armies strove to obtain the hill; any king of the Westro-Goths; and never the battle was very furious, and there was has any such king been known to fear terrible slaughter. The Hunns soon broke when it depended upon a glorious deed. through the centre, where the Romans Even thus think the nobles of my kingdom were stationed, and whom they put to also; and the entire nation of the Westro- flight; and soon afterwards the WestroGoths will, at the call, cheerfully seize Goths gave way before the Ostro-Goths. their well-tried arms, at all times victori- While the Westro-Gothic king was adous." The Burgundians had also promised dressing his people he fell, but gloriously, assistance, besides Sangipan, the Alanian, for his death inflamed his nation to rewho ruled upon the Loire; a portion of venge it; and his son Thorismund leading the Franks also, together with the city of them on, put the enemy to flight, and thus Paris itself, and even a branch of the decided the battle. Upon the approach of Saxons, which had colonized, it is unknown night, Attila was obliged to retire within at what period, at the mouths of the Loire, his camp of wagons. As he did not know or perhaps had landed there direct from a but the enemy might pursue him, he caused maritime expedition-all these united to- innumerable saddles and wooden shields to gether for the same purpose. be piled up, in case of necessity to set fire In the broad plain of France, through to them and die in the flames; at the same which the Marne flows, and which was time, to terrify the enemy, he commanded called by the ancients the Catalaunian a noise to be made all night with arms, Plain, where the city of Chalons now lies, drums, trumpets, and songs; but they did there rises near Mury, in the vicinity of not attack him. Among the piled heaps Troyes, a moderately high hill, which com- of the slain, they sought the body of the mands the district. It was here that the Westro-Gothic king, and celebrated his army of the West met the forces of the funeral by a procession, amid laments and Hunns, and a severe battle was fought. warlike instruments sounding, taking with It may be called a battle of the nations, them the spoils of the Hunns in their very for the majority of the European nations presence, who however did not venture to stood here opposed to each other. The interrupt the ceremony. Thorismund folleft wing of the Roman army was com- lowed the body of his father, and wished to manded by.Etius, the right by Theodo- return and renew the attack; but he was ric; between them they posted king San- dissuaded from this by jEtius, who advised gipan, who was the least to be trusted. him to return to his kingdom, that his The hordes of the Hunns, on the opposite brother might not take first possession of side, appeared innumerable; one wing the crown. He was anxious not to destroy was commanded by Arderic, the king of the power of the Hunns completely, in the Gepidi; the others by Theudimer, order, perhaps, to be enabled to use it subWidemir, and Walamir, the princes of the sequently against the Goths. Ostro-Goths. Attila was in the centre of In the following year, Attila, who was the whole. The multitude of petty kings thus enabled to recross the Rhine unpurobeyed his least nod, and they fulfilled his sued, made a second incursion into Italy, commands in silence and terror; he alone, and destroyed in a terrible manner Aquithe chief of all these kings, thought and leja, Milan,* and other cities. Rome itselt acted for all. When the battle was about was alone saved from a similar fate by the to begin, he summoned his leaders before supplications of Pope Leo, and the rich him, and said, "It does not become me to ransom he offered to him. Want of supsay common-place things to you, or for plies, and disease among his army, forced you to listen to such. Be men; attack, break through, cast all down; despise the Sucibius relatesthat, at this place, Attila met with a picture, in which were represented some!.cythian Roman array and their shields. Fall upon men kneeling before the Roman emperor; and that the Western Goths and Alani, in whom there, opposite to it, he had his own figure painted, seated upon the imperial throne, and at his feet the Rolies the strength of the enemy. If you man emperors, throwing down before him bags of gold. ATTILA-HIS DEATH. 75 him to retreat across the Alps; he never- more towards its utter extinction. The theless threatened to return again, and had wretched emperor, Valentinian III., muralready prepared another expedition, but dered with his own hand AEtius, who had amidst his preparations he died, in the year been the support of the empire, and who had 453. He was mourned over, and buried once more saved it in the Catalaunian plains, according to the customs of his people. against Attila, because he had been made The Hunns slashed their faces with wounds, to suspect him. Valentinian himself was and shaved away their hair, and upon a slain, at the instigation of Petronius Maxbroad plain, beneath a silken tent, his body imus, who now became emperor, and forced lay in state. About it coursed the caval- Eudocia, the widow of the murdered monry, singing his deeds as they galloped arch, to marry him. She however, out of around, and vaunting the good fortune, that revenge, invited the Vandal king, Geisethe great Attila, after immortal victories, rich, from Africa. He came, conquered in the most glorious moment of his nation's in 455 the city of Rome, plundered and history, and without pain, had closed his devastated it in a dreadful manner for the life, and had transferred himself to the spi- space of fourteen days, as if, by him, Fate rits of the ancient heroes. In the night he retaliated upon the Romans, for their terriwas laid in a golden coffin; this was placed ble destruction of Carthage six hundred in a silver one, which was enclosed in an years before. He then embarked again iron one; the caparison of his horses, his for Africa, with a fleet of many ships, arms, and costly ornaments being buried loaded with costly booty and prisoners of with him. After the ceremony, the work- all classes, who were sold as slaves. men were immediately slaughtered on his After Valentinian, nine sovereigns, in grave, that none of them might betray where the short space of twenty years, bore the the hero of the Hunns reposed.* degraded title of Emperor of Rome. At As soon as the terror of his name no last, in the year 476, Odoacer, a prince of longer bound the nations together, they Scyric descent, commander of an allied separated; many refused obedience; and horde of Scyri, Herulians, Rugians, and after his first-born son, Ellak, had fallen in Turcilingi, a man equally distinguished a great battle against Arderic, the king of for his mental powers and physical strength, the Gepidi, the whole power of the Hunns thrust the last of those shadowy emperors, disappeared, and they dispersed further Romulus Momyllus or Augustulus, as yet towards the east. The head of one of the a boy, from the throne, and called himself sons of Attila-such are the changes in King of Italy. The tender age of the human fate-was shortly afterwards seen young emperor when he laid aside the purheld up for display, at one of the race-courses ple robes, the crown and arms, and came in Constantinople! Arderic occupied the and deposited them in the camp, caused country of the Lower Danube, and the him to be spared, and he was sent by Ostro-Goths took possession of Hungary, Odoacer to a castle in Campania. The towards Vienna. The remaining portion above-named tribes, who doubtlessly beof the German tribes who had been subject longed to the Gothic confederation, had to the power of the Hunns, no doubt like- gradually advanced from their earlier dwellwise took advantage of this moment of re- ings on the Baltic towards the south, until newed independence, to return to their old, they found a dwelling on the Danube and or to take possession of new dwelling-places, the frontiers of Italy, and there served the This period may therefore be considered Romans frequently for pay. This small as decisive of the form of the immediate band, therefore, at last extinguished the future, until the entire destruction of the Roman empire, in the year 476, and in Roman power in Italy produced new re- the 1230th year since the foundation of the volutions for a portion of Europe. capital. The Western Roman Empire now con- About this period the following was the sisting of Italy alone, declined more and manner in which the countries of the western empire were divided among for. The name of Attila, or Etzel, was afterwards men- eign tribes, the result of the great migrationed in the German legends: he was there grouped with HIermanarich and the subsequent Theodoric, tion which had taken place a century be(Dieterich, of Berne.) He does not, however, appear fore. there as an enemy to the Germans, but as a mighty valiant ruler in the east of Germany. Italy was under the dominion of Odoa. 76 DISTRIBUTION OF THE TRIBES. cer, and his kingdom extended itself to- lands, and the Ripuarians, dwelling along wards the north, across the Alps, as far as the coasts of the Rhine. the Danube. In Hungary the Ostro-Goths Close to them, on the Seine, a Roman were powerful, and the Longobardi had governor, of the name of Syagrius, mainlong before advanced from their seats upon tained his power for ten years longer, the Elbe, and fixed themselves to the north until the year 486, when already there of the Danube, towards the Theiss. In was no longer an emperor in Rome. The Bavaria was formed by degrees, (without northwestern point of France, the present history giving a detailed account of it.) Brittany, had already been occupied much from remnants of the Rugi, Heruli, Scyri, earlier by fugitives from Britain, who had Turcilingi, and certainly from Suevic fled before the Picts, and then formed untribes, particularly the Marcomanni-the der the name of Armoricae an alliance of nation of Bojoarians under the royal race free cities. of the Agilolfi. The name more particu- Southeastern France, Savoy, and westlarly indicates the descent from the Marco- ern Switzerland belonged now to the Burmanni, coming from Bohemia, inasmuch as gundians. Their chief cities were Genethe more ancient name of this country, va, Besan~on, Lyons, and Vienne. The Boja or Bojos, has been transferred to Bo- Burgundians were certainly the mildest of joheim, Baiheim, or Beheim. The Mar- the conquering tribes of this period, being comanni, who had previously wandered early attached to Christianity, cultivation, back to this country, after the Danube dis- and art; and to them that portion of France tricts had become free, fixed themselves in is indebted for its many remains of ancient Franconia and Bavaria, and called them- Roman works of art. In Switzerland the selves Bojoari or Bajovari. French language still marks its ancient The Allemanni dwelt in the eastern boundaries against the Allemanni, for the part of Switzerland, in Swabia, and down Burgundians mixed more with the Roboth banks of the Rhine, as far as the mans, and adopted much of their language. Lahn and Cologne. On the left bank of Southwestern France, from the Loire the Rhine they were afterwards called and Rhone to the Pyrenees, as well as a Alsatians. The name of Suevi also ap- great portion of Spain, was subject to the pears about this time among them, and has Western Goths, but northwestern Spain to preserved itself to this day in the name of the Suevi. the country-Swabia. The northwestern coast of Africa was In the centre of Germany, from the Vandalian. In Britain the Angeli and present Harz mountains to Franconia, the Saxons by degrees retained their power powerful Thuringians held their sway, and augmented it more and more. whose earlier history is very obscure. The east and northeastern portion of They first appear noticed about the middle Germany was left comparatively bare by of the fifth century, without our author the advance of the tribes towards the south mentioning their origin or earlier state. and west, and Slavonic tribes migrated inIn Lower Saxony and Westphalia the creasingly thither, who had been seated on Saxons retained their ancient seats and those boundaries from time immemorial, constitution, and close to them on the North and who had also, perhaps, been partly Sea were the Friesi. subject to the Germans. Those foreign On the Lower Rhine, on the Maas and branches now gained the superiority, and the Scheldt, as far as the Netherlands, and the remains of the Germans who would in the north of France, dwelt the branches not quit their original dwelling-place, beof the Franks; the most considerable of came subject to, and were dispersed among which were the Salians, in the Nether- them. CLOVIS, KING OF THE FRANKS. 77 SECOND PERIOD. FROM THE CONQUESTS OF CLOVIS TO CHARLEMAGNE. 486-768. THE historical writers of this period form but a very et Gothica" may in the details explain much, because limited class, and are of very unequal estimation. the Greek proceeds upon very different views to those What they relate of the earlier times is mostly founded of the western writers. on tradition, and can scarcely be placed in conjunction d. Isidor, bishop of Seville, (Isidorus Hispalensis,) with what has been furnisheid by the Roman authors: who died in 636, wrote a short history of the Goths, still, in reference to the history of their own period, and Vandals, and Suevians, to the year 628, but which those immediately preceding, they are nevertheless of again explains nothing about the earlier history of these high importance: nations, and refers more properly to Spain alone. 1. For the " History of the Franks," we may con- 3. The chief writer on the history of the Longobardi sider as a principal writer, Gregory, bishop of Tours, is Paul Diaconus, the son of Wamrefried, one of the (Gregorius ruronensis,) who died in the year 595. He first men of' his age, living at the courts of Desiderits calls his book an ecclesiastical history, but therein he and Charlemagne, and who died as a monk on Mount describes generally the acts and proceedings of the Cassino in the year 799. In his " De Gestis LanloFranks, in ten books, until the year 591. His language, bardorum, libri vi.," he describes the deeds of his nacharacteristic of his time, is uncivilized his descrip- tion with a great predilection for tradition; the cormtion confused and interrupted by legendary wonders, mencement is quite unhistorical, but subsequently he going, however, very deeply into the details, and in re- becomes more careful and exact, and presents us with ference to subsequent years, as the record of a contem- detailed information extremely valuable. porary, it is very exact, and thus renders him equally 4. For German history likewise are of great importinstructive; he likewise possesses the merit of being ance the biographies of the Roman Pontifis,at least fiom honest and a lover of truth. He has been styled the the eighth century, composed by contemporary writers; Herodotus of this period. they continue to the beginning of the ninth century. Fredegar, about the year 650, made from Gregory's 5. Extremely important also are the letters of diswork a short abridgment, interspersed with fables, tinguished men which have been handed down to us (" Historia Francorum Epitomata,") which proceeds from that period, especially those of saint Boniface, as as far as the year 584, and then continues the history well as the biographies of him and other holy len,, in a " Chronicum" until 641. This "Chronicumr (Vite Sanctorum,) which often present the most faithwas again taken up and resumed by three other men, ful picture of their times, and have preserved for us the but with certain chasms, until 768; very meager and most valuable information. wittout connection, but still important, because the 6. And lastly; for our research into the relations of writers were chiefly witnesses of the events described.life, the manners, customs, and institutions, are very Thle "Gesta Regum Francorum," are, likewise, in part important, the Laws of the German nations or extracted from Gregory, whose description they con- tribes," who belonged to the Franconian empire: the tinue to the year 720, very briefly and not without many Salians, Ripuarians, Allemannians, Burgundians, and inaccuracies. Bavarians, and later, the Saxons and Thuringians. But With these and later, are the "Annals," short sketch-there remains much therein which is very obscure, ines which were made annually in the monasteries, of asmuch as they contain principally only the penal law the most important events, and thus, at least, in part of these people, and cannot, therefore, yield us tie deoriginate from eye-witnesses. They were afterwards sired information respecting the other relations, are not copied and communicated from the one monastery to regulated according to general principles, contain nothe other, often augmented there, then subsequentlything of the constitution of the empire beyond what various portions corrected and prepared, and thus they refers to the administration of the law, and present acquired greater extent and value. The most impor- even in that portion what to our eye appears very fragtant are those which bear the simple title " Annalis mentary. Laurissenses," from a monastery in the Upper Rhine province, which go on from 741 to 788, and were continued by Eginhardt, from 788 to 829. They have been partially published in the older collections, but more completely given in the " Monumenta Germanise Historica," collected by Pertz. 2. For the " History of the Goths" are to be men- C H A P T E R IV. tioned: a. Cassiodorus invested with high offices of state under Odoacer, Theodoric, and their successors, and Clovis, king of the Franks, 482-511-Theodoric, surwho died in the year 565, in the convent Vivarosa; lie named Dieterich of Berne, 488-5-26-The Longobardi wrote a history of the Goths, which, unfortunately, in Italy, 568-Changes in the Customs and Instituwas lost. There have, however, been preserved his tions of the Germans-The Language-Constitution "XII Libri Variarum," a very important work, be- -Feudal System-Laws-Pastimes-Christianity in cause it contains edicts, instructions, and documents, Germany-The Grand Chamberlains-Charles Marwhich were written in the names of the kings; learned, tel against the Arabs, 732-Pepin the Little-The elegant, but vain and verbose. Carlovingians. b. The monk Jordanis, (thus he is called, and not Jornandes, in the more ancient documents, and by DURING the great movements of the himself likewise,) a Goth, living about the middle of tribes, which we have just related, the the sixth century, has brought into an abridgment —de Rebus Geticis-the lost history of Cassiodorus, but has Franks had not, like the Goths, Burgun. disfigured it by the interlineation of every thing her nations, migrated fron knew or heard of besides. Still, although without t t t judgment and historical knowledge, his book is-of the their dwellings to settle themselves elsehighest value, inasmuch as for many events that iswhere, but they remained in their own nearly our only source. It extends to the year 540. re, but they remaed in their o c The parallel of "Procopii Cesarensis Vandalica seat, and from thence conquered only that 78 CLOVIS, KING OF THE FRANKS. portion of Gaul which lies to the north of tival, by the Bishop Remigius. This was the Forest of Ardennes. And this forest the commencement of the introduction of also sheltered them from being drawn into the Christian faith among the Franks, and the great stream of migration. Their di- Clovis was henceforward called the eldest son vision also into several branches, each of of the church and the most Christian king. which had its own king or prince, prevented His consort Clotilda, the daughter of a them from making extensive and general Burgundian prince, had long wished to expeditions. convert him to the better faith by the force But their time came. About the year of gentle persuasion; he, however, had 482, Clovis, or as we should say, Lewis, always despised it until the necessity of the son of Gilderich, became prince of the the battle overpowered him, and it was inSalian Franks; and he soon prepared him- deed very evident both in him and in the self to execute the plans of his bold and Franks in general, that their conversion comprehensive mind, for the bent of his was a work of mere compulsion. For ardent spirit was to make war and con- Clovis murdered his relatives after as well quest. Clovis belongs to that class of ru- as before, and subdued one Christian nation lers in the history of the world, who think after the other, while the Franks for all ways good that lead to dominion. He several centuries bore the character of has sullied the celebrity of his military being the most treacherous of all the Gerfame by the most despicable want of faith man nations. to his relatives and allies. He at first After the Allemanni were reduced, and concluded with the princes of the Franks, the kingdom of the Franks had spread itwho were his equals, and for the majority self along the Rhine to Switzerland, and his relatives, alliances of war against other after the Burgundians were obliged to tribes, and after he had conquered them promise tribute, Clovis bent his eyes toby their assistance, and had become power- wards the kingdom of the West Goths, ful, he then also dispatched those very who possessed the most beautiful portion friends out of his way by poison, the dag- of France in the south. Thus, although ger, and treachery. By this means he he had only shortly before had a conferbecame eventually king of all the Franks. ence with their king, Alaric, and had sworn Of his foreign enemies, he first attacked, friendship to him, he yet determined to atwhen only twenty, the Roman governor tack him as an enemy. Syagrius, whom we mentioned above, ef- The wise Ostro-Gothic king, Theodoric, fectuallybeat himatSoissons, (Suessiones,) who previously to this had founded his and occupied the country as far as the dominion in Italy, counselled the unruly Loire. Syagrius, who fled to the Western Clovis, whose sister, Audofleda, was his Goths, was obliged to be delivered up to consort, in the most urgent manner from Clovis and was executed. This commence- his unjust expedition against Alaric, and ment of the conquests of Clovis took place reminded him that peace and union bein the year 486, ten years after Romulus came Christian nations. But Clovis, who Augustulus was deposed. knew only the language of the sword and He then advanced with his army against of rude force, gave no ear to him; he the Allemanni, who in the mean time had attacked the Westro-Gothic kingdom; and, fallen upon the country of the Ripuarian in the year 507, in a plain of the river Franks, for both nations having their bound- Vienne, near Vougle or Vironne, fought aries upon the river Lahn, had been ene. and won a great battle in which Alaric mies for years. They met in the year himself fell, transpierced by the spear of 496, near Zulpich, in the district of Juliers, Clovis, who took possession of the chief and fought bitterly against each other, and cities of his country, and would, no doubt, the victory already inclined to the side of have destroyed the whole kingdom, had the Allemanni, when in the heat of the not the great Theodoric stepped between battle, his soul excited by anxiety, Clovis and driven him back with a strong hand. fell upon his knees and vowed to become'a He was, therefore, obliged to content himChristian; and as victory now absolutely self with the country between the Loire turned on his side, he caused himself and and the Garonne. three thousand of his Franks to be baptized Clovis did not live long after this, but in Rheims, at the subsequent Easter fes- died at Paris, in the year 511, in the fortw THE MEROVINGIANS-THEODORIC THE GOTH. 79 third year of his age, and his empire was other rulers, to found for his people a large divided between his four sons. and beautiful kingdom, for they longed to His successors to the throneofthe Franks, be led to more desirable lands than the who are called the Merovingians, were in wastes near the Sau and the Danube. The general worthy of their founder. It ap- Emperor of Constantinople, Zeno, who conpeared as if vice and tyranny, unheard of sidered himself now as the sole inheritor of cruelty, and savage revenge were heredi- the entire ancient empire of the Romans, tary in this family, and as if a curse had upon this presented him with the land of from the beginning been poured over them. Italy as the reward for services rendered, In the space of forty years six Merovingian and instead of his promised subsidies in kings were destroyed by poison or the money. Italy was still under the rule of sword; and the intrigues and revengeful Odoacer, but his kingdom was not propassions of malicious women form an im- perly to be considered German, because portant feature in these horrid scenes. It the Herulians and Rugians formed but a cannot, therefore, suit the purport of this small portion of his people. history to penetrate further into the details Theodoric broke up with his nation in of these events, which are equally as un- the year 488, pressed through the passes nourishing to the mind, as they are unfruit- of Italy, and encountered Odoacer near ful in regard to the knowledge it is so Aquileja and Verona. But the Italians desirable to obtain from the great entirety fought with little zeal for their king, and of our history. The nation of the Franks, he was both times obliged to fly. King under such princes, could not possibly be Theodoric, from this last battle, was styled raised from its state of moral rudeness and in legendary songs and ballads, in a muldegradation, but necessarily became plung- titude of which his fame was recorded, the ed more deeply in vice. Their power, great hero, Dieterich of Berne, (which sighowever, continued to extend itself more nifies Verona.) Immediately after this, and more. They by degrees subjected Odoacer was a third time defeated near the Burgundians, and in Germany the the Adda, after his own city, Rome, had powerful nation of the Thuringians, and shut its gates against him, and for three the dukes of Bavaria sought their protec- years he was besieged in Ravenna, until, tion. About the middle of the sixth cen- in the year 493, he was at last forced to tury all the German nations from the yield, and his lands fell into the hands of frontiers of the Saxons to the Alps allied Theodoric, by whom he was killed. His themselves with the kingdom of the Franks; kingdom had lasted seventeen years. Franks, Thuringians, Allemans or Swa- Theodoric became lord of Italy, and ruler bians, and Bavarians. The Saxons alone over the countries beyond the Alps to the and the Friesi still remained independent Danube, and in the wars of the Franks in their northwestern dwellings, and Westro-Goths he made himself master When, after king Attila's death, the of the provinces as far as the Rhone, an kingdom of the Hunns fell asunder, the extensive and beautiful kingdom, which Ostro-Goths, as has been already mention- might have existed to the present day if ed, became again free, and dwelt in Hun- his successors had equalled him in wisdom gary and the neighboring countries of the and virtue. His chief cities were RaDanube. They had frequent disputes with venna and Verona. the emperor, in Constantinople, and upon He himself reigned more than thirty one of these occasions Theodoric or Die- years, and was not only a kind and mild terich, a son of one of their princes, was master to his Goths, but also a gentle ruler sent as hostage to that city, and there he over his Roman subjects and all who dwelt saw, as had Marbodius and Arminius form- in Italy; so much so, that this country erly, in Rome, the institutions of a great had not enjoyed so happy a time for many empire. He remained there ten years, centuries as under him, the foreign prince. and was instructed in the Grecian arts and Agriculture and trade again flourished. sciences, so that no German prince of his Art and science found in him a protector, time equalled him in accomplishments. and ancient cities, lying in ruins, were reAfter the death of his father, Theodemir, built. Italy enjoyed under, and subseand of his uncles, he became sole king of quent to his reign, for a period of forty the Ostro-Goths, and now resolved, like years, continued peace, and was so dili. o0 THEODORIC THE GOTH-HIS DEATH. gently cultivated, that it not only grew of his great ideas; for while he preached sufficient grain for its own consumption, peace with earnestness and love, Clovis, but could even export it to Gaul, while the Frank, raged war with his sword, deformerly, under the Roman emperors, it spising his doctrine, and seeking only tc was always necessary to procure a supply bring a multitude of tribes under his dofrom Sicily and Africa. minion. His wisdom and justice raised him The great Theodoric died in the year above all the kings of his time. He 526. His monarchy had now no duration; stepped among them like the father of a for his son, Athalaric, was but just ten large family and an institutor of peace; years old, and died shortly after his father. and the most distant tribes had recourse to The nobles of his kingdom were no longer his counsel, and honored him with pre- unanimous, but elevated and deposed sevsents. To the other kings of German eral kings after each other. The Roman origin, with almost all of whom he had subjects, also, could not forget that their allied himself by marriage, he wrote as a rulers were Goths, and attached to the father, thus: "You all possess proofs of Arian faith. They wished themselves my good-will. You are young heroes, and again under the Greek emperors, who it is my duty to counsel you. Your dis- dwelt in Constantinople, and were mernorder and irregularities grieve me; it is bers of the orthodox church, although the not a matter of indifference to me to be- dominion of these emperors'had become hold how you allow yourselves to be gov- lamentably bad, and was in a ruinous erned by your passions, for the passions of state. It was then that the emperor Justikings are the ruin of nations; while, on nian, who was one of the best of the series, the contrary, your friendship and unity took advantage of this discontent, and sent together are, as it were, the veins through his general, Belisarius, and after him which the wishes of nations flow into each Narses, into Italy, to subject this country other." again to his rule. A long and severe war He placed such principles before their arose, conducted by the Goths with their eyes, and showed thereby that his mind usual valor, but without success, and had formed the conception of a great al- which destroyed the country, and almost liance, founded upon justice and wisdom, depopulated Rome by several sieges, so between all the Christian nations of Ger- that no trace was left of its ancient splenman origin, who had fixed their seat in dor. Europe. An alliance, such as reason has The Goths raised themselves once more, depicted before the eyes of all ages as a after four of their sovereigns had been ublime picture; and as it has displayed destroyed, under their king, Totilas, who tself, from time to time, by the mouths of was worthy of ruling the dominions of enlightened men, so that justice and order, Theodoric; but as he also, after he had and especially the spirit of Christian unity, fought with fame for eleven years, was should predominate, and hatred and thirst killed in the year 552, in a battle against after prey be reined in-evils which, alas! Narses, and ten months afterwards, his through the want of such an alliance, have successor, Tejas, fell likewise in the three ravaged Europe from one end to the other. days' desperate battle near Cuma, the Had Theodoric been enabled to form such Gothic kingdom sunk into such a ruinous a noble union, he would have founded state that twenty-seven years after the more of that which is truly grand than death of Theodoric, and in the year 553, the ancient Romans, over whose posses- the Ostro-Goths were not only vanquished, sions he had now become ruler, and whose but also almost entirely annihilated. A empire he was anxious to restore, not by few only escaped over the Alps to seek an the rude force of arms, but in the form of asylum among other German nations. a peaceful alliance of nations. But as the Fifteen years after the fall of the Ostromild force of truth and justice always finds Goths, another valiant German nation, the its enemy in the selfishness of those who Longobardi, who had taken possession of only seek their own advantage and the in- the earlier dwelling-places of the former on dulgence of thei: passions, Theodoric con- the Danube, executed an act of retaliation, sequently experienced that the world was justly timed for them, on the Greeks. The not then yet rife enough for the fruction Greek general, Narses, upon falling under THE LONGOBARDI IN ITALY. 81 the displeasure of the emperor Justinian, also procured his supplies from the produce had himself called forward their king, of his possessions; and from one farm to Alboni or Albwin, who had already over. another he was regular in his visits of income the Gepidi, and now ruled in Hun. spection; living, in fact, with all the simgary, Austria, Carruthia, and even in a plicity of a patriarch, combined with the portion of Bavaria. This king possessed dignity of a great military leader. Their that heroic courage which graves itself free-men, as among the ancient Romans, deeply in the hearts of nations. Not only labored of their own accord to turn the dehis own nation, but those of the Saxons and sert and waste tracts into arable land, thus Bavarians sang his praise for centuries distinguishing themselves from other Ger. after his death. man nations. Agriculture flourished parOn the second day of April, in the year ticularly around monasteries, whose chron568, the king Alboni broke up from Hun- icles, says a great German writer, contain gary with all his Longobardian men, their the less dazzling but more satisfactory his. women and children, accompanied by tory, of the way in which theyalmost over20,000 Saxons. The country they hitherto came, or, at least, assisted Nature, and how possessed was left by them to their allies, cheerful gardens and smiling fields covered the Avari, who were found still there by the ruins of ancient Italy. Charlemagne subsequently. It was a morn- The majority of German nations, at the ing full of splendor when, from the heights time of the great migration, had come into of one of the advanced mountains of the new countries wholly different from their Alps, which was afterwards called the former settlements, and there found inhabKing's Mountain, the astonished strangers itants of a different race, with other lancast their eyes down upon their new and guages, manners, and laws. They, conbeautiful country. WhereverAlboni passed sequently, could not themselves continue to he showed his veneration for the church, exist stationary in their new country upon and sought, on every occasion, the affection the same footing that they had been used of the people. By the conquest of Pavia, to in their former homes; and it is importat the confluence of the Ticino and the Po. ant that we should place before our view, he founded his dominion in Upper Italy, in its broad outline, the great difference which, to the present day, has been called presented between the tribes which had Lombardy, from the Longobardi, and he wandered forth as conquerors, and those made it the chief city of those districts. In which had remained behind adhering to Lower Italy, also, this nation conquered their ancient simple customs. beautiful tracts of land, and founded the The German conquerors found, in Gaul, principality Benevento, which comprises Spain, Italy, and England, inhabitants conthe greatest portion of the present kingdom sisting of Romans and natives mixed. They of Naples. But Rome and Ravenna re- left them, it is true, after they had appromained in the hands of the Greeks, who priated to themselves a portion of their gained the Franks to their side by presents, possessions, in their dwelling-places, but in order that they might, by their means, generally as an ignoble and degenerate prevent the Longobardi from taking pos- race. By the laws of the Franks, the fine session of the whole of Italy, and consoli- for killing a Roman or a Gaul was only dating it into one powerful and strong king- the half, and in some cases but one fourth, dom. And, unfortunately for the country, of what it was for a free Frank. Afterin this object they succeeded..From that wards, notwithstanding their original separperiod to this day, Italy has remained dis- ation and distinctive character, it could not united, and has endured the severe fate of well be otherwise but that the Germans by a divided country, internally rent. Stran- degrees became mixed with the natives, and gers have, from time immemorial, contested that many of the latter, who were superior for its possession, and its ground has been to the Germans in knowledge, as well as deluged with streams of native and foreign in cunning and refinement, speedily obtainblood. ed, under weak kings, distinguished offices, The Longooardi cultivated their newly- and now ruled their former lords. They acquired country so admirably, that the even obtained, as services were paid only melancholy traces of former devastation with land, grants of possession as feudal became daily less discernible. The king tenures, and became thereby partakers in 11 82 CHANGES IN THE CUSTOMS AND INSTITUTIONS. the feudal rights. Romans and Gauls formed by a composition of many others, were seen to rank among the counts, dukes, is but the work of man, like the artificial and grand stewards, and thence arose, al- web which the hand of man prepares from though perhaps but slowly, a mixture of the plants of the field. It is true this may nations, and accordingly of manners, lan- be beautifully and richly worked'; but it is guages, and forms of ideas. then and for all times finished, and possesses The ancient vigorous nature of those no further internal power of life and growth. Germans who came into warm and luxuri- The constitution of the conquering Gerous countries, became enervated by effemi- man nations necessarily became also esnacy and sensuality. Thus the Vandals sentially changed. At home, in their in Africa, and the Ostro.Goths in Italy, in original condition, the power of royalty in the course of twenty years'after their arri- peace was but insignificant. The elders val, had become so much transformed and or counts, as the appointed judges in every degenerated, that they submitted to enemies gau or district, regulated the usual affairs, who previously could scarcely bear their adjudged disputes according to custom, and powerful glance. The tribes, however, upon more important and general affairs which remained in Germany, continued as the national assembly was convened. But firm and vigorous as ever; and if after- in war the power of the leader surpassed wards they became by degrees more mild, every thing else, and justly so, as it then like their climate, their forests were never- depended upon prompt decisions. The theless cleared so gradually, that the change king or prince was the unlimited lord, and in the people took place without too rapid, the most faithful of his suite or Gefolge and thereby injurious a transition. ranked next to him. When such a war But the greatest change that happened had speedily passed away, the prince to the migrated German branches, was in again retired into the insignificance of a reference to their language. For, as in state of peace; but in the many years of the conquered countries, the Roman or the incursions, amidst constant warfare, Latin language was chiefly spoken, and as his power became firmly established. The this was at that time much more cultivated whole nation became an army, and it ac. than the German, it could not be supplanted customed itself to the obedience necessary by the latter; but there arose a mixture of in war. The institutions of peace lost both, whereby they became changed, and much of their force, and as in their incurthe indigenous language of the country be- sive movements they had no country they fore the Roman period, often formed a third could call their own, their whole confidence component of this medley. Consequently and attachment were necessarily concenin France, Spain, Portugal, Italy, and Eng- trated in their leader, who led them to vicland, a language is spoken formed by a tory and pillage, and the forcible possesmixture with the Roman, which may per- sion of a new country.'He was the safehaps fall more gently upon the ear than the guard and hope of the nation; he stood to German, which yet retains much of its them in lieu of home and father-land, and former roughness from the ancient forests; those who stood next to him, as his suite, while, however, the former tongue is nei- were the most prosperous. ther so energetic, so hearty, and honest, nor To these latter, when conquest was comso rich in peculiar words. The German pleted, he apportioned first their share of language remains ever fresh and florid, booty and of land, as in ancient times he and is open to continual improvement in had given them only their horse, arms, and beauty and richness. It is a language en- entertainment. But without doubt he took tirely original, the roots of which ramify to himself the most desirable and considerinto the aboriginal foundations of German able share, and particularly the lands of national idiosyncrasy, and draws its nour- the conquered or slain princes; his power ishment from the rich fountain of life with being thus founded by his possessions and which nature has endowed the nation; it strong adherents. The Goths, the Bur. may be compared to the living plant in a gundians, and the Longobardi, who came fruitful soil, and the labor bestowed upon as migrating nations, with their wives and it, is as that of the gardener who watches children, must certainly have exacted from and carefully attends to the development the conquered a considerable portion of of the favorite tree. But the language their possessions. The Ostro-Goths in THE CONSTITUTION-THE FEUDAL SYSTEM 83 Italy demanded one-third of the land, the Franks, and the other German nations while the Westro-Goths and Burgundians subjected to them. The exertions to ob. required from the Gauls as much as two-; tain fiefs, and procure appointment for the thirds. The Franks, on the contrary, made services connected therewith under the their conquests in excursions from home, sovereign, became increasingly predominot only as a nation, but as the suite of nant, for thereby was attained influence their prince. Their numbers were not and power; and to gain this many gave great, hence they did not require to take up their freedom. The feudatoies took from the Gauls and Romans any portion the name of liege subjects (fideles) and of their land, although, according to their people (leudes) of the prince, or:vassals, ideas of the rights of conquerors, they con- (vassi,) whence vasalli is derived. The sidered the whole as their property; and feudal lord was called senior (whence in many cases, no doubt, they seized much seigneurs) or dominus. The name anof private property, so that-the chance of trustio (confidential) signified the liege sub. the Gauls became often much more fa- ject, leader of a troop, or arimanie of the tal, inasmuch as they were more imme- escort or train, in which quality he had to diately exposed to the wild and arbitrary take a particular oath of fidelity, and then demands made.* But altogether, they still stood truste dominica. Those liege subfound in what the Romans had previously jects who stood in close service to the prince possessed as national property, a sufficiency were called administrators. of land; besides, in those portions of Gaul The great vassals could distribute from which they took from the Westro.Goths, their own land fiefs to other poorer indithe majority of those land possessions fell viduals, who engaged in their service, and to them which the latter, upon the con- thus became after, or arriere vassals. quest, had appropriated to themselves; for They were obliged, with these their fideles, many of them were killed in the war, and to follow the heerbann of the prince, while many likewise quitted the country and ad- the common freeman, who: had only an vanced into Spain, that they might not be- allodial, or free inheritance, (in contradiscome slaves to the Franks. The whole tinction to feudum,*) was only obliged to mass of the conquered state-lands above attend in great national wars, and for mentioned (according to the Roman ex. which the heerbann, in the ancient Gerpression, fiscus) formed now, after the king man sense, was proclaimed. Notwithhad received his chief portion, the common standing which, the feudatories soon began property of the conquerors. It was thence, to look down upon the freeman as upon so long as they held together as an army, one much their inferior, and to consider that their support was furnished; after- themselves, on the other hand, as the nowards, when they began to domicile them- bility of the nation-even when they were selves among their new subjects, and, ac- not descended from the original nobility of cording to the original disposition of Ger- the nation, for Gauls were likewise enaman nations, desired to obtain entire pos. bled to receive fiefs; nay, already, under session, they received this from the mass Clovis, these were elevated beyond the of fiscal lands, as a reward (beneficium) for Franks in honors, for they more easily the military services rendered; and for yielded obedience than the latter, and which they remained obligated: to afford were thus more agreeable to the king. further military duty at the command of The law also made a distinction prejudithe king, holding, however, possession of cial to the free possessor. The liege subthe land merely as a fief, or loan, (lehen,) jects (in truste dominica) had a higher during their lives. amount of fine-money allowed them; it From this commencement was developed amounted to: three-fourths of that of the the entire constitution, afterwards so im- common freeman; and even when the portant and influential, and which was liege subject was merely of Roman decalled the feudal state. In the following scent, the sum was higher than that of the centuries it obtained, by degrees, its full free Frank, it being 300 solidis, while perfection, particularly when it extended that of the latter was 200. itself backward to the ancient seats of The feods, originally, were not heredi. * "Nec ullus muttire coram iis audebat," says Greg- * The word feudum, however, dr -s not present i ory of Tours, self before the second century 84 THE FEUDAL SYSTEM-THE LAWS. tary; the lord could withdraw, and invest freemen thus lost their liberty, because others with them; but in the course of their possessions were esteemed of but littime, and particularly under weak govern- tie value, as, for instance, an ox by the ments, the vassals found means, in one Salic laws was worth two gold shillings, a way or the other, to obtain hereditary pos- cow but one, a stallion six, and a mare session, and make it nearly independent; three; therefore, an opprobrious word cost the royal power being thus again restrict- a considerable sum, for he who called anoed, by those whom it had previously ele. ther a liar, was obliged to give him six vated for its support. The majority of shillings, or two oxen; he who called him vassals were also powerful by their inher- knave or scoundrel, as much as fifteen ited property; and who would deprive the shillings. The extent of the punishment powerful man, or his son, of his feod? certainly conduced to their frequently maProperty and feods became mixed, because king arrangements, in order that they he who inherited the property inherited might not, through the excitement of a also the feod. passionate moment, involve each other in The power of the kings was, therefore, deep misfortune. As each went armed, not unlimited, and the ancient freedom not and could always defend himself, the murannihilated, inasmuch as the nation still der of a man, according to the Allemannic participated in the decision of important law, was only half as heavily punished as national affairs. Regular assemblies were that of a woman, who was defenceless. still held, and by the Franks at first, in But theft was more abhorred than murder, March; afterwards, under Pepin the Lit- because a coward may also attack defencetie, in May; whence the names of March less objects. According to the Saxon law, and May plains. But the greatest differ- he who had stolen a horse was punished ence from ancient times was, that these with death, but every murder, even that assemblies consisted no longer of the ma- of a noble, money could buy off. The jority of all the freemen, but chiefly of highest fines inflicted were, first, that of a feudatories, so that the nobility gave the Bavarian duke, of 960 shillings, and sec. decision. ondly, that of a bishop, of 900 shillings. The laws of the German nations of this There was no fine fixed for a king, for his age show that their state was still very person was considered sacred and unasrude. The punishment of death was sailable. With the Franks, the finescarcely awarded to any crime except money of the royal Antrustio, if he was a treason and infidelity. The German re- Frank, was equal to that of a count, 600 garded personal liberty so highly, that he shillings; of the freeman 200, and the would not yield to any other the right to Litus 100. For the Romans it was fixed his life. Murder might be compounded at half these amounts, in the same profor with money or goods, and the compen- portion: so that the Romnanus conviva regis sation obtained by relatives, who, accord- paid 300 shillings, the Romanus possessor ing to the ancient right of the retribution 100, but the Romanus tributarius, instead of blood, could have demanded the blood of 50, paid only 45. Among the other of the offender. Accordingly, the injured nations, according to their laws, there family possessed the right of feud or hos- were many variations. Every corporeal tility against the other, -until satisfaction wound was very precisely fixed by a mowas given. Expiation for the non-exer- ney rate; the mutilation of the hand, for cised family revenge was, therefore, the instance, cost 100 shillings, of a thumb original signification of the retribution, or 45; the nose the same, the fore finger 35, fine-money. The punishment of death, and any of the others 15 shillings. however, would not have withheld these Judgment was held under the open firmpassionate nations, who instantly grasped ament, in an enclosed place, called Mal. the sword, and had but little fear of death, lum, (Malstatte, or Malberg,) and before from the momentary satisfaction of re- an elevated shield. The judges chosen venge; the pecuniary penalty was, on the under the presidency of the count were, in contrary, very high for that period, and all cases, for freemen also freemen them. therefore more felt; and he who could not selves, and called in judicial language pay it lost his freedom, and became the Rachimburgi, or boni homines. These were slave of the offended party. Many poor nominated by counts, usually to the num. PASTIMES-CHRISTIANITY IN GERMANY. 85 ber of seven. In cases where the Rachim. ness of moral dignity begins to awaken burgi could not find judgment, the so-called before the power of self-government is Sagibarones, who were appointed as special present to subdue the active impulses of counsellors or magistrates, stepped in to passion. decide. The regular tribunal which met The Goths, Burgundians, Longobardiat certain fixed periods, was called mallum ans, and Franks, had, as has been related, legitimum. It was attended by the entire much earlier adopted Christianity; in population, and the whole community gave Germany proper it made its appearance a its decision, and not the judges, (Rachim- couple of centuries later. For although burgi,) who merely found the judgment. the Allemanni, Thuringians, and BavariIn the especial or summoned tribunals, ans were subject to the Franks, the latter however, at which only few assisted besides did not give themselves much trouble to the counts and judges, the latter decided at disseminate the holy doctrines among once; the others present did not act as a them; although, by such a boon, they community, but only attended as audience, might have given them a compensation for and as such had nothing to say. the loss of liberty. It appeared, indeed, To arrive at the guilt or innocence of as if they, who had adopted Christianity an accused person appeared to the Ger- in need and in the tumult of battle, sought mans, with their acute feeling for the sa- and desired only to promulgate it with the credness of justice, to be one of the most sword. On the other hand, the apostles indispensable duties. When, therefore, who planted these mild doctrines among the truth was not to be obtained by means the German forests, came from distant of witnesses, they sought higher aid, by countries-from England, Scotland, and having recourse to the so-called judgments Ireland. The Angli and Saxons, who had of God. The innocence of the accused landed there as heathens, were slowly conparty seemed confirmed if they remained verted to Christianity, not by force, but by unharmed upon being exposed to the dan- instruction and conviction. And it, theregers which, in the ordinary course of fore, struck so deep a root in their minds, things, are injurious; if, for instance, that speedily a multitude of inspired and upon exposing the hand or foot to boiling Christian men travelled from those counwater or a glowing iron, it remained un- tries as teachers of the heathens. They marked, or if in single combat he con- had not to expect either rich abbeys or quered his opponent. They had confi. much honor and reward among them, but, dence that God would not allow innocence on the contrary, ridicule, contempt, want, to fall, and no doubt in the single combat, and the most extreme danger. at least, the consciousness of innocence Such men were the holy Columban would frequently give the victory. and Gallus, in the sixth century; KiliTheir chief pleasures were still the an, Emmeran, Rupertus, and Willibrod, chase and war. The former they loved in the seventh and eighth centuries; so much, and so highly prized all that and, at last, the Englishman Winefred, pertained to it, that the Allemanni esti- who afterwards received the honorable mated a stolen lime hound at twelve shil- name of Bonifacius, (the Beneficent.) He lings, while a horse could be compensated labored from the year 718 to 755 with inat six, and a cow at only one shilling. A exhaustible courage for Christianity. In common trained hawk was valued at three, Franconia, Thuringia, on the Rhine, and and one that had taken a stork at six shil- among the Saxons and Friesi, his zeal lings. planted the divine doctrines; and while he The whole moral and civil condition of introduced and established the Christian;he German tribes, in the centuries imme- worship, so humanizing to the manners, he diately after the great migration, was in collected the communities into villages, certain respects worse than their ancient and this laid a foundation for towns. For simple state, when they followed the im- the strengthening of the new faith, he mediate impulses of their nature. They fixed bishoprics here and there, or reguwere now on the transit from the uncon- lated those already existing, as in Salzscious life of nature to a consequent pro- burg, Passau, Freisingen, Ratisbonne, gress in civilization, and this period of a Wurtzburg, Eichstadt, and Erfurt; the nation is the worst, because the conscious- celebrated abbey Fulda was founded by 86 CHRISTIANITY IN GERMANY-ARCHBISHOP BONIFACE. his follower Sturm, and at Ohrdruf he dience towards the Roman bishop, who now planted a school for future teachers, who, as pope stood uncontestedly at the head of according to the rule of their institution,. the western church. Boniface, however, not only zealously propagated Christianity, would not remain inactive and pass his later but also the arts of agriculture and horti- years in quiet, for the conversion of the culture. heathens was now, as formerly, still the laIn addition to all this, he did not hesi- bor and aim of his life; and at last his zeal tate, although at great personal danger, to was rewarded with the martyr's fate. Upon contend against the rude disposition of the his return to the Friesi, in order solemnly people with the force of his faith. He to consecrate some newly-baptized Chrisoverturned their altars, and cut down their tians, he was fallen upon by a troop of barsacred trees, beneath which they sacrificed barians, who expected to gain booty from to their gods. One among these, at Geiss- him. His servants seized their arms to mar in Hessia, was particularly celebra- repel the attack;he, however, forbade them ted; but Boniface himself seized the axe to shed blood, and was therefore at once and helped to hew it down. The sur- murdered with all his companions by the rounding heathens firmly believed that the furious band. god who dwelt in the tree would speedily The religious foundations, churches, and come forth with fire, and consume the cul. cloisters which Boniface and others built in prit and all his companions. But the tree Germany, became not only the sparks fell without the fire coming, and with it whence the light of religion and intellectudropped their former confidence in their god. al cultivation proceeded, but many of them But Boniface complained even more of formed also the nucleus of new towns and the bad Christian priests themselves, whom villages which, by degrees, arose around he found among the Franks, than of the them. Not only the bondsmen built their savageness of the heathens. They lived huts close to them, but others also sought the in all kinds of vice, and made no con- protection of their walls, and merchants and science of sacrificing to the false gods, as traders proceeded thither in the hopes of well as to baptize howsoever was requirte mnakii.g profit from the multitude of stran. from them for the money offered for so gers who flocked there for the sake of wordoing. And even the best among them ship. Thenameof the festival, Kirchmesse took as much delight in arms and the or Churchwake, derived thence its origin. chase as in the duties of their spiritual The kingdom of the Franks was divided office. "Religion has now been prostra- into two great portions, Neustria and Austed full sixty or seventy years," says he in trasia, or the Western and Eastern kingdoms; an epistle to Pope Zacharias; "and the and the former was again frequently divided Franks for more than eighty years have into several parts. In the Western kinghad neither an assembly in council of the dom, the Roman manners and language church nor an archbishop. The bishop- maintained the superiority; but in the East rics are in the hands chiefly of greedy those of the Germans were predominant. laymen or criminal churchmen, who per- Both nations were frequently at war and ceive profit in nothing but temporalities." discontented with each other. Hence one of his chief cares was, that In the year 613, Clothaire II. once again councils should be held by the Franconian united the two divisions of the kingdom, but clergy to restore good morals and the soon afterwards resigned that of Austrasia ancient church discipline, and that the into the hands of his son Dagobert, who, on clergy should participate in the assemblies the death of his father, in the year 628, of the March plains, (Martii Campi,) that again combined the whole together. Under the weal of the Church might also be these two governments, which may be inthere taken into consideration; and to- eluded in the series as the most happy, the wards this he accomplished much, for kingdom became strengthened, and the inwhich he made himself greatly distin- ternal relations, by the exertions of Arnolph, guished. bishop of Metz, and the great chamberlain In the year 746, Boniface was made or prime minister, Pepin of Landen, (grandarchbishop of Mentz, and as such he stood father of Pepin of Heristal,) were greatly at the head of the East-Franconian clergy, improved, and rendered more perfect and which he accustomed to unconditional obe- settled. DAGOBERT-THE GRAND CHAMBERLAINS. 87 The judicial system now assumed more privilege of mercy, disposed of offices, disof the Christian character; for, according tributed vacant sinecures, and left to the to the original pagan law, every act of mur. king merely the honor of his name and that der, with the exception of that committed of the crown, and the indulgence of his against the king, could be compounded for sensuality in the inner apartments of the with money and land, whereas now it was palace. It was only at the March assemdecreed that each premeditated murder bly that the king appeared personally should be punished with death. The clergy amidst his people. There he sat publicly likewise were placed upon a more elevated upon the seat of his ancestors, greeted his and distinct footing, and which, indeed, was nobles, and was saluted in return by them; extremely necessary and desirable, so that he received the presents brought by the naChristianity might not again sink and fall tion, and handed them over to the grand into neglect. In order that bishops should, chamberlain or steward standing beside the as far as possible, consist of the most worthy throne, distributing, according to his recommen, the ecclesiastics received, with the co- mendation, the vacant places, and confirmoperation of the people, the right of election, ing those he had already disposed of. He (clerus cum populo.) The jurisdiction of then mounted his chariot, which, according the clergy was likewise, at the great synod to ancient custom, was drawn by four oxen, of Paris in 614, established upon a more drove to his palace, and remained there firm and secure basis; and at the grand until the following March assembly. conferences its influence became more im- Such was the condition of the great portant, inasmuch as they appeared there conqueror Clovis's descendants, before two almost alone with the great vassals or high- hundred years had passed since his death. er officers of the crown. The ancient as- About the year 700, the grand steward semblies of the people had, under Clovis, over the whole kingdom of the Franks, entirely ceased to exist. Neustria as well as Austrasia, was Pepin Dagobert resided chiefly in Paris. We of Heristal, (near Liege;) a very careful find that under him continual wars were and prudent man, who restored order and carried on between the Franks and Slavi, justice, held the old March assemblies rewhich produced against them a friendly gularly, and won so much the love and league between the Franks and Saxons. confidence of the people, by restoring in Dagobert released the Saxons from their this manner their rights against the entribute of five hundred cows. croachments of the hordes, that he was After the death of Dagobert, in 637, the enabled to make the office hereditary to his decline of the Merovingian dynasty comn- family. His son, Charles Martel, who menced anew, and we find seven kings was grand steward after him, saved the ruled like puppets by guardians, acting as whole of Christianity at this moment from prime ministers or mayors of the palace, a great impending danger. thus producing the complete fall of the race. A savage horde had arrived from the These mayors got the entire sway of the south, and had in a short time traversed kingdom. Originally, the major-domus extensive tracts with fire and sword, and was only steward; he stood at the head of subjected all to their dominion. No nation the royal house and of the royal people, could set limits to them, their arm was (leudes,) and was leader of the feudal irresistible, and struck their opponents like retinue in war, next to the king. The lightning. These strangers were the Arabs; heerbann of freemen was not under him. they came from Asia, and they derived their But when the retinue obtained, by degrees, great power from the new faith. For he the precedence, and became properly the whom they called their prophet, Mahomet, state, the heerbann fell into disuse, and the had announced to them much from the independent freemen becoming reduced in doctrines of Moses and of our Saviour; number, the grand steward then rose to be besides which he promised to this people, effectually the first officer of the kingdom, who were addicted to sensual pleasures and under weak kings was their ruler. beyond every thing, great rewards and an When a war was to be conducted, the ever-during bliss in Paradise, if they grand steward placed himself at the head of fought zealously for their new faith, and the troops, and showed himself prepared for extended it over all countries. Mahomet warlike feats; in peace also, he exercised lived about the year 622. They had now 88 THE ARABS-PEPIN THE LITTLE. rapidly conquered several lands in Asia more than 300,000 fell, together with their and Africa, and in less than a hundred general, Abderachman, slaughtered by the years after the death of Mahomet, in the swords of the Franks. Those who reyear 711, they had already crossed the mained fled towards southern France, Straits of Gibraltar to Spain. Roderic, whence Charles soon drove them forth, and king of the West Goths, who ruled in placed forever a boundary against them on Spain, opposed them near Xeres de la this side. Charles, who, for this deed, was Frontera; he strove for his crown, for the highly honored throughout all countries, freedom and religion of the West Goths; died in the year 741. long and severe was the battle. Roderic His son was called Pepin the Little, ol fought heroically, until a treacherous count, the Short; he was also grand steward unti. who called the Arabs across the straits, 752, and ruled the kingdom according tc passed over to the enemy. The king then his pleasure, but with wisdom and justice, fell, and with him the flower of his army. while king Childeric III. sat in his palace The kingdom of the West Gothe was sub- like a shadow, and took not the least care jected to the Arabs, and they soon ruled of his government. When Pepin saw the from the sea to the Pyrenees, so that only disposition of the Franks favorable to him, a very small spot to the northwest of he caused an assembly of them to take Spain, in the mountains of Gallicia, re- place in the year 751, when it was demained a free possession in the hands of termined to send an embassy to Rome, with the Goths. this question: "Is he justly called king After the Arabs had conquered Spain, who has the royal power in his hands, or they cast their eyes upon France, and, he whomerely bears the name?" To which crossing the Pyrenees, fell upon that coun- pope Zacharias replied, " He must also be try. At the same time they showed them- called king, who possesses the royal power." selves below Constantinople with a large The holy Boniface had accustomed the army and a fleet: so that they embraced Franks, in certain cases of conscience, to the whole of Europe from east to west, apply to the pope for advice as their spiritudetermined upon conquering it and ex. al father, and the papal reply is to be tinguishing Christianity. And had they regarded as counsel and opinion, as an obtained the victory on both sides they answer to such a question, but not as a would have advanced still farther, and the deposal of king Childeric, by virtue of the two great armies would have met and power existing in the pope. Upon this, united in Germany and have completed the Franks assembled again at Soissons, the work. But Providence had determin- and took the crown from Childeric, the last ed otherwise. The city of Constantinople of the Merovingians, cut off his long hair, held firm against the attack, with its strong the mark of honor with the Frankish kings, walls and Greek fire, which the inhabi- and had him removed to a cloister, there to tants used against the ships of their enemy. end his days; while Pepin, the son of But in France they were opposed by the Charles Martel, and grandson of Pepin of powerful hero Charles Martel, the son of Heristal, was in the year 752 solemnly Pepin; he was called Martel or the ham- anointed and crowned king of the Franks mer, because by his bravery he struck his by the archbishop Boniface, 266 years after enemies down, as it were, like a hammer. Clovis the Merovingian had, by his victory With his Franks he crossed the river Loire over Syagrius, upon this same field of to meet the enemy, and came upon them Soissons, first founded the kingdom. between the cities of Tours and Poitiers, Pepin by his courage and wisdom aug. where a wide plain spread itself out. The mented the power of his nation. At this battle here took place on a Saturday in time, in 753, pope Stephen crossed the October, in the year 732. Close and im- Alps (he being the first pope who since passable, and covered with an advanced the foundation of the church had underwall of shields, the Franks stood immovea- taken this journey) to demand the assistble, and endured their first violent attack, ance of Pepin against the Longobardian for this was always the most furious. The king Aistulph, who had conquered RavenFranks, however, then suddenly broke na, and demanded tribute and submission forth, precipitated themselves upon the from the pope. Pepin promised him aid, Arabs, repulsed them, and it is said that and retained him through the winter at his tCARbiEMAGiNLi, OR CHARLES AIHi GREAT 89 court in Minster. Here the pope repeated Pepin died in 768, in the fifty-fourth the anointment of the king, as already per- year of his age, and the Franks mourned formed by the holy Boniface, anointing his death as much as if he had sprung also his two sons, Carloman and Charles, from the ancient royal race. In stature (after he had himself lifted the latter, then he was short, but very strong. It is relatwelve years old, from the font,) and then ted of him, that once, upon the occasion of presented to the Franks these members of a combat of wild beasts, some one jested the newly-created dynasty as alone legiti- about his size, upon which he stepped into mate. In the spring of the year 754 the the arena, drew his sword, and with one king advanced against Italy, defeated Ais- blow struck off the head of a lion: " I am tulph at Susa, reconquered Ravenna, with not tall," said he, "but my arm is strong!" the surrounding country, which had pre- His sons, Charles and Carloman, were viously belonged to the Greek emperors, elected kings by the nation of the Franks, and presented it to the pope. This formed in a solemn assembly, and regularly dithe beginning of the papal states. vided the kingdom between them. THIRD PERIOD. THE CARLOVINGIANS FROM CHARLEMAGNE TO HENRY I. 768-919. THE events of the reign of Charlemagne called forth ed with the writings of Tacitus, and from the.tter's the energy of the historical writers: Germania he has quoted several chapters liferally. 1. The annals and chronicles, of which mention has With respect to the western moiety of. the Frankish been made previously, became augmented, and proved kingdom, the " Annales Bertiniani" (so called from the for this period more and more important; while educa- Abbey St. Bertinbei Gent) of 822, give the best infortion so much promoted by Charlemagne, is therein mation. The last moiety was perhaps written by the displayed, both in the language and treatment of the celebrated Archbishop Hincmar of Rheims. subject. 9. A monk of St. Gallen, Monachus Sangallensis, has 2. In reference to the history of Charlemagne, the described in two books, "de Gestis Car. Magni," the works of Einhard or Eginhard will always remain the life of the emperor in a peculiar fashion, according to most important, being written by a man who was in communications received and popular legends, mostly immediate communication with that sovereign. His without historical fidelity, but still not without grace. " Annales," from 741-829, treat more particularly of 10. Abbo, a monk of St. Germain, was present at the this period than the continuation of the " Annal Lauris- siege of Paris by the Normans in 885, and has desenses," before mentioned. The " Vita Caroli Magni," scribed the events of that period in a poem, " de Bellis after giving a brief account of the wars of Charlemagne Pariiacis," in a very animated style. describes especially every other particular connected 11. The so-called Poeta Saxo, (900,) has rendered with his life and its events; and must be read by all into verse what Einhard's Annals relate of the emwith pleasure. In addition to this we possess also his peror, and has partly succeeded in his work, although letters. he can never, or but rarely, be used as a reference. 3. Theganus, bishop of Treves, who died in 848, 12. The Chronicles of the Abbot Regino, who died wrote the life of Louis the Pious,-" De Gestis Ludovici in 915, and which extend to the year 907, are very imPii"-certainly not very impartially, and rather too portant for the latter period of the Carlovingians. briefly, yet written with sincerity and exact informa- 13. The letters of the popes, sovereigns, princes, &c., tion. of this period are also very important, particularly 4. The " Vita Hludovici Pii auctore anonymo," is those which are contained in the Codex Carolinus; much more complete, written by a member of the em- likewise the letters and works of Alcuin, as also the peror's household; this is rich in facts, and is expressed letters of Servatus Lupus, Eginhard's friend, and with judgment. Hincmar, Archbishop of Rheims. 5. Equally important is the poetical representation of 14. Finally, it is quite certain that the " Capitularia acontemporary, Ermoldus Nigellus, in his elegiac poem, Regum Francorum," the laws of the realm, and gen"in honorem Hludovici Cesaris." eral decrees of the kings, form a principal source of 6. Nithard, grandson of the emperor, who died in reference for our history. They were collected by 858, describes most completely the disputes among the Baluzius, and have been recently published by Pertz, sons of Louis, in his " IV Libris de dissensionibus filio- in the third volume of the "Monumenta." rum Ludovici Pii;" he shows himself to be decidedly on the side of Charles the Bald. 7. The " Vita Sti-Anskarii," by Rimbert, Archbishop of Hamburg written under Louis the German, treats more especially upon the North German relations. C H A P T E R V. 8. Enhard's and Rudolphus's "Annals of Fulda," 768 o 14 and their continuators, are, after the conclusion of Einhard, very important in German history. In his Charlemagne, 768-814-The state in which Charlework, Rudolphus gives a very interesting description magne found the Empire-The East-Roman or of the Saxons; he is the only writer who was acquaint- Grecian Empire-England-The North of Europe 12 90 CHARLEMAGNE-STATE OF THE EMPIRE. The Spanish Peninsula-Italy-Austria and Hue- stream because it flows not like the mead. gary —Germany- The Wars of C1harlemagne-The owv brook, but dra Saxons-The ongobardi-The Arabs-The Bava- owy brook,butdrags forth even stones and rians-The Empire of Charlemagne-Charlemagne, trees, bearing them onward with it in its Emperor of Rome, 800-The Death of Charlefiagne, course? It is true it tears forth by the 814-His portraiture. course It is true t tears forth by the roots the decayed and rotten stems, but IT has been the fate of Charlemagne, as thereby the light of heaven is opened to wtll as of the majority of extraordinary cheer the progress of the more young and historical characters, to be subjected to the tender plants. ordeal of a very different, and frequently Let this, however, by no means be cona very opposite criticism. By many he sidered as an apology for the violence of has been classed with the noblest heroes tyrannical rulers, whose actions flow from and sages of the human race, by some, an impure source. Man is a free agent, however, he has been rejected as a blood- and presents himself as the ready instruthirsty tyrant, whose whole object and de- ment of Providence in its great plans. The sire was war and destruction. It is true manner in which he executes his office dethat he led his armies from one end of his pends upon himself, and either justifies or extensive empire to the other in constant condemns him. It is not the great deeds warlike expeditions, and subjected many he has performed, nor the thousands who nations by force of arms to his dominion, have bled in battle, while others in the inthus giving Europe an entirely different toxication of victory have profanely worform. The question therefore to be solved shipped him, that decide upon his merits or is, whether history shall bless or curse him demerits, but it is the object by which he for these extraordinary deeds. was governed, and the purpose for which A false judgment must necessarily be he accomplished his extraordinary plans: passed upon great men and the great events whether he has been guided by great of nations, by those who cannot transport thoughts towards a worthy and noble end, themselves from their own times back into or only by his own pride, his ambition, and those whereof the picture is to be drawn. vanity, or, to speak figuratively, whether In periods when society is in a ferment, in the mirror of his life the infinite creaand barbarism and civilization are in con- tion and its worlds, or only his own proud test with each other; when from the ex- image be reflected. This may be observed isting component parts something new and from many signs, but it is especially to be great is to germinate, towards which the recognised therein, viz., when he has retranquil course of things, as handed down, vered the dignity of humanity as a sacred will not suffice- Providence sends forth object, even in its details, or not observing mighty individuals, who are destined to or acknowledging it, but despising men, lead a whole age many steps onward in its he has merely used them as instruments to development, and according to the object his purposes. which they are to accomplish, it furnishes This should be our rule of judgment, in them with adequate vigor of intellect and order that we may not allow ourselves on strength of will. But because such chosen the one side to bestow admiration upon spirits do not follow the beaten track, and mere power without intrinsic goodness, nor because, perhaps, while their eye is fixed on the other to prejudge unjustly all those upon the distant mountain summit, many names which are inscribed in the volume, a flower is crushed beneath their feet, and too frequently perhaps in characters of they in the impatient struggle, which in blood and fire. the short space of the life of one man is to The work of a great man derives its determine the plan of the course of centu- proper light from the condition of the ries, wound unconsciously many a sacred world when he appeared upon the stage; right; the easy, indolent spirit of the lover it is therefore necessary to take a short reof repose, therefore, to which the sanctity view of the state of Europe at the time of rights forms the foundation-stone of life, Charles attained the empire. is loud in execration against the vessel in 1. The East-Roman, or Greek empire, which was compressed such gigantic, still existed; but only in the strange mixmighty powers, and the judgment thence ture of old and new relations, of splendor pronounced is frequently severe and un- and misery, of presumption and weakness,'ust. But who shall censure the mountain as it had existed for a thousand years-in ENGLAND-THE NORTH OF EUROPE-THE SPANISH PENINSULA. 91 the history of the world a riddle. For it is magne's quick eye detected them to be scarcely to be conceived how the mere Norman pirates by their shape and rapid shadow of an ancient, great, and splendid motions. They hastily retired when they state, or as it were the gaudily-decorated heard that the great emperor was there. corpse of antiquity, as that empire has After they had disappeared he turned sorbeen happily called, should have.preserved rowfully from the window,: shed tears, and itself so long without internal life. The at last said to those around him, "You change of rulers and the inconstancy of all would fain know, my friends, why I wept? conditions were so great, that for an em. Not from fear, no! but it vexes me that, peror of Constantinople no title was more during my life, they have ventured to this flattering than being styled, "' The imperi- shore, and with grief do I foresee, alas! al son of a father born in the purple robe," the mischief they will bring to my succes(porphyrogenitus porphyrogeniti.) For the sors." throne came by turns to men who had 4. The Spanish Peninsula was subjectbeen born among the dregs of society, and ed to the Arabians with the exception of who owed their elevation to some crime. some Westro-Gothic places among the To Charlemagne this distant and-extensive, mountains, but their religious zeal had albut wealthy empire, could not be immedi- ready cooled, and their power was tamed ately either an object of dreador ambition. by internal dissensions. Charlemagne's He maintained friendship with the Greek grandfather had deterred them from the emperors, and they mutually honored each conquest of Europe, and they thought only other with embassies and presents, for it of maintaining their own existence in Spain. was desirable to the Greeks to be upon But Charlemagne could not behold with good terms with him. " Retain the Frank indifference the enemies of the Christian for thy friend, but prevent him from being name as his neighbors. thy neighbor," was an established proverb 5. Italy was divided into three domiamong the Greeks. nions, the Longobardian in Upper and a 2. England, at the commencement of portion of Lower Italy; the Grecian in Charlemagne's reign, was still divided Lower Italy and Sicily; and the Roman among several Anglo-Saxon kings, and in Middle Italy. Rome was in a mixed formed a secluded world of its own, with- state, for the power was divided between out possessing any influence upon the na- the pope, the senate, and the people, but tions of the continent. Charlemagne's the pope daily acquired more importance. name, however, was speedily known and The superior protective dominion of the highly esteemed. One of his most confi- city had passed from the Greek emperors dential friends, Alcuin, was an English- to the kings of the Franks, for Pope Steman, and by his means he often caused phen, in the name of the Roman senate and the princes there to be written to, and per- people, had, in the year 754, conveyed the suaded them to be united and repel the at- dignity of a Roman patrician to King Pepin tacks of the valiant Danes. Even the and his sons. Between the Romans and Thanes, or petty kings of Scotland, called the Longobards there arose a bitter hatred him no otherwise than their lord. and implacable enmity, which were the 3. The north of Europe was still but lit- immediate cause of Charlemagne interfertle known. It is true it was the cradle of ing in the affairs of Italy. He had, indeed, valiant men, who knew how to wield the endeavored to remove the ancient jealousy iron of their soil with a powerful arm, and which prevailed between the Franks and who after the reign of Charlemagne, by the Longobards by marrying the daughter their maritime expeditions gained them- of King Desiderius, but upon this occasion selves a terrific name upon all the coasts Pope Stephen wrote to him thus: " What of Europe. They were yet, however, with- madness in the most excellent son of a great out importance to the Frankish empire. king to sully his noble Frankish race by Nevertheless, with his comprehensive mind, an alliance with that most faithless and most Charlemagne perceived the danger which fulsome nation, the Longobardi, who should threatened from them. It is related that not be named among the multitude of na. being once at a seaport, (it is said at Nar. tions, and from whom doubtlessly the race bonne,) some ships approached the coast, of lepers had their origin. What corn but their crews were not known. Charle- munity of feeling has light with darkness, 92 AUSTRIA AND HUNGARY-THE AVARIANS, &c. or a believer with an unbeliever?" The to the Frankish institutions, by counts with. Longobards richly returned this hatred of out hereditary power in distinct districts. the Romans; one of their bishops says of Thence they wanted a central point of them: " Under the name of a Roman we union, and the ancient love of independence comprehend all that is mean, cowardly, survived most firmly among the Bavarians avaricious, and lying, nay, even all vices alone. The bishops in all these provinces combined." -Charlemagne's union with were very much attached to the Carlovinthe royal house of the Longobards was not gian dynasty. durable, for two years afterwards he sent But on the borders of his empire, in the back the daughter of King Desiderius: north of Germany, dwelt neighbors who whether it arose from the ill-will of the offered the first object for the trial of his pope to this marriage, or whether other un- strength, namely, the Saxons, unconquered known reasons urged him, we cannot say, and free, fixed in their boundaries from the but we shall speedily see that greater causes German Ocean to Thuringia, and from arose for the enmity between them. the Elbe to the vicinity of the Rhine. 6. To the southeast of Charles's posses- While among the Franks, the old German sions in Austria and Hungary, dwelt the institutions had been much altered, and the Avari, a Mongolian nation from Asia, which warriors in the Gefolge or suite of the king, had long warred with and plundered the had assumed the order of nobility, and ocprovinces of the eastern empire, but now cupied the place of the freemen, the Saxquietly but anxiously guarded the treasures ons still lived in the ancient manners of amassed during two centuries. These lay their ancestors, without a common chieftain, heaped up in nine particular places, sur- each Gau or district under its own head, rounded by walls and ditches, and which and only during war, under a self-elected:ere called circles, appearing to invite, as leader. It was a community of freemen it were, every one to retake them from in free dwellings. The interior of their their possessors, who themselves did not country was defended by forests and moknow how to enjoy them. rasses, and strong places for the defence of 7. The remaining portion of the eastern the boundaries were erected on the Lippe, German borders was occupied by the dif- Ruhr, Weser, Dimel, and Elbe. In their ferent branches of the Slavonians and Van- groves of a thousand years' growth, they dais, rude nations of a less noble, natural still sacrificed to the gods of their fathers, disposition than the Germans. In Ger- while the other German tribes had all many they possessed Holstein, Mecklen- adopted Christianity; nay, they were even burg, Brandenburg, Pomerania, a portion accused of still celebrating human sacriof Saxony, the Lausitz, Silesia, Bohemia, fices. The Franks considered themselves and Moravia. In Holstein were the Wag- so superior to them by reason of their Chrisrians; in Mecklenburg, the Obotriti; in a tianity, as well as the general superiority portion of Brandenburg, the Wilzen; in of their cultivation, that theirhistorians can another part the Hevellers and Ukerns; scarcely deprecate sufficiently the rudethe Pomeranians in the province which ness and wildness of the Saxons. But they has received their name-collective branch- were not so much dangerous as burdenes of the Vandals. In the district of Meis- some neighbors of the Franks, because, acsen, the Sclavonian Sorbi; in Lausitz, the cording to the ancient German practice, Lausitzers; in Bohemia, the Ezechi; and they did not wish to make conquests, but the Moravians in Moravia. merely roved in predatory incursions into 8. In Germany itself Charlemagne found neighboring countries. But a well-guardgreater tranquillity. The Septs, who had ed frontier would have been a sufficient been subjected to the Franks, the Alle- protection against them, as well as against manni, Bavarians, and Thuringians, had the Sclavonians and Avari, and we see by degrees accustomed themselves to the from this sketched description, that Charles foreign dominion, which was not only not might have remained, like the Merovinoppressive, but had even left them their gians, in quiet possession of his inheritance manners, laws, and peculiar customs. But without conducting such great external with the exception of the Bavarians, they wars. The Frankish empire extended in were no longer ruled according to ancient self-sufficient strength, from the Pyrenees custom by their own dukes, but according to the Lower Rhine, and from the Eng THE SAXONS-THE WARS OF CHARLEMAGNE ITALY 93 lish Channel to the Ens, in Austria, and born,) the Saxon place of retreat not far had nothing to fear from any of its neigh- from the Weser, in a rude neighborhood, bors. and upon a precipitous height; and deBut a mind satisfied with mere tranquil stroyed the celebrated Irminsul, (or statue possession was not accorded to Charles; of Irmin,) an object regarded with the its internal power was used to vent itself most sacred veneration by the Saxons, but in new forms, for this was the law implant- of which we do not precisely know whether ed in his nature. The condition of the it was an image of a god, or perhaps a world demanded great creative powers, in monument of Arminius, thus revered with order not to remain for centuries longer divine honors. The Saxons concluded waste and confused. We dare not cen- peace upon the banks of the Weser, and sure Charles because he followed this im- gave twelve chiefs as hostages. pulse of his nature, but the way in which Charles was rejoiced at having so speedhe followed it and modelled his new crea- ily concluded an advantageous peace, for tion, gives the measure of judgment against already other affairs called him into Italy. him. Were high and noble thoughts his Desiderius, who by the reception of the guide, and was his own genius great, or widow of Carloman had already shown was it petty, and directed to vain things? himself as an enemy, required of the new Upon that the history of his life must de- pope, Adrian, that he should anoint the cide. sons of Carloman as kings of the Franks; After Charles (who ascended the throne and upon Adrian's refusal, he threatened in his twenty-sixth year) and his brother him with war. The pope demanded aid Carloman had reigned together some years, from Charles, who at once advanced, crossthe latter died in 771. The nobles of Car- ed the Alps, marched round the passes, of loman's possessions desired his brother for which the Longobardi had taken possestheir king also, and cast out the two sons sion, and encamped before Pavia in the of Carloman from succession to the throne, year 774. Desiderius purposed defending with whom the wido*V fled, and took refuge his metropolis until sickness and want at the court of Desiderius, king of the should force the Franks to retire. But Longobardi. Thus was Charles sole ruler Charles was not of a disposition to be so of the Franks. Upon this he assembled soon fatigued; he let his army lie six at Worms an imperial diet in 772, where months before Pavia, went himself to the he represented to the assembly the repeat- Easter festival at Rome, which he for the ed offences of the Saxons and the merit of first time witnessed, and there confirmed their conversion to Christianity; upon the deed of gift made by his father. He which the nation declared war against the then returned to Pavia, which soon yielded Saxons-the first and longest war that to him, received Desiderius as a prisoner, Charles was engaged in-for it continued and sent him, after shaving his head for with several interruptions to the year 803, the cowl, to the monastery at Corvey in consequently for thirty-two years. During France, where, after a short time, he died. this time Charles frequently conquered the Charles now called himself king of the Saxons in open field, and forced them to Lombards, and caused himself to be crownconclude peace, but when he again quitted ed at Monza. their country, and was obliged to withdraw As the Saxons had in the mean time reto the farther end of his empire, they broke commenced war, he on his return, and afthe peace, rebelled against the obnoxious ter he had held a diet at Diren, made in dominion, chased away the Frankish gar- 775, a new incursion into their country, risons, and made incursions into the coun- conquered Sigberg, restored the Eresberg try of the Franks, until Charles again ap- destroyed by the Saxons, pressed onward peared and forced them anew to submis- over the Weser to the Oker, there receivsion. ing hostages from the Eastphalians, and on The first irruption made in their coun- his return, near Buckeburg, (Buchi.) ob. try, in the year 772, was successful and taining also those of the Angravaiians. short. He proceeded from Worms, through But as, in the mean time, the LongobarHessia to the Weser and the Dimel. He dian, Duke Rotgaud, of Frioul, to whom, conquered the burg of Eresberg (the pre- as vassal of the empire, he had intrusted sent Statberg, in the bishopric of Pader. the passes of the Alps, decided upon taking 94 THE ARABS-THE SAXONS, THEIR OVERTHROW AND SUBJECTION. advantage of the moment, and rebelled, Charles, is so much sung in the legends Charles was already again in Italy, (776,) and heroic lays of Europe. and punished the seceders before they Meanwhile the Saxons, according to custhought him even apprized of their plans. torn, when the king was at a distance, had This time, also, he was about to advance again seized arms. Under Wittekind they to Rome, when a message arrived with in- fell upon the country of the Franks, and telligence that the Saxons had again re- devastated it with fire and sword as far as volted, had retaken Eresberg, and laid Deuz, opposite Cologne. This, like the siege to Sigsberg. He speedily returned earlier revolts of the Saxons, was not so back into Germany, forced his way through much a war of the nation and of the heads all their forest-defences as far as Lipp- of families, but of individual leaders with spring, when the Saxons again yielded, and their suite or Gefolge, who did not consider many vowed to become Christians, and of- themselves bound by the treaties. Charles fered themselves to be baptized. He built returned, drove the enemy far back into a fortress on the Lippe, perhaps where their country, and in 780 constructed forLippsstadt at present stands. tresses on the Elbe to fix a strong rein In the following year (777) he was al. upon them. And now thinking himself ready enabled to hold a diet at Paderborn, quite secured in that quarter, he made a in the country of the Saxons, where the journey in 781 to Rome, to cause his sons majority of the nation swore fidelity. Their Pepin and Louis to be anointed by the boldest leader, however, Wittekind, (Saxon, pope, the former king of Italy, the latter Widukind,) had fled to the Danish king, king of Aquitaine, (South France.) Sigfried. It was at this diet that the am- The Saxons in the interim had maintain. bassadors of the Arabian governors of Sa- ed themselves perfectly quiet, but the reragossa and Huesca, in Spain, appeared membrance of their ancient freedom would before Charles, and entreated his assistance not quite die within them, and Christianity, against the king, Abderam. He consider- which had been brought to them with the ed it worthy of his dignity not to allow sword by their hated neighbors, gained no those who placed themselves under his pro- power over their hearts. It appeared in. tection to entreat in vain; besides, these supportable to them that a man should not unbelievers, who had pressed onward into himself revenge a contumely, and that a Europe, were his most hated enemies. Ac- hero should not have a particular heaven. cordingly he advanced in the following The impost of tithes which they were obliged year (778) into Spain; the petty Chris- to pay to the church, appeared also exces. tian princes in the mountains of Navarre, sively oppressive to them. As Wittekind who had maintained themselves independent had, therefore, now returned and placed of the Moors, here joined him; he conquer- himself at their head, they thought the ed Pampeluna, Saragossa, Barcelona, and present was the best moment for them to Girona; and the country as far as the Ebro shake off the yoke, and, the same as forswore allegiance to him. Henceforward it merly, when their nation fell upon Varus formed part of his empire, under the name in the Teutoburger forest, they now surof the Spanish marches or limits, and was rounded the Frankish leaders Geilo and a land of protection for the Christians re- Adalgis, upon Mount Suntel, on the Wemaining in Spain. ser, just as they were about to march Upon his return, however, with his ar- against the predatory Sorbians dwelling on my, winding itself, as it is poetically de- the Saale, and destroyed them as well as scribed, like a long brazen serpent among the greatest portion of their army. the rough rocks of the Pyrenees, and This deed inflamed the wrath of the through the obscure forests and narrow king, (who was already excessively irritapaths, the rear-guard became separated ted at their repeated rebellion,) to the defrom the main body, and in an ambuscade gree, that he broke into the country, desolaid by the mountaineers, fell into the ra- lated it far and wide, and caused 4,500 imvines of Roncesvalles. The Franks could prisoned Saxons to be beheaded near Vernot fight in their heavy armor, and they fell den on the Aller, as a terrible example to with their leader Rutland, the Count de la the rest, and as a sacrifice for his army deManche. This is the celebrated knight, stroyed-as it appeared to him, by treacheRoland, who later, as well as his king, ry; a stain in his history which cannot be THE BAVARIANS-THE LONGOBARDIANS-THE AVARIANS. 95 justified, but may partly be excused by the with his son Theodore, banished to a monrash and turbulent manners of those times, astery. Bavaria became now, like the and the excited passions of the king. As other Frankish countries, ruled by royal a consequence of this severe act, Charles, counts or governors, and the bishopric of in 783, beheld the whole nation of the Sax- Salzburg was raised to an archbishopric ons, under Wittekind and Alboin, rise si. over the whole of Bavaria. multaneously in such furious rage and In the year 787, Arechis, the Longobar. madness as had never before been evinced. dian Duke of Benevento in Lower Italy,'lTwo severe battles were fought near Thiet- also yielded allegiance to the king as his nelle, now Detmold, and on the river Hase superior feudal lord. He ruled that beauin Osnaburg; the first was undecided, but tiful country as far as Naples and Brindisi. the second so unfortunate for the Saxons, He made it a condition, however, that he that Charles advanced as far as the Elbe, himself should not come to Germany and and in this and the next year, when with appear before Charles, which was granted. his wife and children he passed the winter The duke received the ambassadors of the campaign at Eresburg, he progressively king at Salerno; his army surrounded the strengthened his power in their country. palace, young nobles, with the falcon on Wittekind and Alboin then saw that Heaven their gauntlet, formed rows upon the grand had decided the fate of their nation, and steps leading up to the Burg, while the that a longer resistance would completely hall was filled with the provosts of cities, annihilate it. They promised submission and their council in state dresses, &c. The to the powerful king, and took an oath to go duke, seated upon the gorgeous, golden themselves to France, and be there bap- chair of state, stood up, and swore to be tized; and they kept their word. In the faithful to the king, to maintain peace, and year 785 they came to Attigny, and Charles to perform feudal service to the extent of a himself was sponsor to the Saxon duke, league beyond the frontiers of Benevento. Wittekind, and his wife Gera. After this, Charles formed the resolution From this time henceforward Saxony be- to punish the Avari in Austria and Huncame more tranquil, and submitted to the gary for their earlier predatory expedi. Frankish institutions as well as to those of tions. Accordingly, he marched against Christianity. Charles, for the purpose of them in the year 791 the Franks advancstrengthening this doctrine among them, ed on the south side of the Danube; the likewise founded, by degrees, several bish- Saxons, with the Friesi, who were both oprics and religious foundations, which con. obliged to yield feudal service, advanced tinued to spread light around, viz: in Os- upon its northern bank; and upon the river naburg, in 783; Verden, in 786; Bremen, itself a flotilla conveyed another portion of in 788; Paderborn, in 795; Halberstadt; the army. Their appearance alone drove Elze, (which was removed in 822 to Hil- the Avari away full of terror; they left to desheim,) and Munster, in 806. Yet the the enemy the immense booty of their treaseeds of disquiet were not quite destroyed; sures, and Charles subjected the country small disputes still frequently arose, and to his dominion as far as the river Raab. we shall shortly come to one of greater im- In the following years, he merely sent port. detached forces against them. His main Charles's next dispute was with Duke army remained, meanwhile, in South GerTassilo of Bavaria, of the ancient race of many, and worked at a canal to form the the Agitolfingi. Tassilo had still old of- junction of the Altmuhl with the Rednitz fences to answer for, inasmuch as he had rivers, between the Maine and the Danube, never supplied Pepin or Charles with which, had it been completed, would have troops, and he was now charged with hav- united the North Sea, by means of the ino incited the Avari of Hungary to war Rhine, with the Danube to the Black Sea; with the king. His consort Luitberga, a an important work, replete with rich comdaughter of the Longobardian king, De- mercial prospects. Levantine merchansiderius, may have enacted her part like- dise would thus have found a direct course wise in these designs. Tassilo was con- from their repository at Constantinople to demned to death by the assembled nobles at the very heart of Charles's states. But the diet of Ingelheim, 778, but pardoned unfavorable weather, and the difficulties of by Charles; and by his own wish, together the ground, but chiefly the want of skill in 96 THE FRIESIANS-THE SAXONS-THEIR UNION WITH THE FRANKS. his workmen, who knew not how to drain of these princes entered, subsequently, the the water from the places that were dug, ranks of the princes of the empire; for nor to secure the banks of the canal from Charles's plans and regulations in these falling in, rendered the work nugatory. countries operated late in after years with Charles, therefore, abandoned the under- beneficial effect. taking; but the honor of completing this The disputes with the Saxons continued great plan, originating with him, has until the ninth century; but the strength been handed down and conferred in our of these people became more and more days upon another sovereign of the Ger- weakened, and especially after Charles, man race. And the cause why he did not forced, by their obstinate resistance, to now again attack the Avari, and thus open adopt such extreme measures, transplanted to himself the road to Constantinople, was some thousands of them from their native produced by a fresh rebellion of the Sax- land into other parts of his kingdom. Thus ons, who, not liking long warlike expedi- they were gradually reduced to a state of tions, but only short excursions, found the peace, even without any formal treaty behard marching feudal service in such dis- ing concluded-the peace of Selz in 803, tant parts particularly trying. They re- as hitherto accepted, not being admissible sisted it and mutinied, and induced the as a proof of treaty-and Charles was enaFriesi to do the same. The king was, bled to commence upon his plans and artherefore, obliged to mlake several incur- rangements in Saxony. He proceeded at sions into their country, in the course of once to strengthen Christianity among them which, in 797, he advanced as far as the more firmly, while, however, he granted ocean between the mouths of the Elbe and them greater independence than he had to Weser. Meantime, the war against the the Allemanni and Bavarians. They reAvari was continued successfully by his tained their ancient privileges, and were generals, and then by his son Pepin, to the chiefly governed by native counts, who year 796; the seat of their Chagan or were, it is true, chosen by Charles, and chief, the main circle of their land, with were placed under the imperial envoys. all its treasures were conquered, and the This, therefore, may rather be called a country thus wrested from them was taken union of the Saxon nation with that of the possession of by fresh inhabitants, convey- Franks, as Einhard himself terms it, than ed from other German states, but chiefly a subjection; and, indeed, they well meritfrom Bavaria. Charles distributed the im- ed, by the persevering consistency with mense booty among his army, by which which they conducted it, so honorable a means the quantity of noble metals became conclusion to their long struggle for freesuddenly very much increased in the dom. But, on the other hand, Charles's Frankish country. perseverance is also to be admired; for alThe object of Charles in this expedition though he had the advantage of numbers against the Avari, as well as in those and great superiority in the art of war on against the Sclavonian nations, was chiefly his side, still the Saxons had the benefit of to secure the eastern frontiers of the king- their country, and the forests and morasses, dom. Thence arose a long line of frontier as formerly in their battles with the Roprovinces, from the Adriatic Sea to the mans. Elbe, along the ancient boundaries of the Charles, to confirm tranquillity for ever Longobardi, Bavarians, Swabians, Franks, among them, transplanted about 10,000 of Thuringians, and Saxons. To these were the most violent from the Elbe and the appointed margraves, who bore the title of coasts of the North Sea into the country marchio, (dux limitis,) and who had their of the Franks, as cultivators of the impe. seats originally fixed in the most strongly rial farms; and from that transplantation, fortified burgs of the ancient districts. The no doubt, is derived the names of Sachseninhabitants of these frontier provinces, hausen near Frankfort, as well as Sachthrough wars and repeated revolts, became senheim and Sachsenflur, in Franconia. gradually destroyed, and were replaced by The places left thus void on the Elbe he German colonists, for whose protection the gave over to his allies the Vandal Obotriti, burgs were usefully adapted, as well as for in Mecklenburg, and the Vagrian Sclavi, bringing either into subjection or alliance from whom this part of Holstein has receiv. the neighboring Slavonic princes. Several ed and preserved the name of Vagria. RESULTS OF THE WARS-CHARLEMAGNE AT AIX-LA-CHAPELLE. 97 If we cast back our glance upon these remaining there, and thus continuing most first thirty years of the reign of Charles, pure and unmixed. This country he inthus filled with wars, we must admire the tended should form the main and central great rapidity with which he marched from seat of his empire, and the noble stream of Saxony to Italy, from there back to the his fatherland, as it were, its great vital' Weser, and then back again twice the artery, which should unite all its different same road; then into Spain along the Ebro, sections. This is indicated by the canal and back to the Elbe, proceeding on to by means of which he purposed connecting Hungary, to the Raab, and again returning the Rhine and the Danube. into his own country; and wherever he But if the Lower Rhine and Aix-la-Cha. arrived, his presence immediately deciding pelle were to form the centre and seat of the contest. Herein we have at once the his empire, it becomes evident that his chief true character of a hero; this boldness and contest must be with the Saxons, who were rapidity of thought, resolution, and action; here too close and unquiet neighbors of his this impression of innate personal great- residence for him to tolerate. He necesness, which nothing could resist, and which sarily, therefore, extended the limits of his greatness nobody has sought to deny. But empire farther to the north and northeast. still more than all this, it was not absolutely But his war with the Saxons had a still the love of war and conquest, and the honor different but equally serious object; it of his name, which inspired him to drive being essentially a religious war, for the his armies on so breathlessly through the honor and diffusion of the Christian faith. countries of Europe, but his plans were Charles was eminently a champion of the regulated by one grand creative idea for church, and therein a type of the chivalric which he considered himself called upon to middle ages. It is true the mild doctrines make these sacrifices. of Christianity should not be diffused by What already the great Ostro-Gothic fire and the sword; and Charles sufficiently king, Theodoric, had in contemplation, experienced how little durable was the prospective, as it were, of future times, conversion when at his command hundreds but which it was not allowed him to ac- at the same moment stepped into a river complish, viz., the union of the Christian and had water poured over them in sign of Germanic, nations into one empire, Charle- baptism; but in this he followed less his magne executed; not certainly in Theo- own wishes than the character of hisnation,, doric's manner, by the gentle force of per- which had itself been converted suddenly suasion and conviction, for by that means and during the external excitement of the the end was not to be attained, but accord- tumult of battle. To him, however, being to the custom of his nation and of his longs the fame and glory that he also knew age, by the terror of arms. Yet, he can- and honored the right mode of igniting the not be charged with having capriciously light of faith. For besides this, he founded sought war more urgently than was neces- monasteries, churches, and bishoprics in sary for the attainment of his object. Saxony, and that these doctrines might be The central point of this great Germanic more fully developed and propagated, he empire was to be the beautiful country of caused also all the young Saxons, received the Rhine, and Ingelheim near Mentz was, as hostages, to be assiduously instructed therefore, made the royal seat, but which with others, that they might, as teachers, was afterwards transferred to Aix-la-Cha- enlighten their nation. And so perfectly pelle and Nimwegen. No doubt he might did he succeed in his plans, that this same have found richer and more attractive spots Saxon nation, which had hitherto so obstiin Italy and France, to induce him to fix nately resisted Christianity, was speedily his residence there, but his constant mind filled with the greatest zeal for it, and was more attached to his ancient father- made in every respect a flourishing proland than to the most beautiful countries gress. of the earth. He was no Frankish king, The confidential and beloved friend of as it has frequently been wished to repre- the king, PopeAdrian, died in 795. Charles sent him; but he belonged to the Austra- mourned for him as for a father, and caus. sian Franks, which is the country of the ed an inscription to be placed over his tomb Rhine, and where the Franks had their which contains the expression of his vene. chief intercourse with the Germans still ration. His successor, Pope Leo III., was 13 98 POPE LEO II.-CHARLEMAGNE CROWNED EMPEROR OF ROME. misused in a revolt of the Romans, and Thus in 324, the year after Romulus sought protection from Charles, who re- Augustulus had lost the Roman imperial ceived him in solemn state at Paderborn,* dignity, it was again renewed by Charle. whither the pope came in 799, amidst an magne, who, as a patrician, was already almost incredible concourse of venerating chief protector of Rome. He himself atpeople, when he gave him his promise to tributed so much importance to the impego himself to Rome to punish the evil-doers; rial coronation, that all his subjects, from and which promise he fulfilled in the year twelve years of age upwards, were obliged 800. At the Christmas festival of that to renew their oath of allegiance. His same year, Charles waspresent at the ser- power was now extended over Italy, vice in St. Peter's church at Rome. On France, Catalonia, the Balearic islands, this great occasion individuals from almost and on the other side as far as the North every nation of the west were collected Sea, the Elbe, the Bohemian forest, the together in the metropolis of the Christian Raab, and the mountains of Croatia, thus church, and an innumerable concourse of even over the greatest portion of the anpeople filled the temple. After high mass, cient Roman empire in Europe. when Charles knelt at the altar, Pope Leo By this solemn act, Charles's grand unbrought forth an imperial crown and placed dertaking was completed, according to its it upon his head, when the whole assem- outward form. All the Christian nations bled multitude exclaimed: "Charles Au- of German origin, excepting England, gustus, crowned bythe Almighty, the great were united in one large body, and and peace-bringing emperor of the Romans. Charles, as their temporal chief, was Hail, all hail, and victory!" At the same crowned under the ancient and, by God's time the pope knelt down before him.t guidance, renewed title of Roman emperor. As such, he was the chief protector of the church-by the Franconian synod g Pope Leo consecrated at Paderborn, among other of the church-by the Franconian synod objects, the altar of St. Stephen, which is still to be he was styled the regent of true relifound in the vault under the choir of the cathedral. gion-as well as the guardian of justice t Eginhard, the biographer and friend of Charles, g as wel as te guardian justice says indeed-and we may presume as received direct and peace in Europe; and under his powfrom the mouth of the emperor himself-that the latter erful protection, the recently planted germ had, at first, adopted the title,Augustus Imperator, with eru protection e recently planted germ very great reluctance, and that he assured him he of fresh life and new moral cultivation would not even have entered the walls of the church could safely develop itself without being on that grand day of festival, had he foreseen the in- saely develop tse, it t eing tention of the pope. Nevertheless, it is scarcely to be trampled upon -by the destructive contenconceived that a proceeding so grave and highly impor- nations. Accordingly, this was tant could have been arranged without the knowledge ton nations. Accordingly, is was and concurrence of Charles, who, indeed, in all his ac- the great aim and purpose of the Roman tions never allowed himself to be led by others. Besides, it is already evident, from what is shown by other good imperial dignity, as renewed by the Gertestimonies,(Annul. Lauris. ham,) that the renewal of mans, and as Theodoric had contemplated, the imperial dignity had been discussed and resolved upon, for Alcuin himself knew of it beforehand, he which Charles alone, however, was enahaving given to one of his pupils a Bible and a letter, bled, by his power, to call into existenceboth of which he was deputed to present to the emperor at the Christmas festival in Rome, and in which fetter an object which has ever continued to be the learned master wished the mighty sovereign all fostered in the heart of every noble and happiness ad splendorem imperialis potentia. But what struck Charles, no doubt, with sudden surprise and mo- magnanimous emperor succeeding to tho mentary vexation was, that the pope should merely throne of the Germanic empire. have presented to him the imperial crown, and that it had not been left to him, the sovereign, to place it Charles's empire was therefore not what upon his own head himself, or to command it to be done i been endeavored by a new name to by the pope, (as his bishop,) as was the custom with the a Greek emperors, who were crowned by their patriarchs; call-a universal monarchy; not one emthence, there is little doubt arose the expressions attri- in th buted to him by Eginhard. This, indeed, is clearly pre wherein al the nations and countries shown subsequently, when, at Aix-la-Chapelle, he or- within his reach were subject to his, the dered Louis to place the crown upon his own head Charles always considered himself as chief ruler over Rome, and styled the Romans in his decrees as his sub- mere sway of conquest, and he well knew that among jects, and included Rome in his will among the chief the German tribes the title of Roman emperor always cities of his empire. The popes again, on their part, connected itself with the idea of supreme govermplaced his own name, as well as those of his successors, ment. Besides, to the emperor all were equally bound on their coins, and included them in their bulls. In to yield allegiance-counts, bishops, freemen, and serhis letters, Charles henceforth calls himself: "Carolus vitors; while in obedience to the king, the freemen serenissimus augustus a Deo coronatus magnus pacifi- varied materially from the vassal, and the bishop from cus imperator Romnanum gubernans imperium, qui et the layman. It likewise established his position toper misericordiam Dei rex Francorum et Langobardo- wards the clergy, for the pope became now the first rum." To him it was important to hold dominion bishop of the empire, and Alcuin says distinctly, (cap. over those other nations which had not devolved upon ii.,) that the imperial power is higher than any other, him by hereditary right, by some other means than the even that of the pope. STATE OF THE EMPIRE-LOUIS CROWNED KING OF THE FRANKS. 99 individual's will, and by one law, custom, The venerable emperor, however, re. and language, united into one uniform, mained still active; he continued to hold circumscribed whole. Such was not imperial diets and church convocations, Charles's wish. He honored the pecu- and regulated all other affairs of the state. liarities of nations, left them their laws, In January of the year 814 he was at. which were based upon their ancient cus- tacked by a fever, which was followed by toms and modes of living; he left them pleurisy. Charles, who up to his latter their manners and their language, which days had never been ill, and was always a nation could not be deprived of without an enemy to medicine, wished to cure him. inflicting the most grievous wound. He self by his usual remedy of fasting, but was even so widely distant from the idea his body had now become too weak. of an empire strongly and despotically About five o'clock on the morning of the ruled by the will of one individual, that eighth day of his illness, (the 28th of Janduring his life, in the year 806, at Dieten- uary,) he felt the approach of death, and hofen, he divided his countries between his energetically raising his right hand, markthree sons, so that Pepin should take Italy, ed upon his forehead, bosom, and even to Louis Aquitaine, and Charles the remain- the feet, the sign of the cross. He then der, consisting chiefly of German coun- stretched forth his arms once more, folded tries. They and their successors were them over his bosom, closed his eyes, and bound to consider themselves as the mem- murmuring softly and in broken tones, bers of one race, and under the superior "Lord, into thy hands do I commit my guidance of the emperor for the time be- soul," he breathed his last sigh in the seving, or the head of the family, hold fra- enty-second year of his age, and the fortyternally together, and accustom their na- sixth of his reign. On the very day of tions to a similar unity. his death the body of the deceased empeHis soul was full of such good and noble ror was solemnly cleansed, laid out, and thoughts, that Europe would soon have anointed, and conveyed amidst the sorrow flourished upon the basis he thus laid, had and mourning of the whole nation, to the but a portion of his spirit fallen to the vault of the church built by himself. He share of his descendants. was there clothed in all the imperial robes, But Charles partially foresaw with his with a golden gospel spread out on his own eyes the destruction of his plans. knees, a piece of the original holy cross Both of his most promising sons died shortly upon his head, and a pilgrim's golden after each other, even before their father, scrip around his loins, and placed thus in and Louis, the weakest, alone remained. an upright position upon a marble chair; The eldest, Charles, had made several when, filling the vault with frankincense, successful campaigns against the Sor- spices, balsam, and many costly articles, bians beyond the Elbe. The father hoped they closed and sealed it up. every thing from this son, but unhappily So much veneration for the emperor these hopes were frustrated. existed throughout all his dominions, and As Charles now felt his own end ap- so much were all eyes directed upon him, proaching more and more near, he sent for that every thing which, during the last few his son Louis to come to him in the year years of his existence, had happened to 813 to Aix-la-Chapelle, and there on a him either wonderful or extraordinary, was Sunday, when in the cathedral together, considered as prophetic of his death. His he reminded him of all the duties of a biographer, Eginhard, mentions many such good monarch, and he then caused Louis phenomena. During the three years preto place the golden crown (which lay upon ceding his death, there were frequent the altar) upon his head, and thus crown- eclipses of the sun and moon; the arcade ed, his venerable father presented him to of columns, which Charles had caused to the assembly as the future king of all the be erected between the minster and Franks. By this act Charles wished to the imperial palace, sank by a sudden show that his crown was independent of revolution of nature, upon Ascension Day, the papal chair, and the Franks were into the earth, and was destroyed to its greatly pleased with this determination very foundation. Besides which the Rhine evinced by their prince at the close of his bridge, near Mentz, which in the course career. of ten years he had built of wood with 100 PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. great ingenuity and art, so that it was ren. was such a skilful swimmer, that none dered fit to last for ages, was entirely de- could justly be said to surpass him. stroyed by fire in the short space of three "He enjoyed constant good health, with hours. He himself in his last campaign the exception of the last four years of his against Godfrey, king of the Danes, upon life, when he was frequently attacked by marching forth one day before sunrise, fever, which at last occasioned him to limp beheld a fiery meteor fall suddenly from slightly on one foot. During these attacks, heaven, passing from the right to the left he continued nevertheless to follow his through the clear air. At this moment his own counsel, rather than the advice of his horse plunged, and falling to the earth, doctors, with whom, in fact, he was sorely overthrew him so violently that the clasp vexed, for they prohibited him from eating of his mantle broke, his sword-belt was roasted meat, which he himself considered torn asunder, so that he was lifted from the most wholesome of all food. the ground by his alarmed attendants with- "He was exceedingly temperate in both out a mantle and without his sword. To eating and drinking, but especially so in which may be added a variety of other the latter, for intoxication was his abhor. signs, equally alarming in their indication, rence, in any person, and particularly in but in which the great emperor was too his own palace. His daily meal consistwise to place any faith. ed of four dishes only, exclusive of the In order that we may completely com- roasted joint, which his yagers or squires prehend the extraordinary man whose his- brought upon the spit, and which he pretory thus calls forth our admiration, we ferred and relished before every other necessarily desire to be acquainted with dish. During his meals he listened with his outward form, wherein the mighty great pleasure to the lays of his minstrels spirit was encased. We are anxious to on the lute, or to a reader, the subjects know how the eye reflected the internal sung or read being always the histories sentiments; whether the brow and coun- and events of heroic men. He also took tenance depicted dignity and repose, or much delight in the books of St. Auguswhether they expressed the animated, im- tine, particularly in those on the divine petuous emotions of the mind; and final- government of God. ly, whether the elevation and power of the " In summer it was his custom after dinspirit were equally displayed throughout ner, to enjoy a little fruit, and to drink the entire corporeal form. Eginhard, the once; then to undress himself as at night, friend of Charlemagne, and whom the lat- and thus repose for three or four hours. ter had brought up in his palace as his His nights were very restless, not merely adopted son, has drawn up for us a beau- by his awaking up several times, but liketiful and affectionate description of his wise by his getting up from his couch and noble fosterfather: walking about. During his toilet, not only " In person," he says, "the emperor were his friends admitted, but likewise, if was robust and strong, and of great heigit, his Count Palatine had to present to him for he measured seven of his own feet.* any appeal, which could not be decided His head was round, his eyes large and without his opinion and determination thereanimated; his nose somewhat exceeded upon, he forthwith caused the disputants to moderate proportions; his gray hair was be brought before him, and then investibeautiful to behold, and his countenance gated the affair and gave judgment at joyous and cheerful, whence his figure once. derived peculiar dignity and charm. He " His dress consisted of the national coshad a firm step, and a perfect manly bear- tume, and was but little different from that ing. He practised riding and hunting in- of the common people. He wore, next his cessantly, according to the customary skin, a linen shirt, over which a garment habits of his nation, for scarcely a people with a silken cord, and long hose. His existed upon earth that could rival the feet were enclosed in laced shoes, and, in Franks in these arts. Besides this, he winter, for the protection of his shoulders and chest, he wore a waistcoat of otterA staff or lance of iron has been preserved, which skin. As upper garment, he wore a manis said to give the exact height of Charlemagne, and tle, and had always his sword girded on, according to which he measured six feet three inchesn e of w wr o by the Rhenish measurement. the haft and defence of which were of gold PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 101 and silver; and at times he wore a sword na, as he could not obtain them in any inlaid with jewels, but only on particular other quarter.* His piety displayed itself festivals, or when he gave audience to for- in the support of the poor, and in gifts and eign ambassadors. His raiment likewise, donations which he sent to distant lands on these occasions, was of golden cloth, across the sea, and wherever he heard and he wore a crown adorned with gold Christians to be in want; and thence it and precious stones. Foreign dress, even was that he sought the friendship of princes the most beautiful, he disliked and de- ruling in those distant countries, in order spised, and would never clothe himself in that some portion of nourishment might be such; except when at Rome, where, firstly dispensed to the Christians living under at the express wish of Pope Adrian, and their dominion. It was thus he maintained secondly, at the request of Leo, his sue- a cordial friendship with Aaron, the king cessor, he wore a dress with a long train, of the Persians, (Haroun al Raschid, caand a broad mantle, with shoes made ac- liph of Bagdad,) who ruled over nearly the cording to the Roman fashion. whole of the east, with the exception of " Charles possessed a style of rich and India. When, therefore, Charles sent his flowing eloquence, and whatever he wish- envoys with rich offerings to the holy tomb ed, was expressed by him in the most clear of our Lord and Saviour, they were not and concise manner. He did not content only very kindly received by Aaron, but, himself with his mother tongue alone, but on their return, he sent with them his own applied himself industriously to the ac- ambassador to accompany them to the court quirement of the classical and foreign lan- of Charles, and who conveyed from him guages generally. Of the former, he was the choicest of the shawls, spices, and other so perfectly master of the Latin, that he costly-rarities of the east, as presents to spoke it equally as well as his native tongue; the emperor, to whom be it mentioned, he and the Greek, although he did not speak had already, in proof of their good underit, he nevertheless perfectly well under- standing, sent some few years previously, stood, and was so proficient in it, that he the only elephant he then had in his poscould himself have become its teacher. session." He practised the superior arts very zeal- From another source we learn that this ously, and was extremely liberal in the elephant, which was called Abulabaz, or honors and rewards he conferred upon the destroyer, by its monstrous and untheir professors. In learning grammar, exampled size, amazed the whole world, he had the attendance of the venerable and was Charles's especial favorite; and deacon, Peter of Pisa; and in other sci- that among the presents sent with it there ences, his instructor was Albin, with the was a costly tent, together with a clock surname of Alcuin, who was a native of made of brass with astonishing skill and Britain, but of Saxon origin; a very learned ingenuity. This latter contained a hand man, and Charles devoted much labor and or indicator, moved round, during twelve time in acquiring from him a knowledge of hours, by the power of water, together astronomy. He also endeavored to attain with an equal quantity of brass balls, the art of writing, and was even accus- which, when the hours were completed, tomed to have his tablets under his pillow dropped into a brass cup placed beneath, in bed, so that when he had a leisure mo- by their fall indicating the hour, upon ment he might practise his hand in the which mounted knights, fully armed, acimitation of letters. In this, however, ow- cording to the number of hours, galloped ing to his commencing it at so late a pe- forth from twelve windows-a work asriod, he made but little progress. suredly of great and extraordinary inge" The minster at Aix-la-Chapelle, which nuity for that period. Charles, on his part, is of extreme beauty, is a monument of made presents in return to the Persian ruhis love for the arts, as also of his great piety, and which he caused after he had it The church of the Virgin Mary and the imperial built, to be ornamented with gold and sil- palace are, as far as we know, the first extensive buildver, together with windows, lattices, and ingsfounded bya Germanprince. Charles'sstructures X so d b. Had allthe a are based upon the Roman style of North Italy and gates of solid brass. He had all the pil- outh France, whence he procuredhisarchitects. The lars and marble stones used for its con- palace in Aix-la-Chapelle has, with the exception of a lars and marble stones used for its con- few remaining stones, entirely disappeared, but St. struction, brought from Rome and Raven- Mary's church still exists. 102 PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. ler, of Spanish horses, mules, and Frisian his left hand he held his heavy iron spear, mantles, which in the east were very rare and his right grasped his massive sword; and expensive, and finally, were added to and when at this moment Nosker, a noble, these a number of dogs for hunting the exiled by Charles, and who was standing lion and tiger, unsurpassed for swiftness near the'king of the Longobardians, and ferocity. pointed to him, and said,'Behold, O king, We have previously mentioned his there is he whom thou hast sought,' Desifriendly connection with the emperor in derius almost fell to the ground in wonder Constantinople, and his amicable relations and dread, faintly exclaiming,' Away, with the princes of England and Scotland, away! Let us descend and bury ourselves by whom he was highly esteemed; and in the earth from the wrathful countenance thus the impression of his personal great- of that terrible and mighty foe!"' ness was reflected throughout the age in As a testimony that the admiration exwhich he lived, as well in the descriptions cited by true greatness extends far beyond given by those who were about him, as the present and immediately succeeding also in the veneration of distant nations. periods, and maintains its estimation in all His own grandson, Nithard, who has de- susceptible and glowing minds, even to the scribed the disputes of the sons of Louis latest ages, we will here quote the opinion the Pious, says of him with great justice: of a modern writer* upon the character of " Charles, justly called by all nations the the great Charles: " The whole appeargreat emperor; a man who by true wis- ance and bearing of the emperor evince dom and virtue rises so high above the hu- the true and original model of his energetic man race of his own age, that while he age-full of manly, yet cheerful virtue. appears to all equally awe-striking and Combined with the exuberance of power, amiable, is at the same time universally which remodelled an entire world, were acknowledged to be wonderful and admi- united mildness and placidity, and with all rable." his dignity and elevation, we find consortIn the subsequent generations, still filled ed, simplicity, purity of mind, and a pro. with veneration towards him, his figure found and noble fire of feeling. The became so irradiated by tradition and fic- mixture of serenity and childlike mildness tion, that its proportions appear gigantical- in his deportment was the mystery wherely magnified. Thus, for instance, in a by he filled all at the same time with venlegend of Low Germany he is described eration and love; retaining in faithful as follows: " The emperor Charles was a adherence to him even those who had been handsome, tall, strong man, with power- severely provoked, so exquisitely shown by ful arms and legs: his face was a span the act of the noble Frank, Isenbart, who, and a half long, and his beard a foot in although deprived by Charles of all honors length. His eyes, to those at whom he and possessions, became, nevertheless, the attentively looked, appeared so bright and unexpected but sole saviour of his life searching, that the effect therefrom was to when threatened with great danger. There strike with awe and terror; while his lay in the fire of his piercing eye so much strength was so mighty, that with one power, that a punishing glance prostrated hand he could raise a fully-armed man the object, so that to him might be applied above his head." the words of scripture:' The king when Another ancient Chronicle says of his he sits upon the throne of his majesty, expedition against Desiderius: "When the chases by a glance of his countenance Longobardian king from his castle in every evil thing;' while in the thunder of Pavia observed the entire body of the his voice there was such force, that it Frankish army in full march against him, struck to the earth whomsoever he adhis eyes searched everywhere among the dressed in anger. On the other hand, ranks to find the king. At length the ma- again, we find that his countenance rejestic monarch appeared to view, mounted fleeted such unutterable pleasure and gladon his war-horse, (which both in durability ness, and his voice was so harmonious and and color resembled iron itself,) with a of such delightful clearness, that a writer brazen helmet on his head, his entire lofty styles him the joyful king of the Germans, figure encased in iron armor, and a shining breast-plate spread over his chest. In *M. Sivern: "AbhandlungiiberKarl derGrosse." PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 103 assuring us that he was always so full of the legislator of an extensive empire, it grace and gentleness, that he who came did not appear too trifling to overlook with before his presence in sorrowful mood, was prudent care his estates and farms, so that by a mere look and a few words so com- any father of a family might have learned pletely changed, that he departed joyful from him how to regulate his household and happy. In his countenance was re- affairs. Some of his laws are still extant, flected the full expression of a tranquil and therein we find especially indicated, and clear mind, and in all these outlines how many of every description of domes. of his character he is the perfect ideal of tic animals, and how many peacocks and a true German hero and prince, worthy to pheasants shall be reared and maintained be called, what he really was, the father for ornament on his farms; as likewise and creator of the Germanic age, which how wine and beer were to be prepared, he brought upon the stage of history, after and how the cultivation of bees, fisheries, it had attained ripeness and perfection in orchards, and plantations, was to be purthe womb of humanity. It was not sued. merely in his works and external cre- "If Charles's general greatness imations that he founded tne Germanic presses us with reverence and admiraage, but its greatness and simplicity, tion," so says the modern historian of his its heroism in war and friendship in life, "this participation in the inferior conpeace, were ingrafted in his profound soul cerns of life, not smothered by higher entire!" cares, brings him more closely in connecWe have already spoken of his friend- tion with us; this especial care of the doship with Pope Adrian, founded on mutual mestic hearth, so peculiar to the genuine esteem, and his paternal devotion to Ein- German, wherein he has grown up as the hard. But to none was he attached so plant in the earth which bears and nouraffectionately as to Angilbert, or Engel- ishes it, while his active power strives outbert, a young man of noble family, who ward into the world of deeds and works, was his constant companion in all his and his bold mind soars towards heaven, travels and campaigns, and to whom he as the plant shoots its blossom forth toconfided his most important affairs. En- wards the sun." And in truth, Charles's gelbert was an excellent poet, and for mind was directed towards the light of some time appointed prime minister in truth; he was animated with the love of Italy; -he then became Charles's private the glorious and the beautiful, and planted secretary, and likewise married his daugh- both wherever he was able, and by all the ter Bertha, from which marriage descend- means in his power.* He had formed ed the before-named historian, Nithard. with the wise Englishman, Alcuin, and Charles was a reverential son to his mother other learned men a scientific society, and Bertrande, a faithful brother to his only he maintained with them a regular corresister Gisla, and of his consorts he chiefly spondence, which was rendered more free loved the second, Hildegarde, who bore and intellectual, inasmuch as a happy idea him his three sons, besides three daughters. from Alcuin enabled it to be conducted He caused his children to have the best without any interference with personal reeducation, and he even dedicated much of lations. The communications were not his own time to them with paternal watch- made in the ordinary names of the memfulness. His sons learned not only all bers, but in those of adoption, in which chivalric accomplishments, but studied also Charles himself bore the name of King the sciences. The daughters were taught David, his friend Engelbert that of Homer, to work in wool, sewing, and spinning, ac- Alcuin that of Horace, Eginhard that of cording to the prevalent simple German Bezaleel, and the rest, other equally select custom. He never took his meals without names, whence the cheerful disposition of his children; they accompanied him in all this union, breaking the restrictive chains his travels, his sons riding beside him, and of ordinary life, sufficiently displays itself. his daughters following him. His heart was so attached to these, that he could * As regards the benefits produced by Charles's zeal for education and science, we find already that in the never prevail upon himself to part with years 650 to 770, there were in Germany and France them. He superintended his domestic some twenty-six writers, while in the years 770 to 850, there were already in Charles's kingdom more than one economy most carefully. To him even, hundred. 104 PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. Its immediate purpose, besides the cultiva- portion. Charles, on his part, there ex. tion of both the ancient languages, may presses the greatest respect and friendship possibly have been to reanimate and draw for Alcuin, and the latter is full of true forth from its obscurity the ancient Ger- affection, nay, at times, of inspiration toman language and its poetry. Charles wards his king and friend. Charles's himself either sketched, or caused to be wife and his sons and daughters received sketched, a German grammar, gave to the instruction from Alcuin, and he was styled months and the seasons German names, by them all their master and father, he, and collected the aboriginal songs, wherein on his part, calling them his sons and were recited the noble deeds and the wars daughters. of ancient heroes, (as formerly Lycurgus Combined with his anxiety for the afand Pisistratus collected the songs of Ho- fairs of the Church, Charles likewise, with mer.) But there is not a more affecting proper foresight and penetration, felt deep trait of his own love for the sciences extant interest for the instruction of the people; than that already related, when in extreme thence, wherever it was possible, he foundage he endeavored carefully to accustom ed schools and investigated their progress his once powerful hand, which had been with great solicitude himself. It is related used only to wield the sword, to the prac- that he once entered the school which was tice of writing, and that even during the established at his own court, and examined sleepless hours of the night. And how the studies of the boys. The skilful he far he esteemed educated and scientific placed on his right and the unskilful on his men is proved, besides the instances al- left, and then it was found that the latter ready cited, by his example shown towards consisted chiefly of the sons of noble famithe Longobardian historian, Paul Diaco- lies. Charles then turned to the industrinus. He was private secretary to King ous class, praised them much, and assured Desiderius, and after the latter was con- them of his particular regard; the others quered, the former participated in the he admonished and scolded severely, subsequent revolt of the Lombards, upon threatening them, notwithstanding their which he was sentenced to have his hands noble descent, to reduce them to the lowest chopped off. Charles, however, interfered rank in the school unless they speedily reand said, " If these hands are chopped off, paired, by zealous industry, the negligence who will, like him, be able to write us shown. such charming histories?" and according- The study of the Latin tongue was ly he pardoned him. The learned Alcuin especially promoted by Charles for the already mentioned-in possessing whom at sake of the church; but, at the same time, his court Charles felt more pride than in he acknowledged the value of the Greek having a kingdom-had been previously language, as he proved by founding in provost of the high school of York in Eng- Osnaburg a Greek school. In a royal deland, where almost all the learned men of cree addressed to all monasteries, in which that period had received their education he exhorts them to apply themselves to the and had imbibed their zeal for the sciences, sciences, he says expressly, that he has and which contained one of the few then been led to make this exhortation, because existing libraries of the west of Europe. their communications are written in such In 793. he was induced by the repeated bad Latin. Another important result entreaties of the king to go over to France, arising from the scientific labors of Charles where he founded the celebrated school of and his friends, was the establishment of Tours. Charles esteemed him so much libraries in the chief schools. Alcuin laid that he called him his beloved instructor the foundation of such a one in the school in Christ, and presented him as his friend at Tours, by sending scholars to York for to the grand imperial diet and church con- the purpose of making copies from the books vocation at Frankfort. And Alcuin proved there, and thus " transplanting the flowers hirrself worthy of this honor, for when all, of Britain to Franconia." This example from fear or doubt, were silent, he alone was soon followed, the desire to possess candidly told the king the truth. The books awoke, the office of extracting from correspondence of Charles with Alcuin is writings now became a favorite occupation worthy of high estimation, and of which, and duty in the monasteries and schools, happily, we still possess a considerable and indeed, we have to thank this in PORTRAITURE OF CHARLEMAGNE. 105 dustry of the copyists for what has been state. But it was important for that period, preserved to us from ancient times.* that the feudal nobility, which had already The sacred dignity of divine worship become too powerful, should receive a concerned him much; he gave himself counterbalance in the clerical order, which particular trouble to introduce a good must necessarily become the preservation psalmody, and caused for that purpose of Christian cultivation throughout Europe, organ players and singers to come from and thereby unite Europe into one great Italy; and at Soissons and Metz he in- whole. Besides, Charles felt himself suffistituted singing schools. Besides this, he ciently powerful to fear no misuse of such ordered a number of good sermons by the spiritual influence in his realms. Although Greek fathers to be translated into the he increased the possessions and the conFrankish tongue, and read to the people;t sideration of the clergy, he yet maintained and he made a general regulation, that his imperial power so much above them, sermons should be preached in the national that his quick eye was everywhere feared, language, for King Charles well knew that so much so, that one of his historians calls civil order reposed upon the religious and him the bishop of bishops. moral dignity of the people, and without We frequently find in his decrees rewhich it can have no solid basis. He con- preaches made against the clergy, when sidered church and state not as separated they commenced exceeding the limits of from, or inimical to each other, but con- their power, and many of his laws genceived that they both had one great aim, erally allude to an ameliorated state of that of the ennoblement and perfection of discipline among the ecclesiastical body, mankind. He, therefore, in his extensive to a restraint being put to their worldliness, empire, linked both these institutions still and commanding them to perform the dumore closely together. ties of their office with zeal and activity. Even under the earlier Frankish kings, In fact, he may be regarded as the true the clergy formed an essential portion of reformer of the clergy, especially when the constitution of the kingdom. The we refer to the condition of that body bishops, as well as the dukes, participated under the Merovingians. Of the tithes in state affairs, and had a seat and a voice which were to be paid to the church, he in the national assembly. Charles made appointed for the bishops one fourth, for this a fixed principle, and this raised the the inferior clergy one fourth, for the poor clerical body to rank as one of the orders of one fourth, and for the church itself one the state. The constitution had already now fourth, especially towards the building of formed two of its chief orders, that of the fresh edifices. And as these taxes were alclergy and nobility; the civil order, as together hateful alike both to the Franks and the third component, did not yet exist; Saxons, he at once set the example himself of later centuries brought it to perfection, and subscribing to them, by having them levied thereby completed the constitution of the equally upon the royal estates. They were rendered less obnoxious and more mode* Alcuin took especial pains to form and establish rate likewise by his subsequent decrees, classes for the improvement and perfection of writing. that all church offices, such as baptisms, In Tours, Fulda, and Treves, particular and distinct c, a b s b halls were appropriated fortranscribers, provided with communions, and burials, should be per. inscriptions, which impressed upon the mind the im- formed gratuitously. portant duties of a writer. In fact, the art of writing Wi in books and ancient documents appears, under With respect to the administration of the Charles, to have undergone a change, completely state, Charles dispensed with the power of sudden, in improvement. For, to the unsightly Merovingian style of italic character previously in use- the grand dukes as governors of entire even to the first years of Charles's reign-we find suc- provinces, and divided the latter into smallceeding as it were, with one spring, a fine and legible form of round hand, called the Carolingian minuskel, er districts, causing them to be ruled by or neatly reduced writing. This style became the counts, whose chief occupation was the legitimate source whence we derived all our present forms, both in writing and printing, in German as well superintendence of the judicial office; but as Latin. In the coins of the year 774, we likewise the dignity of count was not hereditary. find displayed an improvement equally striking, thus showing that, even in minor objects, the great Charles The dukes, whom he himself appointed, operated efficaciouslv. were merely his lieutenant-generals in war t He directed Paulus Diaconus to prepare extracts merely lieutenant-generals from the fathers, in the form of a collection of homilies and leaders of, the arriere ban of a provthroughout the year. This collection, from the usual ince. Besides which he dispatched, as opening of the pieces, " post illa," received, subse- nce esides which he dispatched, r as quently, the name postille. often as he thought it necessary, royal en. 14 106 LOUIS THE PIOUS-DIVISION OF HIS EMPIRE. voys (missi regii) into the provinces, who who was still greater as a legislator than inspected their condition, and examined a warrior, was enabled to keep in order how they were governed, and were obliged without garrisons and a standing army, all to draw up written reports thereof. These the people subjected to obedience, as well envoys consisted generally of a bishop and as his whole extensive empire, although a count, as the proceedings of the spiritual composed of such a variety of nations. as well as temporal administrators were to He himself remained within the boundaries be examined at the same time. The dis- of the constitution, honored the laws, listtrict of a Missus was called Missaticum. ened willingly to the voice of his people, When any person believed he had ex- and showed in every thing, but especially perienced an avoidance in law from the in this, his noble genius and magnanimity, count, he could appeal to the Missus; and and the dignified superiority of his nature. again from this there was an appeal to the Comes palatii. The appointment of the judges in the courts was removed from the power of the counts by Charles, and transferred to the Missus. CHAPTER VI. He expressly and earnestly exhorted all his officials, and particularly the judges, 814918. to the fulfilment of their duties, as in fact Louis the Pious, 814-840-Division of the Empire the grand endeavor, shown throughout his among his Sons Louis, Lothaire, and Charles the entire government, had for its object the Bald, 843-The German Sovereigns of the Race of the Carlovingians, 843-911-Louis, o0 Ludwig, the improvement of the administration of jus- German-Charles the Fat-Arnulf-Louis the Childtice, and especially the protection of the The later and concluding period of the Carlovingians ice, an especially te protection te — Conrad I. of Franconia, 911-918. poorer classes and the common free people, against the pressure of the higher AFTER the race of the Carlovingians had ranks. It seemed as if in the latter period produced consecutively four great men-a of his reign he had more and more per- rare occurrence in history-its energy ceived the danger with which the corn- seemed to become exhausted. Louis the mon freedom of his subjects was threat- Pious did not resemble his ancestors. ened by the feudal system. All adminis- However, his personal appearance was by tration of justice, however, was in vain. no means insignificant, for he is described He was forced himself to attend in person, as well made, with a prepossessing countetwice in the year, national assemblies or nance, of a strong frame, and so well pracdiets, the one in spring, called the May tised in archery and the wielding of the Field, (Campus Madius,) in which the king, lance, that none about him equalled him. with his estates, gave the decisions; the But he was weak in mind and will, and his other in autumn, composed of the most by-name, "the Pious," implies not only distinguished of his nobles and confidential that he was religious, but principally that friends, with whom he regulated the most he was so easy tempered, that it required urgent matters, and prepared those affairs much to displease him. A ruler of this to be settled at the ensuing May meeting. description was not adapted to hold in The regulations made at these diets, par- union the vast empire of his father; neverticularly those passed in the Spring meet- theless, the chief misfortunes of his whole ings, which, after their division into chap- life arose solely from his own sons. ters, became known under the name of He had three sons by the first marriage, capitulars, produced for the entire king- Lothaire, Pepin, and Louis; and he very dom a great combining power. early divided his empire between these The envoys, each in their division, called three, retaining for himself nothing but the together the communities four times every title of emperor. He, however, soon afteryear, who, besides attending to their own wards espoused as second consort, Judith, matters, had to approve and confirm the of the family of the Guelfs, who bore to resolutions passed at the grand assemblies, him his fourth son, Charles, and was a if they concerned the interests of the peo- proud, ambitious woman, who would willple: so little power had the king and his ingly have transferred all to her own child. nobles to affect or alter their rights. Thus Upon her persuasion Louis was induced to by means of all these institutions, Charles, take a portion of the countries from his HIS ILL-TREATMENT-HIS DEATH. 107 other sons, and give it to Charles. Where- w'ards called Ludwig the German, and upon open war arose between the emperor who was the best of the sons; he conferand his children, who took their father red with his brother Pepin, and they forced twice prisoner. The last time it occurred Lothaire to emancipate their father, who was near Colmar, in Alsace, and because was formally absolved by the bishops, and most of the nobles of Louis's suite, who had received from their hands his sword and sworn allegiance to him, passed over to his accoutrements back again. sons, the place has retained the name of But his misfortunes had not made him Lugenfeld, or the Field of Lies. The wiser, for, on the contrary, he allowed good-natured Louis, turning to those who himself to be immediately persuaded by remained still with him, said, "Go ye, Judith to prefer his son Charles before the also, to my sons; I will not allow that even rest, and to give him his most beautiful a single individual lose, on my account, countries, causing him to be crowned King life or limb." They wept and departed, of Neustria. He treated his best son, and Louis fell again into the hands of his Louis, the worst, who consequently, in his sons. Lothaire, who wasthe worst among irritation, seized arms against his father, them, had him conveyed to a cloister at and the old king could nowhere find a tranSoissons in France, and urged him so in- quil spot for his death-bed; for, as he was cessantly, until he at last resolved to do proceeding to Worms, to hold a diet there public penance in the chapel. Lothaire's against his son, and was just passing over object in this was, that his father might the Rhine, near Mentz, he suddenly felt thereby be made incompetent to take arms, his quickly-approaching end. He remainfor it was ordained by the canon law, that ed upon an island of the Rhine, near Ingelany one who had done penance was ren- heim, caused a tent to be there pitched for dered incapable of bearing arms, and the him, and sank down upon his death-bed. Franks could not endure among them a He pardoned his son before his death, in king without a sword. these words: " As he cannot come to me The pious Louis, who was easily per- to offer satisfaction, I acquit myself thus suaded that his own sins were the cause towards him, and take God and all of you of all his misfortunes, absolutely allowed to witness, that I forgive him every thing. himself to be conducted into the chapel of But it will be your office to remind him, the monastery, and after he had been di- that although I have so often pardoned vested of his sword and military accoutre- him, he must not forget that he has brought ments, he was clothed in a sack of pen- the gray hairs of his father to the grave in ance, and was forced to read a paper aloud, bitter grief." Thus died, in the year 840, whereon his son and his accomplices had King Louis, who was of a kind disposition, inscribed all his sins, thus: " That he had but whose life was one continued scene of unworthily filled his office, frequently of- trouble and affliction, because he knew not fended God, vexed the church, was a per- how to govern his own house, much less jurer, the originator of dissensions and his empire. turbulences, and, at last, had even wished The most celebrated acts of his life conto make war upon his sons." And while sist in the foundation of two religious instihe made this confession, the clergy, con- tutions; viz., the monastery of Corvey, sisting of the Archbishop Ebbo, of Rheims, and the archbishopric of Hamburg. The whom Louis himself had raised from a first originated from the cloister of the servitor to an archbishop, and with him same name, at Amiens in France. It was thirty bishops, spread out their hands over hither that Charlemagne caused many of him, and chanted penitential psalms; Lo- the imprisoned Saxons to be brought, that thaire himself sitting close by upon athrone, they might be instructed in the Christian and feasting his eyes upon the degradation religion, and become thereby the future of his father, who was immediately after- teachers of their fellow-countrymen in the wards led away in the garment of repent- same doctrines. Louis the Pious caused a ance, and immured within a solitary cell, religious colony of these Saxons to settle where he was left to remain, without any in their native country, on the Weser, and consolation. he commenced building the new monasteThis misusage of the emperor enraged ry as early as the year 815. It was comhis son, Louis of Bavaria, who was after- pleted in 822, and the abby was enriched 108 LOTHAIRE, LOUIS, AND CHARLES THE BALD. with many crown endowments. It speedi- Netherlands, namely, the country of Valy became the best school for education in lais and Vaud in Switzerland, the souththat country. east of France, as far as the Rhone; and Louis founded the archbishopric of Ham- on the left bank of the Rhine, Alsace, and burg in 832, principally for the conversion the districts of the Moselle, Meuse, and of the heathens of the north. The first Scheldt. This long and narrow strip bebishop was Ansgar, from the abbey of tween the two other brothers was probably Corvey, one of the most zealous propaga- apportioned to the emperor that he might be tors of the Christian religion, and who had near them both, and that, according to the already taught the doctrine in Denmark wish of the father and grandfather, the imand Sweden. But Hamburg, unfortunate- perial control might tend to preserve the ly, was destroyed by the Romans, in 845, unity of the whole. It likewise seemed on which account the archbishopric was that Italy and the ancient city of Rome, as transferred to Bremen. well as ancient Austrasia, namely, the The brothers, who had not hesitated to Rhenish districts, which Charlemagne had take up arms against their own father, could selected for his residence, with his capital, much less remain united among themselves. Aix-la-Chapelle, were not separable from In particular, Lothaire assumed, as em- the imperial dignity. But although Loperor, great privileges over his brothers. thaire received beautiful and productive Louis and Charles, Pepin being alrea- provinces, yet his portion was the weakest, dy dead, consequently armed themselves for his empire on this side of the Alps had against him; and as he would not agree no natural frontiers, either in mountains or to a treaty of peace, a battle was fought in in a distinct national race. The inhabit841, near Fontenay, in France. It was ants of his countries on the Rhone and very sanguinary; forty thousand, accord- down the Rhine were composed of very ing to others a hundred thousand, men were different tribes; thence as there was no left on the field. Lothaire was conquered, natural necessity for this division of counand his great pretensions were thus dissi- tries, it was merely produced by human pated, and in consequence, in the course caprice, consequently, there was no duraof two years, an important treaty took bility in it. On the contrary, it became place, which divided the great Frankish the source of great misfortune. After the empire, and separated Germany forever emperor Lothaire, pursued as it were by the from France. This is called the treaty of spirit of his injured father, against whom Verdun, concluded on the 11th of August, he had chiefly offended, had laid down the 843. sceptre and retired into a convent, where 1. Louis received Germany as far as he died in 862, his three sons took up arms the Rhine; and across the Rhine, Mentz, in contest for the land, and divided it Spires, and Worms, for the sake of the cul- among themselves; but neither of them ture of the vine, (propter vini copiam,) as transmitted it to his descendants. The it is said in the original record. Thus were countries of Burgundy, Alsace, and the united all the countries wherein a pure Ger- province of Lorraine proper, which Loman race, unmixed with the Romans, had thaire II. had received, and which had from remained, and the Germans may consider him received its name, were, after his early the treaty of Verdun as a great national ben- death, divided by his two uncles, Louis the efit. For had that country remained united German, and the French king, Charles; with France, and had the king made Paris, so that the land to the east of the Meuse, perhaps, the metropolis, or even changed with the cities of Utrecht, Aix-la-Chapelle, about in the chief cities of that country, it Liege, Metz, Treves, Cologne, Strasburg, is probable that, in the course of time, a Basle, &c., fell to Germany. But this diruinous mixture of the German and French vision did not terminate the dispute for the languages, manners, modes of life, and Lorraine inheritance, for it has remained idiosyncrasies of the two nations would through every century a bone of contenhave taken place. tion between the Germans and the French, 2. Lothaire retained the imperial dig- and many sanguinary wars have taken nity and Italy, and acquired, besides, a place in consequence. long narrow strip of land between Germa- 3. Charles the Bald received, lastly, the ny and France, from the Alps as far as the western division of the whole Frankish LOUIS, OR LUDWIG, THE GERMAN-THE NORMAN PIRATES. 109 kingdom, and which has continued to pre- stances, again united for a short time the serve its title. three portions of the Frankish empire, in Louis the German, (840-876,) who was Italy, Germany, and France. In France an energetic prince, of lofty stature and no- there was a minor king, Charles the Simble figure, with a fiery eye and a pene. ple, six years of age, for whom he was to trating mind, and who also possessed an have protected the country against the Noractive disposition for education and science, mans; but not possessing the qualifications (which the schools of eloquence that he necessary, this he was not able to do, and founded at Frankfort and Ratisbonne have thence he was forced twice to purchase proved,) had constantly to contend for the peace from them at the price of many tranquillity of his realm; for the Slavonian pounds of gold: the first time when they tribes made incursions on the eastern fron- had advanced upon the Meuse as far as tiers, and the Normans on the north and Hasloff, and the second time when, with 700 northwest. These bold sailors, of ancient vessels, they had ascended the Seine as far German origin, wild as their sea and its as Paris itself, and closely besieged that northern coasts, coming from the Norwegi- city. Such cowardly conduct, and the an, Swedish, and Danish waters, appeared weakness of his whole government, brought with the rapidity of the wind, at the mouths him into contempt, and was the cause which of the rivers, and frequently advanced deep produced his formal deposition, in a great into the country. They ascended the Seine and national assembly held at Tribur in as far as Paris, flew along the Garonne to the year 887. To his great good fortune, Toulouse, and sailed up the Rhine to Co. he died the following year. logne and Bonn. And it was not the banks In Germany he was succeeded (887merely of these rivers which suffered from 899) by Arnulf, a son of his brother Carlotheir devastations, but they knew also how man, consequently a grandson of Louis the to convey their vessels many thousand paces German, a valiant and worthy king. He across the country into other rivers, so that beat the Normans at Louvain, in the Nethno place afforded security against them. erlands, where they had erected a fortified So great was the terror of their name, that camp, which victory made him very celethe mere report of their coming drove to brated, for those Normans formed the most flight all before them. Their numbers valiant race of the north, and had never were generally small, for a fleet of the previously been known to fly before an small ships of that period could not convey enemy.* large armies; but their courage, as well as Arnulf now marched also into Italy, to their strength of body and their weapons, bring that disunited country-where many testified to their true northern origin; while pretenders contested for supremacy-again in wielding the powerful spear, no race under German dominion. He advanced, equalled them. A few ships, manned with in 896, as far as Rome; but his army had valiant men, formed frequently the equip- been so much weakened by sickness and ment of their royal princes; and as in an- foul weather, that he dared not attempt to cient Germany, a noble leader with his attack the strong walls of the city, and was company, in bold excursions, acquired honor and booty, and with his suite, even contest- About this time, in the southeastern frontiers of ed for the possession of a whole country; Germany, a Slavonic prince, Zwentibolt, had establishso, on the other hand, the squadron of the ed a considerable dominion in Moravia. In order to gain his friendship, Arnulf gave him the vacant Duchy bold sea-hero, manned with warlike and of Bohemia as a fief, and chose him as godfather to his pillage-seeking adventurers, was the source s, whom e bec ame unrd after him. But the Moravian of his riches, forming often the moving ba-an Arnulf soon saw himself entangled in a severe war sis upon which he erected his kingdom. against him. In order, therefore, to gain allies, he had sis upon which he erected his kingdom. recourse to the Magyars, who rose against Zwentibolt, It was thus they founded similar kingdoms and, falling upon Moravia, completely overthrew iis n N yF c, Si, and i R. E dominion, and established themselves there instead, in Normandy, France, Sicily, and in Rus. while the late ruler withdrew, and sought refuge in a sia. Louis the German succeeded in pro. monastery. Arnulf, in order to extend the pow er of Iis hi k i n. gd a.. tm house, now took advantage of some favorable circumtecting his kingdom against them, andstances presented in Lorraine, in order to procure for against the Slavonians; but not so his son, his son, Zwentibolt, the duchy of that country. In this us the Fat, ( 7, whot he succeeded, after several encounters with the nobiliLouis the Fat, (876-887,) who, after the ty; and in 895 his son took the title of king, but he held death of his brothers, Carloman and Louis, it but for a short time, being soon afterwards killed in a battle against his vassals, immediately after the death by the intervention of particular circum-of his father. 110 LOUIS THE CHILD-END OF THE CARLOVINGIANS. about to turn back. Upon this, the Ro- These were probably the most miserable mans hooted and insulted the Germans so years that Germany had ever witnessed. grossly, that, without awaiting the word of With almost every year these Hungarians command, they turned back, advanced, and suddenly precipitated themselves in masses storming the gates, filled the ditches, mount- upon one or other of the provinces, desoed the walls, and carried the city. The lated it with fire and sword, and drove Roman people were obliged to swear fidelity thousands of the inhabitants back with to him. But they knew not how to observe them as slaves, while the Germans, valiant the oath they took; and as they had not as they were, knew not the mode of conbeen able to overcome the powerful Ger- ducting such a war, and could not defend mans by open force, they had recourse to themselves; besides which, they possessed poison; thence Arnulf was, most probably, as yet no walled towns wherein they might secretly drugged by them, for he returned have sheltered their wives and children. ill to Germany, and died, after a long sick- Bavaria was first attacked by them, and ness, in the year 899, much too early for made a prey to their devastations, and all his kingdom, and mourned by all Germans; the court and nobles cut to pieces. The for he was yet young, and Germany never following years the same happened to Saxmore than at that moment required his ony and Thuringia, and the two concludpowerful arm. ing years Franconia and Swabia were in A new savage tribe, in ferocity equal to turn devastated. The words of Solomon the ancient Hunns, had now fixed them- may be applied to these horrors of Gerselves in Hungary, and extended their in- many: " Wo to the country whose king is cursions to Germany. They were properly a child." But, fortunately for the salvation called Madschari or Magyars, and be- of his own and other countries, this child longed to the Calmuc race of the Asiatic now died early in the year 911. wanderers, but they were called Hunns, After the race of the Carlovingians, which (also Hungarians, after the country they had commenced with so much lustre, behenceforward occupied,) because it was came extinct in Germany, it still existed a then customary to call all those tribes short time longer, although but weak, and Hunns who were savage and terrible to without any power or authority in France; behold, and who came from the east. They it soon, however, disappeared there alsoalso, like the former Hunns, lived always like a torrent which at first springs forth on horseback, and suddenly appeared majestically, and dashes down all before where they were not awaited. They un- it, but at last dividing itself into various expectedly attacked, and as suddenly fled, isolated arms, its power becomes reduced, and in flying they always shot their arrows and gradually absorbed by the sand. backward, and turned quickly round when Meanwhile in Germany much had beall was considered safe. They shot their come changed that proved of great imarrows from bows, formed of bone, with so portance to futurity. Charles the Great, much force and precision, that it wasscarce- as we have seen, made the royal power suly possible to avoid them; but they were perior to all other; he did away with the ignorant of' the art of fighting at close great dukes' reigning over entire provinces, quarters, or of besieging cities. They and substituted royal officials, with smaller were small in stature, ugly in countenance, circuits of government; and had his sucwith deep-sunken eyes, of barbaric man- cessors followed his example in this, the ners, and with a coarse and discordant lan- system might have been established in Gerguage; so that an ancient writer who many, as it was in France and other counlived'at that period, says: " We must be tries-namely, that but one lord should astonished that Divine Providence should rule with unlimited power throughout the have given so delightful a country to be in- whole empire, and no prince besides. But habited-not by such men, but by such fate ordered it otherwise, and caused many monsters in human shape!" rulers to spring up among us, which has These terrific enemies desolated in an given an impulse to the development and unheard-of manner the German countries, cultivation of the German mind, and has during the period when Arnulf's son, Louis been only then not dangerous to the counthe Child, who was still a minor, was called try with respect to its exterior relations, King of Germany, from the year 899-911. when all who called themselves Germans GERMANY. 111 held together in love and unity, and in Bruno, and, after his death, in 880, Otho, that disposition constituted a firm and solid the father of King Henry, must be conGerman empire. sidered in every sense as dukes. Saxony The foundation of this polygarchy, or became, by degrees, the most powerful and division of dominions, may be traced chiefly extensive duchy, for it embraced, at the to the times subsequent to the treaty of Ver- time of its greatest development, the coundun. On almost all sides formidable ene- try from the Lower Rhine to the Oder, and mies threatened the frontiers: the Hunga- from the North Sea and the Eider to the rians, the Slavonians, the Venedians, and Fichtel mountains and the Wetterau. the Normans. The kings themselves were Thuringia had, it is true, counts also, unfortunately too weak, and unable, like who at times were called herzoge, (duces Charlemagne, to fly with assistance from limitis Sorabici;) but their power, owing one end of the realm to the other. They to the frequent changes occurring among were therefore obliged to permit and au- the owners, did not completely form itself thorize the German tribes, for the defence into a ducal power. Burchard, whom we of the frontiers, to choose powerful chiefs find mentioned as duke, fell in 908, against raised among themselves, who continued to the Hungarians; his power was transferred remain at the head of their troops, and led to Otho of Saxony, who already possessed them against the enemy. The efforts made a province giving him the title of count, to establish a fresh foundation for the ducal (Gaugrafschaft,) in the northern part of power, become more and more visible in Thuringia. King Henry retained Thuthe last moiety of the ninth century, and ringia united with his duchy. very soon we find the royal Missi or Mar- In Franconia, which besides the ancient graves, together with other proprietors of Frankish land on the Lower Rhine, comland, and influential men, raising them- prised likewise Hessia and the countries of selves to the ducal dignity. the Central Rhine, the title of duke could It lies in the nature of things, that the not otherwise appear than much later, bedevelopment of these relations could not cause the country, as long as the kings be everywhere the same. We find often continued of the Frankish family, was conthe governor of a province still called in sidered kings' land; still the administration the old records Graf, (Comes,) because he of the country was performed by two powalready possessed more of the ducal power erful counts, and two families, the Babenthan in another province was commanded bergerians in the eastern, and the Conraby him who was ordinarily styled Dux. dinians at Worms, in the western part, All research made into this subject is ex- divided the power, until they broke out into tremely difficult, and opinions thereupon a deadly dispute and fight, in which the are even yet not united. Thus much is former were completely defeated. Count certain, that if we consider and acknow- Conrad, soon afterwards King Conrad I., ledge in general those governors as owners became, therefore, potentissimus comes in of the ducal power, who possessed an over- Franconia, and possessed in reality ducal balancing influence in their provinces, and power. Widukind styles him likewise who represented the king himself in war, Duke of the Franks, although he, as well and in the highest courts of jurisdiction, as his brother Eberhard, is called by others we find that, at the end of the ninth and also comes. It cannot, however, be doubted commencement of the tenth century, they but that under Henry I. Eberhard possessed again appear, and gradually become dukes the ducal dignity. of Saxony, Thuringia, Franconia, Bavaria, In Bavaria, Luitpold, who had to defend Swabia, and Lorraine. the eastern frontiers against the Slavonians In Saxony, the Ludolphic race, as it ap- and Hungarians, is styled dux in a diploma pears, acquired at a very early date a of King Louis, of the year 901, and his power which we may call ducal. Eckbert, son Arnulf calls himself duke in the year related to the house of Charlemagne, was 908. placed by the latter at the head of all the In Swabia, where the defence of the Saxons between the Rhine and Vistula, as frontiers was not so necessary, the ducal count and chief of the heerbann; his son dignity appears to have connected itself Ludolph held also this rank, and possessed, gradually with the power of the royal misin effect, already ducal power. His son sus, and to have developed itself later. 112 THE DUKES HEREDITARY-THE FAUST-RECHT. Burchard, however, under Conrad I. ap- The evil became necessarily great, for pears nevertheless as Duke of Swabia. the manners of the nation were still rude. In Lorraine, finally, it became more easy Arms and the chase remained their favorto the nobles of the land by means of its ite occupations, and the sword and the fal. doubtful and critical position between con were the greatest treasures of the GerFrance and Germany in the later Carlovin- man. He could calmly see all taken from gian period, to maintain a state of greater him, says an author, but if his sword ana independence, and we thus find upon re- falcon came into any danger, he would not cord already in the year 901 a Duke Kebe- hesitate to save them even with a false hart, and later, under King Henry, the oath. The hunting fetes were superb, and Duke Gisilbrecht. were included among the highest festivities The dukes were not, it is true, regarded of life. Ladies, from gorgeously ornaas lords of their people and lands, but as mented tents, beheld the destruction of the ministers and representatives of their king, game. In the evening they feasted under in whose name they regulated in peace the tents in the forest, and the company, with affairs of justice and order, and in war led their suites, returned amidst the music of the army of their race to battle. But soon the hunting horns. For the sake of the becoming large landed proprietors, and chase, the kings and nobles preferred rebeing no longer under the surveillance of maining at their country seats, and on this royal envoys, the dukes took advantage of account for a long time despised dwelling the weakness of the kings, and by degrees in cities. arrogated to themselves an increase of During the later period of the Carlovinpower, and brought the lesser vassals un- gians, besides the wars within and beyond der their dominion; nay, they even gra- the land, which they so much desolated, dually made their dignity, granted to them what was greatly to be deplored was, that only as imperial crown officers, hereditary the germs of cultivation which Charlein their families, as well as the revenues magne, in his exertions for science, had of the crown lands, which they had only planted in his schools for instruction, bereceived as the salary for their service. came again almost entirely destroyed. No Like the great dukes, the inferior im- period in the whole history of Germany is perial officers, the counts, margraves, and darker, more superstitious and ignorant, others, established themselves more and than that of Louis the German, to the end more firmly in their dignities, and the es- of the Carlovingian dynasty, and a short tates attached thereto. The spiritual lords, time beyond it-despite of the Germans archbishops, bishops, and abbots, were, being, from time immemorial, so susceptilike the temporal lords, members and vas- ble of cultivation, and by their serious apsals of the empire, and like them augment- plication and profound meditation so well ed their secular power and possessions; adapted for the acquirement of art and and all these became by degrees from the science. An example of this is to be found mere deputies of royal authority, inde- even in that dark age. In the days of Pependent princes of the German nation. pin and Charlemagne the first organs were Besides this, in some individuals, the love brought to Germany from Greece, and of freedom and personal independence be- Charles took every pains to introduce the gan already, as early as this period, to Latin psalmody and church music among degenerate often into license. He who his subjects. At first he had but little sucthought himself offended by another, and cess; at least an Italian of that time comconceived he possessed sufficient strength plains that their natural rudeness was their to revenge himself, did not seek the estab- great obstruction: "Great in body like lishment of his rights in the usual way, mountains," says he, "their voice rolls namely, through the judges of the land, forth like thunder, and cannot be modulated but with arms and the strength of the fist. into gentler tones; and when their barbaric Thence that period wherein the appeal to throats endeavor gently to produce the soft the fist was so generally adopted, was call- transitions and flexibilities of the music, the ed the period of the faust-recht, the fist or hard tones pour forth their volume in a ratclub law. It commenced, already, under tling sound, like a coach rolling over the the later Carlovingians, but it was long af- stones, so that the feelings of the hearer, terwards that it reached its highest extent. which should be gently moved, are, on the NEGLECT OF THE LANGUAGE-DECREASE OF FREEMEN. 113 contrary, completely startled and terrified." toration of the arriere ban, which had also Thus was pronounced originally a criticism by the influence of the feudal system fallen upon their disposition and qualification for into disuse. In this, however, he attained harmony. And yet by industry and exer- his aim but partially, because his wars, far cise they advanced so far in a short time, from being real national wars, for the dethat Pope John VIII., who lived about the fence of the country, were only conquering year 870, besought Anthony, bishop of Frei- excursions in distant countries. These singen, to send him a good organ from Ger- were very oppressive to the common man, many, and with it a person who was equally who, from the day that the army stepped well able to play upon as to make it. upon the land of the enemy, was obliged to In this century a pupil of Rhabanus provide himself, at his own expense, for Maurus, the monk Otfried of Weissenburg, three months with provisions, as well as gave a very remarkable example of his with clothes and arms. Many, therefore, love for his mother-tongue, by translating endeavored to avoid the duties of this serthe gospel into German verse, in order that vile military service. They gave themthe people might be enabled to read it. selves up both in body and possessions to Charlemagne had, indeed, commenced to the service or guardianship of the church, improve and cultivate the German lan- or to the patronage of a noble, either as guage, but after him no one thought fur- arriere or under vassals, because, as such, ther about it. Otfried now zealously en- they were not bound to yield so much serdeavored to make it a written language, vice as to the king in the arriere ban, or although it was very difficult to express by even as bondmen, and as such no longer letters its hard and strange sounds. He belonging to the class of freemen. They strongly and justly contended against those were called the Lidi (Leute, people) of the who, indifferent towards their native-tongue, seigneur, and remained, it is true, the pospreferred learning, with excessive labor, sessors of their own inheritance, which they and using the languages of the Latins and themselves cultivated, but they were subGreeks. " They call the German lan- ject to pay tax, and were held in soccage, guage," he says, " boorish, and yet do not and could neither quit the land nor sell it; endeavor by their writings or study to make but with their children and descendants it more perfect. They carefully avoid they were bound to the soil, and were the writing badly in Latin and Greek, and yet property of their lord. This was severe; do not care for doing so in their own lan- but they were at the same time exempted guage; they are ashamed to offend against from doing any military service in distant good taste by even a letter in those lan- expeditions; for, as bondsmen, they were guages, but in their own tongue it happens not considered worthy of bearing arms, but with every word. Truly a singular fact remained all their lives in tranquillity with this, that such great and learned men do their families. At the most they were only all this for the honor of foreign languages, obligated, under the most urgent circumand yet cannot even write their own!" stances, to repair to a short distance, within The condition of the common freemen the immediate vicinity of their territory, was the saddest of all in these times, and there to fight, on foot, with stick or club; they, consequently, decreased so much that the lance and sword being forbidden to they scarcely formed a distinct order in the them. - Had they rightly considered that nation. Much earlier, already when the men who are not allowed to bear arms, feudal system gradually developed itself, also speedily lose both courage and power, and elevated the vassals above all those and if they are not absolutely called slaves, who cultivated their own inheritance, their soon adopt slavish sentiments, they would, numbers had decreased considerably, but no doubt, much rather have remained poor the worst time came after Charlemagne. and oppressed, but still freemen and warCharles knew well that the strength of a riors; but, alas! in necessity the nearest nation consists in the great preponderance and most immediate aid appears the best to of freemen, and that it is upon their cour- him who suffers, and the eye loses the power age and their animated love for their coun- of perceiving the distant consequences. try that must depend the general weal and Besides the oppressive service of the arits security from all danger; he therefore riere ban, which brought many freemen applied great care and vigilance to the res- into slavery, there were other causes which 15 114 OTHO THE ILLUSTRIOUS-HENRY OF SAXONY-EBERHARD. contributed to decrease their numbers, magne had placed in Saxony against the among which may be classed the terrific Normans, in 810. Otho, however, refused incursions of the Avari, the Normans, the the crown, because the cares of the empire Slavonians, and Hungarians, in which thou- were too great for his age, and advised sands of them were killed or carried off as rather that Conrad, the Duke of the Franks, slaves; and later, the disorders and oppres- (according to some writers, he was only a sions of thefaust-recht, or club-law, which count,) be made king. For this act, Otho likewise obliged many of the poor freemen merits the greater praise, as Conrad was to give themselves up to the service of some truly worthy to rule as king, and the race neighboring powerful noble, to secure them- of the Franks still continued the most esselves from the robberies of those who made teemed among the German nations; for a trade of pillage. Besides, in those times hitherto it was from that race that the king of disorder, when laying up magazines of had commanded over the whole of Gerprovisions was not thought of, countries many. Otho, therefore, wisely considered were often visited with desolating famine it better that the rule of the empire should and pestilence; in such necessities many remain with them, and, in so doing, entirely freemen, that they might not die of starva- dismissed from his mind the enmity which tion, gave themselves up, with their chil- always had, and still partially existed bedren and property, to nobles or spiritual tween the Saxons and the Franks. foundations for bread. And, lastly, many Conrad was accordingly elected king on became servitors to cloisters and ecclesias- the 8th of November, 911, at Pforzheim. tical establishments; and from piety, or for He is described as being a man of great the salvation of their souls, they gave their merit, both at home and abroad; valiant all to the altar of God. For the church and prudent, kind and liberal. His first already, at this period, possessed and main- care was to elevate, from its sunken state, tained the privileges, by which an individ- the royal authority, for upon it depended the ual might give to it his whole possessions, order of the whole empire. But the confuand thus entirely pass by the just inherit- sion was too great, and Conrad's reign too ors. Thence, from all these causes, it short, to render his efforts completely suchappened that, at the end of this period, cessful. The Lothringians, or Lorrainers, not only the ancient pride and courage, but who only, since the time of Louis the Geralso the majority of the freemen-accord- man, had belonged to Germany, were not ingly the independence of the Germans- contented with his election, and separated had disappeared, and scarcely any but no- themselves, nor could Conrad bring them blemen and their feudatories remained, thus back again to the empire. After the death threatening the country with the sad pros- of Otho the Illustrious, he had to contend ipect of decay and ruin. But whenever with his son, Henry of Saxony; for, misNecessity has been great, God has always guided by the advice of Hatto, Archbishop sent to the German nation unexpected aid of Mentz, he wished to deprive Henry of and support. Accordingly, at this moment, some great fiefs which he owned, besides itwas precisely the devastation spread every- his dukedom of Saxony, in order that no'where by the Hungarians which laid the prince of the empire should be too powerful; foundation for the renewed elevation of the probably these were the northern districts common freemen to a civic state, and re- of Thuringia, which Otho had already posestablished later the condition of the peas- sessed; but Henry was valiantly defended ant. by his Saxons. He completely defeated After the death of Louis the Child, the the king's brother, Eberhard, who had adprinecpal German branches assembled, and vanced against him with an army, near looked about them for the most worthy Eresburg, (now Stadberg,) so that he retainamong-their princes to be their king. The ed the fiefs in the subsequent treaty, which election fell upon Otho the Illustrious, Duke terminated the war; nay, he even appears of Saxony and Thuringia, who was related, to have conquered also the southern portion on the.maternal side, to the Carlovingians, of Thuringia, and to have maintained the and by the power of his house, as well as ducal dignity over the whole of Thuringia. by age and wisdom, was held in great es- Conrad confirmed Count Burkhard in teem by all. On the paternal side, he de- Swabia, after some contest, as Duke of the scended from Count Eckbert, whom Charle- Allemanni. Arnulf of Bavaria, however, CONRAD'S DEATH-HENRY I. 115 who also revolted, and so far forgot himself Hungarians, and felt death approaching, asto call in the Hungarians to his assistance, he thought of the example which Otho was condemned to death by the princes of the Illustrious had given at his election, the empire as a traitor to the country, and and forgetting all jealousy, and with his was obliged to take refuge among the Hun- thoughts directed only for the weal of his garians. country, he called his brother, Eberhard, Thus, by energetic measures and timely to his bedside, and thus addressed him: concessions, the general tranquillity and im- " We command, it is true, great means, my perial dignity were re-established, and the dear Eberhard; we can collect great arunity of Germany maintained. But Con- mies, and know how to lead them. We are rad well felt how difficult the task was for not wanting in fortified cities and defences, him, and that the power of the Frankish nor in any of the attributes of royal dignity. dukes alone was not sufficient to curb the Yet greater power, influence, and wisdom, over-powerful nobles. It also required dwell with Henry, and upon him alone degreater strength to protect the empire pends the welfare of the empire. Take, against the Slavonians and Hungarians, therefore, these jewels, this lance and who still repeated, without ceasing, their sword, together with the chain and crown incursions. At the same time, perhaps, he of the ancient kings, and carry them to did not perceive in his brother, Eberhard, Henry the Saxon. Be at peace with him, who pretended to possess the greatest claim that you may have him for your constant to the crown, the proper qualities of a king; strong ally. Announce to him that Conwhile, on the other hand, his earlier and rad, on his death-bed, has chosen and renow conciliated opponent, Henry of Saxony, commended him as king, in preference to was, in all respects, irreproachable, endow- all the other princes." He died in Decemed with great energy of mind and body, and, ber, 918. by his power and influence, ranked at the Eberhard did what his brother had comhead of all the German princes. When, manded, and was the first who did fealty to therefore, Conrad lay sick of a wound at King Henry. A kingdom wherein such Limburg, on the Lahn, which he had re- sentiments were found, might truly and ceived in his last expedition against the without danger remain electoral. FOURTH PERIOD. FROM HENRY I. TO RUDOLPHUS OF HAPSBURG. 919-1273. THE tenth century is by no means rich in historical proportionate merit here and there. She treats upon works: the later years rather fugitively. 1. The chronicle of Regino, already mentioned in the 4. Widukind, usually called Wittekind, a monk of preceding epoch, was continued by another writer as Corvey, who died about the year 1000 wrote a history far as the year 967, abridged, but mostly careful and of the Saxons, (Rerum Saxinocarum, libri iii.,) as far exact and altogether well written. as 973. As the first historian of his time he presents 2. Luitprand of Pavia, private secretary to King Be- his record of the events in a form equally agreeable ranger II. of Italy, afterwards in the service of King and happy, devoted to the house of Saxony, but still Otho I and finally bishop of Cremona, wrote the his- with a desire after truth; and the second part of his tory of his time not without spirit, and, especially in his work is of invaluable merit. The first portion is, in history of Italy very instructive, although partial and part, based upon the legends and traditions of the peoenthusiastic. His style is far-fetched and bombastic, ple. showing much of the courtier, and a great love for an- 5. Among the chronicles on the history of Germany ecdote and illustration in his narrative. This history especially the relations of the Lotharingians, Flodoard goes from c. 886-948, and a supplement from 961-964. of Rheims is particularly important, who wrote a histoHe wrote also, in another distinct work, an account of ry from 919 to 966. his embassy to the court of the emperor Nicephorus. 6. Richer, a monk of St. Remy, near Rheims, studi3. Horoswitha, a nun of Gandersheim, wrote a poem, ed medicine, and was a pupil of the celebrated Ges"De Gestis Ottonum Panegyris," from 919-964; as the bert; and encouraged by his master to write history, title indicates, a poem in praise of Otho the Great, ac- he composed, in the years 995 to 998, his " Historiarum, cordingly not always faithful to truth, and, of course, libros iv.," from 888-995 which he dedicated to Gespartial or one-sided; nevertheless, not without some bert. His history is, for France, partial, and he ofter 116 HENRY I.-RUDOLPHUS OF HAPSBURG, 919-1273. adapts the events to the advantage of that country. Henry and Gregory excited the pens of various distinNevertheless, amidst the dearth of historical source in guished men to write in defence of both those parties, his time, he is certainly of great value. His narrative to know the various controversial productions which is based upon a close study of the ancients. The mid- appeared on this subject, with the different opinions dle ages being only taken up by Ekkehard, Richer was therein contained. The partisans of the pope had their quite lost sight of, until Pertz discovered in Bamberg central point in the monasteries of St. Blaise, Schaffthe only autographic document still existing by him, hausen, and Hirschau; while, however, many learned which has been published in the "Monumenta." and estimable men, of irreproachable character wrote 7. Detached and extremely interesting communica- against the pope and in favor of the emperor. We cantions are given to us in the biographies of Bruno, arch- not here give the names of these opposite writers, but bishop of Cologne, the brother of Otho I.; of Udalrich, their character will be found fully drawn in Stenzel's bishop of Augsburg; and other ecclesiastics of that excellent work on the history of Germany under the time. Frankish emperors.* In the eleventh century, we find more important and 15. The Biography of Benno, bishop of Osnaburg, a a greater number of historians, who, in their descrip- friend of Henry IV. by Norbert, abbot of the Convent tions, distinguish themselves especially: of Iburg, which was built by Benno, contains impor1. The Life of Queen Matilda, written by command tant information. of king Henry II., by an unknown author, between the 16. The historians of the Crusades are more especialyears 1002 and 1014; agreeably written, and not unim- ly numerous, the importance of the subject, the uniportant as regards the history of Henry I. versal interest taken therein, the peculiar nature of the 2. Ditmar, or Thietmar, bishop of Merseburg, who expedition in a foreign country and at such a distance, died in 1018, wrote a history of the German kings from together with the surprising and wonderful deeds per876-1018. His narrative is confused, his language ob- formed, excited many, and particularly those who were scure, being neither pure nor agreeable, and his de- present, to give their records of the scenes witnessed, scription in the first books not impartial. Nevertheless, for the perusal of those left behind at the time, and he is of great importance to us, rich in information of their successors. The majority of the chronicles have the most varied nature, and forms our principal source been collected by Bongars, under the title: "Gesta for the history of Otho III. and Henry II. Ile was a Dei per Francos, Hanovim, 1611, fol." friend and relation of the Saxon emperors. In the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the impetus 3. Besides the last-mentioned writer, we find the best given by the Crusades produced its influence, and opdetailed and correct information respecting the end of erated beneficially upon the historians. They became the tenth and commencement of the eleventh century more particular in the selection and arrangement of in the " Annales Quedlinburgensis," to 1025. the subject-matter, thus showing a commencement in 4. The Life of Henry II. by Adelbold, bishop of the art of historical writing. Among the most distinUtrecht, is incomplete, and nearly all borrowed from guished writers are: Ditmar, but well written. The'Vitae" of both the 1. Otho, bishop of Freisingen, who died in 1158, son bishops of Hildesheim, Bernward and Godehard, are, of the Margrave Leopold of Austria, a philosopher, of as regards the history of Saxony, of great consequence; independent feeling, and full of eloquence. He wrote the Meinwercs of Paderborn merit being mentioned a universal history to the year 1152, well continued as likewise. far as 1209, by Otho of Sainte Blaise; and the life of the 5. Wippo, chaplain to the emperor Conrad II., whose emperor Frederic I. to 1156, which was continued as far life he has written in a pompous style, "Vita Conradi as 1160 by Radewich, canon of Freisingen; both works Salici." He was a man of science and letters, and of equally interesting and learned, and written with ina remarkable mind. telligence and discernment. 6. Hermannus Contractus, (the lame,) of the family 2. The History of Frederic I. receives important eluof the counts of Vehringen, and a Benedictine monk of cidations from the Chronicles of Vincenz of Prague Reichenau, who died in 1054. He wrote a chronicle 1140-1167; the History of Lodi, 1153-1178, by Otho and from 1000-1054, continued to 1100 by Berthold and Ber- Acerbus Morena; the History of Romuald, archbishop nold, of Constance. of Salerno, to 1168; the Poem of Giinther: Ligurinus 7. Adam of Bremen, (born at Meissen, and canon and the book of the so-called Sire Raul of Milan: "de and rector of the college of Bremen,) who died in 1076. Rebus gestis Frederici in Italia." He wrote a good ecclesiastical history of the North, 3. The Chronicle of the Slavi, by Helmold, an ecclefrom the middle of the eighth century to 1076; impor- siastic of Lubeck, to 1170, and by Arnold to 1209; imtant for the history of North Germany, especially of the portant for the history of Henry the Lion and the house time of Henry 1V. of the Guelphs. 8. Bruno of Corvey, (de Belle Saxonico,) a passionate 4. Valuable information is given upon the same subadversary of Henry IV., and who exaggerates and dis- ject by Gerhard, provost of Stederbuch, in his Chronifigures much; yet he is important and indispensable cles of the Monastery, and by the Monk of Weingarfor the history of the war. ten in his book "de Guelfis" and his Chronicles. 9. Lambert of Aschaffenburg, a monk of Hersfeld, 5. The so-called "Annalista Saxo" and " Chronawrote a chronicle from the earlier times to 1077. A graphus Saxo," mostly compilations, but the former for work of great genius, full of spirit, well written, and an the eleventh and the latter for the twelfth centuries, in important source for the period in which lie lived; he the detail, are both very interesting. is especially the best historian of the middle ages. Nearly all the bishoprics churches, and monasteries 10. Marianus Scotus, who died in 1086; a monk of of Germany, now received their appointed historians, Fulda and Mentz, who wrote a chronicle to 1083, which who we find touch more or less upon general matters, was continued by Dodechin to 1200. and are often more important than the universal chron11. Sigbert, a monk of Gemblours, (Sigeb. Gembla- ides selected for general circulation. Such are for incensis,) who died in 1112, wrote a chronicle: learned, stance: written with great industry, and rich in information, 6. Albert von Stade, whose chronicle goes as far as but which is nevertheless confused and not altogether 1256, and is continued by a stranger to 1324-also a cornauthentic. His work has been continued by several pilation. writers, and in the subsequent middle ages much re- 7. Gotfried von Viterbo to 1186; the monk Alberich, sorted to. Joh. Vitoduranus, &c. 12. Ekkehardus Uraugiensis wrote a chronicle to 8. A collection of letters by celebrated men of that 1126, likewise very learned, carefully written, of great period is very important especially those of Pope Innovalue in the particular history of his own times, and cent III. and Petrus de Vinea, chancellor of the empemore impartial than most of the historians of that pe- ror Frederic II., and who died in 1249. riod, who all wrote for or against the emperors and 9. The most complete collection of letters to and from popes. There are several continuations of this work, of the popes, of the transactions of their ambassadors and which the most known is that by the abbot of Ursperg other similar documents, has been preserved in the ar(Chron. Ursperg) to 1229. chives of the Vatican in Rome, which, as may be easi13. The letters of the popes and other distinguished ly conceived, are of the highest importance for the hismen; collected by an ecclesiastic, Ulrich of Bamberg, tory of this period, but it is extremely difficult to gain in the twelfth century, are extremely valuable. 14. It is likewise very interesting, in order to catch * Geschichte Deutschlands unter den Frankischen Kasern the spirit of those times when the dispute between 1827-1828. HENRY I.-PRODUCES INTERNAL TRANQUILLT iI. 117 access to them. A great part of them, however, has met him on his estates of the Hartz Mounbeen transcribed in Rome by Pertz. and already the commencement of their publication has been made in tains, among his falcons, occupied in catchthe fourth volume of the " Monumenta Germani ing birds, whence he derived the by-name Historica." 10. A work of very great importance for the history of the Fowler. It is possible that this of the emperor Frederic II., is the History of England, tradition may have been preserved among by Matthieu-Paris, who, together with the events of the English nation from 1066-1259, treats also occasion- the people, still the aforesaid earlier writers ally upon the affairs of the other nations of Europe. So make no mention of it, while it is only in likewise various Italian historians, of whom we need only here refer especiallyto Richard de Saint Germano the middle of the eleventh century that we and Nicolas de Jamsilla, (both in the Collection of Mu- for the first time meet in the chronicles and ratori.) 11. All the great writers who form the source of his- other historical works, with this by-name tory have been brought together in the great Col- Henricus auceps. lections of Duchesne, Bouquet, (for France,) Muratori,Henr auceps. (for Italy,) Schard, Reuber, Urstisius, Pistorius, Fre- Henry's reign began, it is true, with some her, Goldast, Schilter, Meibom, Leibnitz, Ekkard, &c., internal agitations, but these were soon (for Germany. internal agitations, but these were soon 12. Equally important as were for the history of the quelled, for the anxious wish both of Otho preceding epoch the collection of the ancient laws of the Franks and the nations subjected to them, are like- the Illustrious and King Conrad became wise, for the history of the middle ages, (althoughnow fulfilled, and the Franks and the Saxmuch abridged,) the collections of the later laws, known under the names of the Sachsenspiegel, or Mirror of ons lived accordingly in harmony together. Saxony, the Schwabenspiegel, or Mirror of Swabia, Duke Burkhard of Swabia, and Duke Arand Kaiserrecht, or the Imperial Law. n o B w n nulf of Bavaria, who had returned from -*^ ~the Hungarians, refused him homage; but he speedily brought them by the power CHAPTER V I I of his arms and the gentler force of peaceful and friendly persuasion, back to their 919-1024. duty. Thus, from the year 921, the whole of Germany obeyed Henry, and no internal Henry I., 919-936-His Wars-The Hungarians-The war disturbed the peace of his empire, alSlavonians-New Institutions-Otho I., 936-973-The Hungarians-Battle of the Lechfeld-The Western though it was.only after several battles that Empire renewed 962-Greece-Otho I. 973-983- he conquered Lorraine, which had still Italy-Otho III., 983-1003-His Religious bevotionHis partiality for Roman and Grecian Manners and wavered between France and Germany. Customs-Henry II., 1003-1024-italy-Pavia-Bam- Soon afterwards he strengthened his union berg-His Death, 1024-End of the Saxon Dynasty. with that country by giving his daughter with that country by giving his daughter THE accounts we possess respecting the Gerberga in marriage to its duke, Giselbert, election of Henry vary much, and are here and during seven centuries that beautiful and there very erroneous. If we follow- land remained united with Germany. as is but just-the statements of the most Henry could now occupy himself with ancient writers, Widukind and Ditmar, we his foreign enemies, the Slavonians and shall find that the princes and elders of the Hungarians. The latter thought they could Franks, yielding to the counsel of Conrad still continue their old system of destruction their king, given on his death-bed, assem- in the German countries, but they now bled together at the summons of their duke, found an opponent who arrested their progEberhard, at Fritzlar, in the beginning of ress. At first, indeed, Henry was obliged the year 919, and there, in the presence of to yield to their furious attacks, (in 924,) and the two nations, the Franks and the Saxons, they advanced into the very heart of Saxelected Henry for their sovereign. The ony. He was, however, fortunate enough, whole assembly with uplifted hands pro- in a sally he made from the fortified Castle claimed and saluted with loud shouts their of Werle, or Werlaon,* to capture one of chosen king. Thus the choice was more their most distinguished princes; for his properly made by the nobles of Franconia, ransom and Henry's promise of a tribute while the Saxons naturally accepted the the Hungarians concluded a truce for nine election made of their own duke. As yet, years, and engaged during that time not to however, it could not be known what meas- attack Germany. They probably purposed ures might be adopted by the other nations, after that to make doubly good the lost and we shall soon learn in what way Henry speedily brought the Swabians and Bava- The position of Werle (called by Widukind, Werlaon) has been variously discussed; endeavors having rians to acknowledge his sovereignty. been made to trace it in Westphalia, Brunswick, HilSubsequent authorities relate that the en- desheim, and other districts; but most probably it was Subsequent authoties relate at te en-in the palatinate of the same name, near Goslar, as voys dispatched to offer the crown to Henry, appears in the " Mirror of the Saxons." 118 THE HUNGARIANS AND SLAVONIANS. time, but Henry profited so well by those surrounding country, upon the first intelli. nine years that when they did return they gence of the enemy's approach, might take found a very different country to contend refuge there with their property. The with. Hungarians knew nothing of besieging He now commenced suppressing with cities, and if they made but little booty in much severity and justice internal turbu- their incursions they did not very soon aplence and depredation, so that the greater pear again. Henry's hereditary landszeal might be excited against foreign ene- as in fact generally the north of Germanymies. For under the reign of the last were very poor in those larger settlements Carlovingians, as we have already seen, the which might be compared with towns; in spirit for war and rapine was cherish- those parts the custom of living in isolated ed everywhere, even among the nobles. localities was preserved later than elseHenry pursued and punished these robbers where. Accordingly, as Widukind relates, wherever they were taken; but he pardoned all were busily occupied, day and night, those in whom he found the better spirit to with the construction of these burghs, and exist, and gave them arms and land on the every one, without distinction of rank or eastern frontiers of the empire, in order other claims to independence, was forced to that they might thus have a fair opportunity join in this grand work. Henry built these for the exercise of their passion for war fortified castles and cities chiefly in his against his enemies. Merseburg, which hereditary lands, Saxony and Thuringia, served as one of the quarters for such a and among others Goslar, Duderstadt, Nordtroop, thus became a sort of bulwark or hausen, Quedlinburg, Merseburg, and Meisprotecting wall against the Slavonians, un- sen are named. But that he might also have til Henry himself advanced farther into the inhabitants and garrisons in these places, country of that nation. he ordered that of all the men who were He then exercised his German soldiers, bound to do service in war, every ninth who until then only knew how to contend man should dwell in the city, and these on foot, in the art of fighting on horseback, were obliged to occupy themselves with so that they might be better enabled to re. the building of houses, which might serve sist the hordes of mounted Hungarians; as places of refuge, upon the attacks of the and as the Germans were always willing to enemy, and the others were bound to supply learn, and were likewise skilful in the ac- them yearly with the third portion of their quirement of the art of arms generally, produce, in order that they might have they were speedily made perfect in the cav- wherewith to live, and preserve the rest airy evolutions. He practised them to for all in time of danger. attack in close ranks; to await the first ar- When Henry had passed some years in row of the enemy, and to receive it on the making these preparations he resolved to exshield, and then suddenly to dash upon ercise his warriors, by subduingthe neighbors them before they had time to discharge the of the Germans in the east and north, who, second. Combined with this reform in the although not so dangerous as the Hungaricavalry exercise, he likewise introduced a ans, were still not less disposed to be hostile. more strict discipline; the eldest brother in He attacked and beat the Slavonians (the every family, as it appears, was forced to Hevellers on the Havel) in the' Marches of do duty as a horse soldier, and all capable Brandenburg, and conquered their city of bearing arms were obliged at the gen- Brennaburg, (Brandenburg,) which he beeral summons (according to the ancient sieged in the most severe winter, so severe law, which he renewed) to join the ranks. that his army encamped on the ice of the Finally, as he well saw that the enemy river Havel. He then subjected the Dalecould still do much mischief, even if they minziens or Dalmatians, who inhabited the were put to flight-for, like a flash of light- banks of the Elbe, from Meissen to Bohening, they appeared now here, now there, mia. He also undertook an expedition pillaging and murdering, and then vanished against the Bohemians, besieged Duke before they could be overtaken-he in this Wenzeslaus in Prague, the capital, and interval converted, with great industry, a forced him to yield obedience. From this number of unemployed buildings into forti- time the kings of Germany have continued fled castles, placed at certain distances from to demand fealty from the dukes of Bohemia. each other, so that the inhabitants of the These events took place in all probability THE MARGRAVIATES-THE HUNGARIANS-BATTLE OF MERSEBURG. 119 in the years 928 and 929. But in this lat- tection of God, by our efforts, and by your ter year a Slavonic race, the Redarians, valor, one enemy, the Slavonians, being encouraged no doubt by the absence of the brought to subjection, nothing remains for king when on his Bohemian expedition, us but to raise ourselves just as unitedly, united with their neighboring tribes, and and in one mass against the common enemy, suddenly revolted, and it was necessary to the savage Avari, (thus he styled the Hunsummon together all the Saxons, in one garians.) Hitherto we have been obliged entire mass, to advance against them. The to give up all our possessions to enrich them, king's generals laid siege to the town of and now to satisfy them further we must Lukini, (Lenzen,) near the Elbe. A great plunder our churches, for we have nothing army of the Slavonians advanced to its else togive them. Choose now yourselves; relief, and a grand battle was fought, in will you admit that I shall take away what which they were completely annihilated. is appointed for the service of God to purWidukind states their loss at 200,000; chase our peace from the enemies of that even if this number is exaggerated, it is God, or will you, as it beseems Germans, quite certain that this victory of the Saxons firmly confide that He will save us, who in produced the lasting subjection of the Sla- truth is our Lord and Saviour?" On this vonians. the people raised their hands and voices to No doubt it was in order to guaranty heaven, and swore to fight. these new conquests against the Slavonians, The Hungarians now advanced in two that Henry extended the already existing strong divisions. The first attacked Thudefences on the Slavonian frontiers, and ringia and devastated the country, to the thence were formed gradually the Margra- Weser districts, as far as it was not deviate of Nordsachsen, (the present Altmark,) fended by its fortified towns. But an army, and the Margraviate Meissen, on the Elbe, formed of the Saxons and Thuringians, atwhere he founded the same-named city and tacked this division, defeated it, destroyed fortification. Credit may not be given to its leaders, and pursuing it through the him, it is true, for the complete establish- whole of Thuringia, annihilated it comment of both these margraviates, because pletely. that occurs in the time of the Ottonians; The other division of the Hungarians nevertheless they owe to him their founda- which had remained stationary in the easttion. Neither is it proved that in order to ern districts, received the tidings of the promulgate Christianity among the Slavo- overthrow of their brethren at the moment nians, he had already founded bishoprics, they were laying siege to the seat of the turbulence of the times may have pre- Henry's sister, married to Wido of Thuvented him during the rest of his reign ringia. What place this was, we have from doing so; but his son Otho completed unfortunately not been able to learn. Some afterwards what his father projected, by have thought it to be Merseburg, which introducing ecclesiastical institutions there. Liutprand names as the enemy's place of Meantime the nine years' truce with the encampment; others again pronounce it to Hungarians having expired, they sent an be Wittenberg. The king, as Widukind embassy to Germany to demand the ancient relates, encamped near Riade, the situatribute which that country had disgracefully tion of which it is equally impossible to been obliged to pay them. But Henry, to determine. Still it is extremely probable show them the contempt in which the Ger- that the battle took place in the vicinity of mans now held them, delivered to the am- the Saale, not far from Merseburg, in the bassadors this time, in the form of a tri- Hassgau. bute, a mangy dog, deprived of its tail and The enemy abandoned their camp, and ears, that being a very ancient symbol of according to their custom, lighted large the most utter-contempt. At this the Hun- fires as a signal to all the rest of their garians were roused to fury, and prepared troops, dispersed around in plundering, to themselves to take bitter revenge for it; but collect together. The following morning King Henry now addressed his people thus:Henry advanced with his army, and ex"( You know from what dangers our horted his troops in the most glowing lanformerly-desolated kingdom is now free, for guage on that day to take ample revenge it was torn to pieces by internal dissensions, for the wrongs of their country and their and external wars. But now, by the pro- relations and friends slain, or carried off 120 THE HUNGARIANS DEFEATED-THE DANES-THEIR SUBJECTION. as slaves. Thus he marched through the presented the triumphant scene with nearly ranks of his warriors, bearing in his hand all the truth and animation of life itself. the holy lance,* preceded by the banner of The year 934 presented to King Henry the army waving before him, which was another opportunity by which to gain great consecrated as the angel's banner, it being glory, by an expedition against the Danes, decorated with the figure of the archangel who were ravaging and laying waste the Michael. Thence the German warriors coasts of Friesland and Saxony. Hie felt within them the full confidence of vic- marched into their own country, at the tory, and awaited the signal for battle with head of his army, forced their king, Gorm, impatience. The king, however, who al- (usually surnamed the old,) to conclude a ready perceived by the motions of the peace, established at Silesia, on the fronenemy that they would not make a stand, tiers of the empire, a fortified barrier, and sent forward a portion of the Thuringian founded there a margraviate, wherein he militia, or Landwehr, with a few lightly- left a colony of Saxons. He also sucarmed horsemen, in order that the enemy ceeded in converting one of the members might pursue these almost unarmed troops, of the royal family-probably Knud, the and then be seduced onward to attack his son of Gorm, but, according to others, his main body. And this took place; but second son, Harold-to Christianity. Thus they so speedily turned their backs upon was re-established by Henry I. the Marviewing the well-armed ranks of the Ger- graviate Schlei and Trenne, which had mans, that it scarcely became a regular previously served as a bulwark for the imbattle. They were pursued, and the greater perial frontiers, and which the Danes had part were either hewn down or taken pris- again possessed and destroyed. This good oners; the camp of the enemy, with all prince therefore had now the happiness to the treasures stolen, was captured, and behold, when on the eve of his glorious what to the feelings was most of all affect- life, these enemies of the north who, during ing and delightful was, that the prisoners an entire century, hadspread terror throughwhom the Hungarians had already forced out the countries of Europe, retire before along as slaves, now saw themselves so him, and, confining themselves within the providentially freed from bondage. Henry limits of their own territory, acknowledge then fell down on his knees, together with his power.* his whole army, and thanked God for the At home, in his own domestic circle, victory gained. The tribute which he had King Henry exercised the virtues and duhitherto been forced to pay over to the ties of an excellent husband and a good enemy he now devoted to the service of the father. His queen, the pious and gentle church, as well as to charitable gifts which Matilda, was the model of wives; for, poshe made to the poor; and the king himself, sessing great influence over the king, she says Widukind, was henceforward called availed herself thereof, wherever it was by his inspired warriors, " The father of possible, to obtain his grace and pardon for his country," their "sovereign lord," and the guilty; and his kind and noble heart their "emperor;" while the fame of his was always sadly pained when the stern great virtue and valor extended over the command of public justice forced him to whole country. refuse her appeals for mercy. By her he This action took place in the year 933, had five children, Otho, Gerberga, Haduin, in the neighborhood of Merseburg, and and subsequently Henry and Bruno. By was what was usually styled the Merse- his first wife, Hathberga, (who, having burger engagement, or the battle of the originally been destined for a convent, was Hassgau. In remembrance of the event, never looked upon as his lawfil wife, and Henry, as is related by Liutprand, had a soon left him,) he had a son, called Tancpainting of the battle drawn in the dining mar, but who was not acknowledged as a hall of his palace in Merseburg, which re- legitimate child. He gave Otho, his eldest son and suc* This holy lance was handed to Henry by Rudol- cessor, in marriage to Edgetha, daughter phus of Burgundy, as a present: it was furnished with a cross, formed of nails, with which as was believed, the hands and feet of our Saviour had been fixed when This piece of land, between Schlei and Eider, recrucified. King Henry and his successors held this mained thenceforward unitedwith Germany for nearly sacred weapon in high veneration, and always used it a century, until the emperor, Conrad II., resigned it to on important occasions. King Knud. DEATH OF HENRY I.-HIS NEW INSTITUTIONS. 121 of Edward, king of England; and by that mighty against his enemies, and towards act, set the first example which the kings his friends and subjects, kind, just, and of the Saxon dynasty followed so frequent- mild. He is represented as having been of ly afterwards, of seeking to unite them- a handsome, chivalric form, skilful and selves with all the other royal houses of bold as a hunter, and so adroit in all the Europe. This forms a distinguished fea- exercises of the body and warlike arms, ture in this noble race. that he was the terror of his adversaries. Towards the end of his life, according He was extremely bland and affable in his to Widukind, after having so gloriously manner, butstill preserved so well his digsucceeded in his devoted object, of produ- nity that he kept every one within the cing for his country peace internally, and bounds of respect. from all other nations respect externally, Henry may, with justice, be styled one Henry had it in contemplation to proceed of the greatest of all German princes; for to Italy, in order to reunite that country that which proves the greatness of a king with the empire of Germany. Whether is not so much the actions by which he asor not this statement rests upon any good tonishes the world, bu.t the works he leaves foundation, is not known; but the execu- behind him, and which bear in themselves tion of this design, if really intended, the living germ of a new epoch. was suddenly interrupted by sickness, he Unfortunately, the most ancient and aubeing attacked with a fit of apoplexy while thentic writers in reference to King Henry staying at Bothfeld, in the autumn of are very imperfect and unsatisfactory, so 93., from which he suffered a long and much so, that it is impossible to place entire severe illness. When he did recover suf- confidence in the subsequent statements. ficiently, he felt the necessity of at once Still it is already much when we find at attending to the means of securing the least, that all the writers of the middle ages tranquillity of his empire, and he accord- agree in looking upon him as the institutor ingly convoked an assembly of the nobles of chivalry and the ennobling reformer of at Erfurt. He had long perceived in his the nobility, as well as being the founder of eldest son Otho, all that energy and great- cities and citizenship, and, with one word, ness of mind so suitable and necessary for of all the noble institutions which became a sovereign; but the mother was more in developed after him. This testimony proves favor of Henry, the second son, because he that his works have had the greatest influwas more mild than his passionate brother; ence, and, accordingly, that his memory, besides which, she held him to possess a as it has been, should continue to be honored greater right to the succession of the crown, among mankind. But even if we retain because he was the first-born son after his only what is clearly proved in history, father had been invested with the imperial enough will remain to establish his claims dignity. The will of the father, however, to glory and honor. determined all the nobles to recognise Otho Henry became a still greater benefactor as successor. to Germany by founding, in the construcMore easy now in his mind, Henry left tion of cities, new municipalities. For alErfurt and proceeded to Memleben. There though the immediate object of these strong he experienced a second attack of apoplexy, places was to protect the country against and, after having taken an affecting, but the pillaging hordes of the Hungarians, it resigned farewell of his amiable wife, he was one only secondary, inasmuch as they died on Sunday the 2d of July, in the year were far more important as the cradle of a 936, at the age of sixty, in the presence of new condition of life. The order of comhis sons and different princes of the em- mon freemen towards the end of the Carlopire. His remains were buried in the vingian period was, as already stated, very church of St. Peter, before the altar, in much reduced or nearly extinct. The Quedlinburg, the city he had himself German people were upon the high road of founded. becoming, like those other nations where Henry had reigned only eighteen years, there are but two classes, lords and slaves; and yet during that time he had not only two conditions between which that pride raised the empire from a fallen state, but and energy given by freedom are never rehad elevated it to the highest degree of covered. Already the country itself was power and command. He was strong and chiefly cultivated by mere mercenaries, 16 122 THE JEWS-FOUNDATION OF CITIES-PROGRESS OF CIVILIZATION. and industrial employments as well as trade division of labor proved, as it always must, were almost entirely in the hands of the the foundation of all civilization among the Jews. The nobles considered these occu- people; and thence Henry was again the pations beneath their dignity; nay, they founder of industry, moral cultivation, and were very often dependent on the Jews, who the development of the civil order of life. had accumulated immense riches, because And with the same motives that had in their necessity they were forced to bor- caused him to give to chivalry a nobler aim row money from them. As early as in the and a more illustrious title for the exercise last period of the Roman empire the laws of arms, so did Henry now seek to introhad already commenced to favor the Israel- duce the practice of arms for the inhabitites, and by Honorius among others, they ants of the cities, so that they might be were entirely freed from all military ser- skilled in the defence of their walls, and vice. Their chief dwelling-places were thus become a defensive and honorable the cities on the Rhine and the Danube, body of the state. By this he succeeded in which originated in the time of the Romans, attracting inhabitants for his fortified places, (Cologne, Coblentz, Treves, Mentz, Worms, in such great numbers, that as these, in Spire, Strasburg, Basle, Constance, Augs- their original state, soon became too narburg, Ratisbonne, Passau, &c.,) and in row to hold them, the new-comers, as they these cities they lived in such great num- arrived, built themselves houses around the bers, that they prevented all competition fortified place, so that another city, as it and obstructed all increase of trade and were, was speedily completed, which was industry. subsequently surrounded with strong walls, But King Henry now built, as we have likewise as a defence against the attacks of seen, a number of cities in Saxony and the enemy. Thuringia, and placed in them inhabitants By what, however, has just been said, it from the country, to serve not merely, as is not meant to convey that these instituhas been supposed, during the time of war, tions of King Henry had at once changed but as constant dwelling-places; he also the whole course of existing customs and found means to overcome the ancient re- manners in Northern Germany, and subpugnance felt by the Saxons to living in stituted an extensive and independent order towns. He promised to those who dwelt in of civil institutions; on the contrary, owing them the security of justice; and it is not to the ever-repugnant feelings of the Saximprobable that each town received its own ons against a confined life in towns, as is count, who, in time of war was the leader, shown in subsequent times, this new order and in peace was the immediate judge and of things progressed but slowly. Yet he president, although in gradation he may had laid the foundation, the commencement have ranked under the count of the gau or was made, he gave it an impetus, and more district in which the town lay. could not be demanded from him. His Afterwards he ordered, as is expressly merit lies therein, that he perceived and stated by Widukind, that all councils, as- acknowledged the necessary reforms resemblies, and festivals of the inhabitants of quired by the march of events, and he prothe neighboring districts, should be held and moted their progress; but it was the course celebrated in the cities; and that all trade- of human development which was to comfairs in their turn, followed and joined in bine and complete, in an extended form, these regulations, and that industry and what was merely begun by him. This traffic found in the cities their central point course, however, is not measured by years, of union, is to be inferred as a natural and but by centuries, and thus we shall find, important result. Whatever had been for- that it is only in the subsequent period of merly executed in isolated dwellings, by the middle ages that the result of the great the family or serfs, soon became, under the Henry's noble designs are made manifest new order of things, worked and finished in in the flourishing state of the existence of quantities, and in a superior style, by the the cities. artisans and mechanics of the cities. And Already, before the death of Henry, the as the master and his men, in turns, pre- princes had promised him to recognise his pared only one, to each allotted part of the son Otho as his successor to the empire; work, wherein each was skilled and had and this recognition was now confirmed in been exercised from youth upward, such a a great assembly at Aix-la-Chapelle, where OTHO I.-HIS ENERGY AND BOLDNESS. 123 Otho was solemnly crowned. Two of the his new reign with vigorous power, and it great archbishops on the Rhine contended was speedily shown that outward appearfor the honor of the coronation. He of ances had not deceived. Cologne claimed it from Aix-la-Chapelle But Otho did not gain over the hearts of being in his diocese; and the other, of men that same mild power which Henry Treves, because his archbishopric was the his father had obtained. He has often been most ancient. However, it was at last con- called a lion, from his proud and terrific eluded that neither of them, but that Hilde- look and manner, and because like the lion bert, Archbishop of Mentz, should per- he cast all enemies down before him, whenform the ceremony. Giselbrecht, Duke of ever and however numerous in force they Lorraine, in whose duchy Aix-la-Chapelle appeared against him, whether at home or lay, was charged, as high chamberlain, abroad. He was a great and powerful monwith the office of providing for the lodging arch, and was soon considered the first and entertainment of the strangers, of whom prince in Christendom. He had placed a vast number attended. Eberhard, Duke upon his head the imperial crown of Charof Franconia, as high steward, supplied the lemagne, and even rendered the Germanic tables and the viands; Duke Herman of empire and its name so celebrated among Swabia acted as high-seneschal, and Ar- all nations, that none could venture to claim nulf, Duke of Bavaria, as high-marshal, comparison with it. Such powerful results provided for the horses and the camp. cannot be accomplished by a man of ordiWhen the people were assembled in the nary mind, and who lives only for trangrand cathedral of Aix-la-Chapelle, the quillity and peace, but by him alone, to archbishop led the young king forward by whom, like Otho, the fame of his nation the hand, and spoke thus to the multitude: stands ever before his eyes as an elevated "Behold, I here present to you the king, glory-beamingimage; and ifeventhe haughOtho, elected by God, proposed by King tiness of his soul raised many enemies Henry, and nominated by all the princes! against him, and even if in his wrath, with If this choice be acceptable to you, you will which his manly breast was often excited, signify it by raising your right hand to- he acted with harshness towards his adv&rwards heaven!" saries, still in his noble dignity of mind, he The whole multitude then held up their may be compared with the lion, inasmuch hands and hailed the new king with loud as he pitied and spared many times those and joyful acclamations. The archbishop weaker enemies who besought his mercy then stepped with him to the altar, where- and pardon. Anger and severity indeed on the imperial insignia lay-the sword never carried him beyond the limits ofjusand belt, the imperial mantle, the armlets tice, for with him the law ever maintained and the staff, together with the sceptre and its influence and authority. the crown. The sword he handed to him Our country, which before these two with these words: " Take this sword, des- great kings, Henry and Otho, was rapidly tined to repulse all the enemies of Christ, approaching its own ruin, being rent by and to confirm, with mostlasting power, the internal anarchy, and surrounded exterpeace of all Christians;" and he handed nally by enemies who, in their contempt, to his majesty the other articles, with a according to their caprice, laid it desolate similar address. He then placed the crown wherever they could, now rose again sudupon his head and led him to the throne, denly, and became as it were a new-born which was erected between two marble co- empire. Not only were the enemies struck lumns, where Otho continued to sit until to the ground, but even new countries the solemn ceremony was concluded. All were acquired, and all other nations which eyes were turned with astonishment to the had previously mocked, now bent low beyoung king, whose countenance filled every fore us. In the time of peace, when no one with veneration. His lofty, princely danger threatens, and justice and order form, his broad manly chest, his large hold predominance everywhere, a nation sparkling eyes, and beautiful flaxen hair, may rejoice in a king who sits upon the which flowed down to his shoulders in long throne of his fathers, intent upon continulocks-all seemed to announce him as be- ing that state of peace;. but when the ing born to rule. The days of festival and world is violently agitated, and personal ceremony having ended, Otho commenced freedom and independence are in danger, 124 HENRY OF BAVARIA-THE DANES-ITATY. or when a nation has become completely fixed his lance there in the ground, as a enervated by a long peace, and is thus token of his arrival. Harold caused himrendered indifferent to honor and glory, self as well as his consort Gunelda and his then a king is required bold and proud as son Sveno to be baptized, and bishoprics King Otho the First. His royal patriotic were erected in Sleswig, Ripen, and Aarfather had commenced the work, and he, huus. Otho felt within himself that he the son, felt himself in possession of the was appointed to perform the part of a power to perform its completion. Christian German king, the same as It is true that at the commencement of Charles the Great; he spread Christianity his reign many princes rose against him, around with a national feeling for its culas for instance: the Franks under Eber- tivation, by planting in the conquered hard, and the Lothringians or Lorrainers countries German colonies. under Giselbrecht, who still could not for- Meanwhile, in Italy, circumstances had get that a Saxon possessed the royal dig- occurred which attracted the eyes of Otho nity; Tankmar, his step-brother, and even to that country, longing as he did to perhis own younger brother Henry, the moth- form great deeds there. Ever since the er's favorite, who considered he had a extinction of the Carlovingian branch nugreater right to the crown than Otho, be- merous pretenders to its dominion had cause he was born when his father was started up, scattering disorder and destrucalready a king, while Otho, on the con- tion throughout that beautiful land, in adtrary, was born while he was a duke. dition to which bands of plundering stranBut the Franks and Lothringians were re- gers had either taken up their quarters or duced by arms to tranquillity, after the made continual incursions throughout the dukes Eberhard and Giselbrecht were both country. Here and there the Saracens slain; Tankmar was also killed in the were found regularly housed among the contest; and Henry, who had been allied rocks of the seacoast, while the hordes of with them, repaired to Frankfurt, and at the Hungarians or Magyars frequently the Christmas festival, in 942, during mass overran the rich and fertile plains of Upin the night, cast himself at the feet of his per Italy. In the south of Italy, the dobrother, and received full pardon, although minion of the Greek emperors still mainhe had three times risen against him, and tained itself, and extended almost to Rome, had even joined in a conspiracy to take and whose mercenaries, consisting of many his life. Nay, in 945, he was presented nations, were a scourge to the land. by Otho with the vacant duchy of Bava- In Upper Italy, the native princes at one ria, and thenceforward they remained true moment, and the kings of Burgundy in the friends until their death. next, took possession of the reins of govThe king now turned his attention to- ernment, and to a certain extent assumed wards his external enemies. With his the imperial title. Lothaire, the last king northeastern neighbors, the Slavonians, he of the Burgundian race, died in the year had long and sanguinary wars, but he 950, and the Margrave, Berengarof Ivrea, made them tributary as far as the Oder, took forcible possession of the authority. and in order to confirm Christianity among In order to fix'himself more securely in them, he erected the bishoprics of Hasel- the government, he tried to force the young berg, Brandenberg, and Meissen, and sub- and beautiful widow of Lothaire, the Prinjected them later to the archbishopric of cess Adelaide, to marry his son Adelbert. Magdeburg, which he had established in But this she steadily and firmly refused, the year 968. The dukes of Bohemia and and was imprisoned by the king; but with Poland were obliged to acknowledge his the assistance of an ecclesiastic she esauthority, and by tho foundation of the caped, and took refuge at the court of bishopric of Posen he sought to extend the Adelhard, Bishop of Reggio. This event mild doctrines of Christianity to those dis- gave occasion for Otho to interfere with tant countries. He drove back the Danes, his influence, in order to adjust this sad who had shortly before desolated the Mar- state of confusion in that part of Italy, and graviate of Sleswig, founded by his father, especially as he was appealed to by many as far as the point of Jutland; and an arm nobles of that land, as also by the perseof the sea on this coast derived from him cuted Adelaide herself. Accordingly in the name of the Otho-Sound, because he 951 he crossed the Alps with a well-ap INTERNAL REVOLTS-THE HUNGARIANS. 125 pointed army, besieged and took possession his father, whose kindled wrath had been of Pavia, and as his first wife Edigatha softened down by the intercession of the had died in the year 946, he concluded by princes. Ludolf and Conrad, however, giving his hand to the beautiful Adelaide, were not granted the restoration of their whom he had thus so chivalrously deliv- lost dukedoms, that of Lorraine being ered from her base persecutor. In the given to Otho's faithful brother Bruno, course of the following year he became who had likewise been already appointed reconciled with Berengar at Augsburg, to the archbishopric of Cologne, while and gave him Lombardy as a fief under Burchard, Henry of Bavaria's son-in-iaw, German dominion. Verona and Aquis- was raised to the dukedom of SwabiL legia, however, he yielded to Henry of Thus internal peace was happily reBavaria. stored, when in the year 955, the HungaThese events, however, produced shortly rians in still greater force again invaded Baafterwards great disputes in Germany. varia, and besieged Augsburg. Udalrich,the Otho was affectionately attached to his bishop of that city, defended it heroically, queen, Adelaide, and his brother Henry until the king advanced to its assistance of Bavaria, and they both acquired great and encamped along the river Lech. His influence with him. Ludolf, Otho's son army was divided into eight battalions, of by his former marriage, felt himself, per- which the first three consisted of Bavarians; haps not unjustly, to be neglected, and was the fourth of the Franks under Conrad; the afraid he would be excluded from succes- fifth of the elite troops of warriors, selected sion to the throne by the children his father from the entire army, at the head of which might have by Adelaide. He was joined noble division Otho himself commanded; by Otho's son-in-law, Conrad, Duke of the sixth and seventh were composed of the Lorraine, Frederic, Archbishop of Mentz, Swabians, and the eighth consisted of a the Palatine Arnulf of Bavaria, and seve- thousand picked Bohemian horsemen in ral other nobles, induced especially, as it charge of the military stores and baggage, would seem, by hatred to Henry of Bava- as from this side no attack was anticipated. ria, whose deceitful character had embit- Scarcely had the Hungarians, however, tered them against him. It was only with caught a glimpse of the army, when, with the greatest trouble and difficulty that their usual rapidity, they spread out their Otho was enabled, in the course of the innumerable hordes of cavalry, swam across years 953 and 954, to suppress the revolt. the Lech, and attacked the camp behind the Obstinate and severe battles were fought army; throwing the Bohemians and the in Saxony, Lorraine, Franconia, and Ba- Swabians into such disorder that the bagvaria; and it was in vain that Otho be- gage became lost. The valiant Conrad, sieged his adversaries in Mentz, as well however, with his Franks, hastened to their as afterwards in Ratisbonne. Even the assistance and restored order. The deciHungarians renewed their destructive at- sive battle was fixed to take place on the tacks, and were supported in them by the following day, it being the day of St. revolutionary forces; they pursued their Lawrence. The whole army prepared itincursions through Bavaria, Franconia, self forthe contest by prayer; the king reLorraine, a part of France, and finally ceived the holy sacrament, and he and the returned through Burgundy and Italy. entire army swore to remain true to each But it was just these very devastations, other unto death. Otho then raised the committed by this arch-enemy of the em- holy lance, the banner of the angel which pire, which at last put an end to the revo- had led to victory at Merseburg, waving lutionary war. Punished by their con- also now in front; the king himself gave sciences, Conrad and the Archbishop of the signal for attack, and was the first to Mentz returned to their allegiance and fall upon the enemy. He himself, with his humbled themselves before the king, by chosen troop, and Conrad, who felt anxious whom they were pardoned and received to recover by splendid deeds the good name again into favor; and although in his ob- he had lost in his rebellion, decided the stinacy Ludolf for a time continued the battle. Thus a great and glovious victory contest, he nevertheless in the end, after was gained; the enemy's troops completely the Palatine Arnulf had been killed before defeated, and put to flight, nearly all being Ratisbonne, likewise yielded submission to I destroyed or made prisoners, and three ot 126 THE SLAVONIANS-ITALY-THE WESTERN EMPIRE RENEWED. their leaders hung up like chiefs of robbers. marched himself a second time into Italy, Their own writer, Keza, assures us that out after he had caused his son Otho, yet an of both their large armies, consisting of infant, to be elected and crowned king. 60,000 men, only seven stragglers returned Berengar concealed himself among his -with their ears shorn. castles, while his son Adelbert took refuge But the victory of the Germans was in Corsica; but Otho proceeded direct to dearly purchased. Many brave leaders Rome. During his progress towards the fell; and the heroic Conrad, who, during capital, the gates of every town were thrown the great heat, had loosened his armor to open before the mighty King of the Ger. cool himself a little, was mortally wounded mans, and everywhere the inhabitants were in the neck by a stray arrow, and died- struck with amazement and admiration, thus repaying with his blood the debt he when they beheld the powerful and lofty owed to his country. The Hungarians, figures of the northern strangers. however, after the battle, did not venture Otho considered it worthy of his own to appear again in Germany, and the whole glory, as well as of the dignity of the of that beautiful country along the Danube, German nation, to replace upon his head, the subsequent Margraviate of Austria, was on the 2d of February, 962, the Roman torn from them, and by degrees repopu- imperial crown, which Charlemagne had lated with Germans, so that eventually it transferred to the Germans, thereby testiflourished gloriously. fying to the whole world, that strength and Otho gained in the same year, a victory power were with that people, and that not less important over the Slavonians, who, their monarch was the first of all Chris. in conjunction with numerous discontented tian rulers. It was under his protection Saxons, renewed their attacks constantly. and support, that the church and its spirThe Margrave Gero, one of the most im. itual head, the pope, were to exercise their portant men under the reign of Otho I., and influence over the people; and in him, the who had for many years continued to pro- emperor, every enemy of order and justice tect the eastern frontiers against the Slavo- would find a stern and implacable judge. nians, now, together with the valiant Her- Thus had, likewise, Charles the Great mann Bilburg, opposed them with great vigor founded anew the imperial dignity, and and success, until the king himself was en- thus it was renewed by Otho I. It is true, abled to advance to their aid; and in a battle the condition of Europe had changed since fought on the 16th of October, and which Charles's time; then almost all the Chris. has been compared with that of Augsburg, tian nations were under his dominion; he completely conquered them. The brave while there were various independent kings Hermann Bilburg was subsequently created who were not subject to him, the German a duke of Saxony by Otho, although, as it king. Yet not one of them all could comappears, without having attained the gov- pare himself with him; the imperial ernment of the entire country, and the full crown had ever been justly regarded as power of the other dukes. belonging to the Germans, and the ancesMeanwhile, Berengar, the ungrateful tors of Otho had none of them given up King of Italy, to whom Otho had shown their claim to it. Otho was especially the great kindness, again rebelled against him, protector of the Christian faith towards the and cruelly persecuted all who held with north and east; he ruled in Burgundy; the King of Germany; and in their trouble his authority was the ruling one in France, they entreated assistance from Otho. He where his brother, Bruno, of Lorraine, first sent his son, Ludolf, with an army acted as arbitrator and judge, and as which across the Alps; its force was indeed but he was acknowledged by all; and now, small, but the valiant son of Otho pressed having subjected Italy, to him alone bethe traitor so closely, that he must have longed the dignity of Emperor of the been destroyed, if Ludolf had not suddenly Western Christendom. died in the bloom of youth, and, as it is sup- Many have spoken against the renewal posed, by poison, in the year 957. Some of the empire, and have particularly cenfew years elapsed, when in the year 961, sured King Otho, that he cast this great King Otho himself, invited by the pope, burden upon Germany. The union of the John XII., the Archbishop of Milan, and two countries was the source of the great. others, accompanied by Adelaide, his queen, est misfortune to Germany, which sacri. THE EMPERORS AND THE POPES-THE CHURCH. 127 ficed so many men for the foreign ally, truly seized the idea of their dignity, or while at home it was itself entirely neg- else, perhaps, such great obstructions stood lected by its own hereditary rulers. But in their way that they could not execute what God had prepared as a great transi- it; and thus, also, the popes not having tion in the fate of a nation, and what a always retained themselves within the number of excellent men in former times limits of those rights which were accorded acknowledged as necessary and good, can- to them alone in the dominion of the not be rejected by the judgment of later church, both powers, which should have descendants. It has been the same with worked in -unity together, and the one have the papacy; many have expended their made the other perfect, have, in their engall against it, as having only contributed mity, at last destroyed each other. Butto' the diffusion of darkness, superstition, and this is the chief point-the grand idea and spiritual slavery. But those who itself must above all things be well disthus express themselves, mix in their cen- tinguished from its execution. The more sure all ages, and are unable to transport glorious it is, the greater is its contradicthemselves into those wherein the imperial tion to the fallibility of human nature, and throne and the papal chair were necessary the low bias of many ages; and the ill links in the great chain of historical de- success of its accomplishment cannot development. tract from its own dignity or from the It is not difficult for the unprejudiced greatness ofthose who have contended forit. and candid mind to perceive the grand With respect to the sacrifice of men in idea which served as the foundation of the Italian expedition, it depends upon the both. In those times when rude force ex- question, whether the object to be obtained ercised its dominion, the emperor, with the was great and important or not. If it was scales of justice in his hand, presided as so, the sacrifice must not be taken into judge between Christian nations, and ex- consideration, if battle and war may be erted himself for the peace of the world allowed for a high and necessary purpose. externally; while, on his part, the pope And the emperors who, with noble-minded guided the empire of internal peace, piety, dispositions and intentions, made this sacriand virtue. As the condition of life was fice for the idea of an empire, and the yet rude, and civil institutions still so im- honor of their nation, are not, therefore, to perfect, that the state could not of itself be blamed. undertake to superintend mental cultiva- The noble pride, however, felt by the tion; therefore, the church and schools, Germans in the thought, that they and the clergy and teachers, necessarily stood their rulers should be the central point under the supremacy of the head of the of Christianity; the conviction of their church, whose care it was that the truth strength, made manifest by the daring and gentleness of the divine word should courage of the small forces, composed of illumine all Christian nations, and unite their countrymen, in venturing across the them into one empire of faith. Alps, and who, when reaching their destiWith respect to the danger which might nation, by the superiority of their nature threaten-viz.: that, in the first place, the gave laws to a numerous and populous naone of these two powers might bring under tion; these recollections of the ancient its dominion the body by means of the glory of our nation, still existing in us the sword, and thence require what was un- later descendants-all this is the reward just; and that, in the second place, the for the sacrifice made. other would so bind the conscience, that it Other advantages, becoming more and might force it not to put faith in truth more immediately manifest, arising from itself, but merely in the word as given-a the union of Germany with Italy, will be sufficient protection was provided, in either shown in the course of our history. We case, inasmuch as the said power, both of only mention in advance the great influthe emperor and the pope, was less an ex- cnce which the example of the free Italian ternal than an internal power, founded cities, and, in particular, the flourishing solely upon the veneration of nations. state of commerce there, had upon the rise Such an authority can never be lastingly and successful progress of German towns, misused without destroying itself. an advantage the importance of which can. It is true that not all emperors have not be too highly estimated. 128 OTHO'S RIGHTS AS PROTECTOR OF THE CHURCH. Otho speedily exercised his right of pro- But already in the following year, 966, tectorship over the church, and his office his presence was again required in Italy of' superior Christian ruler, against the through the disturbances caused by Adel-ame pope who had crowned him. John bert, the son of Berengar, and the revolt of XII. had recalled from Corsica the son of the Romans against their pope. His apBerengar, for the purpose of placing him pearance, however, once more produced in opposition against the emperor; and, in I order and peace; and he was now enabled addition to this, was charged by the Ro- Ito turn his attention to Lower Italy, where man people, and the clergy, with the most the emperor of Greece still had his goverserious crimes. John sprang from a very nor, and then to Sicily, whence the Saracorrupt race, and had become pope as early I cens threatened entire Italy. It was now as in his eighteenth year. Otho hereupon Otho's wish to form an alliance with the convoked a council, consisting of forty family of the Greek emperor, in order, bishops and seventeen cardinals, and as thereby, to open a prospect for his own John, upon the emperor's citation, refused house upon Lower Italy, as well as to beto appear before these assembled fathers, come enabled to ward off more effectually he was deposed from his dignity, and Leo the inroads of the unbelievers. VIII. chosen instead. The Roman people, He sent for his son Otho from Germany, as well as the clergy, now swore to elect and had him crowned as future emperor no pope in future without the consent of by the pope, and then dispatched an emthe emperor. The popes from this time bassy to Constantinople, for the purpose of again called the emperor their lord, and in demanding Theophania, the daughter of the acknowledgment of his supremacy, placed emperor, in marriage for his son. Conhis name upon their coins, and marked the nected with this embassy, Luitprand, whom years of his reign upon their bulls. Otho had made bishop of Cremona, relates But the Romans soon forgot their oath, a singular circumstance, although, from drove away Pope Leo, and recalled the his hatred of the Greeks, with evident exdeposed John, after whose death, which aggeration: " We arrived here," he says, speedily followed, they elected another "in June, and were immediately supplied pope, Benedict, in opposition. The pa- with a guard of honor, so that we could tience of the emperor was now exhausted, not go anywhere without an escort. On and he exercised a heavy punishment the second dayof our arrival we proceeded upon the perjured Romans. He returned on horseback to the audience. The emagain with his army, laid waste the coun- peror Nicephorus is a short, stout man, so try around Rome, surrounded and besieged brown that, in a forest, he would strike us the city, and forced the inhabitants to sur- with terror. He said,'he lamented that render and open the gates, and to give up our lord and ruler had showed the daring the pope, Benedict, into his hands. He boldness to assume and appropriate Rome then convoked a large assembly of the to himself, and to destroy two such honorbishops and clergy, and in their presence able men as Berengar and Adelbert, and Benedict was divested of his insignia, and then to carry fire and sword even into at once banished, while Leo was replaced Grecian countries:' he added,' that he upon the throne. knew we had counselled our lord to it.' Meantime Berengar, with his wife, Wil- We replied:' Our lord, the emperor, has la, had been taken prisoners by the emper- delivered Rome from tyranny and sinners, or's generals, and were conveyed to Bam- which he has come from the end of the berg, where after their imprisonment they earth into Italy to accomplish, while others shortly died. The emperor himself, after have remained indolently sleeping upon he had thus established his dominion, re- their thrones, and deemed such great conturned in the beginning of the year, 965, fusion and anarchy beneath their dignity to Germany, and celebrated at Cologne, to notice. Besides which,' we added,' we with his beloved brother Bruno, his mother, have among us those brave and loyal his son Otho, and nephews, together with a knights, who are always ready and prenumerous assemblage of the nobles of his pared to maintain, by single combat at empire, the joyful event of his return arms, the justice and virtue of our master. among them after a long and trying time Yet we have come here with views and inof absence. tentions of peace, and for the purpose of OTHO'S SON'S MARRIAGE WITH A GRECIAN PRINCESS. 129 demanding the Princess Theophania in Princess Theophania was crowned in Rome marriage for Otho, our prince, and eldest in the year 972, by the pope, John XIII., son of our lord and emperor.' To which and united to the young prince, Otho. The the emperor observed:'It is now time to emperor himself now returned to Germany, go to the procession. We will attend to after an absence of six years, in order that this matter at a more convenient moment.' he might enjoy some little peace at the The grand procession, wherein the king close of a life so rich in striking events. appeared, attired in a long mantle, escort- The great influence which Otho had ed by soldiers or city volunteers, without acquired throughout the entire western halberds, passed along slowly amid the ac- world, was satisfactorily proved to the clamations of the people. German nation during the last few months " When at table, he wished to censure of his life. Having gone to Quedlinburg our mode of warfare, saying our arms to visit the grave of his mother, Matilda, were much too heavy, while the Germans he was there waited upon by the rulers of appeared to be only valiant when they the Poles and Bohemians, the chiefs Mjesko were drunk; and that the true Romans and Boleslas, in order to receive his opinwere only now to be found in Constantino- ion and judgment in their affairs; and these pie. When he said this, he made a sign were immediately followed by the ambasto me with his hand that I should be silent. sadors of the Romans, Beneventanians, At another time he spoke of the affairs of Greeks, Bulgarians, Slavonians, Danes, the church, and asked, mockingly, whether and Hungarians, and the whole completed any council had ever been convoked in by an embassy from the Saracens in AfSaxony? I replied,' that where there was rica, which arrived shortly afterwards at mo4t sickness, there was most need of the Merseburg. greatest number of doctors; that all here- Just at this time, however, he was very sies had originated with the Greeks, and much affected by the death of his faithful therefore church councils were more ne- friend, Herman, duke of Saxony, who died' cessary to be held among them. Never- in Quedlinburg on the 27th of March, 973. theless I knew of one council being assem- Grieved at the loss of that good man, says bled in Saxony, where it had been pro- Widukind, he wandered solitary and denounced that it was more glorious to fight jected among the graves of those he had with the sword in hand than with the held so dear. Alas, how many of these pen.' had already preceded him in their depart"The emperor is surrounded with flat- ure from this life, reminding him of his terers and sycophants; the whole city floats own past career, so troubled, so eventful, in sensuality, and even on holy days of but yet in many respects so glorious! festival there are plays performed. Their When on the 6th of May he arrived at power reposes not in their own strength, his castle in Mermleben, where his father but is dependent upon the mercenary forces had died, he felt himself extremely weak. of Amalfi, and upon Venetian and Russian Nevertheless he attended service in the sailors. I believe firmly that four hun. chapel on the following morning, gave his dred Germans in open field would put the usual alms to the poor, and then reposed whole Greek army completely to flight." again. At midday he again appeared, and Nicephorus would not consent to the at the appointed time he took his meal at marriage, and Otho, as emperor, now dinner with cheerfulness and enjoyment, sought to extend his dominion over the upon which he attended the evening serwhole of Lower Italy, which was divided vice. It was then he suddenly felt overamong the Greeks, Saracens, and native come with a burning fever, and he was princes. The history of these expeditions assisted to a chair by the princes in attendis not clearly given; but altogether it ap- ance. But his head sunk; he felt his pears the imperial arms were victorious, approaching end, and indicating his wishes although it was not possible to gain any by signs, he was immediately assisted in durable advantage in that difficult country. the solemn service of the holy communion. In December, 969, the emperor Nicepho- Just after he had received it, and when the rus was murdered in a revolt, when his holy ceremony was over, as Widukind successor very willingly formed an alli- states, he ended his mortal career, and ance with the emperor of Germany. The without a sigh tranquilly breathed his last, 17 130 OTHO II.-HAROLD OF DENMARK-LORRAINE-PARIS. on the 7th of May, 973, aged sixty-one more especially with that produced by his years, and in the thirty-eighth of his reign. cousin Henry, the second duke of Bavaria, His body was conveyed to Magdeburg, or the Turbulent, who had revolted against his favorite city, and being deposited in a the young emperor, but who, however, was marble coffin, was placed as he had wished, taken prisoner, and deprived of his duchy; on the side of his beloved Edgitha, in the as likewise by the rising of Harold of Denchurch of St. Maurice. mark against Otho, who was forced to Otho II., who, in the eighteenth year of march against him, and completely subhis age, now succeeded to the throne, very dued him. soon had reason to find that the task which Soon afterwards, France made an athad thus early devolved upon his shoulders, tempt to acquire the Lorraine dominion, of maintaining, in all its supremacy, the which, by the division of Verdun, was powerful empire of his father, extending, fixed in the centre between Germany and as it did, from the boundaries of the Da- France, but had now become united with nish country to nearly the extensive points Germany. The king, Lothaire, secretly of Lower Italy, was not a little arduous collected his army, and while Otho, comand difficult. For in the north and east, pletely unprepared, was holding a court on the Danes and Slavonians continued still the occasion of the feast of St. John, in unwilling subjects or neighbors; in the 978, in the ancient imperial palatinate at west, the French rulers were jealous ri- Aix-la-Chapelle, he suddenly advanced, vals; in the south of Italy, the Greeks and and, by forced marches, without even anArabs were anxiously watching for an op- nouncing hostilities, hastened on to that portunity to extend their power; while, in city, in order to take the emperor prisoner. the interior of Germany itself, many par- Fortunately, Otho received intelligence of ties stood in a condition of direct hostility the enemy's approach in time to enable towards each other. him to quit the place on the day before his In this critical position, the necessary arrival. Lothaire took possession of Aixstrength and energy of body was certainly la-Chapelle, and plundered it, while at the not wanting in the young monarch, as was same time he commanded the eagle, erected sufficiently shown by his figure, which, in the grand square of Charles the Great, although rather short, was, nevertheless, to be turned towards the west, in sign that strong and firmly knit together, while his Lorraine now belonged to France. But healthy constitution was indicated by the Otho forthwith held a diet of the princes florid, ruddy hue of his cheeks, and which, and nobles at Dortmund, represented to in fact, procured for him the by-name of them, with the most impressive eloquence, Otho the Florid, or Red. But wisdom the faithlessness of the French king, and and forethought were not as yet at his com- summoned them to march against the premand; and it was for him a misfortune that, sumptuous enemy. They all unanimously even as a child, he had been designated as promised their assistance, forgetting every the sovereign; for he thus became proud internal dispute, for it now concerned the and violent, extreme and unequal in his honor of the country. conduct; while mildness and severity were Accordingly, on the 1st of October, 978, with him in constant interchange, and his a considerable army marched into France, liberality at times bordered upon extrava- and without meeting with much opposition, gance itself. Had time, however, enabled advanced, by Rheims and Soissons, as far him to moderate these strong passions of as Paris. Here, on the right bank of the youth, and thus, by the experience of in- Seine, around the Montmartre, the Gercreased years, ripened and brought to mans encamped, and their mounted troops perfection his nobler qualities, he might scoured the whole of the country around, then have been included in the list of the committing devastation everywhere. The most distinguished rulers of our country. city itself was garrisoned by the duke, But fate ordained otherwise; and he was Hugo Capet; the Seine divided the two struck down, in the bloom of manhood, at armies, but the French did not venture out the age of twenty-eight years. to give battle. Otho, however, could not The very first years of his reign were succeed in taking the city, which was already fully occupied with the different strongly fortified; and as winter now addisputes and dissensions in the empire, but vanced-it being the end of November ITALY-THE GREEKS AND ARABS-OTHO'S DEFEAT. 131 and sickness very generally prevailed some ransom from him as a distinguished among the troops, he commenced a re- knight, for which they held him to be. treat. This expedition was one of the first By means of a slave on board, who had undertaken by the Germans against Paris; recognised, but not betrayed him, he saved the treacherous attack of the French king himself a second time, near Rossano, by was now punished, nor did he venture to springing from this ship, and swimming on make another. In the treaty of peace sub- shore; and, after safely reaching land, he sequently concluded, Lorraine was secured entered that city, and there joined his to Germany forever. queen. In the year 980, Otho set out on his first In this disastrous scene, many German expedition to Italy, from which, however, and Italian princes and nobles perished, as it turned out, he was never to return. among whom were Udo, duke of FrancoHe was in hopes of being able to conquer nia, the margraves Berthold and Ginther, the possessions in Lower Italy, which the Henry, bishop of Augsburg, (who had Greek emperors still maintained, and to likewise fought in the ranks,) together which Otho, by his marriage with Theo- with numerous others; and all the conphania, laid claim. The Greeks, how- quered portions of the country in Lower ever, called to their aid the Arabs, both of Italy fell again into the hands of the Africa and Sicily. At first, Otho gained enemy. some advantages, and, after a siege of Full of sorrow and vexation, the empenearly two months, he made himself mas- ror proceeded to Upper Italy, in order to ter of Salerno. He then took Bari and collect another army. He held a grand Taranto, in Apulia, and pressed forward, assembly in Verona, consisting of both in the spring of 982, to the mountains of German and Italian princes and nobles, Calabria. He beat the combined army of and his mother, together with his queen the Greeks and Arabs, first at Rossano, and infant son, Otho, then only three years where they had waited for him in a strong old, were likewise present; he succeeded position, and then overthrowing them at in having the latter at once elected by all Coterna, pursued them as far as Squillace, the princes as his successor. It was, at where another decisive battle was fought the same time, determined that the child on the 13th of July, 982. The imperial should be taken back to Germany, under troops rushed with the greatest impetuosity the charge of Willigis, archbishop of Mentz, upon the ranks of the Greeks, who held and be crowned on the following Christout bravely until mid-day, when they fell mas, (983,) in the ancient imperial city of back upon Squillace. The successful Aix-la-Chapelle. troops, abandoning themselves now too The emperor himself, however, after he eagerly to their elated hopes of victory and had regulated the affairs of Upper Italy, pillage, felt so secure, that they laid aside repaired to Rome. There he arranged to their arms, and marched leisurely and con- have his chancellor, Peter of Pavia, elected fidently along the banks of the river Co- as pope, (John XIV.;) and this was his last race. But here they were suddenly fallen public act. Overwhelmed with the imupon by an ambuscade of the Arabs, hith- portant plans he nourished in his heart for erto concealed behind the rocks, and were his next campaign in Lower Italy, as well speedily surrounded on every side by in- as with the excitement produced upon his numerable hordes of these swift warriors. impatient and nervous mind, by the sad The scattered troops were completely over- reverses of the previous year, and the mulpowered, and either cut to pieces or made tifarious cares of his government, he was, prisoners by the enemy; and only a very in a few days, attacked by a raging fever, small number of that army, but a short of which he died, in the presence of his time before so triumphant, were enabled to queen, the pope, and several of his faithful save themselves. The emperor himself, adherents, on the 7th of December, 983, as it were, by a miracle, escaped by plun- in the 28th year of his age. He was ging into the sea, mounted as he was on buried in the church of St. Peter, in Rome. his trusty steed, and swimming towards a The news of his death reached Aix-laGreek vessel. The crew received him on Chapelle the day after the coronation of his board, not knowing the high rank of the im- infant son had been celebrated in the asperial fugitive, yet hoping to receive a hand- sembly of all the princes. 132 OTHO III.-HENRY THE TURBULENT-ATTEMPTED REVOLT. The very tender age of the new sover- proper recollection all those nobles of Saxeign, Otho III., would have been a great ony and Thuringia who had hitherto formed misfortune for Germany, had not his moth- the majority of the renegade's partisans, er, Queen Theophania, a woman of ex- and they turned from him and joined the traordinary genius, been enabled to under- ranks of the legitimate party, headed by take, during his minority, the direction and the Dukes Conrad of Swabia, Bernard of control of the affairs of the imperial gov- Saxony, and the newly created duke of ernment with adequate spirit and energy, Bavaria, (recently elected by Otho II.,) and if, likewise, among the greater portion Henry the younger, of the house of Babenof the German princes there had not ex- berg; the whole of whom, with Willigis, isted a faithful adherence towards the archbishop of Mentz, had still maintained imperial house, and a general desire for their fidelity towards the young monarch peace and order. For immediately after and his royal mother. In Lorraine, also, the death of Otho II., Henry, the deposed a party rose up to defend the cause of duke of Bavaria, after having been set at Otho, the heart and soul of which was the liberty by Poppo, bishop of Utrecht, into distinguished ecclesiastic, Gerbert,-the most whose custody he had been given, came learned man of his time; possessing a forward again with his pretensions, and knowledge of all the sciences, but, more even demanded, as nearest relation, to have especially, so profoundly read in natural the sole guardianship of the young king. philosophy, that he was regarded as a The archbishop of Cologne, Warin, under magician. At the same time he possessed whose protection the infant had been placed, great powers of mind, with the necessary actually delivered him up to Henry, who energetic and penetrating capacity for acheld him under his control during a whole tion in all political matters; and in his year. The queen-mother, Theophania, office of tutor to the young emperor, to who, according to her deceased husband's which he was appointed subsequently, he will, was to have the guardianship of the continued to assist him with his valuable child, was still in Italy; and when she counsel until his death. returned, Henry had already so strength- Thence, by means of this combined operened his party, that he contemplated taking ation on the part of all his faithful friends possession of the government himself. He and stanch adherents of the imperial house, had lost no time in forming a league with Henry the Turbulent was forced, at a those nobles who were devoted to his in- grand diet held at Rora,* in the month of terests, and had already agreed with them June, 984, to surrender into the hands of under what conditions they should give their the queen-mother and grandmother, who assistance and support towards raising him to were both present, the infant emperor. In the throne. At the same time, the French the same year, also, the desired union of king, Lothaire, availing himself of the dis- peace and friendship between Henry and union in Germany, had again stretched out the guardians was completely restored and his hand to grasp the Lorraine country, and firmly established at the diet of Worms; had got possession of the important town Henry and his friends swearing fealty to and fortress of Verdun. the sovereign, and which he continued to The Slavonians on the northern and hold sacred from that day; nay, through eastern frontiers who, during the years that leading subsequently a life of peace, piety, Otho II. was in Italy, had, by their united and charity, he earned for himself the bystrength, almost entirely shaken off the name of the peaceful, instead of the turGerman dominion, re-established pagan- bulent Henry. In the following year he ism, and made many successful depreda- received again his long wished-for duchy tory incursions in the various German pos- of Bavaria, in return for resigning which, sessions, now, together with the dukes of Henry the younger was indemnified with Poland and Bohemia on their part, promised the duchy of Carinthia, which had become the rebel, Henry of Bavaria, their assistance again separated from Bavaria, together in his revolutionary plans. Thus the con- with the Veronian marches. Other nobles dition of the Germanic empire had at this were bound to the new government by moment become entirely critical, presents and gifts of land. The margraBut the alliance of Henry with the barbarians only served to bring back to their * The exact site of this place cannot be traced. ITALY-OTHO III. CROWNED AT ROME. 133 viates, erected to oppose the Slavonians Adelaide, expressed a desire to behold the and Hungarians, were fortified anew, and head of her grandson decorated likewise supplied with faithful guards; the dukes with the imperial crown. Accordingly, in Micislas of Poland and Boleslas of Bohe- February, 996, he commenced his first Romia returned to their allegiance, and thus, man expedition, and all the nations of the by wisdom, prudence, and firmness, both Germans, Saxons, Franks, Bavarians, Swathe empresses restored once more the order bians, and Lorrainians, yielded on this ocand tranquillityofthe German empire inter- casion military service, and joined in the nally, and again promoted and established ranks of the multitudinous train. He was its influential claims for respect externally. crowned emperor on Ascension-day, the In the year 987, after the death of Lo- 21st of May in that year, by Gregory V., thaire, France likewise concluded a treaty the first pope of German origin who had, as of peace, and his son and successor, Louis yet, presided on the papal chair, and who V., surrendered to Germany the bishopric exerted himself with great perseverance to of Verdun. He was the last of the race bring into order the confused state of the of the Carlovingians on the throne of Roman relations. The patrician, CrescenFrance; and, after his death, in the same tius, was pardoned for the turbulent proyear, the house of the Capetingians fol- ceedings he had hitherto pursued; but lowed in the person of Hugo Capet, his scarcely had the emperor returned to Gersuccessor. many, when the ungrateful Roman again In Rome, after the Empress Theophania revolted, and banished Pope Gregory from had returned to Germany, great disturb- the capital. Othp was forced, therefore, to ances broke out, and the patrician Crescen- march an army into Italy a second time in tius, especially, exercised the greatest ty- the year 997, and conducting the pope back ranny in the city. The empress, however, again to Rome, he besieged Crescentius in having beheld Germany tranquillized, and the fortress of Engelsburg, which he took the dominion of her son established, re- by storm, and the traitor was forthwith beturned in 988 to Rome, and with her innate headed on the battlements of the burg, in power and wisdom, caused the authority of view of the whole army and people. Crescentius to be checked and restricted Pope Gregory died in the year 999, and within its proper limits. Unhappily, this Otho caused his esteemed instructor and distinguished woman died too soon for the counsellor, Gerbert, to be elected to the times she lived in, her death taking place papal chair, who adopted the title of Sylalready in the year 991, at Nimwegen. vester II. The education of the young emperor, Otho, who always felt a great preference now eleven years old, henceforward de- for Rome and Italy generally, would fain volved more especially upon Bernward, of have wished to remain longer there, but he Hildesheim, a most excellent, and, for his was not able to bear the enervating effects time, a very learned man, into whose hands of that hot climate. Altogether, he did not Queen Theophania had already confided enjoy the strongest constitution, and his her son. He treated the boy with mild- health was not always in the best condiness, but at the same time with firmness, tion; besides which, during the period beand gained his entire good-will and confi- tween youth and manhood, he evinced a dence. Bernward's position became one very marked expression of sadness and of very great and decided importance, in melancholy, and which often exercised connection with the relations of the govern- upon his mind such an influence, that, comment subsequently, particularly after he pletely overcome, he resorted to the most was appointed, in the year 993, bishop of severe self-inflicted punishments and penalHildesheim; for in the northern frontiers ties. Thus he now made a pilgrimage to of the empire there was continually fresh Monte Gargano, in Apulia, and sojourned cause, even from year to year, for conten- for a considerable time in the monastery of tion with the Slavonians or Normans, either St. Michael, undergoing the most severe by warding off their attacks at home, or in exercise of expiatory penance. Thence he order to punish them, by sending expedi- visited the holy abbot, Nilus, near Garta, tions into their own land. who, with his monks, lived there in wretchWhen the youthful monarch had attained ed cells, and in the most secluded state of his sixteenth year, his grandmother, Queen strict devotion and humility. Here, like 134 OTHO'S PARTIALITY FOR ITALY AND THE ITALIANS. wise, Otho joined in the exercise of prayer, John of Placentia-he held himself in high and severe and rigid repentance. After- respect, and far beyond the Germans, who, wards, we again find him following the same in his opinion, were still uncouth and saycourse of extreme self-punishment in Ra- age. He tried to persuade them to lay venna, for whole days together; and at one aside their Saxon barbarism, and exhorted time he is said to have passed whole weeks them to imitate and adopt the more refined with the hermits in the caves around, fast- and elegant manners of the Greeks, and he ing and praying. even introduced the customs and usages of It was these Italian monks, and espe- the latter; among the rest, which he himself cially Nilus the holy, a venerable man, adopted, that of dining alone from a table ninety years of age, who had succeeded in more elevated than the others, and to arproducing within the prince this melancho- range the different places of honor accordly view of life, and filled him with such ingto rank and distinction. His tutor, Gercontinual desires to indulge in gloomy fits bert, had himself formed a high idea of the of abstinence and penitential sacrifices. imperial dignity, which he had taken great He was particularly intimate with Adal- pains to instil in the youthful mind of his bert, the apostle of the Prussians, who, af- pupil. " Thou art our Cesar, Imperator, ter the period of the first Roman campaign, and Augustus," he wrote to him, " and dehad become his constant companion, not scended from the noblest blood of the quitting the imperial apartments either by Greeks; thou art superior to them all in night or day, and who, partly by the wish power and dominion," &c. Otho had inof Otho, proceeded to the north, in order to deed contemplated the restoration of the preach the holy gospel to the pagan Prus- Roman empire, in its entire dominion, and sians, where he died a martyr's death, in no doubt he would have carried his intenthe year 999. When the religious emperor tions into effect, by making Rome the cenreturned, in the following year, to Germany, tral point and the imperial seat of governhe was urged, by his affection towards this ment, had he only been able to endure the friend, to visit his grave in Gnesen. As climate. soon as he came in view of the town, he He regarded the founder of the Germanicdismounted from his steed, and continued Roman empire, the great Charles, as his the rest of his pilgrimage to the sacred spot model, and when, in the year 1000, he vis. barefooted. Deeply affected, he poured ited Aix-la-Chapelle, he felt a desire to eleforth his devotions over the tomb of his vate his mind by the contemplation of his much-lamented friend, and in recollection ancestor's earthly remains. Accordingly of the scene, he raised the bishopric of he caused the vault to be unclosed, and Gnesen, on the spot, into an archbishopric, descended its steps, accompanied by two placing under its authority the bishoprics bishops. He found the embalmed body of Breslaw, Cracovie, and Colberg, pro- still in the position it was placed, sitting in moting Adalbert's brother, Gaudentius, to the marble chair, covered with the impethe sacred office. rial robes, together with the sceptre and Combined with the emotions originating shield. Otho bent his knee in prayer, then in Christian humility and worldly sacrifice, took the golden cross from the breast of the we find, however, likewise excited within emperor, and placed it upon his own. AfOtho's soul, (which appears to have been ter which, before leaving, he had the body subjected to sensations of the most varied covered with fresh raiment, and then again nature,) a high aspiring desire and aim, solemnly closed the vault.* and, especially, an elevated idea of the su- Otho's strong predilection for Italy drew premacy of the imperial dignity. As the him once more into that country. Rome son of a Roman-Germanic emperor and the and the Romans appeared to him in all the grandson of a Greek emperor; already splendor of their ancient dominion of the chosen as reigning king from the first mo- world; but they ill-returned the preference ment of self-consciousness, and, likewise, he showed for them. While he was soalmost immediately afterwards decorated journing in Rome, in the spring of the year with the imperial crown; educated by the 1001, the Romans revolted against him bemost learned and accomplished men of his time-a Gerbert, a Bernward, a Meinwerk, * The emperor, Frederick I., caused the vault to be tie-a erbert, a Bernward, a Mewerkunclosed again in the year 1165, and had the body de(of Paderborn,) and by the Calabrian Greek, posited in a superb tomb. HIS DEATH-HENRY II., OR THE HOLY-HIS PIETY. 135 cause he had exercised his lenity towards already enlisted the clergy on his side, and the Tiburtinians, who, as in ancient times, had, likewise, in his possession the crown still remained their hated enemies; they jewels and insignia, succeeded by degrees kept him a close prisoner in his own palace in gaining over one by one the individual during three days, so that he could obtain German states, so that, without a general neither food nor drink. Then it was that electoral assembly taking place, each transthe emperor experienced that German fideli- ferred to him the royal authority with the ty and rude virtue were still better than the sacred lance. smooth but slippery words and more ac- Henry II. has received the title of saint complished manners of his favorite Italians. from his strict and pious life, as also from Bernward, the bishop ofHildesheim, placed his liberality towards the clergy, already himself, with the sacred royal lance, under mentioned. The latter had acquired exthe portico of the palace, and, as his biog- tensive possessions under the Saxon emperapher states, thundered against it most rors, who were all very generous towards dreadfully; and thus, through the bishop's them, and thence many of the leading memresolution and the aid of his faithful adhe- bers became powerful princes of the em. rents, the emperor was at length rescued pire. Like Charlemagne, the kings saw from the Romans. Nevertheless, he looked with pleasure their increase of power, in over their bad conduct, and peace was order that they might use it as a counterresumed for a short time longer, but they poise to that of the temporal lords, and at soon again broke out against him. He then this period too, the spiritual power held prepared at once to punish this false and chiefly with the kings. Otho I. had altreacherous people; but his spirits were ready begun to unite the lordships with the now broken, and he weakened and reduced bishoprics, and Henry II. transferred to his body still more by nocturnal watchings many churches two, even three lordships, and praying, often fasting, too, the entire and to that of Gandersheim he even made week, with the single exception of the over seven. The partiality and attachment Thursday. He was attacked by a severe shown by the emperor towards the clergy and inflammatory disease, (according to was, no doubt, taken advantage of by many; Dietmar, the small-pox,) and died on the still among that body there were likewise 23d of January, 1002, at Paterno, in the at this period many men who were perfect. twenty-second year of his age. The body ly sensible of the peculiar dignity of their was placed under the charge and protection calling, and zealously sought the spiritual of the few German princes and nobles who welfare of their community, as well as the had accompanied the emperor, and they progress of the human mind in the arts and lost no time in conveying it away from that sciences, and all true cultivation; of which hateful country into their native land. In the tenth century, especially, presents us the course of its march, however, the fune- with several illustrious instances. Bishop ral procession was frequently attacked by Bernward, of Hildesheim, who, in the urthe Italians, who were eager to get posses- gent danger of the emperor, Otho III., in sion of the corpse, and it was only by the Rome, displayed so much resolution, was united efforts of the brave and valiant band a man of great intellectual mind, and nourof noble warriors that formed its escort, ished the most profound feeling for all that that the enemy was successfully repulsed, was good and beautiful. During his many and that, at length, after great difficulty, it voyages, chiefly in Italy, he took young arrived safely at its destination in Aix-la- persons with him for the purpose of exerChapelle. cising their taste in the observation of works Thus all the male descendants of Otho of art, and in their imitation. He caused the Great, his two sons, Ludolf and Otho the pavements and churches to be decoII., and his two grandsons, Otho III. and rated with mosaic embellishment, and costly Otho the son of Ludolf, died in Italy in the vessels of a beautiful form to be cast in bloom of their youth; while of the imperial metal, with which he was furnished by the Saxon family, the great-grandson of Henry mines of gold and silver in the Hartz, disI., Duke Henry of Bavaria alone remain- covered under the emperor Otho I. Thus ed. The Germans were not at all inclined did Bernward nobly exert himself for his towards the Bavarian race; but Henry, diocese, and the school of Hildesheim was who had, by means of his generous gifts, one of the most celebrated of that period. 136 PAVIA-HENRY CROWNED-HENRY'S DEATH. When in Italy, the Emperor Henry re- ing Polish duke, Boleslas, an ambitious, ceived a second by-name-that of Huffe- turbulent man, who had conquered and holz, or the lame. For fresh disturbances partially retained Bohemia and Silesia, having arisen there after the death of Otho gave him much trouble. For these counIII., and the Italians having made a mar- tries, however, the usurper swore allegrave, Ardovine, their king, Henry, in or- giance to the German emperor, but beyond der to restore order, advanced thither in this he maintained himself independently, the year 1004, put Ardovine to flight, and and made himself feared on the other side caused himself to be crowned, with the even by the Russians and the Greek emiron crown, at Pavia. Out of regard for peror. the city, and in order to show his confi- Henry visited Italy a second time in dence towards the citizens, he retained 1013, and re-established the pope, Benemerely a small body-guard, and caused diet VIII., in the papal chair; he swore to the rest of the army to remain outside the protect him faithfully, and was by him city in the camp. The capricious and in- crowned emperor. Returning to Germany, constant disposition of the Italians imme- he was especially occupied with founding diately became manifest. They rose in the bishopric of Bamberg, his favorite seat, revolt, stormed the palace of the emperor, which he richly endowed, and had deterand threatened his life. It was then, in mined it should serve as a monument of springing from a window, that he lamed his own piety as well as of that of his emhis foot. His companions, although but press, Cunegunde. In the year 1020 he few, fought like valiant men, and success- was much gratified by a journey which fully resisted the attacks of the enemy Pope Benedict made to Germany, who until the Germans beyond the city, hear- visited him in Bamberg, and consecrated ing the tumult within, stormed the walls, his holy foundation. and after severe fighting, broke through, The object of the pope's presence in paved their way to the palace and saved Germany was more especially to induce the king. The battle still continued most the emperor to undertake another expedifuriously in the streets and houses, whence tion to Italy, in order to prevent the Greeks, the inhabitants hurled forth stones and who threatened Rome from Lower Italy, other missiles upon the troops, who set fire from attacking and taking possession of to the whole city, and which destruction that capital. continued until the king put a stop to the And Henry, who at once perceived the fury of his soldiers, and saved the rest of danger to which the church of Southern the inhabitants. It was in this battle that Italy was exposed of being robbed by the the queen's brother, Giselbert, a valiant Greeks of its central point of operation, youth, being killed by the Lombards, a marched forth, for the third time, in the brave knight, Wolfram, his companion in year 1021, for that country, drove the arms, rushed upon the enemy, struck one Greeks easily back to the most extreme of them such a powerful blow with his points of their possessions in Lower Italy, sword that, passing through the helmet, it conquered Benevento, Salerno, and Naples, separated his head and neck down to the and was everywhere greeted and hailed as shoulders; and having thus revenged the king. But as he never liked to remain long death of his noble friend, he returned, un- in that country he returned to Germany in wounded, back to his comrades. 1022, and devoted himself to the exercise This conduct of the Pavians produced of devotional and peaceful works. great disgust upon the open-hearted and Henry died in the year 1024, aged fiftyhonest feelings of the king, and as nothing two, at his fortress, Grone, in the Leingau, could induce him to remain longer in (near G3ttingen,) which had often been the Italy, he returned to Germany as speedily seat of the Saxon emperors. His body was as possible. conveyed to Bamberg and there interred. Here, also, many disturbances arose Subsequently, 122 years after lis death, during his reign, for the emperor, who, he was added to the calendar of saints by with his good and pious qualities, was Pope Eugene III. With him the house of much too weak to hold the reins of his Saxony became extinct, which, like that government, could not possibly maintain of the Carlovingians, had commenced his authority. In particular the neighbor- powerfully but ended weakly. Germany THE FRANCONIAN HOUSE-CONRAD II. 137 now required once again a vigorous and Billung's race,) Henry of Bavaria, Adalgreat-minded ruler, in order to save it bert of Carinthia, (the new duchy, separated from internal dissolution, as well as to pre- under Otho II. from Bavaria, and which serve it from losing its dignity among the contained the passes into Italy,) young other nations; for, during the minority of Ernest of Swabia, and Othelric or Ulric, Otho III. and under Henry II., the impe- of Bohemia. The Saxons, the eastern rial vassals had committed many usurpa- Franks, the Bavarians, and Swabians, totions based upon the imperial prerogatives. gether with the Bohemians, encamped themThe sons of the nobles, endowed with im- selves on this side of the Rhine; the perial feods, retained them as if by right Rhenish Franks, and those of Lower and of inheritance, and many disputes were Upper Lorraine on the other side. Thus settled only by an appeal to the sword, a splendid and numerous assembly or diet without any regard being paid to the em- of electors was here reflected in the waves peror's supreme judicial power. These of the great German stream. wars devastated in particular the south of The voices, after long deliberation, inGermany. lined in favor of the Frankish race, from Meanwhile the Christian countries which two Conrads, surpassing all the rest wherein, together with the dominion of the in virtue and consideration, presented themchurch, a regard for the imperial dignity selves-Conrad the Elder or the Sawas disseminated, were now become con- lian, and Conrad the Younger, the duke. siderably increased in number. Towards They were kinsmen, being sons of two the year 1000 Christianity became still brothers, and descended from Conrad the more deeply rooted in Hungary; Poland, Wise, the husband of the daughter of Otho Russia, Norway, Sweden, and Denmark. I., who fell in the battle with the Hungarians on the Lech; both were worthy of their ancestors, and upon the female side related to the Saxon imperial branch. The choice balanced between them; the elder Conrad then advanced to the side of the C H A P T E R VIII. younger one, and thus addressed him: " Do not let us allow our friendship and inTHE SALIC OR FRANCONIAN HOUSE, 1024-1125, terest to be disturbed by the contest. If we TO LOTHAIRE THE SAXON 1137. dispute together the princes may elect a Assemblage of the Ducal States-The Election-Con- third, and posterity will then say we were rad II., 1024-1039-Re-establishes Internal Peace- both unworthy of the crown. Methinks Italy-Canute, King of England and DenmarkBurgundy-Ernest Duke of Swabia-The Faust- that whether the election fall upon either Recht-Conrad's Death, 1039-Henry III., 1039-1056 you or me, we shall still both be honored -The Popes-Henry's zeal for the Church-His Death, 1056-Henry IV., 1056-1106-His Minority- I in you and you in me. If the crown be The Archbishops-Albertof Bremen-Henryandthe awarded to you, I will be the first to do Saxons-Their Hostility-Henry's Revenge-Pope Gregory VII.-His Ambition-The Right of Investi- homage to you; vow, therefore, my friend ture-Rupture with the Emperor —Henry excommu- and brother, to do the same by me." To nicated-The Emperor a Fugitive-The rival Emperors and Popes-Rudolphus of Swabia and Pope this the younger prince agreed, and forthClement IIl.-Henry's Death, 1106-Henry V. 1106- with made the vow likewise 1125-Rome-Pope Pascal II. —The Investiture Con- vow lewise. test-Sanguinary Battle-Henry crowned Emperor- When the election commenced, and the His Death, 1125-The First Crusade, 1096-1099-Lo- archbishop, Aribo of Mentz, was first to thaire the Saxon, 1125-1137. give his vote, he named Conrad the Elder; THE Germanic states, each under its the archbishops and bishops followed. duke, assembled for the election of a new Among the temporal princes, the duke of emperor, upon the vast plains along both the Franks was the first in rotation, and the banks of the Rhine, between Mentz and younger Conrad arose, and with a loud Worms, near Oppenheim. There were voice gave his vote to his cousin, Conrad eight dukes; Conrad the Younger, who the Elder, who seized him by the hand, and exercised the ducal power in Franconia in placed him beside him. The remaining the name of the king-Franconia being princes followed on the same side, and the still regarded as the king's country-Fre- people shouted their applause. Frederic derick of Upper Lorraine, Gozelo of Lower of Lorraine and the archbishop of Cologne Lorraine, Bernard of Saxony, (of Herman alone were discontented, and qu;tted the 18 138 INTERNAL PEACE-ITALY-ERNEST. assembly; but when they beheld the una- Conrad renewed the treaty, and after the nimity of all the others, and that the death of Rudolphus he took actual possesyounger Conrad had at once acceded to the sion of that country, although a portion of choice made, they became reconciled, and the Burgundians had called forward Count returning, rendered homage with the rest Odo, of Champagne, whom, however, Conof the princes. rad drove back, and was forthwith recogThe new king was now conducted to nised as king. This kingdom comprised Mentz, to be there solemnly anointed and the beautiful districts of the southeast of crowned. On the road to the church, the France, which were afterwards called procession was stopped by the number of Provence, Dauphiny, Franche-Comt6, and petitioners, who prayed for justice. The Lyons, together with Savoy, and a portion bishops became impatient, but Conrad of Switzerland, thus placing Germany, by listened tranquilly to their prayers and means of the important sea-ports of Marsaid, " To exercise justice, whether it be seilles and Toulon, in connection with the convenient to me or not, is my first duty." Mediterranean: an important acquisition, These words were heard with joy by all which, however, afterwards, in the times of around; thence great hopes were formed weaker emperors, became neglected, and of the new king, and Conrad did not disap- fell into the hands of the French. point them. He commenced his reign by Conrad, however, was forced to experlvisiting all parts of Germany; he prac- ence, that this very acquisition of Burguntised justice, restored order, and showed so dy became a subject of dissension in his own much strict judgment, combined with mercy, family, and thence a source of vexation to that all united in one opinion, that no king himself. His step-son, Ernest, duke of since Charlemagne had so well merited to Swabia, (the son of his queen, Gisella, by occupy his seat upon the imperial throne. her former husband Herman, duke of Robbers he punished so severely, that Swabia,) considered he possessed the first now there was more general security right to the crown of Burgundy, because than had been known for a long period, his mother was the niece of Rudolphus, while commerce flourished once again. He king of Burgundy. Dissatisfied with Consecured for himself and his race the voice rad's conduct, in getting this territory anof the people, by promoting the develop- nexed to the German empire, he deserted ment of the municipal institutions by every him in the Italian campaign, excited dissenpossible means. sion against him in Germany, and was in Thus did he govern his kingdom inter- hopes, by the aid of his friends, to invade nally. In his foreign relations, he labored and conquer Burgundy. Conrad, however, equally for the dignity and greatness of hastened back, disappointed him in his efGermany. Shortly after the commence- forts, and as Ernest could not succeed in ment of his reign, he advanced into Italy, gaining over the Swabian vassals to his where in Milan he was crowned king of purpose, he was forced to surrender at dis. Italy, and subsequently in Rome, emperor. cretion, and his step-father sent him a prisThe festival was rendered more august oner to the strong castle of Giebichenstein, by the presence of two kings, Rudolphus in Thuringia. After an imprisonment of of Burgundy, and the great Canute, king three years, he set him at liberty, and ofof England and Denmark. With the fered to restore him to his duchy, if he latter, Conrad formed a strict friendship; would deliver up to him his friend and he united his son, Henry, with his daughter, principal accomplice, Count Werner, of Kunihilda, and regulated also with him the Kyburg. This, however, Ernest hesitated limits between Germany and Denmark, so and finally refused to do, and he was acthat the river Eider, between Holstein and cordingly deposed; and at a diet of the Silesia, became the boundary of both coun- princes and nobles of the empire, he was tries. He thus gave up, it is true, the banished the country, together with all his margraviate of Silesia; but the country partisans. He fled for refuge to his cousin, was difficult to defend, and Conrad was the Count Odo, of Champagne, accompanied by gainer in other respects. Henry II. had al- Count Werner, and a few faithful friends; ready concluded an hereditary alliance with but soon afterwards returned, while his faKing Rudolphus of Burgundy, so that after ther was on an expedition against the Hunhis death Burgundy should fall to Germany. garians, concealed himself among the cav. DEATH OF ERNEST-CONRAD'S DEATH-HENRY III. 139 erns of the Black Forest, and once more how unwearied and urgent in affairs he endeavored to gain adherents in Swabia. was, when the welfare of the empire deBut the bishop of Constance, as administra. manded it." tor of the duchy for Gisella's second son His consort, Gisella, one of the most noHerman, (yet a minor,) to whom Conrad ble of German women, and who loved him had transferred it, sent Count Mangold, of most tenderly, refused every consolation, Vehringen, against him, when both armies and mourned her husband in the convent of met, (1030,) and fought a severe battle, Kaufungen, near Cassel, until her death. until both Ernest and Werner, together The corpse of the emperor was brought to with Mangold, were killed. The adven- Spires, and deposited in the noble cathedral tures of Duke Ernest became the subject which he himself had founded. of many heroic lays and legends; and the This emperor had evidently formed the most wonderful deeds performed by his idea, which may be called the fundamental army were connected with his name, and idea of the whole Salic imperial raceeventually, collected together by later poets, namely, to raise the imperial power of formed one entire work. Meantime, the Germany to the most unlimited extent, to campaign undertaken by the emperor restrict the dominion of the princes within against the Hungarians proved triumphant, narrow bounds; and, in order to complete and he obliged Stephen, their king, to sign this, he endeavored to gain, by every favor, a favorable treaty of peace. He forced, the assistance of the inferior vassals, who also, to their former obedience the Slavo- had almost become slaves to them. To nian and Vandalian tribes, who were still this tended an important law, (constitutio seated on the Oder, and northward on the de feudis,) which Conrad made in the year Elbe; and Hamburg, which they had de- 1037, on his second expedition to Italy, for stroyed, raised itself by degrees from its that country, and which was soon afterruins. wards transferred to Germany, namelyThe emperor was also a zealous promo- that feudal estates, which had belonged to ter of the institution whereby the church the father, should not be taken capriciously sought to set some limits to the rude force from the sons, but only in criminal cases, of the faust-recht-namely, that of the decided by tribunals composed of their coPeace of God. From Wednesday evening vassals. Thereby he prepared for the at sunset until sunrise on Monday morning, lesser vassals the full right of property; so all feuds were to cease, no sword be raised, that from them there must necessarily and universal security protect the affairs of have arisen a distinct, free order, for the life. He who should transgress against support of the emperor against the greater the peace of God, (treuga or treva Dei,) vassals. These, on the contrary, and parwas to be punished with the heaviest ban. ticularly the dukes, he sought to bring Odilo, of Clugny, is named as the origina- back to their old condition of mere imperial tor of this institution, and the clergy of functionaries; and even gave the duchies Burgundy and the Low Countries, where of Swabia, Bavaria, and Franconia, to his the most sanguinary feuds prevailed, with son Henry, who seemed fully adapted to the consent of Conrad, first united them- carry still farther his great and extensive selves, in the year 1033, for this purpose. plan. Had success attended it, Germany Conrad returned sickly from his second would have become earlier what France expedition into Italy, wherein disease re- became later, an undivided, powerful emduced his army; and his own step-son, pire. But the Salic race was stayed in its Herman of Swabia, and Kunihilda, the mid-career, partly by its own fault, and young consort of his son Henry, the daugh- partly by the rapid rising of the papal chair, ter of the Danish king, both died there. whose authority developed itself with asHe himself never thoroughly recovered, tonishing energy, and whose victory over and died at Utrecht, in 1039. His biogra- his grandson, Henry IV., the powerful pher, Wippo, thus speaks of him: —" I Conrad certainly had not anticipated. should expose myself to the charge of flat- Conrad's son, Henry, or the black, whom tery, were I to relate how generous, how the Germans had chosen during his father's steadfast, how undaunted, how severe to- life, was twenty-two years of age; but the wards the bad, how good towards the vir- hopes formed of him were great, and they tuous, how firm against the enemy, and proved not unfounded. Like his father, 140 ITALY-THE GERMAN POPES-LEO IX. he was of a high mind and a determined been thrown, through dissension in Rome will, obstinate and firm, and at the same itself, the immoral conduct practised by time eloquent and well-informed, for the many of the clergy, and the purchase of prudent Gisella had early induced him to spiritual offices for money. Thus they cultivate his mind as much as possible by paved the way for the plans of that spirreading, although at that time books were itual dominion of the world, which Hildevery scarce. No emperor since Charle- brand, or Pope Gregory VII., afterwards magne maintained more vigorously the im- succeeded in executing. In our subsequent perial dignity in Italy, Germany, and the history of this celebrated pope, we shall neighboring lands, or ruled more power- allude farther to this question. Here, fully within the limits of his extensive em- however, we must at once say, for the honpire. What served to increase his great or of these German pontiffs, that by their fame was, that he so humbled the wild efforts, influenced by a noble and firm Hungarians, who a hundred years before mind, and true zeal towards promoting the were the terror of Germany, that the Hun- purity and dignity of the church, they must garian nobility, after a lost battle, took the be classed as the precursors in the reforms oath of allegiance to him in the city of eventually introduced. Leo. IX. (formerly Stuhlweissen, in the year 1044, and that Bruno, bishop of Toul, and a relation of Peter, their king, re-established by Henry, the emperor Henry III.) was especially received the country as a feud from him, to be esteemed as a man of the most elevatby means of a golden lance. It is true this ed moral virtue and true nobleness of mind. was no durable subjection; still the act of His humility was so great, that after he was itself is sufficiently glorious for Henry, elected pope, he left his bishopric of Toul while thereby he gained a portion of for Rome on foot, and with the pilgrim's staff Hungary, from Kahlenburg to Leitha, in hand, he journeyed all the distance thus which he united with the marches of Aus- lowly, accompanied by Hildebrand, then tria. chaplain to the deposed pope, Gregory VI., The king then, in 1046, turned his at- in whom Leo had already recognised a man tention towards Italy, to settle the great of extraordinary genius. disorders existing there. There three popes His zeal for the purification of the church held their sway at once: Benedict IX., urged him forthwith to operate against the Sylvester III., and Gregory IV. Henry, prevailing system of Simonism, or the purin order to be wholly impartial, convoked chasing of spiritual offices with money, and a council at Sutri. Here they were all the immoral life led by the clergy. He three deposed, as irregularly elected; and presided at three councils which were conthen, in Rome, at the desire of the collec- voked for this purpose, in Rome, Rheims, tive clergy and nobility, Henry, who, fol- and Mentz; and he succeeded in bringing lowing the example of Charlemagne, had to bear, within a year, the most important received the dignity of patrician for him- reforms. He then travelled from the one self and successors, made a German, Suid- country of Christendom to the other, wherger, bishop of Bamberg, pope, who took ever his presence was most necessary, in the name of Clement II.; and at the order to promote and establish personally Christmas festival, 1046, he crowned Hen- the purification of the church. He died in ry emperor. Subsequently, Henry gave the year 1054, too soon for the great work the Romans three successive popes, for he had in hand; but his successors conthey were obliged to promise him, as they tinued to complete what he had commenced had done to Otho, to acknowledge no pope according to his grand plan. without the imperial sanction. Meantime, in Germany, Henry ruled as After these, the papal chair was filled a wise and powerful sovereign. He abanby two more German popes, and these six doned, certainly, to other princes, the pontiffs from Germany: Clement II., Dama- duchies which he himself formerly possesssus II., Leo IX., Victor II., Stephen X., ed, but only to such as were rulers of very and Nicholas II., who succeeded each other limited power, and who received, it is true, in very quick, but uninterrupted rotation, the name but not the ancient prerogative labored with one concurring mind for the of duke, as viz.: Bavaria to Henry of the good of the church, and raised it again house of Luxemburg, and, after him, to from the ruinous state into which it had Conrad, of the Palatinate; Carinthia to HENRY'S PERSONAL COURAGE-HIS DEATH. 141 Guelf, son of Guelf, the Swabian count; crown upon his head without having preSwabia itself to Otho, count palatine, on viously confessed, and received from his the Rhine. In Swabia, the Guelfic house confessor permission to wear it. He likewas very powerful, and would therefore wise subjected himself to the expiatory willingly have possessed the duchy; but penalties and punishments of the church, it was precisely for that reason, that Henry and often submitted his body to be scourgplaced Count Guelf in Carinthia, in order ed by his priests. Thus the rude and that the duke might not possess great here- barbarous manners of those times held in ditary lands in the country. Thus he acted no contempt corporeal chastisement-as as he pleased with the imperial dignities, practised among them to curb the violence while he favored the inheritance of the of passion-even when inflicted upon the smaller fiefs. Upper Lorraine passed body by the sufferer's own lash. through him to Count Albert, of Longwy, Henry III. may, nevertheless, be named an ancestor of the present Austrian house. among those emperors who have proved It was about this time that Henry gave the cultivation of their own mind, by their a striking proof of his personal courage, love for the sciences, by their predilection for at an interview which took place be- in favor of distinguished men, and by their tween him and King Henry of France, promotion of intellectual perfection genenear Mentz, in the year 1056, a dispute rally. Ever since he had received the arose between them, and the latter king poem addressed to him in Latin by Wippo, charged him with a breach of his word. (the biographer of his father,) in which he As it beseemed, Henry replied only by encouraged him to have the children of the casting his gauntlet down before the king, secular nobles educated in the sciences, who, however, during the following night, he continued to evince the greatest interretired within his frontiers. Nothing could est in the erection of schools. Those of be more pleasing to the Germans than Liege, Lobbes, Gemblours, Fulda, Paderthis chivalrous bearing of their emperor. born, St. Gallen, Reichenau, &c., flourHenry now returned to Saxony, where ished especially under his reign; and it his favorite seat Goslar lay, in the Hartz, was in the two last-mentioned schools that and which he raised to a. considerable Herman le Contracte, one of the most city. We must not wonder that a king of learned men of that time, received his the Frankish race should fix his seat in education. This extraordinary philosoSaxony, considering that he did so on ac- pher was, from his childhood, such a cripcount of its rich mines, which existed ple, that he could only be conveyed from close to this said Goslar, in the Hartz. one place to another in a portable chair. Mines, in those times, were the exclusive He wrote also with the greatest difficulty, property of the emperor. In Goslar, and stammered so painfully to hear, that Henry built a fortress, a palace, churches, his pupils required a long time before they and ramparts round the town, and he could understand him; while, however, obliged the Saxons of the surrounding he was so admired and sought after by country to render excessive service. This them, that they flocked to him in multiincreased the ill-will they felt at seeing an tudes from all parts. His chronicles beimperial fortress thus suddenly created in long to the most distinguished historical their country; and although under so se- sources, including the first division of the vere and powerful an enemy, they could 11th century. not give utterance to their thoughts, it The sciences and the arts under Henry nevertheless produced the more bitter fruits 1II. progressed to an extent by no means for his son. Henry died suddenly, in the unimportant; and if much became negyear 1056, at Bothfeld, near Blankenburg, lected under the long and turbulent reign at the foot of the Hartz, (whither he had of his successor, Henry IV., still the foungone to hunt,) in the prime of life, being dation was then laid for that glorious deonly thirty-seven years old, and in the velopment which is presented to us in the midst of great plans which he formed for after-times, under the reign of the Hohenthe future. staufens. This emperor was strictly and bigotedly The princes had already recognised the pious, notwithstanding his strong mind and succession of Henry's son immediately on sternness of will. He never placed his his birth. Unfortunately for the empire, 142 HENRY IV.-THE ARCHBISHOPS. upon the death of his father the young under his own control, but in this he could king was only a child six years old. not succeed. His character and manner His education and the government of were not such as to gain the heart of the the realm were at first in the hands of his youth, for he was severe, haughty, and excellent mother Agnes, who, however, authoritative, and as it is related of him, was not in a condition to retain the nobles that he even applied the scourge with seveof the empire in dependence, and thus rity to his father, the powerful Henry the complete the father's work. She sought Black, it may likewise be presumed that rather by favoring some of them to ac- he often treated the youth very roughly. quire support for her government, and Among the remaining bishops there was therefore gave Swabia, and at the same one who was a very different man, as amtime the dominion of Burgundy, to Count bitious as Hanno, but subtle and flattering, Rudolphus of Rheinfelden, and Bavaria to and who gained the youth by granting all Otho of Nordheim, confirming the grant his wishes: this was the Archbishop Adalwith a dangerous clause, viz., that these bert of Bremen. This ambitious man dignities should remain hereditary in their wished to unite the whole of the north of houses. Henry, bishop of Augsburg, Germany into one great ecclesiastical dopossessed especially her confidence, but minion, and to place himself at its head as this speedily caused envy and jealousy. a second pope. In fact he was already inAt the head of the discontented stood the vested almost with the authority and dignity Archbishop Hanno of Cologne, an ambi- of a patriarch of the north; for by his zealtious and prudent, but austere and severe ous efforts to propagate Christianity there, man. In order to gain possession of the many bishoprics had been founded in the young king, and thereby of the govern- Slavonic countries, such as Ratzeburg and ment, he went at Easter in 1062 to Kaiser- Mecklenburg, as well as several churches werth on the Rhine, where at that moment in Denmark, Norway, and Sweden. He the court of the empress was assembled, hated the temporal princes, because they and after the dinner he persuaded the stood in the way of these objects, and in boy to go and view a particularly beauti- order to suppress them he wished to raise ful vessel, recently built. He had scarce- the imperial power to unlimited despotism. ly, however, got on board, when the sail- Hanno of Cologne and his confederates ors, at a signal given by the archbishop, stood in the most decided opposition to him loosened her moorings, and rowed to the in this view, for they endeavored to raise middle of the Rhine, which so much ter- the dignity of the princes upon the ruins of rifled the youth, that he suddenly jumped the empire; and thus both parties, without into the river, and would certainly have any reserve, went passionately to extremes. been drowned had not Count Eckbert of While Hanno was on a journey to Rome, Brunswick sprung after him and saved where he remained some time, Adalbert him at the hazard of his life. He was obtained entire possession of the young cheered up, and many fair promises being prince. Nothing worse could have hapheld out to him, he was thus decoyed pened to the youth than to be subject to the away and taken to Cologne. His mother influence of two such different men, and to was much alarmed and grieved, and when this change of treatment so entirely opposite; she perceived that the German princes had for after having been treated with the greatno longer confidence in her, she determined est severity, he was now allowed to sink by to conclude her life in quiet retirement, too great lenity and indulgence into dissiand went to Rome. pation and sensuality. The Archbishop Hanno, in order that it Henry was distinguished for great mental might not appear as if he wanted to retain as well as physical qualities; he was enthe highest power in his own hands, made dowed with daring and ardent courage, an order that the young king should dwell quickness of resolve, and a chivalric mind by turns in the different countries of Ger- which might have been directed to the most many, and that the bishop, in whose dio- noble objects. But now his active and cese he dwelt, should, for the time being, fiery nature became transformed into a rehave the protectorship and the chief govern- vengeful and furious disposition, and his ment of the kingdom. His chief object, elevated mind degenerated into selfish pride however, was to get the mind of the prince and domination. Besides which, he loved THE SAXONS-THEIR HOSTILITY. 143 sensual pleasures, and thence became often them to curb the natives more easily. The idle and careless. A good thought and a same Benno (afterwards bishop of Osnapraiseworthy, honorable action in him burg) who, under Henry III., upon the changed speedily to an opposite character, building of Goslar-itself had already forced because throughout his whole life he was the Saxons into service, now superintended wanting in a fixed leading principle where- these buildings. The chief of these foron to base his actions. That steady calm tresses was that of Hartzburg, near Gosrepose and moderation, ever immutable, lar, Henry's favorite place, but an eyeand which constitute the highest majesty of sore to the Saxons. Murmurs passed kings, were by him unattainable and never around, and the people complained that possessed; and thus are reflected in his the freedom they enjoyed from their anceswhole existence the dissimilar and even tors was about to be destroyed. It was also contradictory sentiments and principles of related, that while one day surveying the those by whom he was educated. country around from a mountain in Saxony, It was strongly evinced and verified as a the king exclaimed: " Saxony is indeed a great truth in Henry IV., that according to beautiful country, but those who inhabit it our disposition and inward being, so is our are miserable serfs." fate. If the former be fixed and firm. our There were two other causes which in. life as surely takes a fixed direction. But creased the discontent. Henry, as a child, Henry's life was as unequal as his mind: had already been betrothed by his father the variation of good fortune with misfor- to Bertha, the daughter of the margrave of tune, elevation with abasement, and haugh- Susa, in Italy, and he had afterwards tiness with humiliation-such were the married her. Now, however, he wished transitions of his life, even unto the mo- to be divorced from her, and as for this ment of his death. purpose he required the assistance of the Adalbert had transplanted from his own spiritual princes, he accordingly sought to soul to that of his pupil two feelings of the conciliate before all others the friendship deepest aversion-the first was directed of Sigfried, archbishop of Mentz. But as against all the princes generally, and the his passions always drove him blindly on second against those of Saxony, and espe- to the object he was so anxious to grasp, so cially the ducal house of Billung, and the likewise the means he now employed to atwhole Saxon people, with whom he had tain it were equally bad. He commanded previously had many disputes relative to and forced the Thuringians to pay to the his archbishopric of Bremen. He there- archbishop the tithe of their goods which he fore impressed upon the mind of the young had formerly claimed, and they had refused. king, that as the princes, but chiefly those Thus he had now made the Thuringians of Saxony, were striving for independence, doubly his enemies. Meantime, however, he should reduce them by times to obedience owing to the opposition shown on the part and crush them. These principles embit- of the pope, he was not divorced from the tered and destroyed the tranquillity of the queen; and subdued, shortly afterwards, king's whole life, for although the ambi- by her noble and dignified conduct, his tious archbishop, after he had declared the heart once more turned towards her, and king to be of age at Worms in 1065, was, she faithfully continued to share with him by means of the princes, removed from his good and bad fortune. Henry in the following year, his ward Besides this, Henry treated the Saxon never forgot his instructions, and when, in count, Otho of Nordheim, to whom his 1069, Adalbert again visited the court of mother had given the duchy of Bavaria, the young monarch, he used all his former so badly, that all the nobles, but chiefly influence to strengthen and confirm him in those of Saxony, were highly exasperated. this hatred. This Duke Otho was a friend of the archThe Saxons speedilyperceived the king's bishop of Cologne, and might probably purpose of making their country imme- thereby have become obnoxious to the king, diately dependent on the crown; for he or the latter perhaps turned the hatred he dwelt chiefly at Goslar, and commenced had imbibed from Adalbert against all the building in the mountains of the Hartz and nobles, more particularly against Otho, in Thuringia a multitude of fortresses, and upon whose arm the Saxon people chiefly manned them with garrisons, to enable depended. And when at this moment an 144 HENRY'S INJUSTICE-THE SAXONS OVERPOWER HIM. accuser appeared, named Egino, (probably tion from the Saxons came to him and deemployed for that purpose,) and charged manded of him as follows: " That he should the duke with having tried to persuade him destroy his fortresses in their country; set to assassinate the king, and Otho refused to Magnus, the heir of their Saxon duchy, free do battle with him because he was not of from his imprisonment; not always remain the same rank, and bore besides a bad cha- in Saxony; honor the ancient constitution racter, Henry, by an unjust sentence, de. of the country; and in imperial affairs not posed him forthwith from his duchy of Ba- give ear to bad advisers, but take counsel varia, and destroyed with fire and sword all of the states. If he would perform these his hereditary lands in Saxony. He gave conditions," they added, " no nation in Gerhis duchy of Bavaria (in 1070) to Guelf many would be found more faithful and the Young (IV.) the son of the Italian Mar- devoted to him than that of the Saxons." grave Azzo, and the founder of the junior Henry, however, dismissed the deputation Guelfic house, the elder house having be- with contempt. The Saxons, accordingly, come extinct by the death of Duke Guelf now brought into speedy effect and immeof Carinthia in 1055. diate execution the threatened consequenBut in Otho of Nordheim he had now ces, and advanced towards Goslar with aroused for his whole life-time a most val- 60,000 men. Henry fled with his treasures iant and inveterate enemy. He joined to the strong fortress of Hartzburg, and as Count Magnus of Saxony, son of Duke the enemy speedily followed him, he took Ordulf, a noble youth, bold and valiant in to flight and sought refuge amid great arms, and united himself with him; but danger in the Hartz mountains. He was pressed by the royal forces, they were obliged, for three days, to wander without obliged to yield themselves both prisoners food and drink, and with but few companto Henry before they had hardly prepared ions, under the guidance of a yager, imaginthemselves for battle. After the lapse of a ing in every whisper of the wind passing year Henry set Otho at liberty, but he re- along the tops of the firs, to hear the steps tained Magnus in prison in the Hartzburg, of his pursuers. At last he reached Eschbecause he refused at his command to re- wege, on the river Werra. From thence nounce his rights to his father's duchy; and he went to the Rhine, towards Tribur, and although Otho nobly offered to take his sent messengers throughout the whole emfriend's place in prison, he refused to listen pire, summoning all to arms against the to him. Thence arose the natural conclu- Saxons. But the Saxons wisely profited by sion, that it was the king's intention to take the interval, destroyed fortress after fbrpossession of the duchy of Saxony himself, tress, and took possession of the strong casand leave the young prince to die in cap- tle of Luneburg with its whole garrison; tivity. and which lucky circumstance thfy took These circumstances were the origin of advantage of to free their duke, Magnus, that deep and violent enmity between Hen- for they now demanded his freedom of the ry and the Saxons, and which prepared the emperor under the threat, that, if not grantmost bitter and melancholy reverses for the ed, they would hang up the whole garrison king, and incited both parties to acts of the of Luneburg as robbers. Henry wasobliged most implacable hatred and revenge. therefore, however unwillingly, to yield The Saxons, with Otho of Nordheim at and set Magnus at liberty, together with their head, concluded with each other a seventy other nobles and knights. The close alliance. All the Saxon and Thu- monarch's humiliation, however, did not ringian nobles, temporal and spiritual, be- end here, for he was now likewise deserted longed to it, and among others, Burkhard, by the princes of Southern Germany, and bishop of Halberstadt, who was a nephew even the archbishop of Mentz, on whose of the archbishop of Cologne, and had im- account he had made so many enemies, bibed from the latter his hatred against the left him. A circumstance also occurred imperial misrule and ascendency. This at this moment which formed a parallel was still the time when the clergy them- case with that of Egino and Otho of Nordselves went into battle, and frequently heim, only that here the king was made fought at the head of their warlike hosts. out to be the assassin. Reginger, a knight Quite unexpectedly, and while Henry and former favorite of Henry, now came was at Goslar, in the year 1073, a deputa- b)rward and made public that " the king HIS REVENGE-DEFEATS THE SAXONS. 145 had employed him to murder the Dukes be differently treated to the fashion AdalRudolphus of S vabia and Berthold of Ca- bert had taught him, and that in order to rinthia." This statement might possibly conquer a people, something more is neceshave been a mere maneuvre of the enemy, sary than building isolated fortresses in in order to prejudice public opinion against their country. Accordingly he now began Henry, similar to that which he had him- to address the German princes in a very self previously employed against Otho of opposite manner to what he had hitherto Nordheim. But it was equally successful, done; he sought to gain them individually, for it was even proposed to elect a new especially as their assemblies were in genking, and the ungrateful Archbishop Sig- eral prejudicially opposed to him, and for fried convoked the princes for that purpose this purpose he employed a different but to hold a diet at Mentz. more suitably-adapted means with each of In this emergency, when all his friends them separately. To all of them he comhad deserted him, the citizens of Worms plained bitterly of the shameful and revoltalone remained faithful to the king. They ing destruction of Hartzburg, and as soon opened their gates to him against the will as the public voice became more favorable of their archbishop, offered him men and towards him, he issued a general summons arms, and by their generous attachment against the Saxons. This time obedience and fidelity again restored his despondent immediately followed, and a strong army mind, and as far as their means admitted was speedily collected both of knights and they wholly supported him, no one else at- vassals, from all parts of the kingdom, tempting to assist him. At this period, even from Bohemia and Lorraine, an army certain cities in Germany already began such as had not been seen for a long time,. to have a voice in the imperial diets, and while the Saxons, who had only hastily they became the chief support of imperial assembled a few troops, and by the artiauthority against the princes; thence we fices of the king had become disunited, see how much, by industry and activity, among themselves, were severely beaten,. they must have increased since the time of in 1075, near Hohenburg, not far from. Henry I., both in the number and in the Langensalza, on the river Unstrut. Henry wealth of their inhabitants. But the faith- pursued the fugitives as far as Magdeburg ful people of Worms could not defend him and Halberstadt, and desolated their counagainst the entire power of all the accu- try with fire and sword. His vengeanca mulated evils which now hung over his was terrific, like all his ungovernable pashead. He was obliged, in order not to sions. But in the following year, the other lose his crown, to make hard terms of princes, who would not suffer the poor peepeace with the Saxons in 1074, and to de- ple to be entirely destroyed, stepped beliver up to them all his fortresses, even his tween as mediators. Henry granted the beloved Hartzburg. After contemplating Saxons a peace after their nobles had it with sorrow and regret for the last time, humbly knelt to him before all the army; as, in the midst of the Saxons, he rode to but instead of effecting a complete reconGoslar, he once more, and even most ear- ciliation by a full pardon, he, contrary to nestly entreated them to grant its preserva- the promise he gave through his ambassation, but the proud fortress was doomed to dors, retained many of the Saxon nobles as fall, and in its destruction hatred raged so prisoners, and made over their fiefs to his furiously, that the embittered populace, vassals. The most dangerous of all their without even the knowledge or consent of princes, however, Otho of Nordheim, he the princes, plundered and burnt both its allowed to return to his estates, -and even church and altar, tore open the imperial appointed him administrator over Saxony. tombs, and desecrated the remains of Hen- He caused all the destroyed fortresses, inry's brother and infant son. eluding Hartzburg, to be rebuilt, erected But the Saxons very soon experienced additional ones, and had them garrisoned' that the most dangerous enemy to good for- by his own troops, who, as before, oppresstune is the arrogance of our own heart; ed the land by arrogance and extortion; and one of those singular changes of for- thus the seeds of future revolt were again tune which distinguished Henry's entire planted in this quarter, while from an opreign now suddenly displayed itself. He posite direction an enemy presented himhad well learned by this time, that men must self, far more powerful, and who fought 19 146 POPE GREGORY VII-REFORMS THE CHURCH. against him with very different weapons to ther and Son are one being?" To which those of the Saxons. the other replied: " I believe it." He now Hildebrand (afterwards Gregory VII.) commanded him to repeat: "Honor the was the son of a carpenter at Saone, an Father, the Son, and the Holy Ghost," and Italian city. He entered the clerical state, while the archbishop was pronouncing the and as he possessed extraordinary mental words, he looked at him with such a pierpowers, he was taken by Pope Leo IV., in cing, penetrating glance, that the conscience the reign of Henry III., from the monas- of the convicted clergyman was so struck tery of Clugny to Rome, and there made with his guilt, that he was unable to add sub-deacon of the Roman church, and af-" The Holy Ghost," although he several terwards chancellor; henceforward he times tried it. This was considered a dialone directed the government of the popes, vine judgment. The archbishop fell at and became the soul of the pontifical court. his judge's feet, acknowledged his crime, His object was to raise the pope above all and confessed himself unworthy to hold the the princes and kings of the earth, and priestly office; after which confession he this aim he pursued during his whole life was enabled to repeat those words with a with so much prudence, constancy, power, distinct voice. This circumstance worked and greatness of mind, that he must be so powerfully upon the minds of the people, placed among the most extraordinary men that twenty-seven other churchmen and in the history of his times. When he first several bishops, as yet unaccused, laid appeared great misuses had crept in among down their offices, because they had acthe higher and lower clergy; the majority quired them with gold. purchased their holy offices with gold, In order, therefore, that the clergy should whereby unworthy men could attain to now be made entirely free from the temhigh and important places. Immorality, poral power, it became essential that the dissipation, and vices of every kind were head of the church should no longer be not rare among them, and as they were named by the emperor, but be appointed the slaves of their own sins, so also by by a free election. This had been diftheir love for temporal possessions they at- ferently settled at the time that Henry III. tached themselves to temporal princes, who caused the promise to be made to him, that rewarded them with their possessions. Hil- the Romans should acknowledge no pope debrand therefore resolved, inspired as he without the imperial sanction, and under was for the freedom of the church and the this emperor Hildebrand probably would morality of the clerical order, to lay the not have carried his object. But he now axe to the root of these evils. took advantage of the moment while the His first endeavors were very justly new emperor was still a child, and suedirected against the purchase of spiritual ceeded in the year 1059, under Pope offices with gold, which was called the Nicholas II., in having a law made, that crime of simony (in reference to the his- every pope should be chosen by the carditory of Simon the magician, related in the nals, but with the clause that the sanction Acts of the Apostles, viii. 18-24) and was or confirmation of the emperor should be considered a sin against the Holy Ghost. added, as it was only in subsequent times It is shown with what moral power and that endeavors were made even to abolish superiority of mind he knew how to influ- this decree, and to put a false construction ence men, in the example of an archbish- upon the law of Pope Nicholas. op of France, who was charged with this When Hildebrand as chancellor had, by crime, but had cunningly gained over the this and other regulations, prepared every informers by gold. Hildebrand, so says thing for his great object, he was himself the originaa document, sat as representa- elected pope in the year 1073, and called tive of the pope in judgment upon the af- himself Gregory VII., in order thus to defair. The archbishop then stepped boldly dare the deposition of Gregory VI. by into the assembly and said, " Where are Henry III. as invalid. The emperor Henry they who charge me? Let him step forth IV., who now ruled the empire himself, who will condemn me!" The bribed com- sent his faithful adherent, Count Eberhard, plainants were silent. Hildebrand then to Rome, to demand of the Romans why turned himself to him and said: " Dost they had dared without the imperial perthou believe that the Holy Ghost with Fa- mission to elect a pope. Gregory, who GREGORY AND THE INVESTITURE. 147 did not wish at this moment to commence similar sign, a ring and a shepherd's crook, the dispute with the emperor, excused which thus formed the investiture. Greghimself by the plea that the people had ory, therefore, prohibited the clergy from forced him to receive the papal dignity, receiving this said symbol of investiture but that he had not allowed himself to be from the hands of the nobles; and he inordained before he had received the sane- sisted that for their elevation they were to tion of the emperor and of the German be beholden to the papal chair alone, and princes. With this excuse Henry was only to the pope were they to swear the contented, and the pope was confirmed. oath of obedience. According to this prinHenry thus showed, that in the blindness ciple, the pontiff necessarily became soverof his fury against the Saxons, he had not eign lord of one third of all the property at all perceived that all this time the de- in the Catholic countries. gradation of all temporal dominion, and Such then is the commencement of the the elevation of a spiritual empire, was long and violent dispute of investiture, and now being gradually prepared in Rome. especially of the contest between the emGregory now stepped forth with new and peror and the pope, the state and the church, very severe laws against simony, and and which by degrees weakened and deagainst the marriage of priests. He de- stroyed both. We have already noticed sired, like the earlier popes and fathers, previously that the peaceful co-operation that the priests of the church should con- of both the papal and imperial dignity secrate themselves wholly to the divine might have formed a solid basis for the service, restrain themselves from all sen- happiness of the people; but now the epoch suality, and not even chain themselves to the commenced when both these powers strove love of the earth's possessions by the mar- singly to rise more elevated than the other. riage tie. It is true that in Italy, as well For if, on the one hand, the pope wished to as in France and Germany, this prohibi- reign not only in spiritual but also in temtion found at first great opposition among poral affairs over all princes and kings, and the clergy, for many of them, particularly was anxious to take away as well as to among the lower clergy, were already provide crowns, so, on the other hand, the married, but Gregory found in the people emperor would not admit in just and reathemselves the support necessary for the sonable cases the authority of the pope, but execution of his law. The populace, ex- insisted he could rule with the edge of the cited against the married priests, forced sword even over invisible and spiritual afthem, partly through the severest misusage, fairs and the conscience of man. Thus the to separate themselves from their wives, two powers which in concord together but it lasted a full century before the celi- might have made the world happy, de. bacy of the clergy was fully established. stroyed each other, and after a contest of a The attainment of this object was of the century and a half, and after unuttergreatest importance to Gregory for the able confusion and dissension in Germany completion of his extensive plans; for if and Italy, the imperial dignity lost its the clergy throughout all Christian coun- ancient splendor and its intrinsic power, tries were no longer bound by their do- while the head of the church became exmesti cares and anxiety for their children, ternally dependent upon a foreign power. and were made independent of the tempo- In this schism great men stood opposed to ral lords, the pope would thereby gain so each other, who might have exercised their many thousand more zealous servants, who energy and powers much more beneficially would listen only to his command, and con- for society; but this very contest necestribute to fix firmly the dominion of the sarily entered into the great plan of the church over all temporal power. But in history of the world, and it prepared those order to possess such servants they must developments which otherwise would not be rendered still more independent, and have followed. not receive, even in any shape, their tem- Pope Gregory continued to advance still poral possessions from the hands of princes farther in his principles. Not satisfied as a fief; for the same as the lay vassals with having separated the church with all received a banner as a mark of their ser- its endowments wholly from temporal dovices, so also the grand ecclesiastical dig- minion, he also now solemnly declared that nitaries received from the princes as a emperors, kings, and princes, together with 148 GREGORY THREATENS HENRY-HENRY DEPOSES GREGORY. all their power, were subject to the pope. at these words, for the invisible power of These piinciples are especially expressed the papal ban of excommunication had hithin his own letters: " The world," he says erto been little proved. He assembled the in one of them, "is guided by two lights: German bishops at Worms, in the year by the sun, the larger, and the moon, the 1076, and there, with equal precipitation lesser light. Thus the apostolic power re- and impatience, he caused to be pronounced presents the sun, and the royal power the at once against the pope the same sentence moon; for as the latter has its light from of deposition with which the latter had the former, so only do emperors, kings, and threatened him. He then wrote him a letprinces, receive their authority through the ter of the following contents: pope, because he receives his authority "Henry, king, not by force, but by the through God. Therefore, the power of the sacred ordination of God, to HildebrandRoman chair is greater than the power of not the pope, but the false monk: the throne, and the king is accordingly sub- " This greeting hast thou merited by the ject to the pope, and bound in obedience to confusion thou hast spread throughout all him. If the apostles in heaven can bind classes of the church. Thou hast trampled and loosen, so may they also upon earth under thy feet the ministers of the holy give and take, according to merit, empires, church, as slaves who know not what their kingdoms, principalities, duchies, and every lord does; and by that desecration hast other kind of possession. And if they be thou won favor from the lips of the comappointed as sovereign judges over spiritual, mon herd of people. We have long sufthey must likewise be so, and far more in fered this because we were desirous to proportion, over temporal affairs; and if, maintain the honor of the Roman chair. finally, they have the right to command an- But thou hast mistaken our forbearance for gels, who are most assuredly placed above fear, and hast become emboldened to raise the most powerful monarchs, how much thyself above the royal power, bestowed more may they not give judgment over the upon us by God himself, and threatened to poor slaves of those angels. Besides, the take it from us, as if we had received our pope is the successor of the apostles, and dominion from thee. Thou hast raised thytheir representative upon the chair of St. self upon the steps which are called cunPeter; he is the vicar of Christ, and con- ning and deception, and which are accursed. sequently placed over all." Thou hast gained favor by gold, won These principles Gregory resolved to power by favor, and by that power thou exercise generally, and first of all upon the hast gained the chair of peace, from whence emperor himself, as the head of the kings thou hast banished peace itself by arming and princes, in order thereby to prove his the inferior against the superior. St. Pe. power before the whole world. At the ter, the true pope, himself says:' Fear God same time, Henry, living as he did in con- and honor the king!' but as thou dost not tinual dissension with his subjects, had less fear God, thou dost not honor me, his en. real power than any other king, while his voy. Descend, therefore, thou that liest name being greater, the victory over him under a curse of excommunication by our must consequently become more glorious, and all bishops' judgment, descend Quit and from the passionate character of this the apostolic seat thou hast usurped! And prince in all his proceedings, the pope then shall the chair of St. Peter be ascended soon found it easy to furnish a pretext. by one who does not conceal, under the diComplaints against the emperor came to vine word, his arrogance. I, Henry, by Rome from every quarter, while the Sax- God's grace, king, and all our bishops, say ons, likewise, bitterly complained because to thee,' Descend, descend! " he still kept many of their princes prisoners. Upon this the pope held a council also, Gregory accordingly caused it to be sig- and not only pronounced the sentence of nified to the emperor, "That at the ensuing excommunication against Henry, but he fast he must appear before the synod at deposed him in the following words: "In Rome, to answer for the crimes laid to his the name of the Almighty God, I forbid to charge; otherwise, it was now made known King Henry, the son of the Emperor Henry, to him, thalrhe would be cast out from the who, with haughtiness unheard of, has bosom of the church by the apostolic ban." arisen against the church, the government Henry was more indignant than terrified of the German and Italian empire, and ab HENRY'S EXCOMMUNICATION-THE EMPEROR A FxITIVE. 149 solve all Christians from the oath which In this desperate state Henry formed they have made or will make to him, and quite an unexpected resolution. In the forbid that any one serve him as king. And anxiety he experienced lest, in the diet at occupying thy office, holy Peter, I bind him Augsburg, where his enemies constituted with the bands of a curse, that all nations the majority of the members, nothing favormay learn that thou art the rock whereon able towards him should be determined the Son of God founded his church." upon, he set off himself, notwithstanding he When, at the Easter festival of the year possessed no means, and was obliged almost 1016, Henry received, at Utrecht, the news to beg for his support, (while likewise the of his excommunication, he immediately princes still occupied the passes between pronounced, on his part, through the vio- Italy and Germany,) and resolved to cross lent bishop, William of Utrecht, an ana- the Alps, accompanied only by his consort thema against Gregory; and the bishops and one faithful companion. He passed of Lombardy, the enemies of the pope, re- through Savoy, where he was furnished by newed this anathema in a council assem- his mother-in-law, the margravine of Susa, bled at Pavia, under the presidency of Wi- with a few more attendants, and as it was bert, archbishop of Ravenna. winter, and indeed so severe a winter that The impression made by these unheard- the Rhine, from Martinmas until the first of events was varied, according to the dis- of April, was completely frozen, the jourposition and feelings of the people. The ney over the mountains covered with snow Saxons rejoiced, for their cause was now and ice was, consequently, attended with the cause of the church, and henceforward immeasurable difficulties and danger, and their usual shout of war was "Holy Peter!" the empress, wrapped up in an ox-hide, while, throughout the empire generally, was obliged to be slidden down the precithere was a division of parties; every- pitous paths of Mount Cenis by the guides where the cry was, " The pope for ever!" of the country, hired for the purpose. He or, " The emperor for ever!" This was, arrived at last in Italy, and his presence, indeed, a time of bitter contention, and ha- to his astonishment, was hailed with joy; tred reigned throughout the whole country. for the report had already spread " that Had the king been a good, irreproachable the emperor was coming to humiliate the man, possessing the greatness of soul which haughty pope by the power of the sword." can bind and rule the hearts, the power of In Upper Italy a strong hatred had long the mere word would not have overcome been cherished against Gregory; the temhim, for it was only from public opinion poral lords were indignant at his recent rethat this word received its force. But he gulations, and among the clergy there were had now numerous and bitter enemies, and many whom his laws against simony and his arrogance after conquering the Saxons the marriage of priests had made his enehad served to increase their number. Be- mies. Besides, many Italians, even the sides the Saxons, his conduct had like- archbishops of Milan and Ravenna, had wise made Rudolphus, duke of Swabia, ex- shared in the sentence of excommunication. tremely hostile towards him, while the Had Henry, therefore, not been too much pope's legates exercised all their influence dejected and disheartened by what he had upon the minds of the people. Thence it experienced in Germany, he might speedily happened that the majority of German have acquired a numerous train of adheprinces assembled together at Tribur, on rents in Italy, toofferopposition to his mighty the Rhine, in order to elect a new emperor. enemy, but he now had conciliation alone Henry hastened to Oppenheim, in the vi- in view; the pope, too, was at this moment cinity, and at length, after many entreaties on his journey to Germany, to meet the diet and vows of reform, he obtained from them at Augsburg, and there to sit in judgment an extension of one year's delay; and it upon the king. Upon hearing, however, was decided that, in the mean tigne, the pope of Henry's sudden arrival in Italy, and not should be requested to come to Augsburg, knowing as yet whether he was to expect and himself closely investigate the affair; good or bad from him, he deviated from his but if Henry, at the end of the year, was direct route, and proceeded to the strong not freed from excommunication, they re- castle of Canossa, there to gain an asylum solved to proceed immediately to a fresh with the Countess Matilda, the daughter election. and heiress of the rich Margrave Boniface, 150 THE EMPEROR AND THE POPE AT CANOSSA. of Tuscany, and who was a zealous friend pope eventually admitted him before hir. of the papal chair; having even, at this and absolved him from excommunication; moment, privately made over to it all her but Henry was still forced to subscribe to inheritance. the most severe conditions. He was obliged Matilda was the most powerful and influ- to promise to present himself at the day and ential princess in Italy, and reigned as place the pope should appoint, in order to queen throughout Tuscany and Lombardy, hear whether he might remain king or not, while she was likewise equally distinguish- and, meanwhile, he was to abstain from all ed for her mental attainments and firmness exercise of the royal attributes and moof spirit, as well as for her piety and virtue. narchal power. She contested with all her power, during a With shame and anger in his heart, period of thirty years, for the elevation of Henry now withdrew, and as soon as the the pontifical chair, having embraced this Italians and his old friends still under exidea wilh all the strength of her natural communication perceived the disposition he character, and to which she was still more now evinced towards the pope, they asseminfluenced by the new severe regulations bled around him, and he remained during adopted by Gregory VII., which so per- the winter in Italy. fectly agreed with her own austere and His penetrating eye now perceived, durrigid principles of virtue. She was mar- ing this his first visit to Italy, that the power ried to Gozelo, duke of Lower Lorraine, of the pope was nowhere so weak as just in but they lived separated from each other, that very country of dissension and venal owing to their opinions being so completely egotism; and that whoever only understood different; for while in Italy, where she the art of creating adherents by money, ruled over the extensive possessions of her promises, and cunning, would very soon father and mother, she herself was busily succeed in collecting together a consideraoccupied in the support of Gregory, her ble party to aid him against the court of husband was doing all he could in aid of Rome. The illusory awe he had hitherto the emperor. felt for the papal power now vanished; his Henry now turned himself therefore to former courage revived, and from this mothe Princess Matilda, in order to get her to ment he commenced with the sword, as well speak to the pope in his favor. The latter, as the pen, a war which he sustained, durat first, would by no means hear of a re- ing thirty years, with the greatest skill and conciliation, but referred all to the decision determination, and in which he very often of the diet; at last, however, upon much experienced the most decisive success. entreaty, he yielded permission that Henry, The German princes, however, were still in the garb of a penitent, covered with a his enemies, and availing themselves of his shirt of hair, and with naked feet, might absence, held a diet at Forsheim in March, be received in the castle. As the emperor 1077, and elected Rudolphus, duke of advanced within the outer gate it was im- Swabia, as rival emperor. Germany bemediately closed, so that his escort was came now again divided by violent dissenobliged to remain outside the fortress, and sion; for Henry also commanded a strong he himself was now alone in the outer party, chiefly among the cities and those of court, where, in January, 1077, in the the clergy, who were discontented with midst of a severe and rigorous winter, he Gregory's church laws. He returned now was obliged to remain three whole days to Germany; war commenced, and for barefooted and shivering with the cold. three years devastated many of the most All in the castle were moved. Gregory beautiful countries of Germany. Rudol. himself writes in a letter, "That every phus was obliged to retire from Swabia, one present had severely censured him, and marched to Saxony, the Saxon people and said that hisconduct more resembled ty- and the valiant Otho of Nordheim being rannical ferocity than apostolic severity." his warm supporters. Henry gave the The Countess Matilda, while vainly plead- duchy of Swabia, together with his daughing for him, was affected even to burning ter, Agnes, to the bold and ambitious Count tears of pity and grief, and Henry, in his Frederic of Buren, who now removed his distress, at length only prayed that he seat from the village of Buren, at the foot might at least be allowed to go out again. of the high Staufen, and fixed it upon the On the fourth of these dreadful days, the pinnacle of that mountain, where he built THE RIVAL EMPERORS AND POPES-DEATH OF RUDOLPHUS. 151 the Castle Hohenstaufen. Thus was laid time again excommunicating Henry. The the foundation of the greatness of this latter, on the other hand, assembled a counhouse, although, at the same time, it was cil at Brixen, again deposed the pope, and a cause of enmity between the Hohen- caused to be elected as pontiff against him staufens and the other noble houses in the the excommunicated Archbishop Wibert vicinity, who envied the good fortune of this of Ravenna, or Clement III. Thus there new race, and thought they had much were now two emperors and two popes. greater right to the duchy of Swabia. The The victory, however, this time inclined on Hohenstaufens, however, remained hence- Henry's side. forward faithful friends to the Salic-Impe- Meantime, in 1080, he suffered a severe rial house. loss in a third battle, on the Elster, in SaxGregory acted with duplicity in this war ony, not far from Gera, through the valor between the two emperors; and it ap- of Otho of Nordheim, who there displayed peared as if he rejoiced in the destruction the genius of a truly great leader, but un. of Germany, and in the enervation of the fortunately, Rudolphus himself was fatally temporal power by its own acts, for instead wounded in the battle and died. His right of supporting the Saxons and their king, hand was hewn off, and Godfrey, duke of Rudolphus, with all the power of his au- Lower Lorraine, (Godefroy of Bouillon, the thority, in order that they might speedily conqueror of the holy tomb,) as related in gain the victory, he recognised neither of some records, thrust the spear of the imthe emperors, but only continued to promise perial banner into his stomach. According them that he would come to Germany to a later account, when his hand was and be himself the judge between them. shown to him, King Rudolphus is said to "Nothing, however, took place," says have remarked: "Behold, that is the hand Bruno, the historian of this war, " except with which I swore fidelity to King Henry!" that the pope's legates arrived and waited His fall was considered as a judgment of on both parties in each camp, promising at God, and Henry's adherents increased in one moment to the Saxons, and in the next proportion; so that he was now enabled to to Henry, the favor of the pope; while at undertake an expedition into Italy in order the same time they conveyed away from to make war upon his most violent opponent. both armies as much gold as they could He marched, therefore, with his army and obtain-according to Roman custom."' The came before Rome, which he besieged three Saxons complained severely of this equivo- times, in three successive years, and recal conduct of the pope, and they wrote to duced Pope Gregory to such extremity that him among the rest as follows: " All our he was obliged to shut himself up in the misfortunes would never have arisen, or at castle of St. Angelo, where he was beleast have been but trivial, if upon having sieged by the Romans themselves; never. commenced your journey, you had turned theless, Gregory's spirit was too great, and neither to the right nor to the left. Through his will too inflexible, to humiliate himself, obedience to our shepherd we are exposed and follow the example of Henry at Ca to the rapacity of the wolf, and if we are nossa. The emperor offered him reconciliaabandoned now by that shepherd, we shall tion if he would crown him, but he replied be more unfortunate and miserable than all firmly: " He could only communicate other people." This bold and reproachful with him when he had given satisfaction to address, however, did not please the pope; God and the church." Henry was obliged, he returned no reply to it, nor did it pro- therefore, with his consort, to be crowned duce more determination in his conduct by the rival pope, Clement, at Easter, 1084, than the subsequent desperate battle fought after which he retired from Italy. Pope between the two armies at Melrichstadt, in Gregory, however, was still besieged by Thuringia, in the year 1078; and it was the Romans, in the castle of St. Angelo, only after Rudolphus had gained superior until he was freed by his friend, Robert advantage in a second battle near Muhl- Guiscard, duke of Normandy, who ruled hausen in 1080, that he declared for him, in Lower Italy. The latter subjected the and even sent him the crown,* at the same city to plunder, and then took with him the old and obstinate pope (who, even in misThis crown bore the following inscription:- fortune, would not renounce any of his Petra, dedit Petro, Petrus diadema Rudolpho." views and pretensions) to Lower Italy, 152 REVOLT OF HENRY'S SONS-DEATH OF HENRY IV.-HENRY V. where he died the following year at Salerno. ly prove its agitated and anxious charac. His party chose Victor to succeed him; ter. but he possessed neither the genius nor the The bishop of Liege buried the emperor force of Gregory, for even Clement main- as beseemed; but to such length did tained the position he held, and continued hatred go, that his body was again exto enjoy the chief authority in Rome. humed, conveyed to Spires, and there, for Favorable and tranquil times now seem- five years, it remained in a stone coffin ed to dawn upon the emperor Henry. above the earth, in an isolated, unconseThe successor of Rudolphus of Swabia, crated chapel, until at last, in the year Herman of Luxembourg, whom the princes 1111, Pope Pascal absolved him from exhad elevated to be his second opponent, communication. He was then interred could not maintain himself against him, with greater magnificence than any other and spontaneously laid down the dignity. emperor before him. A second, Egbert of Thuringia, died by In the first years of the reign of Henry assassination, and the Saxons, after Otho V., the ducal race of the Billungens, in of Nordheim was dead, and the irrecon- Saxony, became extinct; and he bestowed cilable bishop, Burkhard, of Halberstadt, the dukedom upon Lothaire, count of Suphad been killed by his own people, (after plingenburg. he had tried, for the fourteenth time, to Henry V., although he had previously excite them to revolt,) wearied with con- revolted against his father, now acted stant war, voluntarily submitted themselves according to his principles; and in defito the emperor-now made milder by the ance of the papal laws, he still continued many painful trials he had undergone. to impart the investiture with ring and But fate had reserved for him visitations staff, a right, which, as he declared to the still more severe. For he was obliged to pope, his ancestors since Charles the behold revolt against him, even in the last Great had legitimately exercised for three years of his life; his eldest son, Conrad, centuries, under sixty-three popes; and as and after his death in 1101, his second son, early as the year 1100, he marched with Henry, was gained over by the papal a large army of 30,000 horse-soldiers, beparty. Both the successors of Gregory, sides infantry and servitors, for Italy, in Urban II. and Pascal II., renewed the order to be crowned with the imperial papal ban against Henry the father; and crown, and, in case of necessity, to mainhis son now declared that he could hold tain his rights with the sword. He was a no community with an excommunicated much more dangerous enemy than his faperson. Nay, even when Henry, confi- ther, for, besides his physical force, he ding in the apparent reconciliation with knew likewise how to avail himself of cunhis son, was about to attend the great diet ning and hypocrisy. Pope Pascal II. of princes at Mentz, the latter caused made a proposition to him, which would him, by cunning and treachery, to be dis- have ended the dispute for ever, could it armed, deprived him of the imperial in- have been executed. He caused the emsignia, by means of the archbishops of peror to be apprized that-" As he founded Mentz and Cologne, and placed him a his claims to the investiture only upon the prisoner at Ingelheim, where he forced donations which the emperors had presenthim formally to abdicate the throne. ed to the church-the cities, duchies, Henry, however, found an opportunity counties, coins, tolls, farms, and castlesto escape from prison, and, full of grief he might take them all back again; the and trouble, he went to his friend Otbert, church would only retain the presents of the bishop of Liege. The latter, and private individuals, and the tithes and sacHenry, duke of Lorraine, assembled an rifices. For," said he, "it is commanded army for him, and beat back the degene- by the divine law, as well as by the law rated son when crossing the Meuse in pur- of the church, that the clergy shall not suit of his father. But the emperor died occupy themselves with temporal matters, immediately afterwards at Liege, oppressed nay, not even appear at court, except for at length by a turbulent and vexatious ca- \he purpose of saving an oppressed person. reer, in the year 1106. The number of But among you, however, in Germany, battles he had fought during his life- the bishops and abbots are 5o mixed up being no less than sixty-five-sufficient- with worldly affairs, that the servants of HENRY IN ROME-POPE PASCAL II.-SANGUINARY BATTLE. 153 the altar have become the servants of the the Romans. A murderous combat was court." continued throughout the whole day, until The pope might have been serious when at length towards the evening the emperor making this proposition, for he was ex- cheered on his troops to make a final tremely strict in his principles, and thought, charge, the result of which was that the perhaps, in this manner to remedy the de- Romans were completely put to flight, and generation of the clergy, and to bring were driven partly into the Tiber, and them back to their original simple condi- partly across the bridges back into the tion But Henry's penetrating mind fore- city. The church of St. Peter, together saw well that the clergy themselves, par- with all that portion of the city, remained ticularly those who, by their possessions, in the hands of the Germans, but which were raised to the rank of imperial the emperor abandoned, together with all princes, would never consent to make his prisoners, in order to scour the country such a restitution; therefore he promised around in the most dreadful manner. The to dispense with the investiture, if the pope Romans, now reduced to extreme necessiwould command the bishops to give back ty, urgently entreated the pope to conclude to him, the emperor, all those possessions a treaty of peace with the emperor. He which they had received from Charle- had now been a prisoner sixty-one days; magne and his successors. Ile then ad- and at length yielded to their prayers. vanced to Rome, and the solemn treaty He, accordingly, agreed that the emperor upon this affair was to be ratified between should retain the investiture with ring and him and the pope in a large assembly of staff, and promised, at the same time, that the bishops, in the church of St. Peter, he would never excommunicate him on and then the coronation of the emperor account of this proceeding. The treaty was to be celebrated. But when the above was signed by fourteen cardinals, and in condition became the subject of discussion, the emperor's name by fourteen princes, the most animated and violent opposition and Henry himself was, on the 13th of arose between the German and Italian April, 1111, solemnly crowned emperor bishops, and a long and angry contest en- by Pascal. sued. At length one of the German But scarcely were the Germans out of knights present exclaimed: "Why do you Rome when the whole clergy severely all continue thus wrangling? Let it suf- censured the pope, and persuaded him to fice for you to know that our lord, the assemble a council and excommunicate the emperor, is resolved to be crowned as agreement made between the king and him, formerly were Charlemagne, Louis, and as having been extorted by violence; for, the other emperors!" The pope replied according to the promise made by the pope, once more-" That he could not perform they durst not pronounce the ban against the ceremony before King Henry had the emperor himself. The dispute thus solemnly sworn to discontinue the right commenced anew, and continued, also, of investiture." Henry then, by the under the following popes, Gelasius II. and counsel of his chancellor, Adalbert, and Calixtus II., ten years longer. As long as Burchard, bishop of MUnster, summoned Pascal lived, the emperor was not himself his guards, and caused the pope, as well visited with the general excommunication as the cardinals, to be made prisoners. of the church; but the legates and many The Romans, enraged and furious at this of the heads of the church excommunicaviolent proceeding, on the following day ted him in their dioceses, and thereby gave attacked the Germans, who were encamped occasion to fresh divisions and dissensions around the church of St. Peter. The in Germany; and a great portion of the king speedily mounted his steed, and imperial princes accordingly refused obeboldly, but rashly, rushing into the midst dience to the emperor and his laws. Ar. of the enemy, pierced five Rorans with bitrary feuds, robbery, devastation, and his own lance, but was himself wounded murder took the upper hand. The most and thrown from his horse. He was faithful allies of the emperor were his rerescued by Count Otho, of Milan, who lations of the race of Hohenstaufen, and hastily assisted him to mount his own he raised their house accordingly still horse, which he gave up to the king, but higher. When Frederic, the first duke for which service he was cut to pieces by to whom his father had given the duchy of 20 154 THE INVESTITURE DISPUTE-DEATH OF HENRY V Swabia, died, he transferred it to his eldest this reconciliation was great; all separated, son, Frederic, and, shortly afterwards, he as the records say, with infinite pleasure. gave the duchy of Franconia to his second The emperor reigned but a few years son, Conrad. longer-in peace, it is true, with the church, His own sister Agnes, the widow of Duke but not without constant dissensions in the Frederic, he married to the Margrave, German empire. Amidst plans for strengthLeopold of Austria, of the house of Baben- ening the imperial power, in order to opberg, the father of that Leopold who was pose more firmly those disorders, he died afterwards duke of Bavaria, and who also suddenly at Utrecht, in 1125, in the fortyestablished on the place where Windobona fourth year of his age. He died childless, then stood, the foundation of the present and with him the Salian house became excity of Vienna. Thus in the south of tinct. Most of his hereditary possessions Germany the emperor gained the superi- came to his nephews, the Dukes Frederic ority, but in the north, on the contrary, he and Conrad of Hohenstaufen. could acquire no lasting power. Here the Henry did not acquire the love of his Archbishop Adalbert of Mentz, who had contemporaries; he was despotic, severe, been elevated by him, (and who was previ- and often cruel. On the other hand, howously his own chancellor, and had advised ever, it is not to be denied that he poshim to imprison the pope, Pascal, but had sessed many great qualities,-activity, now become his uncompromising enemy,) boldness, perseverance in misfortune, and worked most strenuously against him, and a noble-minded disposition. The mainexcited one prince after the other to oppose tenance of the imperial dignity against him. Saxony, as in his father's time, be- every enemy appeared to be with him the came now the centre of opposition to him chief object of his life. He was entombed likewise. The emperor advanced in the at Spires in the grave of his ancestors. year 1115 with an army into Saxony, but Meantime, while the two emperors, in a battle, not far from Eisleben, he was Henry IV. and V., were engaged in such entirely defeated by the Saxon princes. An warm and serious disputes with the pope, expedition, which he soon afterwards made more than a hundred thousand Christians, to Italy, gave him for a short time the supe- summoned by the voice of the Church, and riority in Rome, but brought upon him in excited by their own immediate enthusi1118 the general excommunication of the asm, assembled together, and abandoned new pope, Gelasius, which his successor their country in order to recover and seCalixtus II. confirmed. The chief object cure from the power of the infidels the of dispute was still the right of investiture. tomb of the Saviour in that Holy Land, Finally, in the year 1122, both parties, wherein his divine footsteps remained imtired of the long dispute, concluded a sol- printed. emn treaty at the diet of Worms, where Already, from the earliest ages, it had both yielded to each other. The emperor been a pious custom to make pilgrimages permitted the free choice of bishops, and to the Holy Land, to pray at its sacred plagave up the investiture with the ring and ces, and to bathe in the waters of the Jorstaff, as signs of spiritual jurisdiction, but dan, which had been consecrated by the for which concession, on the other hand, baptism of our Lord. Constantine the the election was to take place in the pres- Great, the first Roman emperor who emence of the king, or of his plenipotentiary, braced Christianity, as well as his mother and he was to decide in doubtful cases, or Helena, issued orders for the purification in any disagreement of the electors, and and adornment of these holy places in lastly, confer fiefs of temporal possessions Palestine, and the restoration of the sacred with his sceptre. The spiritual consecra- tomb at the foot of Mount Golgotha; and tion of this bishop elect was to take place they erected over the tomb, at enormous in Germany after the investiture with the outlay, a lofty dome, supported by beautisceptre; but in Italy it was to precede it. ful pillars, with an adjoining oratory, richAfter the records were publicly read, the ly adorned. Eastward of the sepulchre legate of the pope gave the emperor the Constantine built a larger and still more kiss of peace, and afterwards the commu- magnificent temple. He celebrated the nion. The joy expressed by the peacefully- thirtieth anniversary of his reign by the minded members of the assembly upon consecration of this temple, on which occa. PILGRIMAGES TO PALESTINE-PETER THE HERMIT. 155 sion he was himself present; and the pious and called upon this assembly to come for. Helena, although in extreme old age, made ward in deliverance of the sacred tomb, a a pilgrimage to the Holy Land at the same thousand voices shouted aloud, " It is the time, and built two churches, one at Beth- will of God! It is the will of God!" lehem on the spot where our Saviour was When the pope and the hermit had con. born, and the other on the top of the Mount cluded their eloquent appeal, Ademar, of Olives. bishop of Puy, was the first to press forAfter this, pilgrimages to the Holy ward, and throwing himself at the feet of Land became more and more frequent; the pontiff, begged from his holiness perand even in the seventh century, when the mission to proceed to the holy war. Many land was under the dominion of the Arabs, of the clergy and laity followed his examthe pilgrims were not obstructed or dis- ple, and as a sign of their devotion to the turbed in their devotions. For the Arabs pious undertaking, they sewed a red cross rejoiced in the advantage they derived on their right shoulder. The final day of from the visits of so many strangers, and meeting for the great expedition was now took equal care not to molest either the fixed to take place on the 15th of August, patriarch of Jerusalem, or the Christian 1096. community. But when the Turks, a sav- Accordingly, innumerable multitudes age and barbarous people, seized upon the assembled, including warriors from Italy, country in the year 1073, complaint after France, Lorraine, Flanders, and particucomplaint reached Europe of the cruel larly from Normandy, where the same treatment heaped upon the pious pilgrims, love for distant and adventurous expediand of the shameful profanation commit- tions that had ever distinguished their heted by the infidels on the consecrated roic ancestors, was now evinced by the spots. present natives. Not only the knights and In the year 1094, a hermit, named Peter nobles, but the whole people were set in of Amiens, appeared before Pope Urban motion, for as also in France the laboring II. on his return from a pilgrimage to Pal- classes experienced the severest oppresestine, with a letter of petition from the sion, many of these joined the expedition; patriarch of Jerusalem, and gave a most because, according to the pope's decree, affecting description of the unheard-of suf- freedom was attained by dedication to the ferings experienced by the Christians resi- holy cross. Germany, which was then at dent there, as well as by the pilgrims who variance with the pope, and agitated by repaired thither. The pope praised and internal discord, was least affected by this encouraged his zeal, and sent him with first movement. With the commencement letters of recommendation to all the princes of the spring, Peter the Hermit set out at in the various Christian countries, in order the head of a crowd of people, whose imto arouse the minds of the people, and to patience would not allow them to await the prepare them for a great expedition. The appointed time, in company with their enthusiastic language of the hermit, to- commander, a knight named Walter the gether with the fire which still shone from Pennyless; but their army was deficient his deep-sunk eye, and his wasted, meager in order and discipline, and especially in form, on which was imprinted the suffer- a supply of proper weapons. Before it ings he had endured, made the deepest reached Asia, the greater part, on account impression, and excited, wherever he went, of the robberies committed, were cut off equal enthusiasm among all classes, from by the Bulgarians and Hungarians, and the highest to the lowest. After this, in those who, under the guidance of Peter the year 1095, the pope convoked a great and Walter, reached and landed on the council of the Church, at Piacenza, in first Turkish territory, were so badly reItaly, and another at Clermont, in France, ceived and cut up by the Turks, that very at which were present fourteen archbish- few escaped; and Peter was forced to reops, two hundred and twenty-five bishops, turn home with the remnant in a very and four hundred abbots, besides numer- melancholy plight. A second and still ous princes, nobles, and knights. And ruder horde commenced its labors for the when Peter the Hermit and the pope ad- cross of Christ, by slaying the Jews in the vanced before them, and with words of cities on the Rhine; in Mentz alone nine overpowering fire and energy appealed to hundred were in this way put to death. 156 THE FIRST GRAND CRUSADE-GODEFROY OF BOUILLON. In this was evinced the universal hatred unfortunate result as those that prece. of the people towards the Jews, who, by ded it. their usurious practices, and the immense At length, in May, 1099, the weariea wealth gained thereby, brought down upon feet of the remaining portion of the army their heads this full measure of ven- which had escaped so many dangers, trod geance. This party, and several other the cherished soil of that hallowed land, troops of crusaders, however, only reached and on the 6th of July, they beheld from Hungary. the top of a mountain near Emmaus, the So unpropitious a commencement might object of their ardent hopes and desireseasily have crushed all inclinations for Jerusalem! One universal shout of joy further attempts, had not these first adven- filled the air, vibrating in undying echoes turers, in great part, consisted of the lowest from hill to hill, while tears of rapture class of the people, and had not their lead- burst from every eye. Their noble leader ers been deficient in prudence, experience, could scarcely prevent them from rushing and noble zeal and energy. Accordingly, forward at once, in their wild enthusiasm, at the appointed time, in the middle of to storm the walls of the holy city. But summer, a grand army, well appointed Godfrey soon perceived that the conquest and disciplined, and burning with enthu- of the place was not easy, and could not siastic courage, was assembled, and on the be effected in a moment, especially as the 15th of August, 1096, set out for its desti- garrison was much stronger in numbers nation. No king was present as leader of than the crusaders, of whom out of 300,000, the assembled forces; but, among the only 40,000 men were now left. At length princes and nobles, Godfrey, duke of every preparation being made, and warlike Lower Lorraine, called, from his ancestral machines with storming-ladders provided, seat, Godefroy of Bouillon, stood proudly in spite of every existing difficulty-for forward, conspicuous in every heroic the country around was deficient in woodvirtue; having often fought in the armies the first general assault was made on the of Henry IV. He was appointed the 14th of July; but as the besieged defended leader of a body of 90,000 men, and di- themselves with the greatest bravery, this rected his course through Hungary and first attempt failed. On the following day, the dominions of the Greek emperor, while however, the Christians renewed the attack, other princes proceeded through Italy to and Godfrey was one of the first that Constantinople. He conducted his army, mounted the enemy's ramparts. His with the most admirable order, through sword opened a path for the rest; the walls countries where so many of the crusaders were soon gained on all sides, the gates had already perished, and having joined forced open, and the whole army rushed the other princes, entered the Turkish into the city. A dreadful scene of masterritories in the spring of 1097. The sacre now commenced; in their first fury united forces of the crusaders consisted the victors put all to the sword, and but of 300,000 men, and with the women, few of the inhabitants escaped. When, children, and servants, made up a body of however, reason at length resumed its half a million. Unfortunately, however, sway, the warriors, wiping the blood from they already found in the tribe of the their swords, returned them to their scabSedjoucidians, who first opposed their pro- bards, and then proceeded, bareheaded and gress, an enemy equally cunning and ac- barefooted, to prostrate themselves before tive, while they met with still greater and the holy places; and the same city which more serious obstacles, in the deserts where just before had resounded in every part the Turks had destroyed every thing which with the wild shrieks of the slaughtered, might have procured them some suste- was now filled with prayers and hymns to nance, and through which they had to pass the honor and glory of God. from Asia Minor to Palestine. Hunger The election of a sovereign for the new and disease carried off every day numbers kingdom of Jerusalem became now an of men and horses; even the bravest be- object of consideration, and Godefroy of gan to waver, and had it not been for the Bouillon appeared to all as the most worthy active genius and heroic firmness displayed to rule; but he refused to wear a crown by the brave Godfrey, this expedition of jewels on the spot where the Saviour of would perhaps have experienced the same the world had bled beneath one of thorns, ELECTION OF EMPEROR-LOTHAIRE II.-1125-1137. 157 and would only take the title of " Defender Swabia, Franconia, and Alsace, were laid of the Holy Sepulchre." As he died, how- waste and destroyed, until at last both the ever, in the following year, his brother dukes found themselves compelled to bow Baldwin assumed at once the title of king. before the imperial authority. In this disOf the other crusades, which subsequent- pute the emperor Lothaire, in order to ly took place for the maintenance of the strengthen his party, had recourse to means Christian dominion in Palestine, and in which produced agitation and dissension, which the German emperors also took part, and continued to do so for more than a our history will speak hereafter. hundred years afterwards. He gave his After the extinction of the Franks, a only daughter Gertrude in marriage to moment had again arrived when the Ger- Henry the Proud, the powerful duke of man princes, if they were desirous of be- Bavaria, (of the Guelfs,) and gave him, coming independent and sovereign rulers, besides Bavaria, the duchy of Saxony likewere not obliged to place a new emperor wise. This is the first instance of two above themselves; but such a thought was dukedoms being governed by one person. foreign to their minds, and they preferred Nay, with the acquiescence of the pope, paying homage to one, whom they had ex- and under the condition that after Henry's alted to the highest step of honor, rather death they were to become the property of than behold Germany divided into numer- the Roman church, he even invested him ous petty kingdoms. with the valuable hereditary possessions of Accordingly, in 1125 the German tribes Matilda in Italy, as a fief, so that the duke's again encamped on the banks of the Chine, authority extended from the Elbe to far in the vicinity of Mentz, and ten princes beyond the Alps, being much more powerselected from each of the four principal ful than even that of the emperor himself; families, viz. Saxony, Franconia, Bavaria, for besides his patrimonial lands in Swabia and Swabia, assembled in Mentz for the and Bavaria, he had likewise inherited first election. Three princes only were from his mother the moiety of the great proposed: Duke Frederic of Swabia, (the ancestral possessions in Saxony, and in admighty and courageous Hohenstaufen,) dition to all this his consort now brought Lothaire of Saxony, and Leopold of Aus- him the entire lands of Supplinburg, Nordtria. The two latter on their knees, and heim, and old Brunswick. Thus the founalmost in tears, entreated that they might dation for the subsequent jealousy so debe spared the infliction of such a heavy structive to Germany and Italy, b-,tween burden, while Frederic, in his proud the Guelfs and Hohenstaufens-the latter, mind, ambitiously thought that the crown (styled by the Italians Ghibollini,) accordcould be destined for none other but him- ing to their castle Veibling, on the Rems, self; and such feeling of pretension in- being called Veiblingers-was laid It this deed was too visibly expressed in his coun- period, and the faction-names of te Guelfs tenance. Adalbert, the archbishop of and Ghibelins henceforward conti-u ed for Mentz, however, who was himself not well centuries afterwards to resound from Mount inclined towards the Hohenstaufens, put to Etna and Vesuvius to the coasts of the all three the question: "Whether each North and East Sea. Lothaire's reign was willing and ready to yield and swear became so shaken and troubled, partly by allegiance to him that should be elected?" the dispute of the Hohenstaufens and pIri ly The two former immediately answered in by the Italian campaigns, that but very the affirmative; but Frederic hesitated few, if any of the great hopus he had at and left the assembly, under the excuse first excited by his chivalric, wise, and that he must take counsel of his friends. pious character, were brought into effect. The princes were all indignant at this con- During his second and rather successful duct, and the archbishop persuaded them campaign in Italy, in the year 1137, Loat length to make choice of Lothaire of thaire was suddenly seized with illness, Saxony, although against his own will. and died on his return, in the village of But hostilities soon broke out between Breitenwang, between the rivers Inn and the two powerful Hohenstaufen dukes, Lech, in the wildest part of the Tyrolese Frederic of Swabia and Conrad of Fran- mountains. His body was conveyed to, conia, and during nearly the entire reign and interred in the monastery of Kinig, of the new king, the beautiful lands of slutter, in Saxony, founded by himself. 158 CONRAD III.-THE GUELFS AND GHIBEIINS. However much the two princely houses dence. Henry the Proud would not bena of the Guelfs and Ghibelins may, from before the new emperor, whereupon he this time, have continued to attract and was declared an outlaw, his two duchies command attention, there was still a third, taken from him, and Bavaria given to the which, under this reign, excited not less margrave Leopold of Austria, the halfinterest. Lothaire had given the mar- brother of the emperor Conrad by the magraviate of North-Saxony, which then com- ternal side, and Saxony to Albert the Bear, prised the present Altmark, to Albert the of Brandenburg. Henry died almost imBear, of the house of Anhalt, one of the mediately afterwards, and left a son ten most distinguished princes of his time. He years of age, who became afterwards so conquered from the Vandals the middle celebrated under the title of Henry the marches, as well as those on the Uker and Lion, to whom Albert, at the desire of the Prignitz, together with the town of Bran- emperor, formally resigned the duchy of denburg; and finally, in order to excite Saxony, which he had not been able to in these countries the desired industry, he conquer, (so faithful did the Saxons reprocured from Flanders a great number of main attached to the Guelfic house;) and agricultural laborers. He may likewise in return he was allowed to possess his be regarded as the founder of the Bran- hereditary estates in that country as a denburg territory; and it was also under princely margraviate, independent of the his rule that, about the middle of the duchy. twelfth century, the name of Berlin ap- In Bavaria also, Count Guelf, of Altorf, peared for the first time, which place, the brother of Henry the Proud, still contherefore, dates its origin from the same tended against the house of Austria, and period that Leopold of Austria laid the not unsuccessfully. But when, in the year foundation of Vienna. 1140, he ventured to march against the emperor, near Weinsberg, he was vanquished in the battle. It was in this action that the names "Guelfs and Ghibelins" were first heard as party names, for the CHAPTER X. battle-cry of the troops on one side was, "Strike for the Guelfs," and of those on THE SWABIAN OR HOHENSTAUFEN HOUSE, 1138 the other, "Strike for the Ghibelins." -1254. After the battle, the long-besieged city of Weinsberg was obliged to yield. The emConrad III., 1138-1152 —The Guelfs and Ghibelins — peror, irritated at its long resistance, had Weinsberg-The Faithful Wives-Conrad's Crusade peror, irritated at ts long resistance, had -Disastrous Results-His death, 1152-Frederick I. resolved to destroy it with fire and sword. or Barbarossa, 1152-1190-His noble Character and He however, permitted the females of the distinguished qualities-Extends hisdominins-The owever, permitted e emaes t Cities of Lombardy and Milan-Pavia-Pope Adrian city previously to retire, and to carry with IV.-The Emperor's Homage —Otho of Wittelsbach them their dearest jewels. And behold, Dispute between the Pope and the Emperor-Milandearest jewels. And behold, taken and razed-The Confederation of the Lom- when the day dawned, and the gates were bardian Towns-The Battle of Lignano-Frederick defeated-Popwns-The Battle ofxander Lignano-Frederick opened, the women advanced in long rows, defeated —Pope Alexander and Frederick-VeniceHenry the Lion of Brunswick-His Rise and Fall- and the married bore each upon her back Reconciliation and Peace-Lombardy-Frederick's her husband, and the others each their Crusade and Death in Palestine, 1190. her husband, and the others each their dearest relative. This affecting scene so THE election even this time did not fall moved the emperor, that he not only spared upon him who considered he had the great- the men, but also the whole city.* est right to the crown, namely, the son-in- The emperor Conrad was now about to law of Lothaire, the powerful Henry (the proceed to Italy, to reconfirm and establish Proud) of Bavaria and Saxony, although there the imperial dignity, when intellihe had possession of the jewels of the gence arrived in Europe that the unbelievcrown; for the princes, repulsed by his ers threatened the Holy Land, and had pride, elected on the 22d of February, already conquered and destroyed the forti1138, the Hohenstaufen duke, Conrad of fied city of Edessa, a frontier fortress; Franconia, whom misfortune had made upon which, Pope Eugene III. sent letters wise, and to whom his elder brother, Frederick, who contested with Lothaire for the This circumstance is recorded by a contemporary crown, willingly gave up now the prece- of that period in the chronicle of St. Pantaleonis. CONRAD IN PALESTINE-HIS DEATH-FREDERICK I. 159 of exhortation to all the European kings their gates against them. Many then enand princes, that they might assist the treated those upon the walls for bread, and Christians in the east; and a pious and showed their gold, which the people first zealous man, the holy Abbot Bernard of let down ropes to possess themselves of, Clairvaux, in France, journeyed through- giving in return only as much as they out Europe, preaching so powerfully, that pleased, frequently nothing at all, or only many thousands took the cross. And a little meal mixed with lime. Many thouwhen he addressed Louis VII. of France, sands, consequently, died of hunger and the multitude of those who took the cross disease, and still more were destroyed by was so great, that St. Bernard (he being the cimeters of the Turkish horsemen, afterwards canonized) was obliged to cut who allowed the Germans no repose, either up his own clothes to make crosses of them, by night or day, never forming for a reand both the king and his consort Eleanor gular engagement with them, which the resolved upon the expedition. St. Bernard harassed troops so heartily desired. Thus, now turned his attention to Germany, and after a thousand dangers, Conrad arrived tried to stimulate the emperor Conrad, in the Holy Land with only the tenth part who long refused, and avoided the abbot, of his army. He entered Jerusalem and by proceeding from Frankfort to Spires, in visited the holy spot of the cross, where he order that he might take into consideration paid his worship; but these were the whole how much still remained to be put in order fruits of this crusade. The siege of Dain his own empire. But St. Bernard would mascus was unsuccessful, and the French not quit him; he followed him to Spires, army was equally unfortunate. Conrad and there it was that Conrad, in the middle returned after an absence of two years, and of the abbot's address, suddenly arose, and, died shortly afterwards, in the year 1152, with tearful eyes, exclaimed, "I acknow- at Bamberg. He was a valiant, highledge, holy father, the great goodness that minded, and noble-hearted man, and was God has shown me, and will no longer re- universally esteemed. He recommended fuse, but am ready to serve him; for I as his successor, not his own young son, feel urged to this expedition by Himself." Frederick, whose age would not as yet alSt. Bernard immediately decorated him low him to rule the nation, but his valiant with the cross, and presented him with the nephew, Frederick Barbarossa, duke of holy banner lying upon the altar. Frede- Swabia, who had made the crusade with rick, Conrad's nephew, who became after- him, and who was unanimously elected at wards the first emperor of that name, and Frankfort. even the old Duke Guelf, who had become Frederick I. was one of the most powreconciled with the emperor, both took the erful of all the German emperors; highcross likewise, and a great army was as- minded, valiant, with a will firm as iron, sembled, which numbered 70,000 warriors and of a stern, energetic character. His alone. But in all human enterprises, a very form displayed his lofty mind. His splendid commencement will not always figure was manly and powerful; his limbs secure a successful issue, and so, in this well formed and strong, auburn locks covgreat expedition, nothing but misfortune ered his high forehead, and beneath them followed. In the year 1147, while the sparkled his sharp and piercing eyes. His army was encamped near Constantinople, chin, according to the ancient custom, was on the banks of a river, in order to refresh covered with his beard, which being of a themselves from the fatigues of the march, bright yellow, he thence derived his surand to celebrate the festival of the birth of name of Barbarossa. A youthful ruddiness St. Mary, the waters so swelled in the of complexion and natural affability gave night by a sudden rain, that the whole camp to his countenance that cheerful expression became overflowed, and great numbers of which attracts all hearts; but his firm, men and horses were drowned. And again, proud step, and the whole bearing of his when the army was transported across the presence, displayed the prince born to -ule straits to Asia, treacherous guides led it and command. into places which the Turks had previous- Already, even as a youth, he had perly devastated; the provisions they carried formed deeds which announced the great with them were soon consumed, and the man; besides which, he belonged to the cities which the expedition passed closed Ghibelins on the paternal, and to the 160 FREDERICK'S NOBLE QUALITIES-HENRY THE LION-ITALY. Guelfs on the maternal side. It was ceived Zealand; but Sven the crown, hoped that he would cause the rivalship of which Frederick himself placed upon his both houses to be forgotten; and, indeed, head, and for which the Danish king swore one of his first acts in Germany was in allegiance to him. This also King Bolesfavor of the Guelfic house. For, in the laus, of Poland, was obliged to renew, and year 1154, he re-granted the duchy of whom the emperor forced thereto by an Bavaria to Henry the Lion, the son of effective campaign in Silesia. He gave to Henry the Proud, so that the duke again Duke Wladislas, of Bohemia, on account possessed Saxony and Bavaria in conjunc- of his faithful adherence in this Polish tion, by which means he became the most campaign, the title of king, such titles the powerful prince in Germany. The Mar- emperor alone being able to impart. King grave Henry, called Jasomirgoth, of Aus- Geisa, of Hungary, renewed his alletria, who, after his brother Leopold's giance, and fulfilled his duties as vassal death, had become duke of Bavaria, re- in Frederick's second Italian expedition. fused, indeed, to give up the country; but And finally, in Burgundy, which had bein 1156, Frederick induced him to re- come almost estranged from the Germanic nounce it, and compensated him by giving empire, Frederick re-established his inhim the old Bavarian margraviate of Aus- fluence by his own marriage with Beatrice, tria, and by making it independent of Ba- the heiress of High Burgundy, whereby varia, and raising it to a duchy, he pre- his house acquired, at the same time, this sented him with great rights and privileges. portion of the kingdom of Burgundy. All The duchy was to be hereditary, not only the Burgundian nobles did homage to the in the male, but also in the female line, emperor, and thus the ancient imperial and the duke was to rank with the first dignity acquired additional splendor under imperial nobles.* He was only required the powerful monarch who now ruled in to be invested in his own land, and to par- Germany. ticipate in the expeditions against the Hun- It was only in Italy, the ancient seat of garians, while, without his sanction, no the dominion of the world, that the authorforeign laws were available in Austria, ity of the emperor had declined; and &c. The reconciliation of the first prince- Frederick was not able to restore it entirely houses in Germany caused universal ly, even by the most glorious battles. satisfaction; and Frederick depended now The large towns in this country, since the more firmly than ever upon the assistance weak government of Henry IV., had beof the friend of his youth, Henry the Lion, come overbearing, and submitted with for the execution of his enterprises. In great repugnance to the obedience due tothe other affairs of the empire also, the wards their superior feudal sovereign; new emperor exerted himself with vigor; above all the rest, the opulent city of Mihe destroyed the castles of the freebooter- lan, the capital of Lombardy, was the knights, whom he condemned to death; most arrogant and independent. Milan, and proved himself to be, by all his acts, since the commencement of the 12th cena protector of general order, and of the tury, had, by the vigor and energy of its rights of the German people. A contem- inhabitants, made such rapid progress, that porary historian says, therefore, of him: one might almost have believed that an" It appeared as if he gave to heaven and cient Rome had transplanted its spirit thiearth a new and more peaceful form." ther. It subjected, by degrees, several of The countries bordering upon Germany the neighboring cities, especially Lodi and also presented him with an opportunity to Como; and, at the same time, affected to give to the imperial name additional lus- treat the commands of the emperor with tre. In his first diet, at Merseburg, in such contempt, that an imperial edict 1152, he decided the dispute of the two which Frederick issued in the year 1153, Danish princes, Sven and Knud, respect- had even its seal torn off, and was tramping the kingdom of Denmark. Knud re- led under foot. Upon this, the emperor, in 1154, crossed the Alps, and, according to " He shall rank equal with the ancient Archiduci- the ancient custom of the Longobardian bus," stands recorded in the originalstatute. Thence, kings, held his first great diet in the Ronfrom this expression, originated the subsequent title of calian plains, on the banks of the rivei Archduke of Austria. This was first adopted by Fred- ans erick III. in the year 1453. Po; and now that complaints from many LOMBARDY-ADRIAN IV. AND FREDERICK. 161 other places were urged against the op- of the emperor, that he had erred through pression of this proud city, which even ignorance, as he had not applied much refused to meet or reply to them, his anger attention to stirrup-holding, the pope rebecame excited, and he resolved to punish plied: "If the emperor neglects trifles it severely. He did not venture this time from ignorance, how will he show attento besiege it, as he was not prepared for tion in important affairs?" The emperor, such an important undertaking; but he however, at the entreaty of the princes, destroyed several of its adjacent castles yielded, and they both embraced each and forts, and conquered its allied cities, other as friends. Asti and Tortona. After this, Frederick went to Rome, and At Pavia he caused himself to be was crowned emperor in St. Peter's church, crowned king of Lombardy, and then on the 18th of June, 1155. Meantime, a rapidly advanced towards Rome. Here dispute ensued with the Romans, who would dissension existed between the pope and yield neither to the pope nor the emperor; the people, who, in a revolutionary tumult, the force of arms, however, soon reduced and under the guidance of a bold monk, them to tranquillity. Arnold of Brescia, wished to restore the In spite of these continual contests, howancient Roman republic. Neither of the ever, with the perfidious and treacherous parties knew in whose favor the emperor Italians, Frederick returned at length to advanced. Pope Adrian IV. fled to a well- Germany. But disputes speedily arose befortified castle called Castellana, but soon tween him and the pope himself, who, conreturned to the German camp, the emperor fiding in the assistance of the Norman king, having promised him safety. Upon his William of Naples and Sicily, wrote to the arrival, Adrian (who had originally wan- emperor a letter full of reproaches, and his dered from England, his native country, legate, Cardinal Roland (afterwards Pope as a beggar boy, and had eventually raised Alexander III.) uttered even in the assemhimself to the papacy) expected that bly of the German princes, the arrogant Frederick would hold his stirrup, as his words: "From whom, then, has the empepredecessors had always done; as, how- ror the empire, if not from the pope'?" ever, he did not do it, the cardinals accom- The irritated count palatine, Otho of Witpanying the pope fled hastily back to Cas- telsbach, whose office it was to bear the natellana, for they regarded this omission as ked sword before the emperor, upon heara bad omen of the imperial sentiments. ing this raised the weapon, and was about Adrian. however, descended from his mule, to sunder the legate's head, for he considand placed himself upon the seat prepared ered the honor of the German prince deeply for him; and now Frederick cast himself wounded by this language. Frederick, before him, and kissed his feet. The pope however, withheld him from this desperate now acquired fresh courage, and charged act of indignation; but he commanded the the emperor with the omission of the ac- ambassador to return early on the following customed mark of deference; and the morning to Rome. The German bishops, latter, who sought his glory in greater in reply to the reproaches of the pope, stathings, willingly yielded in this trifling ted, that they had given themselves every affair, upon his princes assuring him that possible trouble to mediate, but that the the emperor Lothaire had shown a similar emperor had replied to them, firmly and sign of respect to Pope Innocent II. The gravely, thus: " There are two regulations, ceremony of dismounting was consequent- according to which our empire must be ly repeated on the following day, when ruled-the laws of the emperors, and the the emperor met the pope and held his good customs of our forefathers; these limits stirrup-thus it is related by the records we will not, nor can we transgress. To of Rome. German writers, on the con- our father, the pope, we will willingly pay trary-namely, Otho of Freissingen, and all the homage we owe him; but our imHelmold, inform us that the emperor, perial crown is independent, and we ascribe upon the first descending of the pope, had its possession to divine goodness only." held the stirrup, but, from oversight, had They then earnestly entreated the holy faseized the left instead of the right, and ther no longer to excite the anger of their that the pope, in consequence, had refused lord the emperor. him the kiss of peace. Upon the excuse The dispute between the emperor and 21 162 THE MILANESE SUBJECTED-THEY REVOLT AGAIN. the pope, after a short reconciliation, was, zens attacked Raynald, his chancellor, the nevertheless, resumed, and lasted until the count palatine, Otho, and the other ambas. death of Adrian, in 1159. Thenceforward, sadors, with so much fury that they could affairs became still more entangled, for scarcely save their lives. Upon being the imperial party chose Victor III., and summoned, and an explanation demanded, the opposite party Alexander III., the same they pleaded nothing but empty excuses; who, as cardinal legate, had uttered such and at the second and third summons they bold words in the imperial assembly. Each did not appear at all. Upon which the pope excommunicated the other, and sought emperor renewed the imperial edict of outto strengthen his own party by all possible lawry against Milan, and vowed, in his means. wrath, never to replace the crown upon his The emperor Frederick, as early as the head until he had destroyed the arrogant year 1158, had already prepared another city. more powerful expedition against Italy; The war recommenced with all the bitthe Milanese having in the preceding year ter exasperation of that period. The Milanreduced to ashes the city of Lodi, which ese sought even their salvation-such at had yielded allegiance to the emperor. All least was the universal charge-in the asthe princes of Germany, as well as the sassination of the powerful emperor who king of Hungary and the newly-elected thus menaced them. It is quite certain king of Bohemia, performed feudal ser- that a man of gigantic strength suddenly vice; by which means such an army was attacked the emperor while performing his collected as no emperor had previously led morning devotions in a beautiful and soliinto Italy: consisting of 100,000 infantry tary spot upon the Ada, and strove to throw and 15,000 cavalry. They broke up their him into the river. In the struggle both camp near Augsburg, at Whitsuntide, and fell to the earth, and, upon the call of the crossed the Alps. Almost all the cities of emperor, his attendants rushed forward, Northern Italy were humbled at the view and the assassin was himself cast into the of such a powerful force, and allied them- stream. Shortly after this an old misselves with the emperor; but the rebellious shapen, squinting man glided into the camp city of Milan was declared outlawed, and, with poisoned wares, the very touch of after a short siege, was obliged to submit to which was said to be mortal. The emthe irritated ruler. The Milanese appear- peror being fortunately already warned, ed now before him, in humble supplication, caused him to be seized and executed. forming a procession unusual to the Ger- His army, meanwhile, had become much mans. First came both ecclesiastics and strengthened, and with it he first besieged, laymen barefooted, and dressed in tattered in 1160, the city of Cremona, which was garments, the former holding up crosses in in alliance with Milan, and had obstinately the air; then followed the consuls and pa- refused submission; the inhabitants defendtricians with swords hanging from their ed themselves for seven months with unexnecks, and the rest with cords round their ampled obstinacy, when they were at length throats; and thus humbly they fell at the obliged to yield. The city was razed to feet of the emperor. As he therefore only the ground, and the inhabitants were obliged desired their submission, he pardoned them, to wander to other places. saying: " You must now acknowledge that It was only after a three years' siege, it is easier to conquer by obedience than and after much blood had been spilled on with arms." Upon which he caused them both sides, that Frederick overcame the to swear allegiance, and to promise that strong city of Milan. His patience was they would not interrupt the fieedom of the exhausted; the pardon he had once grantsmaller cities; and taking with him three ed having only made the rash citizens more hundred hostages, he placed the imperial arrogant, he resolved therefore, by a severe eagle upon the spire of the cathedral. punishment, to destroy their spirit of resistBut their humility was only feigned, and ance. During three days, the 1st, 3d, and the effect of necessity; lasting only so long 6th of March, the consuls and chief men of as the power of the emperor terrified them. the city, in increasing numbers, advanced For when, according to the imperial pre- to the imperial camp before Lodi, and on rogative, he wished, in the following year, the third day, the whole people with them; to appoint the civil functionaries, the citi- they divided themselves into a hundred MILAN RAZED-THE LOMBARDIAN CONFEDERATION. 163 sections, and repeated thrice before that plished within six days what hired workcity, which had been so despised and ill- men would scarcely have executed in so treated by them, the whole spectacle of many months: for, although the houses theirhumiliation; with crosses, swords, and and churches were not pulled down, as ropes hanging about the neck, and bare- later exaggerated records report, yet, the footed. More than a hundred banners of powerful walls and forts of the city were the city were, upon the third day, laid destroyed, the ditches filled up, and this down before the imperial throne, and, last- once wealthy and splendid city, after the ly, their chief banner, the CAROCIUM,* was expulsion of the moaning inhabitants, bedrawn forward. Its lofty frame or tree, came one dreadful scene of waste and deswith its iron leaves, was bowed down before olation.* The emperor then, at a splendid the emperor as a sign of the deepest humil- banquet at Pavia, in the Easter festival, reiation; the princes and bishops, seated near placed his crown upon his head. him, sprang up, in dread of being killed by But Frederick was doomed to show to the weighty mass, but Frederick remained the world, by his example, that a change unmoved, and tore the fringe of the banner of fortune must ever produce its influence down. The whole of the people then cast upon the most powerful monarchs, and that themselves to the ground, with loud wail- no force can check it but wisdom and modings, and implored mercy. The consuls eration. The punishment of the city of and grandees of the city, and even the no- Milan had been too severe, and if this may bles of the emperor's suite, all supplicated even be excused perhaps by the rudeness his pardon for the capital, but the emperor and strong passions of that period, still remained inexorable, and desired his chan- Frederick erred in not having treated that cellor, Raynald, to read the law, whereby and the other cities of the north of Italy the city surrendered itself at discretion. with mildness, and according to the laws He then said: According to that law you of justice. have all merited death, but I will grant you His deputies severely oppressed the counyour lives. As regards the fate of the city try, and although, perhaps, without his conitself, I will so order it, that in future you currence, yet he did not sufficiently attend shall be prevented from committing similar to the complaints which were made to him. crimes therein." Upon which he retired At the same time he continued the contest to Pavia, to decide upon the fate of Milan with the still increasing party of Pope Alin a large assembly of German and Italian exander, and acted wrong in not taking adbishops, lords, and deputies from the vari- vantage of the death of his own pope, Vicous other cities. tor III., to reconcile himself with the forThe sentence was, " that Milan should mer, instead of confirming the election of be levelled with the ground, and the inhab- another rival pope, Pascal III. Frederick itants remove, within eight days, to four of did not consider that his opponents, by their their villages, two miles from each other, united inspiration, the one for civil freewhere they should live under the surveil- dom, and the other for their church-party, lance of the imperial functionaries." The derived unconquerable power. The cities city of Milan in its prosperity and arro- of Lombardy allied themselves still more gance, had so deeply injured many other closely together, and even those which had cities-Cosmo, Lodi, Cremona, Pavia, Ver- previously been the enemies of the Mirelli, Novarra, and others, that they all lanese became disinclined towards the embegged, as an especial favor, that they peror; for, now that their former oppresmight themselves pull down the walls of sors were cast to the ground, they compasthe proud capital; so that, by the impulse sionated them. But the most dangerous of their hatred and revenge, they accom- enemy of the emperor was the bold and sagacious Pope Alexander, who had succeeded, after a two years~ exile in France, in U* pon a car strengthened with iron, a massive iron ed, after a two years exile in rance, in tree with iron leaves was fixed; a large cross adorned the top of the tree, in front of which was represented the holy Ambrosius, Milan's tutelary saint. The color " During this devastation of Milan, many relics were of the car was red and the eight oxen which drew it removed from the deserted churches. Among the rest, were also covered with red drapery. Before it was the archbishop Raynald conveyed the bones of the drawn away, high mass was celebrated on the car; three kings with great solemnity across the Alps to the the whole being an it litation of the ark of the Israel- city of Cologne, and the king of Bohemia carried with ites. him the candlesticks of the temple of Jerusalem. 164 THE IMPERIAL ARMY-MILAN RESTORED. gaining over the Romans to his side; and heads. They had already, in that very had now returned to his metropolis. Conse- year, 1167, and almost under the very eyes quently, Frederick, after he had collected of the emperor, while he lay before Rome, a new army, and nad settled the most ur- concluded a formal alliance with each gent affairs in Northern Italy, marched, in other; they even ventured to reconduct 1167, to Rome. The Romans were speed- the Milanese back to their ancient city. ily beaten out of the field, and the city it- The ditches, walls, and towers were speediself besieged. It was especially around ly restored, and every one labored to rethe churches that the severest conflict took construct his habitation. For the capital place, for they were defended like fortress- had been so large and strong that, in its es; and it was in the heat of combat that destruction, portions of the walls, most of the Germans, having cast torches into the the houses, and almost all the churches church of St. Mary, situated close to St. had remained standing. Thus, as Athens Peter's, the flames reached the latter edi- once, after its destruction by the Persians, fice, which, in the general confusion, was so, also, Milan now raised itself by the aid taken possession of by the Swabian duke, of the other cities, more extensive and Frederick. Pope Alexander, seeing that powerful than before. After this was the Romans commenced murmuring at his done, the Lombard confederation built a obstinacy, fled secretly from the city, in the new city, as an impregnable fortress against dress of a pilgrim. He was seen on the the emperor, in a beautiful and fertile spot third day near a fountain, not far from Cir- surrounded by three rivers and deep cello, whence he escaped to Benevento. marshes, and called it, in defiance of the Frederick, however, together with his emperor, and in honor of their pope, Alexconsort, was crowned by his pope, Pascal, andria. In the space of a year this city on the first of August, 1167, in the metro- became inhabited, and garrisoned by politan church of Christendom. But, im- 15,000 warriors. The most powerful cities mediately afterwards, an epidemic disease participated in the Lombard confederation: broke out among the Germans, of so ter- Venice, Milan, Verona, Vicenza, Padua, rific a nature that a great portion of the Ferrara, Brescia, Cremona, Placenza, Pararmy and a multitude of the nobles and ma, Modena, Bologna, &c. chief men were carried off. It was on a Frederick, meanwhile, was not inactive Wednesday, in August, that it first appear- in Germany; he remained there stationa. ed; the heat had long been excessive and ry nearly seven years; established more overpowering; on the morning of that day firmly the imperial dignity with all the the sun was bright, after which rain sud- strength of his high mind; regulated and denly fell, and a glowing heat succeeded; adjusted internal disturbances, and, in par. whence the vapor raised caused the sick- ticular, the great dispute in the north of ness. Men died so suddenly, that often Germany between Henry the Lion and his those who were perfectly well in the morn- adversaries-upon which subject we shall ing fell dead on the same day while walk- enlarge as we proceed-and at the same ing in the street, and many, while even time augmented the power of his house by burying the dead, fell suddenly with them various just and legitimate acquisitions for into the grave. The Archbishop Raynald, his five sons, still very young. Henry, the of Cologne, the emperor's able chancellor, eldest, although only 15 years of age, was four bishops, and eight dukes, and among elected king of the Romans; Frederick these the emperor's cousin, Frederick of received the duchy of Swabia and the lands Rothenberg, and Guelf, the younger; be- of Guelf, the elder, who had bequeathed sides many thousands of noble counts and them, after the death of his only son, to lords who were numbered among the dead. the emperor, an example followed by many The people everywhere exclaimed, "that other counts and nobles in Swabia. Conthis was a judgment of God for burning rad, the third son, inherited the lands of the St. Peter's Church!" The emperor was Duke of Rothenberg, who died childless. obliged to retire to Pavia, and, in the fol- To the fourth son, Otho, Frederick gave lowing spring, he was forced, with only a the vice-regency of Burgundy and Arles; few companions, to leave Italy like a fugi- and to the youngest, Philip, who still lay in tive, secretly and disguised. the cradle, he presented several confiscaThe cities, however, now raised their ted crown possessions and clerical feods. ALEXANDRIA-BESIEGED BY FREDERICK-THE BATTLE OF LIGNANO. 165 Thus the race of the Hohenstaufens stood Lombards, taking advantage of this favor. firmly rooted like a vigorous and richly- able moment, advanced, under the protec. branched tree of majestic oak. tion of the grand and sacred banner of St. But now Frederick again directed his Ambrose, against the emperor, and fought attention to that still revolutionary coun- the decisive battle of Lignano, on the 29th try, Italy. The German princes were of May, 1176. Their force was far sunow, it is true, less easily induced to pro- perior in numbers, and occupied a favorceed to that intractable, unhealthy climate, able position; while on one side they were but, by his persuasive eloquence and un- flanked by a ditch which made all flight wearied activity, he at length succeeded impossible. When they saw that the emin again collecting an army, and appeared, peror had accepted their challenge, and in the autumn of 1174, for the fifth time, now advanced against them, they immein that land. He besieged the new city of diately formed their line of battle. The Alexandria, which had been built and for- Carocium of the Milanese was placed in tified in order to icheck his course; and he their centre, surrounded by 300 youths was forced to remain seven months before who had sworn to defend it in life unto it, during which his army suffered greatly death, besides a body of 900 picked cavin the winter from sickness and fatigue, in alry, styled the phalanx of death, who had, their camp, pitched upon marshy ground. singly and collectively, likewise taken the Meanwhile the Lombard cities had collect- oath of immolation. The battle commenced, ed an army to relieve the besieged, and and one of the Lombard wings beginning which advanced at Easter, in 1175, fully very soon to waver, the order of the Milan. prepared and equipped. The emperor re- ese ranks became confused. The emperor solved upon making a last attack against pressed directly upon the centre, to gain the the place, and caused it to be stormed on Carocium, and, as now its band of defendthe Thursday before Easter. The Ger- ers likewise faltered, the courage of the mans, by means of a subterraneous pas- Germans increased, and at length they consage, succeeded in advancing into the very quered the sacred banner, and tore down all heart of the city, as far as the middle of its decorations. But at this moment the the market-place. Nevertheless the va- death-squadron recovered themselves, and liant garrison did not lose courage, and, to again returned to the charge. Mortally their great good fortune, this subterraneous wounded, the emperor's standard-bearer passage fell in. Those of their enemy, now sank at his side, and the imperial banwho had thus entered the city, were over- ner with him; but the brave Frederick, powered, and the rest who were storming equipped in his splendid suit of armor, still from without were beaten back. The em- fought on at the head of his warriors. Sudperor was therefore obliged to raise the denly, however, he was seen to fall from his siege, and to seek so hastily a different po- charger, and vanish from the view of the sition, that he was forced to set fire to his army. Terror and confusion now seized own encampment. upon all, and Frederick's troops suffered an It was then agreed, that a meeting of the entire overthrow; he himself escaped with belligerent parties should take place at a few faithful friends in the wild tumult, Pavia, in order to conclude a treaty. The and under the protection of the night. Alcardinal of Ostia, who appeared in the most all the citizens of Como, his allies, name of the pope, would not greet the em- embittered by hatred and revenge against peror on account of the excommunication, the Milanese on account of their ancient but he evinced to him his regret, while he wars, fell a sacrifice and were left dead expressed his admiration of Frederick's upon the field. For two whole days the great qualities. Both sides were, however, emperor was mourned as slain, and even but little inclined to yield in any portion his consort put on a widow's robes; when, of their demands. to the unexpected joy of all, he again apWhat tended much to increase the cour- peared in Pavia. age of the Lombards was, that precisely After this the emperor wished and proat this moment, Henry the Lion refused posed a peace; when the pope, Alexander, the emperor that assistance upon which said in reply: " That nothing was more Frederick had so much relied. The trea- desirable to him than to obtain peace from ties were, consequently, broken off, and the the greatest hero of Christendom; he en 166 POPE ALEXANDER AND FREDERICK. treated only, that the Lombards might par- in the person of its emperor, a powerful and ticipate in it, and he himself would proceed high-minded chief, the house of Guelf ento that country." The two great opponents joyed, on the other, an equal advantage in had now learned mutually to esteem each Henry the Lion, duke of Bavaria and Saxother, and Frederick having expressed a ony. For, while Frederick, in the south, wish for an interview with the pope, the conducted his great wars against the Italian latter proceeded at once to Venice. His cities, Henry increased his power in the Tourney thither resembled a triumphal pro- north by a successful war against the Vancession, for he was treated as the saviour dais. Henry resembled the friend of his of liberty, and as the father of the Italian youth, Frederick, in valor, firmness, and free states. Frederick also came there in chivalric sentiments. His outward apJuly, 1177, and, according to an ancient pearance was also distinguished, and his historian, " It pleased God so to guide his powerful figure, strengthened by every heart that he suddenly subjected the lion- corporeal exercise, displayed the bold courlike pride of his mind, and he became mild age of his mind. Yet, while Frederick, in and gentle as a lamb, so that lie cast him- his hair and complexion, bore the true imself at the feet of the pope, who awaited press of genuine German origin, Henry, on him at the entrance of the church of St. his part, presented in his whole appearance Mark, and kissed them; and the pope, with the evidence of his connection with the tears, raised him from the ground, and gave southern race of the Guelfs; his comhim the kiss of peace, at which the Ger- plexion being darker, his hair and beard mans exclaimed:'Lord God, we praise black, and his eyes the same color. His thee!' The emperor then took the pope name soon became terrible in the northern by the hand and led him into the church, districts. He conquered a great portion of where he bestowed upon him his benedic- Holstein and Mecklenburg, as far as Pomtion. On the following day, however, at erania, and populated the country, as Althe express desire of the emperor, the pope bert the Bear had done previously in the 3elebrated high mass, and Frederick, after marches, with peasants from Brabant, Flanhe had himself, like an inferior of the ders, and Germany. He founded bishopchurch, humbly cleared the way for the rics and schools; distributed throughout pope through the crowd, took his place these countries criminal courts and judges; amid the train of the German archbishops transformed forests and marshes into fruitand bishops, and devoutly assisted in the ful fields; and, while he increased his own holy ceremony." power, he became the promoter of civiliza. Thus, in those days, did mild, religious tion in the north of Germany. Lubeck, feelings moderate the severe and stern dis- founded in 1140, and made the see of a position of the emperor, without at all af- bishop, soon developed itself and flourished fecting the majesty of his presence, for his nobly; and Hamburg, previously destroyed humility was voluntary, and thence ac- by the Vandals, was again restored. Thus quired for him general esteem; while at his extensive possessions extended from the the same time his conduct was sincere, and shores of the Baltic and the North Sea, as consequently his reconciliation with the far as the Danube in the southern mounpope was complete and lasting. But with tains, and were more considerable than the the Lombards, as all the articles of the absolute dominions of the emperor; while, treaty could not be immediately settled, a finally, he founded, in 1157, Munich, in truce of six years was concluded. All Bavaria. rights and customs were to be investigated; The object of Henry was to unite his the demands of both sides equally weighed; two duchies under one entire political govand the relations of the Italian cities with ermnent, and thus to restrict throughout his the emperor and empire arranged afresh: territories, as much as possible, the rights all which demanded time. of the nobles, both temporal and spiritual. In 1178 the emperor proceeded to Aries, At the same time, in so doing he laid himwhere he was crowned king of Burgundy, self open to the reproach of injustice; as, and thence returned to Germany, where for instance, in the case of Count Adolanother important affair awaited his pres- phus II., of Holstein. This nobleman had ence. While on the one hand the house labored greatly to advance the prosperity of Hohenstaufen possessed at this period, of his country, and having, among the rest, HENRY THE LION OF BRUNSWICK-HIS RISE AND FALL. 167 established some valuable salt works at many necessary affairs required his presOldesloe, Henry now destroyed them by ence in his own country. Frederick hoped, causing fresh water from the neighboring however, in an interview.with him, to persprings to flow into them, because his own suade him to change his mind, and invited salt works at Liineburg were, as he him to the frontiers of Italy; the duke thought, injured by the existence of those came, and the two rulers met at Chiavenna, of Count Adolphus. on the Lake of Como. The emperor reThe jealousy of the neighboring German minded his friend of their alliance, their princes having now become excited against close relationship, of his- honor, and feudal him, he, as a warning to them, caused a duty as a prince; but Henry remained in. large lion, cast in bronze, to be placed be- flexible. The emperor then arose in great fore his castle in Brunswick. They un- agitation, embraced the duke's knees, and derstood what by this sign he meant to indi- entreated him still more earnestly-so imcate, but although they trembled individu- portant was his assistance to him at this ally, they nevertheless tried once more to moment. Henry was moved, and endeavput a stop to his rapid progress by a great ored to raise the emperor, but did not alliance, in which were included: the waver in his determination. The empress archbishops of Cologne, Bremen, and Mag- then joined them, and said to her husband: deburg; the bishops of Hildesheim and " Pray rise, my dear friend, God will help Libeck, the landgrave of Thuringia, and you if, on some future day, you do but the margrave of Brandenburg, with several punish this arrogance!" The emperor counts and knights. But Henry, sudden arose, but the duke retired; and it was to as the royal animal whose title he had his absence that Frederick might chiefly chosen, broke loose, reconquered Bremen, impute his subsequent bad success at Ligdevastated Thuringia and the archbishopric nano. He could not forget this event, and of Magdeburg with fire and sword, drove upon his return to Germany, after the peace away Conrad, bishop of Lubeck, and thus of Venice, in 1178, and fresh complaints overcame and crushed his enemies com- resounded from all sides against the duke, pletely. Such was the state of affairs in he cited him to appear at a diet at Worms. Germany when the emperor Frederick re- Henry did not however attend. He was turned from Italy, in 1168; his presence, summoned a second time to Magdeburg; however, restored tranquillity once more, even there he did not appear; and, as he and both parties were obliged to surrender equally neglected a third and a fourth to each other their conquests. summons, at Geslar and Wurzburg, the emThe noble Guelf, to whom repose was peror sat in judgment upon him, in the year hateful, made now, in 1172, a pilgrimage 1180, and the princes confirmed his deto the Holy Land, but, upon his return, posal from all his dignities and fiefs, as his disputes were renewed, and he this time punishment. Frederick then declared him drew upon himself, in the person of the outlawed, and divided his fiefs among other emperor, a far more powerful opponent. princes. The duchy of Saxony, to which The latter, who had been hitherto his con- he left but the shadow of preceding greatstant friend, and, in a series of years, had ness-for he had himself already felt the shown him nothing but kindness, considered danger resulting from too extensive duchies he might with justice calculate especially -he awarded to the second son of Albert upon him when, after raising the siege of the Bear, Bernard of Anhalt. The duchy Alexandria, in the year 1175, he collected in the western districts, as far as the dioall his forces together, in order to come to ceses of Cologne and Paderborn, compria decisive and final engagement with the sing Limburg, Arnsberg, Westphalia, PaderLombards. But it was just in that critical born, and a portion of Ravensberg, he moment that Henry, to whom these distant gave to the archbishop of Cologne, who, expeditions were highly objectionable, and however, only succeeded in holding posseswho preferred remaining at home with his sion of a portion of these countries. The army, for the purpose of increasing his bishops of Magdeburg, Hildesheirn, Paderown power, refused his assistance. He born, Bremen, Verden, and Minden, took pleaded his age, although he was only advantage of this opportunity to make themforty-six years old, and thus younger than selves not only independent of the duchy, the emperor himself; pretending that too but also to increase their possessions. The 168 HENRY EXILED TO ENGLAND-LOMBARDY. duchy of Bavaria, which was somewhat de- fled disposition, and the peace of Kosnitz creased, was given to the valiant count pala- was accordingly signed with them, which tine, Otho of Wittelsbach, the faithful comn- henceforward stood as fundamental law panion of the emperor. The cities of Lii- between the emperor and Upper Italy. The beck and Ratisbon became free imperial emperor himself obtained great privileges: cities, and in Pomerania, which was now he had the right to appoint his own counts, united with the empire, Frederick created as the burgomasters chosen bv the citizens, the brothers, Casimir and Bogislaus, dukes. and to renew their dignity every five years; After the emperor had passed judgment he exercised the supreme judicial power, upon Henry, his enemies forthwith took up while he derived, besides, several imposts, arms, to possess themselves of their portion particularly the subsidies for his army in of the booty; but the old Lion still de- the Italian campaigns; and all the citizens, fended himself valiantly. They could ac- from the age of 15 to 70, swore allegiance complish nothing against him, and were re- to him. Under these conditions the citipeatedly beaten, until Frederick himself zens, on their part, received the right of advanced with an army. Their reverence municipal freedom within their walls; for the imperial name, and their natural were permitted to live according to their repugnance to be allied with an outlaw, own manners and customs, and were even disarmed the duke's friends: he was obliged privileged to make such new regulations to quit his patrimonial estates, and was as they deemed just; and the confederation forced to see Brunswick, his capital, in- of their cities, already existing, was now vested, one of his chief castles, Bardewick, confirmed. taken; and finally, when the powerful Thus Frederick was enabled, now and city of Liibeck yielded to the emperor, he for the last time, (in 1184,) to proceed to found himself left completely without any Italy in a state of peace, and, as he adprotection, even behind the Elbe. Driven, vanced, he was rendered more and more at last, to extremities, he cast himself at happy in witnessing the tranquillity and the feet of the emperor, at the diet of contentment that reigned throughout the Erfurt, held in the year 1181. The hu- land, while all around him was in a fever miliation of his old friend and companion of joy and delight. The Lombards receivin arms, whose proud soul was now bro- ed him as if no enmity had ever existed ken, drew even tears of sympathy fiom the between them. He caused the iron crown mighty Frederick, and he pardoned him. of the Lombards to be placed on the head He counselled him, however, in order that, of his son Henry, and gave him away in with time, the hatred of his enemies might marriage, with great pomp and festivity, at become moderated, to absent himself for Milan, in 1186, (which city had especially three years from Germany, and to remain, begged from the emperor that honor,) to during that interval, with his father-in-law, Constanza, the last'heiress of Naples and Henry II., king of England; meanwhile Sicily of the royal Norman race, and his hereditary lands, Brunswick and Lune- which allegiance gave the house of Hohenburg, remained in his possession. Thus it staufen new and high expectations; for, was that, as it were by a singular reverse being already in possession of Northern of fate, the duke dwelt as an exile for some Italy, if it acquired in addition, Lower time in the country where his descendants Italy, the whole peninsula would necessawere subsequently to ascend a brilliant rily soon become subject to its dominion, throne; for it was there that his consort, and its subjection would accordingly lead Matilda, gave birth to the same William to that of the whole of Germany. Such who was afterwards the chief branch of were the projects formed by the old yet the house of Hanover, which has placed youthfully-sanguine emperor, who was far the British kings upon the throne. from anticipating that by this last, and apThis great example of imperial superi- parently splendid achievement of his gloriority in Germany may possibly have work- ous career, the seeds were sown for the fall ed upon the minds of the Italians; and as, and ruin of his house. in the following year, 1183, the truce of It appeared now as if fate, after having six years with the Lombards ceased, and subjected the emperor to all its storms, had the emperor, besides, showed himself a determined to prepare for him, in his venmerciful ruler, they evinced a more satis- erable age, the glory of a noble death in a FREDERICK'S GRAND CRUSADE-HIS SUCCESSES-HIS DEATH. 169 sacred cause; for, at this moment, intelli- ready dead. The grief and lamentations gence arrived suddenly in Europe that of his son, of the princes, and of the whole Jerusalem, after the unfortunate battle of army were indescribable. Fate nevertheHittin, or Tiberiad, in 1187, was again less had by this means saved him from extorn from the Christians by Saladin, the periencing, subsequently, bitter pain and sultan of Egypt. Pope Urban III. died of mortification, and his noble soul was not grief at this news, and his successors, doomed to suffer by the unfortunate terGregory VIII. and Clement III., addressed mination of so great an enterprise. For urgent letters to the European princes, the German army, after his death, was summoning them to rise and march forth- almost entirely destroyed by sickness with to the deliverance of the Holy City; before the city of Antioch; and the consequently, all the knights-templars and emperor's second son Frederick, duke of the knights of St. John, dispersed through- Swabia, died at the siege of Acre, or Ptoleout Europe, were the first to embark; the rnais, and Jerusalem was never reconItalians assembled together under the arch- quered.* bisnops of Ravenna and Pisa; the Nor- The grief which the emperor Fredermans furnished all their forces; a fleet of ick's death excited throughout the west of fifty vessels fiom Denmark and Friesland, Europe, is testified by a French writer of and thirty-seven from Flanders, set sail, that period, who, according to his peculiar headed by their great leaders: Richard style, thus speaks of it: "News so deadly Cceur-de-Lion, king of England, Philip Au- piercing, even to the very marrow and bone, gustus, of France, and the emperor Frede- has wounded me so mortally, that all hope rick Barbarossa, together with all the and desire of life have passed from me. neighboring kings and princes, came like- For I have heard that that immoveable pilwise forward with their whole power for lar of the empire, Germany's tower of the sacred cause. Our venerable hero, strength and its very foundation, and that Frederick Barbarossa, advanced, in the morning star which surpassed all other stars May of the year 1189, at the head of in splendor, Frederick the mighty, has end150,000 well-armed combatants. The ed his life in the east. Thus no longer exGreeks, who seemed disposed to practise ists that strong lion, whose majestic countesimilar treachery towards him as they had nance and powerful arm frightened savage against Conrad III., he punished severely, animals from devastation, subjected rebels, and dismantled their cities. The Sultan and made robbers live in peace and order." Kilidish Arslan, of Cogni, or Iconium, in And the degree to which the imperial digniAsia Minor, who had offered him his friend- ty in general was raised by him, is expressship, and afterwards betrayed him, he at- ed in the words of his chancellor, Raynald, tacked and put to flight, taking possession at a diet at Besangon, where he said, " Gerof his metropolis. Thus, in all these bat- many possesses an emperor, but the rest of ties, Frederick, even as an old man, dis- Europe-only petty kings." tinguished himself beyond all the rest by his heroic vigor and magnanimity, and he succeeded in leading his army through This siege is one of the most remarkable and sand in l ing is a uinary on record. Both the kings of England and every danger as far as the frontiers of France were present, and took their share in the danSyia, but here ended the term of his noble gers. The city was eventually taken, after a long and Syria, but here ended the term of his noble vigorous resistance; but the sword and disease had course. When, on the 10th of June, 1190, combined to reduce the army of the Crusaders to such the army resumed its malrch from Sileucia, a degree, that it was in vain to contemplate any fresh the army resumed its march from Sileucia, enterprise. Several archbishops and patriarchs, twelve and traversed the river Cydnus, or Seleph, bishops, forty dukes and counts, five hundred ot the principal nobility, to-ether with a great number of the bold and venturesome old warrior, to kights and an innumerable host of inferior officers whom the passage over the bridge was much and soldiers, became a sacrifice. Philip Augustus returned speedily to France; but Richard of England retoo slow, dashed at once with his war-horse mained, and continuing on the war with the greatest into the river, in order thus to overtake activity, acquired the reputation of being the most valiant knight of his time; while Saladin likewise proved more speedily his son Frederick, who led himself a brave and shrewd adversary. Richard, howthe van. But the rapid course of the ever. was recalled to Europe, through the dangers, which threatened his own kingdom. He concluded a stream overpowered and bore him away, peace with the sultan, and gave up tohim Jerusalem; and when, at length, assistance could be and thus nothing more remained in the hands of the X.,'. i & /* i i Christians than a narrow strip of land along the coast rendered him, the veteran was found al- from Jaffa to Acre. 22 170 HENRY VI.-RICHARD CCEUR-DE-LION-NAPLES AND SICILY. who had previously returned, and by whom CHAPTER X. he was surrendered to the emperor Henry. FROM 1190 TO THE INTERREGNUM, 1273. The noble chivalric king of England, and brother-in-law of Henry the Lion, was now Henry VI., 1190-1197-His Mercenary and Cruel Char- detained at Trifels, in close confinement, acter-Richard I. of England-Is seized and impris- above a year, until he was formally brought oned by Henry —Naples and Sicily —The Grandees — Their Barbarous Treatment by the Emperor-His before the assembly of German princes at Death, 1197-The Rival Sovereigns —Philip of Swa- Hagenau as a criminal and had defended bia, 1197-1208 and Otho IV., 1197-1215-Their Death Hagau, as a criminal, and had defended -Frederick Ii., 1215-1250-His Noble Qualities- himself; nor was he liberated and allowed Love for the Arts and Sciences-His Sarcastic Poet- to return to his kingdom until the English ry-Preference for Italy-Disputes with the PopesIs Excommunicated-His Crusade to the Holy Land had paid a ransom of a million of dollars-Crowned King of Jerusalem-Marries a Princess of for that period an immense sum. In thus England-Italy-Pope Gregory IX.-Frederick Denounced and Deposed-Dissensions in Germany- proceeding against Richard, Henry had, The Rival Kings-Death of Frederick II., 1250 —His w Extraordinary Genius and Talents-His Zeal for Sci- it is true, acted in conformity with the anence and Education-A Glance at the East and cient right of the imperial dignity, accordNortheastern Parts of Germany-Proress in Civili- g to which the emperor was autorized to zation-Williarn of Holland, 1247-1256-Conrad IV., ing to which the emperor was authorized to 12.50-1254-Their Deaths-The Interregnum, 1256- cite before him all the kings of Christen1273-Progress of the Germanic Constitution. judgment over them. But dom, and sit in judgment over them. But FREDERICK'S eldest son Henry, who, dur- the manner in which he acted in this case ing his father's life, was named his succes- was degrading, and unworthy of any ruling sor, and in whose absence he had been in- power. vested with the government of the empire, The emperor concluded with Henry the was not dissimilar to his father in the pow- Lion, who after his return from England er of his mind, in chivalric bearing, and in had produced fresh wars, a permanent grand ideas and plans, but his disposition treaty of peace, and by the marriage which was extremely partial and severe, often took place between the duke's son, Henry cruel, and in order to execute great ambi- the Slender, and Agnes, princess palatine, tious projects he betrayed feelings of a very and niece of Frederick I., the reconciliamercenary nature. This was displayed in tion of these two distinguished houses was an occurrence which has not done him confirmed. much honor. King Richard Cceur-de-Lion, The principal aim now of the emperor of England, when in Palestine, had, at the Henry, beyond every thing else, was to siege of Akkon, or Acre, (of which we have secure to his house Naples and Sicily, the already spoken,) a dispute with Duke Leo- inheritance of his consort Constanza; but pold of Austria; inasmuch as the Germans, the avarice and cruelty with which he after the city was taken, being encamped acted in his endeavors to gain his object, in one of its quarters, Duke Leopold caused soon indisposed and rendered the feelings the German banner to be raised according- of his new subjects more and more adverse ly upon a tower, similar to the kings of towards him, and increased their hatred England andFrance. But the proud Rich- against the Germans. For he not only ard of England caused it to be torn down, conveyed away the gold and silver, togethand it was trampled in the mud by the er with all the costly ornaments of the anEnglish. This was an affront to the whole cient Norman kings, to such an extent that German army, and certainly deserved im- one hundred and sixty animals were loadmediate and severe punishment. But the ed therewith, and proceeded with them to revenge which the duke and the emperor the castle of Trifels on the Rhine, but he Henry took afterwards upon the king was caused the eyes of the grandees who had of the most treacherous and ignoble charac- rebelled to be put out, and as an insult to ter. Richard, namely, upon his return their misfortunes, and in mockery of their fromn Palestine in 1192, was cast by a storm efforts to get possession of the throne and upon the Italian coast, near Aquileja, and wear the crown, he placed them upon seats wished to continue his route through Ger- of red-hot iron, and fastened upon their many; but, although he had disguised him- heads crowns formed equally of burning self as a pilgrim, he was recognised in Vien- iron. The rest of their accomplices were, na by his expensive style of living, and by it is true, so much terrified thereby, that the imprudence of his servant. He was they vowed allegiance; but this submisseized and delivered up to Duke Leopold, sion did not come from their hearts, and 1)EATII OF HENRY VI.-THE RIVAL EMPERORS-THEIR DEATHS. 171 Henry's successors paid severely for his tected him with all his power, and when cruelties. Philip in 1208 was assassinated at BarnHe meditated the most important plans, berg by Otho of Wittelsbach, (a nephew which, had they been accomplished, would of him to whom Frederick I. had given the have given to the whole empire a complete- duchy of Bavaria,) in revenge because he ly different form. Among the rest, he of- would not give him his daughter in marfered to the German princes to render their riage as he had promised, Otho IV. was fiefs hereditary, promised to renounce all universally acknowledged as emperor, and imperial claims to the property left by solemnly crowned at Rome. His friendbishops and the rest of the clergy; in re- ship with the pope, however, did not last turn for which, however, he desired the long, for Otho saw that he had gone too imperial throne to be made likewise hered- far in his submission, and ought not to sacitary in his family. He even promised to rifice for his private interest all the priviunite Naples and Sicily wholly with the leges of the empire. The pontiff, thereempire. Many princes voluntarily agreed fore, opposed to him as king, the youthful to these propositions, which appeared ad- Frederick, the son of Henry VI., who had vantageous to them; some of the greater meanwhile grown up in Sicily, and whose ones, however, refused, and as the pope guardian he became after the death of his likewise withheld his consent, Henry was mother Constanza. Frederick soon gainobliged to defer the execution of his great ed adherents, and was crowned at Aix-laprojects to a more convenient time. Af- Chapelle in 1215, and Otho lived hencefairs now called him again to Sicily, and forward deserted and inactive on his patrithere he died suddenly in 1197, in the 33d monial lands until he died in 1218. year of his age, and at the moment when The emperor Frederick II., the grandhe contemplated the conquest of the Greek son of Frederick I., by his heroism, firmempire, by which to prepare and secure a ness of will, and boldness of spirit, and successful issue to the crusades.* combining with this majesty of character His son Frederick was but just eight both mildness and grace, was worthy of his years old, and the two parties in Germany, noble family, so that the impression of his the Hohenstaufens and the Guelfs, became personal greatness remained long after his again so strongly divided, that the one side demise. In addition to which, he was a chose as emperor Philip, Henry's brother, friend of art and science, and was himself and the other Otho, the second son of Henry a poet: sentiment, animation, and euphony the Lion, a prince distinguished for his breathing in all hig works. His bold and strength and valor, and thus Germany had searching glance dwelt especially upon again two sovereigns at once. the follies of his age, and he frequently Through this unfortunate division of lashed them with bitter ridicule, while, on parties the empire became for the space of the contrary, he saw in every one, whence more than ten years the scene of devasta- or of whatsoever faith he might be, meretion, robbery, and murder, and both prin- ly the man, and honored him as such if he ces, who were equally endowed with good found him so worthy. qualities, could do nothing for the country; And yet this emperor executed but little on the contrary, in the endeavors mad6 by that was great; his best powers were coneach to gain over the pope to himself, they sumed in the renewed contest between the yielded to the subtle Innocent III., under imperial and papal authority, which never whom the papacy attained its highest grade had more ruinous consequences than under of power, many of their privileges. Otho his reign, and Germany in particular found IV. even acknowledged the pope's claim of but little reason to rejoice in its sovereign, authority to bestow the empire as he might for his views, even beyond all the other appoint, and called himself in his letters to Hohenstaufens, were directed to Italy. By the pope a Roman king by the grace of birth and education more an Italian than a God and the pope. For which concession, German, he was particularly attached to and because he was a Guelf, Innocent pro- his beautiful inheritance of the Two Sicilies, and in Germany, thus neglected, the # Henry's tomb, at Palermo, was opened after near- irresponsible dominion of the vassals took ly 600 years, and the body found well preserved. In still deeper root, while, on the ther hand, the features of the face, the expression of imperious still deeper root, while, on the other hand, pride and despotic cruelty was stil to be recognised. in France the royal power, by withdraw 172 DISPUTE WITH THE POPES-PALESTINE-FREDERICK'S MARRIAGE. ing considerable fiefs, commenced pre- even caused his troops to make an incmparing its victory over the feudal system. sion into Frederick's Italian lands, and There were also three grand causes conquered a portion of Apulia. which served to excite the popes against But Frederick, in the mean time, speedFrederick. In the first place, they could ily brought the war in Palestine to a sucnot endure that, besides Northern Italy, he cessful termination. The sultan of Egypt, should possess Sicily and Naples, and was at Kareel, partly through the great fame thus enabled to press upon their state from which the imperial sovereignty enjoyed in two sides; secondly, they were indignant the east, and partly from personal esteem because he would not yield to them, un- for Frederick, (but weakened principally conditionally, the great privileges which by family dissensions,) concluded with him the weak Otho IV. had ceded to them; but, a truce for ten years, and gave up Jerusathirdly, what most excited their anger was, lem, Bethlehem, and Nazareth. The emthat, in the heat of their dispute, he fre- peror then entered the holy city, and visited quently turned the sharpness of his sar- the grave, but the patriarchs of Jerusalem casm against them, and endeavored to make and the priests, obedient to the commands them both ridiculous and contemptible. of the pope, would celebrate no religious The commencement of the schism, how- service in his presence. Notwithstanding ever, arose from a particular circumstance. which, he performed his devotions, and in Frederick, at his coronation, in Aix-la-Cha- the presence of his nobles, crowned him. pelle, had spontaneously engaged to under- self with the crown of the kings of Jerutake a crusade for the deliverance of Jeru- salem; a right he had acquired by his salem, and this promise he renewed when marriage with Iolontha, the daughter of he was crowned emperor at Rome, in 1220. King John of Jerusalem;* after which he But he now found in his Italian inheritance, returned quickly to Italy. His presence as well as in the opposition shown by the speedily repaired all that was lost, and the Lombard cities, which, after the death of pope saw himself obliged, in 1230, to con. Frederick I., had again become arrogant, elude a peace and remove the ban. so much to do, that he was continually A tranquil moment seemed now to preobliged to require from the pope renewed sent itself in Frederick's life, but fate delays. The peaceful and just Honorius attacked him from another side. His own III. granted them to him; and there existed son Henry, whom he had left in Germany, between him and the emperor a friendly as imperial viceroy, rebelled against him, feeling, and even a mutual feeling of re- excited, probably, by ambition and evil spect. But with the passionate Gregory counsellors. After fifteen years absence, IX., the old dispute between the spiritual Frederick returned to Germany, and with and temporal power soon again broke forth, a bleeding heart he was obliged to overand Gregory strongly urged the crusade. power his own son by force, take him In the year 1227, Frederick actually sailed prisoner, and place him in confinement in with a fleet, but returned after a few days, Apulia, where, seven years afterwards, he under the pretext of illness, and the whole died. expedition ending in nothing, Gregory be- Upon this occasion Frederick also held, came irritated, and without listening to or in 1235, a grand diet at Mentz, where admitting even the emperor's excuses, ex- 64 princes, and about 12,000 nobles and communicated him, for he maintained his knights were present. Here written laws sickness was a fiction. To contradict these were made relative to the peace of the charges by facts, the emperor actually country, and other regulations adopted, went the ensuing year to Palestine. But which showed the empire the prudence of' upon this the pope censured him, even its emperor. Before the diet assembled, more strongly than before, declaring any he celebrated, at Worms, his espousal with one, under excommunication, to be an unfit his second consort, the English princess, instrument for the service of God. And Isabella. The imperial bride was received in order that Frederick might accomplish upon the frontiers by a splendid suite of nothing great in the Holy Land, he sent nobles and knights; in all the cities through thither commands, that neither the clergy there, nor the orders of knighthood, should The kings of Naples and Sicily inherited the title have community with him; nay, he himself of king of Jerusalem from Frederick LOMBARDY-FREDERICK EXCOMMUNICATED. 173 which she passed, the clergy met her, ac- " Another red horse arose from the sea, companied by choirs of sacred music, and and he who sat thereon took peace from the the cheerful peals of the church-bells; and earth, so that the living should kill each in Cologne, the streets of which were su- other." perbly decorated, she was received by ten But in that age there existed one great thousand citizens on horseback, in rich authority which operated powerfully on clothing and arms. Carriages with organs, the side of the pope, and fought against in the form of ships, their wheels and hor- Frederick-this was the power of public ses concealed by purple coverings, caused opinion. The pope now cast upon the eman harmonious music to resound, and peror the heavy charge that. he was a dethroughout the whole night choirs of maid- spiser of religion and of the holy church, ens serenaded beneath the windows of and was inclined to the infidelity of the the emperor's bride. At the marriage in Saracens, (the fact that Frederick had emWorms, four kings, eleven dukes, and ployed, in the war with the Lombardians, thirty counts and margraves, were present. 10,000 Saracens, appeared to justify this Frederick made the most costly presents to charge,) and although the emperor several the English ambassador; and among the times, both verbally and in writinz, sol. rest, he sent rich gifts of curiosities from emnly declared that he was a true Christhe east to the king of England, as well tian, and as such wished to live anl die: as three leopards, the leopards being in- nay, although he was formally examined eluded in the English coat of arms. in religion by several bishops, and caused From these peaceful occupations, Fred- a testimony of his orthodoxy to be puberick was obliged to turn, in the following lished, this accusation of the pope still year, to more serious affairs in Italy, where found belief among most man. In addithe Lombard cities more especially claimed tion to which, Frederick's rash and caprihis presence, they having renewed their cious wit had too often thoughtlessly atancient alliance among themselves and tacked sacred subjects; while his life also refusing to yield to him the obedience he was not pure and blameless, but stained required as emperor. With the assistance with the excesses of sensuality. Accordof his valiant leader, the knight Ezzelin de ingly he sank more and mrr- in general Romano, he conquered several of the allied estimation, and it was this that embittered cities, and so beat the Milanese in 1237, at the latter period of his life, and at length Cortenuova, that they would willingly have entirely consumed him with v.,xatio:l. humbled themselves, if he had granted only Gregory IX., who died in 1241, nearly moderate conditions. But, unwarned by one hundred years old, was sulcce:d,:d by the example of his grandfather, he required Innocent IV., who was a still more violent them to submit at discretion: while the enemy of the emperor than even Gregrory citizens, remembering earlier times, pre- had been. As Frederick still c;ntinued ferred dying under their shields, rather, to be powerful in Italy, and threatened him they said, than by the rope, famine, or fire, even in Rome itself, the pope retir-d to and from this period commenced in reality Genoa, and from thence to Lyons, in the misfortunes of Frederick's life. Ac- Fran'ce. There he renewed, in 1:'45, in cording to the statement made by one of our a large council, the ban against the cmpewriters, " he lost the favor of many men ror, although the latter offered hinmslf in by his implacable severity." His old ene- peace and friendship, and was willing to my also, Gregory IX., rose up again against remove all points of complaint, while, in him, joined henceforth the confederation of addition to all this, his ambassador, Tadthe cities, and excommunicated him a sec- deus of Suessa, pleaded most powerfully ond time. Indeed, the enmity of both par- for his lord. Indeed, the pope went so far ties went so far, and degenerated so much as solemnly to pronounce the deposal of into personal animosity, that the pope corn- the emperor firom all his states and dlirniparing the emperor, in a letter to the other ties. When the bull of excommunication princes, " to that Apocalyptic monster was circulated in Germany, many of the rising from the sea, which was full of spiritual,rinces took advantage of the exblasphemous names, and in color checkered citement produced thereby, and elected, in like a leopard," Frederick immediately re- 1246, at Wurzburg, the landgrave, Henry plied with another passage from Scripture: Raspe, of Thuringia, as rival emperor. 174 DEATH OF FREDERICK II.-HIS GENIUS AND TALENTS. The latter, however, could gain no abso- by dashing his head against the wall. lute authority, and died the following year. Whether de Vincis was guilty, or whether As Frederick, however, still remained in appearances were alone against him which Italy, entangled in constant wars, the ec- he could not remove, is not to be decided, clesiastical princes elected another sover- owing to the insufficiency of the informaeign, Count William of Holland, a youth tion handed down to us. The emperor, twenty years of age, who, in order that he however, did not long survive this painful might become the head of the order of event; he died in 1250, in the arms of his knighthood, was forthwith solemnly pro- son Manfred, at the castle of Fiorentino or moted from his inferior rank of squire to Firenzuolo, in the fifty-sixth year of his that of a knight. The greatest confusion age. now existed in Germany, as well as in If, after contemplating the stormy phases Italy. "After the emperor Frederick was which convulsed this emperor's life, we excommunicated," says an ancient histo- turn our observation to his noble qualities, rian, "the robbers congratulated them- his acute and sensitive feeling for all that selves, and rejoiced at the opportunities for was beautiful and grand, and, above all, pillage now presented to them. The to what he did for science and enlightenploughshares were transformed into swords, ment generally in Naples, his hereditary and the scythes into lances. Every one land, we feel penetrated with profound resupplied himself with steel and flint, in gret when we find that all this, like a order to be able to produce fire and spread transitory apparition, passed away without incendiarism instantly." any lasting trace; but more especially are In Italy, the war continued uninter- we pained to witness how he neglected to ruptedly and without any decisive result, reign with affection and devotion over his especially with the Lombardian cities. German subjects. Since Charlemagne and The imperial arms were often successful, Alfred of England, no potentate had existbut the spirit of the emperor was bowed ed who loved and promoted civilization, in down, and at last his good fortune occa- its broadest sense, so much as Frederick II. sionally deserted him. In the year 1249, At his court, the same as at that of Charlehis own son, Enzius, whom he had made magne, were assembled the noblest and king of Sicily, and of all his sons the most most intellectual minds of that age; through chivalric and handsome, was taken prisoner them he caused a multitude of Greek by the Bolognese in an unsuccessful com- works, and in particular those of Aristotle, bat near Fossalta. The irritated citizens to be translated from the Arabic into Latin. refused all offers of ransom for the empe- He collected, for that period, a very conror's son, and condemned him to perpetual siderable library, partly by researches imprisonment, in which he continued for made in his own states, partly during his two-and-twenty years, and survived all the stay in Syria, and through his alliance sons and grandsons of Frederick, who per- with the Arab princes. Besides, he did ished every one by poison, the sword, and not retain these treasures jealously and the axe of the executioner. covetously for himself, but imparted them Exclusive of the bitter grief caused by to others; as, for instance, he presented his son's misfortune, the emperor, in his the works of Aristotle to the university of last years, was afflicted with additional Bologna, although that city was inimically pain and mortification at finding his long- disposed towards him, to which he added tried friend and chancellor, Petrus de Vin- the following address: "Science must go cis, to whom he had confided the most im- hand in hand with government, legislation, portant affairs of his empire, charged with and the pursuits of war, because these, the crime of attempting to take the life of otherwise subjected to the allurements of his master by poison. Matthieu of Paris, the world and to ignorance, either sink into at least, relates as certain, that the physi- indolence, or else, if unchecked, stray becian de Vincis handed to the emperor a yond all sanctioned limits. Wherefore, poisonous beverage as a medicine, but from youth upward, we have sought and which the latter, having had Lts suspicions loved science, whereby the soul of man excited, did not drink. The chancellor becomes enlightened and strengthened, and was thrown into prison, and deprived of without which his life is deprived of all his eyesight, where he committed suicide regulation and innate freedom. Now that HIS ZEAL FOR SCIENCE AND EDUCATION. 175 the noble possession of science is not di- exanination before the imperial chamber, minished by being imparted, but, on the formed of a committee of competent memcontrary, grows thereby still more fruitful, bers in the science. we accordingly will not conceal the pro- The emperor founded the University of duce of much exertion, but will only con. Naples in 1224, and he considerably imsider our own possessions as truly delight- proved and enlarged the medical school at ful when we shall have imparted so great Salerno. At both places also, through his a benefit to others. But none have a zeal, were formed the first collections of greater right to them than those great men art, which, unfortunately, in the tumults who, from the original ancient and rich of the following ages, were eventually desources, have derived new streams, and stroyed.* thereby supply the thirsty with a sweet Of Frederick II. it is related, as was and healthy refreshment. Wherefore, re- already stated of Charlemagne, that the ceive these works as a present from your eastern princes emulated each other in friend, the emperor," &c. sending him artistical works as signs of A splendid monument of his noble mind friendship. Among the rest, the sultan of and genius is presented in his code of laws Egypt presented him with an extraordinary for his hereditary kingdom of Naples and tent. The sun and moon revolved, moved Sicily, and which he caused to be corn- by invisible agents, and showed the hours posed chiefly by Peter de Vincis. Accord- of the day and night in just and exact reing to the plan of a truly great legislator, lation. he was not influenced by the idea of crea- At the court of the emperor, there were ting something entirely new, but he built often contests in science and art, and vicupon the basis of what already existed, torious wreaths bestowed, in which scenes adapted whatsoever to him appeared good Frederick shone as a poet, and invented and necessary for his main object, and so and practised many difficult measures of formed a work which gave him as ruler the verse. His chief judge, Peter de Vincis, necessary power to establish a firm foun- the composer of the code of laws, wrote dation for the welfare of his people. Un- also the first sonnet extant in Italian. fortunately, the convulsions of his later Minds, in fact, developed themselves, and reign and the following periods, never al. were in full action in the vicinity and preslowed this grand work to develop its results ence of the great emperor, and there they entirely. commanded full scope for all their powers. Frederick himself possessed a knowledge His own personal merit was so distinunusual, and acquired by few men of his guished and universally recognised, that he time. He understood Greek, Latin, Italian, was enabled to collect around him the French, German, and Arabic. Among most celebrated men of the age without the sciences, he loved chiefly natural his. feeling any jealousy towards them-alwavs tory, and proved himself a master in that a proof of true greatness. His most violent science by a work he composed upon the enemies even could not withhold from him art of hawking; for it not only displays the their admiration of his great qualities. His most perfect and thorough investigation in exterior was also both commanding and the mode of life, nourishment, diseases, and prepossessing. Like his grandfather he the whole nature of those birds, but dwells was fair, but not so tall, although well and also upon their construction generally, both strongly formed, and very skilful in all internally and externally. This desire warlike and corporeal exercises. His foreafter a fundamental knowledge in natural head, nose, and mouth bore the impression science had the happiest influence, especial- of that delicate and yet firm character ly upon the medical sciences. Physicians which we admire in the works of the were obliged to study anatomy before every thing else; they were referred to the en- On the bridge across the Vulturnus, in Capua, was thusiastic application of Hippocrates and erected a statue of the emperor Frederic4 II., with several others, and it continued there in a very good Galen, and not allowed to practise their stateof preservation until the most recent warsof modprofession until they had received from the ern times, when it became a prey to the devastation bor 1of faut a SlrorNaes a c A committed. The head of the emperor on this statue, board of faculty at Salerno or Naples, a however, has been copied and engraved upon a ring; satisfactory and honorable certificate be- and it is after that, that the excellent portrait of Fredsatisfactory and honorable Certificate; be- erick has been drawn in the History of the Hohenstausides which, they were obliged to pass an fens, by M. F. de Raumer. lN6 EAST AND NORTHEASTERN GERMANY —THE MONGOLS. Greeks, and name after them; and his try. Other neighboring countries also eye generally expressed the most serene were about this period occupied and popucheerfulness, but on important and serious lated by the Germans, consisting of the occasions it indicated gravity and severity. coasts of the Baltic, Prussia, Livonia, EsthThus, in general, the happy conjunction land, and Courland. As early as at the of mildness with seriousness was, through- end of the twelfth century, Meinhardt, a out his life, the distinguishing feature of canon of the monastery of Legeberg, built this emperor. His death produced great a church at Exkalle, (in the vicinity of the confusion in Italy, and still greater dissen- present Riga,) where, shortly afterwards, sion in Germany. In the latter country Pope Clement III. founded a bishopric, and two emperors again stood opposed to each from this central point the diffusion of Chrisother, throne against throne: the Hohen- tianity extended in that district. But temstaufen party acknowledging and uphold- poral force soon mixed itself in these spiriting Conrad, Frederick's son, in opposition ual and peaceful exertions; the resistance to William of Holland, the former having of the heathen Livonians induced Pope Cealready, during his father's life, been elect- lestin III. to cause a crusade to be preached ed king of the Romans. against them, and speedily a multitude of But before we relate the history of these men from the north of Germany stormed two rival emperors, it will be useful and in- towards these parts. A spiritual order of teresting to cast our glance at the countries knighthood was formed under the name of in the east and northeastern parts of Ger- the knights of the sword, and with the many. Christian doctrines the dominion of this orEurope was about this time threatened der was by degrees extended over Livonia, by a terrible enemy from the east, equally Esthland, and Courland. The natives who as dreadful as the Hunns were in earlier remained after the sanguinary battles of times. This enemy consisted of the Mon- this exterminating war were reduced to opgolians, who ever since the year 1206, pressive slavery, which was for the first under Dschinges-Khan, had continued to time moderated in our own age by the emravage Asia, and led by him had advanced peror Alexander. as far as Moravia and Silesia. In the year In Prussia also the sword established at 1241 they gained a great battle near Lieg- the same time with Christianity the Gernitz over the Silesians, under the command man dominion and superiority. About the of Henry II. of Liegnitz, who himself fell year 1208 a monk of the monastery of Kolchivalrously fighting at the head of his witz, in Pomerania, of the name of Christroops; but by the valor with which he dis- tian, crossed the Vistula, and preached puted the victory with the enemy, he de- Christianity to the heathen Prussians. But stroyed the desire they had previously in- when the pope made him a bishop, and dulged in of penetrating farther westward, wished to establish a formal hierarchal goas they now turned towards Hungary. yernment, they rose in contest against him, Thus, by his own death, Henry the Pious in which the knights of the sword, together saved Europe; and indeed, upon the same with Duke Henry the Bearded of Breslau, spot (Wahlstadt) where, on the 26th of Au- and many warriors of the neighboring lands, gust, 1813, the action called the battle of immediately marched forth and gave warKatzbach was so victoriously fought. like aid to the new bishop. But little was In this emergency Frederick well felt accomplished until the latter, upon the adwhat his duty was as first Christian prince, vice of Duke Henry, summoned to his asand very urgently pressed the other kings sistance the knights of the Teutonic Order, for their immediate assistance against the which had originated in an institution of common enemy; but at this moment the North Germany. Accordingly, in the year general disorder was too great, and his ap- 1229, their first grand master, Herman peal for aid remained without any effect. Salza, with not more than twenty-eight As regards Silesia and Hungary the incur- knights and one hundred squires and attension of the Mongolians produced this result, dants, advanced to Prussia; he proceeded that many German peasants migrated to in his work cautiously by establishing forthe deserted and depopulated districts, and tified places, among which Thorn, on the henceforward Lower Silesia became, in- Vistula, serving, as it were, for the entrance deed, more a German than Slavonic coun- gate of the country, was the first; and MIGRATIONS-CONRAD IV. AND WILLIAM OF HOLLAND. 177 Culm, Marienwerder, Elbing, Braunsberg, former country, who gave birth the followand others speedily followed. The do- ing year to the unfortunate Conradin. Con. minion of the Teutonic Order was spread rad, under the excommunication of the pope, even in Livonia, as the Knights of the Sword, like his father, conquered Naples, it is true, after a severe defeat by the Livonians, in but made the inhabitants his most implaca1273, were received in it; and in 1255, ble enemies, by placing a bridle upon the upon the advice of Ottocar of Bohemia, who horse, which stood as an emblem of the city had made a crusade against the Prussians, upon the market-place. He died shortly in which Rudolphus of Hapsburg joined, after, in 1254, and said a few moments bethe present metropolis of the country was fore his death: " Unhappy being that I am, founded, and in honor of him was called why did my parents bring me into this Konigsberg. The cities around, by their world only to expose me to so much misfavorable situation for commerce, soon fortune! The church, which should have flourished again, and the peasants found shown both me and my father a maternal themselves in a happier situation than their heart, has become much rather our stepLivonian neighbors, for their services and mother; and this empire which flourished imposts were rendered more moderate, and before the birth of Christ is now fading absolute slavery was only experienced by away and approaching its destruction!" a few individuals as a punishment for their And in this he prophesied too truly with defection. respect to his own race, for he was the last When we add to this the various emigra- king of the Hohenstaufens. Frederick II. tions which had commenced already much had, it is true, left behind him a second sonr earlier, populating the Vandal countries as (Henry) by his marriage with Isabella, and well as Brandenburg, Mecklenburg, and a third (Manfred) by Blanca, his Italian Pomerania, and take into consideration the consort, and two grandsons, the sons of his: many flourishing cities which were built unfortunate eldest son Henry; but they all there by German citizens, we may be in- died in the flower of their age, and aboutelined to style the twelfth and thirteenth the same time: so that at the death of Concenturies as the epoch of the migration of rad IV., there only remained of the whole Germans towards the northeast, the same family of the Hohenstaufens, his son, the as that of the fourth and fifth centuries after unfortunate Conradin, and his brother ManChrist is called the period of migration to. fred. We shall very shortly learn the fates wards the west and south. Indeed, if we of these two princes. reckon the hundreds of thousands which King William also lived but a few years Germany at the same period sent with the after Conrad, and in so little esteem, that a crusades to the east, together with those common citizen of Utrecht cast a stone at sent with the Hohenstaufen emperors to him, and a nobleman plundered his consort Italy, we must really feel astonished at the upon the highway. When in the winter population which that vast country pro- of the year 1256 he advanced against the duced, and assuredly cannot join with many Friesi, and crossed the ice near Medenblick, other historians in calling a period present- it broke under him, and he remained with ing like this so much vigor and activity his heavy war-horse sticking in the morass, of life, an epoch of absolute misery, slavi- where the Friesi killed him, although he tude, and desolation. offered a large sum for his life. Had the emperor Frederick rightly known After his death the confused state of afthe strength of Germany, and had he un- fairs in Germany became greater than ever. derstood how to avail himself of the means Upon the demise of Conrad IV. and to render it still more powerful by union, William of Holland, no German prince the whole of the east and north of Europe would accept the imperial crown, except, might then have become annexed to that perhaps, Ottocar, king of Bohemia, but who, country. But his eyes were turned exclu- however, was not liked. Most of them presively upon Italy, and there he fruitlessly ferred rather to occupy themselves in ruling sacrificed all his strength. over and extending their own hereditary Conrad, meanwhile, was likewise more lands, than to take upon themselves the occupied with his patrimonial inheritance heavy charge of restoring order and peace than with Germany. He went as early as in those countries of Germany now become 1251 to Italy, and left his consort in the almost again savage, and thus renounce 23 178 CONRADIN OF SWABIA-CHARLES OF ANJOU. their own selfish interests, in order to con- hereditary estates in Naples and Sicily. secrate all their powers to the common The popes, however, who still remained the good. The spiritual electors now con- irreconcilable enemies of the Hohenstauceived the unworthy and degrading idea fen house, sought to despoil him of these of electing a foreigner for emperor. Still possessions; and as they could not effect they were by no means unanimous in their this by their own power, it was determined choice; the one party elected an English- by Clement IV. to bring another king in man, Richard, earl of Cornwall, the brother opposition to the hated Manfred. He apof King Henry III.; the other chose a Span- plied, therefore, to Charles, duke of Anjou, lard, Alphonso, king of Castile, who, on who marched forth in 1266; he was acaccount of his knowledge in astronomy, companied by a numerous suite of French was called the Sage, but who nevertheless knights, who were ever happy to avail was not wise enough to know how to rule themselves of any expedition which promeven his own country. Both had offered ised them rich booty. King Manfred, who the imperial princes considerable sums of had unfortunately lost, in a storm, the whole money, and Richard, as some relate, came of his fleet, with which he had set sail in with thirty-two carriages to Germany, each order to prevent the French from landing, drawn by eight horses, together with an was defeated in an action at Benevento, on immense tun filled with sterlings, an Eng- the 26th of February, 1266, principally lish coin of that period. He possessed ex- through treachery, and preferred sacrifitensive tin mines in Cornwall, then almost cing himself by an heroic death, rather than the only mines in the world, whence he to endure an ignominious life in prison; he acquired immense riches. With such arms therefore rushed into the midst of the eneas these, he speedily conquered many my's ranks, and sank mortally wounded. hearts, and was solemnly crowned at Aix- His children, however, were seized by the la-Chapelle, in 1257, after which he re- conqueror, and remained in captivity durturned to England again, accompanied by ing the rest of their lives. several Germans of high rank. In Eng- When the youthful Conradin now beland, however, the home of national pride, came'older, and bethought him of the he was not treated otherwise than any other lands which belonged to him, whereof one English prince or nobleman; and this so city alone was richer than his German much vexed the Germans who were with possessions altogether, the bold disposition him, that they returned to their country of his ancestors awoke within him, and he discontented. After that, Richard visited resolved to drive the robbers from his inGermany at three different times, but on heritance. In 1268, therefore, he went each occasion only for a short space. Al- forth, accompanied by the faithful friend phonso, however, never came to that coun- of his youth, Prince Frederick of Baden, try at all. During this period, therefore, and many faithful knights who followed disorder and violence necessarily increased him from Germany. from day to day, so that the petty princes, In Italy the numerous adherents of the counts, knights, and the cities themselves, Ghibelin party immediately flocked to lived in constant anarchy and warfare with him; the Romans, in defiance of their each other, to an extent, that those who de- pope, Clement, who had called for the aid sired justice and tranquillity, wished most of the French, led him in triumph into their heartily for an emperor who might become city, and he soon stood opposed to the enetheir protection and shield. my with a strong army near Tagliacozzo Conradin of Swabia, the son of the em- in Lower Italy. In battle, also, fortune at peror Conrad IV., the last descendant of the first favored him; the enemy was put to Hohenstaufen race, fell at this moment a flight, but, unfortunately, in the pursuit victim to the most cruel fate. He was his own army got into disorder, and in styled Conradin by the Italians, because he their eagerness for booty fell too soon ended his career at so early an age. After upon the enemy's camp, for at that mohis father's death, he had been brought up ment the French reserve returned and in Bavaria; and afterwards in Swabia, rushed upon the plunderers. The latter where he still retained some small inherit- were wholly defeated, and Conradin, with ance; while his uncle Manfred, as regent, his friend Frederick, after they had long and subsequently as king, administered his fought most bravely, were forced to fly END OF THE HOHENSTAUFENS-THE GERMANIC CONSTITUTION. 179 towards the sea. They had already got as we have already seen, at the time of on board a ship at Astura, and were just the deposition of Henry the Lion, in the setting sail for Pisa, when they were over- year 1180. Although the plan and the taken, made prisoners, and led before limits of this general history of the empire Charles of Anjou. And such was the in- will not permit us to trace more in detail solence, perfidy, and cruelty of the tyrant, all those princely houses which have arisen that he treated Conradin as a rebel against from the ruins of these ancient duchies, himself the legitimate and true king, and we may give at least a general outline of caused both the princes, at the age of six- the changes as they occurred: teen, to be beheaded publicly in the mar- 1. The duchy of Saxony had already ket-place of Naples on the 28th of Octo- become separated from the important marber, 1268.* graviate of Brandenburg, which was trans. With the unfortunate Conradin ended ferred to Henry the Bear, who received the powerful house of the Hohenstaufens, therewith all the prerogatives of a duke in and that was produced by means of the time of war, together with the rights of same possessions by which Frederick I. an elector, in his quality of arch-chamberthought to elevate it to the highest degree lain. His son Bernard reunited subseof splendor and glory. But the Swabian quently, it is true, the duchy with the patrimony now fell into so many divisions, margraviate, and was created a duke; but that eventually no territory throughout his territory was of very little importance, Germany was divided into so many owner- and was, besides, divided into two portions ships as Swabia. As the duchy was never between the two families of Lauenburg restored, the whole of its states hencefor- and Wittenberg, both of which disputed ward formed a part of the immediate pos. with each other for a long time for the sessions of the empire. Not only the possession of the office of grand marshal, bishops, counts, and superior free lords, and which question was not settled until but also the inferior ranks of the nobility, the reign of Charles IV., who decided in the cities, monasteries, and even the peas- favor of the Wittenberg house. antry, which had been previously the vas- The ducal authority of the archbishop sals and subjects of the duke, became now of Cologne in the western part of Saxony emancipated; but they had not these rights likewise could not recover its former eleand privileges individually, like the larger vation. The nobles in his jurisdiction imperial lordships, but only as an entire made themselves gradually independent, combined body of the Swabian states, after the example presented to them, espe-. which they enjoyed as members thereof. cially by the spiritual princes of the anThe emperor derived from them important cient duchy. Besides which, the arch. revenues, and the administration of these bishop of Bremen came into possession of imperial possessions was transferred to the lordship of Stade, in the territory of seneschals; so that instead of the ancient Detmarsh; the peasants took upon themSwabian dukes there were only now the selves the principal authority in that coun. imperial bailiwicks-Helvetia or Switzer- try; the count of Oldenburg refused to land, Alsace, and Swabia, which were di- remain united with the duchy, and the vided into cantons. These arrangements important city of Liibeck was raised to the were adopted under the reign of the suc- dignity of an imperial free city by Fredceeding emperor, Rudolphus. erick II.; while at the celebrated diet of The fate of the duchy of Swabia leads Mentz, in 1235, the emperor having conus naturally to consider the circumstances ferred upon the Guelfic house new power which produced, especially in the interior and authority, by restoring to the infant of Germany, the dismemberment and abo- duke, Otho, the duchies of Brunswick and lition of the ancient national duchies. Lineburg, that powerful family likewise The basis for this important event waslaid, refused to recognise longer any rights claimed by the house of Saxe-Anhalt. * The unfortunate Conradin, before his execution, caimd b t h o S n transferred all his rights to Manfred's daughter Con- Thuringia had already long since sepastanza; and this princess became afterwards the aven- rated itself from the duchy, and had posger of the Hiohenstaufens. For, as the wife of Peter of Aragon, she favored the horrible conspiracy known sessed its own particular counts from the under the name of the Sicilian Vespers, in the year time that the house of Saxony became 1282, by which Charles of Aniou lost his usurped king- w s h o t dom of Sicily imperial: we speak here of the north and 180 PROGRESS OF THE GERMANIC CONSTITUTION. southern parts of Thuringia, which be- ing his independence. In 1248, however, came united under the valiant margrave, the house of Andechs became extinct, Eccard of Meissen. Under the Hohen- whence the greater portion of its possesstaufens, the margraviate was replaced by sions passed over to a house of Swabia, (the a landgraviate. The landgraves resided Hohenzoller branch,) the burgraves of at Eisenach and in the castle of Wart- Nuremberg, and laid the foundation for ihe burg. Their possessions extended, by duchies of Anspach and Baireuth. means of certain allodial acquisitions, over Meantime the house of Wittelsbach, Hesse and the towns of Manden, Cassel, besides the acquisition of the duchy of Marburg, &c., as far even as the banks Bavaria, came into possession of another of the Rhine; such was the power corn- territory extremely important-the countymanded by Louis IV., landgrave of Thu- palatine of the Rhine, which it received in ringia, the husband of Elizabeth the Holy, 1227, by the marriage of Otho the Illustriat the commencement of the thirteenth ous with the hereditary countess palatine century. With Henry Raspe, who died of the house of Guelf. But the power of childless, in 1247, the masculine branch this house became considerably diminished of the house of Thuringia became extinct. by its dismemberment, after the death of The female line contested together for the Louis the Severe, in 1292, whose eldest inheritance, and two of the descendants son, Rudolphus, received the palatinate, carried on a war against each other during and his second son, Louis, succeeded to the a period of seven years. At length, in duchy. The count palatine of the Rhine 1264, the fief of Thuringia was conferred possessed the title of arch-carver or stewupon Otho the Illustrious, of Meissen; but ard, and consequently he commanded the the allodial possessions, and especially the first voice in the electoral college of the Hessian territory, fell to Henry, the son of temporal princes. Bavaria contested with Sophia, of Brabant. The aforesaid Henry Bohemia for the office of arch cup-bearer, of Meissen was the founder of the present which Henry the Lion, or his father, who Saxon house, and Henry of Hesse that of possessed two duchies, had been forced to the house of the landgrave of Hesse. abandon, and which it subsequently lost forIn the north of Germany the counts of ever. Holstein possessed claims to immediate Those arch or grand offices fell gradually imperial lordships: Mecklenburg, which into the hands of those who possessed the belonged to the counts of Schwerin on the right of election, after the original instituone part, and to the Obotrite princes on the tion, which called together the principal other, had become an immediate fief of the heads of the people throughout the emempire, the same as the duchy of Po- pire to take part in the meetings, had bemerania. come altered. At the election of Otho I., 2. The duchy of Bavaria, when it pass- there were present five of the principal ed from the house of the Guelfs to that of nations: the Lorrainers, the Franks, the Wittelsbach, possessed nothing more than Swabians, the Bavarians, and the Saxons. the mere name of the ancient duchy. When Otho of Saxony was elected, the Carinthia, Austria, and Styria, had already dukes of the other four nations divided since the year 1156, under the Saxon em- among themselves the offices of arch-champerors, been separated from Bavaria. berlain, arch-carver or steward, arch-cupOtho of Wittelsbach governed his duchy bearer, and arch-marshal. At the subsewith much greater vigor certainly than quent election of Otho III., however, the Bernard of Saxony; but the bishops, never- distribution of the offices had already betheless, withdrew from his sovereignty; come changed. Ratisbon became an imperial city; and in At the election of Conrad II. there ap. the south of Bavaria the count of Andechs, peared seven nations, because Lorraine in his quality of heir to the house of the was then divided in two portions, and counts of Dachau, came in possession of Carinthia had likewise recently joined the the title of duke of Merau, (which this rest. But at the election of Lothaire, the house had assumed from a tract of land Saxons, the Lorrainers, and Carinthians, on the coasts of Dalmatia,) which title he no longer attended, as the former had deextended to the whole of his possessions in tached themselves from the empire, and Franconia, and made it the basis for claim- the latter remained but a short time allied PROGRESS OF THE GERMANIC CONSTITUTIOGN. 181 with the other chief nations. In earlier all the rest of the nobility, and who had times the dukes did not possess this ex- already chosen Stuttgard as their place of elusive and positive right of election. All residence. After them, the rich counts of the princes, even the populace itself, took Baden, scions of the Hohenstaufen race, part in the choice of the sovereign: but acquired from the house of Zahringen the subsequently, in proportion as the election territory of Breisgau, which was the cornm assumed a more determined form, the mencement of the reign of the house of elective right became more and more con- Baden. Another portion of the Zahringen nected with the arch-offices, and was even inheritance, in Switzerland, fell to the transferred altogether with those dignities counts of Kyburg, and after them to the to other princes. counts of Hapsburg, who owed to this cir. Thus Conrad III. indemnified the mar- cumstance their subsequent importance grave, Albert the Bear, for the loss of the Of the counts of Hohenzollern, the bur duchy of Saxony, by giving up in his favor graves of Nuremberg, we have spokel the office of arch-chamberlain, which he previously. held as a Hohenstaufen; while, on the 4. In Franconia, the duchy had already other hand, the Hohenstaufens received the become extinct when the succession of the dignity of arch-carver or steward, when Salic house terminated. It had been dithe remains of the duchy of Franconia vided equally between the ecclesiastical passed over to their house. This office and temporal nobles; for the Hohenstauwas then attached to the palatinate of the fens, who were called dukes of Franconia, Rhine; and as, in ancient times, the duke possessed nothing of the authority of the of Franconia held the first rank among the ancient dukes; enjoying merely, as they temporal princes, so now, among the latter, were the most powerful lords of Francothe count palatine commanded the first nia, and proprietors ofthe county-palatinate, voice. a small portion of the ducal influence, and We have already found that the office of which was recognised by a few of those grand cup-bearer was transferred from the counts and knights who were dependent on Guelfs to the house of Bohemia; but with them as feudatories. At the end of this respect to that of grand marshal, it always period, besides the powerful counts palaremained with the Saxons. The right of tine of the Rhine, we find in the ancient Bohemia to a voice in the elections was a land of Franconia the landgraves of Hesse, subject of long contest, inasmuch as the who possessed a portion thereof, the counts Germans would not admit the right of of Nassau, the bishop of Wiirzburg, &c. election to a Slavonic prince; and it was The general title of count palatine on this account that, at the period in ques- gradually vanished in Germany, leaving tion, the college of princes only possessed it only in the hands of the count palatine six votes: three ecclesiastical, consisting of the Rhine, while, on the other hand, of those of the archbishops of Mentz, the title of burgrave now came into use, Treves, and Cologne, who, protected by and took rank immediately after that of the influence of the pope, were thus en- the king. abled to raise themselves to the highest 5. Finally, with respect to Lorraine, it rank in the empire; and three temporal became divided into two portions: Upper votes, those of the dukes of Saxony, Bran- Lorraine falling to the counts of Alsace, denburg, and of the Palatinate. and Lower Lorraine to the counts of Lo3. In Swabia, we have seen that, at the vain. They, however, did not possess the fall of the Hohenstaufens, all their rights whole of Lorraine, and for this reason they disappeared; their rich possessions had, were likewise styled counts of Brabant. in the latter period, been wasted or given Several other counts-of Holland, Zeaaway; and Conradin, at the time of his land, Friesland, Juliers, Cleves, Guelder, expedition to Italy, made over his remain- Luxemburg, &c., ranked themselves as ing possessions to the house of Bavaria. immediate imperial feudatories. We therefore naturally inquire who then, All the princes began now to consider from that time, really ranked as the most themselves as feudatories, not only of the important and influential family in Swa- country of which they merely had the adbia? In answer to this, we find that the ministration, but likewise of their heredicounts of Wirtemberg stood at the head of tary lands, which they governed in their 182 THE GERMANIC CONSTITUTION-THE MIDDLE AGES own name. Vassalage now received an- tirely the privileges of the imperial muni. other meaning; it was no longer for their cipalities. Thus, altogether, these form. possessions, but their dignities, that the ed about a hundred temporal states; princes now held themselves bound to pay and, finally, both classes embraced more homage by the investiture; and as they than two hundred members of the empire, had already raised themselves to the spiritual and temporal. height of territorial power and sovereignty Meantime, the dominion of the empire throughout their country-although they had, in certain respects, diminished in exdid not take to themselves the title-all tent of government towards the end of the the sovereign princes in the land became interregnum, inasmuch as it no longer held feudatories. under its sway either Denmark, Hungary, We will now proceed to give a sketch or Poland; while Burgundy and Lomof the entire states existing in the empire, bardy had both withdrawn themselves from although we cannot pretend to present an the imperial rule, Prussia alone having exact detail thereof, on account of the con- joined in alliance. fusion so prevalent in some of the depen- We will now avail ourselves of this dencies. short interval, and cursorily review the Germany included, at this period, six chief features presented in the Middle archbishoprics; that of Mentz, (the most Ages, which immediately succeed this peconsiderable and extensive,) having under riod of the interregnum; for every thing its jurisdiction fourteen bishoprics, viz. that has been said, whether favorable or Worms, Spires, Strasburg, Constance, Cour, unfavorable, upon the character of this barAugsburg, Eichstadt, Wirtzburg, Olmiitz, barous and yet glorious epoch, is especially Prague, Halberstadt, Hildesheim, Pader- appropriate at the present moment. born, and Verden; that of Cologne with five bishoprics-Liege, Utrecht, Mtinster, Osnaburg, and Minden; that of Treves with three bishoprics-Mentz, Toul, and Verdun; that of Magdeburg with five bishoprics-Brandenburg, Havelberg, Naum- C H A P T ER XI. burg, Merseburg, and Meissen; that of THE MDDLE AGES. Bremen with three bishoprics-Oldenburg, (afterwarls Ltibeck,) Mecklenburg, (after- Chivalry —The Cities-The Peasantry-The Arts and.bk Mclbr (after-.-~ iSciences —TheClergy and Ecclesiastical Institutionswards Schwerin,) and Ratzburg; and, The Monasteries and Convents-The Faust-Rechtfinally, Lhat of Salzburg with five bishop- The Adinistration of Justice-The Vehm-Gericht rics —Ratisbon, Passau, Freisingen, Brixen, ribu and Gurk. Besides which are to be add- THE period of the Middle Ages has also ed: Bamberg, which stood immediately been called the period of Chivalry, and it under the pope, and Cambrai under the was knighthood indeed which chiefly gave archbishop of Rheims. Altogether, there- to it its great and peculiar lustre. By the fore, they amounted to six archbishoprics diffusion of the feudal system over the and thirty-seven bishoprics. There existed, whole of Germany, as has already been besides, seventy prelates, abbots, and ab- shown, the nobility became the influential besses, and three religious orders, thus portion of the empire, to the extent that, forming, in the whole, more than a hun- beyond the cities, few common freemen dred ecclesiastical states. were to be found. War was conducted The temporal estates were, viz.: four principally by the nobles and their vassals. electors, (if we include Bohemia,) consist- The former fought only on horseback, were ing of one king, one duke, one count pala- equipped in heavy iron armor, and were tine, and one margrave; six grand dukes- so inured to the exercise of arms from Bavaria, Austria, Carinthia, Brunswick, youth upward, that they could not only Lorraine, and Brabant-Limburg; about bear them with ease, but were enabled to thirty counts with the title of prince, use them freely and powerfully. A man among whom some had also the title of thus encased in armor and arms, on horseduke, others of margrave, landgrave, and back, was infinitely superior to the comburgrave; about sixty imperial cities, of mon warriors, who served on foot, and who whom some, however, did not enjoy en- were badly armed; and thence an army CHIVALRY. 183 was speedily counted solely by the multi- by birth what the former received by their tude of its knights. In order to maintain office. these privileges, the education of the no- The second class was composed of mebility was necessarily entirely warlike. diate freemen; firstly, of those freemen An ancient writer says-" The boys born who were originally bound by their posin Germany, in their quality as pages, sessions to do service as cavaliers, but who prefer learning to ride rather than to read; could not disengage themselves from the their horses may run and gallop as they authority of the princes, and were forced please, still they remain immoveably fixed to follow them to the wars; and secondly, in the saddle. They carry after their lords of those who were employed by the higher their long lances; and inured to cold and nobility of the empire, and who served as heat, they are not to be fatigued by any cavaliers under their orders with the title toilsome exercise. The bearing of arms of mililes minores. These mediate freemen is as easy to the Germans as carrying their very soon advanced their claims to titles of own limbs, and it is surprising, and almost nobility, especially after Conrad II. had incredible, how skilful they are in govern- been the means of raising them to higher ing their horses, using their bows and ar- importance and consideration by making roas, and wielding the lance, shield, and the lowest fiefs hereditary. Thus was sword." created by degrees a higher and lower By their exclusive attention to the im- class of nobility. provement of their corporeal strength, while But for both these grades it was strictly the intellectual occupations which in later necessary that the descent of families centuries began to be treated as the chief should be from parents of equal rank; and portion of education were then entirely in case of unequal unions, the children unknown, this generation must have sunk were forced to remain in the inferior coninto a state of complete barbarism, had not dition of the one or the other parent. the happy nature and noble capacities of The king, however, always retained the the German races, and the development right of power to elevate any subject from of the grand institutions of chivalry, pro- this lower grade to the rank of a nobleman. duced a preponderating power by their Thence the nobility formed two distinct beneficial effects. But in order to compre- classes from the moment that the art of hend the details, it is necessary we should war became wholly based upon its cavalry know more exactly the institutions of the service; and it was in this sense that the middle ages. knighthood already existed under the SaxThese various grades of condition and on and Salian emperors. But it was not rank were particularly distinguished by until the twelfth century that it formed itthe changes introduced in military service self into one especial institution, which from the time of Henry I.; for from that served as a connecting link between the period the cavalry department especially higher and lesser nobility, inasmuch as it underwent such reforms that, in the course thus brought into union by military and of a short time, it came exclusively into religious vows, and under especial discithe hands of the nobility and their own vas- pline, militaris ordo, both the Semper-freie sals, to the extent that the honor of this and Mittel-freie. The Crusades had the warlike arm of the service belonged to most important influence and shed the them alone. It was made to form two di- greatest lustre upon chivalry, for it was in visions or classes, the Semper-freien, or the sacred service of God and the Saviour available freemen, (always free,) and the that the swords of the knights obtained for Mlittel-freien, or mediate freemen. The them the greatest glory on earth. The goal former, who, in ancient times, consisted which was to be attained lay far distant merely of the nobility, and were called from home, and in other climes; the imaingenui in the codes of law, were the im- gination became more enthusiastically exmediate nobility, which, after the dismem- cited, and the descriptions given by such berment of the early duchies, retained their as had returned from those eastern counindependence of every prince, and were tries were perfectly adapted to heighten only subjected to the empire. Of this class, and render still more vivid the glowing the high clergy formed part, with this ex- colors of the picture their heated fancy had ception, however, that the nobility acquired already formed. Thence this period was 184 THE MIDDLE AGES. inspired by such daring and fanatic enthu- model of his future life. He accompanied siasm, that no enterprise was deemed too his lord at all hours, and in every occupadifficult to undertake, and such heroic tion. In the pleasures of the chase, the deeds were actually achieved, that in mod- festival, the tournament and military jousts, ern times they have been regarded almost as well as in the dangers of the battle. in the light of fabulous creations of the His firstduty was the most faithful attachmind. Three religious orders of knight- ment to and vigilant care of his lord; and hood, which owed their origin exclusively if, in the heat of the battle, he had defended to the Crusades, served especially to at- him with sword and shield, and had saved tach the warriors to the cause of Christian- his life, he thence acquired the highest deity by a sacred and solemn vow. The first gree of fame that could be earned by a of these was the order of the Templar. young nobleman. Thus fidelity was the Knights, which originally only consisted first virtue which, by hourly and daily exof a small body of French cavaliers, for ercise, became so deeply impressed upon the purpose of protecting the pilgrims on the memory of the youth, that it grew up their journey to the Holy Land; they took in indissoluble connection with his mind. the three religious vows-obedience, pov- After several years of honorable service as erty, and chastity; adding a fourth, which a squire, the youth (generally in his twentywas altogether military, viz. to protect first year) was made a knight, and received travellers, stratos publicas custodire. Bald- into military companionship under the conwin II., king of Jerusalem, granted them secration of religion. Solemn occasions, as quarters a portion of his palace, next to grand festivals, coronation days, and such the temple of Solomon; and it is from this scenes, were diligently sought for the pur. circumstance that they adopted the title of pose, and frequently many were dubbed Templars. Two years afterwards origi- knights at the same time. Fasting and nated the order of the Knights of the Hos- prayer preceded, and after the youth had pital, who devoted themselves to the charge partaken of the sacrament he received from of the sick pilgrims, subsequently adopting the hands of a knight, or noble lady, the the name of St. John, from their tutelary spuis, breast-plate, and gauntlets. He then saint, John the Baptist; their vows were knelt down, and one of the knights (often, exclusively religious. To these followed however, the reigning king or prince) gave shortly after the order of the Teutonic him, with a naked sword, three gentle Knights. blows across the shoulder, upon which he These examples operated with a very vowed with a solemn oath, to faithfully fulfil great effect upon the continent; and as the all the duties of an honorable knight, to entire spirit of the times produced a closer speak the truth, to defend the laws, and to union between individuals of equal habits draw his sword'for the defence of religion, and condition, the result was that chivalry of widows and orphans, and of persecuted in the middle of the twelfth century be- innocence, but, above all, against every uncame more and more extended, and formed believer; finally, he received the helmet, one grand body of alliance, to which ac- shield, lance, and sword. Thus, in the cess could only be obtained after passing most inspired hour of the youth's early cathrough certain ordeals in which the reli- reer, the practice of manly virtues: truth, gious vows of chastity and poverty were, justice, and religion, were again, by solemn however, exempted, but religious consecra- oath, elevated to become the inviolable law tion was retained. of his whole life. Honor stood before the Thus the entire education of the nobility eyes of the youthful knight like a brilliant connected itself with the sole object of at- star-an emblem to which he was to remain taining knighthood by passing through all faithful to his last breath-as the noble obits various gradations. As soon as the boy ject of, and, at the same time, the reward had escaped from his maternal guide, he for the due observance of the oath he took. was transferred to the charge of some es- So highly was this solemn consecration of teemed knight and friend, whom he served the noble warrior esteemed, that Count as page; and, subsequently, after he had William of Holland, as we have already become versed in arms, and received his seen in his history, was necessarily made a sword, he attended him as his esquire, knight before his coronation. (famulus, armiger,) regarding him as the The prerogative of the knight was to be CHIVALRY-THE CITIES. 185 long henceforward to a select body of his wore the sword equally for the honor of equals, which none could join but by the their faith and defence of their country, especial reception he himself had experi- the citizens in the towns labored with inenced, and to be enabled to confer knight- dustry and activity for their commercial hood himself; as also to take his share in prosperity. The German cities during this the tournaments, which in the twelfth cen- period daily increased in population and tury were introduced from France into riches, and the source of all was cornGermany. These had the most important merce, for which also the crusades operainfluence on the education of the nobility; ted very advantageously. The spirit for for as none could take part in them whose great undertakings and speculations was honor had suffered the least stain, and the aroused, the costly wares of southern counwhole imagination of the boy and youth tries were brought more frequently and in was from earliest infancy devoted to the greater abundance to Europe. The Italian glory and high reputation these contests maritime cities, particularly Venice, Geconferred, chivalry thenceforth became the noa, and Pisa, introduced the merchandise school of honor and morality, as well as of the east, and then it was conveyed the of every other heroic virtue. Thence this same as the produce of Italy itself along period presents us with the most complete the ancient commercial roads, through the and undeniable evidence of the principle- passes of the Alps to Germany, there exthat in order to disseminate a love for virtue tending its transit upon the high roads and in a generation, it is not enough to try to rivers, and what was not consumed in the promote it by instruction, but it is likewise country itself was carried still farther tonecessary to encourage and give an im- wards the territories bordering upon the pulse to the practice thereof by the irresist- North Sea and the Baltic. All that was ible force of example. brought to the northern countries from Such is the light in which the design and across the ocean was forwarded through object of chivalry must present itself before Germany, and by means of this extensive us in the most flourishing period of its ex. commercial agency, to which was added istence; for although a system may not be the produce of native German industry, the carried out so completely as to render it ancient cities of the empire progressed and possible to say, that it is in every respect flourished in all their wealth and prosperiperfect, and, consequently, although in the ty. Augsburg, Strasburg, Ratisbon, Numost happy times of chivalry, much bar. remberg, Bamberg, Worms, Spires, and oarism and uncouth violence too often ap- Mentz, in the south of Germany; in the peared, still it cannot be denied that it laid north, Cologne, Erfurt, Brunswick, Lunethe foundation for that elevation of thought burg, Hamburg, Bremen, and Liibeck, and which eventually, in a moral point of view, many others proudly raised and extended exercised its influence upon the community their walls and towers, and an increasing at large. and active, but equally industrious populaThe noble institution of chivalry was, tion, animated their streets. Their riches in fact, of the highest importance in its re- soon gave them the means to purchase their suits to the whole of the Christian nations, freedom and independence from the princes inasmuch as even when the imperial dig- who held them in dominion, for as in those nity lost its powerful influence, and the ancient times, when hut few or no regular authority of the church began to totter on imposts were levied, the privileges of those its base, the principles of honor and recti- princes and lords were not so productive as tude, together with the irresistible force now, no large sum was required to obtain commanded by the manly, chivalric word, this emancipation. The cities then acknowin all cases of need and succor, operated ledged the emperor alone as their superior so beneficially upon all classes, that this feudal lord, and thence were called free grand and illustrious foundation of knight- imperial cities. hood served as a tower of strength, impreg- This progress, however, was only made nable against all subsequent attacks at- by degrees, and was not everywhere attempted by uncivilized and barbarous assail- tended with the same favorable results. ants. The first step was made in the tenth centuWhile the aristocracy of the German ry, when Henry I. encouraged the foundanation thus vigorously cultivated itself, and tion and extension of cities, and improved 24 186 THE MIDDLE AGES. their internal condition in eastern Germa- minion is made evident by their generally ny, and when afterwards the episcopal triumphant contests with the patrician famcities in the south and western parts of the ilies in many of the cities. country, according to the ancient Roman If commerce and gain had alone been the cities, were raised to a state of immunity, objects of the inhabitants of the cities, they and the authority of the count was substi- would soon have become subject to all those tuted by that of the episcopal intendant, or evils which necessarily arise when the advocatus casce. After their example, a mind of man becomes wholly occupied and number of other cities received also impe- absorbed in his mercenary pursuits; the rial governors, and were thus freed from citizens would have been rendered tirnthe jurisdiction of the count. id and cowardly, and would have sacriSubsequently the cities advanced still ficed both their liberty and pride in their farther, and sought to elevate themselves efforts after worldly possessions. But in from their state of immunity, in order to those times, when the Faustrecht or clubbecome their own governors; for the in- law existed in all its violence, they found tendants, replacing the counts in their qual- opposed to them the entire nobility of the ity as judges, selected their assessors from empire-princes, counts, and knights, as the municipal council, who, previous to the well as bishops and abbots, who, jealous of twelfth century, were called cives, in its the riches of the cities, closely observed more distinguished acceptation, and later, their deeds and acts, and waited only for in imitation of the Lombardian cities, they an opportunity to overturn and destroy their were styled consules, or counsellors; and freedom. their president, proconsul, or magister con- If the cities, therefore, desired to submit solum, burgomaster. Those families among no longer to these powerful enemies, they whom the counsellors were usually chosen, found they must necessarily bear arms formed a civic or urban nobility, and were themselves, and preserve inviolate in their called patrician families. As this council breasts that manly courage which is the was intrusted with the administration of shield of freedom. In an ancient chronithe commercial property and the magiste- cle we find the following account of the rial authority of the city, it is easy to con- Nuremberg patricians: "The furniture of ceive what increasing influence it must their houses consistschiefly of gold and silhave had at its command, and how it must ver, but amidst all that meets the eye nohave extended its power in the administra- thing is more conspicuous than their swords, tion of affairs beyond, as well as within the armor, battle-axes, and horses, which they city, and the burgomaster, consequently, in particularly display as the chief signs of the course of time, left little or nothing for their nobility, and the ancient rank of their the intendant to perform. In fact, this lat- families. But the simple citizen also keeps ter functionary in the end had reason to his arms ready and in good order in his congratulate himself if he was only allow- house, so that on the first movement he may ed to retain the administration of justice; appear fully equipped immediately at the and, even then, means were not wanting on appointed place of assembly." The whole the part of the council to arrogate this de- of the internal regulations of the city had partment to themselves when they found it war in view; the citizens were divided infavorable for their object to do so. to companies according to their trade and But the authority did not rest exclusive- dwelling-place; and when the city was in ly in the hands of the council; the various danger, each of the different bodies assemguilds and trade associations had also their bled in its appointed quarter, and under its share in the government. Their influence particular banner, and thus all marched derived strength from the increasing activi- forth together, and fought united in battle. ty among the industrial and working class- This was a beautiful union, firmly bound es, and consequent prosperity in trade; and by warlike and peaceful occupations, ano thence their claims to a portion of power the rivalry and emulation evinced bv all in they enjoyed were based upon the interest valor have frequently obtained the victory they took and shared individually and for cities in time of danger. The citizens among themselves in the municipal institu- collectively did not lose their time in a love tions. The extent to which they gradually for petty things and trifles, nor in the effemsucceeded in establishing their united do- inacy of a sedentary life in the close rooms THE CITIES. 187 of their houses, but they were both in body whole alliance. In the history of its forand soul good men and true, as well as mation also it is important to notice the independent. And, notwithstanding their league which in 1241 the cities of Lubeck riches, notwithstanding their extraordinary and Hamburg concluded together, and expenditure upon great festivals, which which is commonly but incorrectly considhonor demanded in those more ancient and ered as the first commencement of the better times, their daily ordinary life was whole confederation. It was agreed that very simple and temperate, and not sophis- both cities should prepare ships and supply ticated by artificial wants. Thence their troops to protect from all robbery the highbodies remained strong, and their prosperi- way between the Trave and the Elbe, and ty lasting; for the source and guarantee the rivers themselves, down which both of prosperity do not so much consist in rich sent their merchandise to the sea. Several acquisitions as in that moderation which northern cities soon joined this alliance; knows how to preserve them. " That the about the year 1300 it numbered already Germans are rich," says Machiavelli, in his sixty cities from the Lower Rhine as far as treatise, Rifratti della Alamagna, " arises Prussia and Livonia; later it included as from their living as if they were poor. It many as a hundred, and in the middle of suffices for them to have a superfluity in the fourteenth century we find the name bread and meat, and a room, whither they Hansa universally distributed. In Germay retreat from the cold. Thus little or many there belonged to it, besides Lubeck no money quits their country; on the con- and Hamburg-Bremen, Stade, Kiel, Wistrary, far more comes into the land in pay- mar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswalde, ment for the wares they manufacture them- Stettin, Colberg, Stargard, Salzwedel, Magselves. The power of Germany is based deburg, Brunswick, Hildesheim, Hanover, upon its cities; they are the nerves of the Ltineburg, Osnaburg, Minster, Coesfeld, provinces, for in them there exist both Dortmund, Soest, Wesel, Duisburg, Cowealth and good order." logne, and many others besides; and out At this glorious period of the municipal of Germany-Thorn, Dantzig, Konigsberg, institutions, many German cities united to- Riga, Reval, Narva, Whisby, Stockholm, gether for the protection of their freedom, &c. They wholly monopolized the trade their independence, and their commerce in the Baltic, and chiefly that in the North generally. Tlius, in the year 1254, seven- Sea, and had four grand depots: at Novoty cities in the south of Germany formed gorod in Russia, Bergen in Norway, Bruthe Rhenish league, for offence and de- ges in Flanders, and in London. fence, and. powerfully opposed themselves The establishment of these emporia call. to the encroachments and pretensions of ed forth the greatest possible development the nobility. Afterwards arose the Swa- in trade, and produced the most glorious bian cities'-union, which was also very nu- results in commercial intercourse. From merous and strong. the northern regions they shipped timbei But the most powerful confederation for building vessels, flax, hemp, tar, furs, among all was that of the Hanse towns. and smoked and dried fish, the consumpAlready early in the middle ages, the tra- tion of which was extremely great on acding cities of Germany had formed alli- count of the rigorous observance of the ances in the large commercial towns of periods for fasting practised by the Cathother countries, and there established ware- olics; and they maintained the herring houses and factories. These factoriesbore fishery exclusively in their own hands. the name of Hanse, probably from the From England they procured raw wool word Hansa, which signifies trade imposts, and cloths, which they had dyed and pre(confounded subsequently with the Italian pared in Germany. Bruges at this epoch word Ansaria,) and as several such houses was one of the most important of the comwere united in foreign cities, there conse- mercial cities, and formed a depot for the quentlh arose a general Hanse, which was merchandise of Asia, Italy, and Western termed German Hanse. Very early we Europe, which the Hanseatic towns confind in London, German Hanses from veyed thence to the north of Europe: Cologne, Hamburg, Lubeck, Bremen, and spices of every sort, silks, gold and silver other cities, and, perhaps, their union was wares, fruit, &c. This traffic exercised, a chief cause for the establishment of the likewise, the most happy influence upon 188 THE MIDDLE AGES. the sale of the produce of Germany: linen, admiration of the riches of the German cloth, metal wares, corn, flour, beer, Rhe- cities, although even then their splendor nish wine, and woad, (so much sought for began to sink: " The kings of Scotland before the introduction of indigo, and much might envy," he says, "the state of the planted in Germany,) and many other meaner citizens of Nuremberg. Where articles which, by means of the Hanse, is there a tavern among you where you found a market in foreign countries. It is, do not drink out of silver? What martherefore, not surprising that when uniting ried woman, I will not say of rank. but its strength the confederation was richer the wife of merely a simple citizen, do and more powerful than the northern king- we not find decorated with gold? What doms. It was enabled to collect together shall I say of the neck-chains of the men, whole fleets and armies whenever it chose, and the bridles of the horses, which are even if only a portion of the cities united, made of the purest gold, and of the spurs and its friendship was universally sought. and scabbards, which are covered with It forced King Philip IV. of France to for- jewels?" bid the English all traffic on his coast, and The source of such especial riches in obliged England to purchase peace for precious metals, possessed by Germany, 10,0001. sterling. It conquered, in 1369, originated not only in the commerce, but even Copenhagen and Helsengoer, com- also in the recently discovered mines of manding the mouth of the Sound, and of- the country. In the year 1477, for infered the kingdom of Denmark for sale; to stance, when Duke Albert of Saxony such an extent did it hold the northern dined in the mine of Schneeberg, in the kingdoms generally in its dependence, and Hartz mountains, the viands were laid out the city of Libeck might well be proud of upon a solid block of silver, whence afterbeing the head of such an alliance. It wards 400 quintals of silver were prowas divided into four classes: 1. The duced. Wendish, of which Libeck was particular- The flourishing state and increasing ly the head; 2. The Westphalian, with power of the German cities was also a Cologne at its head, (Cologne emulated Li- chief motive for the peasantry to recover beck for precedency; it carried on an ex- their freedom; for the inhabitants also of tensive commerce by sea, and founded in the rural districts, who, under the oppresLondon a celebrated German factory; its sion of slavery, were obliged to cultivate maritime commerce, however, fell when their own land, as serfs, for a master, at Dortrecht received its oppressive staple- the view of the flourishing free cities were right;) 3. The Saxon, of which Bruns- aroused to the love of liberty and indewick was the head; and 4. The Prussian pendence, and when this desire is once and Livonian, with Dantzig at the head. properly reawoke in an enslaved people, Many records testify how extensive and it rests no more until it has cast its opprespopulous the cities were precisely at a time sive and degrading burden from its shoulwhen violence through the Faustrecht ders. Not that the gradual rise of the raged most wildly. In the fourteenth cen- rural population is to be attributed to one tury, for instance, Aix-la-Chapelle had source only, but, on the contrary, as in 19,826 men who could bear arms, and this case, it must be a consequence of the Strasburg 20,000 more; Nuremberg had collective working of many causes, which 52,000 citizens; and increased annually here earlier, there later, supplied an indiby 4000 male born children. Upon a re- vidual, a family, or a whole community volt of the citizens of Liibeck, the council with freedom and possession of the soil. alone armed 5000 merchants and their In this view also the crusades now proservants. And besides these and other duced the most important and beneficial large places Germany was covered with a results. multitude of towns of middling size, which By command of the pope, every serf likewise flourished in trade and popula- who took the cross to proceed into the tion, but which now retain only the shadow Holy Land was obliged to be made free by of their former importance; as, for in- his lord, and thousands of them proceeded stance, the many imperial cities in Swabia. thither and became free accordingly. In JEneas Sylvius, (afterwards Pius II.,) other cases, the lord, previous to setting in the fifteenth century, speaks with great out upon the crusade, animated by pious THE PEASANTRY-THE ARTS AND SCIENCES. 189 zeal, gave his serfs their freedom at once, When man is raised to a certain degree or perhaps he did not return at all; and of prosperity, in which his mind is no longer if he had no heirs, many of his feudal absorbed in acquiring the more immediate servitors, in the consequent dispute for the and pressing means to satisfy the necessainheritance, faithful until then, now made ry cares and wants of life, he then applies themselves free. This method of disfran- and devotes the powers of his genius tochisement was the more easily put into wards producing the beautiful and grand effect when they belonged to a noble, and -to that, the creation of which must shed if they dwelt near large cities. For they over his whole life and memory, an endurput themselves under the protection of the ing halo of glory and honor-and accordlatter,'and continued to live within their ingly all those gifts of intellectual greatwalls, or remained upon their own inherit- ness are promoted by their cultivation, and ance, and were called then Pfahlbiirger enjoy the free independent action they or suburban citizens, and in case their lord demand. Thence the cities with their insought to force theIn to return to his ser- creasing riches necessarily became the vice, it became the affair of the powerful cradle of German art and science; to city itself; and even of the entire league to which the excitement of the imagination, which it belonged, and the impulse which the crusades proIt is not to be denied, that under such duced in all minds, contributed not a little. circumstances many cities in their muni- Ideas both novel and of vast and extraorcipal arrogance were unjust towards their dinary character spread over the world, noble neighbors, inasmuch as they, with- elevated the powers of the mind beyond out having one justifying cause, received the ordinary condition of life, and filled it and harbored their subjects in opposition with images which it found itself excited to him; but what incited them chiefly to to represent and embody in beautiful prodo this was the recollection of the injustice ductions of art. If we had no other eviwhich these lords or their predecessors dence of the splendor of the middle ages had done to them-for injustice provokes than that displayed in the works of art of injustice-or they were perhaps at open all kinds which that period has handed variance with them, and they thought they down to us, we should even then have amwere justified in injuring them in every ple proof wherewith to refute those opinway. When now the nobles saw them- ions which, without any modificati n, proselves in danger of thus losing all their nounce that epoch to have been dark, subjects, one after the other, if they per- barbarous, and miserable. A perind of sisted in retaining them in their service by ignorance and calamity could not have force, they preferred emancipating them produced such sublime works as the minthemselves, under certain conditions, for sters of Strasburg, Vienna, and Ulm, lighter services and a fixed yearly impost. together with the cathedrals of Cologne, Finally, many from a kindliness of dispo- Magdeburg, Spires, Freiburg, and so many sition, and influenced by the enlightenment other churches in the cities of Germany of the period, may possibly have seen that and the Low Countries. For art flourishes it was more honorable as well as more solely in the light of freedom and in the lucrative, to cause their land to be culti- genial warmth of prosperity and human vated by free laborers, who in the feeling happiness. that they were toiling for themselves and We have here taken our examples from their descendants, now devoted all their architecture, because there is scarcely any powers of mind and body to that occupa- other art which, like this, so peculiarly extion which formerly as slaves they were presses the genuine German genius. What forced to be driven to perform. we call Gothic architecture,-and which It was in this manner, particularly at would be better expressed with the general the period of which we now speak, that by name of the nation, Teutonic architecture a hundred different causes, a basis was -is a combination of the greatest boldness laid in Germany for the establishment of and sublimity of idea, produced by re. the important class of common free pea- ligious inspiration and deep natural feeling, santry, which by degrees became the fun- with the most admirable industry and damental strength of the more modern perfection in the execution of the detail. states of Europe. In the contemplation of those wonderful 190 THE MIDDLE AGES. structures, our heart swells and the breast for the construction of such works wedt expands with reverential awe and emotion; not spared, while later generations have we become completely lost, and forget our- but too often wasted their powers upon unselves in the presence of so much grandeur, dertakings which have left no trace bewhile we feel as we continue gazing as if hind. with those bold ideas our mind was con- In order to comprehend the origin, and veyed upward towards heaven, leaving its especially the successful execution of those earthly infirmities behind it-such is pre- miracles of architecture, according to one cisely the expression which characterizes great plan, we must remark that it was the truly sublime and grand in all the not individual architects, who, with somecreations of nature, as also in the works times good, sometimes bad workmen, as in of man. And when the eye, after it has our times, undertook such works, but they recovered from this first and overpowering were accomplished by an association of impression of the whole, contemplates the masons, distributed over the whole of Gerdetail, it observes that there is scarcely a many, and indeed over the whole of solitary stone throughout the gigantic edi- Europe, who were bound together by refice which is introduced in its rough state, ligion, honor, and discipline. Even among but each bears some artistical labor which the Romans there were building societies makes it share in the embellishment of the of great extent, the remaining members of whole. Thus it might be almost said, that which retired to the monasteries, and there as in the works of the wide creation itself occupied themselves chiefly with the conthere is not a blade of grass but possesses struction of churches, and created the its own peculiar beauty and ornament, and more sublime style of Christian architecthis blade with its millions of semblant ture. Regular but temporal builders were companions, combined with the trees, rocks, also received into the society, and when, and lakes, present a rich and magnificent in the eleventh century, the vigor of the picture of nature-so, likewise, these works monachal system began to slumber in the of German industry and art, faithful in indolence and satiety of acquired riches, the detail, and sublime in the idea of the these temporal builders obtained by dewhole, are in this union of both, objects grees the superiority, and eventually surpassed by no other nation. We will formed the grand associations by means only remark of the Minster of Strasburg, of which those wonderful works were exthat it has the loftiest tower in Europe, ecuted. They possessed and followed being 594 feet high. Bishop Werner be- mysterious signs and customs, by which gan to lay the foundation of the church in the members of the body forming the class 1015, but it was not completed until 1275. of the more sublime architecture were disAfter which the eminent architect, Erwin tinguished from the more simple artisans. of Steinbach, sketched the plan of the tower Every society had its protecting patron, in 1277; this was begun and completed in from whom it was named; and wherever a 1439 by John Hulz, of Cologne, so that 424 grand undertaking was to be executed, years were consumed in the entire con- they all came from their various districts struction. Of the Cathedral of Cologne, and assembled on the spot, so that their which in its design, commenced by arch- art, like a common possession, was benebishop Conrad, of Hochstedt, in 1248, is ficially distributed throughout most Chrisstill more noble, not even the church itself, tian countries. These important societies not to name its tower, has been completed, received from the reigning emperor and although its construction has lasted 250 princes letters of license, and even their years. But we shall not wonder at this, own exclusive judicial courts, at which when we consider the thousands of images the chief architect presided as judge. which are carved in the stone.* Close to the spot on which was to be It tends to the eternal fame of our nation erected the large building they were enand of those times that the industry, pa- gaged upon, and which edifice perhaps tience, and outlay of capital so necessary took centuries to construct, a wooden It is, however, gratifying to observe as one among house or Hiitte was generally built, neatthe many existing siigns of the progress made in our ly adorned inside, in which the said chief time in tlie iine arts, that the completion of this noble architect, with the sword of justice in his edifice has been recently determined and commenced upon. hand, sat under a canopy and pronounced THE ARTS AND SCIENCES-PAINTING-POETRY. 191 judgment. This hitte or courthouse, in the later artists were John Van Eyck, of Strasburg, derived a peculiar importance Bruges, who died in 1441, and who is conduring the period of the construction of sidered as the inventor of oil painting; his the minster. It was soon regarded as the countrymen, Hans (John) Hemling, Marmost distinguished among all in Germany; tin Schon of Culmbach, in Franconia, Miits institutions were imitated, and the other chael Wohlgemuth of Nuremberg, bu' courthouses frequently derived counseland above all others Albert DUrer, who was decision from it.* born in 1471 and died in 1521, and whose But the noble principle of these associ- works are characterized by vigorous feelations ended with the decline of the general ing and profound seriousness of expression; spirit of the middle ages. The great archi- and, finally, Lucas Cranach, who was born tectural undertakings ceased; the ener- in 1470, and died in 1553. gies of men were divided in all directions. As a third art in the list of the middle War monopolized so entirely the resources ages, poetry was one which particularly of states, that for great monuments of art flourished in the time of the Swabian embut little more could be done, as will be perors. This derived its vigor from the inmore particularly developed as we proceed spiration of the whole period of the cruin the course of our history. sades, and was in high estimation among Painting was also zealously practised for the higher and lower classes. The celethe decoration of churches and other holy brated singers who knew how to elevate the places, and our old cities are full of splen- hearts of men by their songs of the great did specimens of this art. German art in deeds of ancient heroes, or by their tender its entire character is grave, chaste, and lays of lament-here and there, however, moral, abounding with depth of thought refreshed by encouraging and energetic and expression, like the nation itself. In strains-were hospitably welcomed at every the figures of the holy apostles and saints, festival, and, richly rewarded, proceeded as well as of pious men and women gene- from the courts of emperors, princes, and rally, who are represented in devout con- counts, to flourishing cities, throughout the templation and prayer, we find expressed whole of Germany. Sometimes a contest the profound sublimity of thought and sen- of art was instituted, similar to those wheretiment which would be vainly sought for in the knights disputed for the prize of arms, in the works of art produced by any'other and, before an assembly of selected and nation, although they may, and do possess competent judges, songs resounded of the a superiority in finish, richness of color, most inspiring and admirable nature. Some and skilfully-deceptive representation. In of the most celebrated poets and troubadours their pictures, also, the Germans display of this period are Henry of Vildeck, about that untiring industry which does not con- 1170, Wolfram of Eschenbach, Hartman sider it too trifling to carefully represent, of the Aue, Henry of Ofterdingen, Godwith truth and fidelity, the smallest and frey of Strasburg, Walter of the Vogelmost minute decorations of the walls, fur- weide, and Conrad of Wiirzburg. But niture, or garments. It is true that paint- also emperors, princes, and noble knights ing attained its culminating point much themselves practised poetry. All the Holater, and the names of the most celebrated henstaufens from Frederick I. have left German and Flemish painters, who worked us poems, besides Margrave Otho with the in the same spirit, belong to the fifteenth Arrow, of Brandenburg, Duke Henry of and sixteenth centuries; although in ear- Breslaw, Henry of Meissen, Duke John of lier times, and by masters whose names Brabant, Count Rodolph ofNeuenburg, Kraft are unknown, splendid pictures of subjects of Toggenburg, and many others. One of taken from sacred history were executed the greatest and most splendid collections for the churches. The most celebrated of of German poems is that of the Niebelungen or Legends of Chivalry, which although " After Strasburg came, in 1681, under the domin- not originally composed in this period, still ion of France, all connection between this principal Hiitte and the others of Germany gradually ceased to at that time was collected together and exist; and the consequent disputes which arose be- formed into one entire work; a poem as tween these latter on the subject of each other's claims to superiority were eventually put an end to in 1731 by sublime and grand as it is sweet and touchan imperial decree, by which all distinctions of privi- in and mav be ustly compared with the lege between these associations and the common class. n r of architects were abolished. Homeric lays themselves. The Heldenbuch, 192 THE MIDDLB A.GES. or great book of heroes, which is derived years, by the change of all things, was from the Swabian period, likewise contains forced to pass away, has been at the same the most beautiful poems; and, about the time wholly misunderstood in its earlier year 1300, a counsellor of Zurich, Riidger and more active form. In times when of Manesse, collected the metrical lays of rude force held its sway in the world, and one hundred and forty Minnesingers, or every one who could not defend himself troubadours. was obliged to succumb, or was cast to the In the sciences, the period of the middle ground, the cloisters were places of refuge ages cannot, probably, be compared with and retreat for thousands of men, who those of later times, however superior, on found therein, not only. desirable asylums the other hand, it may rank in the fine arts, for security and repose, but also that neinasmuch as the sciences are a fruit of cessary leisure for the calm and contemserious reflection and of long experience, plative occupations of the mind, which and one age can build upon the foundation silently and progressively produced the laid by a preceding one; while art, on the sciences. Without the monasteries, we contrary, is more a free blossom of nature, should have possessed but little of the and a work of happy inspiration, being not treasures of ancient literature, which they so much the result of deep research as it is chiefly preserved for us; indeed, but for of the impressions aroused by an excited them we should know almost nothing of epoch. The sciences, however, were not our earlier records, and possess but a despised, but, on the contrary, zealously very meager and brief history of the promoted by the Hohenstaufen emperors. events of former times. Before the invenWhen Otho, bishop of Freisingen, handed tion of printing, it was so difficult and lato the emperor Frederick I. his Chronicles, borious to multiply copies of works, that the emperor said: " I receive with extreme without the leisure and the industry of the pleasure the chronicles which you have monks in cloisters, who, with astonishing compiled so wisely in such good order, and and admirable patience, transcribed entire which, hitherto obscured and concealed, works in elaborate characters and with you have brought to light and harmonized; illuminated letters, almost all traces would and I rejoice always, when freed from the have been lost of the primitive and the labors of war, to read them, for I guide middle ages. Besides which, the authors myself to excellence by the splendid deeds of nearly all the historical works were of the emperors." We have already seen clergymen. Their names have been menin the life of the emperor Frederick II. tioned at the commencement of this period, how much he esteemed science. And and when we read their productions, we although herein his care'was directed must be filled with equal esteem and adchiefly to his Italian states and universi- miration for the ecclesiastics of the middle ties, yet we must take into consideration ages. its subsequent reaction upon Germany; for The warlike spirit of that epoch, howall that we trace proves that Germany itself ever, had an important effect upon the was occupied in the most active develop- manners of the clergy. Christian, the ment of science and art. No period of the archbishop of Mentz, who was frequently middle ages can in this respect be corn- at the head of the armies of Frederick I., pared with that of the Hohenstaufens. in his expeditions to Italy, and conducted The mind of Frederick II., without doubt, the very obstinate siege of Ancona, in worked both powerfully and effectually 1174, was as valiant a warrior as he was among us for the promotion of this object. a zealous priest and skilful statesman. Science, at this period, was chiefly con- He could speak six languages-the Gerfined to the ecclesiastical body, the mem- man, Latin, French, Brabant, Greek, and bers of which, by their state of indepen- Italian. When, as a clergyman, he stood dence, were called to be its true preservers. before the altar, he was the true represenIt has been customary to consider mon- tative of the minister of peace, in full asteries as the seat of indolence and igno- priestly dignity; but when, again, he was rance, hypocrisy and sensuality, and, in mounted on his warlike steed, he displayed fact, of many other vices. But this is an an equally commanding and elevated mien unjust opinion, confounding the thing itself as a leader of the church militant. Under with its abuse; and what, in the course of his sacerdotal robe he wore a coat of iron THE CLERGY-MONASTERIES, &c. 193 armor, upon his head a splendid helmet times for a monastic life, and the donaof gold, and in his hand a massive three- tions which these institutions received, are edged club. It is related of him that, in incredible; the monastery of Ebersberg, the different battles in which he fought, he in Austria, alone received, as many as two killed nine enemies with his own hand. hundred and twenty-eight such gifts. It The monasteries, of the importance of was thought that no better use could be which for the middle ages we have already made of earthly possessions, than to give spoken, merit here still closer observation. them to a monastery; and the monks had, They owe their first origin to that pious besides, at sick-beds, opportunities enough spirit which prizes, by far, the heavenly to foster and maintain this opinion. Ecoabove all earthly possessions; and which, nomical management, and cheap and adby severe self-denial, repentance, and mor- vantageous purchases made at a convenient tification, in all sensual gratifications, seeks time, augmented these possessions, and to make itself worthy of the blessings of a especially so at the period of the crusades. purer life. At first, minds thus tutored The nobles who were not able to comsought to fly from the tumult of the world, mand the necessary means for the expeand retired into solitary and isolated ditions to those distant countries, sold their places; and when several thus disposed estates, or borrowed money upon them; were collected together, they united them- and if they did not return, or could not selves into brotherhoods, with the resolu- pay back what they had borrowed, the tion of practising, in a body, similar penance property remained in the hands of the and mortification. Thus those holy men, monastery. Subsequently too, in the time Antonius and Pachonius, founded in this of violence or the Faustrecht, many freemanner, in the middle of the fourth century, men gave themselves up, together with in the deserts of Upper Egypt, the first their possessions, into the hands of the monasteries. By degrees, their example monasteries, to enjoy their protection. And. was followed in several places; and also finally, the monasteries received from the in Europe monasteries were founded, af- pope, in the thirteenth century, the privi. ter the holy Athanasius brought the first lege to retain for their own possession, the monks from Egypt into Rome. bequeathed property of the deceased relaIn the commencement of the sixth cen. tives of the brethren-a productive source tury, (515,) St. Benedict, of Nursia, gave, of wealth; while, likewise, it was made by the rule he formed for his monastery at into a law, that neither nuns nor monks Monte Cassino, and which was everywhere could ever bequeath any thing to a third followed, an entire new form to monastic party, but were forced to leave their whole life; and this monastery, seated upon a inheritance to the monastery they belonged high mountain in the most beautiful part to. The cloisters even bestowed upon of Lower Italy, may be considered as the many rich persons the title of monk, in model of all the others in western Christen- order to inherit their property, and perdom. It has existed and operated during mitted them afterwards to live beyond the a space of thirteen hundred years, and monastery, the same as before. If we above thirty popes, and a great number of consider all this, it is very easy to comprecardinals, bishops, and ecclesiastics of the hend how the convents, by degrees, achighest rank, have sprung from the order quired such large, and some even immense of Benedictines. Everywhere now arose riches. The example produced stimulamonasteries; partly because active monks tion, and their number increased incredibly. settled themselves in previously unculti- St. Bernard, of Clairvaux, who lived at vated districts, made them arable, and the period of the second grand crusade, thus acquired a right to the land around; founded alone one hundred and sixty, and partly because emperors, kings, and princes, some cities contained even several hundred the high clergy, and noble families, as a monasteries. pleasing work to God, built abbeys, and The urgency displayed by applicants to endowed them with the ground upon which be received in them was extraordinary; they were erected. Monasteries also arose many sought admission from a true sponin cities and villages, and cities formed taneous impulse of the soul, many in order and settled themselves around monasteries. to find the means of living, and, lastly, The enthusiastic zeal excited in ancient many were persuaded and forced into them 25 194 THE MIDDLE AGES. by their relatives. It is true, in order to views, and the whole changed spirit of the remedy and prevent this latter abuse, the period, must not cause the judgment of hiscanon law forbid expressly that any one tory to err in its consideration of the origin should be forced to take the vow, either by of these institutions. imprisonment or any other measure of com- The head of the monastery, to whom a pulsion; besides which, it was ordained blind and unconditional obedience belonged, that a year's novitiate should always pre- was the abbot; under him stood next the cede taking the habit; and, finally, that no prior, then the deacon, the butler, the stewmale should take the vow of monk before ard, the cantor, &c. In the convents there his fourteenth year, nor any female before were under the abbess similar female digher twelfth year; but this age was evi- nities. But every convent of nuns had a dently too early, for many certainly took prior for religious worship, for preaching, the vow without knowing what they were confession, &c., because these functions doing. Many orders fixed, also, a more ad- could not be transferred to women. Layvanced age. brothers were also found in monasteries, The occupation of the lay brothers, ac- who, without having taken the entire vow cording to the rule of St. Bene(iict, con- of monks, attended to the external business sisted in agricultural labor, the sciences, of the monastery, in order that the others instruction of youth, transcribing of books, might not be obliged to quit the cloister or attendance on the sick, and the exercise of enclosed space of the monastery. prayer and religious worship. Their mode The monasteries, according to the ancient of life was very severe, their dress very order of church government, stood originsimple, while their food was restricted to ally under the jurisdiction of the archmerely the most necessary diet, and fre- bishops and bishops of the diocese, and the quent fasting was strictly enjoined. Later abbots were consecrated by them; they orders, which took that rule as their foun- gave permission for the foundation of those dation, but increased its severity, imposed institutions, authorized donations, the pur. upon their members the most rigid pen- chase and sale of land, &c. But ambition ances, including corporeal castigation. The and a desire for greater independence beorder of the Carthusians, which was founded came excited by degrees in the cloisters; by a German, St. Bruno, previously a they soon wished to be dependentonly upon canon at Rheims, in an inhospitable and the popes, and the latter were not unwildesert valley near Grenoble, was consid- ling to increase in this manner their imered the most severe. Their raiment con- mediate and extended influence. The same sisted not only of a rough hair skin worn as with the cities in Germany and Italy, next the flesh, as in many of the other or- who sought to make themselves free from ders, but the rule commanded expressly the domination of princes, and would only that it should be a prickly one; and they be subject to the emperor, so it was with were forbidden any covering for the head the cloisters, with respect to the bishops and or the use of shoes and stockings. They the pope. With the temporal clergy also, fasted three times in the week, and during the patrons and curators, the monasteries the eight holy weeks they took nothing but by degrees stood in direct opposition. Oribread and water, while fat of all kinds, ginally they had nothing to do with the cure butter, oil, &c., were wholly prohibited. of souls. Shortly, however, many individThe religious exercises were not interrupted uals turned to the monastery to confess, to either by night or day, and solitude and have children christened, &c. The clergy melancholy silence increased the rigidness complained of it, and several popes proof this mode of life. And yet who could hibited these incursions upon the diocese. believe that notwithstanding this severity But in the course of time the monks, by the of the order, it numbered, two hundred favor of the bishops, and subsequently of years after its origin, no less than two hun- the popes, gained in this respect also greater dred and eleven monasteries and nunneries? freedom, and exercised the clerical duties Such examples may serve us as a proof in a far more extended circle around them. that the spirit of monastic life, far from be- A third great extension of their power ing in contradiction with the manners, was originated in the circumstance, that from much rather a necessary feature of that age. the tenth century the previously solitary Their subsequent degeneration into worldly standing monasteries' became gradually THE CLERGY-MONASTERIES, &c. 195 united into large societies or congregations, had developed the germ of degeneration belonging to the different principal orders. and indolence, there was established at the In the year 910, arose that of Cluny, from commencement of the thirteenth century the monastery of that name in Burgundy, the order of beggar-monks, whose first law founded by St. Odo; in 1018, that of the was to acquire no fixed property beyond Camaldulensians, by Romuald; in 1086, their monastic walls, and to seek their supthat of the Carthusians; in 1098, that of port by receiving small gifts. Thus, they the Cistercians; in 1122, that of the Pre- could never be troubled with a desire after montratensians, &c. These orders re- temporal possessions in their practice of ceived from the chief monastery one com- self-denial, poverty, and mortificationmon central and superior direction. All three essential virtues in this new order. monasteries sent their deputies to the chief Francis of Assissi, an Italian, founded, in assembly held in this head cloister, and 1210, the order of the Franciscans, and here their common affairs were deliberated Dominique Guzman, a Spaniard, that of upon and arranged, and resolutions fixed. the Dominicans, in 1215, and it was to this The abbot of this head cloister, to whom Guzman that the pope afterwards transthe remaining abbots vowed obedience, was ferred in particular the inquisition. In charged with the execution of these regu- 1238, the Carmelites, who had previously lations, inspected the cloisters, regulated had their original seat upon Mount Carmel, them, and thus exercised episcopal rights in the east, came to Europe, and about this and privileges. time, under Pope Gregory IX., they asThese congregationswerein reality very sumed the rule of St. Augustine, and powerful associations, and infused into the founded the order of the Augustines. All monastic life fresh vigor and strength. In these orders speedily, and at once, spread the beginning of the twelfth century, con- themselves, but it was only in the following sequently two hundred years after its foun- centuries that their activity came into full dation, there were 2000 other monasteries operation. subject to the parent monastery of Cluny. In this manner the whole empire of the Its abbot received all the privileges of a church had divided itself into two portions; bishop, and placed in all the dependent on the one side the whole of the monastic monasteries priors only from his own monks; clergy, and upon the other the secular and he himself was elected by them. In clergy. It is true they were both united Cluny itself there lived four hundred and in their several grades, under their superior sixty monks, and yet not one was obliged and supreme head, the pope; but this to remove from his own cell, nor was any division of the church was not beneficial. chamber appointed for public use required Envy, jealousy, and many vexatious disto be cleared when, in 1245, Pope Inno- putes were thereby produced. The closer cent IV., with several cardinals and bish- inspection of the bishops might have kept ops, the king of France, with his mother, the monasteries in a better state of discisister, and brother, the emperor of Con- pline and order. St. Bernard ofClairvaux, stantinople, the sons of the kings of Castile who belonged to the order of the Cisterand Aragon, all with their suites were en- cians, the only order which recognised the tertained as guests in this splendid and jurisdiction of the bishops, writes upon this spacious monastery. The order of Pre- subject thus: "The pope can by virtue of montratensians, founded by St. Norbert of his power withdraw the bishop from the Xante, at Premontre near Laon in France, jurisdiction of the archbishop, and the abbot numbered, eighty years after its origin, from that of the bishop, but it ought not to twenty-four provincial or district directors, take place, for the bishops would thereby one thousand abbots, three hundred friars, only become more arrogant, and the monks and five hundred convents of nuns. Nor- less restrainable. All superiority, all fear, bert was afterwards archbishop of Magde- would be removed, and the whole strucburg, and introduced his rule into the mon- ture of the hierarchy, which in wise order asteries of Magdeburg, Havelberg, Bran- ascends to the pope, would be undermined. denburg, &c., and the order spread to Bo- Beneath their humble demeanor and exhemia and Silesia. pressions are concealed the haughty disIn opposition and as a contrast to these positions of the abbots; they plunder the rich orders, which by their very wealth church in order to free themselves from 196 THE MIDDLE AGES. the superiority of the bishops, and they the monastery disputes often arose, and purchase their independence so that they thus many a monastery was severely opnay escape from that obedience which pressed by the Vogt, its own chosen deShould be their richest ornament. Thence fender. The contest often forced itself this desire of each to rank next to and as within the very walls of the monastery itimmediately as possible after the pope, dis- self. The monks rebelled against their solves the entire bonds of the hierarchy." superiors, misused and drove them away; It has been shown how in the course of the lay brothers revolted against the whole time these institutions which had grown monastic brotherhood, and consequently from, and were adapted to the necessities violence and murderous scenes of blood of the age, and which, retained in proper desecrated those walls originally conselimits, might afterwards, as at first, have crated to peace. Such is the fate of every continued to fulfil their object, degenerated human institution as soon as it steps beyond from the moment that their temporal exer- the true limits assigned to it for the legititions entirely outweighed their intellectual mate attainment of its appointed object. efforts, their multiplicity having thus be- Nevertheless, we must here observe, that come ten, nay, a hundred times too great. this sad degeneration in the monastic life For a proportionate number of men of occurred less in the age of the Hohenstaureally inspired minds, who, disgusted with fens than in the following centuries, when the world, desired the retirement of a mo- it becomes evident that all the institutions nastic life, could not possibly be found to in- of the middle ages inclined, and in fact habit the cloisters thus numerously distri- were hastening towards their fall and ruin. buted. Thence thousands against their It remains now for us in this description wills, or urged by base motives, had of the middle ages to speak of that which adopted the cowl, to which they were now is made its greatest objection, the misuse of forever bound, and this majority thus intro- power to obtain justice, or even without the duced the germ of ruin into every institu- least justice, to offend. Upon this account tion they entered. Complaints of the de- these times are called those of the Faust. generation of the monks, of their con- recht, (fist or club law,) because the fist so tinued life of sensuality, dissipation, and generally decided instead of the word, and other vices, became more and more fre- force had all the validity of law. Every quent. The ancient reverence which had prince had his fortified castle, every knight hitherto surrounded and hovered over these his strong tower, frequently upon an inacplaces of repose and pious meditation, now cessible rock, and every city its protecting gradually disappeared. The inhabitants walls; and confiding in these places of of cities, who, formerly by presents and retreat, every one mocked the demands of grants, had contributed to build and endow the other, often when he was wrong, until the cloisters within their walls, became he was obliged to yield to force, or was now their enemies, when they beheld them himself destroyed. Little attention was stretch their arms too widely around them, paid to the sentence of judges, and, freand when among other rights, they found quently, even the emperor's word was not them arrogate to themselves that of a free- heeded, and thus it was that while the emdom from all civil impost, not only for pire enjoyed profound peace with its neighthemselves, but likewise for their laborers bors, internally the most violent contests, and mechanics. Between the princes and small and great, raged in different places nobles on one side, and the monasteries on at once, so that in what they called the the other, there arose jealousy, contention, most ordinary state of these fatal times of and unjust reprisals. In order to protect anarchy in Germany, thousands of indivithemselves against external power, as well duals perished by the sword annually, as to exercise their rights of freedom, which Such a condition appears fearful to us, and alone depended on the empire, the monas- we cannot comprehend how men could, in teries were obliged to procure and establish such a state, be easy and cheerful as if in an authorized governor and protector (Schutz perfect security. For it would seem that or Kast-vogt) selected chiefly from among only those who were violently and rapa. the powerful nobility of the neighborhood, ciously inclined held dominion, while peace. and for which service they paid him a con- ful, tranquil men must have lived in considerable tax. But between the Vogt and stant fear and dread of destruction. So THE FAUSTRECHT-JURISPRUDENCE. 197 severe a judgment, however, would again But, again, in many cases he found a probe based upon a misconception of the spirit tection in the point of honor established in of that age, while closer observation will chivalry, which did not permit an injary only serve to soften and mellow down the or offence being offered to a defenceless harsh and hideous colors of this sad picture. man, while he likewise derived consideraThe noble lived amidst his warlike arms, ble compensation from the security he posand was always ready at a moment's notice sessed in being, with his sons, exempt from to resist force by force whenever he was military service. Besides which, the evils attacked; and in so doing, he did not con- of war were less in extent, and left much sider himself verging at all beyond his or- fewer and less disastrous traces behind than dinary sphere; it often, indeed, afforded him in our days; for what are all those minor pleasure to be thus occasionally aroused mischances of the battle-field compared fiom a temporary state of lethargy. It with the misery so inexpressible and inwas a realizing proof of that glory he was calculable which a single war in the present bound to sustain, and as it was for honor's time disseminates! sake that the very best friends broke a We should also err very much if we thought lance together-often in serious contest- that in this period of the Faustrecht the in the tournaments, so likewise in the most law had no effect, that no judges were apviolent feuds honor was constantly the gui- pointed, or tribunals held, and that all was ling star. They did not oppose each other left to arbitrary will. On the contrary, in battle with the animosity and absolute the Fehde-recht, in its peculiar sense, was hatred excited in enemies of later times, connected with the dispensation of justice for very frequently their encounter was and the infliction of punishment conformaonly a more serious joust at arms, in which bly with the spirit of the age. But to perthe opponents measured their strength with ceive and comprehend this better, we must each other for life and death. It was an refer back to the primitive judicial system ordeal of God, an open and energetic mode of the Germans, and prosecute its entire of deciding the quarrel which reason and development in the middle ages. argument could no longer terminate, and The German judicial system like every this decision was regarded as that of justice other, the object of which is to furnish a and good right. civil community with order and well being, We have already seen that besides this, was based upon the principle that peace the cities excited by these continual wars should reign between all its members. Thus, of the Fehde, or Faustrecht, between the whosoever had broken the peace by murder, princes and nobility, were aroused to a full fire, robbery, &c., (so did nature interpret development of their powers, and that, and decree to the Germans-who desired together with industrial activity, both man- not only justice but speedy justice,) it was ly virtue and the feeling of civil honor had not necessary to cite the criminal before a become firmly united, and more and more tribunal, but the offended party was at energetically brought into action. When, liberty to prosecute retaliation until the therefore, the citizen was at home, within former made compensation, either by monthe walls of his own city, he lived in perfect ey or otherwise. Thence this ancient and security and full of confidence in the cour- original right of the freed man served to age of his fellow-citizens; and when he found the collective feudal system. The was travelling he protected and defended individual who had committed the crime himself with his own arms, assisted by his might be himself attacked on the same day numerous suite, with which, whenever and immediately after it occurred; but possible, he took care to provide himself. subsequently, when the feudal code became The peasant was forced to suffer most better regulated, a previous announcement in these feuds, and his condition was sadly of three days was necessary. When; howdeplorable during this period. The battle ever, the offender offered reparation of honwas most generally fought upon his ground, or and right, that is to say, a just restitution, and thus his plantations became destroyed, there was then no longer cause to seek while he himself was defenceless and with- justice by force of arms. out arms, not having even the right to bear In the earlier periods of German antiquithem; being held unworthy of such honor ty, when all justice proceeded directly from, unless he was wholly or at least half freed. and rested in the grand and mighty union 198 THE MIDDLE AGES. of all the freed men, there existed no other much as they by their summons issued to law but the common law practised by the all their officials in the districts they ruled, count, together with the community of his and by the aid of their own vassals, were Gau or district, the Centgrave or centenary, enabled to command the necessary respect and the Decanus or tything man, at the being shown to their authority. The first head of the communities of their jurisdic- Salic emperors strove, it is true, to weaken tion. Every judge held regularly, and at and overthrow the ducal authority in order certain periods of the year, his Echte Ding, to procure a more immediate influence for or court of session. Every defendant was the imperial power, but it was exactly in compelled to appear, the complaints were the powerful authority invested in these made, the judge required the verdict of the emperors that justice and order found their community, and what these decided by their support. But the long and unfortunate foreman, who was called on for that pur- reign of Henry IV., who was continually pose by the judge, the latter declared as at war with the Saxons, as well as with sentence. The community consequently his rivals to the imperial throne, and finally founded the law which became absolute for with his own sons, was the cause of the all similar cases subsequently, and every abandonment of justice once more and of its freeman took a part in its legislation. Char- becoming a prey to violence. lemagne first introduced the Schffen, whose Not but that the majority of the Hohenoffice it was to attend at every court held, staufens possessed dignity and personal auin order to refer to ancient precedents. If thority enough to re-establish order, but all the condemned refused to submit to the sen- their energies being directed towards Italy, tence, the judge himself, together with the the inclination so general in Germany for whole judicial community, were obliged to the Faustrecht could therefore be put into see the sentence executed. Thus the whole practice more easily, especially as the powsystem was based upon the equalized er of the dukes, by the jealousy of the emstrength of the individuals, and the firm perors, and of Frederick I. in particular, union of the collective community. Char- was now destroyed. The emperors, indeed, lemagne by his power knew how to main- now sought to place themselves more imtain order, and prevent each from taking mediately at the head of the judicial power, the law in his own hands. Under his reign and by maintaining its dispensation themno private or distinct feud was heard of. selves, endeavored to cause its authority to But Louis the Pious, with his sons, soon be respected by their princes and counts. afterwards gave already an example of vio- For this purpose Frederick I. established the lence, and under the later Carlovingians the Landfriede, or peace of the country, which count lost all his judicial authority, and was re-established by Frederick II., in with it, likewise, vanished more and more 1235; but the confusion in the rights and the power of the communities; for, on the possessions of the princes being already too one hand, the clergy, the monasteries, and great, the individual princes and nobles opthe high nobility, with their vassals, began posed each other in constant feuds. Those to assume to themselves particular privi- wars had acquired even a more regular leges which removed them from the ordi- form by the ordinance of Frederick I., which nary jurisdiction of the communities, and, at decreed that the declaration of war should the same time, exempted them from the be announced three days previously, and duty of making the disobedient attend to thus each knight was enabled to find greater the sentence pronounced thereby; and, on opportunity to secure himself against the the other, the necessary general equality judicial power of his superior. of the community was destroyed by the After this law, opposition to justice, and preponderating authority acquired by the private feuds which, in earlier times, owing princes, counts, and lords. to the vigor and strength of the institutions, A superior power-that of a duke-be- existed only as exceptions, became now of came then requisite in order to restore the vig- regular and established occurrence. The or of the courts. Ever since the first empe- baneful spirit of disorder took the upper rors of the house of Saxony, Henry and Otho, hand at the period of the Interregnum, and had created dukes and raised them to their spread its dominion everywhere around, proper position, the judicial courts became while the noble chivalric feeling of honor also restrengthened and improved; inas- and virtue which was still maintained THE REICHSFRIEDE-JURISPRUDENCE. 199 under the Hohenstaufens, gradually dis- authority over real property and life. In appeared, and rude and brutal violence the centgraviates (which were called, in became more and more intolerant and op- Lower Saxony and in Westphalia, Gogepressive. richie) there was only a petty court of jusSeveral of the emperors, whom the next tice, to which the nobles (Semperfreien) division of our history will name, endeav- were not subject; for, throughout the ored to remove and overcome these evils. whole of the middle ages, we find mainRudolphus, or Rodolph of Hapsburg, re- tained the rule, that every one, to whatnewed, in several diets, the law for the soever class he belonged, could be adjudged Landfrieden, (or peace of the country,) and only by his equals; so that the general strove to strengthen it by the association of grand principle of the administration of several districts, as, for instance, West- justice by the communities, from the highphalia, Lower Saxony, Thuringia, Hessia, est to the lowest, continued to form the Bavaria, and Swabia. This was, in real- basis of all judicial proceedings throughity, a new mode of giving strength to jus- out Germany. The emperor could pass tice, after it was found that the authority no sentence which the princes and nobles of the courts, the dukes, and even that of had not approved; and in the class of peasthe emperors had successively lost all ants, even in the courts of law, among feupower. But in a country which was di- datories and vassals, no lord and no supevided into so many petty dominions, these rior authority could adjudge capriciously unions only fostered too easily a party and arbitrarily, inasmuch as it was necesspirit, and consequently led to much injus- sary to have the approbation of the commutice. The temporal nobles and knights, nity. Justice, therefore, remained the livespecially in the southwest of Germany, ing property of the people, and its code took advantage thereof, to oppose and make was formed by custom and descent, from war against all those powerful cities, which among themselves. Written laws, indeed, had also concluded alliances together. To were held in dread and suspicion, for then which followed very speedily, continued the proceedings would have fallen into the dissensions and disputes upon the subject hands of those learned in jurisprudence. of the election of the emperors, and claims The church alone was ruled by written to inheritance in several countries: in laws, and almost in every thing by the RoLuneburg, Hessia, the Tyrol, &c.; dur- man code. Wherever solitary written ing which the nobility received greater laws were found, such as privileges, prinweight, and could arrogate to themselves ciples of jurisprudence and rights, for the right of justice. The emperor Wen- cities or particular districts, they were of ceslas and his successors endeavored to such trifling import in their incomplete unite all these various associations into one state, that, far from being so constituted as grand alliance of a Reichsfriede, (or peace to form sources of right and fountains of of the empire,) and thus restore a superior justice, they only served as testimonies to authority, but in vain. It was not until prove that the true law lived exclusively towards the fifteenth century, when the in the people. nobility were obliged by degrees to yield The first collection of German laws was to the power of the territorial princes, and formed by a Saxon nobleman, Epke or when, especially, the vigor of chivalry was Eike von Repgow, between 1215-18, and broken by the development of a new epoch, which is known under the name of Sachthat, at length, a solid and durable founda- senspiegel or Saxon Mirror. It was a mere tion was laid for the dominion of justice, private labor; but as the collection was by the emperor Maximilian's fixed law of more complete than the hitherto so-called the Reichsfriede, which secured the public laws, it came by degrees into general pracpeace forever. tice, particularly in the fourteenth and fif. We will now trace the prominent fea- teenth centuries. The compiler was total. tures of the forms of judicial proceedings, ly ignorant of the Roman code, and did not und of the laws in the middle ages. Origi- therefore adapt his composition to it, either nally, the superior court of jurisdiction in form or matter; but those who revised was held only in the particular county it subsequently, introduced much of the which, in the name of the king, or under Roman canon law. Among the compilathe Konigsbann, exercised high judicial tions, we must include the Schwabenspiegel 200 THE MIDDLE AGES. or Swabian Mirror, and the Kaiserrecht or appointed to watch especially that justice Imperial Code, the latter of which, in par- was done. For this purpose he created a ticular, contains the feudal system. Freigraf or free count, who was invested The Roman law was evidently intro- with authority by the emperors, or dukes, duced by the clergy into Germany, and and, after the fall of Henry the Lion, he was adopted in the ecclesiastical courts. was appointed by the archbishop of CoIt was only in the fifteenth century that logne, as inheritor of the duchy of Westthe municipal courts commenced referring phalia. The free count stood in the same to it. The reawakened taste for the study affinity to the Stuhlherr as the judge or of Roman antiquity, in general, brought judicial lord; the Freischoffen, however, with it also a desire to investigate and were not servants of the judge, but they make researches into the Roman law-books, represented the ancient community or jury, particularly in the universities; and they and the free count was only the president commenced, in doubtful cases, to procure or foreman who maintained order in the opinions and legal decisions, as well from assembly. All the Freischiffen present the doctors of the universities as from the possessed the right to participate in prosuperior courts. The influence which the nouncing judgment; a less number than gradual introduction of the Roman law had seven members could not form a court, and upon the public affairs of Germany, will if there were too many to enable all to become more and more evident as we pro- take an immediate part in the proceedings, ceed in the course of our history. the remainder formed the audience, of Before we conclude our description of whom, in the later and more splendid pethe state of judicial affairs in the middle riods of this tribunal, there were assemages, we will contemplate one of its most bled hundreds and even thousands. Beremarkable institutions, namely, that of the sides this, every free count had his clerks, Vehm or Femgericht, (secret executive tri- who were called Fronboten, and were apbunal,) which formed itself in Westphalia, pointed to serve him especially, taking no and which gives us a profound view of the share in the decisions of the court. spirit of that period. But for the sake of The superior Freistuhl or tribunal was connection, we must previously enter upon at Dortmund, that city being a free city of and anticipate the limits of the immediate the empire, and acknowledging no Stuhlsucceeding period. herr or judicial lord, owing, perhaps, to In Westphalia the jurisdiction of the the antiquity and celebrity of its tribunal, princes and nobles was wholly founded as well as the aboriginal privileges it had upon the Gogerichte or Centgraviates. The acquired in the time of Charlemagne. In ancient tribunal, however, of the Graf or Dortmund all the free counts assembled count had also maintained itself, although every year to meet a general chapter, much diminished in authority, as the su- where they founded Weisthimer, or prinpreme and royal court. The high nobility ciples of law, examined the judgments of and the families comprising the original the free courts, and confirmed or put them free land proprietors, who had continued aside when an appeal was entered. free from fiefs and had never become the As these tribunals drew their origin from vassals of the dominant lords, could alone those of the ancient county courts, it will be chosen as Schoffen or ministers in this be readily perceived that they exercised a court; they being called on that account jurisdiction over ordinary legal disputes Freischoffen, or free ministers and judges, which we call civil actions, as also over and the court was styled a free court or penal cases, which presuppose a crime. tribunal. But this last division of their office, at that Again, as the rights of the free tribunals time so important, became still more so in -were attached to the primitive rights of the the course of time, in order to enable them ancient jurisdiction of the counties, so also to exercise their whole power, in supthose of the Stuhlherr were connected with pressing as much as possible the savage the Freistuhils or free courts; for the term spirit existing so universally and among Stuhlherr was applied to every prince, all classes, to commit the most serious noble, and knight, who as judicial lord pos- crimes against life, honor, and property. sessed a jurisdiction which did not depend And as they adjudged in the name of the upon the emperor. The Stuhlherr was emperor, and by thelaw of life and death, THE VEHMGERICHT, OR SECRET TRIBUNAL. 201 they thought that in all criminal affairs greeting, whereby they recognised each they could extend their jurisdiction beyond other; whence, or perhaps from their knowthe limits of Westphalia, more especially ledge of the laws, they were called the inias not another tribunal existed throughout tiated, and in order to make any one knowtihe empire so authorized, from which to ing or wise implied receiving him among obtain justice against criminals. In fact, the Schbffen of the superior tribunal; even such influence did this tribunal command, emperors were subjected to this reception, that at length no cases of contention, nor for in the year 1429 the emperor Sigiseven purely civil disputes arose which mund was solemnly received among the could not be brought before them for de- initiated, at the Freistuhl of Dortmund. cision, if the defendant refused to do jus- We may consider these courts of justice in tice and honor to the plaintiff; for thence Westphalia at this brilliant moment of their the crime became one absolutely confirmed existence, when almost all the princes, against the sanctity of the law. nobles, and knights, became Freisch5ffen, Thus in the fourteenth and fifteenth as an absolute and important association, centuries the power of the Freigerichte ex- which in all its ramifications spread over tended over all parts of Germany, as far the whole of Germany, and which, at a as Prussia and Livonia; while all com- time when all the other courts had lost plaints, even from the most distant districts, their power, acted as a substitute, and conwere obliged to be brought before a West- stituted a barrier against the rude and phalian superior tribunal, and it was upon brutal force of crime. A solemn oath Westphalian ground (styled in the judicial held all the members united, and not even language the red earth) that the cited per- in the confessional were they suffered to son was forced to appear. Beyond West- reveal a secret of the Vehm tribunal; neiphalia no such Freistuhl could exist, and ther were the clergy themselves admitted when the emperor Wenceslas endeavored into it. to introduce one into Bohemia, the free Originally the non-initiated were not tacounts declared that any one participating ken at once before the secret tribunal, but in such a Freistuhl incurred the penalty of before the ancient tribunal of the commudeath. Thus originally it was Westpha- nity or jury court, (the Echte Ding,) but lians alone, and of these only the ancient that was formed by the same individuals; free-born Schbfen or Stuhtfreien that could the forms only were less severe, and likebe constituted judges in the tribunal; but wise there every one could be present. in the thirteenth century it was the custom But if the cited individual did not appear, to receive also other free, irreproachable, he was then taken before the closed or seand honorable men as Schojfen, and when cret court, so called because only those the court itself extended its jurisdiction initiated could be present, and any nonbeyond the boundaries of Westphalia, every initiated one venturing to introduce himfree German could become a Freischoffe, self was immediately hanged. The term and princes, counts, knights, and citizens, secret here, therefore, implies closed court, strove to attain the honor of participating and does not indicate those terrible rnysin the privileges of Freischoffen. A Frei- teries which dared not be exhibited before schoffe could be cited only before a Frei- the light of day. gericht or fiee tribunal, and great weight It is equally as fabulous that these triwas laid upon his word and oath. But bunals were held at night in woods, cavthey were very careful and strict in their erns, and subterranean vaults, although in election of a Freischoffe; he was obliged later times, when this court had become to prove that he was free born, of a good degenerated, it may have occurred in isofamily, not suspected of any misdeeds, and lated cases. But the place of meeting was was in the enjoyment of all his rights, and the ancient palace court of the grafs or finally two Freischiffen were obliged to counts, generally upon a mountain or hill, become his security. The reception could whence the eye could command a view of take place only in Westphalia. Even the the entire country around, under the shade emperor himself could make Freischoffen of lime-trees, and by the light of the sun. only upon the so-called red earth, in this The free graf or count ascended and presuperior court. They had among them a sided on the seat of justice; before him lay very ancient secret sign and peculiar the sword, the symbol of supreme justice, 26 202 THE MIDDLE AGES. at the same time representing in the form either, the sentence of the Vehm, which of its handle the cross of Christ, and the was equivalent to condemnation, was pronext to it the Wyd, or cord, as a sign of nounced against him; and thence these right over life and death. The count then courts received the name of Vehmgerichte. opened and closed the court, that is, he The sentence pronounced by the court called the Schiffen around him and as- was dreadful: "As now N. has been cisigned to them their places. They were ted, prosecuted, and adjudged before me, obliged to appear bareheaded and without and who, on account of his misdeeds, I arms or armor. Upon the judges' declara- summoned before me, and who is so hardtion that the court was opened, peace was ened in evil, that he will obey neither hon. commanded for the first, second, and third or nor justice, and despises the highest time. From that moment the deepest si- tribunal of the holy empire, I verfeme, or lence reigned throughout the assembly, no denounce him here, by all the royal power one ventured to argue or converse, for by and force, as is but just, and as is comso doing he transgressed against the solemn manded by the Kjnigsbann, or royal ban. decreed peace of the tribunal. The cited I deprive him, as outcast and expelled, of person, who was also obliged to appear all the peace, justice, and freedom he has without arms, stepped forward, accompa- ever enjoyed since he was baptized; and nied by his two sureties or bail, if he had I deprive him, henceforward, of the enjoyany. The complaint made against him ment of the four elements, which God made was stated to him by the judge, and if he and gave as a consolation to man, and deswore upon the cross of the sword, the le- nounce him as without right, without law, gal oath of purification, he was free: " He without peace, without honor, without seshall then take a Kreuzpfennig, or farthing curity; I declare him condemned and lost, piece," says an ancient work on jurispru- so that any man may act towards him as dence, " throw it at the feet of the court, with any other banished criminal. And turn round and go his way. Whoever at- he shall henceforward be considered untacks or touches him, has then, which all worthy, and shall enjoy neither law nor freemen know, broken the king's peace." justice, nor have either freedom in, or Such was the ancient proceeding with the guidance to any castles or cities, exceptgenuine Freischdffen, who enjoyed par- ing consecrated places. And I herewith ticular privileges, and who were presumed curse his flesh and his blood; and may to have a strict love for truth and honor. his body never receive burial, but may it In later times that simple straightforward be borne away by the wind, and may the way seems to have become quite changed, ravens and crows, and wild birds of prey for we read in other ancient codes that the consume and destroy him. And I adjudge plaintiff was entitled to oppose and destroy his neck to the rope, and his body to be the validity of the purifying oath of the devoured by the birds and beasts of the air, defendant by three witnesses, which, how- sea, and land; but his soul I commend to ever, the latter could again oppose with our dear Lord God, if He will receive six; if the accuser appeared with fourteen, it." the defendant could swear himself free According to some customs, after he had with twenty-one, which was the highest cast forth the rope beyond the walls of the testimony. If the defendant acknowledged court, the count was obliged to pronounce the crime, or if the plaintiff convicted him these words three times, and every time to by oath and witnesses, the Schiffen then spit on the earth with the collective Schofgave judgment. If the criminal received fen, as was the usage when any one was sentence of death he was executed imme- actually executed. The name of the condiately and hanged on the next tree; the demned criminal was then inserted in the minor punishments were exile and fine. book of blood, and the count then conBut if the defendant did not appear upon cluded the sentence as follows: " I comthe third citation, and could produce no mand all kings, princes, lords, knights, and satisfactory cause of absence within a squires, all free counts, and all free, true stipulated period, he was considered as Schoffen, and all those who belong to the having confessed his crime, or as one de- holy empire, that they shall help with all spising justice and peace, and, therefore, their power to fulfil this sentence upon this having placed himself beyond the pale of banished criminal, as is but just to the se THE VEHMGERICHT, OR SECRET TRIBUNAL. 203 cret tribunal of the holy empire. And no- classes, (for we find examples of common thing shall cause them to withhold from so freemen, mechanics, and citizens, being doing, neither love nor affection, relation- clothed with the dignity of a free count, ship, friendship, nor any thing whatever in and that even princes and knights did not this world." disdain to assist as Schoffen under their The banished man was now in the con- presidency,) such a society whose members dition of the criminal condemned to death, recognised each other by secret signs, and over whom execution lowered. Whosoever by a solemn oath were bound to support received or even warned him, was also each other, who adjudged and punished in takers before the tribunal of the free count. the name of the emperor and the empire, The assisting members of the court were who reached the criminal even after an bound by a terrible oath, and by a heavy elapse of years, and in whatever corner he sentence of death, to conceal the judgment might seek refuge, and finally who were which had been passed against any one; not subjected to give any account for what that is to say, to make it known to nobody they did if only the terrific knife was presbut one initiated; and even if the con- ent as evidence: what power, we repeat, demned man was a brother or father, the did not this alliance command against the member durst not warn him thereof. Be- evil-minded, and what a powerful support sides which, each initiated one to whom the and guarantee might it not have been for sentence was authentically conveyed, was the peace and justice of the empire? The bound to help to put it in execution. Gen- prince or knight who easily escaped the erally a letter of outlawry was given to judgment of the imperial court, and from the plaintiff, with the seal of the free count behind his fortified walls defied even the and seven Schoffen, that he might pursue emperor himself, trembled when in the sithe guilty party; the oath of three Frei- lence of the night he heard the voices of schoffen sufficed to confirm the sentence. the Freischoffen at the gate of his castle, Wherever the Verfemte, or banished man and when the free count summoned him to was found, whether in a house, in the open appear at the ancient malplatz or plain, unstreet, the high road, or in the forest, he der the lime-tree, or on the bank of a rivuwas hanged at the next tree or post, if the let upon that dreaded soil, the Westphalian servants of the secret court could obtain or red ground.* And that the power of possession of him. As a sign that he was these free counts was not exaggerated by put to death in execution of the holy Vehm, the mere imagination, excited by terror, nor and was not murdered by robbers, they left in reality by any means insignificant, is him all that he bore about him, and stuck a proved by a hundred undeniable examples, knife in the ground close beside him. Be- supported by records and testimonies, that sides this, the Schoffen of this secret court numerous princes, counts, knights, and possessed the privilege of hanging without wealthy citizens, were seized by these a trial every criminal taken in the [fact, if, SchBffen of the secret tribunal, and in exefaithful to the laws of honor, they took no- cution of its sentence, perished by their thing from him which they found about hands. him, and left behind the sign of the Vehm. Such power placed in human hands withWe are astonished when we contemplate out the protecting check of publicity and this terrific and mighty power of the Schif- responsibility could not long exist without fen alliance, and can at the same time easily comprehend how the most extraor- We must add here, that the summons was executed by two Sch6ffen who were the bearers of the free dinary traditions of this Vehmgericht, or count's letter. If they did not succeed in finding the secret tribunal, based upon their nocturnal accused, because he was living either in a city or a fortress, where they could not safely enter, they were auassemblies, their mysterious customs, their thorized to execute the summons in the night. They initiation and course of justice, together stuck the letter, enclosing a farthing piece, in the panel n. d. j c. to. e' t-. of the gate of the castle, and cut off three chips from with their condemnation and execution of the same gate, which they handed to the free count as the criminal, have been preserved in the a testimony that they had delivered the summons, having, when leaving the gate, cried out to the sentinel on mouths of the people, for even the plain the walls that they had deposited there a letter for his historical descriptions thereof are sufficient- lord. If the accused was a man without any regular place of residence, and if he could not be met with, he ly striking. An association of several thou- was summoned at four different cross roads, where at sand men spread throughout the whole of each point, the east, west, north, and south, they attached a summons, enclosing in each the royal petty Germany, from the highest to the lowest coin. 204 THE MIDDLE AGES-RUDOLPHUS I. OF HAPSBURG. misuse. In the great development and ex- study of law and jurisprudence became tension of the association, it could not be substituted for a knowledge of the ancient avoided, but that unworthy individuals customs; and when crimes against the should be received as members, who used peace of the land and against obedience to the power confided to them for the sole satis- the authorities ceased, then did the power faction of their revengeful and baser pas- of the secret tribunal evaporate of itself sions. At the end of the fifteenth century without any formal abrogation, so that many complaints arose in several parts of it is equally difficult to trace the last as it the empire, and particularly on the part of is to fix the first year of its existence.* the clergy, against these free courts; and we find that the whole spirit of modern In the sixteenth century, the association contended times began to work against them far more for its rights and privileges, and the struggle still continued in the seventeenth century, although much than these charges upon isolated events. weakened and the scene confined to Westplalia. In The power of the lords of the soil had now the eighteenth century there were left only a few traces, the ruins of the past; its recollections and its become increased and confirmed; they signs, however, still continue to exist among the peascould not endure that their subjects should ants of certain provinces in Westphalia. At Gehmen bejudged byt andure strange, althosug s o ally in Miinster, the secret tribunal was only extinguished be judged by a strange, although originally entirely by the French legislation in 1811; and even to imperial tribunal. Thence arose alliances the present day, some of the free peasants who have taken the oath of the Schoffen, meet annually at a parof princes, nobles, knights, and cities, ticular spot around the Freistuhl, and it has been imagainst the Westphalian courts, and when possible to extract from them the secret oath. The principal signs are indicated by the letters S. S. G. G., the law for the lasting peace of the land, which signify stock (stick,) stein (stone,) gras (grass,) the new imperial chamber of justice, and grein (tears;) but we cannot trace the mysterious meaning these words convey in connection with the a new criminal court were introduced, the Vehmgericht. FIFTH PERIOD. FROM RUDOLPHUS I. OF HAPSBURG TO CHARLES V. 1273-1520 THE sources of the history of this period are again 12. John of Trittenheim, (Joannes Trithemius,) -till more scanty than in that of the Hohenstaufens, from the vicinity of Treves, abbot of Sponheim and consisting chiefly of special chronicles rather than of Wiirzburg, who died in 1516: his works are very imgeneral historical works, constituting one entire and portant, and have been edited by Freher. The most continuous representation of events, added to which valuable among them is the Chronicle of the Monasthey are all, or for the greater portion, written in the tery of Hirschau in Wurtemberg (published at St. Latin tongue. The first we have to mention are those Gallen in 1630; Chronic. Hirsaugiense) 830-1514; in works of general history which appear in the form of which the historian has interwoven the whole history chronicles or annals, and which present but a meager of Germany. portion of German history. The most important are: 13. Albert Kranz, canon in Hamburg, who died in 1. i-ermann, a monk of Attaich, known under the 1517, wrote the history of Northern Germany, in three name of tHenricus Sterv; Chronicle 1147-1300. parts: Metropolis, Saxonia, et Vandalia; a learned 2. Annales Colmarienses, 1211-1303; in the collec- man, and, for his time, an independent thinker. tion of Urstisius. As especial and entire works on Germany may be 3. Matthias of Neuenburg; Chronicle as far as 1353, mentioned: continued by Albert of Strasburg (Albertus Argenti- 14. The State letters of the Emperor Rudolphus I.; nensis) to 1378; in lUrstisius. edited by Gerbert, 1772, and Bodmann. 1806. 4. John Vitododuranus; Chron. 1215-1348; inEccard. 15. The Biography, &c., of the Emperors Rudolphus 5. Gobelinus Persona, deacon of Birkefeld Review I., and Albert I., written by Gottfried of Ensningen, by of the World (Cosmodromium) to 1418; in Meebom. desire of Magnus Engelhard, a citizen of Strasburg. 6. Dieterich Engelhusen; Chronicle to the year 1420 16. Albert Mussatus, professor in Padua, and who in Leibnitz and Menken. died in 1330, wrote De Gestis Henrici VII. Imp., and 7. Andreas, a Presbyterian of Ratisbon; Chronicle History of Italy, after the death of Henry VII. to 1442; in Eccard. 17. Caroli IV., Commentarius de vita sua ad filios. 8. Werner Rolewink of Laer, a Carthusian monk in 18. Eneas Sylvius Piccolorini, subsequently Pope Cologne; Chronicle to 1476, continued by Hans Lind- Pius II., and who died in the year 1464, produced: ner to 1514; in Pistorius. a. The history of his own times from 1405-63, which 9. Hermann Korner, Domin, in Liibeck; Chronicle he caused to be written by his own private secretary, to 1435; in Eccard. J. Gobelin, of Bonn. 10. Hartmann Schedel, a doctor in Nuremberg; b. The history of the ecclesiastical council of Basle, Chronicle to 1492; printed separately. written by himself; as also 11. John Nauklerus, professor in Tiubigen; Universal c. The history of the Emperor Frederick III and History, to 1500; printed separately. d. Various minor works, among wl dch the iescrip RUDOLPHUS I.-HIS GOOD AND NOBLE CHARACTER. 205 tio de Ritu, Situ, Moribus et Conditione Germanise, Frankfort, in order to choose an emperor and numerous letters, all of which have been collected and repeatedly printed.who should meet the views of every one. 19. Pertz's Scripta rerum Austriac. contains many It was necessary that he should be great valuable sources for the history of the Austrian empe- a rors. and wise, in order that he might restore 20. J. Joach. Miiller has collected the most impor- the imperial dignity; but at the same time tant transactions of the diets of the Germanic empire, especially of those under Frederick III. and Maximil- not powerful, lest the princes should have ian I., published in Jena, 1709, and subsequently. reason of apprehension for the security of In the tburteenth and fifteenth centuries we find historical works in the German language become their own power. To unite both requisites mnore firequent: was a difficult matter; however, good for21. Ottocar of Hornegk wrote a Chronicle in rhyme,was a difficult matter; however, good frwhich contains the entire epoch of the Interregnum tune determined the election to the advanand the history of the Emperors Rudolphus, Adolphus, tage of the country. In Switzerland lived Albert, and Henry VII., as far as 1309; a work which although not strictly historical, is nevertheless worthy Count Rudolphus of Hapsburg, whose terto be referred to as a history of those times. It is re- ritories and subjects were not very extenprinted in Pertz's History of Austria. 22. Jacob of Konigshoven, an ecclesiastic in Stras- sive or numerous, but who by his valor, burg, who died in 1420, wrote a Chronicle of Alsace udence, and integr ad obtained te and Strasburg in the Swabian dialect, which was ed-prudence and ntegrity, had obtained the ited by.chilter, and published with his notes in 1698. respect of the higher orders, and of the 23. Eberhard Windeck, of Mentz, private secretary gene to the Emperor Sigismund, wrote a biography of that people generally. He had been formerly monarch; in Menken. the companion and friend of the emperor 24. J. Rothe, domin. in Eisenach, wrote a Chronicle aied of th e o of Thuringia, in the low Saxon dialect, as far as 1434; Frederick II., who in the year 1218, had continued by an anonymous writer to 1440.personally stood godfather to him and in 25. The Limpurgian Chronicle from 1336-89, which. contains much, especially of the history of manners, one of his campaigns in Italy, possibly customs, &c., and has been several times reprinted. after the glorious battle at Cortenuova, had 20. Conrad Bothe, chronicler of the Saxons to 1489, in the low German dialect; in Leibnitz. conferred upon him the order of knight27. Diebold Schilling about 1480, history of the wars hood. During the turbulent time of the of Burgundy; very well written. 28. Melchior Pfinzing (of Nuremberg born in 1481, Interregnum, he lived on his family esIm7erial Counsellor, and subsequently Provost in tates, and defended, to the utmost of his Imperial Counsellor, and subsequently Provost in Mentz) sang the history of the Emperor Maximiliand defended, to the utmost of his I., under an adopted title: "Geuerlichkeiten and Ge- power, all who required his assistance schichten des liblichen streitbaren Helds und Ritters against the opression and injustice of the Tewrdanks." Nuremberg, 1517, and subsequently pression an ust often reprinted. rapacious knights. He was for a long 9. Marcus Treizsauerwein, private secretary to theprotector and governor of the cities Emperor Maximilian I., has presented us likewise time the protector and governor ofthe cities with a description of that monarch's great deeds in his of Zurich and Strasburg, and of the towns work: der Weiskunig, 1514; and for which the empe-. ror himself furnished much of the materials. situated at the foot of the Alps of St. Gott30. Bilibald Pirkheimer (of Eichtstdt, born 1470, hard. In his manners he displayed the Counsellor in Nuremberg, and subsequently Imperial Counsellor, died in 1530) wrote his: Hist. belli Helvet- natural simplicity and frankness of a good ici, and Currus triumphalis, honori Max. I. inventus; and noble man; and in a letter addressed together with many other works. 31. Finally, we must mention two works by Sebas- to the pope, the archbishop of Cologne, tian Franks, (born 1500, died 1545,) the Zeitbuch, 1531, when speaking of him, says: " He reveres the church, he is a lover of justice, a man of prudent counsels and piety, beloved of.. -- — God and man, possessing an agreeable form and countenance, and which although rCHAPTER XII. of a stern expression, still when he speaks is invested with an air of affability which IMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES.-1273-1347. inspires confidence; he possesses besides, a hardy constitution, and in his wars Rudolphus I. of Hapsburg, 1273-91-Adolphus I. of a inst fait, a awas an Nassau, 1292-98-Albert I. of Austria, 1298-1308- against te faithless he has always been Switzerland-Confederation of the Swiss-Gessler- successful." William Tell-Henry VII. of Luxemburg, 1308-13Frederick of Austria 1314-30, ad Lewis of Bavaria, He was more especially held in high 1314-47-Switzerland-the Battle of Morgarten, 1315 esteem by Werner, archbishop of Mentz, -The Battle of Muhldorf 1322-The First Electoral Alliance, 1338-Death of Lewis, 1347. for when on one occasion this prelate took a journey to Rome for the purpose of receivTHE state of commotion in Germany ing his archbishop's robe, deeming the continued to grow daily more violent; and passage through the mountains of Switzerwhen, in 1272, Richard of England died, land unsafe, he besought Count Rudolphus and Alphonso took not the least interest in to escort him from Strasburg to the Alps the German empire, the princes at length, and back. This Rudolphus did with all in the year 1273, held an imperial diet at the chivalric faith of a true knight. During 206 THE CORONATION-RUDOLPHUS AND OTTOCAR OF BOHEMIA. the journey the archbishop became gradu- tentatious as before. So little did he regard ally acquainted with his great and rare external display and magnificent apparel, virtues, and when he was about to leave his that he did not hesitate, especially in his noble defender, he said, that he only wished great expeditions, to wear, equally with his to live long enough to be able in some de- companions in arms, an inferior cloak, and gree to reward him for his services; and even with his own hands to repair his own this opportunity had now arrived. IHe so doublet. Once only we find, by his acurgently recommended Count Rudolphus counts, that he bestowed a large sum of of Hapsburg for the imperial dignity, money upon dress for himself, his consort, that the German princes elected him at and children, which occurred on the occaonce to the throne of the empire. sion of his first interview with the pope. Rudolphus, who little expected such an In order that he might at once heal and elevation, was at that moment engaged in eradicate the disorders of the kingdom, he war with the city of Basle, in order to re- sent the following communication to all the instate in that city, that portion of the no- vassals and loyal subjects of his realm: " I bility who called themselves the "Sterners," now intend, by the blessing of God, to reand who had been expelled by the other establish peace throughout this country so party, the "Psittichers." It was at midnight long distracted, and to take under my prothat the burgrave of Nuremberg, Fred- tection against farther -tyranny all those erick of Hohenzollern, Rudolphus's bro- who have hitherto groaned under oppres. ther-in-law, arrived at the camp, and sion; to promote which object I confide in brought the unexpected intelligence. Ru- the efficient co-operation of my estates." dolphus, at first, did not believe it; but He suited the action to the word, and when the marshal of the empire, Henry of travelled throughout the countries of FranPappenheim, arrived, he sent the burgrave conia, Swabia, and the borders of the into the city, with an offer of peace to the Rhine, and wherever he met with a peacecitizens, he being now, as he said, the more breaker who would not conform to order, he powerful party. They accepted it with punished him with all the severity of the gladness, and were the first to congratulate law. This was the case especially with him upon his elevation. He then went to regard to the more petty robbers and disFrankfort, and thence to Aix-la-Chapelle, turbers; but Rudolphus clearly perceived, where he was publicly crowned. After that if the imperial dignity was to be the coronation the princes present, accord- clothed with its original and proper imporing to the ancient custom, rendered homage tance, the great princes must likewise be to the new emperor for their estates. It so compelled to perform their duties, and pay happened, that there was no sceptre at him due homage. King Ottocar, of Bohand, probably because, owing to the many hemia, however, would hear nothing of any foreign emperors, and the consequent such subjection to the emperor; he was a changes in the government, the state jewels much more powerful prince than the count were dispersed; great concern was, there- of Hapsburg, possessing in addition to Bofore, manifested, as to what the emperor heria, also the Austrian estates, which, after could possibly use for performing the cere- the extinction of the ducal house of Babenmony of enfeoffment. Rudolphus there- berg, he had obtained partly by inheritance upon removed the difficulty,'and snatching and partly by money and force of arms, up a crucifix, he employed that instead of and he by no means felt bound to yield. the sceptre: " For," said he, " a symbol by Moreover, the Austrian estates complained which the world was redeemed, may well bitterly of his tyranny and oppression. supply the place of a sceptre;" language Rudolphus, therefore, commenced by sumwhich pleased all present. moning Ottocar to appear at the imperial The new emperor began his reign with diet of Nuremberg, in 1274, there to take great rigor, but at the same time with such the usual oath of allegiance. But the paternal benevolence, that the meanest of king came neither then nor to a second diet his subjects experienced the good results at WUirzberg; and to a third held at Augstherefrorn: his new dignity effecting no burg, in the year 1275, he only sent change in the greatness and firmness of his Bernard, bishop of Seckau, as his reprecharacter; and even in his outward ap- sentative, who was, however, so daring as Dearance he remained as simple and unos- to begin a Latin speech in the presence of RUDOLPHUS'S GRAY DOUBLET-OTTOCAR'S HUMILIATION. 207 the assembled princes; in which he en- plicate on his knees for pardon, and to do deavored to prove that the emperor Ru- homage for his kingdom of Bohemia and dolphus's election was not legitimate. Moravia. Rudolphus however interrupted him, say- Hereupon the princes of the empire, as ing, " My lord bishop, if you have any usual after a terminated campaign, reaffairs to settle with my clergy, speak by turned home; but Rudolphus, who by no all means in Latin, but if you have to say means trusted the proud king, remained in ought touching me or the privileges of my Austria with his faithful Alsatian and empire, speak as is the custom, in the lan- Swabian knights, who continued attached guage of the country," and the princes, to him from the time when, under his orwhen they understood that he intended to ders as count of Hapsburg, they fought impeach Rudolphus's election to the em- with him in so many battles. And, in pire, could scarcely refrain from turning reality, very shortly afterwards Ottocar him out; but the bishop saved them the recommenced hostilities, thinking that Rutrouble by departing of his own accord, and dolphus had now no competent forces with he hastened away from Nuremberg. him. But the emperor with his small but The ban of the empire was now pro- valiant band boldly marched against his nounced against the rebellious Ottocar; but adversary, and maintained a most sanguihe was so insolent and faithless, that he nary battle, on the 26th of August, 1278, ordered the heralds who had brought to him at Marchfeld, on the other side of the the declaration of the ban, to be tied up at Danube. The victory was long doubtful, the gates of Prague. He, however, soon and Rudolphus himself was in great dansuffered the punishment due to him. Ru- ger, for among the Bohemian knights sevedolphus, in the year 1276, suddenly made ral had agreed and sworn to attack and an attack upon Austria, and subdued the destroy him. One of them, Henry of country as far as Vienna, which he be- Fullenstein, sprang upon him with his sieged. Ottocar encamped on the opposite couched lance, but the emperor avoided side of the Danube, thinking himself se- the stroke, and dexterously thrusting the cured by the width of the river; but Ru- point of his own spear through the aperdolphus, to the astonishment of all, so ture of his antagonist's helmet, he pierced quickly threw a bridge across, in order to his head, and he fell dead from his horse. attack and capture the king in his strong- At the same moment, however, a gigantic hold, that the latter, being greatly alarmed, Thuringian knight, who also belonged to immediately offered peace. Hewas obliged the conspirators, stabbed the horse of Ruto resign Austria, Styria, Carinthia, and dolphus, which fell to the ground, and its Carniola. And for the ratification of peace royal rider with difficulty protected hima marriage was contracted between the self with his shield from being trampled Bohemian crown prince, Wenzeslas, and under foot, until one of his own knights one of the six daughters of Rudolphus, and brought him another horse. Being again another between the son of the emperor mounted, and his general, Berthold Kapand a Bohemian princess.; -Ottocar then pier, bringing up now the rear-guard, he came to Rudolphus, in his encampment, to once more dashed against the enemy, obtain the feoffment of his estates. This who could no longer resist the attack, but scene did not pass without the humiliation was completely put to flight. Nevertheand shame of the proud king. He had less, although deserted by his army, Ottonoped by the splendor of his royal retinue car, as Rudolphus himself testifies, fought to eclipse the unostentatious emperor, but bravely to the last; until, with his horse, Rudolphus availed himself of this very cir- he was struck to the earth and killed by a cumstance in order to humble him: " The knight of Styria, whom he had formerly king of Bohemia has often laughed at my much injured and oppressed. When peace gray doublet," said he, "but to-day my gray was restored, the marriage between the doublet shall laugh at him." Accordingly, two royal houses was celebrated, and Boarrayed in his plain and simple attire, and heria was governed in trust for the chilseated upon the imperial throne, he re- dren of Ottocar by the margrave of Branceived the king, who, glitterirgin gold and denburg. purple, was now obliged, in the presence of Rudolphus, however, with the consent all the bishops and princes, to humbly sup- of the German princes, transferred Aus 208 INTERNAL TRANQUILLITY-DEATH OF RUDOLPHLS I. tria, as imperial fief, to his own house; ces might be found of those emperors who it was, in fact, a country reconquered by had entered it, but very few, if any, of his arms for the German empire; and one those who had quitted it." Nay, so little of the electoral princes, in a letter he did he follow out the plans of former kings wrote in approbation of this arrangement, with regard to Italy, that in a negotiation said-" That it was only just that Rudol- with the pope, Gregory X., he ceded all phus should convey over to his children, if the imperial right of interference within he thought fit, that principality which he the domain of the Church as in the present had reconquered for the empire with so day. Hence he could congratulate himmuch sacrifice of his own blood." Ac- self in beholding that destructive cause of cordingly, at an imperial diet held in incitement removed which impelled the Augsburg in 1282, the emperor took sol- emperors to make their expeditions into enm possession thereof, and in the presence Italy. of all the princes and nobles of the empire, Towards the latter end of his reign, Ruhe gave to his sons Albert and Rudolphus, dolphus was anxious, at an imperial diet the countries of Austria, Styria, Carniola, held at Frankfort in 1291, to have his own and Vienna; but Carinthia he gave to son Albert recognised by the princes as Meinhard, count of Tyrol, whose daugh- emperor of Germany; but the nobles, jealter his son Albert had married. Thus the ous and tired of the government of Rudolemperor Rudolphus became the founder phus, which had already become too vigorof the powerful house of Austria. ous and firm for them-inasmuch as it These affairs being settled, he was again, prevented them from following their own although far advanced in years, zealously selfish interests-thinking that Germany engaged in seeking to promote the tran- would cease to be an elective kingdom if quillity of the empire. He required the the son were allowed to succeed his father, counts, nobles, and cities of the several refused their consent to the proposal. Discountries throughout the empire to take an pleased with this ingratitude Rudolphus oath to preserve the public peace for the took his departure in disgust, and proceeded term of five years; and knowing well to Basle. that all who nourish evil intentions are He had now attained a great age, and never sufficiently bound by their word, he suffered much from infirmity and disease; himself journeyed through all the pro- so much so that, during the last year of his vinces, and routing the freebooter knights life, his physicians had only prolonged his from their castles and strongholds, com- existence by artificial means. One day, pletely destroyed them. Thus, on one while he was sitting at the chess-board, expedition to Thuringia, he razed sixty-six they announced to him the near approach such places, and executed twenty-nine of of his death. " Well then," he said, " let these brigand nobles; among those of the us away, my friends, to Spires, to the tomb most troublesome princes whom he pun- of the kings!" Accordingly he was careished was Count Eberhard of Wurtem- fully conveyed to the travelling equipage, berg, and whose motto was, " The friend and with his train set off and journeyed of God and enemy of the world;" him he along the Rhine; he did not, however, besieged in his own city of Stuttgard, and reach Spires, but died on the road, at Gerforced him to yield and to raze with his mersheim, on the 30th of September, 1291, own hands the walls of that his actual aged seventy-four. place of residence. On the other hand, His memory was so universally revered he suffered other persons of rank to build throughout Germany, that for a long time fortresses for their defence against the after his death it was common to say: "(No, freebooters, as in the case of the bishop of no, that is not acting with the honesty of Paderborn, who in 1290 was permitted to Rudolphus!" He was a warrior from his build two castles upon his domain. boyhood, and one of his dearest wishes as Hence the emperor Rudolphus was so a youth was that he might have the comfully employed in Germany, that he never mand of a German army of 40.000 infantry seriously contemplated going to Italy in and 4000 cavalry, for with such a force, order to be crowned king. He was also he said, he would have marched against accustomed to say that " Italy resembled a and faced the whole world. lion's den, in which it was true many tra- Several of the princes were not unfavor ADOLPHUS OF NASSAU-HIS DEATH-ALBERT I. OF AUSTRIA. 209 able to Albert of Austria, the son of Ru. righteous war against them-he whose dolphus, but Archbishop Gerhard of Mentz primary duty it was to maintain with all understood so to arrange matters that his his power and influence right and justice own cousin, Count Adolphus of Nassau, towards all. The brothers, however, rewas chosen emperor. Adolphus was in- gained a portion of their lands. deed a brave and valiant knight, and pos- Such unworthy proceedings had brought sessed many amiable qualities, but for such down upon Adolphus the hatred of Gera station he had neither sufficient tact, nor many; besides this, the fickle-minded archadequate power and influence. He held bishop, Gerhard of Mentz, was also dissaonly the moiety of the territory of Nassau, tisfied with him, because he found that he and his property was so insignificant that was deceived in the hopes he had cherished he could not even cover the expenses at- of making him subservient to his own intending the coronation; and when he tried terests. At his suggestion, therefore} a new to extricate himself from this difficulty by diet of all the princes and nobles was held, imposing a tax upon the Jews in Frankfort, and Adolphus was there deposed: inasmuch he was opposed by the mayor of that city; as he had desolated the churches, received Archbishop Gerhard, therefore, was obliged pay from a prince (the king of England) to mortgage his ecclesiastical estates in his inferior to himself, and had likewise dimin-. favor. ished the empire instead of extending it, and As emperor, he sought to follow in the finally had not promoted and maintained footsteps of Rudolphus, by maintaining the the peace of the country. Albert of Auspeace of the land, and at the same time en- tria was therefore chosen to replace him. deavoring to aggrandize his own house; This was the first instance in which the but it was impossible for him to succeed in electoral princes, without the instigation of either of these objects, and in the latter es- the pope, dethroned an emperor of their pecially he employed such means as pro- own accord. The two rival sovereigns apduced disaffection and disgust in the public pealed to arms, marched against each other, mind. In the first place, in order to obtain and met at Worms, where, in 1298, they money, he promised King Edward I. of fought the decisive battle. Adolphus was England his aid in troops against Philip completely overthrown, and fell in the conof France, in return for a considerable sum. test mortally wounded-as some say, by This aid, however, although the money was the hand of Albert himself. paid, was not required, as the war between This Albert was by no means of a kind,, the two kings was suspended for that time. friendly disposition like his father; on the The money, however, Adolphus devoted to contrary, he was a severe, austere, and the purchase of fresh lands. Just at this despotic ruler; besides, even in his exterperiod a profligate margrave, Albert the nal appearance he was disfigured by the Base, held his sway in Thuringia, and loss of an eye. It is true his severity toabandoned his amiable and virtuous wife wards the archbishop of Mentz was just, Margaret, the daughter of the emperor for the emperor not being disposed to conFrederick II., in order to marry Cuni- sult his will in every thing, the archbishop gunde of Isenburg. The unhappy mother, had menacingly said, "that he had yet when obliged to take leave of her children, more emperors in his pocket;" and actually in the anguish of separation, bit the cheek adopted means for the election of another. of her son Frederick, who from this cir- But Albert very soon brought him to reacumstance is styled in history "Frederick son, and obliged him to sue for mercy. In with the bitten cheek." This unnatural other matters, however, his actions were and truly base father sold the hereditary not always guided by justice. His aim estates of his two sons by the first marriage, was to bring under his subjection several to the emperor Adolphus, and presented the other countries, in which he partly sucmoney to Albert, the son of Cunigunde. ceeded; and his eyes were now turned toSubsequently, however, Frederick and wards Thuringia, Bohemia, and Holland, Dietzmann, the two sons of Margaret, hav- when all his enterprises were suddenly ing come to manhood, fought bravely for annihilated by death. In the spring of the their, inheritance, their people having re- year 1308, he went to his hereditary estates mained faithful to them; so that the em- on the borders of Switzerland, in order to peror found himself obliged to wage an un- re-establish peace among the insurgent 27 210 ALBERT'S ASSASSINATION-SWITZERLAND-GESSLER. Swiss, and to levy great forces to enable foot of, and amidst the lofty chains of mounhim to carry on the contemplated war tains which run between Germany, France, against Bohemia. He had with him also and Italy, belongs also to the history of his young nephew, John of Swabia, the son Germany; for the origin of the Swiss na. of his brother Rudolphus, from whom, al- tion is entirely German, and it is only on though he was now out of his minority, he the borders of this country and France that withheld the share he inherited of the Haps- the French language is spoken. The chief burg estates. In vain did the ambitious cities in the districts towards Swabia, Berne, youth repeatedly beg for his patrimony; Zurich, Freiburg, Soleure, &c., were origithe king always refused. Finding, there- nally, and continued for a long period to he fore, all his just demands in vain, he, with imperial free cities; and the Waldstadte, four knights, who also nourished a secret or forest towns, Schwyz, Uri, and Unterhatred against Albert, determined at length wald, were likewise under the immediate to assassinate him. On the 1st of May, protection of the empire. Their form of 1308, and in the tenth year of his reign, government was very ancient, and seemed, the emperor set out from Stein near Baden as it were, fresh from the hand of nature. through Argau, in order to return to the The same as among the ancient Germans, camp at Reinfeld, where his court was as- the whole community of freemen exercised, sembled. They came through the deep under their Landammann or president, the valleys to the ferry across the Reuss at greatest power; and the strength of their Windisch. Here the conspirators pressed constitution lay entirely in the combined forward with a view of entering the same will of the people. The emperor of Gerboat with the emperor; and thus, having many however, as they belonged to the separated him from his attendants, they empire, had among them his Vogts or incrossed the stream together. Having reach- tendants, who attended to the collection of ed the shore, they remounted their steeds taxes, the coinage and stamping of money, and proceeded for some distance, through and matters by no means burdensome. the vast cornfields, at the base of the hills, Albert, who was anxious to extend the on the highest of which towered the mighty power of his house, proposed that they castle of Hapsburg, when suddenly rushing should renounce their connection with the upon the emperor, Duke John of Swabia imperial state, and place themselves under buried his lance in his neck, loudly ex- the protection of his powerful house, posclaiming: "Such is the reward of injus- sessing as it did such extensive patrimotice!" At the same time Rudolphus of nial possessions in their immediate vicinity, Balm stabbed him with his dagger, and which meant, in other words, that, instead Walter of Esehenbach divided his head of remaining longer Germans, they should with his sword. The king sunk to the become Hapsburgians, or Austrians. They, earth powerless and bathed in his blood. however, regarding his acts with a suspiA poor woman, who had witnessed the cious eye, refused to agree to his proposal; deed, hurried to the spot, and in her arms upon which the emperor, in his turn, rethe emperor Albert breathed his last. The nounced them, permitting, and even enconspirators decamped and separated fiom couraging the intendants to oppress and each other immediately after the tragedy; levy upon the people severe and cruelly unand, tormented by their guilty consciences, just exactions. He treated these comparnever afterwards met or saw each other atively little known and obscure mounagain. One of them, Rudolphus of Wart, taineers with derision and contempt. He was taken and broken upon the. wheel on appointed as his representatives two Vogts: the spot where the deed of blood was corn- Hermann Gessler of Bruneck, a haughty, mitted; the others, as well as the duke overbearing nobleman, who possessed, near himself, ended their days in obscurity and the town of' Altorf, in Uri, a castle or strong misery. fortress, in which he used to force the inIt was during the year in which King habitants of the neighborhood to obedience; Albert was murdered, that the foundation and Beringer of Landenberg, who dwelt at of the Swiss confederacy was laid. The the castle of Sarnen, in Unterwald; to history of this vigorous, industrious, and those Albert added several other officers, freedom-loving people, who inhabit many who performed the functions of unter-vogts greater and smaller tracts of country at the or sub-intendants. THE SWISS CONFEDERATION-WILLIAM TELL-DEATH OF GESSLER. 211 But three patriotic and noble-minded the same oath. The execution of their Swiss, who felt and deeply participated in plan, however, was reserved for the first the misery endured by their native land, day of the ensuing new year; and separawhile deprived of its ancient freedom, uni- ting now, they each returned to their cotted together in order to overthrow and crush tages, where in the mean time they prethe tyrannical power of these imperial served the most strict silence, and put up Vogts. their cattle for the winter. The names of these fearless and magnan- Meanwhile, the Vogt or Governor, Herimous men were: Werner Stauffacher of mann Gessler, was shot by William Tell, Schwyz, Walter Ftrst of Attinghausen in a citizen of Uri, and a native of Burglen, Uri, and Arnold of Melchthal in Unterwald. son-in-law of Walter Fiirst. How that They knew well that their hardy country- free and brave man refused, at the commen, bold and undismayed in the defence mand of the cruel Vogt, to do homage to of their rights, would readily take part a hat, the symbol of his tyranny, how he with them. Arnold of Melchthal espe- was obliged to shoot an apple from the top cially, however, had grievous cause for re- of his son's head, and how he escaped from sentment, inasmuch as the intendant, Lan- the threatened incarceration by leaping out denberg, for some very trifling circum- of a boat in the midst of a heavy storm, on stance, had most unjustly taken from him the Lake of Lucerne, and finally of his a team of fine oxen, and when his father shooting Gessler at Kiissnacht-all this is complained of it, Landenberg's officer re- well known, and having continued to form plied, contemptuously: " If peasants wish the theme of universal praise, has been to eat bread, let them draw the plough celebrated by the poet and painter, both in themselves." Arnold, incensed at the ancient and modern times, down to the shameful act itself, as well as indignant at present moment. And although this event the fellow's insolence, broke the servant's took place before the hour destined to liberarm with the stick he held in his hand, and ate the country, and without the interferknowing but too well the cruel character ence of the oppressed people, it nevertheless of the Vogt, took flight and secreted him- strengthened the courage of the confederself. The tyrant, unable to find him, or- ates, and was hailed as the harbinger of dered the eyes of his venerable father to be their emancipation by all the sturdy natives plucked out-an instance of savage cruelty of that noble and majestic country. but too frequently presented at that time in Early in the morning of the first day this oppressed country. of the year 1308, when Landenberg, the These three patriots now uniting together, Vogt, was proceeding from the castle to met regularly during the silent hour of attend mass at Sarnen, he was met by night at Ititli, a small meadow in a lonely twenty men of Unterwald with calves, goats, place, between high rocks on the banks of sheep, fowls, and hares, which, according the Lake of Lucerne. At the same time to the custom of the mountaineers, they they were busily engaged in enlisting their brought for his acceptance as a new year's friends into the noble cause, and on the gift. The Vogt, pleased with their present, night of the Wednesday before Martinmas, desired the men to convey the animals into in the year 1307, each brought with him the court of the castle. As soon, however, to this place ten fellow-patriots, men of up- as these twenty patriots had entered within right, resolute mind. When these thirty- the gates, one of them blew a horn, at which three good and true men were assembled signal each of them drew forth a steel blade at the Ritli, filled with the recollection of concealed beneath his doublet, and fixed it their former liberty, and united together upon the end of his stick, while thirty more by the perils of the times in the closest bonds of their comrades rushed down the hill of friendship, the three leaders lifted up through the wood ofErlen, andjoining them their hands to heaven, and swore in the in the castle, they all took possession of name of the Supreme Being that they the place, and made the whole garrison would manfully combine in defence of their prisoners. Landenberg, who having heard common liberty. The other thirty mem- the tumult, had fled from Sarnen, across bers, following the example of their chief, the fields, towards Alpnach, was pursued and raising their hands to heaven with and taken; but as the confederates had equal ardor and enthusiasm, pronounced agreed to shed no blood, they having first 212 HENRY VII. OF LUXEMBURG-HIS DEATH-FREDERICK AND LEWIS. made him swear to quit Switzerland for- conventi, near Sienna, on the 24th of ever, and never return to it, allowed him August, 1313, as was thought by poison. to depart and seek refuge at the court of He acquired for his house the kingdom his emperor. of Bohemia, and by this means laid the By similar stratagems to that employed foundation of its greatness. In Bohemia, in the taking of the castle of Sarnen, many Ottocar's grand-daughter Elizabeth was others were captured and demolished, and left as the last survivor of the ancient royal the various imperial Vogts, with their de- race. In a spirit of hatred to the Hapspendents, sent beyond the borders; so that burgian house, which, after this princess, messengers arrived from every quarter at possessed the next claim upon Bohemia, the Lake of Lucerne, with the good news the nobility gave this heiress in marriage to of success. On the following Sunday, the John, the son of the emperor, and with her 7th of January, the Swiss met together, the house of Luxemburg obtained the royal and again pledged themselves to the ancient crown of Bohemia, to which was afteroath of confederacy. The next and most wards added also the imperial crown. immediate danger which threatened them In the new election of emperor the was from King Albert, who was resolved princes were far from being unanimous; to avenge himself upon them for their con- the one party, with the archbishop of Mentz duct. From this, however, they were in a at their head, chose Lewis of Upper Bavafew months rescued by the arm of Duke ria; the other, led by the archbishop of John of Swabia, and his confederates. Cologne, selected Duke Frederick of AusNevertheless, they had still to sustain some tria, surnamed the handsome, because of dreadful struggles for their newly-acquired his fine and noble form. Lewis was crownfreedom. ed at Aix-la-Chapelle and Frederick at After the death of Albert I. the German Bonn, with the real insignia of the empire. princes remained true to their principle, Thence a new war broke out in Germany; not to choose several emperors from the everywhere there was violent opposition. same house in succession, and therefore as The greatest number of towns, especially chivalric virtues in their estimation sur- those in Swabia, were for Lewis, and, as passed all other, they elected Count Hen- might be expected, the Swiss people also; ry of Luxemburg, who was known to be a on the other hand, the nobility were chiefly valiant, manly hero and knight. His reign for Frederick of Austria. Moreover, Fredin Germany was too short to permit him erick had a powerful ally in the person of to do much for its welfare; nevertheless, his brother, Duke Leopold, who was a brief as it was, he showed by his conduct brave knight and a good general. This that he possessed sufficient courage and prince resolved in the first place to avenge nobleness of mind to render himself worthy the honor of the Austrian house upon the of the ancient imperial crown. He like- Swiss people, and he forthwith advanced wise made an expedition to Italy,* whither into their country, accompanied by a nuno emperor had gone since Conrad IV.; merous retinue of knights. He threatened and there he testified his noble and chival- to trample these boors under his feet, and ric principles by effecting a reconciliation provided himself with an abundant supply between the Guelfs and the Ghibelins, thus of ropes for the execution of their rebellious again uniting together, under the ascen- chiefs; for he had no idea of the astonishdency of the government, those whose ing feats which an oppressed people are minds had been distracted with hatred and capable of performing in the cause of their discord; but the violence of the parties freedom, however unskilled in the ordinary soon again broke forth, and Henry himself tactics of war. sunk, probably their sacrifice. After being The duke divided his army into two dicrowned at Rome, he died suddenly in the visions, and advanced from Aegeri to Mormidst of their contention, in an expedition garten, towards the mountains of Schwyz. against Robert, king of Naples, at Buon- The heavy cavalry, consisting of knights clad in complete iron armor, the pride and * Dante was among the first to do homage to him on flower of the army, formed the van-guard, his arrival, and presented him with a letter and a La- for the known heroism of the duke had attin discourse upon the imperial dominion, in which he, tracted the whole of the ancient nobility as a Ghibelin, highly extolled it, and invited Henry tonobili make a vigorous use of his power. of Hapsburg, Lenzburg, and Kyburg, to SWITZERLAND-THE BATTLE OF MORGARTEN. 213 join his ranks, together with the Vogt of enemy. When the 1300 Swiss who were Landenberg, and the male branches of Gess- posted on the summit of the Sattel mounler's family, all burning to revenge his death. tain, beheld the confusion now produced But the confederates, when they received among the ranks of the horsemen in the the news that the enemy was approaching, pass beneath, (near the Lake of Aegeri,) did not in the least waver in their courage they quickly descended, and in a firm, and heroism, but prepared at once for bat- united body, made an overwhelming attack tie. On that same night four hundred men upon the enemy's flank, committing everyfrom Uri landed at Brunnen, in Schwyz, and where the most sanguinary execution with a few hours afterwards they were joined by their iron-pointed clubs and halberbs. Many three hundred men from Unterwald; they of the nobles and knights, the flower'of the then all marched across the fields, and joined Austrian nobility, fell, two of the Gesslers the main body in Schwyz. There they were slain, and Landenberg was pierced to were gladly welcomed by a venerable pa- death. Duke Leopold himself narrowly triot, Rudolphus Redin, of Biberegg, so escaped from the vengeance of those hardy aged and infirm that he could scarcely mountaineers, previously held by him totter, yet so skilled and prudent in war, in such contempt, but now become his victhat the people, as he now drew up their torious pursuers, and was with difficulty plan of attack, gladly listened to his sage saved by a peasant acquainted with the advice, which they scrupulously followed: roads, who conducted him through narrow "Our grand aim, my sons, must be," said he, by-passes as far as Winterthur, where he "as we are so inferior in numbers, to pre- at length safely arrived in the greatest devent the duke from gaining any advantage jection and fatigue of mind and body. by his superior force." He then showed Thus the whole Austrian army, in spite them how they must occupy the heights of of all its chivalric bravery and superior Morgarten and the Sattel mountain, in or- discipline, was completely annihilated by a der to surprise the duke's army in the small body of peasantry, who, however, narrow pass, and falling upon its flank, although simple and rude by nature and thus divide and cut it off. condition, aroused at length from their forThe small but united band of patriots, mer state of slavery and oppression, became after they had knelt down, and implored the at once ennobled by their innate love of help of God, according to ancient custom, liberty and patriotism; so that already went forth to the number of thirteen hun- within the short space of an hour and a dred, and gained the summit of the Sattel half, by their united courage and tact, they mountain, near the Einsiedeln boundary. succeeded in trampling upon their haughty Here they were joined by an unexpected and tyrannic foe, and obtaining over him a body of fifty men, who on account of some glorious triumph. After this happy day dispute had been banished from Schwyz, the confederates renewed their ancient but who on being made acquainted with bond of amity, whose basis was, that all the danger that threatened their country, should be ready in defence of one, and one forgot their quarrel, and repaired to Mor- in defence of all; and the emperor Lewis garten, resolved to sacrifice their lives for in several letters confirmed the liberty of their native land. the Swiss. On the 16th of November, 1315, the In Germany, however, the war between host of well-accoutred horsemen com- Frederick of Austria and Lewis of Bavamenced the ascent of the mountains under ria still continued with undiminished fiercethe ruddy rays of a morning's sun, in the ness. Many provinces were desolated with reflection of which their forest of glittering fire and sword, until at length, in the year spears and lances extended as far as the 1322, a decisive action was fought at Mihleye could reach. The van now entered dorf in Bavaria. Frederick very indis. the pass, and tho avenue, which was hedged creetly allowed himself to be drawn into in with mountains and water, soon became that battle, without awaiting the arrival of filled with the close ranks of the cavalry. his brother Leopold, who was advancing At this moment the aforesaid fifty exiled to the spot with assistance. The battle Schwyzers, shouting aloud, rolled down commenced at sunrise, and lasted ten from the heights of Morgarten huge frag- hours. Frederick himself fought bravely ments of rock in quick succession on the at the head of his body-guard, equipped in 214 THE BATTLE OF MUHLDORF-FREDERICK AND LEWIS. a splendid suit of gold armor, and bearing of Aragon had, during this interval of two aloft upon his helmet, glittering in the years and a half, so incessantly wept tears sun's rays, the imperial eagle; while of grief and lamentation on his account, Lewis, on the contrary, did not appear at that she had become totally blind. Fredall on the field of battle. At noon, Lewis's erick on his part employed every means brave and experienced general, Seyfried to carry into effect the stipulations of the Schweppermann of Nuremberg, ordered treaty; he made his abdication known his army to wheel round, and thus the throughout the empire by public docuAustrians had the sun, dust, and wind full ments, and exhorted every one to submit in their face, while at the same time, as to Lewis. Neither the pope nor Leopold, directed by Schweppermann, the bur-however, felt themselves bound by the grave of Nuremberg fell upon them from contract, but, on the contrary, proceeded behind with five hundred cavalry. This in every possible wayjto show their hostilbody, for the purpose of deceiving the ene- ity to Lewis. The two princes then gave my, carried Austrian colors and banners, an example of fidelity and friendship, which so that Frederick and those with him were redounds to their honor. Frederick mainso deceived that they felt assured Duke tained his friendship with Lewis, paying Leopold had at that critical moment ar- no regard either to the representations of rived with his desired aid. When, how- his brother, nor to those of the pope, who ever, they discovered their mistake, they even offered to release him from the obliwere speedily thrown into disorder and put gations of his oath to Lewis, the latter being to flight, and Frederick, whose horse was excommunicated; while Lewis, apprecistabbed, was, with his brother Henry, taken ating this magnanimity of character in prisoner. When he was presented by the Frederick, and remembering their mutual burgrave of Nuremberg to Lewis, he was friendship in early life, they having grown received by the latter with the words: up together, resolved formally to share the "My cousin, we are glad to see you." empire of Germany with him. Frederick Frederick, however, made no reply, but came to him at Munich, and Lewis offered, with his eyes fixed upon the ground re- as he was just on the point of making an mained completely silent. He was con- expedition on behalf of his son Lewis in veyed to the strong fortress of Traussnitz, Brandenburg against the Poles, to intrust in the Upper Palatinate.* Lewis was now the defence of his own country against the sole ruler of Germany, but Frederick's Leopold to his hands. That expedition, brother Leopold, and other princes, would however, was not made, and the two kings, not recognise him, but still carried on war on the 5th of September, 1325, at Munich, against him; while in addition to this, entered publicly into an alliance: " They Pope John XXII. excommunicated him for would both conjointly bear the title of a having taken part with the duke of Milan, Roman king, call and regard themselves against him. Lewis determined, there- as brothers, and in their dispatches and fore, in this emergency, to effect a recon- other documents their signatures and seals ciliation between himself and the house of should be affixed alternately. They would Austria. Accordingly he went in 1325 to grant enfeoffments in their joint capacity, Frederick, who was still imprisoned in the and would both together as one person precastle of Traussnitz, and concluded a treaty side over and govern the Roman empire, with him, in which Frederick renounced over which they had been appointed and all claim to the empire, and agreed to some set apart." The two friends pledged themother severe conditions, after which he was selves anew, ate at one table, and lived set at liberty, having, however, through his affectionately together, as they had done in imprisonment become so much changed in their childhood. his appearance, that his relations scarcely Pope John, who knew nothing of the recognised him, while his wife Elizabeth German character, and who considered It is related that the victorious army, after the such good faith unprecedented, wrote to battle, were without any provisions, having merely a King Charles of France, to whom it might small supply of eggs, which, on being distributed appear equally novel: "This incredible among them, left but one for each man. The emperor Lewis on hearing this exclaimed: " Well, give to example of friendship and confidence was every soldier his egg, but to the brave Schweppean confidedauthority, in a give two!" as a proof that to him alone was due theto me on the best authority in a honor of the victory. communication fr'om Germany." THE FIRST ELECTORAL ALLIANCE. 215 Frederick, however, did not long con- princes, in order to preserve the security tinue to take a part in the government; of the empire, held a diet at Reuse, on the for, greatly depressed by his many suf- Rhine, and made there the famous treaty ferings, he retired into solitude, and spent known by the name of the first electoral the remainder of his life in quiet medita- alliance. In this they solemnly declared tion, at the castle of Guttenstein, where he that as the holy Roman empire had been, died in the year 1330, his amiable and af- and still continued to be attacked in its flicted consort having preceded him a short honor, burdened and oppressed in its rights time before. and possessions, they would unite to deThe house of Austria, as well as the fend it, and courageously support it with pope, remained still inimical to Lewis of all their strength and power against every Bavaria, and did all in their power to op- aggressor. Besides which, this protest pose him; so that his whole reign pre- was solemnly approved by all the other sented one scene of confusion and anarchy, estates in an imperial diet, when it was and this emperor, whose kind and noble, declared: " That the imperial dignity and although less powerful mind, would in power were immediately derived from and happier times have rendered him an ex- depended upon God, and that as a matter cellent ruler, was not able, in the rage of of right and ancient custom, the moment such distraction, to direct the helm. It is an individual was elected emperor, that difficult to say what degree of blame at- moment he must, by reason of his electaches to him, or how much was owing to tion, be regarded as a true king and Rothe perplexity of his situation; but his man emperor, without any need of conmeasures appear to have been often inde- firmation by the papal see." This impeterminate. At one time he adopted the rial decision was made known to the pope language of entreaty, at another he em- in a special communication, and from this ployed the means of resistance; now, he moment commenced the strong opposition united with the king of Bohemia, then with made against the papal see. the king of England, and at last even with Had Lewis now possessed sufficient the king of France; and, in order to get firmness of character to have availed himrid of the anathema, he sent to the pope self of this declaration made by the diet, more than seven ambassadors; but all was and thereupon have based his power; if, in vain. For the popes resided no longer above all, he had understood how to conat Rome, having for a considerable time fide in the fidelity and constancy of all his held their seat at Avignon in France; they subjects, as did in ancient times his impewere therefore in subjection to the kings rial predecessors, he might still, notwithof France, who, not being upon good terms standing all the hostility of foreigners, with Germany, were rejoiced at the dis- have enjoyed a prosperous reign. But as union which there prevailed, and prevent- he was deficient in that greatness of soul, ed a reconciliation taking place between so necessary to bring into happy realizathe pope and the emperor, as Pope Benedict tion the great objects in view, the princes XII. himself privately acknowledged, withi became more and more inimical towards tears in his eyes, to the German princes. him, so that, at a diet held at Reuse in In like manner, King John of Bohemia, 1344, they again brought heavy comwhen he had secured himself against plaints against him, and censured his malAustria, showed himself hostile to the house administration of the affairs of the empire. of Bavaria, whose growing greatness he This ill-will, however, of the princes tosought to oppose as much as possible. wards the emperor originated chiefly in This daring and adventurous prince, who the jealousy with which they regarded the was incessantly traversing Europe on gradual aggrandizement of his house. For horseback, like a courier, used his influ- by his marriage with the daughter of the ence in throwing the torch of discord into count of Hennegau, Holland, Zealand, Italy, producing there the most sad dissen- and Friesland, he had acquired a title to sions, while he likewise succeeded in con- all these countries, inasmuch as there was firming both the pope and the king of no male heir; and, again, when the line France still more strongly in their hatred of male descendants to the territory of Anagainst the emperor Lewis. halt-Brandenburg became extinct, he made In the year 1388 the German electoral over, in 1323, to his son Lewis, the Bran 216 LEWIS DEPOSED-HIS DEATH-CHARLES IV. denburg possessions, and afterwards gave the others; but they were so far from act. this same son in marriage to Margaret, of ing in concert together, that they, on the Maultasch, the heiress of Tyrol. By this contrary, opposed each other. These were last acquisition he made the house of Aus- the house of Luxemburg, which possessed, tria still more hostile towards him, while in addition to Bohemia and Moravia, also in the two previous cases he brought down part of Silesia and Lusatia; that of Baupon him the enmity of the Luxemburg- varia, which had acquired Brandenburg, Bohemian house, and that of the king of Holland, and the Tyrol; and that of AusFrance. tria, which, besides its hereditary estates, The opponents of Lewis, especially Pope possessed likewise much of the Swabian Clement VI., carried their animosity at territory. length to such an extent that a number of The house of Bavaria could not forget the princes, at an assembly held in the that Charles IV. had been the enemy of year 1346, chose as German emperor, Lewis; accordingly, in conjunction with Charles, the son of John, king of Bohemia, the archbishop of Mentz and other princes, who was also margrave of Moravia; a it sought to procure and establish a rival prince who was brought up at the French king in opposition, and at length, after King court, his father having a great predilec- Edward of England, and the Margrave tion for France. This emperor, however, Frederick of Meissen, had rejected the proved to be no blessing to Germany. crown, it found in the person of Count GunWhen after being proclaimed at Reuse, he ther of Schwarzburg, a brave, powerful, mounted the so-called imperial throne and upright man, who accepted it, as he erected there, in order to present himself declared, solely for the welfare of the embefore the people for the first time, and pire, and who would have been a very while the Vivat Rex resounded on every important rival to Charles, if he had not side, the imperial banner, which had been suddenly fallen sick, and soon after diedelevated on the bank of the Rhine, fell into as he himself thought, of poison. Charles, its waters, and, in spite of every exertion therefore, now reigned alone and for a made to save it, sunk to the bottom-an lengthened period. Much was expected event which was regarded by all as an evil from him, as he was cunning and skilful omen. Neither did he enjoy any popu- in his enterprises, and was likewise maslarity while Lewis lived; the latter, how- ter of many languages. Nevertheless, ever, in the following year, 1347, died of however well he succeeded in promoting apoplexy while hunting a bear. The spot the interests of his hereditary lands by vawhere he fell from his horse, in the vicini- rious useful regulations, still he was, as it ty of Furstenfeld, near Munich, is still were, but a step-father of the German called the Kaiserwiese or emperor's mead- empire, and his heart was not devoted to it. ow, in recollection of the event. Lewis The last existing remains of the imperial was the last emperor excommunicated by estates, which in some degree still conthe popes. tributed to preserve the dignity of the empire, were sold by him similar to the unworthy head of a family, who turns his _~ —-c — real property into money, in order that he may the more readily enjoy it. His reign presented a series of many C HAPT E R X 1I. great calamities, which certainly could not be imputed to him, and were in fact beyond EMPERORS OF DIFFERENT HOUSES-1347-1437. his control. Already at its commencement, Germany, like many other countries Charles IV. 1347-1378-Wenceslas, 1378-1400-Switzer- of Europe, was visited with the most teriland-T'he Battle of Sempach, 1386-Leopold of Aus- pe visited te ost terr tria-Arnold of Winkelried-His Heroism and Self- ble disasters. The same as in the summer Devotion-W enceslas deposed-Rupert of the Palatinate, 1400-1410o-sigismund, 1410-1437 —Grand Coun- of 1338, ten years previously, innumerable cil of Constance-John Huss and the Hussite Wars- hosts of locusts had flocked from the east, Death of Sigismund, 1437. and covered a part of Europe so dreadfully, AT this time there were in Germany that they completely obscured the light of'three powerful houses, which, if they had the sun, and Hungary, Poland, Austria, been united, could easily have subdued all and other places, became entirely deso. DREADFUL VISITATIONS-THE JEWS-THE GOLDEN BULL. 217 lated, and famine raged among mankind; ders and excesses, the former persecution so likewise in the year 1348, a succession of the Jews was also renewed. Among of even still greater afflictions followed. the people the opinion had become more On the 17th of January in this year the and more prevalent that the Jews had been sun was eclipsed, and on the 25th a great the originators of the late great plague, by earthquake was felt over nearly the whole poisoning the springs and rivers, for the of Europe. Cities and villages were over- purpose of exterminating the whole o. whelmed, and buried their inhabitants un- Christendom. The ancient animosity was der their ruins. The shocks during this revived, and became more and more emyear were several times repeated, and in bittered; the authorities were unable to the following one, a great plague, which restrain the fury of the people, and throughwas brought into Italy by the ships trading out Switzerland, in all the cities along the in the east, raged throughout that country, Rhine, and generally throughout Germany, and soon extended its desolation over the the massacre of the Jews was so dreadful, whole of France and Germany. History that many of them in their despair destroypresents no parallel to the terrible scenes ed themselves in their own houses. The of misery presented in this epoch. In the mildest treatment they received was that large cities the dead were numbered by of having their property confiscated, and hundreds of thousands, and in many cases being banished the country. The princes, the survivors scarcely amounted to a tenth and especially the pope and bishops, at last part of the previously-existing population. interested themselves in behalf of this perThousands of families became wholly ex- secuted people, and saved the small remtinct, whole streets uninhabited and laid nant of those as yet left untouched. Hiswaste, and no living being, nor even do- tory, however, leaves unmentioned whether mestic animal was to be found: nay, some the emperor Charles contributed his share travellers who were going from Italy to towards the general good during this time Bohemia, found whole cities and villages of distress. without a single living inhabitant of any The most important work effected by sort. him for Germany was published in an imThese calamities had the effect of awa- perial edict called the Golden Bull, (thus kening to reflection many who were pre- called from the seal of gold affixed to it,) viously sunk in sin; for the age which had the institution of a fundamental law of the preceded this had been extremely corrupt. empire, enacted in the year 1356, which In this state of despair, penances of every determined and regulated the rights and description were again put into force, and privileges of the seven electors, the mode especially the use of the scourge was again of precedence in electing the emperor in put in requisition. Hundreds and even the diet of Frankfort, and at the coronation thousands went in procession from city to at Aix-la-Chapelle, and some other regucity, and practised their flagellations in lations; among the rest it was decreed that the market-places, walking with their backs after a proclamation made three days prebare, singing, and at the same time flogging viously, the right of warfare should be dethemselves and each other with knotty dared and enforced. thorny whips. The leaders of the proces- But it was not by such regulations affectsion were often obliged themselves even to ing the external and less essential objects, check by stern command the rage with which that the dignity of the empire could be the infatuated penitents lacerated their flesh. restored; on the contrary, division, jealEven children were infected with a passion ousy, and selfishness were excited more for these inflictions, and took part in these than ever by the advantages which he sescenes. As these proceedings were found cured especially to the electoral houses; to be the result of mere fanaticism and so that from the time of the Golden Bull madness, accompanied by extravagances may be dated the dissolution of the imperial of every description, the pope at last inter- dominion, rather than its re-establishment. dieted them on pain of excommunication; The seven electoral princes who had albut it was only with difficulty that they ready, for nearly an entire century, exercould be suppressed. cised the right of voting, included the archMeantime, as if that epoch was to be bishops of Mentz, Treves, and Cologne, one distinguished alone for its wild disor- together with the king of Bohemia, the 28 218 CHARLES'S AGGRANDIZEMENT-PETRARCA-CHARLES'S DEATH. duke of Saxe-Wittenberg, the margrave house of Austria, which was destined to of Brandenburg, and the count palatine of rise still higher, after having been so much the Rhine. injured by him. At this time also that Charles labored with ability and extra- house obtained a great increase of territory ordinary success for the aggrandizement of in the county of Tyrol, where the Bavarian his own house. By his first consort Anna, lineage, introduced by the emperor Lewis, princess palatine, he secured to his house had become extinct, and the house of Witthe upper palatinate, and by his second telsbach approached its end. wife Anna, of Schweidnitz and Jauer, he Charles proceeded also to Italy, but not again transferred to it the possession of the as it became the successor of the great entire southwest line of the beautiful ter- emperors, who had by their bravery obtainritory in Silesia, along the borders of Bo- ed the sovereignty of that country; for he hemia; while already his father John and was obliged, in order that the pope might himself subsequently, having both gradu- confirm his election to the Germanic emally succeeded, partly by fraud and partly pire, to submit to the disgraceful stipula by force, in subjecting all the other princes tion, that when he carne to Rome in order of Silesia to the dominion of Bohemia, he, to be crowned, he would only remain one by a royal decree in 1355, united the whole day in that city, and quitting it before of Silesia and Lower Lusatia to Bohemia. night, forthwith retire from the pope's terIn like manner he became possessed of the ritories. Accordingly he made his entry margraviate of Brandenburg from the into Rome on Easter day, 1355, was crownhouse of Bavaria, by which it had been ed, and under pretence of going out to only shortly before acquired under the hunt, left the city on the same day and emperor Lewis; for, availing himself of hastened out of the country. The Romans, their weakness and total want of energy, not knowing the cause, were not a little as. he induced the Margraves Lewis the Ro- tonished at his abrupt departure, and Peman, and Otho, to conclude a treaty, ac- trarca, the celebrated poet, who by his ancording to the terms of which, passing imated letters had called upon him to reasover their cousins of the house of Bavaria, sume the ancient glorious imperial sway, the margraviate should be transferred to now wrote to him: " What would his anthe house of Luxemburg in the event of cestors, the ancient German emperors, have both margraves dying without any heir. said, if they had met him on the Alps re Soon after Lewis died, and the imbecile treating so ignobly?" Otho made over, even during his life, in Towards the close of his life, his great 1373, the government of his own country fondness for France induced him to visit into the hands of the emperor, shortly after that country once more; and, immediately which, in 1379, the former died, despised after his return to Germany, he died in the and forgotten. Thus Charles, solely bent year 1378. upon the aggrandizement of his house, uni- Charles IV. had already induced the ted Brandenburg to the kingdom of Bohe- princes to nominate as emperor after his mia, and by this means, quite contrary to death his son Wenceslas. But actuated in all the institutions of Germany, he made like manner, as his father had been, by one German electorate dependent upon an- that egotism and avarice, which ever aimother. Henceforth likewise, he took as ed at his own interest, the son, although warm and paternal an interest in the newly naturally endowed with good qualities, but acquired country as he did in his own he- without energy, and wholly given up to reditary estates; ruling over a range of sensual gratification, especially to drinking beautiful tracts of country, extending from and the chase, achieved nothing important the confines of Austria, near the Danube, either for Germany or even for his own heto Pomerania. Nevertheless, Charles, as reditary lands. so often happens to the selfish, was all this The times were, at this moment, in a time working for strangers. His son Sigis- state of dreadful anarchy. The imperial mund already mortgaged the margraviate government had lost all its dignity. Reliof Brandenburg to the family of Hohen- gion was at its lowest ebb, and Christen. zollern, and by that laid the foundation for dom was divided into parties; instead of the greatness of that house; while the one, there were two popes, one at Rome, greater part of his other lands fell to the the other at Avignon; both thundered forth THE SWISS AND OTHER CONFEDERATIONS. 219 against each other their bans of excommu- free from blame; for these places had been nication; and in their wrath, each anathe- severely oppressed by its avaricious and matized whole communities and countries inhuman agents; while the duke, contrary that happened to adhere to his opponent. to the stipulations made, had imposed taxes Long and vainly did the most upright and on the frontiers of the Swiss, which checked judicious men of the day raise their voices their commercial intercourse. Duke Leoagainst the destructive vices of their time, pold vowed he would chastise the whole of which were spreading far and wide, and the inhabitants, the originators and promoall urged a general assembly of the Chris- ters of, as he styled it, unrighteous and untian council; but Wenceslas, whose busi- lawful warfare, and swore to destroy their ness it was as emperor to convoke such an offensive alliance. The hatred towards the assembly, had neither the will nor energy free peasantry and citizens became so generof mind sufficient to enforce it. ally violent among the nobility, that within Under his reign there arose throughout a few days no less than one hundred and Germany an increasing number of confed- sixty-seven of the nobles, both spiritual and erations among individual members of the secular, joined in denunciations of war, empire for mutual protection; which was a breathing utter destruction against the conproof of the prostration of the supreme pow- federates. The letters of war were brought er, and served still more to weaken and to the assembled confederacy by twenty destroy it. The most powerful of these distinct expresses, that their terror might be associations was that of Swabia, which con- perpetually renewed. On the evening of sisted of thirty-four, and afterwards, even the day of St. John the Baptist, a messenger offorty-one cities, including likewise several from the court of Wurtemberg arrived with princes. On the other hand, various simi- fifteen declarations of war; these letters lar societies, formed of the nobles, were were scarcely read when the messenger of not less flourishing, when, as a matter of John Ulric of Pfirt, and of eight other nocourse, contests and battles upon a large as bles arrived with letters to the same purwell as small scale were the order of the pose, and he had scarcely finished when day. The Swabian towns followed the ex- the letters of the lords of Thurn and of all ample of the Swiss confederacy, which be- the nobles of Schaffhausen came to hand. came more and more extensive, including Finally, on the following day eight more even in its alliance several of the chief messengers arrived with forty-three such towns of Switzerland, Berne, Zurich, So- declarations of war. leure, and Zug, and already adopted the The confederates had no other aid to look name of confederates. Thence, as in times or hope for but that of their own faithful of discord and hatred, no class keeps within union and persevering courage; undismaythe bounds of moderation, or adheres to jus- ed, however, they awaited the commencetice, it is to be presumed that the com- mentof the contest with indescribable impaplaints made by the princes and nobility, tience. The cry of war and the din of hosviz. that the towns had unlawfully de- tile preparation resounded throughout the prived them of the services of such of their country, and already four days previously people as were bound to serve them, by all the population capable of bearing arms affording them protection and granting them were equipped and ready. The term of the privileges of citizens, were in many the armistice having expired, the war becases reasonable and well-founded. In tween the federal peasantry and their nobles consequence, therefore, of these grievances, now burst forth, and within a week or two a new war broke out between the nobility many a strong castle-so long the terror of of Austria and the Swiss. the frontiers-was levelled and razed to Duke Leopold of Austria, in heroism and the ground by the brave confederates. arrogance equal to the Leopold who fought Duke Leopold now, with a numertus at Morgarten, was incensed against the force, including many distinguished knights Swiss, because in their alliance they had and auxiliaries from all his states, marched included several towns and villages which from Baden through Aargau by Sursee for were subject to him, as for instance: Entli- Sempach, in order to punish, as he said, buch, Sempach, Meyenberg, and Reichen- with the rod of iron its citizens for their see. There was certainly good foundation inflexible adherence to the confederates. for complaint, but Austria likewise was not But on his arrival there he found the con. 220 ARNOLD OF WINKELRIED-HEROISM AND SELF-DEVOTION federates already collected on the heights, only a small board bound to their left prepared and burning with impatience to arm. receive him. Unwilling to await the arri- This small, but firm and united body ot val of his foot-soldiers, and afraid lest the brave men, now fell upon their knees and cavalry might be thrown into confusion in a prayed to God, according to their custom. mountain engagement, he commanded all while the nobles on the opposite side bucKthe nobles, knights, and the entire body of led on their helmets, and the duke then horsemen to dismount to the number of created several knights. It was then the several thousands, and joining their ranks season of harvest, when the sun shone with as closely as possible, like an impenetrable full power, and the day was extremely wall of iron, he ordered them to rush for- sultry. The confederates now precipitated ward and charge the confederates spear in themselves with great impetuosity upon the hand. When the baron of Hasenburg, a impregnable phalanx of shields; but not a veteran warrior, perceived this order of bat- man yielded to the shock. The Swiss fell tle, and contrasted it with the position com- one after another; and the company of Lu. manded by the Swiss, he at once tried to cerners, especially, fought with impatient dissuade the proud duke and his nobles from and enthusiastic rage, seeking to make a adopting this plan of attack, adding, as he road between the forest of spears, but in cautioned them, that pride neverserved any vain. Numbers lay bleeding around, and good purpose, " that they had better wait their force began to waver. The enemy until the infantry marched up." They, then moved his extended body of men round however, only derided him, and cried aloud, in the form of a half-moon, thinking to en"Der Hasenburg hat ein Hasenherz!"* circle the few courageous Swiss. But the (Literally, "Hasenburg has a hare's- scene of this dreadful moment of approachheart.") Some of his nobles having repre- ing destruction to the confederates was unsented to the duke how necessary it was expectedly changed, by a brave knight, that he should restrain his ardor, while they Arnold of Winkelried, in Unterwald, who tried to persuade him to keep in the rear of suddenly, in a voice of thunder, exclaimed the army, he only smiled a reply; but when to his comrades: "I will open a passage they continued to urge him to adopt their to freedom, faithful and beloved confedesuggestions, he exclaimed impatiently: rates! Protect only my wife and chil"What! shall Leopold be a mere looker-on dren!" And with these words, rushing and calmly behold his knights die around from his ranks he threw himself upon the him in his own cause? Never! here on enemy, and seized with both arms as many my native soil with you, I will conquer or of the enemy's spears as he was able, buperish for my people!" Saying which, he ried them in his body, and sank dead to the placed himself at the head of his troops. ground, while the confederates rushed forAs long as the enemy remained on horse- ward through the breach, over the body of back, it appeared too dangerous to the con- their heroic and self-devoted compatriot. federates to descend and stand the charge The Austrians gave way; and, in endeavof such a body of cavalry on level ground; oring to stop the breach, became, in their but when they beheld them quit their sad- confusion, so crowded, that many of them dies, and form in ranks as foot-soldiers, the died in their armor, unwounded, but suffomountaineers forthwith abandoned their cated and overwhelmed with heat and terelevated position, and marched down into ror. Meantime, the chief banner of Austhe plain below. Their numbers were: tria was sinking for the third time to the 400 men from Lucerne, 900 from the ground, when Ulric, a knight of Aarburg, Waldstadten, and about 100 from Glaris, seized it, bore it aloft, and defended it, unZug, Entlibuch, and Rotenburg. Some til, after a desperate struggle, he was morwere armed with short weapons, others tally wounded, crying out with his last carried halberds, with which their forefa- breath: "Save Austria, rescue!" At this thers had fought in the pass at Morgarten; moment, Duke Leopold, pushing through and some again, instead of a shield, had the crowd, received the banner from his dying hand; it once again appeared aloft, A play upon the baron's name Hasenburg, hare's- covered with blood, waving in the hand of stronghold literallyinterpreted;Hase hare Burg, fort, the duke. But he was now surrounded by or stronghold; and Herz, h eart Hasen herz, hare's- heart, or heart of a hare. the Swiss, who pressing close upon him, he THE SWISS TRIUMPHANT-WENCESLAS DEPOSED. 221 exclaimed, as he saw all his brave warriors the Wetteraw. But these cities did not falling around him: " Since, then, so many command the favorable passes of the mounnobles and knights have ended their days tains, neither were the citizens equal to the in my cause, thus let me also honorably peasants of Switzerland. They were beatfollow them!" and, vanishing from the en in several contests, among others by sight of his few remaining adherents, he Count Eberhard of Wurtemberg, between plunged, in the madness of grief and de- Weil and D6ffingen, also by the Count spair, amidst the hostile ranks, seeking his Palatine Rupert, near Worms. In 1389 death. In the pressure of the crowd he tranquillity was in some degree restored by fell to the earth; and while he was strug- the peace proclaimed at Eger. This was gling in his heavy armor to raise himself a sad period of disaster for Bavaria, Swaupon his feet, he was discovered by a citi- bia, Franconia, and the whole of the Upper zen of Schwyz, to whom Leopold, quite Rhine. It is related in the Chronicle of helpless, called out, "I am the prince of Kunigshoven, that more persons were deAustria!" The man, however, either did stroyed at that time than had been for sevenot hear or believe him, or, perhaps, think- ral centuries before. Most of the country ing that, in war, all distinctions cease, forth- people were obliged to remain throughout with killed him. The body of the duke the winter in the fortresses and cities. In was found by a knight, Martin Malterer, many parts not a single village or house who bore the banner of Freiburg in Breis- was to be found within ten miles of the gau; he stood petrified, and the banner fell cities and strong castles: so much desolafrom his hand. He threw himself upon tion had been produced by fire and sword. the body of the prince, in order that it The emperor Wenceslas had not suffimight not be trampled upon by friends and cient energy and authority to settle, by the enemies, and in this situation he awaited imperial decision, the existing differences and received his own death. between the nobility and the cities; beThe Austrian troops, in a state of utter sides which he came but seldom to Gerdismay and terror, now gave the signal for many, and after the year 1391, he only retreat, and all the cavaliers flew to regain visited it at the end of six years. The Botheir horses. But they were too late; their hemians, who were likewise dissatisfied attendants had already mounted them, and with him, owing to the cruel acts he had saved themselves by flight. All therefore committed at various times, which together that remained for them now, oppressed with with his other infirmities, made him only their ponderous armor, rendered still more the more hated and despised, imprisoned intolerable by the scorching rays of the him in the castle of Prague, where he resun, and exhausted with thirst and fatigue, mained until he was liberated by his was to avenge their prince, and sell their younger brother John. This was an addilives at as dear a rate as possible. Thus, tional cause of his downfall in Germany, there perished altogether six hundred and and at length, in the year 1400, the princes fifty-six counts, barons, and knights, to- proceeded to depose him. The charges gether with thousands of their vassals, against him were: " that the holy Roman Such was the issue of the great battle of empire, the holy church, and all ChristenSempach, fought on the 9th of July, 1386; dom, instead of finding in him comfort, by this victory, and another at Nafels, protection, and succor, had, on the contrathe confederates of Switzerland so weak- ry, been rent asunder, abused and shameened the power of Austria, that in the year fully abandoned by him; that all this had 1389, by the mediation of the imperial been repeatedly and fearlessly represented cities on the Lake of Constance, a seven to him, but he had neither restored peace to years' peace was agreed to, by which the church, nor had he felt any concern at means the Swiss preserved all they had the many feuds and tumults of the empire, acquired, while Austria retained only its so that no one knew where to seek redress, chief possessions in Aargau and Thurgau. protection, and security. Since, therefore, In the cities of Germany the passion for all remonstrances had failed, the princes war was again awakened by the successes could not do otherwise than conclude that of the Swiss. The ancient hostility between he no longer cared for the welfare of the the nobles and citizens was resumed, par- empire, and thence they, the princes, neticularly in Swabia, on the Rhine, and in cessarily forbade him henceforward to have 222 RUPERT-SIGISMUND I.-GRAND COUNCIL OF CONSTANCh. any share in the government of the Ger- sides the pope, there were present the manic nation, and accordingly they de- patriarchs of Constantinople, Grado and posed him, the said Emperor Wenceslas, Antioch, twenty-two cardinals. twenty as negligent and unworthy." On the fol- archbishops, ninety-two bishops, one hunlowing day they elected Rupert of the dred and twenty-four abbots, one thousand palatinate, as emperor. eight hundred of the lower clergy, numerIn the succeeding year, Wenceslas, who ous doctors of science and masters of arts; still held possession of Bohemia, was again as likewise the graduates of the universitaken prisoner by his brother Sigismund, ties of Paris, Orleans, Cologne, Vienna, and confined for nineteen months at Vien- and others; about one thousand six hunna. dred princes, nobles, counts, and knights, Rupert, an active and brave man, en- with their retinues; so that altogether the deavored to re-establish the imperial dig- number that attended this grand council nity; but the existing state of disorder was exceeded 100,000. already too great, and his government of Of the three popes, the only one present too short a duration to allow him to gain was John XXIII., from Rome, who had this object. He was likewise unsuccess- convoked the assembly in the hope that his ful in an expedition to Italy, and he died, two opponents would be deposed, and he without having effected any thing of im- himself confirmed. The council, however, portance, in 1410. notwithstanding the opposition of the ItalThe princes now elected Sigismund, the ians, determined at once to dispense with brother of Wenceslas, to fill the imperial all three, that the evil might be struck at throne, and in certain respects, this emper- the root. It was agreed that not only or was the most distinguished of the house bishops and abbots should have a vote, as of Luxemburg. His appearance was ma- had been hitherto the custom, but that likejestic and graceful. He was tall and well- wise doctors of divinity, as well as of the formed, and his manly countenance, shaded canon and civil law, together with the by light brown ringlets, rendered him one princes and their ambassadors, and lastly, of the handsomest princes of his day. He all the priests present, should share in this possessed a lively spirit and an acute mind, privilege; and that the votes should not be and being master of six languages, may be given individually, as formerly, but acconsidered altogether as a monarch of su- cording to the nation; so that each of the perior intellectual acquirements. He had four principal nations-Germany, Enga degree of open honesty and true hearted- land, France, and Italy, should have each ness in his disposition, which won the one vote; (the Spaniards had not yet arhearts of all; combined with a genuine rived.) For if the votes had been taken love for all that was good and meritorious. individually, the Italians, whose number Nevertheless, with all these good qualities was by far the most considerable, would and brilliant endowments, his resolution have outvoted all the others. The Gerand power of action did not correspond in mans, as is stated by a contemporary of proportion. He was changeable and un- that period, were distinguished on this imdecided, and wholly incapable of realizing portant occasion, for their determination, and maintaining the great designs he con- vehemence, and persevering remonstrances templated. Besides all this, however, he in support of their claims; the English for was a bad economist, always squandering their boldness and acuteness; the French away what he possessed, and consequently, for their ostentation and self-importance; perpetually in difficulties. Sigismund di- and the Italians for their finesse, stratagem, rected his first attention to the great schism and partiality. existing in the church; there being one But the English and the Germans were pope in Italy, another in France, and a united in their decision upon the deposithird in Spain, whence each pronounced tion of the popes, and the French soon afthe ban of excommunication against his terwards joined with them. John XXIII., opponent, and those who sided with him. being present, was the first to sign the abFinally, in the year 1414, the celebrated dication; he tried to avoid it, but at length council of the church was held at Con- he yielded, and, kneeling before the altar, stance, and perhaps there never was a publicly read his consent to abdicate. The council more numerous and brilliant. Be- emperor Sigismund and all present were THE THREE POPES-DEPOSED BY THE COUNCIL 223 filled with joy; the emperor even rose and Roman church, and as he had, moreover, kissed the feet of the pope, and thanked brought down scandal upon Christianity by him in the name of the Christian world, his immorality, he was thenceforth deposed for setting such a glorious example of self- from the papal chair." John submitted to control. But John had only yielded in ap- his sentence, was kept in custody until the pearance; for he had already conferred year 1419 at the castle of Heidelberg, and with his friend, Duke Frederick of Aus- then at Mannheim, where he was libertria, and concerted with him the necessary ated, and soon afterwards died as cardinalmeasures for his flight. Accordingly, the bishop of Frascati. duke made arrangements for a grand tour- The second pope, Gregory XII., who nament, which took place on the 20th of was eighty-eight years of age, and whose March, 1415; and, while the attention of seat was in France, immediately declared all present was directed to the festival, the his readiness to resign his office, if the pope hastened away, disguised as a postil- peace of the church required it; and acion, to Schaffhausen, which still belonged cordingly he voluntarily resigned in that to Austria. The duke followed him quickly same year, 1415, and was made cardinalafterwards; and, during the night, several bishop of Porto. hundreds of Italian and Austrian prelates But Benedict XIII. was not to be perlikewise arrived. The pope hoped to re- suaded; his seat was in Spain. The emtain possession of his authority, even peror Sigismund himself undertook, at the against the will of the council. But the request of the council, a journey to Spain assembled fathers of the church from Ger- for the purpose of inducing the old man to many, England, and France, together with yield; but he failed. King Ferdinand of the emperor Sigismund himself, were too Aragon, however, who had hitherto adserious in their decision. The council, hered to him, withdrew his protection, and under the presidency of the emperor Sigis- now the council without further ceremony mund, declared: " That its power being deposed him. derived immediately from Christ, and being Thence was accomplished the grand and superior to the pope, its decrees, without the principal design of the ecclesiastical counauthority of the pope, should reunite and oil, and thus terminated the ruinous schism reform the church." The greatestseverity of the church, which had lasted during was shown to all those who had taken their forty years; and they were now able to departure; Duke Frederick was excom- proceed to the election of a new pope. But municated by the council, and outlawed by the assembled fathers had another importhe emperor; and, finally, at his command, tant object in view, viz., the reformation of the imperial troops under Burgrave Fred- the church itself. Complaints were made erick of Nuremberg, and the Swiss, seized about many abuses which had crept in: the hereditary estates of the duke, and de- the immorality of the clergy, simony, and prived him of the chief portion of them. especially the increasing pretensions of the Aargau, and the ancient castle of Haps- papal chair, had now become excessive. burg, were conquered by the Bernese. These abuses the assembled heads of the About ten years after this, however, the church were anxious in the name of their emperor again received the duke into his several countries to sweep away, while, at favor, and returned to him such of the lands the same time, they were ready to secure as were at the control of the empire; the to the pope all due respect, obedience, and Swiss, however, never restored the terri- also many just revenues from all countories they had gained, but retained pos- tries. session of Aargau and all the rest. The Germans, and at their head the emThe pope, who had been deprived of the peror himself, were extremely anxious for protection of the emperor, was obliged to a thorough reformation of the church. But submit to the decrees of the council; he the Italians, who derived the greatest was brought back from Freiburg in Breis- benefit from the large sums of money gau, whither he had fled, to the small town which poured into Rome from the other of Ratolfszell, near Constance, there to re- countries, endeavored to frustrate their deceive his final sentence, as follows: " That sign, and thought the best course they as he had publicly and criminally availed could adopt for that purpose would be to himself of the privileges and estates of the induce the council, in the first place, to 224 THE NEW POPE, MARTIN.V. choose a pope who might afterwards, as he his wishes, he, on the 22d of April, 1418, thought fit, undertake the reform of the closed the council, and on the 16th of May, church. The Germans, on the contrary, clothed in a golden papal robe, with a who perceived what was meant by this art- white mitre, rode out of the city upon a ful proposal, very justly required that the horse covered with starlet, under a splennew pope should be chosen afterwards, did canopy. Sigismund went before, leadand that the first condition of his election ing the horse by the bridle, and three should be, that he would abide by and con- princes, who walked on either side of and firm the new constitution of the church. behind the horse, bore its covering. Such Their reasons were perfectly just and was the termination of the great Council of rightly founded; nevertheless, the Italians Constance, which had continued nearly succeeded in winning over to their party three years and a half. the French and the Spaniards, who had in This council also judged in another the mean time arrived, and as the English matter, and by its decision produced the had received command from their king to most important results. support the cardinals, the Germans stood The emperor Charles IV. had founded alone, and were of course at last obliged the University of Prague, and it was soon to yield. attended by students from all the neighborThe new pope was accordingly elected; ing countries. But Charles had granted he was by birth an Italian, Otho of Colon- to the Germans especially many and great na, and took the name Martin V. He was privileges there, with which preference the an extremely clever man, and understood Bohemians became dissatisfied, and thence how to evade most ingeniously almost all King Wenceslas was induced, in the year the regulations which the council had con- 1409, (he being then still king of Bohemia,) templated for the curtailment of the papal to deprive the Germans of those privileges. power. The other powers now awakened Exasperated at this, thousands of foreign from their slumber, and the French, in students with their teachers abandoned particular, applied to the emperor Sigis- Prague, and established or enlarged other mund to take up the matter. But he an- high schools; among others Leipzig, Inswered them: " When we Germans de- golstadt, and Cracow. John Huss, the sired the reformation to take place before most zealous and learned of the Bohemian the pope was elected, you Frenchmen professors, was at this time rector of the were not satisfied, but were determined university. He soon embraced and profirst to have a pope. Now you have one, mulgated principles at variance with those as we have; go and require from him your hitherto held, being those maintained by reformation of the church." the celebrated divine, John Wycliffe, who The pope, who knew well that in order lived about thirty years before Huss. He to be conquered, enemies must be first di- preached against the corrupt state of the vided among themselves, began to nego- morals of the clergy, and maintained that tiate with the nations separately, since it was contrary to scripture that they should each nation had made its own proposals for have temporal riches; he also rejected all the reformation, and hence arose the par- monastic orders, and in his zeal condemnticular concordates. ed them severely. These and similar docThus the great object which the council trines were propounded by Huss; he also had in view, viz., to effect the reformation resolutely opposed indulgences, and being of the entire constitution and administra- accordingly charged with heresy, he was tion of the church and its clergy, was in a cited to appear before the judicial chair of great measure defeated. How much more the pope at Rome. He did not obey the happy would have been the results if the summons, and was excommunicated. But desired reform could have been effected! he had already gained a large party of adPeople consoled themselves with the ex- herents, even the king, Wenceslas himself, pectation that henceforth every ten years had for a time taken him under his protecgeneral councils would be held; but what tion; and in Prague, as in other parts of is not done at the right time remains for- Bohemia, great contention arose, ending in ever undone-the projecteddecennial coun- scenes of bloodshed; among others who cils were never held. took a prominent share therein was Jerome, When Pope Martin had thus obtained all a professor of theology in Prague, and a JOHN HUSS AT CONSTANCE-THE HUSSITE NARS. 225 strong adherent and associate of Huss. abandoned the city, and died almost immeHuss was now summoned before the coun- diately after he had left, in 1419. cil at Constance, and this time he obeyed On one occasion, when the Hussites the call: the emperor Sigismund having, were marching through Prague, and were at the request of his brother Wenceslas, just passing the senate-house, some one furnished him with a safe conduct. But having thrown a stone thence which struck the emperor did not act in this case as one of their priests, they furiously stormed Charles V. in that of Luther at Worms the house, and threw out of the window did, a century later; on the contrary, he thirteen of the senators, who were received suffered himself to be persuaded that there by the enraged mob on their pikes, and was no necessity for him to keep his impe- murdered: such was the sanguinary sigrial word, being told that his word must not nal of the revolt. Under the guidance of prejudice the interests of the Catholic faith, Ziska, who had acted as leader in the and interrupt the spiritual judge in the storming of the senate-house, the multitude performance of his functions; also that he roamed about the country, pillaging and who opposed that faith forfeited every claim destroying the monasteries, torturing the to protection. Sigismund accordingly suf- priests, and laying waste the possessions of fered Huss to be arrested, and promised the Catholics. not to meddle with the affair at all. Sigismund, who, after the death of WenThey required Huss to recant all his ceslas, had become the legitimate king of doctrines on pain of being condemned to Bohemia, demanded the assistance of the die at the stake as a heretic. He chose German empire against the Hussites, and the latter, and was, on the 6th of July, collected a considerable army. He enter1415, like his friend Jerome of Prague, ed Bohemia in 1420, and besieged Prague; eleven months afterwards, publicly burnt Ziska, however, repelled the attack braveat Constance. They both died with a for- ly, and the king was obliged to conclude: titude admired even by their enemies. an armistice and quit the country. In Their ashes were cast into the Rhine, in 1427, the German princes made another order that they might not serve as an ob- attack with four bodies of troops; but their ject of veneration for the Bohemians. dread of the Hussites-rendered by their The news of these proceedings created religious enthusiasm almost unconquerable great excitement and tumult in Prague, for -had become so great, that the soldiers the Bohemians attributed the execution of no sooner saw them than they fell into Huss to the hatred of the Germans, and confusion and retreated. Another army, became only the more attached to his prin- which was estimated at 100,000 men, and ciples. They even went still farther; advanced upon them in 1431, met with fresh teachers published new doctrines to the same fate; it was so completely beaten those advanced by Huss, and a certain at Riesenberg, that 10,000 men were killed Jacob of Miess, in particular, who main- upon the spot, all the artillery and baggage tained that the sacrament must be distrib- lost, and Cardinal Julian himself with diffiuted in both forms, obtained many follow- culty saved his life; being minus his carers. The partisans of this new doctrine dinal's hat, his insignia, and the papal bull met together upon a mountain, which was against the Hussites. The Hussites, on afterwards called Mount Tabor, and the other hand, made attacks upon Meiswhence they assumed the name of Tabor- sen, Saxony, Brandenburg, Franconia, Baq ites. King Wenceslas did not venture to varia, and Austria, and their career of interfere with these assemblies, for their desolation became more and more fearful. members sometimes amounted to as many One of the dogmas held by the Taborites as 40,000; and, as usually happens in was, viz.: " That when all the cities of similar cases, their zeal increased in pro- the earth should be burnt down and redu4 portion to their growing numbers, and ac- ced to the number of five, then would come cording to the violence with which they the new kingdom of the Lord; therefore, were condemned as heretics by the pope it was now the time of vengeance, and God and church. Shortly afterwards they went was a God of wrath." in solemn procession through Prague, with At length, however, affairs changed for the chalice carried before them, and Wen- the better. Great endeavors were used to ceslas, who thought himself no longer safe, bring about an accommodation between the 29 226 DEATH OF SIGISMUND I.-ALBERT II. OF AUSTRIA. church and the Hussites, and this was at length effected at a council held at Basle. A V The Hussites were allowed to partake of THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. the sacrament in both kinds of form, yet Albert II., 1438-1439-His Death-Frederick III. 1440 on condition that the priests should teach -1493-The Council of Basle, 1448 —Eneas Sylviusthe people that Christ was perfect in each. The Turks-Belgrade-Defeat of the Turks-The Diets-The Emperor besieged in Vienna-His ResoThe greater part of the Bohemian people lution-His Brother, Duke Albert-The Count Palacheerfully entered into this arrangement; tine of the Rhine-His Hostility-Defeats the Imperialists-Albert of Brandenburg, the Achilles of Gerbut two parties, more exalted and fanatic, many-Feuds of the Nobles and Cities-Nuremberg namely, the Taborites and the Waisen, -The Nobles Defeated-Austria and Burgundynamely, e ores an te aisenCharles the Rash-His Ambition-Attacks the Swiss under the direction of Procopius the Great -Defeated at Murten-The Battle of Nanc-His and Procopius the Little, would hear noth- Death-Mary of Burgundy —Marries Maximil an of Austria-Her Death —The Emperor Frederick a Fuing of moderation or of any agreement. It itive-HisReturn-Maximilian, Roman King-The Laws —Their Improvement —Frederick's Obstinacy came eventually to open war between them and Refusal-Maximilian Appealed to-The Swaand the moderate ones, when the latter bian League-Death of Frederick III., 1493-Prussia - -The Teutonic Knights-Their Decline and Fallgained a great victory, in which the two Prussia under Polish Sway, 1466. leaders of the former perished, and the emperor Sigismund succeeded at length in AFTER the death of Sigismund, the obtaining his recognition as king of Bo- princes, in 1438, elected an emperor from hemia; an event, however, accomplished the house of Austria, which, with scarcely only a few months before his death, which any intermission, has ever since occupied took place in 1437, he being sixty-nine the ancient throne of Germany. Albert II. years of age: having reigned fifty-one of Austria, who, as son-in-law of the late years as king of Hungary, and twenty- emperor Sigismund, had become at the eight years as emperor of Germany. same time king of Hungary and Bohemia, This emperor, notwithstanding his nu- was a well-meaning, distinguished prince, merous and wealthy possessions, was often and would, without doubt, have proved of in the greatest pecuniary embarrassment, great benefit to the empire; but he died produced chiefly by his frequent journeys, already in the second year of his reign, which were enormously expensive. On after his return from an expedition against this account he mortgaged, in 1417, the the Turks. Perhaps there never was a sovterritory of Brandenburg, (which, under ereign so lamented by high and low, rich Charles IV., had fallen to the house of and poor, as was Albert II. Luxemburg,) together with the elective In the year 1431, during the reign of franchise and the office of archchamber- Sigismund, a new council was assembled at lain, connected therewith, to the burgrave Basle, in order to carry on the work of reof Nuremberg, Frederick of Hohenzollern, forming the church as already commenced for 400,000 gold florins, which sum the at Constance. latter had lent to him at various times. But this council soon became engaged in On the 8th of April, 1517, the ceremony many perplexing controversies with Pope of enfeoffment was performed at Con- Eugene IV., whom they even deposed, and stance; by which the house of Hohenzol- instead of whom they appointed Duke Felern became possessed of that country, and lix of Savoy, under the title of pope Felix included among the great electorates. By V. The principle that a general ecclesisimilar means, Frederick the Warlike, astical convocation was above the pope, and margrave of Meissen and landgrave of was the supreme legislative authority in the Thuringia, obtained from the emperor Si- church, was most solemnly maintained at gismund, for 100,000 marks, the Saxon Basle, as it had before been at Constance. electoral dignity, and the circle of Witten- The Germans, for a time, took no part in berg, after that branch of the house of An- the dispute; at length, however, under the halt, which had possessed Saxony, Witten- emperor Albert II., they formally adopted berg, and the electoral crown, had become the chief decrees of the council of Basle, at extinct. a diet held at Mentz in the year 1439. From the imperial states there were present, the three spiritual electors in person, with the ambassadors from the emperor and the remaining states; besides these came FREDERICK III.-THE COUNCIL OF BASLE-THE TURKS. 227 ambassadors from the kings of France, broke up in the same year, after it had been Castile, Aragon, and Portugal, to advise assembled seventeen years, without having with the Germans upon the constitution of accomplished its original object. The anti. the church. The patriarch of Aquileja pope, Felix V., voluntarily abdicated his appeared as representative of the council. office. The man who was chiefly instru. Among the resolutions then adopted were mental in giving this turn to the affairs of the such as materially circumscribed the ex- church, was the former secretary of the emisting privileges of the pope. Instead of perorFrederick, EneasSylvius, ofthe house the enormous sums of money which were of Piccolomini, in Sienna, one of the most annually paid by all the higher clergy to distinguished men of his day. He had himRome,* the pope was to receive a fixed in- self been formerly secretary of the council come, (provisio;) and the German princes of Basle, and the most zealous vindicator contributed, as voluntary aid, only the of the rights of the councils; but if, when eighth part of that which had hitherto been his ambition was flattered by the prospect paid into the papal treasury on a vacan- of a more splendid career in attaching himcy occurring among the clergy. In like self to the papal chair, he asserted its digmanner, the pope in future was not to make nity against the danger which threatened it, any clerical appointments beyond his own he showed himself well able to induce his territory, while the free elections were re- emperor and several German princes to fastored to the chapters. Finally, the coun- vor the interests of the pope. He himself cil made regulations for the election of the afterwards became Pope Pius II., but soon pope, fixed the number of cardinals, and after died in 1462. determined the qualifications necessary. Frederick, the emperor, was a prince who The principle laid down was, that propor- meant well, but, at the same time, was ot tionally from every country in relation too quiet and easy a nature; his long reign with Rome, the pope should be surrounded presents but little that was calculated to by an equal number of cardinals, who, be- distinguish Germany or add to its renown. ing especially acquainted with the peculi- From the east the empire was endangered arities of each nation, would be able to place by the approach of an enemy-the Turks, the point in debate in its proper light, "in against whom no precautionary measures order that," as the council expresses it, were adopted. They, on the 29th of May, " the cardinals may, in fact, be, what their 1453, conquered Constantinople, and put an name imports, the hinges (cardines) upon end to the Grecian dominion, after it had which the doors of the church may rest and maintained its sway nearly 1000 years move." At that time a great obstacle was longer than that of the Romans had endured already presented against the establishment in the west. They then made their way of peace between the people and the church, towards the Danube, and very nearly sucinasmuch as the cardinals, whose office it ceeded also in taking Hungary. Frederick, was to act as counsellors of the pope in as well as the pope, tried to raise a crusade the direction of the Christian republic, were against them, but these enthusiastic times in the majority chosen from among the had gone by, and none would now take the Italians. cross. These and other decisions, calculated to That any measures were at all taken give important privileges and considerable against the enemies of the Christian name, independence to the German church, were, was to be attributed solely to the pope, in a great measure, annulled by Albert's Calixtus III., who fitted out, at his own cousin and successor, Duke Frederick of expense, a fleet of 16 galiots, and for that Austria, who was elected by the princes purpose did not even spare the riches of after him in the year 1440, as Frederick his treasury; while his legate, John CapIII., and by the Vienna Concordate (for- istran, a man who, in appearance and merly falsely called the Aschaffenburg glowing eloquence, resembled Peter the Concordate) with Pope Nicholas V., in the Hermit, the preacher of the first crusade, year 1448; whence the council of Basle succeeded in inspiring with holy zeal for the common cause of Christendom, at least ~ The emperor Maximilian I. maintained, even in some thousands of poor citizens, peasants, subsequent times, that the pope drew from the German nd monks, and appeared with them in empire an income exceeding a hundred-fold that re- an m, a a wit t i ceived by the emperor himself. 1456, at that most critical moment, when 228 THE CRUSADE-THE TURKS OVERTHROWN-HUNGARIA. the sultan Mahomet II., with 160,000 wise selected a private nobleman for their men, was besieging the fortress of Belgrade. king, George Padriabrad, and thus the This fortress, once taken by the enemy, Austrian house found itself for a time Hungary must be lost, and the passage to rejected from holding possession of either Vienna opened for him, as the young king, of these countries. "Singular is the W!adislas of Hungary, as well as the fact," says JEneas Sylvius in his Boheemperor Frederick and the German prin- mian history, "that both those kingdoms ces, were not prepared for war, and instead should have become transferred from the of acting were deliberating. Then it was most noble princely houses to those of cornthat Capistran, with his forces very in- mon noblemen P' adequately provided with pikes, flails, and In Germany, meantime, there existed hay forks, which he had brought in boats, numberless contests and feuds, each party attacked the Turkish fleet on the Danube, considered only his own personal quarrels, which surrounded Belgrade, and made his or pursued his own private interest, and way into the city. The Hungarian com- when a diet was resolved upon and assemmander-in-chief, John Hunnyades Cor- bled for determining an expedition against vinus, had also collected some forces, and the Turks, they were for some months diswith the crusaders repelled the furious cussing how much money and how many attacks of the Turks. However, he did troops each was to contribute, ultimately not venture to touch their well-intrenched postponing the whole affair until the next camp, and even forbade every attack upon year. Generally, at the German diets, it under pain of death; but the ardent little was done of any importance. The zeal of the crusaders was not to be re- emperor and princes were seldom person. strained, and Capistran, when he saw this, ally present, but sent their ambassadors, placed himself at their head with a staff whose chief concern was not to forego any in one hand and a crucifix in the other, thing for the interests of their masters. and stormed three Turkish intrenchments Frequently many of those were sent who one after the other, while Hunnyades now were well versed in the Roman law, which coming up with the cavalry, fell upon the was now very extensively studied; these rear of the enemy who was completely put came with their specious speeches, and to rout. Their intrenchments were after already prepared with a hundred different a severe contest taken, together with all reasons, by which to prove that too great their artillery and an immense booty, and a portion of the burden of the whole was Mahomet being wounded, fled with such of laid upon the particular prince or imhis army as remained. Upwards of 20,000 perial city they represented. They were Turks fell in the battle, and the sultan's engaged in discussing who should contripower was for many years crippled. bute least towards the welfare of GerThis deliverance Christendom owed to many; and, therefore, nothing that was the enthusiastic courage and the patriotic great or noble could be accomplished. valor of a monk and a Hungarian noble- Then began, also, the unhappy practice man, while the kings and princes remained of no longer speaking intelligibly, briefly, inactive or engaged in petty negotiations. and pithily; but communicating by tedious If this victory had been followed up by the writings and counter-statements. And union of vigorous force, the Turkish power when it was thought that an affair was at might, perhaps, have been wholly de- length settled, perhaps an ambassador stroyed; but nothing was done, and even would rise and say, as an excuse for not the two heroes who might have achieved concluding the business, that he had no something more, died in the same year, farther instructions, and thus, until his 1456, exhausted by their super-human new instructions were received, a delay of exertions. many months might intervene. Thence it The Hungarians, on the death of the happened, that from that time, scarcely son of the emperor Albert II., Wladislas at any diet a single valid, conclusive reso Posthumus, in the year 1457, without leav- lution was adopted; they were always ing an heir to the throne, chose Matthias, postponing the business in hand for the the son of John Corvinus, as king, being decision of a future assembly, and even resolved not to elect one from among the then another final meeting was adjudged Austrian princes. The Bohemians like. necessary. How different, and far better FREDERICK BESIEGED IN VIENNA-ALBERT OF BRANDENBURG. 229 was it, when the princes in former times In the Germanic empire, the voice cf the were present in person, and when more emperor was as little heeded, as in his hewas done in one hour's cordial conference reditary lands. Frederick the Conqueror, than in after years in weeks and months. count palatine of the Rhine, who, by sucWhat, however, had operated much to cess of arms, had enlarged the palatinate change the form of the diets was, that in- by one third, after Frederick had pronounced stead of that equalized right enjoyed by the ban of the empire upon him, was sufthose who formerly attended, there were fered to build at his castle at Heidelberg, a now introduced three gradations of form: strong tower, which he called his " Defithat of the electors, the princes, and the ance to the emperor." (Trutz Kaiser.) cities. By the Golden Bull, the first col- This very count palatine ventured publicly lege had acquired very important privi- to take under his protection, Diether, arch. leges, and was wholly separated from that bishop of Mentz, the head of the party in of the princes and cities; while the latter, Germany who sought to curtail the privifor a long period, commanded only a vote leges of the pontiff, after Pope Pius II. had in the council, but no co-determinating deposed and excommunicated him. The voice. emperor Federick, on the contrary, wished The emperor could not give any weight to carry into effect the sentence of the pope, to public measures; scarcely could he and committed to the Margrave Albert of maintain his dignity among his own sub- Brandenburg, and Count Ulric of Wurtemjects. The Austrian nobility were even berg, as his generals, the direction of the bold enough to send challenges to their imperial war against the count palatine and sovereign; while the city of Vienna re- his confederates; the two generals, howvolted, and his brother Albert, taking ever, failed. The army of the Wurtempleasure in this disorder, was not backward bergian chief was totally routed by the in adding to it. Things even went to such count palatine, near the village of Seckenan extremity, that, in 1462, the emperor heim, and Ulric himself, with the margrave Frederick, together with his consort and of Baden, taken prisoner; and in the same son, Maximilian, then four years of age, year, the ally of the count palatine, Duke was besieged by his subjects in his own castle Lewis of Bavaria, attacked Albert of Branof Vienna. A plebeian burgher, named denburg with equal success not far from Holzer, had placed himself at the head of Giengen, in Swabia, and captured the imthe insurgents, and was made burgomaster, perial banner. The Archbishop Diether, while Duke Albert came to Vienna person- however, subsequently submitted of his ally to superintend the siege of the castle, own accord to the sentence of the pope, which was intrenched and bombarded. and resigned the archbishopric into the The emperor, on this occasion, showed hands of Adolphus of Nassau, who had himself firm and resolute; he encouraged been nominated by the pontiff. his small garrison of 400 men to make the Another memorable feud during the reign bravest resistance, and called aloud from of Frederick, was that of many princes the walls, " This spot will I defend until it and nobles, under the leadership of the becomes my grave!" aforementioned Margrave Albert of BranThe German princes, however, could denburg, (who from his strength and prownot witness with indifference such disgrace- ess, was called the German Achilles,) ful treatment of their emperor, and they against the city of Nuremberg in Franconia. assembled to liberate him. George Padria- Nuremberg was then one of the most brad, king of Bohemia, was the first who flourishing and powerful cities of entire hastened to the spot with assistance, set the Germany; the ancient animosity between emperor at liberty, and effected a reconcil- the free citizens and knights broke out, in iation between him and his brother. The the year 1449, into a great war. Seventeen emperor, however, was obliged to resign of the greatest princes of the empire, the to him, for eight years, Lower Austria and electors of Brandenburg and Mentz, WilVienna. Albert died in the following year, liam of Saxony, Otho of Bavaria, Albert after he had inflicted the merited punish- of Austria, &c., declared war against the mer.t upon the burgomaster Holzer, who city. On the other hand, seventy-two imhad endeavored to betray him to the empe- perial towns took part with Nuremberg, and ror; the traitor was quartered alive. the Swiss also sent 800 men. This deso. 230 CHARLES OF BURGUNDY-HIS CONFERENCE WITH FREDERICK. lating war-which especially affected the pose of negotiating this matter, they agreed rural districts, wherein two hundred vil- upon a conference at Treves, in the year lages were burnt to the ground-lasted 1473. The rich duke appeared with more eight years. Eight times were the nobility than imperial splendor, and Frederick, who, victorious; but in March, 1456, the army through the disordered state of his finances, of the margrave was totally beaten near was reduced almost to penury met him in Pillerent; the victory being mainly gained a very poor and mean condition. This by the Swiss; and the margrave, who now striking contrast in their appearance was, saw that even princely power availed not no doubt, mortifying to the emperor; and against the strong walls and opulence of he, especially, was displeased with the the cities, gladly made peace with Nurem- proud, assuming behavior of the duke; for berg.* so certain did the latter feel of obtaining The feudal system raged under Frede- the royal title, that he had actually brought rick's reign to such an extent, that it was with him the jewels for his coronation, and pursued even by the lower classes. Thus, had made great preparations for the august in 1471, the shoeblacks in Leipsic sent a festival. But how must he have been shockchallenge to the university of that place; ed, when the emperor suddenly, without and the bakers of the Count Palatine having crowned, nay, without even having Lewis, and those of the margrave of Ba- taken leave of him, took his departure from den defied several imperial cities in Swabia. Treves, under the cool pretext that his The most important transaction in the presence was urgently required at Cologne, reign of Frederick, was the union which on account of the disagreement there exhe formed with the house of Burgundy, and isting between the archbishop and his chapwhich laid the foundation for the greatness ter. Full of indignation, and now by no of Austria. means disposed for the projected marriage Charles the Rash, duke of Burgundy, with the house of Austria, the duke was one of the richest and most celebrated likewise left Treves immediately afterprinces of his time. He governed the wards. beautiful countries which are situated at Nevertheless, this meeting was not the mouths of the rivers Rhine and Scheldt, attended without its important effects. and which are known by the common name Charles had, on this occasion, become of the Netherlands; he also held dominion much prepossessed in favor of the young, over the territory and dukedom of Bur- chivalrous son of the emperor; and on gundy. This prince might have rendered his return he gave his daughter a descriphimself the most happy of all his royal tion of his merits, in the most glowing contemporaries. But his proud, ambitious colors: her heart was so captivated, that mind aimed at greater things, even the im- without having even seen Maximilian, she, perial crown itself; he was glad, therefore, from this time, cherished a secret attachwhen the emperor Frederick III. proposed ment for him, and soon afterwards, in a letto give his own son, Maximilian, in mar- ter she sent direct to the young prince, she riage to his only daughter, Mary, who betrothed herself to him. afterwards became the heiress of the beau- The dispute between Archbishop Rupert tiful lands of Burgundy. But when he of Cologne, and his chapter, had become perceived that the emperor did not intend to so serious, that the latter now fixed its seat sacrifice to him the succession to the em- in the city of Neuss, and openly opposed pire, he demanded of him, at least, the him. The archbishop sought the assistroyal title; preceding emperors having also ance of Charles the Rash, and he, gladly made kings of the dukes of Bohemia, as embracing the opportunity, and no doubt feodal-princes of the empire. For the pur- already considering himself as prince of the Rhine, marched forth with an army of * This battle is celebrated in a poem. called " The 60,000 men, and encamped before Neuss. Battle of Nuremberg," written by Hans Rosenplt, an The city, however, defended itself with the heraldic painter of Nuremberg. The warlike, intrepid spirit of the free citizens is there vividly expressed, and greatest heroism and glory: eleven months the description of the princes taking to flight, does not did the duke remain before it, during which want for point and ridicule. A Low-German poem of the time commemorates the celebrated battle of Soest, he made fifty-six vain assaults, and lost in 1444, when Dietrich, the archbishop of Cologne upwards of 15,000 men; and, at last, with 70,000 men, made an attack upon that city but upwards 15,000 men; and, last, was at last obliged to retreat in disgrace. when the emperor Frederick approached THE SWISS-BATTLE OF MURTEN-CHARLES'S DEFEAT AND DEATH. 231 with an imperial army to succor the city, and in the same year, 1476 he marched a and Charles was unable to effect any thing second time against them. by nine more assaults, which he made in The armies met at Murten. Hans of one day, he was obliged to conclude a Hallwyl, who led the confederates, ordered treaty through the means of the pope's them, before the battle, to kneel down and legate, which, although unattended with offer up their prayer, as their fathers had any advantage, brought him nevertheless been accustomed to do; and while they no disgrace. Neuss yielded to him, but were praying, the dense clouds which had only in appearance; for he withdrew the hitherto overhung the sky with blackness, same day he entered, and resigned it into now parted, and the sun cast its bright the hands of the legate of the pope, who genial beams on the suppliant multitude. was to hold dominion over it until affairs This luminary appeared to them, at this were settled between the archbishop and awful hour, as a messenger from Heaven, the chapter. and a sure pledge of victory; and in this The restless duke soon afterwards at- assurance, rendered more strong and intacked Rene, duke of Lorraine, whose trepid in the cause, they fell so bravely country he wished to annex to his own. upon the enemy that he was put to the rout, He conquered the chief city, Nancy, was and the field was covered with the bodies there acknowledged, and wished now to of 20,000 Burgundians, which were coldirect his arms against the Swiss, so that lected and deposited in the charnel-house his dominions might descend from the of Murten, with the superscription, " This sources of the Rhine to its mouth. In memorial has been left behind by the vain did the Swiss represent to him that martial host of the mighty duke of Burtheir entire country was not so valuable as gundy." the trappings of his horses; regardless of In the following year, 1477, on the 5th their remonstrances, he invaded Switzer- of January, a cold winter's day, there was land, and made so sure of a victory, that another sanguinary battle at Nancy, in he ordered the garrison of Granson, which which the warlike duke at last met with he had taken, to be suspended on the trees. his death. The Swiss then advanced against him, and The united armies of Lorraine and Swittook heavy vengeance for this act; for zerland completely defeated his troops; although his army was three times more and he himself, who, in the din of war, numerous than their own, they totally de- after fighting bravely and honorably for feated it, and captured his entire camp, his house, had been struck down, was found, filled as it was with implements of war and scarcely known, among the slain, late on immense treasures.* He fled from the the following day. field, accompanied by only five of his re- His death inspired the crafty French maining attendants. Enraged at this de- king, Louis XI., with the hope of acquiring feat, he equipped a new army of 60,000, new and more glorious countries; he employed every means to gain for his eldest " In order to show the wealth of the proud duke, weson, Mary, the heiress of Burundy; but will just specify some of the principal spoils made by the people of the Netherlands held in bitter the Swiss. In his tent, which on the outside was hung dislike every thing French; and when the with armorial shields of gold and pearls, they found the golden throne upon which he sat on solemn occasions; ambassadors from the emperor Frederick his ducal hat of yellow velvet, thickly studded with the to t as ishmnt of most precious jewels and pearls; the golden fleece, therrved, and, to the astonishment of every order which his father had instituted; the great seal one, presented the autograph letter and of Burgundy, in gold, weighing a pound; togetherr with the lden calet of his father, havi rin, which the Prncess Mary had pre drops, cabinets of relics, a valuable prayer-book, &c. viously sent to the Archduke Maximilian, The dining-room was well stored with golden and silver goblets, dishes, and plates, besides four hundred the people were delighted, and Mary detravelling trunks, containing the most precious golden dlared openly and freely: " Him have I and silver embroidery, which tile soldiers sold for a few pence. Tle gold was distributed in hats. Thelargest fixed upon in my mind, him will I have for of the duke's jewels, equal in size to the half of a wal- y husband and none other." Thereupon, nut, and the value of which he estimated at the price m h a,. of an entire province, was picked up on the road by a Maximilian went to the Netherlands and Swiss, and sold by him for a florin. Pope Julius IL was united to Mary of Burgundy. He purchased it afterwards of the citizens of Berne for 20,000 ducats, and it yet shines as the chief jewel in the soon found opportunity to prove to his new papal crown. A second jewel of the duke, which was subjects his valor and discretion in their taken, is in the French crown, and a third is in the imperial treasury at Vienna. wars against the French king; for the lat. 232 FREDERICK A FUGITIVE-HIS RETURN. ter, who regarded the young prince as an remarkable degree in the minds of many insignificant adversary, and relied upon his throughout the empire, so that the profound own superior power, had by force of arms contemplator of coming events might easily made a conquest of various parts of Bur- see the dawn of a new era. Universally gundy. Maximilian, however, bravely made was it felt that Tthe time was come for the head against him, and defeated his avari- re-establishment of the imperial power on cious enemy at Guinegast, in 1479, and stronger foundations. But as this power would to a certainty have reconquered from could alone no longer subsist as a central him every portion of the estates of Burgundy point of dominion over the Christian world, still in his possession, but for the sad loss it was necessary to rest it upon the basis of he sustained in his beloved Mary, who died a constitution, for which indeed all the elein the year 1482, in consequence of a fall ments of a grand system of community from her horse while chasing herons. The were already at hand, could they only be zeal of the Netherlanders then grew cold brought to bear in happy combination. in the protracted war, and Maximilian was The diets were regarded as the focus of obliged to leave his beautiful inheritance in jurisdiction and administration; an imthe hands of the French. perial court of justice was already estabIn these battles the emperor Frederick lished; a register, by which every member could afford his son no assistance; he was of the empire was bound to give his name hard pressed in his own hereditary lands, for the general defence of the empire, had partly by the Turks, who made their way been established in the war against the into Carinthia and Carniola, and even to Hussites. Thus, if these institutions could Salzburg; and partly by Matthias, king of only be brought into thorough operation, Hungary, who, in 1485, took possession of good order, and the proper government of Vienna itself; and all regard for public the empire would be secured. honor being now diminished, the Germanic In order to promote this grand object empire could with great difficulty be induced great activity was shown, especially towards to make any exertions on behalf of its em- the latter part of the reign of the emperor peror. The latter having made his escape, Frederick. In the year 1486, the decree was compelled to wander a fugitive through of the Landfriede, or peace of the country, his land, seeking a temporary asylum in was renewed, although still accompanied some of the convents and cities, where he with certain clauses which in many cases was charitably furnished with the necessi- sanctioned self-defence or private warfare. ties of life; nay, sometimes he was glad to In the year 1489, the forms of council at beg a lift on the high road from some peas- the diets were more firmly regulated and ant driving his team of oxen. Nevertheless, fixed, according to the three colleges in roeven in this state of degradation, his feeling tation, viz. the electors, princes, and cities. of dignity never forsook him; by himself, It was held desirable likewise, that to and those few scattered sympathizing sub- the imperial tribunal there should be added jects by whom his sovereignty was still ac- another imperial chamber, furnished with knowledged, he was regarded as the source the vigorous power of the executive, in orof justice and authority in his extensive der to maintain the law of the Landfriede, empire. This undauntedness of opinion possessing equally with the emperor himand conviction now gradually operated in self the right of pronouncing the imperial his favor, and produced once more a union ban against all disturbers of the peace of of the princes of the empire, while he suc- the country, with authority to adopt and ceeded in effecting what his great ancestor regulate the necessary measures for its in all the fulness of his power had been execution. But on this point the old emunable to accomplish; inasmuch, as in the peror, who clung to the ancient system, reyear 1486, the whole of the assembled mained extremely obstinate, being deterprinces, influenced especially by the rep- mined not to yield any portion of his own resentations of the faithful and now venera- power and authority. The colleges were ble Albert, called the Achilles of Branden- therefore forced for the present to wait and burg, elected Maximilian, the emperor's son, be satisfied with receiving from his son,king of Rome. Maximilian, the recently elected king of Indeed, about this period a changed and Rome, the promise that he would use every Improved spirit began to show itself in a exertion with his father to bring into op. THE SWAB[AN LEAGUE-PRUSSIA UNDER POLAND. 233 eration the proposed institution. It was with the German empire; viz., Prussia, well known, of course, that he would not became subject to the sovereignty of Posucceed in gaining the object desired; but land. How, during the reign of Frederick it was believed, that by this expression of II., the knights of the Teutonic order enfeeling, he himself would, when he came tered Prussia, and there founded a govern. into power, feel bound to bring it into effect. ment under which the cities and country How he acted in this respect we shall find gloriously flourished, we have already seen. in the history of his reign; all, at least, This prosperity continued until the fifwere satisfied in having only gained some- teenth century. The commercial towns thing. of Danzig, Thorn, and Elbing, obtained It was at this period, likewise, that in such greatness, that the first-mentioned another respect, a very powerful alliance town could (according to AEneas Sylvius) was formed, by which in the municipal command a force of 50,000 men, and the territories of Germany the preservation of chronicles also relate of a peasant, who peace would be materially promoted. This when, about the year 1400, he entertained was the Swabian league, which, in 1488, the grand-master of the order, Conrad of under the mediation of the emperor, was Jungingen, placed round the table as seats, effected with the more immediate object of twelve tuns, of which eleven were com. opposing the violent and overbearing power pletely, but the twelfth only half filled with of the dukes of Bavaria, who had seized gold. He even offered them to the grandand held possession of Ratisbon, and by master as a present, who, however, ordered whom several other imperial cities were the twelfth to be quite filled, in order that now threatened. At first, a considerable it might be said, that in Prussia there exbody of knights and many of the cities isted a peasant who possessed twelve tuns combined together, under the direction of filled with gold. a select council of the confederates, for But already, under this grand-master, common defence against every enemy, and the dominion of the order began to fall into for the preservation of the peace of the decay. It had become too rich-luxury country. These were soon joined and and vice enervated the prowess of its memheaded by the neighboring princes, es- bers; injustice and oppression estranged pecially Wurtemberg and Brandenburg. the people from their rulers, and when now Against this formidable body Albert of Mu- the rising power of the Polish kings was nich soon found he was unable to contend, directed against the order, they exhibited a and accordingly, he was forced to give up total relaxation of their ancient power. In Ratisbon, and, indeed, soon afterwards a great battle at Tannenberg, in 1410, the joined the league himself. knights were completely beaten by King These last years were the best in the Wladislas Jagello. It is true they obwhole life of the emperor, and yielded to tained moderate terms at the peace of him in return for his many sufferings, that Thorn, in 1416; yet the old evils contranquillity which was so well merited by tinued. Besides this there were internal his faithful, generous disposition. He died broils; the nobility and cities of the counon the 19th of August, 1493, after a reign try entered into an alliance against the of 54 years. knights, and chose, in 1454, Casimir III. The emperor lived long enough to obtain, kingof Poland for their protector. After in the year 1490, the restoration of his a war of twelve years, at the second peace hereditary estates by the death of King of Thorn, in 1466, the order was obliged Matthias, by means of a compact made to resign to Poland part of the country, towith Wladislas, his successor. gether with Culm, Marienburg, Elbing, Frederick was the last emperor who was and other places; and to acknowledge for in person invested with the Roman imperial the portion left to them the feodal right of crown in Rome; this took place on the the Polish crown. The country had suf19th of March, 1452. fered indescribably from the desolating During the reign of Frederick III., a war; of twenty-one thousand large vilneighboring country, which was conquered lages, only three thousand were left, and the and peopled by the Germans, and which order had become reduced to a mere shasubsequently became more closely united dow of its former greatness. 30 234 MAXIMILIAN I.-HIS CHARACTER. astonishing and unprecedented adventures, CHAPTER XV. so also in the exploits of Maximilian we Maximilian I., 1493-1519-His Mental Acquirements find predominating valor, enthusiasm, and and Chivalric Character-His Government-Italy- sometimes temerity. Charles VIII. and Lewis XII. of France-Switzerland One of his most favorite, because the -The Venetian Republic-The League of Cambrays most avote ecause -Maximilian's Honorable and Consistent Conduct most daring, pastimes, was that of hunting -The Battle of the Spurs-Union of Hungary and th, chamois, and on these excursions he Bohemia-Internal Administration of Affairs-Per-te cmois, and on these excursions he petual Peace of the Land-End of the Faust-Recht often ran into such hazard that his friends -The Imperial Chamber and Aulic Council-Oppo- trembled for his life; in like manner did sition of the States-The Emperor Triumphant — State of the Country-The Nobles, Cities, and he sport with danger in wrestling-matches, Peasantry —Gtz of Berlichingen, &c.-Deathl of the with his own hand, he conquered EmperorMaximilian, 1519-Events of his Reign, and where, with his own hand, he conquered End of the Middle Ages-Discovery and Use of the very lion itself, the same as on the Gunpowder-Artillery and Fire-arms-Invention of field of battle, where many an antagonist Printing, 1457. was doomed to lie at his feet. At the DURING the preceding century Europe same time, the emperor, amid his other had become fully prepared for great avocations, found time for the arts and changes, which, when they had once un- sciences, and acquired knowledge to a defolded their results, would produce a com- gree which would excite admiration, even plete revolution in the condition of na- from those whose whole life is directed to tions. The invention of gunpowder had such pursuits. He spoke nearly all the already begun so to alter the science of European languages then in vogue, and war, that chivalry, which for centuries had left behind him several works which he predominated throughout the middle ages, had written in German. He acquired the was now approaching its end. The art art of forging armor, which he did with of printing, in connection with the inven- his own hand; was much attached to all tion of paper, had created a new medium that was learned and scientific, and in confor the communication of thought, by versation he was so intellectual, affable, which, with the rapidity of lightning, the and kind, that every one recognised in him human mind might be agitated from one the accomplished man. He was never end of Europe to the other. The discovery known to allow an oath or a blasphemous of a new quarter of the globe, and a sea word to pass his lips, while his noble mind passage to the East Indies, altered entirely and heart were constantly, even amid the the former course of commerce, and trans- most bitter insults, inclined towards mercy. ferred the great power thereby gained to His outward appearance was also in pernations, which, among the rest, had hitherto fect keeping with the character here debeen but little mentioned or known. Fi- picted, being tall and muscular, and of a nally, political economy, as it now arose, truly royal carriage. In his younger years and came especially from France and his flaxen hair flowed in ringlets down to Italy, assumed quite another form-it made his shoulders, his blue eyes expressed honor and good faith give way to interest; glowing ardor, mixed with kindness, and and this was now the principle upon which his high forehead and aquiline nose finstates acted in their alliances, so that in the ished the expression of majesty in his conduct of nations towards each other there features. His natural fervor and vivacity appeared to prevail a law different to that of character Maximilian derived from his which is recognised by individuals. mother, Eleanor of Portugal, a princess During this period of fermentation, so endowed with an amiable and noble dispofertile in invention, it may be said of the sition, but who died unhappily too soon, emperor Maximilian, that he stood forth being scarcely thirty years of age. It amid the new forms as a dignified image must also be said to the honor of his father. of olden time, since in him again, and for that he bestowed great care upon the eauthe last time, was personified chivalry in cation of his son from childhood upward, all its glory. As this in its great features by providing for him excellent n asters, as was equally elevated and amiable, so did well as by his own personal instructions. Maximilian unite with bravery, dignity, Maximilian's first appearance in public and decision of character, the gentleness life resembles the opening of a romance of a child; and as the warm imagination of chivalry. Love and honor called him of the middle ages prompted to the most forth, while yet a youth, to the field, and DECLINE OF CHIVALRY-ITALY-CHARLES VIII. 235 he then already gave signs of his noble papal crown, and thus, by uniting in his and courageous disposition in a contest at own person the two chief dignities of arms which he maintained in the most Christianity, promote the peace and welhonorable manner, with the artful and fare of the world. This is no fiction, for more experienced king of France, Lewis it is proved by documents and the autoXI. But in the course of his career, all graph letters of the emperor, which show did not succeed as this his first essay in that in the year 1511 he had made serious life. The time was gone by, when a bold preparations for his election as pope in the chivalric venture brought with it the neces- event of the death of Pope Julius II., who sary successful results. Instead of, as in was then dangerously ill, but who afterancient times, rushing into an enemy's wards recovered. And if we duly concountry, accompanied by vassals, sum- sider the actual state of the world at that moned at a moment's notice, and after the time, the idea of the emperor was not so termination of a short but glorious cam- chimerical and impossible as it might at paign, speedily returning home, it was first appear; besides which, a main diffinecessary now to keep up a mercenary culty that might have presented itself from army. It was no longer the preponder- the fact of his marriage, was obviated by ance of spirit and individual strength, the recent death of his second consort which ensured success to great enterprises, Bianca. Maximilian, however, in this case, but all was decided by the superior com- as in fact in almost all the other acts of mand of external resources; and our val- his life, did not duly estimate the extent of iant, noble-minded emperor, who at an his external resources; the idea was too earlier epoch would have governed as grand in contrast with the limited means gloriously as the most renowned and pow- of accomplishment, and thus his entererful of his ancestors, now, for want of prises generally did not succeed, as the these advantages, stood far behind the art- history of his life will now more particuful, cold-calculating kings of France and larly show. Spain. He knew not, as they did, the The external operations of Maximilian importance of such external resources, and were directed almost exclusively to Italy. especially money; he wasted large sums Here the French kings, whose power had away without reflection, so that whenever a materially increased by the total expulsion critical and decisive moment arrived, these of the English from the French territory, means were wanting, and his troops for as well as by annexing to the crown the lack of pay were disbanded.* great fiefs of Burgundy, Brittany, Provence, These observations explain Maximilian's and Anjou, persisted in their efforts to life, and his incongruity with the age in withdraw that country, broken up already which he lived; nevertheless, mindful, by factions, from its allegiance to the emhowever, of the ancient honor of the im- peror, and, as much as possible, to bring it perial dignity, he pursued the grand object under French subjection. of maintaining, so far as he was able, Hence Charles VIII. sought out and projustice, peace, and order throughout Eu- duced the ancient claims of the house ot rope, and that, too, less by force of arms, Anjou to the kingdom of Naples, where a than by the dictates of wisdom and reason; collateral lineage of the Aragonian family of protecting the church, and finally, di- reigned. With an army which he had levrecting the united power of Christendom ied hastily he invaded Italy, and in. 1495 against the universal enemy, the Turks. speedily gained possession of Naples. This And truly did he succeed in adding more success was greatly owing to the u'se of influence to the imperial dignity than it metal cannons, which, drawn by horses, had possessed for centuries: he even con- followed the troops; those hitherto used templated the bold design of attaining the being only of heavy iron, employed merely in sieges..... As soon, however, as the Italians had O While yet a boy, Maximilian once expressed this As soon, however, as the Italians had disposition, when his father presented him with a plate somewhat recovered from their first alarm of fruit and a purse of money. Maximilian keptthe they united together, friends and foes, fruit, and gave the money away to his servants. "That boy will become a spendthrift!" sighed his father. But against the French; the emperor, the pope, Maximilian replied: "I wish not to be a king over and the king of Aragon, Ferdinand. the money, but over the people, and all those who possess Ca th olic, of Arao, Ferdiad the money." Catholic, promised also their aid; so that 236 LEWIS XII.-MILAN-THE VENETIANS. the king of France was forced to abandon -the last that was made-to bring the his conquest as quickly as he had made it. Swiss once more under the dominion of the It was on this occasion that the emperor empire. The ancient hatred of the nobilMaximilian negotiated and settled defini- ity, especially in Swabia, became now tively the highly important marriage of his again manifested against the Swiss peasson Philip, who already possessed the Neth- antry. This time it was called forth by erlands, with Joanna, the daughter of the an insignificant quarrel of the Austrian king of Spain. This son, Philip, had been government in Tyrol with the confederates born to him by his beloved Mary of Bur- of the Grisons. The chief cause, howevgundy, and the issue of Philip's marriage er, was, viz., that the Swiss had become with Joanna of Spain, was the subsequent the allies of the French kings, and gave emperor, Charles V., who reunited and them assistance in their expeditions against held the half of Europe under his sway. Italy-an act regarded as a breach of their The French, however, would not allow obligations to the empire, they having althemselves to be entirely discomfited by ways been looked upon as included in the the failure of their first attempt upon Italy. imperial alliance. But the war which was The successor of Charles VIII., Lewis waged against them, in 1499, was disgraceXII., resolved to conquer Milan, to make ful to Germany. The Swabian nobility up for the loss of Naples. He founded his were in several skirmishes severely beatclaims upon ancient family alliances with en; a numerous and well-appointed army, the house of Visconti, and made a hostile which Maximilian himself collected in attack upon the reigning duke, Louis Mo- Constance, was, in consequence of the reroni. With the aid of the Venetians, to luctance of the princes to join in a battle whom he promised a portion of the booty, among the dangerous mountains of Swithe, in the year 1500, soon made a con- zerland, forced to turn back, retreating quest of the entire duchy, and the unfor- through the passes on the confines of the tunate duke was obliged, after ten years country of Berne. The grand marshal ot confinement, to end his days in a dungeon the emperor, Count von Fiirstenberg, who in France. The king now directed his at- was ordered to conduct the army of the tention again to Naples, united with Fer- princes of the Rhine, through Alsace, by dinand of Aragon, and both shared togeth- Basle, into Switzerland, was surprised and er that kingdom, to which neither had any overthrown by the Swiss at Dorneck, with right. On this occasion, however, Lewis the loss of 3000 killed, and all his ammuwas forced to experience that one artful nition. They were obliged to make peace man may be cheated by another more art- and leave to the Swiss their independence, ful than himself, inasmuch as the Spanish although the latter did not as yet expressly king, by means of his general, Gonsalvo dissolve their connection with the empire. of Cordova, soon expelled the French from Soon afterwards, Basle and Schaffhausen, Naples, and retained the kingdom for him- which had hitherto remained imperial citself. ies, were included in the Swiss confederaThe emperor was wrong to allow for- tion. eign nations thus to run loose upon Italy; Maximilian very soon again found em. that unhappy country, unable to maintain ployment in Italy. Here, at this time, nc its independence, ought at least, under im- state was more flourishing than that of the perial protection, to have been secured Venetians. By their extended commerce against such arbitrary treatment. And, they had acquired immense wealth, a great indeed, Maximilian would gladly have as- part of Upper Italy had by degrees become serted his ancient rights of sovereignty, but subject to them, and they aimed at still unhappily he was not supported by the greater power. Germanic empire, and his power was too But their pride and insolence excited the much restricted. He was compelled, there- hatred of their powerful neighbors, who for, to allow King Lewis to hold posses- besides laid claim to various parts of their sionof Milan, who, however, so far honored territories; the principal portion of what the imperial dignity as to consent to retain they possessed in Upper Italy, excepting the duchy as a fief of the empire. their old country, having formerly belongWhile the French established themselves ed to the empire, and other portions to the in Italy, Maximilian made another attempt papal dominions; while in Lower Italy LEAGUE OF CAMBRAY-BATTLE OF THE SPURS. 237 they had taken places to which Ferdinand to the French, and joined the Venetians. the Catholic, as king of Naples, laid just Ferdinand soon afterwards did the same, claims; and finally, France wished to ob- and the three allies called their union the tain those possessions immediately border- holy league. The French were now exing upon Milan. pelled from Milan. Their policy then Hence arose, in 1508, the famous league quickly took a turn; the first calculation between Spain, France, the warlike Pope having failed, they entered into an alliance Julius II., and the emperor, against the re- with their former enemies, the Venetians; public of Venice, known under the name while, on the other hand, the Spaniards of the league of Cambray, threatening in- again united with the emperor and with the stantly to crush that free state, which al- king of England, Henry VIII., against though rich, was still insignificant when both the others. Thus, in the course of a compared with such great powers opposed few years, friendship gave way to hostility, to it. But as this is the first great league and the latter again yielded to the former; of the kind in the history of the more mod- Spain, for instance, from being first hostile, ern states of Europe, it has also become had become allied with, but was now again the prefigure of most of those which have hostile to Venice; and throughout the succeeded it, and seems as a sort of mirror whole of this game treachery appeared to in which is reflected the instability of the pass for wisdom, while honor was treated political relations of these states, which as nothing. being grounded in selfishness and self- The French, however, were not benefitaggrandizement, without having a hold in ed by this new calculation; in the battle the moral dignity of the people, again dis- of Novarre, in 1513, they were driven comsolved like an empty vapor, as soon as the pletely out of Italy, in which affair the cards of fortune were reshuffled, and thus Swiss fought against them; as they were became an object of derision for the whole hard pressed also in their own country by of Europe. For the artful republicans so the imperial and the English troops, who in well knew how to divide the allies by daz- the same year, under the personal comzling before the eyes of each the tempting mand of Maximilian, gained the battle of bait of self-interest, that those who were Guinegate, (which on account of the hasty friends before became hostile to each other, retreat of the French was called the Battle while they themselves retired unhurt from of the Spurs,) Louis found it necessary to their conflict with the most powerful prin- renounce for a time his claims to Milan. ces. Maximilian gave Milan as a fief of the emOf the emperor Maximilian himself his- pire to Maximilian Sforza, the son of Louis tory recoi s, that he was most sincere in Moro; but he did not possess it long. his dealings with his allies, and maintained When Louis XII. died in the year 1515, the honor of his word. Louis XII. was the he was succeeded to the French throne by first to hasten to the scene of action, in the the youthful, daring, and ambitious Francis year 1509, and in a few weeks made a I., and in order that he might commence his conquest of all that the league had prom. reign with some brilliant act, he sallied ised him as part of the booty; and when forth, in the same year, with an army to Maximilian also arrived, and with his troops Italy, and recaptured Milan. The Swiss took one place after another, the Venetians who came to the assistance of the city, and begged from him peace, offering to make incautiously attacked the enemy, were after over to him all that they had ever taken from a severe engagement, which lasted two the house of Austria or the empire; thus days, completely defeated at Marignano. an opportunity was presented by which he This was the first great battle in which might have made a very advantageous they had lost the field. treaty with them. But he refused; the The French artillery and the German allies having solemnly agreed only to grant lanciers, who served on French pay, and peace conjointly. The others, however, were ever after considered the best infandid not act equally conscientious. Ferdi- try, gained the victory. The emperor, nand the Catholic, as he was sure of his indeed, made an expedition once again in possessions in Lower Italy, took no farther the following year into Italy, and besieged part in the war, and Pope Julius II. aban- Milan, but increasing age and so many doned the league altogether, out of hatred futile efforts made him disposed for peace; 238 HUNGARY AND BOHEMIA UNITED-LANDFRIEDE. moreover, his forces soon dwindled away from all personal motive, and having the for want of pay. By a treaty made at cause of his country alone in mind and Brussels in 1516, he resigned to the king heart, he was continually at work to proof France the duchy of Milan, and, what mote its welfare. was still more galling to his feelings, he At the first diet held by the new emperor gave back to the detested republic of Ve- at Worms, in 1495, the subject of the nice the important city of Verona. Landfriede, or peace of the country, and Thus was concluded, after a great varie- the proposed Kammergericht, or imperial ty of changes, the war of Italy, in which chamber, were immediately taken into disthe best exertions of the emperor had been cussion. The emperor, who likewise required. This contest had withheld him heartily desired that peace should at length from pursuing that object so important to reign throughout the empire, in order that the empire, and for which his chivalric its strength might be more effectually spirit so naturally disposed him, namely, brought to bear against the hostile power in making war against the Turks, and if of France, zealously joined in the grand possible banishing them from Europe. undertaking, and thus was completed and This wish he constantly cherished, and brought into operation the institution for even expressed most ardently but a few the perpetual peace of the country-a months before his death, at his last diet work which gained for this diet the greatheld in Augsburg, in a proposition he made est praise and renown. And although to the states of the empire, to undertake an this Landfriede was still shackled with expedition against the Turks; but the pet- certain restrictive clauses, and the feudal ty and selfish spirit of the day was not fa- system did not altogether cease its operavorable to such an enterprise. tions, still the new law possessed this adAmong the other external arrangements vantage, viz., that legally club-law must:f the emperor, one most worthy of remark henceforth entirely terminate, and the auwas the ratification of the reunion with thority of the law in its normal form take Hungary and Bohemia. Besides the grand- its place; a system which, in the course son, who afterwards became emperor of time, after it had come more and more Charles V., he had of his son Philip, who into operation, was universally adopted. was already dead, and Joanna of Spain, When we consider the incalculably imporanother grandson, afterwards Ferdinand I.; tant consequences which attended this him he gave in 1515 in marriage to the change of things among the middle and daughter of Wladislas, king of Hungary, lower classes of the people, we must as. and thereby laid the foundation for the suredly acknowledge the year 1495 to be direct connection of Hungary and Bohemia one of the most momentary and striking in with the countries of Austria. our history, while we must regard the emAlready during the last few years of the peror Maximilian as one of the greatest reign of the emperor Frederick III., as benefactors of the nation. before mentioned, great efforts had been Still in respect to the more enlarged made by the states of the empire to estab- plan of the Elector Bertofd and the states, lish public tranquillity, and to render it which embraced the strengthening of the secure by a legislative institution. Im- imperial government and the imperial mediately after the commencement of the chamber, Maximilian did not so easily reign of the new emperor, these exertions yield his sanction; like his father, he was were perseveringly continued. The most very reluctant to give up any portion of active and zealous promoter of this grand ob- the imperial rights, however incapable he ject was Bertold, the elector of Mentz, and might be, through his important affairs count of Hanneberg, one of the most ex- abroad, of fulfilling the duties they imtraordinary men of his day. From the posed upon him. He was, however, at period when, under Frederick III., in 1486, length prevailed upon by the states to yield as first spiritual elector, he stood at the in the main to the general desire, espehead of the states of the empire, down to the cially when he was reminded of the former present moment, he had continued to be the promise he had partially made when they advocate and warm supporter of all the elected him king of Rome in 1489, and operations tending to improve the institu- which he could not retract. The imperial tions of the country; indefatigable, free chamber was to be permanently established THE IMPERIAL CHAMBER AND AULIC COUNCIL 239 for the purpose of equitably deciding the varied career, the scale dropped once more disputes between the states of the empire, in his favor. He contrived, although the which had hitherto always been settled by body of electors were inimical towards an appeal to-arms, and what is still more him, to enlist friends on his side from important, it was authorized to pronounce among the temporal and spiritual princes. in the name of the emperor the imperial He filled up various vacant bishoprics, ban of excommunication against all who with the co-operation of the then friendly opposed it. In its entire construction, like- papal authority, with his friends. Among wise, it was no longer to form merely an the temporal princes were at that time especial imperial tribunal, but in reality a many young, warlike lords, who all glowtribunal of the empire. The emperor ap- ed with military ardor under his command; pointed only the president or chief judge; and the gay, chivalric emperor, continuthe fifty assessors were presented by the ally engaged in some enterprise, perfect states, while the cities, likewise, were master in all military exercises, combining allowed to nominate a few. The emperor true genius with a generous and friendly opened the court himself, and handed to disposition, knew well how to enchain them Count Eitelfried von Zollern the judicial to him. We have already seen how Duke sceptre, as chief judge of the chamber. Eric of Calenberg fought with so much The first court was held on the 3d of glory in the wars of Austria, and that the November, 1495, in Frankfort. entire house of the Guelfs adhered to that The progress, however, made by this dynasty. So likewise did the dukes of institution, was equally slow with that of Saxony, Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and the Landfriede; the idea was good, and Cleves; while the emperor gained Wurthe plan laid out with great wisdom; but temberg, by granting the earl's claims, in respect to the execution thereof, many and conferring upon him the title of duke. difficulties and insurmountable obstacles The margraves of Brandenburg were stepped in to prevent a successful issue. secured by the faithful adherence of their Many would not attend to the decrees pro- ancestor Albert, the German Achilles. nounced, and the power of enforcing them Thus by rewards and promotions of vari. was wanting, inasmuch as the emperor ous kinds, the emperor, in order to augwas occupied in foreign countries, and ment his party, availed himself of the rembesides which he felt but little real desire nant left of imperial privileges. Indeed to promote a tribunal rendered independent he had become in the year 1504 so strong, of his own especial sway. Then followed that he was enabled to bring to a successthe non-payment of the necessary fees and ful issue, and according to his own wishes, salaries, as the contributions from the va- a very important contest originating in the rious members of the empire came in very inheritance of George, duke of Bavariairregularly or perhaps not at all; so that Landshut. The dukes of Bavaria, Muthe court often sat and broke up without nich, and the Palatine Rupert stood opeffecting any thing. At last it became so posed to each other; and Maximilian himneglected, that the emperor was himself self laid claim to a portion of the lands. forced to reconstruct it, and supply the As the palatine refused most obstinately to necessary funds; and thus made it, as in submit to the decree pronounced by the former times, wholly dependent upon him- imperial chamber, the emperor at once adself. The discontent thence produced be- judged the ban of excommunication against tween the emperor and the states increased him. With the aid of the afore-mentioned more and more, until at length the elector allied princes, together with the Swabian of Mentz brought forward twenty-two league and his own immediate adherents, points of accusation against Maximilian, he executed the sentence successfully; the to which the latter replied by twenty-three palatine was forced to submit, and Maxiarticles in opposition. A most angry and milian himself gained no inconsiderable bitter correspondence ensued between the portion of the possessions. emperor and the elector; but the scale of His position in judicial affairs was renbalance on the side of the former became dered still more favorable by the death of only more and more on the ascent, and the leader of the electoral opposition party, turned completely against him. Bertold of Mentz, who died in the year But, as often happened in Maximilian's 1504. He was now enabled, in the two 240 EMPEROR TRIUMPHANT-STATE OF THE COUNTRY. following years, at the diets held at Co- Upper Saxony, embracing its electorate and logne and Constance, to bring into effect Brandenburg, Austria, and Burgundy. the preponderating power he possessed, in. Each circle was to be regarded as one asmuch as he substituted the organic regu- distinctly organized and comprehensive lations of the empire in accordance with body, and all matters of peace and war to his views for those which had previously be superintended by a military chief. Notexisted and had originated in the visionary withstanding great contention ensued beproject of realizing a national unity. It tween the emperor and the states upon this was not now simply a question of combi- question, a resolution was passed, and acning the regulation of the empire with al- cordingly a decree for its adoption was most imperial power; but, also, of restoring agreed to by the states of the empire. Its the imperial chamber according to the reso- execution, however, was not brought into lutions fixed at Worms; together with the force immediately, for it was only after establishment of a register, by which the some ten years had elapsed, that this divicontributions for the expenditure of the sion of circles was at length effectually country and the contingent of troops in the established. wars of the empire were divided among the Besides the foundation thus laid for these states according to their power: these were organic institutions, which, if not emanating the two important results of the diet of Con- from Maximilian alone, were at least prostance in 1507. Both continued in force duced with his co-operation, Germany has during a period of three centuries, and, in to thank him especially for the introduction spite of the independent territories, repre- of an entire new system of discipline in the sented the unity of the Germanic empire. army, which he remodelled completely, by It was after the foundation of these happy dividing it into regiments; and finally, it internal regulations of the empire, that was by him that a system of posting was Maximilian proceeded into Italy, as before first introduced. mentioned, on his great campaign against We must not, however, deceive ourselves the Venetians; and his hopes were so in the character of this period, which is strong, that in the February of 1508, in more especially distinguished in our hisTrieste, he assumed the title of Roman tory as a period of transition. Such epochs king elect, without waiting to be crowned are marked by the most contradictory phein Rome. This act was of great impor- nomena, more especially, however, by a tance to fiture times, Maximilian's suc- universal rupture and fermentation of all cessors having afterwards assumed the im- relations, calling forth at every moment the perial title, immediately after their corona- feeling that we are, as it were, standing tion in Aix-la-Chapelle; and during the upon undermined ground, where are raging whole of the subsequent periods, only one in all their unrestricted fury the elements emperor was crowned by the pope. of new creations. As yet the seeds only At the diet held in Cologne, in 1512, the were strewed, the full growth and fruit of emperor introduced an important proposi- which were reserved for after times. tion, touching the internal peace of the At present on neither side was contentempire, viz., that the decisions of the im- ment to be found; the mutual privileges perial chamber should, by a definite author- and duties of the ruler and the states had ity, be enforced and carried into effect in become more than ever fluctuating. Inevery part of the empire; without which numerable representations (reclamationen) they were of little or no avail. It was were made against the assessments of the proposed, therefore, that the division of the register; princes had been included who circles, which had been hitherto brought were no longer in existence; many states into operation for the purpose of returning had been inscribed as immediate which had deputies to officiate in the imperial cham- become mediate, and were now claimed ber, should now be made available in this back again-by the sovereign lord, especially case, and be rendered efficient accordingly. among cities. Thus, it was urged by the At first they consisted of six circles-Ba- ambassador of Denmark and Holstein, that varia, Swabia, Franconia, the Rhine, West- among others, a city (Hamburg) had been phalia, and Lower Saxony; now, however, marked as an imperial city, but that, as it it was resolved to add four more-the Low- was situated in Holstein, it must be reer Rhine, including the four electorates, claimed by his sovereign and restored, as THE NOBLES, CITIES, AND PEASANTRY. 241 part of his patrimonial possessions, he be. returning home loaded with booty. In the ing lord of the manor by natural succes- battle of Bornholm a Libeck vessel beat sion. He, however, did not succeed in his off three Danish ships by which she had claim, as the imperial freedom of the city been grappled, and even made one of them was nevertheless acknowledged. a prize. The aulic council of the imperial cham- At the diets the cities still maintained a her, with its decrees, met with great oppo- very important position. Their commersition from all sides. It roused, generally, cial associations, by which they were enaa desire for independence, and which, in bled to transact the most extensive business fact, broke forth in such a series of cruel and embark in the most profitable enterand barbarous acts, that the commence- prises, produced for them such opulence, ment of the fifteenth century again present- and with it its preponderating influence, ed scenes of sanguinary contention in many that the jealousy and envy of the princes parts of the empire. became more excited, until, at length, they 1. The princes resorted to open war in combined together in proposing at several order to extend their territorial dignity. diets, held about this time, such resolutions The countship of Hoya, among the rest, as should, if not wholly destroy, at least rewas, in 1511, invaded by Brunswick, Lu- duce the great power they possessed by neburg, Bremen, and Minden; while the taxation, and certainly there was great,emaining body of free Fresians were, in foundation for these measures, inasmuch as 1514, also attacked by Brunswick, LUne- the complaints made against the enormous burg, Calenberg, Oldenburg, and George, prices demanded by the merchants for the duke of Saxony; and in these, as in goods supplied became more and more genall other cases, the superior power tri- eral. umphed. Within the cities themselves the turbu2. The whole body of knights in every lent spirit of the times was not less conspicquarter feeling themselves, as it were, uously shown. The municipal authorities, penned in by the princes, formed a close became seriously oppressed and overpowalliance, and declared open war. The dep. ered by the communities and the heads of redations of the freebooter-knights, on the the various guilds and societies-now conhigh roads, and their attacks upon the mer- siderably augmented in number and influchants and dealers to and from the fairs, ence-who would no longer submit either were again resumed, and continual scenes to be governed by a select and limited body of robbery and murder, by day and night, of patricians, or to be taxed at the high rate occurred throughout the land. It was about hitherto levied. The records of many of this time that the celebrated Gotz of Berli- these cities, at the commencement of the chingen, Franz of Selbitz, but more espe- sixteenth century, are filled with the most cially the noted Franz of Sickingen, who sanguinary scenes of discord and civil war. was enabled to collect and march whole 4. But the state of the peasantry and the armies against the princes, were actively rural districts presented at this period a far engaged in the cause they espoused. more melancholy and serious spectacle than 3. The cities, although overrun and op- that of either of the classes mentioned. pressed on every side, still retained their With them reigned universal fermentation ancient strength to a certain extent; they throughout the whole empire. The denow defended themselves against the as- mands of the territorial lord, as well as saults of the knights with the same success those of the lord of the manor, were inas when formerly attacked by the princes; creased, because each sought to transfer and wo to the nobleman or knight who once the burdens of the empire to the shoulders fell into their hands! For no petition, either of the lower orders. On the other hand, from his family or friends, nor even the in- the latter had now learned to know their tercession or remonstrances of any of the strength in the use of arms, and soon from princes, were of any avail to save him from among them issued the formidable bodies the axe of the executioner. In the north, of the Landsknechte, or foot-soldiers. The Liibeck especially stood most prominently example presented by the Swiss peasants, at the head of the Hanse Towns. In the who had now almost entirely thrown off year 1509 they attacked John, king of Den- the yoke of the empire, and made themmark, captured all his ships at Elsinore, selves independent, produced its exciting 31 242 THE SHOE-LEAGUE-POOR CONRAD LEAGUE-DEATH OF MAXIMILIAN. effects among the German peasantry, and destructive elements did break forth in all more especially in Upper Germany. their fury. Towards the end of the fifteenth century, The emperor, however, was not doomed in 1493, there was formed in Alsace, near to witness or share in these revolutions; Selestadt, a secret union of discontented the course of his career was nearly ended, peasantry, who, in the depth of night, and hispowers of mind and body, exercised journeying along almost impassable roads in so many toilsome and, to a certain examong the mountains, assembled together tent, fruitless struggles, became now graduin a retired spot, and there, by a solemn ally exhausted and consumed. vow, swore, under heavy threats to him At the diet of Augsburg, in 1518, he who proved a traitor, as follows: That they used every endeavor to prevail upon the would be taxed only according to their own states to elect, as king of Rome, his son free will and consent; that the imposts Charles, already seated on the Spanish should be removed altogether, as likewise throne; his anxious wish, however, was all spiritual jurisdiction; that no ecclesias- not fulfilled, inasmuch as the pope, and a tic should receive a higher salary than for- portion of the electoral princes, in their ty florins; that the Jews should be put to fear to bestow too great a power upon his death, and' their possessions divided equally son, hesitated and refused to yield to his among the confederates," &c. &c. This wishes. Indignant and mortified, Maxiconfederacy, which adopted the sigi; of the milian quitted Augsburg, and died on his shoe (the shoe of the common German journey at Wels, in Upper Austria, on peasant) upon their banner, extended its the 12th of January, 1519, in the 59th operations very considerably. year of his age, and was buried, accordA similar union arose in Wurtemberg in ing to his wish, beneath the altar-stone of 1514, under the name of the Poor Conrad the church at Neustadt, by the side of his league. Both originated in a hatred to- beloved mother, Eleanora. wards the nobility and clergy, and which, It is said, that he had for several years in fact, appeared to be the principle upon carried about with him his coffin. Thus, which they acted.,t s true, the Shoe-league as in his earlier life, when in all his vigor, was, by force of arms, eventually destroyed he had often bid defiance to death, so now in 1502, as was likewise the Poor Conrad in the latter years of his existence, did he league soon after its formation; but the hold familiar counsel with it, and view its seeds of revolt were left behind, and at the approach with religious confidence and diets the subject of a revolution among the resignation. peasantry was often discussed with some We have already had occasion to conanxiety and dread. At the diet of Mentz, sider, in the preceding chapters, various in 1517, in which several of the members important changes, for which Germany advised, on account of the disordered state had been ripening during the last century. of the empire, that a summons should be With Maximilian, as their last representaissued for every fiftieth man to take up tive, the middle ages had passed away; a arms in its defence, the states would not new period, of which the germ had long venture to adopt a measure which must be been sown, now gradually developed itself so generally felt as tyrannical: "The and became established. We will just common peasant, already sufficiently suf- glance at the signs which characterized fering from dearth and hunger, would, in this new age, and at those great discovhis present discontent, only be still farther eries which contributed chiefly in proexcited to the most desperate acts, and ducing it. thence the glimmering sparks of private in- Where and when gunpowder was first dignation would burst forth into one uni- invented cannot be positively ascertained; versal flame throughout the whole coun- it appears probable that the Chinese were try." Such was the opinion expressed by very early acquainted with it, and that it the states, and the general feeling was in came from them to the Arabians, and favor of rather quelling by mild means the thence to Europe. But it was not as yet turbulence which already began to agitate employed in war, and could not, therefore, the empire. Nevertheless, we shall short- with strictness be called gun-powder. It ly read in the history of the Reformation, is not found to have been used for that how, after the lapse of another year, the purpose earlier than in 1350, and the dis DISCOVERY OF GUNPOWDER —ARTILLERY-END OF CHIVALRY. 243 covery of this application of it is ascribed ter, in fact, was based upon the greatest to a German monk, Bertold Schwarz. He development of personal strength, which had, it is said, pounded a mixture of salt- gave to the individual such a superiority petre, sulphur, and coals, in a mortar, that a whole troop of common foot-soldiers when by accident a spark dropped into it, were not able to resist the attack of the the mass ignited, and forced with great knight when, mounted on his barbed steed, violence the pestle into the air. This ac- and armed at all points, he dashed among cident led to the thought of making great them; while now the most cowardly dismetal mortars for the purpose of war, from posed man might, with his firelock, bring which stones and balls might be thrown down the bravest warrior at a distance. against a hostile city, and thus was pro- The nobility for a length of time continued duced the heavy artillery, which about to oppose and contend against the use of the year 1400 was pretty generally used. this new arm of war, which they characThe first time we hear of its being prac- terized as dishonorable, degrading, and tised, is at the battle of Crecy, between perfidious to employ; but when it finally the French and English, in 1346. The obtained the superiority, the cavalier of smaller fire-arm, or arquebus, was invent- the martial field of olden times was forced ed somewhat later; this weapon, however, to succumb, and resign his battle-axe and is mentioned in a record of 1381, when lance. the city of Augsburg undertook to send This change, however, did not come into thirty men armed with guns to the war operation all at once; for long after the which the cities then waged against the invention of fire-arms, while those who nobility.* bore them formed but a small part of the By these newly-discovered instruments army, and heavy cannon was only emof destruction the whole system of war ployed in sieges, the mailed cavalry conand military tactics became changed. In tinued to compose the elite of the troops, ancient times the hostile encounter was and the nobility still preserved and main. almost always maintained man to man, tained their military discipline. The tourand hand to hand, with lance and sword; naments still continued to form their prinwhence individual force, dexterity, and cipal festivals, where the youth of the prowess decided the victory. In case nobility learned at an early age to play either one of the armies did not at an early with danger; and all the prohibitions of stage cowardly turn round and flee, the the popes and ecclesiastical councils issued battle was never decided before the field against those who took part in them, on was strewed with the bodies of the greater account of the danger attending them, (for portion of the combatants. The contests they frequently ran with pointed lances,) were sanguinary and decisive. But since and all the punishments which the Church the new plan now adopted was to fight at inflicted upon those who engaged thereina distance, and the individual no longer as, viz., that none who died in a tournahad his antagonist face to face-leaving it ment should receive Christian burialto chance to decide whether his ball should were not sufficient to eradicate the enthucontribute towards the success of the ac- siastic attachment to these festivals. And tion, or waste itself in the air-and as the even down to the fifteenth century, there warrior had thus become more and more was scarcely a single princely family in the mere simple machine employed by the Germany which had not lost some of its calculations of the general, whose genius members in these essays at arms. Of and judgment were now rendered sufficient Albert, margrave of Brandenburg, the to decide the battle-accordingly, by this German Achilles, it is related that he had new method of war the spirit of chivalry thus tilted at more than seventeen tournabecame gradually annihilated. The lat- ments with the pointed lance, and even the emperor Maximilian had entered the arena 2 These guns, however, were merely simple tubes, several times. Thus the historian of the which, like the cannons, were ignited by a match. u, F, r, tt But as this was tedious and troublesome, and impededhouse o Austra, Fugger, relates, that at the power of taking aim, German ingenuity discovereda diet at Worms, in 1495, a French in 1551, at Nuremberg, the improved arquebus, in which the spark was produced by a steel wheel being knight, Claudius Barre, appeared and chalmade to strike in its revolution the flint; and after- lenged the whole German nation to a trial wards, in France, this invention was brought to the perfection of the present musket. arm- r' single combat. The emperor 244 BRUTAL CHARACTER OF THE LANZKNECHTE. Maximilian on this occasion took upon ments so administered throughout the land himself the right to fight for the honor of harmonized and were conducted with equal his people, and which he maintained by energy in every part. Now, however, they eventually overcoming the foreign knight were separated, and war became a distinc with the sword, after their lances had left mercenary profession. the combat undecided. While this empe- But the worst part of this change was, ror is, properly so called, the last of the that when the princes could not maintain chivalric emperors, and as the period of their mercenaries in times of peace, the his reign concludes the middle ages, we latter then, having neither the dispositixo find in some of his contemporaries, such nor ability to return to the employments of as Gotz of Berlichingen, Franz of Sickin- civil life, became a pest to society. The gen, and Ulric of Hutten, the contest for chronicle of Sebastian Frank complains the ancient splendor of their order against bitterly against this:' The destructive the mighty revolutions of time, again lanciers," he says, " are a shameless race, maintained, until their death. Even and of use to nobody; when they are not among the clergy of these chivalric times in pay or enrolled they run loose upon sothe warlike disposition of knighthood is ciety, demanding war and misery. An occasionally apparent. When Frederick unchristian and lost set, whose employment III. went forth against Charles the Rash, is murder, rapine, incendiarism, gaming, to deliver Neuss, the valiant bishop of drinking, blaspheming, wantonly making Minster, Count Henry of Schwarzburg, widows and orphans, yea, whose only dewas the first to land an army, consisting light is in the calamities of the people, feedof Westphalians, Netherlanders, and Low- ing upon the vitals of mankind, and whether er Saxons, and exhibited a greater degree in or out of war, tormenting the peasantry. of warlike zeal than even was shown by The state of matters, alas! is come to this, the imperial general, the margrave Albert that as soon as a man becomes a lancier, (or Achilles) of Brandenburg himself; and from the moment he has taken the nay, he even cherished the hope of meet- oath, and places a lance on his shoulder, ing the proud duke of Burgundy in battle, henceforth to the end of his life he abandons and engaging with him hand to hand in all other work. Formerly, when a prince mortal combat. But as no battle took carried on a war, he fought with his own place, a truce having been determined people; now, that these worthless fellows upon, during which the Minsterians had a are employed, each adversary strives to hot engagement with the duke's Picardi- outdo the other in the number of his soldiers ans, the bishop, who could obtain no satis- and extent of his preparations for the war, faction for the insult offered to his army, so that it now costs more before it is begun challenged Duke Charles to fight a duel, and these hirelings are equipped, than for. but which the emperor Frederick prohibit- merly it cost to commence and finish it altoed. The army, however, adjudged that gether. Were it not for these mercenary in this expedition it was not the margrave troops, there would be much less war, and of Brandenburg, but the bishop of Mun- although a prince might be forced to fight ster, who had merited the title of the Ger- with but as many hundreds as there are man Achilles. now thousands employed, he would still Meantime the whole system of military effect more glorious results; for these ras. tactics underwent the most important chan- cals do all in their power to protract the ges. Instead of the ancient levies of the war, and sorry would they be, indeed, if ban, there were now introduced Lanz- they beheld it terminate and peace restored. knechte, or mercenary troops, and thus, with Thus the country is exhausted to an extent this change arose the entire distinction that there is scarcely a prince or peasant made between the martial and the civil who has any more money." order. In former times the imperial vogt, The same chronicle makes honorable and or intendant, who administered the judicial clear distinction between these mercenary and civil affairs of a district, was, at the troops who served anybody that would give same time, the military chief or command- them pay, and those warriors who fought ant of the city and burgh, and the leader only for their country. "Those subjects," in the field, as were all the counsellors and he says, " who in obedience to their princes officials of the princes. All the depart. enlist at their summons, and when the bat. INVENTION OF PRINTING-THE FIRST BIBLE. 245 tle is over return to their work, I do not the letters of a mixture of metals, inventcall mercenary Lanzknechte, but brave ing the press, and preparing printers' ink. and faithful warriors." Meantime, how- Thus they were prepared to print. Their ever, these lanciers, whose insubordination first attempt was the Bible; but the real has called forth such complaints, were ex- inventor, Guttenberg, did not enjoy that cellent soldiers in battle. Armed with fruit of his labors which he so richly delances eighteen feet in length, and pro- served, inasmuch as Faust, the goldsmith, tected by a helmet and cuirass, they stood who had advanced him money, after he like a firm wall, and their presented lances had spent his fortune in making the necesresembled an impassable forest, whence sary experiments, deprived him, by legal their battle array was called by the French process, of all his instruments and properthe Herisson, or porcupine-phalanx. The ty, and excluded him from the concern. emperor Maximilian greatly improved their Thus the inventor of the most important discipline. They eclipsed even the glory and valuable art of ancient and modern acquired by the Swiss, and now completely times, was obliged to spend the remainder destroyed the superiority hitherto com- of his days dependent upon the bounty of manded by the chivalric cavalry, whose the elector of Mentz, and died in 1468. importance had already been diminished In the year 1457, the first book, the by the Hussite and Swiss infantry. Latin Psalms, was completed by Faust Equally as important as the invention and his associates, and in 1462 the entire of gunpowder was for war, was also the Bible. So great a difference was even discovery of the art of printing for the ob- then perceptible between the price of such jects of peace. This also is the work of a work and the expense of transcribing, German ingenuity; not, however, origi- that a Bible, which, when transcribed, cost nating in accident, inasmuch as it was from 400 to 500 florins, was to be had for found out by a process of profound study, 30 florins. And thus did these men lay and became perfected by degrees. the foundation for the immense advantages There had been in use long previously, subsequently derived by this great disafter the manner of the little figures which covery, and by which every degree of were carved in wood, and printed, a cer- knowledge which raises the intellectual tain description of wooden boards, upon character of man is no longer the pecuwhich were cut all the letters necessary liar privilege of the few, but may become for the page of a book, there being as many not only the possession of whole nations, such boards as pages in the books from but of the entire world. Thence it is that which impressions were taken, whence the the art of printing exerts a most wonderentire book was completed. Although this ful influence in the development of manoperation was much more troublesome than kind. The law of this development, as is copying, yet with these boards they were most evident from the observation deduced enabled to print a book many hundred from all history, down to the present day, times, which repaid their labor. Great is, that the cultivation and intelligence of improvements, however, could yet be the human mind progressively enlarges its made; and thus thought John Guttenberg. boundaries, and in its widening circle emBorn in 1401, at Mentz, of an ancient no- braces an increasing number of our felble family, he, with all the powers of his low-creatures. Although it may admit of mind, prosecuted the idea of cutting out dispute whether, upon the whole, we are the letters singly, of an equal size, on the further advanced in the arts and sciences end of small wooden sticks; and after cor- than many nations of antiquity and the posing these into words, taking therefrom middle ages, the progress in the more unian impression, when he again took them versal spread of knowledge can admit of to pieces, and used them for composing the no question, and it is the noble art of printnext page. After many experiments, he ing, which, as the great lever, has effected succeeded. He entered into partnership this glorious object. with his townsmen, John Faust and Peter Of great importance to the extraordiSchiffer, of Gernsheim;* and this associa- nary results of the art of printing was tion enlarged the discovery by composing also the previous discovery of linen-paper. * The prevailing opinion that Sch6ffer was a clergy- took, signifies also calligraphist, or one who devoted man is incorrect. The name of Clericus, which he himself to the copying of books. 246 AMERICA-EAST INDIES-CHARLES V. Formerly, parchment was used, which, taken especially by the maritime states of however, was too expensive and too thick; Italy and conveyed farther. The transit then cotton-paper, which was not suffi- by land to the north was made, as has been ciently durable. Paper made of linen, before stated, through Germany. But now which is also probably a German discov- that the Portuguese, in 1499, had found a ery, first appears in a document of the passage by sea round Africa, they were year 1318, at Kauffbeuren. able, from the great profits of freightage, We close our general reflections upon soon to monopolize the whole East Indian the age just passed, with a few words upon trade; Venice and the other Italian marithe results produced by the discovery of time states declined, and Germany also America and a sea passage to the East very soon indirectly felt the effects. Its Indies. trade became depressed in proportion as They did not indeed originate in Ger- that of Portugal and Spain rose; and, in many, but they exerted a great influence consequence of this great reverse, the upon that country; not only by enlarging Hanseatic League was dissolved, although the empire of the mind, which must be one their commerce extended to many other result, but also more particularly in pro- wares. The German cities were from the ducing a change in commerce. Until that sixteenth century no longer able to maintime East Indian produce, of which Eu- tain their ancient elevation in wealth and rope required annually a vast supply, had power, and thus also in this respect the been brought by various channels through way was paved for the rising power of the Asia to the Mediterranean sea, and thence princes. SIXTH PERIOD. FROM CHARLES V. TO THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA. 1520-1648. AMONG the MS. documents relating to this period, sixty-two, have been collected together by Simon the "Transactions of the Imperial Diets," as pre- Schard, in the second volume of his Script. rer. Germ., served in the archives of the various individual states, and by Freher, in the third volume of his Script. are the most important, inasmuch as the diets never For the History of the Reformation we have: exercised so much influence at any period of our his- 7. The writings of the reformers themselves and of tory as from the commencement of the fifteenth cen- their partisans, which are of the highest importance; tury until the war of thirty years. Meantime, the containing, at the same time, much in explanation of newly discovered art of printing promoted especially the political history of their time. The works of Luthe composition and circulation of historical works, and ther, Melanchthon, Zwingli, and Calvin, need not be we find that, with every ten years, their number in- here especially enumerated. creased accordingly to a considerable extent. At the 8. The works of Erasmus of Rotterdam, (born in same time, the awakened desire for scientific research, 1467, died in 1536,) partly in accordance with, partly and the taste for the study of ancient authors, became against the sense of the Reformation, are likewise immore and more generally diffused and appreciated. portant; alsoAmong the writers, who treat upon the general his- 9. The writings of Ulric of Hutten, (born in 1480 tory of this period, are included: died in 1523,) who came forth with glowing zeal and 1. Paul Jovius, (born at Como, 1482, died as bishop acute mind in the cause of the new ideas advanced. of Nucerie, 1552,) Historia sui Temporis, from 1494 to 10. John Nleidanus, (born in 1506 at;leida, died in 1546. 1556; professor of laws at Strasburg, and historian of 2. J. A. Thuames, or de Thou, (born in Paris, 1553 the league of Schmalkald,) Commentarius de Statu died 1617, as president of the parliament and chief Religionis et Reipublicae Carolo V., Cesare. An imlibrarian to Henry IV.; very learned and esteemed,) portant work; continued by Londorp from 1555-64. wrote likewise a Historia sui Temporis, 1543 to 1607. 11. George Spalatin, (born in 1482, died in 1545, 3. John Genesius de Sepulveda, (a Spaniard, born court-chlaplain and secretary to the Elector Frederick 1491, died 1572, historian of Charles V.,) De rebus the Wise, who took a great share in the diet at Augsgestis Caroli V., Colon, 1657. burg in 1530,) Annales Relormationis, besides his Lives 4. Among the Spanish historians may be added: of the various Popes of his times, and some minor Petrus Salazar, Prudentius de Sandoval, Alphonso de works, collected together in Menken's Script. rer. Ultoa and Antonius de Vera et Zunniga. Germ. 5. Among the Italians: Louis Dolce, Gianbattista 12. Veit Lewis of Seckendorf, (born in 1696, died in Adriani, and Gregorius Leti. Adriani is especially im- 1692; who, although not a contemporary, is, nevertheportant. less, a source of good authority, inasmuch as in his 6. Several separate and, in part important writings, office as minister of Saxe-Gotha, he collected largely referring to the time of Charles V., in number aboutfrom the documents in the archives of Gotha,) Corn STATE OF THE EMPIRE. 247 ment. Hist. et Apologeticus de Lutheranismo, in reply 32. The celebrated Samuel Puffendorf, (counsellor to the Hist. Lutheranismi of the Jesuit Lewis Maim- and historian at Stockholm, subsequently privy counburg, (born at Nancy in 1610, died in 1686,) which sellor, died in 1694,) in his work De rebus Suecicis sub merits observation also. Gust. Adolpho usque ad abdicationem Christinae. 13. The acts relating to the History of the Reforma- 33. Tobias Pfanner, (counsellor of Saxony, born in tion were completed subsequently, at the commence- 1640,) in his Hist. Pacis Westph. ment of the eighteenth century, from manuscripts 34. And, commencing withl the year 1617, the volupreserved in the archives, by J. J. Muller, Valentin minous work, Theatrum Europeum, in 19 vols., by Loscher, C. Lehmann &c., &c. various authors, and of very unequal, sometimes infeThe History of the Confession of Augsburg is espe- rior, merit. cially treated upon by- Finally, in reference to the lives of two other distin14. David Chitraus, (born in 1530, died in 1600, pro- guished men of this period, Bernhard, duke of Weifessor at Wittenberg, Rostock, and Helmstadt, who mar, and Wallenstein, duke of Friedland, we have: was commissioned by Maximilian II. to establish a 35. The Achievements of Bernhiard, duke of Weiplan of discipline for the Protestant church in Austria, mar, collected from the archives by E. S. Cyprian. and contributed towards the Formula Concordiwe,) in Gotha, 1729. his Hist. Confess. Augustanue. He wrote likewise, 36. The Life of Wallenstein, by G. Gualdo. Lyon, Lectures upon Charles V., Ferdinand I., and Maximil- 1643, and ian II. 37. The Original Letters of Wallenstein, from the 15. George Ccelestin (senior court chaplain to the year 1627 to 1634 throwing a new light upon his life elector of Brandenburg, died 1576) wrote Hist. Comitior. and character. ldited by. Fr. Forster; Berlin, 1828. Augustie, 1530, celebratorum. Upon the War of Schmalkald: 16. Louis d'Avila, a Spaniard, andl general of Charles V., wrote his Comment. de Bello Germanico a Carolo V. gesto, 2 vols. Antwerp, 1550. He writes very much in favor of Charles V. On the other hand17. Fred. Hartleder (born in 1579, died in 1640, a privy counsellor of Weimar) in his Transactions and Development of the Causes of the War against theC H A P T E R X V I. League ot' Schmalkald, Frankfort, 1617, and Gotha, 1645, embraces warmly the Protestant cause. His work is based upon the documents contained in the State of the Empire-Internal Anarchy-Charles V. archives of Weilnar. of Spaii, and Francis I. of France-Frederick the Upon the Council of Trent: Wise, elector of Saxolny-Charles V. elected empe18. Paul Sarpi, (born at Venice 1552, died in 1626, a or of Germany-His Character-Jealousy and Dismonk and counsellor of that city,) History of the Coun- content of the Spaniards-Try to dissuade Charles cil of Trent, written in Italian, and published in Lon- from acceting the Imperial Crown-New Spaimdon in 1619, under the title of Petrus Suavis; trans- Discovery of Mexico-Arrival of Charles i Germalated into German by Rambach, Halle, 1761. ny-His Coronation, 1520-Schism in the Church19. In reply to Sarpi, whose wting is too free, ap- Causes which produced it-Ignorance of the Clergy ered eanoterre, -Thleir Vices-Murmurs and Discontent of the Peoeareds another History of the Council of'Rrent, by the ple-A Reformation in the Church universally deesuit fortia Pallavicini, (born at Rome in 1607, died mnded-Scholastic Wisdom-Theology-Enghtin 1667.) Biographies of celebrated men of that period: enmelt of Science-John Reuchlin. 20. Adami Reisneri Comm. de vita et reb. gest. Georgii et Casp. Frundsbergiorum. Frankfort, 1568. THE imperial throne, now vacant by the 21. Joach. Camerarius, (born in 1500, died in 1547,a deat ofM required friend of Melanchthon, and professor of Tibien a ath of axmlan, requied a successor. Leipsic,) Vita TIelanchthonis and Vita Mauritii Elec- The general agitation throughout Europe, toris 22. Gotz of Berlichingen, (died in 1562,) Memoirs by as well as the confusion prevalent in Gerhimself; edited by Pistorius, Nurernberg, 1731; and by many itself, where the Faustrecht apBiisching and Van der Hagen, ]813. 23. Sebast. Schlirtlin of Burtenbach, (general of the peared immediately after the death of the cities in the war of Schmalkald,) Memoirs by himself. emperor to resume its sway, demanded a Original sources for the History of the Reigns of Ferdinand I. and Maximilian II. may be found ill: monarch, endowed with energy and con24. Script. rer. Germ. by Schard; vols..3 and 4. sequent power, in order to maintain the In reference to the period continued beyond the reign of Ferdinand II., and especially the Thirty Years' necessary equilibrium between the internal War: and external government. The war still 25. F. C. Count Khevenhiiller, (imperial counsellorand external government. The war still and grand master of the court, died in 1650,) Annales continued between Spain and France Upon Ferdinandei, from 1578 to 1637. the suect f Italy, although neither of 26. N. Bellus, Affairs of Germany in peace ald war, the subect of Italy, althoug neither of under Matthias and Ferdinand II., from 1617-40. these powers possessed the right of de27. W. Lamorrlain, (a Jesuit and confessor of Fer- cision in the cause of a country which linand II., died 1648,) Virtutes Ferdinandei; Vienna, cion ln the cause of a country which 1637. of the knew not how to govern or even help itdeeds of Gustavuds Adlllhus, accordingly in his favor,) self, such decision being vested in the Comment de Bello suecico, from 1618-32. hands of the emperor alone. In the east 29. Eberh. Wasselberg, (of Emmerich, Historian of Wiadislas, king of Poland,) Florus Germanicus de the Turks again threatened to devastate BWllo inter Ferd. II. et III., et eorum hostes ab ann. the country; and Hungary, reduced by 1618-40 gesto; very zealous against the Protestants; as mal-administration as well as by the luxulikewise- maladministration as well as by the luxu 30. The Italian Historians of the War of Thirty ry and effeminacy of the people, was no I ears; viz., J. Ricci, J. Damiani, Galeazzo Gualdo, and others. longer able to serve as a bulwark against On the other hand, in favor ofthe Protestant party,are: this formidable enemy; hence from this 31 P. von Chemnitz, (Swedish counsellor and historan, died 1678,) wllo wrote the Swedish-German war, quarter likewise the emperor was called in nine parts, hut of which only two were printed.'he upon to come forth as the protector of Eu. others, preserved in the royal archives o Stockholm,itself, and in the very have, no doubt, been used by: rope. In Germany itself, and in the very 248 INTERNAL ANARCHY-FRANCIS I. OF FRANCE. heart of the empire, two grand contentions sideration requisite before they could under. arose at this moment, and raged with all take to place the imperial power in the hands their ungovernable fury. Duke Ulric of of a sovereign who already reigned over the Wurtemberg, having cause to revenge half of Europe; for, as inheritor of the himself upon the free town of Reutlingen houses of Spain and Austria, Charles posfor some offence, fell suddenly upon that sessed, besides Spain and the kingdom of place, in the winter of 1519, and having Naples and Sicily, the beautiful Austrian made himself master of it, he continued to provinces, and all the patrimonial territories hold it in possession as his own. The of Burgundy in the Low Countries. If to Swabian league, however, which had been so much splendid power the additional lusestablished by the emperor Maximilian, tre acquired by the possession of the impein order to maintain the tranquillity of the rial crown were to be added, it was to be land, finding the duke paid no respect or feared-thus the princes thought-that his attention to their repeated summons to sur- house might become too powerful, and render the town, advanced at once against thence conceive the proud and ambitious him, and by their superior force not only project of invading and destroying the liberregained possession of the place, but pur- ty of the German princes, and seek accordsued the duke throughout his own terri- ingly to render the empire, without limitatories so closely that he was compelled to tion, hereditary and independent. quit them for safety. From another side again, as his competiIn Lower Saxony again another still tor for the imperial crown, came forth to more sanguinary struggle raged-the so- oppose him the king of France, Francis I. called bishop's feud of Hildesheim. Two The pope was in favor of his election, at noblemen, lords of Saldern, but vassals to least he appeared to be so; in addition to John, bishop of Hildesheim, proclaimed which, this young sovereign had gained a war against him, in which they were sup- great reputation by his first expedition to ported by the dukes of Wolfenbtittel and Italy, where, for his valiant and chivalric Calenberg; while, on his side, the bishop bearing, especially in the victorious battle found assistance from the duke of Lune- of Marengo, he was extolled-particularly burg, and the counts of Lippe, Hoya, and by his own nation-to the very skies. The Diepholtz. On the 28th of January, 1519, ambassadors from France presented to the both parties met on the plain of Soltau in assembled princes at Frankfort a document Luneburg, and after a most obstinate and laudatory of their royal master, in which sanguinary battle, the victory was gained they thus alluded to the danger threatened by the bishop, although severely purchased, by the incursions of the Turks:-" He must while on the other side the valiant duke indeed be wanting in understanding who, at of Calenberg with other nobles were taken a time when the storm has broken forth, prisoners, and four thousand of their men should still hesitate to confide the steerage were left dead on the field of battle. The of the vessel to the most skilful helmsman." continued repetition of such scenes could Nevertheless, in spite of the confidence not but produce the most dangerous conse- with which the envoys spoke, the princes felt quences, since, although the Landfriede the danger of electing a French king to be had happily succeeded in putting an end emperor of Germany; and as the elector to the feuds and robberies of the lesser no- of Saxony, Frederick the Wise, to whom bility and freebooter knights, it became they had offered the crown, declined it with more and more evident that in order to the magnanimous observation in excuseprevent the princes from following in the " That the inferior power of his house was same steps, and thus by force of arms not equal to contend with the difficulties of seeking to add by conquest to their pos- the times," adding even his recommendasessions, it was rendered necessary to elect tion to them to elect the young Spanish an active and strong-minded emperor, who king instead, the princes, after fuwtaer conshould maintain and protect the authority sideration, remembered and admitted that of the laws. at least he was a German prince, and the Maximilian had, in the course of his grandson of their late revered emperor reign, gained several voices in favor of his Maximilian; they decided accordingly in grandson Charles, already king of Spain; his favor, and elected him to the imperial,many princes, however, still thought con- throne on the 28th of June, 1519. Before CHARACTER OF CHARLES V.-JEALOUSY OF THE SPANIARDS. 249 the election, however, his ambassadors were chief master of the horse. He broke three obliged by the princes to sign the following lances with him, and each time the air was conditions, viz.: " That the emperor shall filled with shouts of applause from the asnot make any alliance, nor carry on any sembled multitude; for the youth, who had war with a foreign nation, without the ap- not attained his eighteenth year, and had probation of the princes, neither shall he always been considered as weak, both in introduce any foreign troops whatever into body and mind, and of easy persuasion, apthe empire; that he shall hold no diets be- peared here in the most undaunted and noyond Germany; that all offices at the impe- ble character, and with all the vigor of a rial court and throughout the empire shall knight, while on his shield he bore the be conferred upon native Germans; that in motto: " Nondum!" (not yet.) Those who all the affairs of the empire no other lan- knew and understood the meaning of the guage but German or Latin shall be em- word, awaited with impatience the moment ployed; that in conjunction with the estates, when he would be enabled to come forth he shall put an end to all the commercial before the world uncontrolled and indeleagues which, by means of their capital, pendent. have hitherto held so much sway, and main- That moment had now arrived. He tained so much independence; that he shall was chosen emperor of Germany, and it not pronounce the imperial ban against any was for him now to decide promptly state of the empire without urgent reasons, whether or not he would abandon Spain in nor without a proper form of judgment; order to seize the reins of government in and, finally, that he shall come to Germa- his new empire. The important announceny as speedily as possible, and make that ment appeared to produce no change whatcountry his principal residence." ever in our young prince of twenty years: These and other articles being sworn to " Our king, who is now emperor," says an by the ambassadors in the name of their eye-witness, "seems to regard this, the royal master, they proceeded at once to greatest fortune that can happen to mortal, hasten his arrival in the Germanic empire. as nothing; his greatness of mind and The youthful monarch had occupied the gravity of expression are so extraordinary, Spanish throne about two years; but as yet that any one would suppose from his aphe was unknown to the world. Hitherto pearance, that he was playing at football the majority hoped but little from him. with the universal globe." The resoluThe premature death of his noble and chiv- tion he was called upon to adopt would alric father, Philip the Handsome, the in- have proved to any ordinary mind a matsanity of his mother Joanna, his separation ter of extreme difficulty. Spain at that from his brother Ferdinand, who had been time was in a state of great fermentation, educated in Spain, while he himself had and almost ready to burst into full flame; been brought up entirely among strangers for strong and influential parties stood opin the Netherlands-all these circumstan- posed to each other face to face: the royal ces acted unfavorably upon his mind, and authority, a powerful nobility, and proud produced that retiring, exclusive disposition and wealthy cities. In Germany again he which made him shrink from the world and would find an agitated empire in complete live in the privacy of his own mind. Added anarchy, and above all, the grand contest to this, it was but slowly that he arrived at which raged upon the subject of religion, that clearsightedness and independence of and to which all eyes were at present diaction which subsequently produced his rected. The Spaniards themselves were greatness; it appeared indeed, as if he were discontented at beholding their sovereign to be guided and ruled entirely by his coun- invested with the imperial dignity; they sellors. Those alone who commanded a feared they might in consequence be reprofound knowledge of human nature were duced to the form of a secondary kingdom, capable of observing and interpreting the subject to the rule of arbitrary governors. movements by which his soul was actuated. " What else had the empire now become," At a grand tournament in Valladolid, the they said, "but the mere shadow of an imyoung king, who from his childhood was mensely overgrown tree?" In such poor warmly attached to chivalric exercises, en- estimation was the ancient and, formerly, tered the lists completely equipped, and ex- so venerated imperial crown now held in changed a few courses at arms with his foreign countries. 32 250 MEXICO DISCOVERED-SCHISM IN THE CHURCH. The majority of his counsellors advised ed more especially from the mouths of the and warned Charles not to abandon his faithful adherents of the ancient church, hereditary kingdom for the sake of a pos- as well as the venerable bishops themsession so uncertain, and at least difficult selves, together with the most learned and to maintain; but his genius saw and ac- profoundly-minded men of the church and knowledged that this very circumstance state. paved the way for bold and independent At the time of the great schism, from action; he found himself summoned as it the year 1378 to 1414, when several popes were to a career of glory, and he followed disputed the possession of the holy chair of his destiny without fear or hesitation. It St. Peter, each rival claimant excommuniwas at this time, while he was on his jur- cated the other in turn, together with all ney to Germany, there to take possession his partisans; so that'all the countries of of the crown offered to him, that the im- Christendom found themselves subject to portant news arrived announcing the ac- the ban of the church, either by the one quisition made in his name of a second em- pope or the other, and all religious and pire, that of Mexico, then just discovered pacific minds were at a loss to know where in the new world. A more common mind in reality they should seek and find the would have been overcome with the weight true peace of God. At such a period, and of such great events; but the effect they under the influence of such violent and fuproduced upon the young and mighty em- rious passions, it was to be expected that peror was only such as to accelerate the that veneration hitherto felt for the name maturing of his mind. His care and soli- of the pope would be sensibly weakened, citude were now claimed by one entire and the invisible and sacred bonds gradmoiety of the universe, and from that mo- ually loosened. ment he showed in all his actions the cha- To this was added a state of ignorance racter of a clear-sighted, truly energetic, which prevailed throughout the spiritual and comprehensive-minded ruler. body, or at least among the majority of its Charles landed in the Netherlands and members; for it was not possible for a few continued his journey on to Germany. He individual men of learning to succeed In was crowned on the 22d of October, 1520, dissipating the darkness that overspread at Aix-la-Chapelle, with great pomp and the mass. And as darkness of the mind magnificence, and he then appointed the always brings with it its consequent vices, 17th of April of the following year as the which can alone be extirpated by divine day for holding the first imperial diet at light, a number of the clergy were at that Worms. This diet was one of the most time clothed in sin, an abomination in the brilliant that had ever been held; it was eyes of the good, and a scandal to the people attended by six electors and a numerous generally. In the year 1503, accordingly, body of spiritual and temporal princes. some time before the appearance of Luther The most important transaction that occur- in the field, one of the first theologians ot red on this occasion was the trial of Martin Germany represented this degenerated, Luther. fallen state of the church in strong terms: The church had for centuries been sub- "The study of theology," he says, " is ject to violent agitation and disorder in despised among us, and the gospel of every shape, and the reckless abandon- Christ, as well as the excellent writings of ment of all external discipline had operated the holy fathers, are completely neglected; materially to shake the faith of numerous faith, piety, moderation, and all the other Christians, as well as to corrupt the morals virtues, so much praised and valued by of the people generally. Complaints of even the pagans themselves, the wonders the decline of the church, and the desire of God's grace and the merits of Jesus, all for its general reform, had long been grow- these are doctrines upon which the most ing loud and more urgent in expression. profound silence is maintained by them. There are none, let them belong to what- And such people too, who understand nothever doctrine or sect they may, who, know- ing of either theology or philosophy, are ing the history of those times, will not ad- elevated to the highest dignities of the mit that these complaints were at that pe- church, and become the guardians of our riod too well founded. They were raised souls! Thence the melancholy decline of in the name of entire nations, and proceed- the Christian church, the hatred towards IGNORANCE AND VICES OF THE CLERGY. 251 the clergy, and the total absence of all possessed any knowledge of the word of good and salutary instruction! The prof- God? To such a degraded state indeed ligate life led by the ecclesiastics, shocks had the church become reduced, that acthe feelings of well-minded parents, and cording to well-authenticated evidence, we prevents them from allowing their sons to are assured that out of all the principal devote their lives to that once holy service. leading members of the clerical body They omit entirely all search into the throughout the Swiss confederation, at the Holy Scriptures, and they corrupt their commencement of the sixteenth century, taste to such an extent, that they no longer there were not three who had ever read the feel their beauty and force; they become Bible; and when the people of Valais relukewarm and lazy in their duty, and are ceived about this time a letter from Zurich, only too glad when the service is speedily in which was quoted a sentence from the at an end, the chant and sermon hurriedly sacred volume, only one man was to be concluded, and their presence no longer found who knew the book, and even what he required! They discourse more gravely knew was by hearsay! and impressively with the mortal upon How deplorably great and universal whom they may have a claim for money, must have been the ignorance existing at than with their divine Master and Creator. this period through the negligence of the Instead of devoting their leisure time to clergy, when we find not only that men were study, they pass it in gambling, debauche- unacquainted with the source itself of reliry, and licentiousness, without caring in gious devotion and Christian virtue, but that the least, or having any consideration for its very name was scarcely known to them! the disgust their conduct everywhere pro- In Italy, and especially in Rome, this duces. How then is it possible that in this want of faith and knowledge in divine shameful state of things, the laity can feel matters was still more strikingly evident respect for them or religion itself? The and notorious. Under the pontificate of the gospel tells us that the path to Heaven is accomplished Leo X., from 1513 to 1521, narrow and difficult, but they only strive the arts certainly flourished in the capital to make it broad and easy." to a remarkable degree; but while these That this description is not too strongly ripened forth from their rich and fertile colored, is proved by a hundred other un- soil, they smothered the simple germs of doubted witnesses; and although the monks the true religion of God. The enjoyment accused the learned professor, who, as we of the senses was valued above every thing have just seen, reprimanded them so se- as the greatest treasure; the belief placed verely before the pope, Julius II., still he in the existence of a higher invisible world, had truth so much on his side, that the could not coexist with such principles, and papal commissioners themselves pronounced the calm and silent piety of the heart bein his favor. The pious bishop of Augs- came in the eyes of the world a subject of burg, Christopher of Stadion, in a synodal ridicule and contempt. The usages and charge to his clergy, coincides exactly in forms of divine worship appeared to be reall these complaints, and reproaches them tained and practised in order to serve rather bitterly for their vices, which, he says, as a check upon the mass of the people, could not fail to produce the most corrupt whence they soon became regarded in the and destructive effects upon the church and character of purely external ceremonies. the public; and Hugo, bishop of Con- In proof of this we will refer to the stance, although inimical to the doctrine of opinion expressed by the pious Pope AMartin Luther, complains equally in the drian VI., in his letter addressed to his saine strain, together with many others of nuncio at the diet held at Nuremberg, in the chief members of the Catholic church 1522: " We know," says he, " that in this of that time. holy see much corruption has continued to But how could it be otherwise, when the abound during many years, great abuse in investiture of the spiritual offices was regu- all ecclesiastical affairs, as likewise in all lated by the amount of purchase-money, that has emanated from our chair, and in one without any regard to the qualifications and word, a depravation in every thing. Thence real character of the individual chosen. it is no wonder if the disease has transand when, as has already been shown, only ferred itself from the head to the other the smallest portion of the clergy in reality members-from the pope to the priests; 252 REFORMATION DEMANDED-PERVERTED SYSTEM OF DOCTRINE. therefore, we promise, as far as lies in us, A little good-will and gradual ameliorato devote all our attention and care towards tion would have sufficed to satisfy and rereforming first of all our chair, whence move all the charges referred to-inasperhaps all this evil has originated, in order much as they related chiefly to the exterthat as the destruction has issued thence to nal forms and administration of the church descend to the inferior grades, the cure and -had there only been, at the head of relirenewed enjoyment of health may likewise gion itself, a genius in possession of clearfind their source there." minded views, an active spirit, and enerThe feeling of the necessity existing for getic powers. But such a leading genius a thorough reform in the church, had long was no longer to be found in the clerical since become so generally acknowledged body; religion itself no longer maintainthroughout all ranks of society, that the ing its pure spirit. Not only the ignorance lower orders had continued, even from the of which we have before spoken, but a middle of the fourteenth century to the completely perverted system prevailed in present time, to nourish the false hope of almost all the doctrines of religion. They the return of the emperor Frederick II., set a great value upon a certain class ot (then dead since more than a hundred school wisdom, which they styled scholasyears,) assured that he would come forth as tic science. and which, in ancient times, the desired reformer. We have also ob- had originated in the mixture of philosophic served what urgent representations were principles with the doctrines of Christianity. made by the Germans, the English, and The plain and simple truths of the Holy French, when assembled at the councils of Scriptures, so intelligible and clear, even Constance and Basle; and in the year to the mind of the most ignorant and 1510, the diet at Augsburg raised once juvenile reader, were clothed in obscure more its voice against the state of the and erudite words, and these words were church, having drawn up and established regarded as the principal object; they ten heavy charges, in reply to the pretended soon proceeded to discuss their interpretaand assumed rights of the popes, and by tion, and of the disputants he who carried which the schism of the church was al- on the contest in the most sharp and refined ready proclaimed: " For if the causes for style of language was held to be the most these complaints," said the diet, "are not learned. Thence, as it often happens, removed or remedied, there is good reason that both spirit and truth become lost in the to believe that a general persecution against crowd of many words, so likewise the genthe priests must shortly arise, or, according tie, simple, and beneficent light of Christo the example already set by the Bohe- tian faith vanished more and more from the mians, one universal abandonment of the science which they called their theology. Roman church will, perhaps, inevitably With the fifteenth century, however, a new take place." epoch opened upon the sciences, and the Thence we perceive that, at this time, human mind became increasingly enlightthe ancient sacred edifice of the hierarchy, ened; the darkness in which it had hitherto which had existed during so many cen- been enveloped, now yielded before the turies, and which, according to its funda- divine light of knowledge. Before its mental object, was well and indispensably overpowering rays, the scholastic sophism, calculated for the unity of the Christian with all its shallow pretensions to its imnations, was now undermining itself, and portant interpretation of words, could no produced, by its own means, its tottering longer maintain its ground; a few select condition; inasmuch as it had lost all and distinguished men oftheday now cane respect and consideration among the peo- forth and attacked it with the irresistible ple, because its leading members, living in weapons of reason and sarcasm, exposing proud and haughtysecurity, paid no regard it to the world in all its bareness. Its to the spirit of the times. disciples, however, on the other hand, However evident all we have just re-while thus overwhelmed by the force of lated must appear to the minds of all men, their adversaries, would not in their retreat we must, nevertheless, once more strictly endeavor to redeem their character, by examine the operating causes of the mighty seeking to find the necessary light even in change produced in the world, in order to their own doctrine-which might have perfectly comprehend it. operated in their favor, and have served as JOHN REUCHLIN-OUTBREAK QF THE REFORMATION. 253 their only protection-but with blind zeal Nuncio, Cardinal Cajetan, and Luther at the Diet of and defiance they sought to extinguish and Augsburg, 1518 —Reusal of Luther to retract-Luther's Appeal to the Pope for a fair hearing-Controdestroy at once the dawning rays which versial Discussion between Luther and Dr. Eck-Luannounced the coming of the glorious day ther maintains his ground-The Pope's Bull against ann d te c g o te g s Luther-The Reformer burns the Bull with the -a vain and futile effort, which has, at all Canon Law and Eck's Writings-Propagation of the times, only been attended with disgraceful New Doctrine-Luther addresses the People-Ulrick imes, ony been aened w isgraceu of Huitten and Francis of Sickingen-Frederick the defeat, and ever fallen powerless to the Wise of Saxony and the Princes in favor of Retbrm_,,g~~ro ~nd.~ rThe Grand Diet at Worms 1521-Charles V.-The ground. Pope's Legate, Cardinal Alexander-Luther's apIn Germany this new light in the sciences pearance and Examination there-Solen Refusal to Retract-The Emperor's Declaration —Luther was more especially promulgated by John Excommunicated and his Writingsburnt —Conveyed Reuchlin, (born at Pforzheim in the year by the Elector of Saxony for Safety to the Castle of Wartburg —His translation of the New Testament1455,) one of the first and most distin- Tumults and Revolutions of the Peasantry —Miinzer guished men of learning that our country the Fanatic-Battle of Frankenhausen-Miinzer's Death —Tranquillity restored. ever produced, possessing the most erudite knowledge of the Latin, together with the WE have in the preceding chapter enGreek and Hebrew languages-a man en- deavored to develop the causes which dowed with a mind so vast and comprehen. during several centuries had prepared the sive, that it was said of him, that in his way for the schism of the church; but mind was combined all the scholarship, all that which more immediately hastened its the knowledge of the arts and sciences, to- accomplishment, was the abuse so univergether with all the learning then to be sally practised, in the declaration and disfound in the Christian world. Many of the tribution of indulgences. theologians vented all their rancorous pas. The agents of the papal court were sions against him, although he lived be- authorized to offer letters of the indulgence fore the time of the Reformation, and ac- in every country that recognised the pope, cordingly took no share in it. We must by which those who obtained them received not, however, include all the leading mem- from the church remission of the punishbers of the clergy among those so plunged ment they had merited by their sins. Such in darkness, for the before-mentioned Chris- letters of indulgence, however, were not of topher of Stadion, bishop of Augsburg, did recent origin, inasmuch as in the early ages not think it beneath his dignity to under- of the church, when it punished public take a journey of seven days to Freiburg, crime by severe and public penitence, by in order there to become acquainted with exclusion from divine worship, often for the the celebrated Erasmus of Rotterdam, space of years, &c., there were many penwhile John of Dalberg, bishop of Worms, itents, especially those who distinguished formed a library containing the works of themselves by their zeal in the practice the most distinguished writers, and was so of repentance, whose term of trial was attached to the sciences, that he became a abridged by the bishop, or the punishment member of the Rhenish society of learned altogether remitted, and the performance men, founded by the poet Conrad Celtes. of pious acts of gifts or endowments substi. But the number of these better-minded tuted. At the time of the crusades, the men was too limited to cope with those popes accorded to all who undertook to en. whose blind and furious zeal, in their counter the dangers and fatigues of these hatred to all enlightenment, confounded expeditions, the remission from all the pun. together the good with the bad, and pro- ishment of the church to which they would duced, accordingly, the destruction of their otherwise have been obliged to submit. own empire. Subsequently, the same indulgence was granted to all those who, in lieu of taking part in these holy wars personally, con- * -tributed their aid in money instead. After this period, the object of these expiatory acknowledgments was extended to other CHAPTER XVII. pious works, such as the building of Outbreak of the Reformation, 1517-Abuses m the churches, schools, &c.; and when Europe Church-Letters of Indulgence-Martin Luther the was threatened by the Turks, the expediReformer-His exposure and condemnation of these tis against their armies presented nu proceedings-Is summoned to appear in Rome-With-r held from going bythe Electorof Saxony —The Pope's merous opportunities to the popes to distri. 254 ABUSES IN THE CHURCH-MARTIN LUTHER. bute their letters of indulgence. Very on this occasion, especially a certain Ber. soon, however, the belief that these letters of nard Samson, and John Tetzel, the former indulgence absolved their possessors from in Switzerland, and the latter in Saxony, sin itself-an error quite in keeping with excited by their shameful conduct the the coarse and depraved state of feeling in greatest indignation. those times-became more and more pro- It was at this moment that Martin Lumulgated among the people, and was sup- ther, born in 1483, at Eisleben in Thurinported generally by the prelates themselves; gia, an Augustinian friar, and professor of while, on the other hand, suspicions were theology in the university of Wittenberg, increasingly nourished and murmurs loudly came forth and publicly condemned these expressed, with respect to the employment indulgences; and on the eve of All Saints' of the sums professedly collected for the day, (the 31st of October, 1517,) in the exclusive object of works of piety. Thence, church of the palace of Wittenberg, he at length, both the princes and the people read ninety-five theses in which he bitterly united their voices in complaint against the inveighed against the traffic of indulgences, existing abuse of indulgences, and subse- and challenged all the most learned men of quently the council of Trent issued a de- the day to contest them with him in a pubcree against the criminal agents of the lic examination. Similar public assertions church, " who availed themselves of the on certain articles of faith were not of unword of God in order to fill their own usual occurrence, but those expressed by pockets with lucre." Luther were conveyed in a language so In order to draw from these indulgences bold, and in a spirit of such independence, as much profit as possible, the sale thereof that they excited forthwith the greatest in entire provinces was let out to the high- sensation, and were read throughout Gerest bidders or farmers-general, and these many with the most eager curiosity and again appointed several sub-farmers, who, interest. Therein he maintained, " that for the sake of gain, committed the most the pope possessed no power to remit sins shameful abuses. To promote the sale of himself, but only to pronounce their remisthese letters of indulgence, they selected sion by God; that whatever power herein men who, possessing eloquence and impu- the pope might possess was equally shared dence, might succeed in exciting the minds by every bishop and prelate; that whoever of the people and induce them to purchase sincerely repented of his sins would receive them by wholesale; and truly, the shame- remission from punishment without the inless proceedings of some of these men ex- dulgences; that the treasures of the Saceed all belief. They sold indulgences viour and the church were so equally for the most heavy crimes committed: for distributed and shared in by the faithful, pillage of churches, perjury, and murder; that the pope could not impart to them any nay, the promise of indulgence could even fresh claim," &c. At the same time he be obtained before the commission of the did not at all contemplate attacking either contemplated crime. the authority of the pope or that of the But additional evidence to prove the ancient church. The doctrine, however, destructive influence with which such an which he published upon the indulgences abuse of religion must operate upon the could not but excite the most violent opposimorality of mankind, is superfluous. Suf- tion on the part of Tetzel and his friends, fice it, that the long-nourished feeling of especially the Dominicans, who for a long discontent at length burst forth. Leo X. time had been opposed to the order of the having, in the year 1516, announced fresh Augustinians; they denounced him as a indulgences in order to complete the build- heretic, and they already threatened him ing of the church of St. Peter in Rome, with the sword and burning pile. commenced by his predecessor, Julius II., Meantime in Rome itself the most strict it was generally believed that an important silence was maintained, although the disshare of the money collected, viz., that con- putes had now continued for nearly nine tributed in Saxony and the countries as far months. The whole matter, however, was as the Baltic, was not to be devoted to the not the less known there, but the pope perbuilding of the church of St. Peter, but haps regarded it merely in the light of a was intended for the pope's sister. In ad- monkish dispute; besides which, in Rome dition to which, the clerical agents employed they were totally unacquainted with Ger DIET OF AUGSBURG-LUTHER AND DR. ECK. 255 many. They considered. it to be still a separate himself from the Romish church; half-savage country, its population patient, but the pressure of circumstances, and the accustomed to obedience, and slow in form- warmth of controversy with his adversaries, ing a resolution. But this ignorance and impelled him from one step to the other. depreciation of our nation proved fatal to A professor of theology at Ingolstadt, in the pontifical chair, and brought down like- Bavaria, Dr. John Mayer of Eck, usually wise upon ourselves the most disastrous called Dr. Eck, one of the most zealous consequences. and talented partisans of his church, a man At length, in the month of August, 1518, of comprehensive scientific knowledge, the Luther was summoned to appear at Rome, exercise of which he always had at comthere to justify himself before the tribunal mand, and to which he added an jmposing of the Holy See. But the elector of Sax- figure and a powerful, penetrating voice, ony, as well as the University of Witten- challenged Luther and another professor berg, which, but recently founded, owed its of Wittenberg, Andrew Carlstadt, in the rapidly flourishing state entirely to Luther, year 1519, to meet him at a public disser. would not suffer him to make the danger- tation upon subjects of faith in Leipsic, ous journey. By their mediation he re- which formed part of the territory of ceived permission to adjust the affair in George, duke of Saxony. They both apGermany, and with this object to present peared there, accompanied by a pupil of himself at the end of October, 1518, before Reuchlin, Philip Melanchthon, afterwards the pope's nuncio, Cardinal Thomas de Vio so celebrated, and at that time professor of of Gaeta, (usually known under the name Greek at Wittenberg; the meeting was of Cajetan,) at the diet of Augsburg. The likewise honored with the presence of the latter, who, as a Dominican friar, had al- duke of Saxony himself. The controverready been an opponent of the theological sial trial lasted from the 27th of June to views and opinions df Luther, demanded the 13th of July, 1519. They discussed at from him a retraction of his sentiments. Lu- great length the subjects of the principal ther declared his willingness to make it, articles of faith and the respect due to the provided what he had advanced could be pope; but as always happens in all dis. refuted by the Holy Scriptures. The car- putes, when carried on with zealous spirit, dinal, however, who considered it beneath words of bitter and acrimonious import his dignity to hold argument or dispute were exchanged between the two parties, with a monk, abruptly dismissed him with while, however, it became more and more the words: " Retire hence, nor come again evident in the course of the contest that before us, unless it be that thou wilt re- Luther successfully maintained his position, tract." in not only rejecting the infallible authority Luther now composed and handed in to of the pope, but likewise that of the coun. the nuncio a letter of justification, in which cils, until at length Eck exclaimed: " Revhe acknowledged he had acted too impetu- erend father, if you then really do believe ously, and had not spoken of the pope with that a lawfully-assembled council can err, sufficient respect, promising henceforth to then must I regard you as a gentile and maintain complete silence, if on their side publican."* Saying which he quitted the his opponents were subjected to the same assembly, and proceeded at once to Rome, restraint towards him. As, however, he and demanded that the heretic should be received no reply to this document, he held himself bound to address the pope person- In this celebrated controversy at Leipsic, which ally, and with the aid of a notary, in the forms a critical point in the great development of the presence of witnesses, drew up in Latin an history of those times-Duke George of Saxony himself regarding it as such, he having proposed that the deappeal against the unjust judgment pro- cision of the dispute should be transferred to the connounced, requiring that a more fair and sideration of other universities-two peasants' sons represented the conflicting ideas that characterized the Just inquiry and decision should take place present and future times, and their unity or still greater before the pope himself; this paper he division could not but produce the most important consequences. While Luther on the one hand was the caused to be affixed publicly on the gate of descendant of a peasant family, living at the foot of the cathedral church in Augsburg, and im- the Thuringian forest in Moravia, Eck, on the other was the son of Michael Mayer of Eck, a peasant, anm. mediately afterwards quitted that city. afterwards mayor of that place, (similar to Luther's This document proves, that Luther at that father, who became a counsellor of Mansfeld,) whither lie had wandered to work in the mines-he, as youngel time had not yet formed the resolution to son, not having any patrimonial claim to the farm. 256 THE POPE'S BULL BURNED-THE NEW DOCTRINE. visited with the utmost rigor of the apos- whole community into action, as if struck tolic power. by the wand of magic; and he who has Accordingly, he soon reappeared in thus supplied that want, and proclaimed it Germany armed with a bull from the pope, aloud, is appreciated by all as the great in which forty-one propositions selected author, although he has only pronounced from Luther's writings were designated with his voice that which has long since as heretical, while he himself, unless he existed in the lap of time, and has become publicly retracted them within sixty days, already matured within the souls of all. was declared under the ban of the church; Meantime we have seen in the preceding and which the zealous agent endeavored to chapters, how the progress that science had circulate throughout all the cities of Ger- already made, together with the great inmany. But it found admission only in a ventions of the preceding century, more very few places; the magistrates gener- especially the art of printing, now the ally forbidding it to be made public, and means of at once communicating to thouwhere the document did find a place upon sands information that otherwise had rethe walls of any town, it was immediately nained limited to the possession of a few torn down by the people-such was the re- -perhaps locked up within the walls of spect in which the principles of the new the monasteries-how, we say, all this comdoctrine were already held. Luther now bined to prepare the world for the coming proceeded without farther hesitation to per- changes we have already seen. On the form an act which rent asunder forever other hand again, this very rapidity shown the ties which bound him to the ancient in the propagation of the new doctrine is church. He convoked by public summons an irrefragable proof of the great fall of the the whole of the members of the University religious and moral spirit of that epoch. of Wittenberg, to meet on the 10th of De- For attachment to the customs, more especember, 1520, before the Elster gate of the cially to the faith of his fathers, it so town, when all the students having erected powerfully and deeply rooted in the heart a funeral pile, one of the magistrates set of man, that to separate himself from this fire to it, and Luther, amid the loud accla- as long as he at all sincerely feels its inmations of the assembly, cast into the burn- spiration, is contrary to the laws of human ing mass the popish bull, together with the nature; it can only occur when that which canon law and Eck's writings. should constitute the most ardent and ferIt is impossible to describe the rapidity vent feeling of the heart has become cold with which the new doctrine spread from and torpid, and reduced to a state of mere one end of Germany to the other, extend- external display. ing even far beyond the frontiers of the Many other causes existed among the empire.* Such celerity cannot be con- citizens and the people generally, which ceived by those who form their calculation throughout the empire operated materially by the scale of sensuality; for it is only to hasten the crisis. Up to the present mothe vivid flash communicated by the light- ment the great majority of the common free ning of the mind which ignites in millions people had been completely neglected and the inflammable materials already pre- despised; nothing had been done to raise pared, that can produce such mighty results. them from their state of ignorance, and thus When an age is ripe for great changes, all their mental energy was left to perish the signal alone is wanted to rouse the in uninterrupted barbarism. Luther now came among them as their great national t The ninety-five propositions of Luther against the teacher; promising them instruction, nay, indulgences were distributed throughout Germany making them his arbitrator in his dispute. within a fortnight, in the course of from four to six weeks they were known by the whole of Europe, and And this he undertook and performed in a the universal excitement they must have produced may language so energetic and penetrating, that be easily conceived. In 1520, Luther's writings were it struck upon the ears of the people in tones translated in the Netherlands into Spanish, and i t struck upon the ears of the people in tones a traveller found and purchased them in Jerusalem. hitherto unknown to them. When Herr von Miltitz, a distinguished Saxon, travelled, in 1519, from Italy to Wittenberg, deputed by the The external condition of the people likepope to prevail upon Luther to make concession and ise promoted Luther's exertions. The to promise to maintain silence, he himself acknowledged to the great reformer that throughout hisjour- peasantry, it is true, had gradually acney in Germany he had found on the average three quired a state of greater freedom than had voices to one in his favor, and at this time Luther hadservices only been two years upon the scene. existed in former times; but the services THE NOBILITY-FRANCIS OF SICKINGEN. 257 they were condemned to perform were in dishonorable terms of the emperor, he nevertheless even now very oppressive. forthwith threw down his gauntlet at their They were still forced to bend under the feet, and challenged them in the name of weight of burdens inflicted upon them by German chivalry to mortal combat; he all the other states, and hitherto their rights fought and overthrew them all. He was as men continued, generally speaking, un- equally successful with his pen as with recognised by knights, lords, and princes, his sword, when he employed it in conand by many of these they were over- demnation of the monks, the abuses of rewhelmed with the most unjust severity. ligion, and against all those who opposed Now, however, the word-" Christian lib- enlightenment and civilization. A satire erty!" resounded and was echoed forth which he wrote in the Latin tongue, now even to the huts of these oppressed peas- more and more generally cultivated, creants. This magic word, which was not in- ated so much interest that it was soon cirterpreted by them in its spiritual and moral culated throughout the principal cities of sense, but in that of its action upon their Europe. This extraordinary man, possessexternal condition, excited within them new ing a soul of fire, joined Luther's party, and great hopes, producing, unhappily at less perhaps from a zeal for religion than first, as we shall learn, the most calamitous from an interest excited by the bold and disorders and turbulence. For, in the uni- dangerous character of the reformer's versal commotion of one entire generation, cause; he wrote upon, and devoted all his as is demonstrated in the history of all na- eloquence to the subject, and would have tions, it is difficult to preserve the just lim- gladly promoted it with his sword as well, its of moderation. had he been permitted. Equally prompt with the people, the no- Another man of rank, and equally im — bility of Germany were soon forced to join portant, Francis of Sickingen, in Francoin the newly-created excitement. They nia, warmly espoused the principles of were still animated with enthusiasm for the Luther. His character was so highly esliberty and honor of their country; and as timated, and he was so much distinguished Germany was now regarded and treated for his valor and noble qualities, that he with open contempt by Rome, this was was at one time considered by many of the cause sufficient to enlist them on the side of princes and nobles, even worthy to wear him who came forth to attack the power of the imperial crown itself. He generously the Romish see. On the other hand, the offered his friend Luther an asylum in his revived love for science had also made con- castle, and the protection of himself and siderable progress among the greater and friends against any persecution he might better portion of the nobility; and since the experience. Luther, however, gratefully invention and introduction of gunpowder declined his proffered aid; and when the had given a death-blow to chivalry, the ambitious nobleman-whose active mind practice of the sword was no longer the would not allow him to remain quiet, only occupation of the young nobleman; but urged him continually to carry out the more noble exercise of the mind en- some great project-commenced hostilities larged his views, and prepared him for new against Richard, archbishop ofTreves, and and more elevated thoughts; and, finally, declared open war against that prelate,. Luther in his celebrated work, addressed Luther in vain endeavored formally to op" To the Nobility of Germany," had more pose it. This enterprise was one of the especially made an appeal to them, and called last demonstrations made of the effects proupon them to devote themselves to his cause. duced by the Faustrecht in Germany, inAmong the most zealous of his prose- asmuch as, on this special occasion, this lytes was included Ulric of Hutten, a single knight, with his friends, raised an, leader of the people, such as are ever pro- army of twelve thousand men, and, in deduced in an age of excitement and revolu- fiance of the interdictions of the imperial: tion; keen and energetic either with the diet, marched forth against a powerful sword or pen, at once a warrior and a prince of the empire, fell upon his territoscholar, full of wit and persuasive elo- ries, devastating with fire and sword the quence, he was ever ready for the most entire land, and only withdrew therefrom,. perilous enterprise. Once when in his and slowly marched back to his own strong presence he heard four Frenchmen speak castle, after two other princes, Lewis, 33 258 FREDERICK OF SAXONY AND THE PROTESTANT PRINCES. elector of the Palatinate, and Philip, land- ecclesiastical territories. Still, even such grave of Hesse, having come to the aid of inducements would not have sufficed to exthe archbishop, were seen advancing with plain such great and important results. their united forces against him. The principal motive which operated so In the following year, however, the val- powerfully in the cause of reform, origiiant knight was himself closely besieged nated in the spirit now roused throughout by these same troops in his fortress of the German nation, which sought to strike Landshut, and, after defending himself out a new and more level course in each bravely for a considerable time, he was of the three principal elements of life-the mortally wounded and taken prisoner. state, the sciences, and in religion, in subHe died a few days afterwards, and even stitution for that which had grown old and his enemies could not withhold from him obsolete. The leaders and promoters of their admiration, while they joined in the this new epoch felt conscious that in it was regret so universally felt, that such great involved the commencement of a grand powers of mind and body as those possessed change in the world. On the other hand, by the fallen hero, should thus have sunk however, the friends of the old system without having been able to develop them- armed themselves more and more zealselves in a more extensive sphere of action. ously to battle for its protection and presThe death of Sickingen, however, pro- ervation. duced nothing unfavorable to the cause of It was resolved that at the grand diet of Luther, inasmuch as he was strictly care- Worms these religious disputes, which at ful in maintaining it exclusively indepen- this moment kept the minds of all throughdent, and free of all those external political out the empire in great suspense, should be demonstrations with which that knight and brought to a termination. There the pope others were so desirous to invest it. And had now sent his legate, Cardinal Alexander, this, indeed, was the principal reason for in order to prevail upon the emperor and the duration of its institutions; for had it the princes to employ the arm of temporal been abandoned to the chances of this authority against Luther. To his great outward struggle, all the active, zealous astonishment, however, the nuncio on his strength of the nation would have con- arrival discovered that all classes of the sumed itself, and the whole excitement of people were universal in their declarations the times would have passed away, and of antipathy against the pope. Everyleft but little or no trace of the contest. where he found distributed, writings, songs, Among the princes of Germany, Fred- and pictures, in mockery and contempt of erick the Wise, elector of Saxony, took the pope; and he himself, although in the the most active part in, and supported with suite of the emperor, was compelled to great zeal the cause of Luther. He did witness his appearance greeted with every not at first advance to his aid, neither did mark of derision, and at times even his own he defend him; nevertheless, he would not life endangered. At the diet he demanded, let him be delivered up to his enemies be- in accordance with his instructions, the fore he had been brought to a conviction adoption of the most severe measures against of his error. After the diet of Worms, the man who was already condemned as a however, he decided at once in his favor: heretic, laying, at the same time, before the " The affairs of Germany," said he, in princes, a long list of propositions selected 1523, in Nuremberg, "have advanced so from Luther's works, in order to prove how far, that it is no longer in the power of much he really deviated in the articles of man to lead them in a good direction; faith from the doctrines of the church, and God is alone capable of performing this, especially in those of the council of Conand to Him we must commit this impor- stance. The elector of Saxony now, howtant controversy, which is beyond our ever, rose in opposition to the legate, and strength." insisted that Luther himself should be heard, By degrees several of the other princes in order to learn from his own lips whethdeclared in favor of the new doctrine; er these propositions were or were not some no doubt from sincere conviction, correctly and faithfully copied from his while others were charged by their adver- writings, and whether he acknowledged saries with being allured to their conver- them as such. In this opinion he was supsion by the spoil they obtained from the ported by the emperor and all the princes; THE GRAND DIET AT WORMS-LUTHER'S EXAMINATION. 259 the cardinal, however, opposed it, saying, lowing day. He then reappeared before " that what had been already decided by the the assembly, and publicly declared: " That pope, could not be subjected to examination his writings were of. three kinds; some before a diet composed of spiritual and ter- treated upon the subject of articles of faith poral members." In reply it was stated to and good works, which his enemies did not him, that they did not desire to examine the in any respect find offensive-he could not, faith of Luther, but merely to hear from his therefore, retract them without injury to own mouth whether or not he had actually his conscience; that others attacked the written and taught that for which he was con- power of the popes and their decrees, and demned; therefore, for this reason, it was if he retracted them he should only thereby necessary he should be summoned before confirm their tyranny in the face of the the diet. This, in fact, was one of the most whole world; the rest were directed against important acts in the history of the Refor- those who defended papacy, and had atmation; for thence the cause of Luther tacked him in their writings; he confessed had become an open and national affair. that therein he had used severe and bitter His friends, and especially the elector language, but which must be ascribed alone of Saxony, now demanded for him the im- to the treatment he himself had received perial and inviolable safe-conduct; this from his adversaries." He then concluded, was granted, and Luther immediately set saying: " If they could convince him from out from Wittenberg on his journey to the Holy Scriptures that he was in error, Worms. As he proceeded on his route, he was ready forthwith with his own hands he soon learned to know the strength of his to cast the whole of his writings into the party; for the people flocked in thousands flames." from every quarter to behold and welcome The chancellor replied, that they were him; and when, on the day after his arri- not there to dispute with him, but to hear val at Worms, (the 17th of April,) he was from his own lips whether ornot he would reconducted to the diet, the grand-marshal of tract. Upon which Luther declared with the empire was obliged to lead him a by- the most solemn determination, that his way, across gardens and obscure parts; conscience forbade him doing so; where. so numerously thronged was the whole upon he was dismissed. town. His appearance, on entering the On the following day an especial conferhall in which the diet was held, produced ence took place with Luther, in which the no great effect; the emperor himself is re. elector of Treves himself took a very accorded to have said, as he turned to his tive share; but all attempts to bring him neighbor: "This man would never succeed to a retraction were in vain; and when in making a heretic of me." And truly, eventually the elector demanded of him Luther was at this moment very pale, and, whether he knew of any means by which as he was only just recovering from a se- all might be restored to order and tranquillivere fever, presented a rather emaciated and ty, his last words in reply were:'(If this feeble appearance. In this weak state, his work is a human work, then it will disapfeelings were at first not a little affected pear of itself; but if it comes from God, when he found himself unsupported by a then you cannot disturb or arrest its progsingle friend, standing alone in the august ress." presence of the emperor himself, and so The emperor, on the other hand, declared numerous a body of the princes and nobles to the princes in decided and serious terms: of the empire. " That he was resolved to consecrate all he A vicar of the archbishop of Treves now possessed, his empires, kingdoms, states, put to him the question in the name of the friends, his body and blood, nay, life itself, emperor and the diet there assembled, to check at once all farther progress of that whether he acknowledged as his own the impious and ungodly spirit, which otherwritings then shown to him, and if he per- wise must involve himself and the whole sisted in maintaining the propositions therein German nation in eternal shame and discontained? To the first part he replied, grace; that his ancestors, the Christian yes; but with respect to the latter, he beg- German emperors, the Catholic kings of ged to have a short time granted him for Spain, and the dukes of Austria and Burconsideration before he returned an answer. gundy, continued, to the latest period of Accordingly he was allowed until the fol- their lives, faithfully attached to the Roman 260 LUTHER EXCOMMUNICATED church; that he had received from them as Germany, on the other hand, where he had an inheritance the Catholic doctrine and to treat with a number of independent discipline of the church, in the faith of princes and a nation in a state of general which he would live and die; that, conse- excitement, where he was bound by the quently, he would no longer listen to Lu- stipulations of his election, and where every ther, but dismiss him at once from his pres- violent act was regarded as an attempt to ence, and treat him as he would a heretic." acquire the independence of the imperial This declaration of the emperor was of power, he proceeded for a considerable time grave and serious import. If the question to act with the greatest moderation. The had been limited to the mere curtailment of preservation of peace appeared to him of the pontifical power, he might not, perhaps, paramount importance, and he was very have beheld this generally increasing agi- desirous to bring the parties to mutual contation without some degree of pleasure; cessions. For this very reason he was but when he had reason to believe that it closely watched by the Spaniards throughinvolved the apostacy of the ancient and out his whole existence, from a fear that he eternal faith, to which he was so much and might be infused with heretical principles so sincerely attached, and that thence the by his connection with the Germans. unity of the church was menaced, he felt Several of Luther's bitterest enemies himself justified in expressing, in the strong- sought to persuade the emperor to the est terms, his fixed determination to oppose adoption of violent measures against him, it. His penetrating, comprehensive glance, grounding their arguments upon the same which embraced and recognised acutely principles which had operated in bringing the great relations of the world, quickly Huss to the stake; but Charles replied, beheld and measured in advance the that his imperial word was inviolable, and mighty consequences of these changes: he he granted Luther an extension of his safe foresaw the dissension and irritation that conduct for twenty-one days, during the pemust be produced in all minds, and the riod of his return home. Nevertheless, contest of opinion which, so soon and so many of his friends still trembled for his easily converted into a contest of arms, life, dreading some secret treachery; and would terminate in the dreadful realities on his arrival in Thuringia, his royal proof a religious war. All this danger it was tector, the elector of Saxony, caused him Charles's firm opinion he could smother in to be removed from his carriage, as if by its birth, and he felt that his dignity of em. violence, by several disguised knights, and peror and protector of the church imposed conveyed at night, through a deep wood, to upon him this duty. And, assuredly, had the strong castle of Wartburg, near Eisen. he been supported everywhere by the same ach. There it was arranged he should re invariable and firm will, had not so many main concealed, until the fury of his ene. impure, worldly views been brought into mies became appeased. operation against it, and produced their Meantime, in Worms, the imperial ban of baneful influence; but more especially, excommunication was pronounced against had the truly honest and sincerely disposed him, as well as against his adherents and Pope Adrian VI.-who reigned in the years protectors. His books were condemned to 1522 and 1523, and whose serious wish and be burned wherever they were found, and intention it was to reform the church-lived he himself was adjudged to be taken prisbut a short time longer, then, perhaps, our oner, and delivered up to the emperor; country would have been spared the inflic. such was the edict of Worms, dated the tion of the dreadful scenes it was doomed 8th (26th) of May, 1521. In Rome, great to endure. rejoicings took place; and even in Germany In his hereditary lands, where he was itself it was generally believed that the sole master, Charles certainly did endeavor whole affair was now settled and at an end. to extirpate with great rigor the new doc- But a Spaniard, Valdez, wrote from the diet trine; he considered it was here especially itself to one of his friends thus: " Far from his right and duty to do so; and the de- beholding the termination of this tragedy, I crees of his council, the voice of his peo- only see its commencement; for I find that pie, and particularly of the Spanish nation, the minds of the Germans are especially together with the Neapolitans, all combined excited against the pontifical chair." And to demand this severity from him. But in even while the emperor was still in Worms, LUTHER AT WARTBURG-FIRST GERMAN NEW TESTAMENT. 261 after the writings of Luther had been pub- mands made by the whole body, were licly burned, some copies which had es- drawn up in Swabia, and distributed and caped that fate were openly offered for sale. made known throughout the whole of GerLuther himself continued solitary and un- many with astonishing and almost incredi. interrupted in his isolated, but secure asy- ble rapidity, viz.: " That the peasants lum in the castle of Wartburg, and devoted should be allowed to choose for themselves those tranquil moments to translating the the ministers who were to preach to them New Testament into German, so that it the word of God, pure and without the inmight be read and understood by every one troduction of any worldly matter; that in throughout the empire. While thus em- future they should not pay any other ployed, he was informed that, through mis- tithes but that of corn; that they had taken zeal, serious riots had broken out in hitherto been treated as slaves, although Wittenberg, where the people had forced by the blood of our Saviour all men had open the churches, committing the most been made free, and, although they desired serious injury by destroying all the holy not to live independent of all superior aufigures and pictures contained therein, to- thority, they were, nevertheless, resolved gether with their altars and confessionals; no longer to continue in this state of slaveand he was grieved to find that these furious ry, unless it could be proved to them by and blindly zealous rioters were led on by the Holy Scriptures that they were in his friend, but violent enthusiast, Carlstadt. error. That, finally, they had to complain Casting aside all fear, Luther at once aban. of many things, but that they would obdoned his place of refuge, and, without hav- serve silence in the hope that what they ing waited until he received the permission claimed would be yielded, and that their of the elector, he appeared in Wittenberg, lords would treat them in accordance with in March, 1522, where he preached to, and the counsel and precepts of the gospel, remonstrated in severe terms with the peo- and while they moderated the oppression ple, upon their outrageous conduct, and they had exercised from the earliest times succeeded in again restoring peace and down to the present moment, they, their order. lords, should likewise abstain from adding Shortly afterwards, however, events of a thereto daily fresh burdens." far more serious nature occurred, which There can be no doubt but these dethreatened to destroy all order in the civil mands were just, and, at the same time, state of Germany. We have already moderate; but when the accomplishment shown, at the close of the government of of the object demanded was left to the Maximilian I., what discontent existed charge of the brutal mass, then the pasamong the peasantry throughout the em- sions soon overcame the weak and subpire, and that the leagues formed in Alsace dued voice of moderation, and bursting and Swabia were only put down by force through every barrier, became deaf to of arms. Some sparks, however, still glim. reason, and their fury knew no bounds. mered amid the ashes, and, in the course As is the case in all such riotous proof a short time, combining their whole force, ceedings, the complainant became the burst forth once more into one universal judge in his own cause, and exercised the flame. The rural population considered very same injustice by which he himself themselves entitled to an equality of rights had been previously oppressed. The peaswith those hitherto their lords and masters, antry, collected together in various strong and in south Germany especially, where bodies, commenced with attacking the the sight of the prosperity and indepen- castles of the nobles and the rich possesdence enjoyed by their neighbors, the sions of the clergy, burning and destroySwiss-strikingly contrasting with their ing every thing, and often putting to death own condition-acted powerfully upon the the owners. These troops soon increased mind, the indignation of the people was first to armies, of which Swabia alone supplied roused, and the flame of discord and revolt three. In Franconia the riots grew more again produced its devastating effects. and more serious, extending even to The first that rebelled were the peas- Wiirtzburg, which city combined with the antry of the abbot of Kempten and those peasantry against its bishop and the rest of the archbishop of Augsburg. Twelve of the Franconian nobility. Already, inarticles, containing all the rights and de- deed, a great number of the cities through 262 MUNZER THE FANATIC-LUTHER AND THE PEASANTRY. out Upper Germany had joined in league mands were just, and condemned the opwith the peasants, while several princes pression of the princes and nobility; he and nobles, such as the elector palatine, then, however, reproached the people for the counts of Hohenlohe, the bishops of their violent and riotous proceedings, repreBamberg and Spires, &c., had entered in- senting to them that Christian liberty was to negotiation with the rioters, and had a spiritual liberty; and when now the been forced to promise a removal of their Miinzer revolution arose, he himself, in burdens based upon the twelve articles order to remove at once every impression aforesaid. that such outrages were at all connected In Thuringia the hallucination of this with his doctrine, called upon the princes excited period was shown in another form, to draw the sword against the revolters. although not altogether dissimilar in spirit, And truly it was high time to make this inasmuch as it was founded upon religious appeal; inasmuch as the castles of the enthusiasm. A secular preacher, Thomas nobles, and the monasteries in Thuringia, Miinzer, formerly one of Luther's first ad- Franconia, Swabia, and along the banks herents, pretended that he was gifted with of the Rhine as far as Lorraine itself, were especial divine visions from God, by which now already demolished, and presented he was enabled to reveal the essence of one universal mass of smoking ruins. Christian liberty with much more clear- Accordingly the princes, at Luther's ness than Luther. "God," he said, "had urgent exhortation, united their forces created the earth as an inheritance of the against the rebels in Thuringia, led on by believers, and all government must be the Elector John of Saxony-Frederick regulated only by the Bible and divine the Wise having recently died, after havrevelations. There was no necessity what- ing beheld with sorrow the commencement ever for the princes, superior authorities, of these sad scenes-George, duke of Saxthe nobility, or the priests, and the distinc- ony, the Landgrave Philip of Hesse, and tion which existed between the rich and Henry, duke of Brunswick. A division the poor was altogether unchristian; inas- of their army, under Philip of Hesse, much, as in the kingdom of God all men marched at once against a body of the must be equal." Such doctrine, however, peasantry near Frankenhausen in Thucaused Miinzer to be banished from Saxo- ringia, on the 15th of May, 1525. ny, and he repaired to Miihlhausen in The princes, in order to bring the riotThuringia, where he gained over the peo- ers to terms by lenient measures, promised ple, and caused them to upset all authority, them pardon if they would retire peaceably and make him their preacher and governor and give up their leaders. Minzer, howof the town. His principles of the equal- ever, in order to avert the danger from ity of all men, and of the community of his own person, took advantage of the appossessions, which he introduced after he pearance of a rainbow which at the mohad driven all the more wealthy inhabitants ment presented itself in the heavens, in from the town, augmented the number of order to excite anew the mad enthusiasm his partisans considerably, and extended of his partisans, declaring to them that it his influence to a great distance beyond his came as a messenger to him from God. seat of government. For the moment he succeeded in his object, The whole of Thuringia, Hesse, and for, roused by his inflammatory language, Lower Saxony, were in danger, and as the fanatics rushed upon the ambassadors now the war of the peasantry raged like- of the elector and stabbed them with their wise in the south of Germany, there was daggers; and fortifying themselves in their too much reason to fear that the fanatics of intrenchments, they prepared for a vigorous every part would combine their forces, and defence. In a very short time, however, thus, like a rushing torrent, march through their blind and desperate courage sunk, the whole empire, destroying and sweeping and they looked in vain for the appearance all before them. In this state of peril into of the troops of angels which had been which the whole community was about to promised to them by Minzer; he himself be ingulfed, a deputation from the peasant- was one of the first who fled, while the ry waited upon Luther, and submitted to greater part of his army was put to the him the twelve articles for his approbation; sword. The fugitive leader took refuge at first he agreed that several of their de- in the loft of a house.n Frankcnhausen, BATTLE OF FRANKENHAUSEN-CHARLES V.-FRANCIS I. 263 Dut was soon afterwards discovered, drag- He had proceeded from the diet in Worms ged forth and beheaded, dying without to the Netherlands and thence revisited evincing the slightest courage or fortitude. Spain, where he remained nearly eight Just about the same time, the wars of years; his penetrating glance embraced the peasantry in the south of Germany were the whole of Europe. His immediate atlikewise brought to an end. The Swabian tention, however, was more especially league, which had been renewed, collected directed to the movements of Francis, an army, and under the leadership of king of France, who, as a dangerous neighGeorge Truchsess of Waldburg, attacked bor and rival, availed himself of every and destroyed the various troops of peasants opportunity to gain some advantage over in Swabia and Franconia with the same him. success as in Thuringia. Everywhere the It would be useless to investigate the parmost dreadful retribution was now inflicted ticular causes of jealousy between these by the conquerors upon all those who had two monarchs; in their character as men, taken a share in the revolutionary scenes, and their political relations to each other and the most revolting cruelties were per- as rulers, ample foundation existed for this petrated. rivalship. Charles, like Francis, was ruled Thus these terrible and sanguinary com- by ambition and pride, but in him, these motions, which might have produced the passions assumed a more ennobling charcomplete overthrow and destruction of the acter. Both had been rivals for the impeinstitutions of Germany, had these excited rial throne, and Francis, who claimed supepowers been brought into effect by the in- riority not only in years but in reputation fluential direction of skilful men, were as a knight, and in personal endowments, once again promptly subdued. As it was, was highly mortified when he found the however, they occasioned a sacrifice of latter elected in preference to himself. much blood; it being calculated that more At the same time the duchy of Milan, which than 100,000 of the peasantry perished in had been conquered by Francis and held these contentions. by him as a fief of the empire, served as an inevitable cause of dispute, inasmuch as Charles felt himself bound to recover it by force of arms, and restore it under the C H A P T E R XV II. imperial sway; while, on the other hand, the preponderance of Charles's power in Forein Relations of Charles V.-Francis I. of France Europe, now assuming a more threatening -War between these two rival Monarchs-Italy — Milan-The Duke of Bourbon-The Chevalier Bayard aspect, excited the fears of the other rulers, -The Battle of Pavia, 1525-Defeat of the French- and Francis, who, next to the emperor, posFrancis I. taken Prisoner-Madrid-The AKing of France liberated-His dishonorable Breach of Stipu- sessed the most powerful dominion, conlation-Thle Imperialists in Rome-The Pope a Pris- sidered himself called upon before any oner-His Ransom-War with France resumed — Andrew Doria-Peace of Cambray, 1529-Charles V. other to enter the field against him. He crowned Emperor and King of Lombardy in Bologna had turned his attention more especially -His Generosity-Return to Germany —First League of the Protestant Princes, 1526-The Augsburg Con- towards Italy, in which country he had al-a fession, 1530-Melanchthon-His Character of Charles ready made one successful expedition V.-John, Elector of Saxony-His determination- made one essl expedition The Imperial Council-The Emperor's Declaration- and it was there that Charles's power should Reply of tie Protestant Princes-Ferdinand, King of be weakened and destroyed, for which ur Rome, 1531-Religious Peace-The Turks in Hun- e weaene an destroyed, or w urgary-Their Defeat-Ulric, Duke of Wurtemberg- pose the French king sought to revive all Restored to his Possessions by Philip of Hesse-In- the claims he derived from his ancestors to surrection of the Anabaptists-Their Defeat-The the claims he derived rom his ancestors to Emperor in Africa-'runis-His Triumph and Libe- the kingdom of Naples in that quarter. ration of 2-2,000 Christian Slaves-Francis I. attacks Italy-Charles V. enters France-Suspension of Arms Charles meantime had augmented his power -Interview between the two Monarchs at Aigues- by an alliance with Henry VIII. of EngMartes-Revolt in Ghent-Progress of Charles V. through France and Ghent-Hospitality received- land, whose vanity had been offended by Peace restored in Ghent-The Diet at Ratisbon, 1541 Francis, and thus the war, which had al-Charles V. in Algies-Disastrous Expedition-His Fortitude-Return to Italy-Francis I. resumes Hos- ready commenced in the year 1521, was tilities-His Ill Success-Charles V. on the Rhine- carried on by the English and Flemish troops Attacks the Duke of Cleves-Overcomes and pardonsFlemish troops him-Marches into France-Advance upon Paris- from the Netherlands as far as Spain; but in The Peace of Crepi, 1544. Italy more especially the contest was main. DURING this interval the emperor Charles tained with the greatest obstinacy. What had not been without occupation abroad. operated much to Charles's disadvantage, 264 DUKE OF BOURBON-BATTLE OF PAVIA. was the wide dispersion of his possessions, the army in its dangerous march back, for which produced a necessary division of his the French monarch followed at his heels, forces; while Francis, on the other hand, and again taking possession of Milan, pro. from the central point on which he had ceeded to attack Pavia. The imperial rallied his troops and formed them into one generals found their situation at this mo. united mass, was enabled to dash forward ment very embarrassing; for in front of and at once strike the blow in whatever them was an enemy of superior force, who direction he pleased. But that which threatened one of the chief cities; behind principally characterized the superiority of them was the terror of the pope, who Charles, and which, in reality, constituted had just formed an alliance with Francis; his power and shed over him so brilliant a and finally, their own army was in a most lustre, was that he had been enabled to distressed condition, a feeling of languor collect around him a body of the most and depression, produced by the late redistinguished men of the day, from among treat, pervading the spirits of all. Neverwhom his penetrating eye at once singled theless, the courage, wisdom, and good forout the general best qualified to lead his tune of the leaders, soon effected a change army against the foe, the ambassador whose for the better. diplomatic talent could best loosen the com- The commandant who defended Pavia, plicated knot of political intrigue, and the Don Antonio de Leyva, not discouraged counsellor whose prudence and superior for a moment, most obstinately maintained judgment rendered him the most efficient his position against the besiegers during adviser. It is by the intellectual powers the entire winter until the February of that the world should be governed, and 1525. By this time the imperial army was Charles knew how to enlist them in his reinforced by a strong body of 15,000 lanservice. cers, who marched to their aid from GerCharles, duke of Bourbon, a valiant many, under the command of the brave and distinguished general of the French warrior, George of Freundsberg, or Frundsarmy,. having been deeply injured by Fran. berg, and a combined attack was made cis, came over to the emperor's side. He upon the French king near Pavia. The was received by that monarch with open quick, experienced eye of Pescara selected arms, and was at once appointed leader, in the point of attack in a quarter least exconjunction with the viceroy of Naples, pected by the king, who was consequently Launoy, and the marquis of Pescara, at wholly unprepared for it. He fancied his that time the most distinguished warrior of rear to be perfectly secured by a wood enthe imperial army in Italy. The king of closed by an extensive strong wall: PesFrance, on the other hand, lost about this cara, however, caused a road to be cut time (in the year 1524) one of his most through the entire forest during the night, brave and loyal knights, the Chevalier and with the dawn of morning his troops Bayard, who, in the retreat from Italy, rushed upon the surprised enemy, and saved the army by his heroic courage on completely overthrew them at this point. the bridge of Sesia, but receiving a mortal At the same moment Leyva made a sally wound, fell a sacrifice to his patriotic de- from the citadel itself, while Launoy and votion. The advantages of the war ap- Bourbon madean attack in another quarter, peared now wholly on the side of the em- and the entire French army, thus overperor; Milan was retaken, and the French whelmed, was soon put to rout. The Swiss driven out of Italy. But Charles having auxiliaries, a circumstance unusual with resolved to attack France itself, marched them, were the first to yield and take to with his army into Provence, and laid siege flight, while the German mercenaries, to Marseilles; there, however, he nearly although they fought with great courage, lost the superiority he had gained. He were overmatched by the valor of the Gerfound that to take France from this side mans under their brave leader, George of was more difficult than he had calculated; Freundsberg, and to wh:am in fact the imthe city itself was not to be conquered, and perialists were chiefly indebted for the victhe whole country around having been laid tory, for burning with indignation to find waste by the enemy himself, Pescara was their fellow-countrymen fighting in the forced to retreat. It required, indeed, all ranks of the French army, they cut them the ingenuity of that great general to save down almost to a man. Francis had his FRANCIS I. A PRISONER-FRANCIS LIBERATED. 265 horse killed under him, and he continued ed the detention of the king as prisoner fighting on foot, defending himself against until the fulfilment of this condition —as a host of Spaniards who had surrounded advised by his chancellor-too harsh, and him without knowing the royal, chivalric unworthy of the imperial dignity. He warrior they endeavored to overcome. For- trusted, therefore, to the promise of the tunately for the king, a French nobleman, king; but that promise, with whatever Pomperant, belonging to the suite of the chivalric importance Francis may have duke of Bourbon, came up at this moment, invested it, was never sincerely given nor and recognising the sinking monarch, sum- eventually performed. Before he signed moned him to yield himself a prisoner to the treaty, he secretly summoned to his the duke, his master; this he refused to presence some confidential agents in Mado, but with reluctance ordered him to drid, and before them, in the presence of send Launoy to him. The combatants the pope's nuncio, declared that he was not paused until the general arrived, when the bound to perform the promise he should king resigned his sword into his hands. make as a prisoner, and that the pope, CleLaunoy received it kneeling, and giving the ment VII. himself, had absolved him from monarch his own in exchange, said: "It the performance of any engagement into suits not that so great a king should stand which he might enter. The voice of conunarmed before a subject of the emperor." science being thus quieted, he knelt before A fortnight after this decisive battle no the altar and swore on the Holy Bible itself enemy remained in Italy. faithfully to fulfil the conditions to which he Charles was almost discontented with his had agreed. At the same time he pledged too great fortune which left him without an his royal word to return and surrender himobject to pursue: " Since you have made a self again a prisoner within six months from prisoner of the king of France for me," he that time in the event of his not being able says in a letter to Launoy, " I find nothing to execute the said conditions. more to do but to fight against the infidels. Francis I. was accordingly set at liberty, This I have always felt a great desire to in the year 1526, after an imprisonment of do, and now more than ever. Arrange one year-but never kept his word. The matters, therefore, so that I may be enabled excuse he made for such a breach of honor before I grow too old to perform deeds that was, that his states would not by any means may promote the service of God, and not admit the abandonment of Burgundy, while be unattended with glory to myself." at the same time he offered a considerable The king of France was conveyed a cap- sum as a ransom for his two eldest sons tive to Madrid and closely guarded. Great whom he had sent to Spain as hostages. difference of opinion was expressed by the Charles, however, returned for answer: council of the emperor respecting the man- " That he had violated faith and truth, both ner in which he was to be treated, and the of which he had solemnly and publicly means of availing themselves of their pres- sworn to maintain; that he had not acted ent good fortune. One party, at the head as became a man of noble birth and a soverof which was Launoy, advised the emperor eign prince; and that he, Charles, was to act with generosity towards the king, and ready to support the charge with the sword thus destroy, perhaps forever, the seeds of in single combat." Francis accepted the discord and enmity between the two mon- challenge, but only with words; for subarchs; while another party, headed by the sequently he avoided the meeting under Chancellor Mercurinus Gattinara, sought various pretexts, and thus the people were to derive every possible advantage from once more forced to terminate with their the circumstance. The emperor chose the own blood the contest produced by the ammiddle path between the two parties, and bition and folly of their monarch, and war lost the entire fruit of his good fortune. was once more declared between Charles V. He approved of the plan proposed by the and Francis I. chancellor, viz.: to demand from the cap- Just at the commencement of this war, tive monarch, as the price of his liberty, however, a most unheard-of event took the restoration of the duchy of Burgundy, place in Italy. The duke of Bourbon had which France had unjustly wrested from succeeded to the chief command of the inhis grandmother, and to which he attached perial army in Milan, after the dea:r. -,. great and especial value; but he consider- General Pescara. The country vis conm34 266 THE POPE A PRISONER-WAR WITH FRANCE pletely devastated, and the generals with- come so reduced, that when the king ot out money, while the troops became more France, in the year 1527, once more inand more loud in their demands for their vaded Italy, his army, under the command pay. All means having been employed in of Lautrec, was enabled to penetrate, withrain to appease them, the army suddenly out opposition, as far as Naples itself, to broke up in the month of January, 1527, which place it laid siege. The sudden deand advanced in forced marches against fection of the celebrated naval hero, AnRome, without, however, having received drew Doria, who, with his fleet, came over any commands from the emperor; neither to the emperor's side, together with the is it known for certain whether it was by sickness which prevailed throughout the the order of the duke of Bourbon, who, French army, combined, however, to turn perhaps, may have formed some grand pro- the scale in Charles's favor; the French jects of ambition, or whether it was the were forced to give up the siege, and also result of some sudden determination of the to abandon Milan. Both parties, equally army itself, which calculated on finding in tired and worn out by the war, agreed to Rome abundance of supplies and a rich sign a treaty of peace at Cambray, in the booty besides. Be this as it may, Bourbon year 1529, and which was styled the ladies' arrived with the army before the city, after peace, inasmuch as it was negotiated by a most difficult march. On the 6th of May the emperor's aunt and the king's mother. the command was given for a general as- Francis paid two millions of crowns for the sault against the ancient capital of the deliverance of his two sons in Spain, reworld, and Bourbon was one of the first nounced all claims to Milan, Genoa, Naupon the walls, his example serving to in- ples, and all the other countries beyond the,^,re the whole of the besiegers; but he Alps, and married Eleonora, the sister of an% scarcely got his footing on the ramparts Charles; while the emperor, on his part, wheni he was mortally wounded by a shot without requiring the immediate secession from an arquebusier. His troops, never- of Burgundy, still retained his ancient theless, forced their way into the city, and, rights. for several days, a scene of pillage and de- The time had now arrived when the emvastation was continued, equalled only in peror was enabled to appear with dignity the time of the Vandals. The pope, Cle- in his Italian states, where, in fact, he had ment VII., with his court, had taken refuge hitherto never shown himself. He landed in the Castle of St. Angelo, where he was in August, 1529, in Genoa, and continued his besieged for several months, until, forced progress on to Bologna with the pomp worthy by necessity, he promised the imperialists of an emperor. Here he had appointed a sum of 400,000 ducats, in order that the a meeting with Pope Clement, which took whole army might be paid their full arrears. place in great solemnity. The former Meantime the emperor Charles sent let- enmity was altogether forgotten; the emters to all the princes of Christendom, in peror, following the example of his anceswhich he took especial care to exonerate tors, dropped on his knee and kissed the himself in their eyes in respect to these ex- foot of the holy father, and the latter cesses, which took place without his wish solemnly crowned him emperor and king or knowledge; nay, during the time that of Lombardy. his generals kept the pope a prisoner in the Thus was celebrated the coronation of castle of St. Angelo, and laid siege to that the greatest and most powerful monarch place, he ordered public prayers to be of- who had borne the crown since Charlefered in all the churches throughout Spain magne, and who was, likewise, the last for his deliverance. He has been reproach- emperor who visited Italy. Charles aped with hypocrisy for doing this; but it is, peared now to the Italians, who had only no doubt, a fact, that his mutinous troops known him hitherto as a prince to be would no longer obey his orders until they dreaded, in the character of a mild and had received the arrears due to them. It noble ruler, and their fear was changed was only then, at the end of eighteen months, into the most sincere veneration. The that the army was once again brought into emperor would not even retain Milan for a state of discipline, and, at his command, himself, but, before he left Italy, restored marched towards Naples. But owing to it into the hands of Francis Sforza, who the excesses committed in Rome, it had be- received it as a fief of the empire. Hav LEAGUE OF THE PROTESTANT PRINCES. 267 ing accomplished this, Charles now hasten- had to maintain another war, but now was ed to return to Germany to preside at the urgently appealed to by the German princes grand diet of Augsburg. to exert his authority in settling their difIn Germany many of the princes had ferences; and only succeeded in allay now openly introduced the new doctrine ing their impatience by promising them tr into their various territories. One of the hold a new diet as soon as he was at liberty most zealous among them was the young to come to them. Meantime he summoned landgrave of Hesse, Philip the Gener- a provisional diet at Spires, in 1529. The ous; he urged the other princes who joined result of this meeting, however, was only with him in opnion, to form an alliance still more to widen the breach between the for mutual defence, in the event of the two parties by giving a permanent name to adverse parties seeking by violent mea- the partisans of the new doctrine, inasmuch sures to execute the edict of Worms. Nor as the majority of the states being Catholic, was his anxiety without foundation. Sev- decreed: " That the essential edicts of the eral of the Catholic princes had already diet of Worms should be retained; that held a meeting at Leipsic, and had de- the celebration of mass should be preserv. liberated together upon the necessity of ed; that all those who had been gained making common defence against the dis- over to the new doctrine should abstain semination of the new faith; and for this from further innovations; and that no purpose they had claimed the assistance of subject of the empire should be permitted the emperor, who in his reply promised the to give protection to a co-religionist against extirpation of all the errors of the Luthe- the authorities." The Lutheran party, ran sect. Accordingly a league was form- dissatisfied with these resolutions of th;ed at Dessau by these princes, at the head diet, drew up accordingly an instrument in of which were the electors of Mentz and opposition, in which they protested against of Brandenburg, and the dukes of Wolf- them, whence they took the name of Proenbiittel and Calenberg. On the other testants, declaring at the same time that hand an alliance was formed on the 4th of they would continue in all their proceedMay, 1526, at Torgau, between the elector ings to act up to the decree of the year of Saxony, John the Steadfast, Philip of 1526. The Protestant party included Hesse, the dukes of Grubenhagen and the whole of the princes who joined the Celle, Duke Henry of Mecklenberg, Prince league of Torgau, together with George, Wolfgang of Anhalt, Counts Gebhard and margrave of Brandenburg, of the Salian Albert of Mansfeld, together with the im- house, and the cities of Strasburg, Nuremperial free city of Magdeburg. Albert, berg, Ulm, Constance, Reutlingen, Windsmargrave of Brandenburg, formerly grand heim, Memmingen, Lindau, Kempten, [-eilmaster of the Teutonic order, but who on bronn, Issny, Weissenburg, N6rdlingen, embracing the new faith, and with the and St. Gallen. sanction of the king of Poland as chief In the following year, 1530, the grand feudal lord, secularized the territory of the diet was held in Augsburg, to which the order into a dukedom of Prussia, concluded emperor himself repaired froin Italy as he an especial alliance with the elector of had announced. Even before he arrived, Saxony. The firm position maintained by he was met on the road by several deputies the allies at the diet held in Spires in 1526, from both parties, who sought to gain his presided over by Ferdinand, produced for preference; he referred them, however, to them the favorable resolution: "That the the approaching diet itself, without destates of the empire in affairs referring to caring his sentiments on the subject. On the edict of Worms, should so decide and the 22d of June, in the evening, he made rule among their subjects as to be able his entry into the city with great pomp, to render good account of their conduct surrounded by the numerous electoral and before God and the imperial majesty." other princes and nobles. No longer now Thence it was left to the conscience of the young and inexperienced prince as each authority to proceed in religious af- when ten years before he first appeared in fairs as far as he might deem requisite. Germany, the emperor at this moment During this time the emperor had been stood unrivalled by any cotemporary monoccupied with his royal prisoner, Francis arch, unsurpassed by his predecessors since I., against whom, however, he afterwards the dominion of the great Charlemagne, 268 MELANCHTHON-JOHN, ELECTOR OF SAXONY. and admired universally for his distin- position with so much determination a.a guished qualities. In Francis I. of France firmness, that they succeeded in effecting he had humbled one of the most haughty their object even in matters of merely exand ambitious of his foreign enemies, and ternal ceremonies of worship, and obliged Rome itself had not been able to withstand him to revoke several of his edicts. Thus his mighty power. His noble figure and when he had ordered that all the princes dignified carriage produced their imposing present should join in the celebration of the effect upon all-whether friends or foes- festival of Corpus-Christi-day, (the day afwho approached his presence. ter his arrival,) the whole number of GerMelanchthon, who had come to Augsburg man prines, mounting their horses at dawn in the suite of the elector of Saxony, thus of day, proceeded in solemn state to the expresses himself in a confidential letter palace, where, demanding an audience o0 upon the subject of the emperor: " But the the emperor, they firmly declared they.ndividual most worthy of remark in this as- would not attend, and he found it expedient sembly, is certainly the emperor hbmself. His to abandon his purpose. With equal resouninterrupted success has no doubt excited lution they protested against the ordinance, wonder even in your country; but far prohibiting their clergy from preaching in more to be admired is his great moderation, Augsburg, and withdrew only after he had amidst all this good fortune, which seems revoked it and substituted another, in which to come at his bidding; for neither by ac- he ordered that no sermon should be preachtion nor word does he indicate in the slight- ed on either side, and that on Sundays the est degree the effect it may have upon his gospel and epistles alone should be read. feelings. What emperor or king can you At the head of the rest of the Protestant show me in the records of their reign in princes was John, elector of Saxony, a man whom success has not produced some' whose remarkable zeal and firmness in the change? With him, on the other hand, cause of reform acquired for him the surihothing appears to operate upon his feel- name by which posterity has distinguished ings; no trace of passion, hauteur, or cru- him. When even threatened by the empeelty, is ever visible in him. To omit other ror with his refusal to invest him with the examples, I will instance what has occur- enfeoffment of the electorate of Saxony, as red in our case. Although in these reli- yet not conferred, he still maintained his gious disputes our enemies have employed position. This prince, the last of the four every art to render him hostile to us, he excellent sons of Ernest, possessed a simple has ever condescended to listen attentively but resolute mind, which, when once under to the arguments of our party. His do- the influence of conviction, was impressed mestic life abounds with instances of absti- by no fear, regardful of no sacrifice. At nence, moderation, and temperance. That the same time, he did not conceal from system of household discipline, so rigidly himself the fact, that with his inferior powexercised in former times among the Ger- er it must be impossible for him to contend man princes, is now confined exclusively against the mighty and preponderating to the imperial palace. Neither are the force of the emperor; but the question he traces of vicious or licentious men to be put to himself was: "Whether he should found within its walls; while as friends he renounce the almighty power of God or the selects among his court only those dis- world?" and the answer to which removed tinguished for their genius and virtues. all doubt from his mind and heart. He Whenever I behold him, methinks I see was likewise much encouraged and conbefore me one of those heroes or demi-gods firmed in his conviction by the letters of who in ancient times were wont to mix with Luther, who, on account of the ban still in men. Who, therefore, ought not to rejoice force against him, was able to proceed onin witnessing such a combination of noble ly as far as Coburg, from which place he qualities in one man?" watched the important proceedings that In spite, however, of the veneration with were taking place in Augsburg with t.h, which the emperor's personal character greatest anxiety and expectation; oV, ax was regarded, the preponderance of his own the same time, with an indomitable resolupower, and that of the Catholic princes tion inspired by his faith and zeal in the nerally, the Protestant princes, who were great cause. It is said that at this time he 1 present, maintained their ground of op- composed his beautiful hymn, " Eine starke THE IMPERIAL COUNCIL-DECLARATION OF CHARLES V. 269 Burg ist unser Gott," (A mighty rock is both parties still thought this result attainour God.) When now the question of the able. Melanchthon himself wrote to the religious disputes was at length discussed pope's legate to this effect: There still before the diet at Augsburg, the Protestant remains a slight difference only in the princes laid before the assembly their con- usages and forms of the church which apfession of faith, exhibiting in succinct, but pears to interfere with the accomplishment comprehensive language all the articles in of a reunion, and the ecclesiastical canons which the new church differed from the themselves admit that, notwithstanding this old. This was completed by Melanclithon discrepancy of opinion, the unity of the from the seventeen articles prepared by church may yet be maintained." But the Luther at Schwabach, and from other wri- more zealous partisans of both sides optings which the Protestant princes had posed many obstacles in the way of a conbrought with them; thus was produced the ciliatory investigation, and what was conAugsburg confession, which from that mo- ceded did not at all affect the principal ment has formed the basis of the Protestant points of dispute. In addition to this, vachurch. It was read publicly before the rious Protestant princes and free cities diet by Bayer, the chancellor of Saxony, on became influenced by worldly considerathe 25th of June, and its reading occupied tions when they found the question arise: several hours. The emperor then replied whether or not the episcopal power should to the Protestant princes, through Frede- be re-established in their different territorick, the count palatine, " That he would ries; while on the Catholic side they now, take into consideration that important and more obstinately than ever, held to the remarkable document, and make known to strict performance of the articles in respect them his determination." to which indulgence had formerly been In the council of Charles, as well as in granted, for instance, to the Greek church that of the Catholic princes, opinions were and the Hussites; these articles had refervery much divided. The popish legate, ence to the prohibition of the marriage of as well as George, duke of Saxony, Wil- priests, and of the administration of the liam, duke of Bavaria, and the majority of holy communion to the laity under both the bishops, required that Charles should forms. Thus were defeated all those at. force the Protestants to abjure at once their tempts to produce the desired reconciliadoctrine; others again, among whom was tion, and the two parties, instead of apthe cardinal-archbishop of Mentz, were preaching each other more closely on terms more moderate. They observed that such of mutual peace and concord, became now a proceeding must inevitably be attended more and more widely estranged. The with great bloodshed, and produce civil emperor, at length, issued the following war; they referred to the dangers to be declaration to the Protestants: " That they dreaded from the Turks, who only recent- should consider and determine by the enly, in 1529, had ventured to attack Vienna suing 15th day of the month of April, itself, although happily without success; whether or not they would unie, ii. fvor and they recommended either that the Pro- of the articles in discussion with tail- Christestants should be brought to return to the tian church, with the pope, the:mil f-ror, church through conviction, produced by and the other princes, untilthey',:'t inore mild treatment, or that the question should amply explained in a council to ie a ssembe settled with a view to preserve, at least, bled at an early future day; that during the internal tranquillity of the empire. this period of peace, they should not print In accordance, therefore, with this latter any thing new in their various territories, opinion, a refutation of the Augsburg con- nor seek to strengthen their party by refession was drawn up by several Catholic ceiving fresh adherents from among their theologians, headed by the celebrated Dr. own subjects or strangers; that, as many Eck, which was forthwith read to the Pro- abuses and irregularities of every kind had, testants with the intimation that they should for many years down to the present moquietly acquiesce therein; and when they ment, become more and more prevalent declared at once that they could not do so throughout Christendom, the emperor would conscientiously, various other attempts at use all his endeavors, with the pope and the reconciliation and accommodation were other princes of Europe, in order that a made, for many of the more moderate of general council should be convoked within 270 REPLY OF THE PROTESTANT PRINCES-FERDINAND. a period of six months, or at latest within the decree of the grand diet into full opera. a year from the present time." tion. But we shall very soon see that To this the Protestants replied, as usual, these means likewise proved totally inadethat their dogmas had not as yet been re- quate. futed by the Scriptures, that their con- The emperor, on leaving the diet of science would not, therefore, permit them to Augsburg, had proceeded to Cologne, where consent to this decree of the diet, by which he summoned the electoral princes to meet they were prohibited from propagating their him. He there proposed to them that they faith. At the same time they handed over should select, as king of the Romans, his to the emperor a defence of their confes- brother Ferdinand, to whom he had already sion, and all who still remained in Augs- ceded his hereditary lands in Austriaburg immediately departed. The rupture and who, since the extinction of the royal between the two parties was now formally house of Bohemia and Hungary in the declared. In the resolutions of the diet person of Lewis II., who was killed when subsequently made public, the Lutheran fighting against Soliman II. in the battle doctrine was treated as heresy, and char- of Mohacz, in 1526, had acquired the acterized as such in the most severe and crowns of Bohemia and Hungary, by the condemnatory language; the restoration rights founded upon ancient treaties of inof all the confiscated convents and reli- heritance-in order that he might be engious establishments strictly ordered; a abled to maintain good order throughout the censorship over all writings on subjects of empire during the frequent absence of the religion was rigidly enforced; and all those emperor. The electors consented, and who contumaciously acted against these Ferdinand was crowned at Aix-la-Chadecrees were threatened with the severest pelle; the elector of Saxony, who caused punishment. his protestation against this election to be The Protestant princes, at the end of handed in by his son, and the dukes of this year, assembled together in the city Bavaria, who had for a long time been of Schmalkald, and there renewed their jealous of the power of the Austrian house, alliance more firmly. Some among them and who on this occasion joined in alliance were even anxious to commence the strug- with their enemies in matters of religion, gle, and appeal to arms at once; but others the princes of the Schmalkaldian league, again still retained their ancient religious were the only two parties who made any dread of civil war, and veneration for the opposition, and refused to acknowledge sacred person of the emperor, as expressed Ferdinand. by themselves; whence, as this feeling of The new king of the Romans was exthe majority exercised its predominating tremely desirous of preserving tranquillity influence upon all, their league was saved in Germany, as his new kingdom of Hunfrom incurring the reproach of having gary was at this time hard pressed by the been, without necessity, the first to kindle Turks, and his chief source of assistance the flame of a religious war. The Catho- must be derived from the German princes. lie electors and princes likewise, on their The Protestants, however, refused to give part, and with equal merit, checked the their co-operation until peace had been sefeeling so prevalent among them for war- cured to them in their own country, and its like measures-a desire so much encour- continuance sworn to be maintained. The aged in Rome, and by which the emperor emperor accordingly now concerted fresh himself already appeared to be somewhat measures, in order to promote a state of influenced. They would not allow the ban union, and at length, after the most warm of the empire to be pronounced against the and urgent exhortations from Luther in Protestant party, because they were reluc- favor thereof, they produced the provisiontant to furnish the emperor with full pow- ary religious peace of Nuremberg, in ers for war; they wished, as they expressed 1532. The emperor declared, in contrathemselves, to contend, but not with the diction to the opinion of the Catholic masword's point, and they hoped, by means jority: " That, in virtue of his imperial of the imperial chamber of justice, which power, he would establish a general peace, with this object had been cleansed of all according to which no person should be its anti-Catholic elements, and strengthened attacked or condemned on account of his by the addition of six assessors, to bring faith, or any other religious matter, until THE TURKS DEFEATED-ULRIC OF WURTEMBERG. 271 the approaching assembly of the council, many, and party spirit daily increased. or the meeting of the estates of the em- The Protestants went so far, in the year pire." Nay, he promised likewise to sus- 1534, as to declare to the imperial champend all proceedings taken by his imperial ber that they would no longer obey its dechancellor in matters of faith, against the crees: because, contrary to the conditions elector of Saxony, until the next council. of the treaty of Nuremberg, it pronounced The subsidiary troops against the Turks judgment against them in cases which rewere now collected, and formed an army ferred to the restitution of confiscated of such force as had not been produced for church property; and which proceeding a length of time, the Protestant princes and rendered completely invalid the laws for cities themselves sending very large contri- the perpetual peace of the country, as estabbutions. The danger appeared, indeed, ex- lished by the emperor Maximilian. Another tremely urgent, for the sultan had advanced subject of dispute was the territory of Wurwith a force of three hundred thousand temberg. We have already had occasion men to attack the Austrian territories from to refer to the circumstance of Ulric, duke four points; and to oppose him, the empe- of Wurtemberg, having, just after the death ror had only seventy-six thousand men at of Maximilian, and before the election of command. However, the first attempts Charles V., been driven out of his country they made very soon showed the Turks by the Swabian league, on account of a with what men they had to deal. Ibrahim feud which had existed between him and Pasha, who led the vanguard, considered he the town of Reutlingen. The league was bound for honor's sake to punish the ceded the land, which was burdened with a little town of Gunz, in Hungary, which to heavy debt, to the emperor, and the latter his mortification fad closed its gates against transferred it, in 1530, to his brother Ferhim, thinking that it would easily fall into dinand, together with his Austrian states. his hands on the first assault; but its brave It appeared now as if that country was commandant, Jurischtisch, with his small destined to form forever a portion of the garrison repulsed all his attacks, and kept Austrian possessions; but the deposed duke, him before the walls for the space of a who was now wandering through the emfortnight. At this sudden and unexpected pire a fugitive, seeking to enlist his friends check upon his march, Soliman calculated in his cause, found at length a protector in what the great city of Vienna might cost his relation Philip, landgrave of Hesse. him, especially as now the emperor had Ulric had already adopted the Lutheran come to its aid; and perceiving, in addi- faith, and Philip now formed the determination, that the German princes, whom he tion to re-establish him in his possessions thought to find in a state of dissension, had even by force of arms. He accordingly now become reunited, he resolved at once raised an army of twenty thousand men, to sound a retreat. Thus the whole of marched unexpectedly into the very heart Europe, to their great surprise, found the of Wurtemberg, defeated the Austrian govgreat Soliman quickly abandon an expedi- ernor of the country at Lauffen, in 1534, tlon which it had cost him three years to and restored the reconquered duchy to prepare. Ulric. It was expected that this bold act The emperor was now enabled to turn would have produced a sanguinary war; his attention to other affairs, and proceeded, but this time the storm passed over. Charles first of all, to Italy, for the purpose of ar- and Ferdinand were both too much occuranging with the pope upon the subject of pied elsewhere, and perhaps they may have the convocation of the grand council. But felt it ungenerous and unworthy to augment he found that the pope was by no means in their already extensive power, by the adearnest about the matter, neither was it, dition of a foreign country, while, on the at this time, at all desired by the papal contrary, the other members of the Schmalcourt; and Charles accordingly departed kaldian league, who had taken no share in for Spain without doing any thing. this act of the landgrave, endeavored to During the absence of the emperor in bring the matter to a peaceful adjustment. Spain, and while Ferdinand was engaged Thence was effected, under the mediation in employing all his means to establish his of the elector of Saxony, the peace of Cadan dominion in Hungary, the doctrine of the in Bohemia, by which Duke Ulric received reformers spread more and more in Ger- back his land as an arriere fief of Austria; 272 THE ANABAPTISTS-THEIR REVOLT AND DEFEAT. the religious peace as signed at Nuremberg David; and twenty-eight apostles were was confirmed, and Ferdinand was formally selected and sent forth to preach this doc. acknowledged king of Rome by the elector trine to the whole world, and to bring the of Saxony and all his family. And in inhabitants thereof to acknowledge the order to maintain at least the imperial sov- newly-appointed king. These agents, howereignty, it was decided that the landgrave ever, wherever they arrived, were immeand Duke Ulric should ask pardon of the diately seized as rebels and executed. emperor personally, and of the king of The bishop of Miinster, supported by the Rome by deputy, for having disturbed the landgrave of Hesse, and several other peace of the land. princes, advanced, in the year 1534, with Another circumstance occurred which a large army against the city. In the first threatened important and serious results, assault, however, that they made on the but still did not interrupt definitively the 30th of August, they were repulsed most peace of the empire, viz., the contentions valiantly by the fanatic anabaptists; but of the anabaptists in Minster, in 1534 and the more slow and not less fatal attacks of 1535. The principles of Thomas Mtinzer famine, to which the latter were gradually upon Christian liberty and equality, and reduced by the besiegers, who cut off the upon the community of possessions, as well supplies, could not be overcome. Want as upon his faith in immediate divine reve- increased from day to day, and diminished lations, were not as yet eradicated, and had more and more the zeal of the people. still been preserved, especially in Holland, The new king resolved to establish his among the so-called anabaptists. They royal authority more firmly by terror, and demanded that mankind should do penance even beheaded one of his wives with his and be baptized anew in order to avert own hand in the public market-place, bethe wrath of God. Two of their fanatic cause she gave vent to the expression, that preachers, Jan Matthys, a baker of Har- she could not possibly believe that God had lem, and a tailor, Jan Bockhold or Bockel- condemned such a mass of people to dia sohn, of Leyden, proceeded, in the early of hunger, while the king himself was livpart of the year 1534, to Minster, at the ing in abundance. At length, however, time that an ecclesiastic, called Rothmann, after a great number had really perished had just introduced the doctrine of Luther; through starvation, two citizens led the they gained him over to their sect likewise, bishop's troops, on the night of the 25th of and with the aid of the populace and other June, 1535, into the city; and after a sananabaptists from the vicinity, drove out of guinary battle, John of Leyden, and his the city all the wealthy citizens, created executioner, Knipperdolling, together with fresh magistrates, and established a com- his chancellor, Krechting, were made prismunity of possessions. Each person was oners, and having been publicly exhibited required to deposite in a general treasury in several cities of Germany as a spectacle, all he possessed, whether in gold, silver, or they were tortured with burning pincers other precious articles, while the churches and put to death by piercing their hearts were despoiled of their ornaments, pictures, with a red-hot dagger. Their bodies were and images, and all the books they con- then placed in iron cages, and suspended tained, except the Bible, were publicly from the steeple of the church of St. Lamburnt. Everywhere, as in all such scenes bert, in the market-place of Miinster, and of fanaticism, the most licentious acts were the form of Catholic worship, and the aucommitted, and passions, the most violent thority of the bishop, were immediately and brutal, raged throughout the city. re-established in that city. Under the sanction of their creed of Chris- Meantime the emperor had proceeded tian liberty, each man was authorized to upon an expedition, the results of which take to himself several wives, and their crowned him with lasting honor and fame. chief, John of Leyden, set the example by A pirate, Haradin Barbarossa, born of obmarrying three at once. Finally, one of scure parents in the island of Lesbos, but his partisans, who made a boast of having one of the most daring and extraordinary especially received a divine communica- men of his day, had established himself on tion, John Dusentschur of Warendorf, sa- the north coast of Africa. To join him in luted him as king of the whole globe, and his depredations he had gained over a nuas such, appointed to restore the throne of merous body of Moors, who, driven out of CHARLES V. IN AFRICA-HIS TRIUMPH-FRANCIS I. 273 Spain by King Ferdinand the Catholic, gitive king, Hascen, to his throne of Tunis, burned with the desire of revenging them- but, at the same time, he prohibited him selves upon the Christians, and thus from all capture or imprisonment of Chris. strengthened, this desperate pirate infested tian slaves, and as a pledge of his obedithe Mediterranean seas in every direction. ence, the emperor retained possession of His cruelty and audacity rendered him the the citadel of Goleta. Haradin, after his terror of all the inhabitants along the defeat, had flown to Algiers, whither coasts; while in the African peninsula he Charles resolved to pursue him in the enheld in his possession Algiers and Tunis, suing year. and the Turkish sultan, Soliman, himself A fresh war, however, with the king of had confided to his charge the whole of his France prevented him from executing this fleet, in order to employ it against the intention. This prince, on the death of Christians, of whom already some thou- Francis Sforza, had renewed his claims to sands languished as captives in the hands Milan, and in order to ensure for himself of the barbarians. an open road to Italy, he unexpectedly atAs protector of entire Christendom, tacked and took possession of the duchy of Charles felt he could no longer endure the Savoy, upon whose duke he also made existence of such outrage and cruelty, es- claims. Charles saw at once the necessity pecially as the fugitive and rightful king of war, and resolved to fix the scene of of Tunis, Hascen, had come to him for contest in the south of France. Unwarned protection. He embarked, therefore, with by the disastrous results which attended his an army of thirty thousand men, including first expedition, under the duke of Boureight thousand German troops, under the bon, he undertook another in 1536, and command of Count Max of Eberstein, and having advanced as far as Marseilles, he. a fleet of five hundred vessels; the latter once more laid siege to that city. He! being under the orders of Doria, and the however found that it was much too strongarmy commanded by the emperor himself ly fortified to hold out any chance of sucin person and the Marquis de Vaston. cess, while the whole of the neighboring They arrived before Tunis in the summer country was laid waste by the French themof 1535, and captured the citadel of Gole- selves; whence want of supplies and dista, which defended the port, on the first ease forced the emperor, after having reassault; all the ammunition was seized, mained two months before the place, to and more than two thousand Turks put to withdraw his troops and make as good a. the sword. The army of Haradin Barba- retreat as he could, but in which he never — rossa, which was drawn up ready for bat. theless lost much of his ammunition and. tie on the plain in front of the city, was at- luggage. tacked at once and completely put to rout. By thr mediation of the pope, a suspenThe victorious troops now took possession sion of aims, during ten years, took place of the city, and proceeded immediately to in Nice, in the year 1538, and soon afteropen the prisons of their suffering fellow. wards the two monarchs had an interview Christians; and Charles, to his inexpressi- at Aigues-Mortes, on the Rhone. The ble joy, was enabled to set at liberty no proposal for this meeting was first made less than twenty-two thousand of these ob- by the king of France; and although the jects of severe oppression, who now, with imperial council considered it unsafe for tears of joy and gratitude, were restored to the emperor to trust himself upon French their relations and friends. The emperor ground, Charles, notwithstanding the doubts himself declared that glorious day to be they expressed, resolved, were it even for one of the most happy and delightful of his the novel and extraordinary nature of the entire life. His fame spread far and wide project-to him so pleasing-to accept the throughout every country; and this he invitation. When he arrived in the harbor truly merited by the courage and perse- the king himself embarked in his state verance he had evinced in this perilous but barge to receive him, and conducted him heroic undertaking; while, at the same ashore. Here a splendid dinner was pretime, he proved by his example how easily pared and served up, which was followed. these barbarian corsairs of the African by a grand fete, at which the royal percoasts might, with a bold and resolute sonages presided until midnight. On the spirit, be overcome. He restored the fu- following morning the dauphin himself at35 274 CHARLES V. IN FRANCE-ALGIERS. tended upon the emperor and handed him length, he found his entire thoughts and the water and towel for his toilet, and, in- labors absorbed in the interests of his Gerdeed, both sides rivalled each other in marks manic empire. of mutual friendship and civility. And in Charles quitted the diet at Ratisbon, and all this there was no hypocrisy; they were proceeded to Italy, whence he set out ol both desirous of a lasting peace, and in the his expedition to Algiers, as previously defollowing year, 1539, Francis gave an ad- termined upon. His enterprising mind, ditional proof of his good intentions and ever delighting in new and brilliant exsincere wishes. The city of Ghent, in ploits, aspired to the realization of a proFlanders, owing to some new impost, had ject, at once grand and commensurate with risen in revolt against the emperor Charles, his powers-the annihilation of the corsairs and offered to place itself under the protec- of the barbarian states of Africa; the action of the king of France; but the latter complishment of which he now felt himimmediately communicated the circum- self especially called upon to effect, inasstance to the emperor himself, and proposed much as the audacious Barbarossa had at the same time, in order to reach the again excited general indignation by his scene of contention in Flanders with more recent piracies on the coast of Spain. This expedition, that he should take the shortest new expedition, however, commenced under route from Spain through France. very unfavorable circumstances; the seaThis offer was accepted by Charles with- son for the navigation of the Mediterranean out any mistrust, and as he proceeded on had already become extremely tempestuhis journey through'he kingdom he was ous, and the experienced admiral, Andreas everywhere received with the greatest Doria himself, prognosticated a disastrous honors, and at every city or town he enter- voyage. Charles, however, would not coned the keys of each place were presented sent to its being postponed, and they acto him, while in Fontainebleau, where the cordingly set sail. The fleet arrived on king had previously arrived, he was detain- the 20th of October, 1541, before Algiers, ed by magnificent fetes during the space of and the troops were forthwith landed. Toan entire fortnight, and when he reached wards evening, however, before the artilParis he was equally well entertained du- lery, baggage, and provisions could bc ring another week. brought on shore, a tremendous gale arose, His presence in Ghent very soon ap- and did much damage to the ships, several peased the rioters; and while he was still of which were wrecked on the coast. there, Charles received the most urgent All thoughts of conquering Algiers appeals from Germany, hoping that he were of course abandoned, and the grand would quickly reappear in that country, object now was the preservation of the where his presence was become more ne- army; for the light cavalry of the Turks cessary than ever, in order to put down the made their appearance on the following disorders which had daily increased. day and pressed hard upon the ranks of the He acceded to their wishes, and, in the jaded troops. In this trying and dangerous year 1541, presided at the diet of Ratis- moment, however, the emperor Charles bon. We shall relate in the succeeding displayed the energy and perseverance for chapter how, on this occasion, and subse- which, as a warrior, he was ever disquently for several years, he endeavored tinguished. During a march of three enby writings, religious discussions, and his tire days, through water and mud, he led own persuasive eloquence, to reunite the his troops, amidst the harassing attacks of contending parties; and how, at the same the enemy, along the whole extent of the time, the maintenance of internal peace in coast as far as the Bay of Metafuz, where Germany was the desire and aim of his the remnant of the dispersed fleet had asgovernment, as well as the necessary prin- sembled. Without distinction he shared ciple of his reign, threatened as he was, with his common soldiers the most severe on the one hand, by invasions from the privations and fatigue, and thence it was Turks, and forced, on the other hand, to that he succeeded in reviving their spirits carry on wars with the French. Here it and stimulating their courage, till at length only remains for us to throw a glance at they reached their destination and rethe progress made by the emperor in his embarked. The emperor set sail for foreign relations, until the period when, at Italy, where, having arrived safely, he THE DUKE OF CLEVES-FRANCE. 275 disembarked, and proceeded at once to constant exposure to the sun, had become Spain. dyed completely brown, and, reckless of all The king of France had availed himself danger, when making an assault on a fortiof Charles's absence in order to renew hos- fled town usually fixed their daggers or tilities. All his experiments of friendly lances in the fissures of the walls, and thus understanding with Charles would not suf- formed for themselves the means of ascent fice to banish from his recollection the to the ramparts. The terror, however, duchy of Milan; and now he thought the which their appearance created very soon moment had arrived when he must suc- brought under subjection the entire counceed in reconquering it, and for this pur. try; and the duke of Cleves was obliged pose he renewed his alliance with the humbly to sue for pardon on bended knee. Turks. While, therefore, Charles, after This was granted to him by the emperor, his return from Algiers, sought a little re- but under the condition that he should pose from the fatigues of that sad expedi- not forswear his religion; that whatever tion, Francis forthwith entered the field changes he had introduced should be imagainst him; the incapacity of his generals, mediately abolished, and the original reguhowever, when brought to compete with the lations re-established, and that he should experience and superiority of the Spanish not enter upon any alliance in opposition to leaders, combined with disease and the the emperor. scarcity of supplies for the troops, operated No action or engagement of any imporso much against him, that the whole of his tance took place with the French this year; five armies could effect nothing in the first but for the ensuing one Charles collected campaign, and were forced to return home a very large army, and after he had held a dispirited and disappointed, new diet in Spires, in the winter of 1543, In the following year, 1543, Charles set and had secured to himself the co-operation out for Italy, and thence, suddenly crossing of all the German princes, he marched in the Alps, proceeded to the Lower Rhine, the following spring into the enemy'scounwhere the duke of Cleves had made an al- try at the head of a numerous body of liance with Francis I.; and this prince, chosen troops. The flower of this army who had recently begun to encourage the consisted of thirty thousand Germans, the doctrines of Luther, was selected as the result of the good understanding which the first to feel the imperial authority. The emperor had established at this last diet appearance of the emperor in this country between himself and the Protestant princes, was quite unexpected. It was reported and more especially the elector of Saxony among the people that he had been ship- and the Landgrave Philip. The first place wrecked on his return from Algiers and he took was Saint Dizier, whence he had perished. Believing this statement, marched direct for Paris, and having taken they treated the news of his arrival in possessionofEpernay and Chateau-Thierry, Germany as a mere fable. The garrison he was within a march of only two days of the small town of Diiren, on being sum- from the capital, whence the inhabitants, moned by Charles to surrender, replied: already alarmed at his approach, took to " They were no longer in dread of the em- flight. Now, however, Francis made properor, as he had long since become food for posals of peace, which the emperor acthe fishes." When, however, the Spaniards cepted at once, being anxious for a reconscaled the walls, cut down all before them, ciliation with his rival, as affairs in Gerand set fire to the town, alarm and ter- many grew more and more complicate, and, ror spread throughout the whole country. on the 24th of September, 1544, the peace They said the emperor had brought with of Crepi was signed-the last that Charles him a species of wild men, half black and signed with the king of France. By this half brown, with long sharp nails at their treaty little alteration was made in the fingers' ends, which enabled them to climb main points of dispute; as before, Burgunthe loftiest walls, together with huge teeth dy remained in the possession of France, with which they tore every thing asun- and Milan was retained by the emperor. der. Francis, however, pledged himself this It is unnecessary to say that the beings time to support the emperor not only in thus marvellously described, were no other checking the Turks, but in restoring the than the old warriors of Charles, who, by unity of faith. 276 RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS IN GERMANY. But among the latter, likewise, dissen. CH A P T E R XIX. sion prevailed to such an extent that, as we State of Religious Affairs in Germany, from 1534 to have already seen, the dukes of Bavaria 1546-Vain Attempts at Reconciliation-Rapid Prop- had even joined the Schmalkaldian league. agation of the New Doctrine-Henry, Duke of runswick-Death of MartinLuther, 1546-Charles And, subsequently, when these princes V. and the Pope-Their Aiiance —Preparations for separated from it, and the new church was War-The League of Schmalkald-T-he Elector of Saxony and the Landgrave of Hesse-Theircharac- thus threatened with greater danger, the ters contrasted-Maurice, Duke of Saxony-Hisex- strict Lutheran party, by the advice of traordinary Genius-His Adherence to the Emperor -The Pope's Bull-The Holy War-The Schmalkal- their chief himself, became reconciled, for dian Army, 1546-1547-General Schartlin —Division a time, with the Swiss, by a concordate of among the Protestant Leaders-Inglorious Results-. The Imperial Camp besieged-Charles triumphant Wittenberg, and the towns of Switzerland -Duke Maurice and the Elector of Saxony-Treach- as well as several others of Upper Ger. ery of Duke Maurice-The Emperor in Upper Germany-Conquers theImperial Free Cities-Saxony- many, joined the league. This was one The Battle of Muhlberg-The Saxons defeated- of the most important events towards the The Elector taken Prisoner-Deposed and condemned to Death-The Game of Chess-The Elec- development of the evangelical church. tor's Firmness and Resignation-His Life spared- The rf the new doctrine inDuke Maurice made Elector of Saxon-Witten- propagation te new doctrine berg-Charles V. and Philip of Hesse-The Land- creased rapidly from day to day. Several grave's Submission and Humiliation-Detained a io vn inlun to of Lb Prisoner, and his Lands seized by the Emperor- bishops even, including those of Lbeck, The Elector Maurice-His Mortification, and Pro- Camin, and Schwerin, embraced the new jects against the Emperor-The Spanish Troops in form of worship, and the venerable HerGermany-Their Insolence and Oppression. or o e ener e mann, elector of Cologne, of whom we IN Saxony, the Elector John the Stead- shall speak more in detail as we proceed, fast, since the year 1532, had been suc- made serious preparations to follow their ceeded by his son John Frederick, a example. prince of just and honorable principles, but One of the most important changes, of a reserved mind, and in this respect however, took place at this time in the quite the opposite of the bold and active Saxon territories. The moiety of these Landgrave Philip of Hesse, who continued provinces, together with the cities of Dresto march at the head of the Protestant den and Leipsic, belonged to Duke George, princes as one of the most energetic and (by-named "the bearded,") who was a effective among them. Not only this con- zealous adherent and defender of the old trast of character presented in the two church, and who employed every means leaders, but other causes had operated to in his power to prevent the introduction produce a division among the body of of the new doctrine into his estates. His Protestants themselves. Already, in the two sons, however, died before him, and tenth year of the Reformation, a dispute his brother, Henry of Altenburg, (father had arisen among them with respect to the of Maurice, the subsequent duke and doctrine of the communion, in which at elector,) his immediate inheritor, was, on first Luther stepped forward to resist Carl- the other hand, devoted with his whole stadt, and afterwards extended his opposi- soul to the doctrines of Luther. When, tion to the reformer of Switzerland, Ulric therefore, his brother George died, in Zwingli, with whom he had a religious April, 1539, the first act of Henry's govconference at Marburg, in 1529, but which ernment was to introduce the Reformation led to no satisfactory result. They parted, everywhere throughout his land. The mait is true, with an improved opinion of each jority of his subjects submitted willingly; other's merit, and Luther himself was in the university of Leipsic itself, after a slight hopes that the violence of spirit, which had opposition, became completely changed, hitherto breathed throughout their contro- and the most zealous of the Catholic theoversial writings, would now become soft- logian professors, having been removed and ened down; but the primary subject of discharged from their offices, were redivision still retained its influence, and placed by the partisans of the new docpresented an obstacle even to the external trine. union of the parties in a common alliance; A similar change took place in Branso that in fact it might have led to the denburg, nearly about the same time. total destruction of the new church, if the Prince Joachim I., a zealous Catholic, Catholics had availed themselves of the having died in 1534, was succeeded by his existing schism between them. son Joachim II., who had been educated VAIN ATTEMPTS AT RECONCILIATION. 277 by his mother, a princess of Denmark, in of Ferdinand and the elector of Brandenthe principles of Luther. Encouraged by burg, in order to collect together all the the example set by the bishop of Branden- forces of the empire against the Turks, burg, Matthias Jagow, this prince sub- and finally, in 1544, at the second grand scribed to the Augsburg confession, and diet in the same city, at which the emperor introduced into his country a church ser- and all the seven electors were present, vice which retained some portion of the when he prepared his second expedition old form of worship, but in the chief points against Francis I. of France, and of which was strictly conformable with the prin- we have already spoken. The personal ciples of the reformed church. relations between the emperor and the two The superiority which the new doctrine Protestant leaders, John Frederick of Saxwas now gaining in the north of Germany, ony and Philip of Hesse, had never been induced the venerable Cardinal Albert, upon a more favorable footing, so much so archbishop of Mentz, a prince of the house indeed, that the question of a marriage beof Brandenburg, to abstain from making tween a son of the elector and a daughter farther opposition to its progress in his two of Ferdinand had already formed a subject bishoprics of Magdeburg and Halberstadt, of discussion, while the landgrave received and withdrawing to Mentz, hegranted per- from the emperor a promise that in the mission to the states and cities of those next campaign against the Turks he should provinces, in return for the payment of be appointed commander-in-chief in lieu a considerable sum of money, to establish of himself. And yet in spite of all this, their new doctrine and build churches, as the Protestants about this time sought to they might deem best and most advanta- aid themselves by force of arms. Duke geous. Henry the younger, of Brunswick, a zealAfter this, the more evil the state of ous Catholic, and of impatient and violent things became, the more strenuous were spirit, was at enmity with the elector of both the emperor and his brother Ferdinand Saxony and the landgrave of Hesse, more in their endeavors to reunite both parties, particularly on account of their religion; and for this object they established from and each party attacked the other in fierce time to time successive religious confer- pamphlets abounding in passionate invecences: at Hagenau, in 1540; at Worms, tive and furious abuse. In addition to this in 1541, where Melanchthon and Eck stood the two towns of Brunswick and Goslar, opposed to each other; and in the same which formed a part of the league of year likewise at Ratisbon, at which the em- Schmalkald, invoked the protection of the peror himself presided and took an active Protestant provinces against their own part therein. All, however, was in vain; duke, who oppressed them in every possible the new doctrine was too widely separated way, and whom the emperor himself as from the old, and in it were now involved well as King Ferdinand had repeatedly, too many interests: on all sides too many although in vain, reproached for his unjust worldly considerations were brought into violence against those towns. At length, operation, and amidst the wild party pas- in 1542, the league raised an army, invasions and-distractions of that period, it was ded the territory of the duke, conquered and impossible to obtain for the subject that drove him from the country, and held poscalm and profound investigation so neces- session thereof. The duke appealed to the sary and so desirable. emperor for succor; he, however, only These attempts at reconciliation produ- referred the matter to the consideration of cing little or no result, the emperor, as usual, the next diet. had recourse either to a general council, Accordingly at the diet of Worms, held confirming in the interval the treaty of in 1545, it was decided that, until the affair Nuremberg; or, of his own authority, is- was equitably adjusted, the emperor should suing, even against the voice of the Catho- hold the estates of Brunswick under his lie majority, decrees by which all the own immediate dominion. This arrangeProtestant churches in the land were re- ment, however, by no means accorded with cognised by the state. Thus it occurred the demands of the impatient and haughty at the diet of Ratisbon, in 1541, before duke, who would willingly have found Charles's expedition to Algiers; thus like- himself at the head of the Catholic party: wise at Spires, in 1542, by the mediation "To pretend to make use of threats in the 278 DUKE HENRY OF BRUNSWICK. name of the emperor, was," he said, "just sons-that the council was convoked on like hunting with a dead falcon." In his the frontiers of Italy, in a country totally zeal he was misled into an act for which he unacquainted with the customs of Gerstood committed in the eyes of Francis I., many, and which consequently could not king of France. This monarch had con- fail to have an injuriously preponderating fided to his charge a considerable sum of influence; and farther, that the pope, who money, for the purpose of collecting a body had already condemned them as heretics, of troops for his service; as soon, however, or at least had treated them as accused of as the duke had succeeded in this object he heresy, presided at the said council as their marched them into his own duchy, in the judge. If, therefore, this council was to autumn of 1545, in order to regain it from be regarded as an independent one, they his enemies. The no less bold and ener- must enjoy equal rights with the others. getic Landgrave Philip, however, was soon Some time previously, Frederick, the on the alert with his army, and the elector elector palatine, who had then recently of Saxony with Duke Maurice having gone over to the new church doctrine, joined him with their forces, they surround- made a proposition which might have proed the duke so completely in his camp of duced advantageous results if every one Calefeld, near Nordheim, that he was had been animated with good faith and forced to yield himself a prisoner, together influenced by pure principles. He prowith his son. The landgrave led them posed, viz., "to convoke a national or away as captives to the castle of Ziegen. general council of Germany, and to transhain, and the emperor took no farther in- mit to Trent the convention therein conterest in the matter beyond advising him cluded between all parties, as being the to treat his prisoners with lenity, and ac- opinion of the entire body of the German cording to their rank as princes. nation." The same idea had been vainly Meantime the before-mentioned diet of suggested, even prior to this, by John Worms, although it operated once more Frederick of Saxony, who proposed that towards the maintenance of religious peace, the said council should meet in Augsburg. presented, nevertheless, stronger indica- This expedient, free from all foreign influtions of the growing schism, and the corn. ence, and by which the nation would have plaints of both parties became more and been so represented as to express its wants more urgent. The Catholics did not fail fairly and directly, appeared the only one to complain of the confiscation of their ec- which must have proved beneficial and clesiastical possessions in the Protestant have led to a conclusion of religious discountries, and the Protestants on their side putes. refused to acknowledge the decrees pro- The anxiety felt by the emperor and nounced by the imperial chamber in these the Catholics, lest the Protestants should and similar matters, inasmuch as the Cath- acquire a superiority throughout the emolics would only permit judges of the an- pire, was not without foundation. Three cient faith to preside there. Distrust had out of the four lay-electorate princes in now increased to such an extent that but a the imperial council, had already adopted small number of Protestant princes ap- the new doctrine, (although the elector peared at all at the diet. The grand me- palatine and the elector of Brandenburg dium for reconciliation, from which Charles had not as yet joined the league of Schmalhad formerly hoped so much, viz., a gene- kald,) and now even one of the three prel. ral council of the church, was now ineffec- ates, Hermann, the venerable elector of tually employed, for it was now too late to Cologne, declared himself more and more resort to it, neither was it regulated in a decidedly in favor of the new cause. He just and equitable form. The court of was desirous, with the sanction of his Rome had eventually given its consent to states and a portion of his chapter, to insuch an assembly, and had convoked the troduce into his bishopric the most searchcouncil for the 15th of March, 1545, at ing and important reforms, and had al. Trent, in Tyrol, which was solemnly ready entered upon the grand work himopened on the 13th of December of the self, having invited Melanchthon from same year. The Protestants, however, Wittenberg to aid him therein. The unirefused to recognise its authority for de- versity and the corporation of Cologne, ciding in their affairs, giving as their rea- however, together with the opposition party CHARLES V. AND THE POPE. 279 of the chapter, were against all such re- ous in life, and thus, in his gloomy and forms, and appealed to the emperor and morose spirit, he thought he was able to the pope for their authority against these cut with the sharp edge of his sword the measures. This university had, previous- knot he found it so difficult to loosen. ly to the Reformation, in the time of Jacob This mistaken idea of the emperor Clarles Hoogstraten, taken an active part in the at the closing period of his reign resembles dispute against the humanists, the profes- a tragedy, in which we find a noble mind sors and restorers of the study of the an- forced to bend and sink beneath the heavy cient languages, and especially against burden to which fate has subjected it. Reuchlin; while it was one of the first to These latter years, it is true, may be incondemn the dogmas of Luther. cluded among the most brilliant of his life, In this increasing complication of affairs, by their external successes produced so where no longer the least hope of concilia- rapidly; but it was precisely this good tion remained, the emperor, more and more fortune which made him lose sight of the urged to hostile measures by Rome and exact point of moderation which, down to Spain, (the duke of Alba having now ar- this moment, he had so happily mainrived in Germany from the latter country,) tained, and whence he was soon laid low considered himself at length called upon- by the iron hand of destiny, and all his however much, hitherto, an inward warn- plans, formed with so much trouble and ing voice might have restrained him-to anxiety, completely annihilated. Nothing employ, as a last resource, the force of else now remained for him, but to collect arms, and thus promptly and definitively his reduced powers in order to withdraw to decide the question. His chancellor, in time from the whirlpool before him, and, Granvella, held, therefore, secret council while he threw aside the shining brilliancy with the pope's legate, Cardinal Farnese, of earthly grandeur, to preserve at least on the possibility of carrying on a war the independence of his spirit. And, asagainst the Protestants; he gave him to suredly, by this last resolution, of which understand that the pope must necessarily subsequently we shall speak more fully, join in active co-operation, as the emperor the emperor Charles secured to himself himself was exhausted, and the Catholic his dignity as a man while he conciliated princes without energy; and the cardinal, the voice of posterity. in his joy to find the emperor now seriously Shortly previous to the commencement determined to proceed to extremities, made of the sanguinary war of religion, Luther, the most flattering promises. In order to the founder of the grand struggle, breathed be unoccupied with any foreign enemy, his last. He had used all the weight of Charles now concluded a truce with the his power and influence in order to dissultan, and with Francis I. he likewise suade his party from mixing external force made peace. with that which ought only to have its seat We are now arrived at a critical period within the calm profundity of the soul; of Charles's life. In forming the resolu- and, indeed, as long as he lived, this enertion to accomplish with the sword that getic reformer was the warm advocate for which he had so long endeavored to effect the maintenance of peace. He repeatedly by peaceful means, he fell into a great reminded the princes that his doctrine was error; falsely imagining that the mighty foreign to their warlike weapons, and he agitations of the mind could be checked beheld with pain and distress, in the latter and held in chains by external power. years of his life, the growing temporal diFrom that moment, on the contrary, he rection given to the holy cause, and the was himself vanquished by that very over- increasing hostility of parties, whence he whelming epoch, the course of which, until augured nothing good. Providence, howthen, he had appeared to direct and hold in ever, spared him from witnessing the final rein; it was henceforward no longer in and disastrous course of events. He had his power to restrain its career. His suffered from severe illness for several genius, impaired with increasing years, years, and during a journey he had underand over which, about this time, the Jesuits taken, in the year 1546, to Eisleben, in had gained an influence not to be mistaken, order to settle a dispute between the earls became more and more clouded and preju- of Mansfeld, he was seized with a fresh diced against a.l that was new and vigor- stroke of illness, and died on the 16th of 280 LEAGUE OF SCHMALKALD. February of that year, at the age of sixty- unworthy to defend the doctrines he held to three, after having repeated once more, be the most pure, and he even considered with his dying breath, that he had lived that he was bound to refuse theco-operation and now died in the firm belief of Christ, of the Swiss, because they deviated from the Saviour of the world. His body was him in their belief of the doctrine of the conveyed in solemn state to Wittenberg, Eucharist. The elector, whose ideas were where it was placed in the vault of the extremely circumscribed, had never for a royal chapel of the castle. moment suspected the existence of the plans While the diet of Ratisbon was still sit- so long contemplated by the emperor; on ting, in 1546, where for the last time the the contrary, he always continued to nourProtestants urged, viz. " A lasting peace ish in his heart, even to the last moment and equal rights for the evangelical and the most sincere and genuine veneration Catholic estates, together with an equitable for the ancient sacred name and person of council of the German nation," the empe- the emperor. And, indeed, had it not been ror had already collected an army, and for his able chancellor, Bruck, to whom he concluded a treaty of alliance with the confided every thing, and who, fortunately, pope. He determined, in combination with knew better than himself how to bring into the Holy See, to adopt extreme measures connection the maxims of state policy with against Hermann, the archbishop of Co. the strict principles of religion, so firmly logne, who was at once formally deposed advocated by his master, the league would from his electorate. This and other acts have suffered still more severely. alarmed the confederates of Schmalkald; Philip of Hesse was not wanting either and they demanded from the emperor the in attachment and zeal for his faith; but object of his military preparations. He re- there were other motives besides of an explied briefly: " That all those who submit- ternal character by which he was influted to his authority would find him influ- enced in the part he had chosen. He had enced by the same gracious, paternal, and from the first been excited by the most good intentions he had hitherto shown; but burning ambition, and had it not so hapon the other hand, all such as acted in op. pened that a combination of events had cut position to him must expect to be treated him off from all friendly connection with with the greatest severity." And shortly the imperial throne, he would doubtless after this, when the messenger returned have occupied a distinguished position among from Rome with the treaty signed by the the counsellors and generals of the emperor. pope, he issued his declaration of the 26th Finding himself, however, placed by fate of June, 1546: "That as hitherto all the at the head of the opposite party, his bold diets had produced no effect, it was his de. and enterprising genius prompted him to sire that all should await with patience employ every expedient against the empethe determination he might adopt upon the ror; and for which purpose he was gifted subject of religion, whether for peace or with powers far more comprehensive than war." This declaration showed evidently the elector of Saxony. He would willingly, that it was the emperor's intention to have in several cases, have taken up arms where recourse to war, and the Schmalkaldian the circumstances were favorable, in order league immediately prepared to take up to obtain for himself and his co-religionists arms in their defence. The marked con- at once those rights for which they were trast, however, between the two great lead. otherwise forced to wait until granted them ers held out but little prospect of brilliant by the emperor. We have seen already results. how he twice boldly took the field at all The elector of Saxony, who adhered to hazards, at one time in favor of Ulric of his faith with his whole soul, and was but Wurtemberg, and at another against the little influenced by any thing external be- duke of Brunswick; but whenever he yond it, would not for a moment admit any urged the policy of undertaking more expolitical calculation to connect itself with tensive expeditions, he found himself al. his cause, but rested solely upon his con- ways checked by the elector, who was ever viction, "That God would not forsake His anxious not to infringe the laws; whence gospel." Previously, he had alreadyrefus- it was alone the common danger which ed the alliance of the kings of England and held in union two minds so different in chaFrance, because they both appeared to him racter, and almost wholly opposed to each MAURICE OF SAXONY. 281 other. This inequality of thought and feel- climes, and accordingly held but few of ing, however, could not fail to produce ne- them in much respect, soon learned to know cessarily great confusion and opposition in the young duke's character, and quickly moments of decisive action. penetrating into all that was grand and noThis was the weak side of the Schmal- ble in his nature, he singled him out at kaldian league; but for this, its power un- once as worthy of especial regard and esder good and wisely-concerted direction, teem beyond all his other courtiers. would have been sufficiently effective to Maurice, whose keen glance penetrated have obtained complete success in a legiti- far more deeply into future events than that mate defence against the emperor. And of his cousin the elector, discovered very in such case, to have proceeded upon the soon that the latter could not possibly mainprinciple and feeling with which the elec- tain the contest against the superior address tor of Saxony acted, would have been and tact of the emperor, and he accordingly highly praiseworthy and honorable; for formed at once the resolution of making thence the Protestant party would have himself the chief of the house of Saxony. been able to defend its liberty of faith with In doing this, he may, perhaps, have justiadvantage, without the interference of fied himself by the plea, that there was no foreigners, which was always destructive other means of saving it; still his justice to Germany; it would have preserved the re- and truth were put thereby severely to the spect and reverence due to the imperial ma- test. He would not join the league of jesty so long, at least, as the latter did not Schmalkald because he wished to attach transgress the limits of justice, and with- himself to the emperor and preserve his out having recourse to the dishonest arti- alliance until, by the attainment of his obfices of that policy which honors truth in ject, he should be at liberty to act with proportion only as it accords with its own independence. interest. But the league was unhappily On the formation of the league he gave devoid of unity of action and cordial co- his advice against it, and when invited to operation, as well as in fixity of purpose in join it, he refused and declared that he the execution of its plans. A considerable would only take up arms in defence of his number of princes had refused to join its own lands. He was, however, already, at ranks, and even opposed it by attaching the moment he made this declaration, in themselves to the emperor's party. Mau- secret understanding with the emperor; but rice, the young duke of Saxony, although to what extent and how closely he was himself a Protestant and cousin of the elec- allied, and under what stipulations, has not tor, as well as heir to the Landgrave Philip, been clearly shown: unfortunately, howevwas in secret communication with the empe- er, there is every probability to suppose that ror; while the margrave of Brandenburg, the reward held out to him was the prosJohn of Kiistrin, abandoned the league, pect of receiving the electorate. Such and Albert of Baireuth also openly enter- being the case, what an inward struggle ing the service of the emperor, acted with must it have cost him, and how painfully him in concert against it. must it have agitated his whole soul, when Maurice of Saxony was one of the most the unsuspecting elector, just before he set remarkable and distinguished men of his out on his expedition against the emperor, day. Young, bold, and active, he already confided into his hands the whole of his possessed the keen glance and quick con- lands, in order to protect and watch over ception of the more experienced warrior, them as his substitute during his absence, and had at command that searching, com- to be faithfully restored to him on his return! prehensive view of circumstances which en- Nevertheless, no external sign betrayed abled him to execute his purposes with this inward contention, and wisdom tri. characteristic promptitude. His whole ap- umphed over truth; and in order not to bepearance, likewise, displayed the perfect tray himself, he accepted the protectorate man; and his eye of fire and penetration, of the electoral territories. together with the entire expression of his The emperor exerted every effort in ornoble, daring countenance, indicated his he. der that the approaching war should not roic character. The emperor Charles assume the character of a purely religious himself, who always ranked the Germans war. In a proclamation to the principal far behind his subjects of the southern Protestant cities, Strasburg, Nuremberg, 36 282 THE HOLY WAR. Augsburg, and Ulm, printed in Ratisbon, Thus this manifesto, contrary to the wish he assures them positively: " That the of Charles, gave a religious character to preparations for war made by his imperial the war, and such was the pope's tesire. majesty, were by no means adopted for the In the Protestant countries, however, the purpose of oppressing either religion or most bitter and indescribable exasperation liberty, but solely in order to bring to sub- was excited, and if the leaders had only mission a few obstinate princes, who, under known how to avail themselves of that mothe cloak of religion, sought to seduce over ment, by directing the entire strength of to their party other members of the holy the mass thus aroused, the emperor, with empire, and who had lost all sense of jus- his Spaniards and Italians, must have been tice and order, as well as respect for the completely overcome. For the other Gerimperial dignity." man princes, and even the Catholic princes, The straightforward good sense of the held themselves generally quiet; dreading German citizens, told them plainly that a lest, after overthrowing the Protestants, the part of this proclamation was nothing but emperor would exercise sole dominion over mere empty words, while they felt the dan- the whole empire. ger with whieh they were themselves threat- The army furnished by the cities of ened by the overthrow of the princes. Upper Germany marched first into the They held themselves, therefore, firmly at- field; a well-appointed and select body of tached to their league with the Protestant troops under the command of a man dis. states. An unexpected event which now tinguished for his military skill and welltook place rendered perfectly useless all the tried experience, Sebastian Schartlin of pains that Charles had taken to conceal the Burtenbach, near Augsburg. This brave object in view. He had scarcely concluded officer and knight was remarkable for his his alliance with the pope, the nature of resolution and firm, undeviating principles which was exactly the opposite of what he of action; he would never brook half had so lately assured the cities in ques- measures, but always manceuvred for the tion, when the pope made it publicly known, total defeat and destruction of his enemy. and issued a bull throughout Germany, in He had served in all the campaigns against which he represented the emperor's expedi- the Turks and the French, and had sharea tion as a holy undertaking for the cause of in the battle of Pavia and the storming of religion:" The vineyard of the Lord," it Rome under the duke of Bourbon. He says therein, "shall now be purified, by was now soon joined by the corps of Ulric, fire and sword, of all the weeds which have duke of Wurtemberg, under the command been sown by the heretics throughout the of the brave John of Heydeck. Schartlin Germanic empire." By the terms of the speedily drew up his plan of the war, accompact itself, the pope promised to assist cording to which he commenced operations the emperor with twelve thousand Italian by at once seeking to annihilate the emfoot-soldiers, and fifteen hundred light caval- peror's forces at the very onset of their ry troops, which he undertook to maintain formation; for Charles, who still remained at his own cost for the space of six months. stationary in Ratisbon, had as yet at the Besides this, he gave two hundred thousand utmost only from eight to ten thousand crowns towards the general outlay of the men, while he still awaited the troops colwar, and authorized the emperor to draw lecting in Germany and those that were the moiety of the revenues from the ecclesi- marching to his aid from Italy and the astical possessions in Spain, and to dispose Netherlands. of Spanish monastic property to the amount Schartlin advanced against the town of of five hundred thousand scudi. In return Fuessen on the river Lech, in Swabia, one for which Charles promised: "That he of the principal military depots of the emwould compel, by force of arms, all the peror; but the troops on his approach evacrebels in Germany to return to their obe- uated the place, and retired into Bavaria, dience to the holy chair of Rome; that he and just as he was about to march in purwould restore the ancient religion, and that, suit of them, a messenger arrived from the without the consent of the holy father, he council of the city of Augsburg, in whose serwould enter into no treaty with those of the vice he was more especially engaged, with new heresy, that might be disadvantageous instructions not to enter the territory of the or injurious to the Romish church." duke of Bavaria, who was a neutral power. DIVISION AMONG THE LEADERS. 283 The house of Bavaria had threatened to longed, had not as yet declared war against joir. th3 emperor in case they did not leave the Schmalkaldian league. Thus was his country unmolested; at the same time it evinced already, even at the commencemay be observed, that if it was resolved to re- ment of operations, all that doubt and fear main entirely neutral, it ought assuredly not among the confederates whence might easily to have permitted the troops of the emperor be foreseen the most unfortunate and disto pass through its territory. But there astrous results. For it was the height of was at that moment a secret compact con- folly and madness, after the war had eluded between the Bavarian house and become inevitable, to show consideration the emperor, by which the former agreed towards those who, although as yet not to furnish at least a certain contribution in declared enemies, were nevertheless known money. It was, therefore, with no little to be decidedly hostile. Nevertheless, the pain and mortification that Schartlin found general was obliged again to obey superior himself thus suddenly checked and forced orders, and was thus unable to avail himto make a halt on the very banks of the self of the advantages he already possessriver Lech, without being permitted to ed, or might at any future period gain. cross it and destroy the enemy thus slip- Meantime, the Saxon and Hessian troops ping through his fingers; especially as his were brought into the field, and directed plans embraced far more important and their march towardsUpper Germany. The decisive results, it being his determination, two chiefs of the league addressed, on the after having defeated the troops now before 4th of July, a letter to the emperor as folhim, to have proceeded by forced marches lows: " That they were not conscious of on to Ratisbon itself. The army there having committed any act of disobedience, collected being but small, the emperor for which they had been accused by the would have been forced to take to flight, in emperor. If, however, they had laid themwhich case he must have lost the whole of selves open to such reproach, it was only Upper Germany. Referring to this sub- just and equitable that they should be ject Schartlin wrote: " That assuredly heard beforehand; and if this did take Hannibal himself hadnot experienced great- place, then they would make it clear in er regret and mortification, when compelled the eyes of all, that the emperor undertook to withdraw from Italy, than he had en- the war merely at the instigation of the dured when forced at that moment to retire pope, in order to oppress and crush the from the Bavarian territory." doctrine of the evangelists, and the liberty The brave Schartlin now proceeded at of the Germanic empire." This last and once to carry into execution the plan he most grave accusation, now made for the had formed immediately after the failure first time against the emperor by his oppoof his first project, and which was to nents, was soon eagerly caught at and oppose the march of the pope's troops disseminated throughout the world. This across the Tyrolese mountains into Ger- one sentence, if it was held to be truly many. expressed, must have produced a startling Never had such a well-appointed army change even in the Roman Catholics thembeen formed in Italy as that which now selves, have subdued all their zeal, and marched forth to join the emperor's force; rendered them less desirous to behold the the soldiers, under chiefs long distinguished emperor succeed in overcoming his adfor courage and experience, being all uni- versaries. ted in one zealous, enthusiastic feeling Charles, indeed, immediately afterwards, against the Protestants. Schartlin, by for- by committing a most rash act, appeared ced marches, soon gained the passes and to confirm the accusation thus made against made himself master of the important de- him; for when the document from the file of Ehrenberg. Thence he marched leaders of the league was laid before him, against Inspruck, and had he been allowed he would not even touch it, but proceeded to proceed, would have obtained his object at once, on the 20th of July, to reply to it and commanded the whole country; but by a declaration of the imperial ban against here he received fresh orders from the the two princes of Saxony and Hesse. He leaders of the league, by whom he was therein charged them with disobedience to now instructed to evacuate the land, inas- the imperial authority, and a design to " demuch as King Ferdinand, to whom it be- prive him of his crown, his sceptre, and all 284 THE IMPERIAL CAMP. authority, in order to invest themselves move, however, all doubt or fear from the therewith, and finally to subjugate every minds of his partisans, he declared to them one to their tyrannical power." He called that he would never abandon the German them " rebels, perjurers, and traitors," and soil, but would adhere to it living or dead. absolved their subjects from all obligation His best guarantee was the state of dissenof homage and obedience to them. Thus sion existing in the camp of the allies. severely did he express himself in reply to Schartlin with the municipal troops had their address, although quite in conformity now joined the army of the two disunited with the excitement and violence of that princes. The citizen-general now advised turbulent period. By this, his last act, that they should march with their combined however, the emperor violated the ancient forces against Landshut, and there surround rights of the empire, according to which he the emperor at once; but, as usual, they was not empowered to declare the ban could come to no determination, and the against any state, without the council and valuable opportunity was lost once more. judgment of the princes. No exact esti- The emperor, on the contrary, lost no time mate, therefore, can be made of the extent in making the most of these valuable moto which the emperor might have been car- ments; he collected around him all the ried, had circumstances continued favor. reinforcements as they arrived from Italy able; for to minds like his, which subject and Spain, as well as the auxiliary troops themselves entirely to the dictates and from Germany, and when he found himguidance of prudence, circumstances con. self in sufficient strength, he ascended the stitute the only measure of restriction. banks of the Danube as far as Ingolstadt. They undertake only what appears to them There he encamped, and strongly fortified practicable, and Charles accordingly was himself; for as yet he could not venture cautious in not attempting to do that which to enter the open field and attack the enehe could not complete. He held the sway my, preferring to wait the arrival of Count over so many extensive states, and had op- Buren, who was advancing to join him with posed to him so many powerful adversaries a considerable body of troops from the in Europe, that he felt it quite impossible Netherlands. The allies had followed him to devote that continual and exclusive care to his present position, and now they at to Germany, which a plan of absolute sov- length determined to attack his camp, as ereignty, to be carried out successfully, yet not quite secured, with their artillery, strictly demanded; whence he wisely ab- and thus force him to draw up in line of stained from the attempt. Nevertheless, battle. Charles gave ample evidence of his char- Accordingly, on the 31st of August, they acter as a proud and mighty emperor, and advanced at break of day, and forming the ruler of half the world, by acting in themselves into a half circle, occupied all particular circumstances, when every thing the heights in the rear of the camp with depended upon prompt measures of execu- their planted cannon. The allied troops tion, independent of all forms of law; were animated with courage and a desire whence it may be said that the violation of for battle; and at this favorable moment, the rights and privileges of the empire rested a bold and decisive assault, conducted with more in his intentions than in his plans. prompt and energetic effect, would have Meantime he entered upon this opening produced for the allies an easy, but comscene of the Schmalkaldian war in con- plete and glorious victory. For the emscious superiority of mind and true heroic peror was far inferior in force, and his independence. Although having at com- camp was as yet only defended by a simmand but a small body of troops, and threat- pie trench. The idea of such an assault ened by an army of at least fifty thousand was not unthought of by the allies; acmen, the most complete and formidable cording to some accounts the Landgrave force that Germany had produced for sev- Philip, according to others General Scharteral years, he only replied to the decla- lin, had suggested it at the very moment ration of the princes by the said document when the fire from his twelve heavy canof excommunication, and then proceeded nons was dealing destruction among the from Ratisbon to Landshut in order to be emperor's Spanish arquebusiers, and sent more immediately at hand to receive the them back flying into the camp. But again succors marching from Italy. To re- this time irresolution and disunion among THE IMPERIAL FREE CITIES. 285 the leaders rendered futile the decision war, because the whole burden was thrown which ought to have been put into force upon its shoulders, while the two armies immediately. The emperor, who with the had now been encamped face to face for greatest sang froid encouraged his troops, more than six weeks, without doing any and himself defied all danger, now gained thing. The princes at length sent a time to complete the fortifications of his dispatch to the imperial camp, in which camp, and was soon enabled to witness in they declared themselves ready to negotiperfect security how vain were the efforts ate for peace, or at least a suspension of of the enemy to point their cannon with any arms. By this act, however, they only effect against him. From this moment betrayed and acknowledged at once their Schartlin, as he himself relates, placed no weakness, and yielded themselves as conlonger faith in this war, "for he saw no quered without striking a blow. Rejoicing serious efforts made to render it an honor- triumphantly, the emperor commanded the able and legitimate war." document to be read before the whole army The princes continued during five entire drawn up in order of battle, and in full of days to cannonade the imperial camp, with- all reply, he briefly announced to the out producing any desired result; and princes, through the margrave of Brandenwhen they heard that Count Buren, with burg: " That his majesty knew of no his auxiliary troops from the Netherlands other way by which peace was to be had already crossed the Rhine, they raised restored, except by the submission of the the siege, and suddenly retired with their electors themselves, and their adherents to whole army in order to march against him. the imperial authority, together with their The emperor could scarcely believe his entire army, their lands, and subjects." eyes, when he beheld the powerful army Upon receiving this reply, the allied of his enemy thus retire without having ef. princes broke up and separated on the 22d fected any thing, and mounting his horse of November, at Giengen, and each rehe rode out of his camp escorted by the turned to his own territories. duke of Alba and others of his staff, to ob- The presence of the elector of Saxony serve their retreat more closely. had been more especially claimed by his Meantime the princes, notwithstanding country through a message dispatched to their rapid march, were unable to prevent him in his camp, announcing that Duke the junction of Count Buren with the em- Maurice had, with the exception of a few peror, who being now so much reinforced, small places, taken entire possession of the proceeded at once to march in advance, whole land. For the emperor had authortaking possession of one place after an. ized his brother Ferdinand, as king of Boother along the Danube, and making him- hemia, to execute, in conjunction with self complete master of that river. When Duke Maurice, the sentence of the ban adat length he approached and threatened judged against the elector; and such was Augsburg, the citizens summoned their the position of affairs, that it appeared, if general, Schartlin, to their aid and protec- Maurice did not himself take immediate tion. The allies, however, notwithstanding possession of the electorate, it would most they had not understood properly how to probably be lost forever. Such at least avail themselves of their superiority, main- was the representation made by Miurice tained the war by an obstinate resistance when he summoned together the slat s of until November, so that the emperor could the country, in order to obtain the ir sancnot bring them to a general action; while, tion for such proceeding; for without that in the mean time, the Spaniards and Ital- he could not have commenced upon such ians of his army already suffered greatly an important undertaking. H- emloyed from disease and fatigue. all his powers of speech and argurnmnt, in The allies suffered likewise from severe order to give his conduct and wishes the weather, to which was added the want of semblance of right and justice. The sudsupplies, both in provisions and money, and den arrival, however, of Ferdinand, with the army now began to show signs of dis- his Hungarian light cavalry, which he had couragement and dejection, because the brought with him from Bohemia, produced leaders were incapable of inspiring confi- the decided effect; their savage appeardence; the Swabian division of the army ance spread universal terror, and it was was more especially disgusted with the regarded as a happy relief to yield to the 286 THE CITIES SURRENDER. Saxon warriors of Maurice. The entire enburg, threw open their gates without its electorate, therefore, with the exception of being necessary for him to unsheath the Wittenberg, Eisenach, and Gotha, was sword at all; while Ulm itself, powerful speedily in the hands of the ambitious as that city was, dispatched messengers to duke. The voice of the people, neverthe- meet him, who on their knees, and in the less, loudly condemned his proceedings; open field, besought his pardon in the he was looked upon by them as a renegade Spanish tongue, (this act was especially, in the cause of the new doctrine of faith; and with justice, most severely condemned and by the clergy, both in the pulpit and in by the allies,) and paid over to him as a their various writings, he was most severe- fine 100,000 florins. Frankfort paid likely censured and lashed. wise a sum of 80,000 florins, Memmingen The elector himself now, in December, 50,000 florins, and the smaller towns paid 1546, returned to Saxony, full of sadness sums in proportion; and now the turn and dejection. He soon succeeded, how- came for Augsburg. This city was proever, in reconquering his lands, and in tected by walls almost invulnerable, mountseizing a portion of the duke's territory, ed with two hundred pieces of artillery, after he had overthrown and taken prisoner and provided with a strong garrison, and a in Rochlitz, Albert, margrave of Branden- warlike population; if, therefore, it had burg, who had been sent to the aid of his only maintained its ground with deterfriend, Duke Maurice, by the emperor. mined bravery, it must thereby have reMaurice was likewise left without any as- vived once more the sinking courage of the sistance from Bohemia, as the estates of entire body of the allied forces. But the that country refused to fight against their rich members of the municipality took co-religionists in Saxony, referring, at the fright when they found the danger so close same time, to a treaty of inheritance which to their own door; and one of them, Anexisted between the crown of Bohemia thony Fugger, proceeded as deputy to wait and the electoral house of Saxony; while upon the emperor in his camp, and reFerdinand himself began to feel rather turned with the conditions exacted, viz.: uneasy on account of his own kingdom. that the city should pay a sum of 150,000 That country had already ripened into a gold florins; that it should receive a Spanstate of open revolt, and the states had ish garrison, and banish its brave commandeven proceeded to collect together a con- ant Schartlin. The latter employed every siderable army, in order, as they pretend- effort to prevail upon them to defend the ed, to protect the Bohemian territory place, but all his eloquence was in vain, against the attack of the unchristian Span- he could not infuse courage into them; ish and Italian forces. Whence it resulted finally, he reminded them of their contract that Maurice, of his own land, only re- with himself, according to which they had tained possession of the towns of Dresden, engaged to retain him in their service, and Pirna, Zwickau, and Leipsic, and he was could not banish or discharge him. They, reduced to place all his hopes in the em- however, only replied, by begging him peror Charles. with tears in their eyes, for God's sake, to Meantime Charles was occupied in leave the city; accordingly the brave old bringing to subjection the Protestant cities warrior quitted the place in disgust and inin the south of Germany. This, however, dignation, and retired to Switzerland-the was deemed no easy undertaking, these Spanish troops taking immediate possesplaces being exceedingly strong, and might sion. The cities, indeed, had reason to have resisted his arms for a length of congratulate themselves upon having the time; while, in the interval, the princes permission granted them to retain the same of the north could avail themselves of the privileges in respect to religion as were opportunity, and make their preparations enjoyed by Duke Maurice and the house for a fresh campaign. It seemed, how- of Brandenburg; although this arrangeever, as if both courage and resolution ment did not certainly accord with the had suddenly deserted them altogether; promise made to the pope. for wherever the emperor presented him- Besides the cities, two princes in Upper self the cities submitted to him at once Germany had taken an active part in the without offering any resistance. Bopfin- war: Ulric, duke of Wurtemberg, and gen, Nbrdlingen, Dunkelsbuhl, and Roth. Frederick, elector of the palatinate. The CHARLES V. IN SAXONY. 287 latter was not a member of the Schmalkal- to bring the war to a speedy end; espe. dian league, and had only, in accordance cially as his army was four times as strong with an hereditary treaty between him and as that of the elector. Accordingly, he Duke Ulric, furnished the latter with a lost not a moment, but pursued his march subsidiary force of three hundred cavalry along the opposite shore, almost in a line and six hundred foot soldiers; added to with the elector's troops, and searched this, he had been a juvenile companion and along the river for a spot to ford it and ge playmate of the emperor when together in his army safely and expeditiously across. Brussels as boys, whence he easily obtain- The elector halted near the small town of ed a pardon. The duke of Wurtemberg, Miihlberg, while the emperor, very late a however, was obliged, together with his night, once more rode with his brother an& council, to beg for pardon on their knees; Duke Maurice along the shore, seeking in as likewise to give up his strongest castles vain for a favorable spot by which to cross with all the cannon, and to pay a fine of over; for the Elbe here was at least three 300,000 gold florins, after having sworn to hundred feet wide, and the opposite shore obey the emperor in all things. was considerably higher than on his side. Thus the Schmalkaldian league in Up- At length his general, the duke of Alba, per Germany was speedily destroyed, and brought from a neighboring village a young the emperor resolved at once not to allow miller, (his name-preserved by historyhis army any repose, but to bring matters was Strauch,) who promised to lead them in the north of Germany to an equally to a fording-place. He was induced to prompt and decisive termination. He him- commit this act of treachery by a feeling self stood, indeed, much in need of rest; of revenge towards his fellow-countrymen, his hair during this war had become quite who, as they marched in the course of the ~ray, his limbs were completely lamed day through his village, had taken with irom gout, while his countenance was so them two of his horses-this circumstance, ieathiy paie, and his voice so weak and and the tempting offer of a hundred crowns, Lremuious, ihat he could hardly be recog- made him by Duke Maurice, with the aised or understood. His spirit, however, promise of two other horses to replace those still reigned with all its original power taken from him, determined him to serve within that infirm body; and he was now the enemies of his country. urged on by necessity to obtain his object, At the dawn of morning, and under favor of inasmuch as he was anxiously expected at a very thick fog, several thousands of SpanEger by King Ferdinand and Duke Mau- ish arquebusiers now commenced crossing rice, who there tarried like two fugitives the river, and a select troop among them driven from their possessions until he came. having cast aside their guns, and thrown off He joined them at length, on the 15th of their armor, placing their swords in their April, and they celebrated together the mouths, holding them tight between their Laster festival; they then forthwith pro- teeth, plunged into the stream, and swimceeded on their march, and on the 22d of ming to the other side, seized the remains April, Charles found himself already en- of the bridge which had been destroyed by camped within a short distance of the walls the Saxons. This they succeeded in reof Meissen on the Elbe. pairing while the cavalry forded the river, The elector cutld not, for a long time, each horseman taking with him on his sadbelieve it possible that Charles was march- dle a foot-soldier. Lastly followed the ing against him; but now, when to his no emperor, his horse guided by the said millittle surprise, he found he was actually ler, King Ferdinand, Duke Maurice, and within sight and close upon him, he gave the Duke of Alba, with the rest of the imhasty orders to destroy the bridge near perial suite. Meissen, and marched with his army along On the morning of this eventful daythe right bank of the Elbe, in order to the sabbath-the elector attended divine reach Wittenberg, his capital, where he service in Miihlberg, and when, in the would have at command all the means ne- midst of his devotions, a messenger arrived cessary to maintain a long and vigorous in breathless haste and announced to him resistance. The emperor, on the other that the enemy had crossed the river and hand, held it most important that an imme- was in full march in puisuit of him, he diate attack should take place, by which could not, would not believe it, but desired 288 BATTLE OF MUHLBERG. the service of God not to be interrupted. and mounted a powerful Friesian charger; When it was over he found the news was he was, however, very soon surrounded by too true, and he had scarcely time to retire the enemy's cavalry, and as he valiantly with his army. He ordered his infantry to defended himself, he received a cut on his march in all haste for Wittenberg, but he left cheek from the sabre of an Hungarian directed the cavalry to keep the enemy at trooper. The blood streamed all over his bay by skirmishing; the artillery having face, but even in this sad condition the unalready been sent in advance to Wittenberg. daunted warrior would not yield, until a The imperialists, however, pursued the Saxon knight in the suite of Duke Maurice, Saxons with such speed that they overtook Thilo of Trodt, penetrated through the Hunthem.on the plain ofLochau; and although garians that surrounded him, and called his artillery and the greater portion of the out to him in German to save his life. To infantry still remained behind, the emperor, him, as he was a German, the elector gave nevertheless, by the advice of the duke of himself up a prisoner, and in token thereof Alba, gave orders for an immediate attack, he drew from his finger two rings which The Spanish and Neapolitan troopers dash- he presented to him; while to the Hungaed with impetuous force against the Saxons, rian he gave his sword and dagger. The Maurice himself leading the attack. The knight conducted his royal prisoner to the elector's cavalry was soon thrown into con- duke of Alba, and the latter, at the earnest fusion, and fell back upon the ranks of their and repeated persuasion of the elector, led own infantry, which was hastily drawn up him before the emperor, who still continued in battle array on the borders of a deep mounted on his horse in the centre of the forest. The elector gave his orders from plain. The elector, as he approached, a carriage, his weight of body not permit- sighed deeply, and raising his eyes up to ting him to mount on horseback; the em- Heaven, said, mournfully, "Heavenly Fa. peror, on the other hand, in whom the signs ther, have pity on me, for behold I am a of illness were less than ever perceptible on prisoner!" His sad condition and appearthis day, rode an Andalusian charger, hold- ance excited the compassion and sympathy ing in his right hand a lance, and wearing of all around; his wounded face still a helmet and cuirass gorgeously decorated streaming with blood, and his cuirass likewith gold, his eye beaming with warlike wise being covered with spots of gore. He ardor. The imperial cavalry, with their was assisted to dismount by the duke of terrific shout of " Hispania! Hispania!" Alba, and was about to drop on his knees broke now through the ranks of the Saxon before the emperor, taking off the gauntlet infantry, which were completely put to from his right hand, in order, according to rout. All now took to flight; everywhere German custom, to present it to his majeswas confusion and terror. As they flew ty; but the latter refused to take it, and across the plain, the fugitives were overta- with a stern and haughty look turned from ken and struck down by their pursuers, him. The mortified prince now addressed covering with their bodies the whole line of him with the words: " Mighty, gracious road from Kossdorf to Falkenburg and emperor!" "Ay, now I am your gracious Beiersdorf. One of the elector's sons was emperor, am I?" returned Charles, haughovertaken by some troopers of the enemy; tily. "It is long since you styled me thus!" he defended himself with great courage, The elector continued: " I am your impeand shot one of them dead at the moment rial majesty's prisoner, and beg to receive when, having received two sword-cuts, he the treatment due to me as a prince." was sinking from his horse; some of his "( You shall receive the respect you merit," own men just coming up in time, rescued concluded the emperor. The elector was and bore him away in safety. But his fa. now conducted to the camp by the duke of ther was not so successful; he could not Alba, together with Ernest, duke of Bruns. escape. He had been urgently entreated wick-LUneburg, who had also been taken by his faithful adherents to seek safety in prisoner. flight, and gain a secure asylum in Witten- Thus was that day brought to a successberg; but his only observation was, " What ful close for the emperor, on the subject of will become of my faithful infantry?" and which, in the style of Caesar, he writes: "I he remained on the field of battle. In the appeared, I fought, and God vanquished." heat of action he had quitted his carriage After a repose of two days, Charles THE ELECTOR CONDEMNED TO DEATH-HIS LIFE SPARED. 289 marched on to Torgau, which surrendered It is not known whether Duke Maurice forthwith, and thence he proceeded to Wit- did at all interest himself on this occasion tenberg, the capital of the country. The with the emperor in favor of the elector; place was defended by a strong fort and a but, on the other hand, it is known for cergood garrison, while the citizens themselves tain, that the Elector Joachim of Brandenassisted with determined courage and loy- burg hastened immediately to the imperial alty; had they continued to make resist- camp, where he strenuously exerted all ance for any length of time, the emperor his powers of eloquence with the emperor would have been forced to withdraw from to prevent, by some mediatory accommoSaxony without having completed his work, dation, the fulfilment of the sentence. He as he was not at all prepared for a long cam- succeeded at length in his object, but unpaign. Thence, in his impatience, and by der conditions most severe and painfully the urgent persuasion of his confessor and humiliating to the elector of Saxony. He others around him, he had recourse to an was obliged to renounce for himself and expedient which completely transgressed descendants all claim to the electoral digthe limits of his prerogative, and was con- nity, as well as the possession of the territrary to the constitutional rights of the em- tory, which were transferred to Duke Maupire. He summoned a council of war, and rice. His castles of Wittenberg and Gotha pronounced sentence of death upon the un- were surrendered to the emperor, while he fortunate prince; an act which, however himself remained his prisoner during imjust the sentence, could not legitimately perial pleasure; so that if deemed proper take place, except in a diet held by the and necessary by Charles, he might even German princes of the empire. Probably have been sent to Spain itself, and there he may not seriously have contemplated the placed under the immediate charge of the execution of the sentence, but only sought Infant Don Philip. The necessary proto use it as a means to terrify the friends vision for him and his family was to be and faithful adherents of the elector within furnished by Maurice, produced by the the walls of the city, and thus induce them revenues derived from the towns of Eisento surrender the place; but the violation of ach, Gotha, Weimar, and Jena. In one the law was based in the form of the judg- article of the conditions it was proposed, ment, and in case it did not operate in the that the elector should even promise in adway, perhaps, originally intended by Charles, vance to accept of every thing that might there was too much reason to fear from his be decreed by the council of Trent and the stern nature, which never allowed him to imperial power in religious matters-but waver or recede, that execution would fol- to that the resolute prince would by no low. means be brought to agree, and on this The elector, who, when in prosperity, point he remained so firm and immoveable, was too often wanting in resolution and fix- that the emperor was obliged to yield; he ity of purpose, evinced at this moment all struck out the passage with his own hand, the heroic courage of a firm and energetic and the Spaniards themselves even acsoul founded upon unchanging and indom- knowledged the firmness of the elector to itable faith. The sentence of death pro- be both honorable and praiseworthy. nounced upon him, was announced to him When it became known in Wittenberg,. at the moment he was engaged in a game that its city was to be delivered up to the. of chess with his fellow-prisoner, Duke emperor, although in religious worship it Ernest of Brunswick-Ltineburg. His ap- was guarantied the free exercise of the pearance and manner betrayed neither Augsburg confession, considerable indigalarm nor despondency, but as he resumed nation and consequent opposition and con — his game, he calmly replied: " I can nev- fusion arose. At first the citizens resolved. er believe that the emperor will proceed to to defend themselves to the last man, besuch extremes in his treatment of me; if, cause they found it impossible to place any however, his majesty has truly and defini- confidence in the promise made that they tively thus resolved, then I demand to be should have their religious liberty; particinformed thereof in such positive and legit- ularly after the cruel manner in which the imate form as will allow me to proceed to Spaniards had acted towards their land. fix and arrange my affairs in regard to my The elector, however, commanded them wife and children." not to make any further resistance, as the37 290 WITTENBERG-THE ELECTRESS emperor would, he assured them, faithful- Arras, the son of Granvella-advised him ly keep the promise he had given; espe- "to have the remains of the heretic resuscially as the latter granted them permis- citated and publicly burnt;" but Charles sion to receive only German troops as a replied: " Let him repose in peace, he has rrison. Accordingly on the 23d of May, already found his judge; I war only with 1547, the Saxon soldiers marched out and the living, not with.he dead." the imperialists took possession of the town. Maurice, the new elector, showed him. In the course of a very short period an in- self equally friendly and indulgent towards terchange of a more peaceful and friendly the Wittenbergians: "You have been so feeling arose between the camp and the faithful to my cousin that I shall always city, and mutual distrust disappeared more remember and think well of you," were and more. The Saxons, to their great his words to the corporation as he left them. wonderment and admiration, beheld their On the 6th of June the imperialists withdeposed lord and prince comfortably lodged drew from Wittenberg, and, immediately and entertained in the tent of the duke of afterwards, the soldiers of the new elector Alba, where he was waited upon and treat- marched in and took up their quarters in ed with the greatest distinction and rever- the city. ence by the Spaniards. The electress her- On the same day that the emperor Charles self and her children, dressed in complete entered Wittenberg, his former rival, Franmourning, were led before the emperor by cis I. of France, was borne to the tomb, as the sons of the Roman king and paid him if fortune had resolved to remove at once their homage; Charles assisted the princess from before his path every obstacle to the to rise, and consoled her in her sorrow and plans he had formed. From Wittenberg affliction with words of sympathy and en- he marched on to Halle, in order to attack couragement, granting permission to the the second leader of the Schmalkaldian elector to pass an entire week with his league, the landgrave of Hesse, and the family in his castle of Wittenberg, and latter having now no longer any hope of there celebrate with them the festival of deliverance but through the grace and parWhitsuntide. In addition to this, he him- don of the now all-powerful emperor, emself repaired to the castle and returned the ployed every effort by means of his son-invisit of the princess. The impression pro- law Duke Maurice, and the margrave of duced by his noble and exalted spirit, now Brandenburg, to obtain both. so much softened, diminished and almost Both these princes exerted themselves extinguished that feeling of antipathy most actively and zealously for him, and at hitherto existing against him throughout length they succeeded; the emperor dethe country; while, on his part, he formed claring, through his chancellor, Granvella: a much more favorable opinion of the peo- "That if the landgrave came to him in ple of the north of Germany than the ene- person, surrendered himself at discretion, mies of the new doctrine had led him to and signed the conditions which would be conceive: "Things and people appear far submitted to him, he promised not to seize different in this evangelical country to his lands, neither would he take his life nor what I fancied and believed them to be be- punish him with lasting imprisonment." fore I came among them," was his expres- Thus it is expressed in a copy, recently.sion now. And when he learned, that on discovered, of the transactions of that period. his arrival the Lutheran form of divine The mediators, however, either did not well service had been prohibited and had ceas- weigh the last sentence of the declaration, ed, he exclaimed: " Whence has that pro- and imagined it was meant to convey that ceeded? By whose authority? If it be the prince should suffer no imprisonment, in our name that the service of God has or, as they themselves admitted, some months been interdicted here, then does it incur afterwards, at the diet of Augsburg, "In our high displeasure! We have not alter- their verbal negotiations with his majesty's ed aught touching religious matters in counsellors too great confusion and misunHigh Germany, why should we do so derstanding existed through ignorance or here?" He then visited the royal chapel misconception of language;" enough, they of the castle, and examined the tomb of pledged their word of honor with the landLuther. One or two of his suite-it is grave to give themselves up prisoners to his said the duke of Alba and the bishop of sons in case the emperor did not give him PHILIP OF HESSE DETAINED A PRISONER. 291 full liberty to return. Accordingly, on the were also the two princes who had guar18th of June, Philip, in full reliance on antied his liberty. They immediately ap. their word, came to Halle, and on the fol- pealed to the emperor, and represented to lowing day he was led before the emperor. him that they had pledged their princely Charles was seated on his throne, sur- word for the landgrave's liberty; but rounded by a crowd of Spanish grandees Charles denied having promised him reand Italian and German nobles, and among mission from all imprisonment-as the methem stood conspicuous Henry, duke of diators had falsely understood-although he Brunswick, lately the landgrave's prisoner, declared at the same time that he would but whom he had been forced to release, not punish him with perpetual captivity. and who now triumphed in his late con- And indeed it is very possible that his queror's humiliation. With dejected and counsellors promised more than he himself mortified mien the landgrave humbly knelt intended to grant; or that in the ignorance at the foot of the throne, while his chancel- of the chancellor Granvella and his son of lor, Guntherode, kneeling behind him, read the German, and of the two electors of the aloud to the emperor the petition for pard'on. Spanish and French languages, an error it was expressed in the most humble terms, may have arisen in the correspondence. and an eye-witness relates, that in the ex- Still it would have been more noble and cess of shame and confusion with which manly to have fulfilled the engagement to the prince was overwhelmed at this moment, which the two princes had pledged themin the presence of such a large and august selves towards the landgrave. On the other assembly, a slight smile played about his hand, it was certainly very important to the mouth, as if produced by an unconscious emperor that he should hold the leaders of effort of nature to repress the feeling of the Schmalkaldian alliance his prisoners shame by which he was so painfully tried. until he had completed the whole of his But this expression did not escape the lynx- contemplated arrangements for the settleeyed monarch; he held up his finger mena- ment of the religious affairs of Germany; cingly, and said in his Netherland dialect for he still believed in the possibility of -for he spoke the German very badly- effecting a reunion of parties, and these two " W6l, ick soll di lachen lehren!" (Ay, imprisoned princes were the most obstinate ay, I will teach you to laugh.) The im- and violent opponents to such a measure. perial chancellor, Dr. Seld, then read the But Charles did not consider that honesty emperor's reply: "That, although the and generosity became much more the landgrave, as he himself acknowledged, sovereign, and led more securely to the deserved the heaviest punishment, the em- attainment of the object in view than cold, peror, nevertheless, in his innate goodness, calculating caution; and forgot that when and in consideration of the intercession this is once established as a law, the ingemade in his favor, would allow mercy to nious and clever politician may, in the take the precedence of justice; he there- course of time, be overreached by one still fore removed the ban of excommunication more cunning, and thus all his gains slip pronounced against him, and granted him through his fingers. Duke Maurice, who the life he had by his acts forfeited." Af- was now unable to fulfil his engagement, ter this document had been read, the land- and appeared in the character of a perjurer grave was about to rise as a free prince towards the landgrave, felt, no doubt, from from his humble posture, but waited in vain the moment that the emperor would not for the signal from the emperor; finding, acknowledge the pledge he had given to the therefore, that this was withheld, and that landgrave in such good and confiding faith, the clear and solemn promise of pardon was that he was himself released from all oblilikewise refused to him, he rose of his own gations of gratitude and fidelity towards accord and withdrew from the assembly. that monarch; and thenceforth he considIn the evening he supped with the Elec- ered that in their relations together they tor Maurice and the margrave of Branden- must be governed alone by skilful and saburg, in the quarters of the duke of Alba; gacious policy, and in this respect, at least, after the meal, he was about to retire, when the duke needed not to yield in any thing the duke informed him he must consider to the emperor. himself his prisoner. He was seized at The deposed elector and the landgrave once with astonishment and indignation, as were therefore ct'ged,,allow as r.,son 292 THE COUNCIL OF TREI{T. ers the court and camp of the emperor -The Emperor a Fugitive in the Mountains of the wherever he proceeded. Besides this, all Tyrol-His desolate and forlorn Condition-His reerevere proceeded esides this, allturn to Augsburg-Release of the Elector John the Hessian castles and strongholds, from Frederick-His Welcome Home-Jena-Treaty of Cassel to Zieg'ppenhain, were razed, all the Passau-Liberation of Philip of Hesse-Charles V. Cassel to Ziegenhain, were razed, all the iin France-Metz-Unsuccessful Campaign-Albert cannon and ammunition seized and taken of Brandenburg-Defeated at Luneburg by Maurice away, and the states of that country forced -Death of Maurice and Albert-Religious Peace of away, ande stateso acountry orced Augsburg-Final Separation of the two Religious to pay a fine of 150,000 florins. The Parties-Abdication of Charles V.-Retreat to a his treaties with his. *.'.. Hermit's Cell-Rehearsal of his Funeral Procession emperor Charles, in his treaties with his -His Death, 1558. adversaries, followed the principle of the Romans in the time when they contem- IT now became more and more evident plated the conquest and sovereignty of the that peace in matters of religion would not whole world. For in the same way as emanate from the council of Trent, for as they had then exacted from the Carthagin- its members consisted altogether of Italians ians, and the kings of Macedonia and Syria and Spaniards, they could not possibly be large sums of money, together with the regarded as the representatives of the extradition of all their ships of war, war- Christian world in the sense of the former like machines, and elephants, so also now convocations ofthechurch. The Protestants Charles disarmed and rendered powerless now, as well as previously, refused not only his enemies, by forcing them to dismantle to acknowledge their authority, but, on the and raze their fortifications, to surrender contrary, insisted upon a council "in which all their heavy artillery, which at that peri- the pope should not have the presidency, od it was seldom possible to replace, and and where the Protestant theologians should finally to pay him heavy sums of money to enjoy the privilege of voting with and on the enable him to undertake new enterprises. side of the bishops, and where the decrees In his treaties with the cities of Upper recently made should undergo fresh examiGermany, the duke of Wurtemberg, the nation and revision." elector of Saxony, and the landgrave of The papal party, on the other hand, Hesse, he gained more than five hundred would not consent to these demands, alpieces of cannon, which he caused to be though the princes of Germany, including conveyed to Italy, Spain, and the Nether. even the Catholics, urgently demanded that lands. The Spanish garrisons which he the states who had assisted at the confession quartered wherever he found it possible, of Augsburg should be admitted to join and especially in the cities of Upper the council. Nay, the cardinals themGermany, excited everywhere the greatest selves viewed the circumstance of its being discontent. The overbearing pride and held at Trent with a very unfavorable eye, shameful treatment displayed and exer- and they strenuously endeavored to have it cised by these haughty foreigners, ani- transferred to the interior of Italy; for mated as they were by their religious ha- they were afraid that if the aged Pope tred, were insupportable, while it was not Paul III. died during the period of its forgotten that the emperor, in the stipula- being assembled, the council, supported by tions of his election, had promised not to Charles, would take upon itself the office bring or introduce any foreign troops into of electing a new pope in opposition to the the empire. rights enjoyed by the college of cardinals, and by which the interests of that institution must be materially affected. At length, a case of fever came fortunately to their aid and seconded their wishes; and alCHAPT ER XX. though it was feared that the disease would have proved more generally fatal, still one The Council of Trent-Rupture between the Emperor only of the bishops became its victim. This, and the Pope-The Interim or Temporary Code of Doctrines-Its Condemnation by both Parties-The however, was sufficient to produce the acCaptive Elector of Saxony-Refuses to adhere to the complishment of their object, and on the Interim-His Declaration-Shameful Treatment in consequence-The Elector Maurice-Magdeburg- 9th of March, 1547, the council was reMaurice marches against that City-The Emperor moved from Trent to Bologna. The emand Maurice-Maurice deserts the Emperor, and with Albert of Brandenburg joins the Protestants- peror, on hearing it, was highly indignant, Their Declaration against the Emperor-His Reply and flew into a most violent passion while -Albert's Depredations-Maurice's Separation from him-Charles V. at Inspruck-Pursued by Maurice the pope approved of the step taken by his RUPTURE BETWEEN THE EMPEROR AND THE POPE. 293 legate; whence the division already exist- tion of the Lora's Supper in both forms, ing between him and the emperor-owing, but to continue valid only until the council on the one part, to the former having with- should have given its decision upon the drawn his troops from Germany immediate- subject. As to the rest, he recognised the ly after the expiration of the agreed term of authority of the pope, the celebration of six months' service, and on the other, to the mass, and the Catholic church and its latter not having availed himself of the signs of faith generally; whence it was triumph he had obtained in his empire by easy to foresee that great discontent and forthwith extirpating the Protestant party- opposition must arise. As, however, the became more confirmed. The emperor elector of Brandenburg, and likewise the told the pope's nuncio in plain language: elector palatine, engaged both to sanction " It could not be expected that the Pro- and adopt it, Charles considered he should testants, who were willing to submit to the now be able to compile therefrom his code council, would themselves repair to Bologna, of doctrines, called the "Interim." He or even pay attention to what might be convoked his states on the 15th of May, concluded there; while the rest did not and then caused to be read to them the require this motive for refusing to attend. work in question, which was entitled: If, therefore, Rome did not furnish him with "Declaration of his imperial and royal a council, he himself would speedily have majesty, which determines how religion one assembled which should be so formed shall be exercised and maintained within as to satisfy every one, and produce all the the holy empire until the decision of the reforms required;" adding, "that the pope general council shall be pronounced." was an obstinate old man, whose only de- After the reading, and a short discussion sire was to ruin and demolish the church had taken place between a few individual to its foundation." Such were the angry members, but which led to no result, the terms in which Charles, against his usual elector of Mentz rose, and in the name of the manner, addressed the prelate, and by that states returned thanks to the emperor for we have another proof of his anxiety and the trouble, labor, industry, and love he zeal to promote the peace of the church. had taken and shown for the sake of the The German bishops, on their part, now country; and as none ventured to make likewise most urgently besought the pope any objection, the emperor concluded that to remove the seat of council to Trent, but the sanction of the entire body of the states their efforts remained for a length of time was given to the measure, and regarded it without producing any effect. now as the law of the empire. In consequence, Charles now proceeded While the emperor Charles thus sought, to re-establish of his own accord, at a diet on the one hand, to make himself indepenheld in Augsburg, in 1548, order and dent of the proceedings of the pope, and, on peace in religious matters in Germany, the other, to maintain the unityof the Gerand with this view, he opened a new con- man church-by which that of the Gerference, to which, on the side of the Cath- manic empire itself must be rendered still olics, two moderate men were appointed- more firm-he was guided by the one the bishop of Naumburg, Julius Pflug, and grand and fundamental principle observed the grand-vicar of Mentz, Michael Held- throughout his entire reign; viz., to reing; while the court-chaplain of the elec- store the importance and dignity of the tor of Brandenburg, John Agricola of Ber- ancient empire, as had formerly been prolin, was selected on the part of the Protest- jected, and in part effected by the great ants. They applied themselves to the Charlemagne, the Othos, and other highsubject with great industry and zeal, and minded emperors. His aim was to render marked out a plan of reunion which they the empire replete wilh spiritual and temlaid before the emperor. Agricola, how- poral power. The emperor, according to ever, from his too great anxiety to estab- Charles's plan, was to be made in reality lish the desired peace, had deviated in the chief authority of entire Christendom; several essential points from the original with his temporal power he was to unite a principles of his faith. He had succeeded, material and effective influence over the it is true, in gaining for his own party the church, and not only protect, as a machine admission of the two articles, viz., of the of the spiritual power, the order of the marriage of clergymen, and the celebra- church, and assist in enforcing duty to its 294 THE ELECTOR OF SAXONY. commands, but he was to have an impor- The ministers refused to accept of this tant share and interest in its councils and declaration, and reminded the elector, " that resolutions. Like Charles the Great, who the emperor was empowered to make laws presided at the synods of his bishops, and and decrees even in religious matters, and whose decrees were sanctioned by his sig- that several Roman emperors, ancestors of nature, so, likewise, it was the desire of his present majesty, had created such, which Charles V. to partake in the direction of even to that day were obeyed by all the subthe general council, or at least maintain jects of the Roman empire." The elector, next the pope, and as the central point of however, remained immoveable; and as the ecclesiastical order of the Germanic during the discussion they were interrupted empire, the dignity with which he was in- by a loud peal of thunder, the elector felt vested, rejoiced and strengthened by the conviction The emperor was well aware that a that this was sent as an indication from most grand and important step would be Heaven that his conduct met with divine gained towards the establishment of his approbation, and that he should be guided " Interim," if the imprisoned elector of by the judgment of God alone, and not by Saxony, whose spiritual influence in the that of mortals. Saxon territories had recently very much The act committed against the elector, increased-he being now regarded as a immediately after this interview-although martyr to his faith-could be persuaded it is believed to have been done without the to give it his approval. Accordingly, he sanction of the emperor himself-was both sent his chancellor Granvella, and his son, petty and unjustifiable. He was deprived the bishop of Arras, together with the at once of the society of his chaplain, vice-chancellor Selb, to submit to him the Christopher Hoffmann, and a seizure was proposals to accept that code of doctrines, made of all his books, among the rest, of and likewise to recommend its adoption to his own especially-treasured copy of the his sons. The elector, however, in reply Bible, beautifully illuminated; but amid to their request, handed over to them a the painful mortification he endured, while declaration which, in anticipation of such forced to submit to this trial, his firmness a visit, he had already prepared and writ- did not forsake him, for as the minions ten with his own hand; viz., "That the quitted the place with these, to him, invalueducation he had received from his youth able treasures, he said, resignedly:' You upward at the hands of the servants of may take the books; but that which I have the divine word, together with the profound learned from them you can never take or researches he had himself since made in even tear from my heart." the writings of the prophets and apostles, The sons, following the example of their had united to convince him that the true father, refused to introduce the "Interim" Christian doctrine was to be recognised in into their territory, and, in fact, the emthe Augsburg confession, and his conscien- peror soon found himself deceived in his tious belief therein remained unshaken. hopes of succeeding to bring his code into If he accepted the'Interim' as a Chris- general use. The Protestant theologians tian and divine doctrine, he should be rose in one body against the measure, and forced, against his conscience, to deny and many were forced to vacate and abandon condemn the Augsburg confession in many their offices, and take up the pilgrim's staff articles upon which his immortal happi- as wanderers; viz., in Augsburg, Nuremness depended, and sanction with his lips berg, Regensburg, Ulm, Frankfort, and what in his heart he held to be completely other cities: the number of banished eccontrary to the doctrinesof the Holy Scrip- clesiastics in the upper countries alone ture; in doing this, he should consider he amounted to four hundred. What, howwas shamelessly abusing and blaspheming ever, is still more astonishing is, that the the holy name of God, for which sin he Catholics themselves disapproved of this must severely and bitterly suffer in his " Interim," although it was by no means soul. His imperial majesty, therefore, pretended that it should be put into pracwould not, he hoped, feel ungracious to- tice among them. The Catholic church wards him, if he refused to accede to the would have reaped the greatest advantage'Interim,' and persisted in adhering strict- therefrom; for if the emperor had sucly to the Augsburg confession." ceeded in his plan, the reunion of both THE ELECTOR MAURICE. 295 would have been a necessary consequence. fact, any of the electors or princes, would Thence their opposition can only be inter- give their consent; for, besides other causes, preted into a declaration, that they would the haughty, gloomy, repulsive appearance not regard as valid any regulation in mat- and manner of the prince could not possibly ters of religion coming from him as a lay- operate in his favor among the Germans. man. His father, therefore, saw himself obliged to Thus, during his sojourn of two years in send him back to Spain, whither Philip inthe Netherlands, whither he had repaired deed was too glad to return, for he was more after the diet of Augsburg, the emperor was attached to that country than any other. forced to receive continual complaints from The emperor, at the conclusion of the Germany; his "Interim" was only ac- diet, left Augsburg for Inspruck, as the knowledged outwardly in a few places, new pope, Julius III., having now removed while, generally, in all parts of the em- the seat of the council from Bologna to pire much bitter feeling was expressed Trent, Charles was anxious to be in its against it, and even the Elector Maurice vicinity. himself gave it but a very limited reception Meantime the new elector of Saxony in his land. He had commissioned several nourished in his heart a most bold and theologians, including Melanchthon, to pre- determined design against the emperor, pare a church formulary for his own sub- the immediate motives for which, howjects, and with great trouble, and not with- ever, we are not able to define, inasmuch out incurring severe censure from the more as the whole of this man's thoughts and acrigid of the Lutheran clergymen, they com- tions have remained an enigma in all hispleted what was called " the Leipsic Inte- torical research. Still there is no doubt he rim," and which, certainly, deviated in was influenced in his conduct by at least many points from, but as a whole adhered two grand causes: firstly, the severe and to, the Protestant faith. It was introduced unjust confinement of his father-in-law, the in several parts of the north of Germany, landgrave of Hesse, towards whom he conalthough here and there with considerable sidered he was still bound to redeem the alterations; but, on the other hand, in many word and guarantee he had given for his other parts of the country the greatest stand liberty, while neither the arguments nor was made against any change whatever. prayers resorted to by him had the least The cities of Constance, Bremen, and Mag- effect upon the emperor; and, secondly, deburg especially, declared themselves the sad condition of the Protestants in Germost firmly opposed to it, and refused to many. These latter felt more and more submit to the imperial order; whereupon convinced that the emperor only waited the emperor pronounced the ban of the em- now for the resolutions of the council of pire against them, and the two former places Trent, in order to establish them as the returned to their obedience. But Magde- laws of religion throughout the empire; burg continued obstinate, being influenced and as he had already commenced hostiliin a great measure by several theologians ties against Magdeburg, on account of the who had taken refuge there after their " Interim," so likewise, as soon as he had banishment from Wittenberg on account of collected fresh troops, it might be expected the "Iiacrim;" among whom a certain that he would force all the states of the Flacius, with the by-name of Illyricus, was land to submit to all those decrees of the the most violent and zealous. The Elector church. Indeed, at this moment, the whole Maurice received at the new diet of Augs- body of the Protestants were in a state of burg, in 1550! orders to execute forthwith anxious expectation and suspense. Those the sentence of the ban pronounced against who dreaded the worst results condemned that city. He accordingly marched with the Elector Maurice as the most culpable his army at the commencement of the au- party: inasmuch as he had betrayed the tumn in the same year, and laid siege to the league of Schmalkald, and it was through place. him that John Frederick of Saxony and the At this diet Charles sought to gain for landgrave of Hesse were now suffering imhis son Philip, whom he had sent for from prisonment. Those, on the other hand, who Spain, the title of king of the Romans. still cherished some hope of relief, turned However, neither his brother Ferdinand, their eyes towards him, for to them he apnor the latter's son, Maximilian, nor, in peared the only one now left capable of 296 MAURICE DESERTS THE EMPEROR. protecting the new faith. The moment had German to conceive a plan and endeavor now, indeed, arrivea, when with one grand secretly to bring it to bear, without its be. and mighty stroke he might expunge all ing immediately discovered and known in recollection of the past and regain the pub- all its details." lic opinion. Maurice was not long in de- Both the emperor and his minister, howciding the course he should take, and he ever, were struck as it were with a clap of determined to put his plan into execution thunder, when Maurice, in the month of at once. He availed himself of the oppor- March, 1552, suddenly appeared with his tunity presented in the expedition against whole army and invaded Franconia, augMagdeburg, to collect, without exciting menting his forces with those of the landsuspicion, a numerous body of troops, while grave of Hesse and the troops of the Marat the same time, in accordance with the grave Albert. At the same time both these object in view, the siege of the city itself princes drew up a declaration against the was conducted as tardily aspossible. At emperor, which they made public, wherein length, in September of the following year, they sought to justify the war they com1551, he, of his own authority, agreed to a menced. They complained of the prolongsuspension of arms, and in the succeeding ed imprisonment of the landgrave, as likeNovember, he concluded a treaty with the wise of the attacks made by the eniperor city-the terms of which were extremely upon the liberty of Germany. They remild and favorable for the latter-while, proached him with having confided the however, he took care not to discharge his seals of the empire to foreigners, who were troops on this account. He secretly dis- totally unacquainted both with the language patched his early friend and companion, and laws of Germany, so that the Germans Albert, margrave of Brandenburg-Culm- themselves were actually forced to learn a bach, to the court of Henry II., king of foreign tongue before they were allowed to France, the son of Francis I., in order to make known their demands to the imperial conclude an alliance with him, and he im- government. "Contrary to the oath he mediately engaged in his service the leader took, he had," they said, " introduced into of the Wurtemberg troops, John of Hey- the country foreign troops, who pillaged deck, who, together with Schartlin, had and ruined the unfortunate inhabitants, been previously placed under the imperial whom they likewise abused and ill-treated ban. These proceedings, however, had not in every possible way; nay, he had gone escaped observation, and were communi- to such extremes, that he had clearly shown cated to the emperor; but Charles remain- he was swayed by no other thought or feeled deaf to all the warnings given to him. ing than that of subjecting all and each to He placed the greatest confidence in the the most shameful servitude, whence his man whom he thought he had thoroughly conduct had been such, that if the sweeptested, and when thus cautioned against ing torrent of destruction was not speedily him, he replied: "That as he had never, and effectually checked, posterity itself to his knowledge, given cause, either to would have too great reason to abominate Maurice or the Margrave Albert, to act the negligence and cowardice of the presinimically towards him, but, on the contra- ent generation, during which the liberty of ry, had shown to both great proofs of his our fatherland-its greatest and most prefavor and consideration, he could not be- cious treasure-had been allowed to fall a lieve it possible that they would be guilty sacrifice." of such ingratitude; and he was convinced Although in many of these reproaches that with them their acts would go hand in there was much exaggeration, still we find hand with their words, and that they would therein reflected, in the most striking and not swerve from that honorable line of con- glaring colors, the great and especial evil duct for which the German nation had ever in Charles's character, and to which his distinguished itself." And thus, while, on unjust treatment of the Germans is to be the one hand, the emperor placed his firm undeniably traced. This great error he reliance upon German fidelity, his minis- evinced in the contempt he expressed for ter, Granvella the younger, calculated up- the nation, while on the other hand he on the simplicity of the Germans, for the showed the greatest preference and favor observation he made in reply was: " That towards his Spaniards and Netherlanders, it was wholly impossible for a phlegmatic of whom the former, more especially, by INSPRUCK-CHARLES'S FLIGHT-TYROL. 297 their proud and overbearing conduct, to- of Hesse, both of whom had nobler objects gether with the cruelty practised by their in view, were forced to separate from him common soldiers, brought down upon them- and leave him to act for himself. selves the just indignation and hatred of The emperor was now in a state of great the country. The love of the nation Charles emb'arrassment; he was in want both of never could possess, for he himself cher- troops and money, which latter, to his ished none towards the people; condescen- mortification, the money-lenders of Augssion was the utmost his pride would allow burg refused to advance him, and he was him to vouchsafe to the Germans. But reduced to the extremity of deputing his this cold and formal display of affability is brother Ferdinand to open negotiations more insupportable to a brave and loyal with Maurice. As, however, they led to nation than even arrogance and tyranny; no result, and Maurice easily perceived while the discontent and mortification ex- that the design of Charles was to gain time, pressed by the princes when they saw that he broke up at once from Swabia and a haughty foreigner, like Granvella, was marched his troops into the Tyrol, in order, installed in his office as chancellor, and if possible, to fall upon him unprepared. had thus confided to his charge the entire His progress was so rapid, that he actually control of the government, were but too preceded in person the announcement of well founded. It was, however, less the his advance; he marched on to Ehrenacts than the disposition of the emperor as berg, which fell into his hands, and had evinced against the Germans, which drew he not been detained an entire day by a upon him this humiliating war with Mau- mutiny which broke out in one of his regirice. The Margrave Albert, in his decla- ments, he would have succeeded in gaining ration to the emperor, introduces an accu- Inspruck in time to have surprised the sation, the nature of which appears still emperor there and taken him prisoner. more striking, but which had its origin in Charles, however, was thus enabled to that very arrogance then so openly and di- escape on the previous night, (of the 19th rectly displayed by these foreigners towards May,) during a most dreadful thunderthe nation. Albert, in his furious indigna- storm, and arrived in safety at Trent; he tion against the historian of the Schmalkal- himself was conveyed there upon a litter, dian war, Louis d'Avila, bestows upon him being at the time extremely ill, and his the epithets of "liar and villain," inasmuch brother Ferdinand, the captive elector of as in his work he speaks of the Germans Saxony, and the rest of the suite followed, being a savage and unknown people, " de- some on horseback, others even on foot, void of all honorable, manly, and noble while servants with torches lighted them virtue, and of whose descent and origin no- on their road through the narrow passes thing was known." of the Tyrolese mountains-such had been The emperor again, whose actions were their haste. But even Trent itself was no better than as in these declarations they longer secure, and after a few hours of were represented, in the feeling of his dig- repose, Charles was again forced to resume nity made no other reply than: " That his flight across the most difficult and danthe accusations of the two princes being so gerous roads as far as the village of Villach, childish, unconnected, and absurd, they in Carinthia; the assembled council at only contained in themselves their own Trent having also in their alarm broken falsehood and want of foundation, while up and taken flight on every side. Maurice, they laid bare in ample evidence the mis- however, on finding that Inspruck was.hievous character of those who had in- evacuated, turned back again, after he vented them." had distributed among his troops the impeThe enterprise of the two princes, how- rial booty collected, and marched on to ever, very soon lost character in public Passau, whither an assembly of the princes opinion through the conduct of the margrave had been convoked. himself, who, with his people, committed Meantime it cannot be doubted but that violence and devastation, equalled only by these reverses of fortune, which, together the most lawless band of freebooters and with his bodily afflictions, had humbled the incendiarists, everywhere throughout the proud heart of Charles in these days of flat portions of the country. Thence Mau- disgraceful flight, were sent by Providence rice and the young Landgrave William for his justification. It was, no doubt, 38 298 THE ELECTOR RELEASED. during this trying period that he formed leased from his captivity, was so overpow. the resolution of voluntarily laying down ered that she fell into his arms completely his crown as soon as ever he had quelled insensible. On his arrival at Jena, where this new war, and, renouncing the world's his sons had built a university in lieu of pomp, to retire into solitude, and devote his that taken from them at Wittenberg, he remaining days to the exclusive service of was especially rejoiced in meeting and the eternal and immutable Creator. once more holding communion with the He now gave the imprisoned elector of learned professors and their students. His Saxony his liberty once more; stipulating old and faithful friend, Lucas Cranach, only that he should remain with the court the painter, together with the eldest of the a short time longer. And truly, the sight princes, sat in the same carriage with him: alone of this suffering prince must have " Behold!" exclaimed the delighted elector produced within him bitter and painful to his son; "this is the true fraternal study feelings; for it was only five years previ- of the sciences;" and the entire body of ously that, on the plain of Lochau, the professors having now advanced to welelector, with bleeding form, appealed to come him with an address of congratulahim on his knees for grace; while now the tion, the gratified prince listened to it with same prince beheld him, the former con- uncovered head. Such was the reception queror, sick and helpless, traversing almost experienced, and such were the feelings impassable mountains as a fugitive, and produced on the reappearance of this truly pursued, too, by another elector of Saxony, German prince among his subjects, by whom he in his days of pride and glory whom he was regarded in the light of a had himself promoted and rendered power- father. Charles V., however, was unforful. What, however, afflicted the emperor tunately never so received in Germany. more than any thing else, was to find him- The emperor meantime left it to his self deserted by all his states-not even brother Ferdinand to negotiate with Maubeing aided by the Catholics-while they rice at Passau. He himself had a great all preferred submitting patiently to be objection to the whole transaction, but he plundered by the Margrave Albert, rather was nevertheless very desirous to make than uniting together for the succor and peace with Maurice, in order to be enabled protection of their emperor. Then it was to turn all the power of his arms against that he but too truly felt the conviction at the enemy he most hated-the French; heart, that it is only in the love of his peo- who, during this interval, had invaded Lorpie that a sovereign can hope to find a sure raine' and taken one city after another. protection in the hour of danger. Under such circumstances, the treaty of In Augsburg, the Elector John Fred- Passau was concluded on the 31st of July, erick took leave of the emperor, who, in 1552. Therein it was stipulated: " That their parting scene, testified much respect the Landgrave Philip of Hesse should at and even emotion towards the prince. The once be set at liberty, and that the ban of latter left Augsburg immediately, and has- the empire pronounced against all who tened to return to his own lands. As he had joined in the war of Schmalkald should proceeded he was everywhere welcomed be withdrawn. That with respect to the and received with sincere and hearty re- other religious grievances, a new diet spect and congratulation; and when he should be convoked, and that until then the approached Nuremberg, he was met on the imperial chamber of justice should exerroad by a train of fifty deputies from the cise its judgment with equal impartiality magistrates of that city on horseback, and for both parties, but that the imperial the whole populace greeted him with shouts council should be composed of Germans of joy, while at the same time many were only." affected even to tears. When, at length, After the conclusion of this peace, Mauhe arrived at his own town of Coburg, his rice, in order to prove the justice of his beloved wife Sibella-who had now thrown intentions, disbanded all the foreign troops aside the mourning robes she had worn of his army, and marched with his 3wn during the entire five years-on finding soldiers to Hungary in aid of King Ferdi. that the wish she had so often expressed nand. Philip of Hesse was liberated, and had now become fulfilled, viz., that before returned to his family and country. The she died she might see her husband re- long and severe imprisonment he had en DEATH OF MAURICE-DEATH OF ALBERT. 299 dured had humbled and depressed his in- fourteen counts, and nearly three hundred dependent spirit, and destroyed all farther of the nobility besides, were left dead on inclination for great undertakings; he em- the field, while Maurice of Saxony him. ployed the remaining years of his life in self was mortally wounded. He was conthe praiseworthy task of healing, as far as veyed to a tent erected close to a hedge, possible, the wounds inflicted during the pre- and there he received the captured banvious unhappy period ofanarchy throughout ners and papers of the margrave, which his dominions. latter he examined with all the eager cuThe emperor having, in the mean time, riosity his sinking state would permit. collected an army from Italy and Hungary, Two days afterwards he expired, exclaimmarched against Henry II., king of France, ing with his dying breath: "God will and sick and enfeebled as he was, he fol- come-!" the rest of the sentence was lowed it in a litter and commanded it at unintelligible. Although only thirty-two the siege of Mentz. But it appeared now years of age, he had already acquired as if fortune had abandoned him entirely; greater authority and commanded more the city defended itself with great obsti- influence in Germany than any one of his nacy, and however determined the em- contemporaries. Hence any farther testiperor and his army might have been to mony is unnecessary in order to prove the carry on the siege, they were nevertheless preponderating power of his genius. The compelled to yield to the severe effects of final efforts he so patriotically made for the winter, and to withdraw from its walls. the promotion and establishment of general Much discontented, Charles returned to the tranquillity, and his love for peace and orNetherlands, and commenced making pre- der, which he sealed with his own blood, parations for the next campaign, 1553. have in a great degree served to throw the This, however, as well as the two follow- mantle of oblivion over his earlier proing expeditions of 1554 and 1555, produced ceedings, and conciliated the critical voice nothing decisive for the two nations: the of public opinion. He was succeeded in French, when Charles sought to bring the electorate by his brother Augustus. them to an open engagement in the field, Albert, the restless margrave, in whom fortified themselves in their strongholds, the turbulent spirit of the times of the and the entire war limited its operations to Faustrecht was revived in all its destrucmerely devastating the provinces of the tive form, still continued, in spite of the frontiers. Charles was accordingly forced severe defeat he had suffered, to harass to transfer its achievement to his son Phi- the country. Completely reduced after lip II. this last battle, he, in his extremity, sought The treaty of Passau had produced in the aid of the king of France, and supportGermany a happy state of repose; one ed by the money he received from that man alone appeared determined not to al- monarch, he immediately began, in 1556, low its uninterrupted enjoyment-the tur- to collect fresh troops and make arrangebulent Margrave Albert of Brandenburg. ments for another campaign-or rather seHe pursued his war of pillage.and incen- ries of depredations. Happily, however, diarism against the bishops and several his death, which occurred suddenly amid cities in Franconia, Swabia, on the Rhine his warlike preparations, prevented him and Moselle, with unheard of impudence from committing further devastation. He and daring, and as at length all the warn- was likewise a prince of extraordinary ings given to him were of no avail, Duke powers, and resembled very much his anMaurice, to whom the peace of Germany cestor Albert, the Achilles of Germany; had now become more and more dear, uni- but the innate wildness of his disposition ted with Henry, duke of Brunswick, and and character generally, combined with both made a combined attack upon the the disordered state of those times, which margrave, in 1553, on the plain of Lune- destroyed all principle, however firmly burg, near Silvershausen; he having by based, had operated to give to his energies this time extended his depredations even to a direction fatally destructive. Lower Saxony. The battle was severe In the treaty of Passau it had been fixed and bloody; the margrave, however, was that a diet should be held in order to regucompletely beaten; but two sons of the late the affairs of religion, and to investiduke of Brunswick, a prince of Lineburg, gate the accusations of the Elector Maurice 300 RELIGIOUS PEACE. against the emperor. Charles himself a spiritual prince, in his own person, passed urged its assembling with great zeal, in over to the new doctrine, he should be forthorder that it might not appear as if he stood with succeeded by a Catholic." Eventuin any fear of the inquiry; but the affairs ally the Protestants were obliged to cede of Germany having now become altogether the point for the moment, but they held it equally indifferent to him, nay-and who in reserve, meantime, to be discussed on a could blame him-even odious, he confided future occasion: a subject of dispute which their direction to his brother Ferdinand, became important under the title of the who devoted all his energies with noble and " Ecclesiastical Reservation." Thus was praiseworthy zeal to the undertaking. In concluded at length, on the 26th of Sepspite of the lethargy and indolence of the tember, 1555, at Augsburg, the religious German princes, and not discouraged by peace which for a time put an end to the several vain attempts to effect his object, long contest. Free exercise of religion he at length succeeded, in 1554, in forming was granted legally to the Protestants a diet at Augsburg. A committee was throughout the whole of Germany, and they immediately named to examine and settle retained possession of all the revenues the various matters of religious contention, hitherto received from the ecclesiastical composed of the ambassadors of Austria, institutions. Neither Protestants nor CathBavaria, Brandenburg, Wurtemberg, Eich- olics were allowed to seek proselytes at the stadt, Strasburg, Juliers, Augsburg, and expense of either party, but every person Weingarten, and they all worked with sin- was permitted to freely follow his own faith. cere and laudable industry in the great And while every reigning prince was privcause. The Roman king aided them ileged to fix and establish the religion of his therein most strenuously; he removed dominions, he was not at liberty to force any every external difficulty presenting itself of his subjects to adhere to any one church in the progress of their task, and when he beyond another; on the contrary, it was learned, among other things, as is related left open to any one, who might desire to by his chancellor Zasius, " that several of do so from religious motives, to remove the spiritual princes were engaged in fruit- from one territory into another. Hence, less disputes, that they were occupied in in this respect, the progress of reform had strewing the path witF every sort of dis- not as yet attained that degree of tolerquisition and difficulty, adapted more to ance which allowed the subject professing destroy altogether even to the foundation a faith different to the established creed the building they were engaged to recon- of the country, equal rights to those enstruct, while such proceedings must pro- joyed by all the rest of his fellow-subjects. duce, on the other side, bitter and inimical Another law, however, by which the interfeelings," he dispatched Zasius and his ests of the Protestants were beneficially vice-chancellor Jonas to them, and warned promoted, was that their co-religionists them, in most grave and solemn terms, to became now likewise members of the imdesist from such a line of conduct; and in perial chamber of justice. thus acting he effected his object. After the conclusion of this religious And by proceeding, in another circum- peace, the subject-matter of the accusations stance, to act with equal firmness towards brought by Prince Maurice against the the Protestants, he caused them likewise to emperor came on for discussion in the colyield to his wishes. The point was one of lege of the electoral princes; but, to the great importance, inasmuch as they de- satisfaction of Charles, none of the other manded that the ecclesiastical body of Ger- states of the empire would join in the inmany should be at liberty to adopt the vestigation, and consequently the whole Augsburg confession, and retain at the question was abandoned. same time their offices and lands; but the The division of the two religious parties Catholic party rose in strong opposition in Germany was now established forever against it: " If this demand," they declared, by this peace. Charles, who had devoted a " was conceded, the whole of the ecclesias- great portion of his existence and power tical possessions in Germany would very towards their reunion, experienced little or soon be transferred into the hands of the no satisfaction when he contemplated the Protestants. Much rather, on the contrary, present state of things-so different to the ought the law to be thus: that as soon as objects he had in view; and consequently ABDICATION OF CHARLES V. 30. Germany had now become to him a coun- for which reason his entire reign had been try more and more indifferent and estranged. almost one uninterrupted scene of pilgrimMeantime, the war with France proceeded age and travelling; that he had been at a very slow and unsatisfactory pace, nine times to Germany, six to Spain, four and Charles was forced to witness how to France, seven to Italy, ten to the Netherincreasingly that power interfered in the lands, twice to England, twice to Africa, affairs of Germany, while his genius saw and, finally, that he had made eleven voybeforehand the influence that government- ages by sea. That now, however, his to him so hateful-would gain over Europe, sinking body warned him to withdraw from when once the power of' the Spanish-Aus- the tumult and vexation of temporal affairs, trian house became divided, and which and to transfer the burden of all these cares even now, while united under his reign, to younger shoulders. That if, during his had scarcely been able to confine that ambi- many long-tried efforts, he had neglected tious nation within its boundaries. Hence or imperfectly settled any matters of imhe already beheld all the,grand plans cre- portance, he earnestly besought the pardon ated within his comprehensive mind, either of those who might thereby have suffered; incompletely executed or altogether de- and that, finally, he himself should always stroyed, and accordingly, the greater his remember his faithful Netherlanders with desire to bring them to bear, the greater love and affection to the end of his life, was the mortification he was forced to ex- and continue to pray to God for their prosperience in the contemplation of their fail- perity."-He then turned to his son Philip, ure, and more especially did he feel this in who had dropped upon his knees and kisshis present afflicted state of body. On the ed the emperor's hand, and exhorted him other hand, the country towards which he in the most urgent and impressive manner had ever turned his eye with pleasurable, to seek by every effort in his power to genial feelings-Spain-had now found in render his reign one replete with glory; his son, Philip, a protector who possessed and overcome with fatigue and emotion, the general confidence of the nation. Ac- he sunk down exhausted upon his chair. cordingly, every thing now combined to On the 15th of January, in the ensuing strengthen the motives for the plan deter- year, 1556, his abdication of the crowns of mined upon by Charles, and which, in Spain and Italy, in favor of his son Philip, imitation of Diocletian, he had some time took place in Brussels with equal solemnihad in contemplation, viz., to abdicate his ty; and in the following August, that of throne, and end his days in the retirement the Germanic empire, in favor of his broof a monastic life. ther Ferdinand, was effected by an embasIn the autumn of 1555, he summoned sy, at the head of which was Prince Wilhis son Philip, who had shortly before mar- liar of Orange. Ferdinand assumed the ried Mary, queen of England, to Brussels, government from that moment on his own and on the 25th of October of the same authority, but was only formally acknowyear, he solemnly transferred into his hands ledged by the body of electoral princes in the dominion of the Netherlands. This the beginning of the year 1558, at Frankceremony took place in the same hall in fort, where he swore to the stipulated terms which forty years before Charles had been of his election, and the imperial crown was declared of age. Here, when all were solemnly placed on his head by the archassembled, the invalid emperor, having chancellor of the empire, the Elector Joawith great difficulty risen from his seat, chim of Brandenburg, which, together with and supporting himself upon the shoulders the sceptre, had been brought from Brusof Prince William of Orange, addressed sels at Charles's desire, by the imperial the princes and nobles in a speech so touch- deputation. ing, that all were deeply affected, some Charles embarked with his two sisters even to tears. He declared, " that since for Spain, on the 17th of September, 1556, the seventeenth year of his age, his whole and he kept them with him until he reached thoughts had been occupied in promoting Valladolid; there he parted from them, the glory of his empire; that he had been and now left entirely alone, he proceeded always anxious to be personally present in to a small building near the convent of St. all his undertakings, that he might be an Just, belonging to the order of St. Jerome, eye.witness of their progress and results, situated in the beautiful country of Estre 302 DEATH OF CHARLES V.-FERDINAND I. madura, and which he had caused to be built expressly for himself. Here he now CHAPTER XXI. dwelt until his death, two years afterwards; u h, Ferdinand I., 1556-1564-His industrious Habits —Modliving quite alone, not even seeing his sis- eration and Tolerance-The Calvinists and Lutherters. His hours were divided between ans-Their Hostility towards each other-Ferdinand p ious meditation i and Protestantism-The Foundation of the Order of pious meditation and mechanical inven- Jesuits by Ignatius Loyola, 1540-its rapid and unitions, to which latter occupation he was much versal Dissemination-The Council of Trent-Ferat e hl, ho.w l,. c e. i dinand's Ambassadors-Their Propositions refusedattached; he, however, still continued in Their Letter to the Emperor-Death of Ferdinand I., correspondence with his son, and interested 1564-Maximilian II., 1564-1576-His Qualifications and good Character-Bohemia-Poland —State of himself in the affairs of Spain. He, like- Tranquillity-William of Grumbach in Franconiawise, employed himself in his garden His Revolt and Excommunication-Gotha-The young Prince of Saxony-Joins Grumbach-His perwhich he took great pleasure in cultivating. petual Captivity and Death in Styria-Grumbach's It is related of him that he once made two Execution-The mercenary Troops-Evils they proIt IS ee oe m e duce-German Soldiers in Foreign Service-Death watches, upon which he bestowed much of Maximilian II., 1576-Rudolphus II., 1576-1612ingenuity and labor, and placing them to- His Indolence and Irresolution-Bad Counsellorsingenuity and labor, nd placing them to- Religious Excitement renewed-The Netherlandsgether on the table, he endeavored to make The Duke of Alba-The Elector Gebhard of Cologne them go exactly alike. Several times he and Agnes of Mansfeld, Canoness of GerresheimGebhard excommunicated-John Casimir the Count thought he had succeeded in his object, but Palatine-Calvinism-Donauwerth-Austria —Ruall in vain-the one went too fast, the other dolphus against the Protestants-Deprives them of all in vain —the one went too fast, the other oltheirChurches-Hungary-Revoltof Stephen Botschtoo slow. At length he exclaimed: " Be- kai-The Emperor an Astrologist and AlchymistT.Ithe work of.Neglects his Government more and more-Tycho hold, not even two watches, the work of Brahe and Keppler-Rudolphus resigns Hungary to my own hands, can I bring to agree with his brother Matthias-Bohemia-The Letter of Majesty-The Palatinate-The Evangelical Union-Jueach other according to a law, and yet, liers-Henry IV. of France joins the Union-The fool that I was, I thought I should be able Catholic League-Prague-Revolt-The Emperor a -1.1 ~~~~~ s. > Prisoner-His Death, 1612. to govern, like the works of a watch, so many nations, all living under a different FERDINAND, when he became sovereign, sky, in different climes, and speaking a continued to exhibit the same spirit of different language!" peace and justice he had shown during the Finally, shortly before his death, in reign of Charles V. All his actions and order to celebrate in the most awe-striking his whole character expressed a special manner the renouncement of life, and the goodness of heart, and the most kindly inmortification and corruption of all sense clinations. Experience had rendered his and feeling, he caused a solemn rehearsal mind more and more mature and settled, to be made of his own funeral. Being while he never swerved from his word, and placed in the coffin he had already pre- occupation and activity were to him so pared, the monks of the neighboring con- necessary, that his vice-chancellor, Walvent carried him in solemn procession to dersdorf, says of him: "His club might the church, where they performed over have been more easily wrested from the him the service of the dead. It was now hands of Hercules, than affairs of business that the mortal fever which had been so from the emperor." He had read with long raging in his body broke out. Medi- great attention when a youth, the celebracine it was useless to offer him, his only ted work by Erasmus on the education of desire being now totake the holy sacrament, princes, and he knew almost by heart the which he received from the hands of the treatise of Cicero on our duties. archbishop of Toledo. Shortly afterwards This excellent prince, who was a Cathhe died, on the 21st of September, 1558, in olic with his whole soul, and in his last the fifty-sixth year of his age. will addressed the most urgent exhortations In his youth, and before he was bowed to his sons, to be firm and constant to the down with illness, Charles was of a noble ancient and true religion, as their ancesmanly figure, full of majesty and dignity. tors had been before them, including the He spoke but little, and a laugh or smile Roman emperors and kings, as likewise was rarely seen upon his countenance, the glorious princes of Austria and Burwhich was extremely pale; the color of gundy, together with the kings of Spain — his hair was blond, and his eyes blue; and whence they had drawn down upon themin his whole appearance there was a mix- selves the blessing of God-this prince, ture of the Flemish and Spanish charac- nevertheless, maintained and cherished ter. within his heart a firm and unchanged tol. THE CALVINISTS AND LUTHERANS. 303 erance and generosity towards those of a difficult it is for the human mind to maindifferent opinion, which is innate in every tain itself within the strict limits of mod. well-disposed mind. In his own hereditary eration, and when it has exceeded them to lands the new doctrine spread more and resume its former equanimity. Instead of more, owing principally to the great want entering upon those calm and peaceful refelt there for educational institutions, which searches so desirable to enlighten the mind, obliged all those who were desirous of giv- or those Christian discussions in which the ing education to their children, more espe- first principle is to pay homage to truth, cially the nobility and higher classes, to they rendered Christianity the vehicle of send them in foreign countries, and gene- the most furious passion, and employed it rally in preference to the university of as a vent of the severest language against Wittenberg, which was distinguished above each other-produced often by the critiall the rest for its learning and science. cism of a sentence and even of a word. Nevertheless, it never for a moment enter- The emperor Ferdinand was but too cored the mind of the emperor that it was rect, too well justified when, in his will, to necessary to prevent this from taking which we have already referred, he thus place; on the contrary, he only sought the expressed himself to his sons upon the submeans to produce reconciliation and union, ject of the numerous Protestants of his and for this purpose he was especially time: " While, instead of being of one mind anxious to avail himself of the councilof among each other, they are so disunited, Trent. so unenlightened in their opinions and feelReligious peace had, it is true, restored ings, how can they be assured that what the tranquillity of the empire externally; they put so much faith in is good and just? but internally, after such mighty storms, It is not the many beliefs, but only the one it could only proceed with difficulty and that can hold good. As they themselves, by slow degrees. The two parties con- therefore, do not deny that they have tinued to watch each other with fear and among them so many different beliefs, doubt; and the most absurd reports as to the God of truth cannot surely be with their hostile intentions were eagerly caught them." at and believed by either side. "If a It has often been matter of astonishment, prince happens to take into his service," that the Protestant doctrine did not spread says Zasius, the emperor's chancellor, with equal rapidity throughout the whole " either a general or a cavalier, then dis- of Germany, considering the favorable distrust is immediately awakened; and every position evinced by the people to receive rustling leaf gives rise to suspicion." it; but the enigma is in a great measure The division among the Protestant party explained by the speedy degeneration of added materially to that already existing Protestantism itself. How was it to be exin Germany. The Calvinists, who, coming pected that a doctrine which so soon disfrom Switzerland and France, became solved into a frivolous, spiritless dispute of more and more distributed throughout the words, and the converts to which overempire, gained increasing numbers of ad- whelmed each other with maledictions, herents, and were objects of hatred to the could possibly succeed in gaining the Lutherans, while the latter were equally hearts of the multitude? On the contrary, so to the former. Among the princes the many parties were found in various direcelector palatine was the first to declare in tions, who, having gone over to the cause, their favor. The Lutherans, however, di- in the course of a short time abandoned it, vided themselves into two parties, that of and returned to their ancient faith. the moderate and that of the extreme party. Another great obstacle to the rapid proThe former followed the spirit and princi- gress of the stream was, at this moment, ples of Melanchthon, the latter held to the presented in the institution of the order of very letter the doctrine of Luther, for Jesuits, founded in 1540 by a Spaniard, which they battled with fiery zeal, because Ignatius Loyola, a man glowing with zeal, they venerated that alone, and believed and of a very profound mind. This orthey possessed its whole nature in words der, which was established more properly and forms. All those who at this time with the object of supporting the pontifical raised their voices so loudly in the Protest- chair, spread its principles more and more ant church, only gave another proof how widely throughout the whole of Europe. 304 THE JESUITS-COUNCIL OF TRENT. Its constitution was based upon the unity been less devoted to external matters; if and powerful co-operation of its members, they had been more limited to the dominand the most rigid obedience was its law. ion of the mind; if the morality of the orThe head of the order lived in Rome; to der had been equally simple and sincere him were addressed, with the most minute in proportion as its wisdom was great and detail, the reports made by the directors or comprehensive; and if it had not attemptchief agents established in the provinces, ed to grasp with invisible hand at the diand who again had under their control rection and government of states, then the many sub-agents: thus descending gradu- entire world of Catholicism would have ally to the last member, whence the entire had just cause to bless unanimously its fraternity were governed by one spirit. memory. We shall have occasion more The superiors examined each member's than once in the course of our history to qualifications strictly, and during a suffi- refer to the influential actors belonging to cient length of time to enable them to place this order, whose operations in important him in the office considered by the order moments produced great effect. as the most calculated to promote its views. The emperor Ferdinand already learned Thus was formed a finely woven net, the to know their influence in the most clear meshes of which were laid with cunning and decided manner at the Council of Trent, and sagacity, and extended all over Eu- although to his disadvantage. Matters did rope. When, in 1540, Loyola received not proceed here as he wished. In order the approbation of the pope, he had ten dis- to appease the minds of his subjects in his ciples; in 1608, they numbered more than hereditary lands, and in the hope, perhaps, ten millions, and in 1700, they had aug- of being able to avoid all division, he caused mented to twenty millions. As the mem- his ambassadors at the council to argue bers of the order were exempt from all ec- with great zeal in favor of certain proposiclesiastical functions, and, indeed, even tions, whence he anticipated the most hapfrom clerical duties altogether, they were py results. These points embraced the enabled to devote their whole time to service of the holy communion under both science, and thus it resulted that they soon forms and the marriage of priests, the sancincluded in their ranks a considerable tion of which depended, as he said, only upnumber of excellent teachers and writers, on the indulgence of the church. The am. distinguished preachers, enthusiastic mis- bassadors, likewise, of France and Bavasionaries, and professors of every depart. ria spoke on the same side, and the latter ment of science. It was they who were especially, concluded their arguments thus: enabled to enter the lists against the Pro- " We can assure this assembly, with the testants, defending the Catholic system most sincere and conscientious feeling, that with all their zeal, and rivalling them in nothing could or would prove more serpowers of spiritual eloquence from the pul- viceable and beneficial at the present mopit. All their efforts were directed against ment, towards reconciling the minds of the new doctrine; they worked against it, Christians with each other, terminating the whether in the character of confessors and disputes of religion, preserving our own governors of princes, or teachers among party in their faith, and restoring to it the people; and the efficient management, those that may have deserted from it, than produced by the cordial co-operation so the accordance of these legitimate and zealously exercised by the order, rendered Christian demands of the emperor's ambastheir exertions successful. This institu- sadors." But an equitable and acute tion, indeed, promoted materially the de- judgment upon the subject of our affairs velopment of modern ages. It must not was not to be expected from an assembly be forgotten that, in its day, this order ren- composed for the greater part of foreigners dered essential service in the education of and men totally unconversant with that youth; and if the civilization of the Cath- which was peculiar to Germany, and what olic world in subsequent times has become was best adapted for it under those circumfar more perfect, and has ranked far above stances; this, indeed, is sufficiently conthat existing at the end of the middle ages, firmed by the reports made to the emperor it is to be ascribed alone to the exertions by his ambassadors, among whom were of the society or order of Jesuits. If, there- four bishops: "We now behold quite fore, the operations of its members had clearly," they write, " and the facts stare DEATH OF FERDINAND I.-MAXIMILIAN II. 305 us in the face, although we can scarcely It is in this field of the service of God that bring ourselves to acknowledge it without all parties are united; it is the same for real pain and mortification, that nothing all, and indicates equally to all the means can be effected here without having re- by which they may show themselves to be course to intrigue. The Spaniards will true Christians in mind, word, and deed. not swerve an inch from the instructions The council closed its sitting on the 9th of their king, while the Italians watch with of December, 1563; and shortly aftereager eye the slightest signification made wards the emperor Ferdinand died, on the by the pope and his cardinals. The bish- 15th of July, 1564, in the sixty-second ops from the other countries, who per- year of his age. The convincing testichance are best aware of the present state mony in his favor recorded in history is, of things, comprise the minority, and con- that during the difficult period when hatred sequently can do nothing; because the and violence so often decided opinions, he, majority of voices decide all things. nevertheless, carried with him to his grave From Germany itself we have only had the glory of being praised as an excellent the bishop of Louvaine, who attends in the monarch by all parties, Catholics as well name of the archbishop of Salzburg, and as Protestants. a few days since he was joined by the Ferdinand had already proposed his grand-vicar of Eichstadt. On the other eldest son, Maximilian, as his successor, hand, the Italian archbishops and bishops at the assembly of electoral princes in continue to arrive in troops, especially such Frankfort, in 1560, and they had acknowas are highborn and wealthy. All, how- ledged him as such. The father recomever, are dependent upon the nod of the mended his son in language worthy of pope's legate Simonetta; while it is gen- record: "Endowed," he says, "with con — erally known that a few good and pious siderable intellectual powers, great ad-. bishops who spoke warmly in favor of a dress, mildness, and goodness of heart, hereform in the church, have, in consequence, is likewise gifted with all the other prince-. been marked down in Rome on the con- ly virtues and good morals; possessing a. demned list. If, therefore, no end be put disposition open to all that is truly just, to these secret machinations and human good, and honorable, together with a sinpassions, truly we know not what good can cere love for the holy empire of the Gerbe expected from this quarter." man nation, the glory and prosperity of Such complaints were repeatedly made, which it was his earnest desire to promote. and thence this last effort made by the Finally, he was master of the six princiemperor Ferdinand to restore the peace of pal languages usually spoken in ChrisChristendom by a searching investigation tendom, and was consequently enabled to, of ecclesiastical affairs, made under the regulate in person all transactions with sanction of the Church, completely failed. foreign powers." Another honorable tes — The cause of this ill success, however, timonial was rendered him by his Bohewas the same as that which had prevailed mian subjects when they recommended' at Constance, and which rendered all at- him to the Poles as their king: " Our Botempts of the same kind-suggested by the hemia," they said, " is far better under his German representatives with the most sin- government than if it were ruled even by cere and honest intentions-perfectly use- a father born among us; our rights, our less. This evil consisted in the mixture liberties, and our laws are protected by of foreigners presiding at these councils, him; he allows every thing to take its. whose knowledge of our nation was little course without making any change. And or nothing, but whose influence, from the what we justly regard as almost a work of commencement of our history, in all ex- miracle, is the generous impartiality and ternal as well as internal affairs, always tolerance he evinces towards all classes deprived us of peace. of believers, by which he leads them toMeantime, however, the council of Trent, reciprocal love and harmony." And let besides a great number of dogmatical de- it be remembered, that he exercised thiscisions, has pronounced some most excel- spirit of peace in a period when the word lent principles upon the morals of Chris- tolerance was scarcely understood or pertianity, which operate even to this day as haps known; nay, he publicly avowed therules in the doctrine of the Catholic church. principle, " that God alone could hold do39 306 THE FAUSTRECHT. minion over the conscience." Such was then taken to Styria, in Austria, where he the glorious character of this emperor, and died after a close imprisonment of twentyit was by meritorious and praiseworthy eight years;,Grumbach, however, was conduct such as this, after the example of executed at once by being torn into quarhis good father, that he happily succeeded ters by four horses, after having previously in establishing generally, throughout Ger- undergone the most dreadful torture. many, that tranquillity which, until that In lieu, however, of the Faustrecht, moment, it had never enjoyed since the re- which contributed so much to degenerate ligious divisions; a circumstance rendered the art of war under the feudal system, still more striking, as it was effected at a other evils, caused by those who regarded period when, in the cause of religion, vio- war merely in the light of a lucrative lent and sanguinary scenes were taking employment, now produced much calamity place in the Netherlands, and more espe- throughout the empire, as if to make the cially in France, where the most dreadful people feel the injurious results of all miliacts were committed, and the universal tary institutions in which every free man massacre (on the eve of St. Bartholomew) is not required to arm and fight for his of the Protestants, excited a feeling of hor- country. Those troops of mercenaries ror throughout Europe. whose reckless ravages commence the moThe imperial chamber of justice, origin- ment they have sold themselves to a parally instituted for the purpose of eradi- ticular standard; the numerous depots escating the system of the Faustrecht, now tablished for recruiting and mustering the succeeded completely in gaining the upper men; the continual marching to and fro in hand, and abolishing forever that brutal all parts of the land; together with the law. We find that the last expiring effort billeting of the wild and uncouth men made to exercise its power was attempted thus suddenly collected together-all comabout this time by a Franconian knight, bined to create great discontent and irritaWilliam of Grumbach, who, with the re- tion. The same complaints were now mains of the savage horde formerly col- made as in the time of Maximilian I. In lected by Albert of Brandenburg, resumed the representations made by Maximilian operations in Franconia and spread devas- II. to the diet, he says: " The present tation in different parts of that country. system pursued by our German soldiersHis attacks were more especially directed in former times, distinguished beyond those against the territory of the bishop of Wurz- of any other nation for their discipline, burg, and which prelate he actually shot loyalty, and devotion-renders them more in his own city. The imperial chamber fit to be regarded in the character of barpronounced the ban of the empire against barous savages; so much so that in the end the murderer, who took to flight and sought their wanton and dissolute conduct will be refuge in Gotha at the hands of the son of carried on to such an extent that no honest the unfortunate Elector John Frederick. man will be able to remain in his dwelling, He had succeeded, it appears, in filling nor will either house or farm be left longer that young and weak-minded prince with in possession of their owner."'hopes of being able to reconquer for him These complaints were met by creating the electorate of Saxony, and he was thus new and more stringent laws for the discithe means of leading the young duke to pline of the army; but the adoption of the experience a fate far more distressing than most essential means of reform, and which that undergone by his father. The Elector had been suggested by the emperor himself, Augustus, the brother of Maurice, march- viz., the prohibition against the enlistment ed with his army to execute the imperial of troops in Germany by foreign princes, ban, laid siege to Gotha during the entire was not agreed to. The princes maintainwinter, until both the duke and Grumbach ed: " That from time immemorial to serve were reduced to the necessity of surren- for the honor and distinction of accomplishdering themselves. The young prince was ing chivalrous feats at arms in the armies conveyed a prisoner to Vienna, where, on of foreign princes, had ever continued to his arrival, a straw hat was placed on his be regarded as an honorable privilege of head, and he was led through the streets in national liberty, so long as such practice an open cart as a show, amid the mockery caused no injury to their native country and derision of the populace. He was and that if this custom was abolished, the RUDOLPHUS II.-RELIGIOUS EXCITEMENT. 307 warlike spirit of the empire would be an- Philip and the merciless duke of Alba,* nihilated at once, and in the moment of for the sake of its religious liberty, prodanger no warriors would be at hand duced not only the greatest excitement to aid in the general defence." In this throughout Germany, on the frontiers of language may be traced that of the time which the most dreadful scenes took place, of Tacitus, when the youth of Germany, but transferred by degrees the horrors of during the period of peace in their own war and rapine to the empire itself, whither tribe, incited to deeds of valor, entered the the Spanish army, impelled by disease and ranks of such other races as at that mo- want, took refuge, and retreating from the ment were engaged in war with each other. Netherlands, marched into the Westphalian In 1575 the emperor Maximilian sue- territory, where it extended its devastation ceeded in having his son Rudolphus elect- throughout the land. ed king of the Romans, and he died in the In addition to this, serious events took following year in Ratisbon, on the same day place at this moment in the German portion and in the same hour that the conclusion of of the frontier countries. At Aix-la-Chathe imperial diet was made public. pelle a body of emigrants from the NetherThe long reign of his successor, Rudol- lands, with their Protestant minister, had phus II., whose government accumulated augmented the number of their adherents over Germany fresh tempests and violent to such an extent, that, emboldened by their disorder, serves as another melancholy success, they considered themselves justiproof, that in difficult times irresolution fled in claiming the same rights as those and indolence may operate with greater enjoyed by the Catholics. They chose evil than is produced even by a disposition from among their number two burgomasters, the most wicked. The emperor Rudol- and when their adversaries refused to acphus cannot certainly be reproached with knowledge their authority, they flew to arms, the latter feeling, neither can he be charg- and making themselves masters of the arseed with ignorance or mental incapacity, nal, they succeeded in obtaining what they but his mind was much more occupied demanded by force. In the neighboring with other subjects than the duties he had district of Cologne scenes of still greater to fulfil as emperor, and consequently, revolt took place. The Elector Gebhard almost every thing that occurred took place was at this time enamored with the beautiwithout his knowledge, and often against ful Agnes of Mansfeld, canoness of Gerhis wish. He was in fact in the hands, resheim, and in order to make her his wife, and entirely under the influence of bad he adopted the Protestant religion, a procounsellors. ceeding insisted upon by the counts, her The state of excitement on the subject brothers. The chapter of the cathedral and of religion, which had recently become the corporation of Cologne, immediately somewhat allayed, began now to resume appealed to Rome and the emperor, and obits former violence when the Catholic tained from both the ban of excommunicaprinces, by the advice of the Jesuits, com- tion against the archbishop. As his succesmenced the task of reforming their own sor, the chapter selected Prince Ernest of dominions by forcing their Protestant sub- Bavaria, who, by means of the Bavarian jects either to return to their ancient faith and Spanish troops, took immediate possesor quit the country. According to the sion of the land. treaty of the Augsburg peace of religion, Gebhard took refuge at first in the Neththe other princes could not venture to re- erlands, and subsequently he removed to proach or condemn them for this proceed- Strasburg, where he became dean of the ing; at the same time, however, the Pro- chapter, and died in 1601. The Protesttestants perceived but too clearly that in so ant princes quietly submitted to his depoacting the Catholics had made a violent sition and expulsion, although the acquisiattack upon their liberty of conscience, tion of a new vote in the electoral council and had given a fresh proof of their hostile intentions towards the Protestant party. * The duke of Alba boasted, on his return to Spam, France and the Netherlands presented a that he had put to death with the sword more than eighteen thousand men in the Netherlands, and he melancholy instance of the result to which vowed that he would willingly, old as he was, sacrifice these inimical acts must lead. The con- one of his own legs if the king-who was not endowed ese iniical acts must lead. e con-with too much indulgence-would only show a greater test carried on by the latter country against desire for war and its sanguinary accompaniments. 308 CALVINISM-HUNGARY. would have been to them of the utmost con- its own disciples. Subsequently, indeed, sequence. Possibly, they may have been this very dissension of Cologne produced induced to act this neutral part from their a similar contest in Strasburg, whither respect for religious peace, a principle Gebhard had withdrawn with three canboth honorable and noble; but the public ons of his chapter, Protestants like him. voice reproached them with having refused self; and the town of Donauwerth, which to assist Gebhard, because being themselves until then had remained a free imperial strict Lutherans they disapproved of his town, and had adopted the reformed adopting the Calvinistic doctrine, which principles of faith, brought upon itself the they hated almost as much as Catholicism ban of the empire on account of its reliitself. However this may be, it is quite gious disputes, and, in 1607, fell into the certain that only one prince-a Calvinist- hands of the duke of Bavaria, who exestepped forward to assist Gebhard: John cuted the sentence of excommunication pro. Casimir, the count palatine, who advanced nounced against it. with a few troops against Cologne, and But, during the reign of Rudolphus II., blockaded that city for a short time, but Austria itself was more especially the the return of the Bavarians and the want scene of great agitation and discord. Maxiof money to pay the men very soon pro- milian II. had granted to the Protestant duced their dispersion. states the free exercise of their religion, This prince, John Casimir, was a zeal. and even allowed them to supply themselves ous partisan of his church, and would hear with a form of church service which was nothing of the Lutheran doctrine, refusing prepared for them by a theologian of Rosit admission altogether into his territory; tock, David Chytraus; as, however, the whence no part of Germany suffered so emperor wished at the same time to exclude much from the melancholy effects of the theirstyleof worship fromVienna altogether, hatred of the Protestant parties as this pala- he furnished them with various churches tinate. The Elector Frederick III. had, situated in the vicinity of that city. Their previous to his decease, gone over to the number became very soon considerbaly augCalvinists; and of his two sons, the younger mented, several of their teachers, particuand before-mentioned' palatine, John Casi- larly a certain Doctor Opicius, were, very mir, adhered to his father's principles, unjustifiably, most zealous in their endeavwhile the elder, Lewis the elector, was so ors to gain over to their side all they could devoted to the Augsburg confession, that he of such as were of an opposite or different would not even allow the Calvinistic chaplain faith; and the complaints against them of his late father to pronounce the funeral growing more and more numerous, Rudoloration over his remains. In accordance with phus, swayed as he always was by the inthis hostile feeling, he deprived the Calvin- fluence of party counsellors, proceeded in ists of all their churches, and sent all their his measures against the Protestants to such clergymenr as well as teachers out of the extremes, as to deprive them altogether of country: their number amounting to more the churches so recently given to them, and than two hundred. At the premature death, withdrew from them even their right of however, of Lewis, the guardianship of his citizenship throughout all the towns of Ausson Frederick IV.. devolved upon John tria. These proceedings, however, very Casimir, whence every thing underwent an soon excited so much discontent and indigentire change; the Lutherans in their turn nation, while, on the other hand, the inwere treated as his brother had treated the ternal disorders of Hungary, together with Calvinists, and young Frederick, then only the troubles produced by the presence of nine years old, was forthwith removed from the Turks in that country, were so great, all connection with Lutheranism, and strict- that he was forced to return to measures of ly educated in the catechism of Calvin. This a more mild and pacific nature. was called Christian zealof faith! Through In Hungary itself great discontent was such zeal, however, the palatinate was produced by his government, partly beforced to change its religion three times cause he paid little or no attention to the in the course of sixty years. No wonder, affairs of that country, but more especially therefore, if the old church felt itself justi- because he not only never attended in perfled in proceeding as it did against the new son at any of the states' assemblies, and one, since the latter was so zealous against had never even once visited that kingdom, BOHEMIA-THE EVANGELICAL UNION. 309 but permitted his German soldiers to com- upper and lower portions of the Austrian mit every sort of insolence and violence territory along the Ens, together with the without control. Thence, atthe commence- kingdom of Hungary: ~' in order that this ment of the seventeenth century, a most country which, in the absence of the emserious revolt took place there, at the head peror, had endured so much during a war of which was a nobleman, Stephen Botsch- of sixteen years, might, under the governkai, who united with the Turks, and took ment of Matthias, recover its tranquillity possession of the greater portion of the and prosperity." And, in reality, this country. Nevertheless, in spite of this prince did succeed in restoring peace in dangerous state of his kingdom, the empe- Hungary, and shortly afterwards, on the ror grew more and more indifferent and death of Botschkai, in subjecting it alto. negligent, and took no longer the least in- gether to his authority. terest in its government. Celestial and Beyond his imperial dignity, nothing was natural science occupied his attention now left to the emperor Rudolphus but the much more than the affairs of his dominion, kingdom of Bohemia. The Protestant states and this application very soon brought him of this country, anxious to avail themselves into the association of those who pretended of the favorable moment in which their to teach him the prophecies of the stars and sovereign was placed without power, and at the art of making gold. Thence, while variance with the other members of his his court comprised a mixture of such de- family, left him no peace until they at ceivers, and the most learned men of the length obtained from him, in 1609, the perday-such as Tycho Brahe and Keppler- mission for the free exercise of their religion, so likewise in the mind of the emperor, the establishment of their own consistory, trivial and puerile indications became pro- the surrender of the academy of Prague, portionably confounded with sentiments of together with the right of building fiesh a nobler nature. Productions of ancient churches and schools in Bohemia, in adart, statues, chiselled stone work, as well dition to those they already possessed. This as pictures, were objects of his greatest de- important document is called the letter of light, and he devoted large sums of money in majesty, and it was this said document which their collection; while, however, on the other formed the first pretext for the thirty years' hand, his alchymical laboratory, where he war. sought to produce his manufacture of gold, Feelings of distrust and doubt had now possessed no less attraction for him, and gradually resumed their sway among the such members of his government as wished religious parties of Germany. At the same to communicate with him upon important time, the division existing in the house of and pressing affairs connected with the er- Austria, which had been the support of the pire, were often forced to extend their re- Catholics, produced a more immediate allisearches after him to the retirement of his ance between the Protestant states, and stables, where he was accustomed to pass a urged them to form a new league, offenportion of the day. This inactivity and sive and defensive. The palatine house carelessness, the revolution in Hungary, was more especially active in the promotogether with the disorders prevailing in the tion of this object, and zealously contribuhereditary Austrian provinces themselves, ted all its influence; their efforts in the could not be regarded with an eye of indif- cause, however, only produced a fatal reference by the brothers and cousins of the sult to the league, for as the palatinate ademperor, more especially as he himself had hered so closely to the Calvanistic doctrine, no family. They accordingly deliberated the Lutherans were induced to think untogether what was best to be done for the favorably of the alliance, and the majority well-being of their house, and they finally of their party refused to join it. When, concluded a treaty, in 1606, according to therefore, Frederick, the elector palatine, the terms of which Matthias, the eldest succeeded in the year 1608, after great exbrother of the emperor, was empowered to ertion, in constituting a new alliance, to restore order forthwith both in Hungary and which the name of the Evangelical Union Austria. At first, the emperor was much was given, he found himself joined only by dissatisfied with this arrangement; after a the margraves of Brandenburg, the Count few years, however, he yielded his consent, Palatine Philip Lewis, of Neuburg, the and voluntarily resigned to Matthias the duke of Wurtemberg, and the margrave of 310 HENRY IV. OF FRANCE A UNIONIST. Baden, together with the three principal ised to give the cause his support. It is cities: Strasburg, Nuremberg, and Ulm. well known with what grand projects this This union was based upon the principle monarch was constantly occupied, even to of mutual support in council and arms, and the entire transformation of the whole of its especial object was to protect religion; Europe, and how desirous he was to rethe palatine to have the direction of affairs duce the Austrian house in order to form during peace, and its term to extend to ten Europe into a federative republic, which it years. Endeavors were made to enrol was his intention should furnish one comseveral other members, and the elector of mon army wherewith to drive the Turks Brandenburg was not altogether unwilling out of Europe. His alliance with the Evanto join it, but Saxony was most decided in gelical Union had these objects in view; its refusal to do so, replying, " That if the and he fixed the year 1610 for the comnature of the affair was gravely considered, mencement of his plans against Austria. it would be found on the one hand, that the The army of the union accordingly marchunion was not at all necessary; and on the ed into Alsace in the spring of this same other, that in reality its results must be year, attacked and defeated the few thounothing else but a separation and dissolu- sands collected there by the Archduke tion of the whole empire." In truth, if the Leopold, and, in order to justify these propalatine house was really influenced in the ceedings, accused the emperor of having affair by ambitous and impure motives, it had, acted illegally in the affair of Juliers. The subsequently, but too much reason to regret emperor, it was said, according to the anit, for it suffered severely in consequence. cient right of the empire, ought not to have In the following year, 1609, an event attempted to decide this matter alone, but took place in which the Evangelical Union in conjunction with an appointed number took an immediate and active share. Duke of electoral and other princes. John William of Juliers, who possessed The sudden assumption of arms, and the the beautiful lands of the Lower Rhine, hostile measures pursued by the union Juliers, Cleves, Berg, and Mark, died the wherever their army appeared throughout 25th of March in that year, without leav- the territories of the spiritual princes, exing any children. He had four sisters, cited the most bitter feeling among the who were all married to German princes, Catholics; for their troops had now disand not only their husbands, but likewise tributed themselves throughout all the sees other distant relations, laid claim to the of the Rhine: Mentz, Treves, Cologne, inheritance, Two of the claimants, how- Worms, Spires, and others, levying contr'ever, the elector of Brandenburg, and the butions, and exercising the greatest vio. count palatine of Neuburg, took first pos- lence in every direction. The Catholics, session and signed a treaty at Disseldorf, however, now determined to unite together by which they agreed to govern the coun- likewise, and concluded an alliance at try in conjunction until the matter was Wirzburg, in 1610, for nine years against definitively settled. The emperor, however, the union, which they called the Catholic displeased with the arbitrary conduct of League. The members it comprised inthese two,princes, sent his brother, the cluded all the spiritual princes, together Archduke Leopold, bishop of Passau, in with the princes of the house of Bavaria; order to take possession of the land as a and in order to ensure uninterrupted unity vacant fief of the empire. He arrived among them, the chief direction over the with some troops, but could gain nothing entire body was confided into the hands of more of the country than the city and for- Maximilian, duke of Bavaria. Thus this tress of Juliers, where he was admitted by Catholic League was rendered much more the governor; he, however, caused fresh firm than the Evangelical Union, which, bodies of soldiers to be raised in Alsace, not having any especially chosen head and resolved to maintain the rights of the during the war, was forced to appoint a emperor by force. The Evangelical Union, general, to which honor, as they all confinding the house of Austria mixing itself sisted of lay princes, each considered him. up in this affair, came forward and pre- self entitled. In other respects the Cathopared to march to the aid of the two princes lic League was based nearly upon the thus threatened; while Henry IV. of same principles as the Evangelical Union. France now joined the league, and prom- This league now took to arms likewise; DEATH OF RUDOLPHUS II.-MATTHIAS I. 311 but as Henry IV. of France was assassi- General Discontent-Austria-Aix-la-ChaeUlle-Conated about this time, the members of the loge-Theector of Brande-Palatine Wolfgang William, and the Elector of Brandenburg-Their Quarrel-Box on union showed themselves more disposed to the Ear-Baneful Consequences-Foreign Alliesterminate matters in an amicable wav, and The young Archduke Ferdinand-Elected King of Bohemia-Hi s Character-His Devotion to Catholiboth parties shortly afterwards laid down cism and Hatred of the Protestants-Banishes the ^~~~~their arms*~ ^New Faith from his Lands'-The Electoral Princestheir tarms. Ferdinand warned against his Proceedings by the The old emperor embittered his few re- Elector of Saxony-Bohemia-The Letter of Mamain ing years with vexatious quarrel s with djesty shamefully infringed —lthe Protestant Churches maining years with vexatious quarrels with destroyed-Indignation and Revolt of the Protesthis family. He was much dissatisfied with ants-Their Defender, Count Matthias of ThurnCounts Martinitz and Slavata-Their Hostility to the his brother Matthias, nor was he indeed Protestants-Prague-The Council-Hall-Martinitz attached to any other of his relations ex- and Slavata thrown out of the Window-General Revolution-The Emperor's Alarm and Desire for cept the aforesaid Archduke Leopold, bish- Peace-Ferdinand's Declaration in Reply-Comop of Passau. He felt, therefore, desirous mencement of the Thirty Years' War-Count Ernest *' i of Mansfeld, the Leader of the Protestants-His of giving him his kingdom of Bohemia- great Military Genius and Heroic Character-Death the last in his possession-aand in the year of Matthias I., 1619-Ferdinand II., 1619 to 1637Count Thurn and the Bohemians in Vienna-Sur1611, according to a plan calculated very round the Emperor in his Palace-Ferdinand unexbadly for the promotion of his object, he pectedly rescued-The Bohemians depose him-The badly for the promotion of his objelector-Palatine Frederick V., Son-in-lawofJames empowered him to march with his troops I. of England, King of Bohemia, 1619-His Irresolu-'frm Pfas~sai and pnpr Bohemia at their tion and Pusillanimity-Ferdinand and Maximilian from Passau and enter Bohemia at their of Bavaria-Their Alliance-Superiority of the Imhead. The states of the kingdom, who perialists over the Bohemians-Battle of Weissennerg, near Prague, 1620 —'T'he Bohemians defeated naturally imagined that in this proceeding and their King put to flight-His Abdication-Prague hostile intentions were directed against capitulates-Bohemia severely punished by Ferditheir religion, took to arms, and making the nd-Thirty thousand Famiies banished theCounemperor a prisoner in his own castle of Prague, they summoned to their aid Mat- MATTHIAS, the eldest brother of the late thias, who for a considerable time had cal- emperor, was now chosen successor to the culated upon the crown of Bohemia. He imperial crown, and was crowned at Frankobeyed their call at once, and entered the fort, on the 24th of June, 1612. The cerecity amidst their acclamations, while Ru- mony was performed amid a display of dolphus was obliged, after a bitter and stately pomp and splendor such as had not mortifying negotiation, to yield the crown been witnessed for a length of time-if, to his brother. It is said, that during this perhaps, at all. All the electors, except time of trouble, and in the irritation of the the elector of Brandenburg, were present, moment, he burst open the window of his and a host of the other princes of the emroom and exclaimed, in words fatally pro- pire. " It seemed," says an historian, "as phetic-as they turned out: " Prague, un- if they had assembled in such numbers in grateful Prague! through me you became order to take a final leave of each other, elevated, and to-day you ungratefully de- for after this occasion they never again sert and turn your back upon your benefac- collected in a body so numerous." Mattor! May you be pursued by the vengeance thias himself had in his suite alone three of God, and may His curse fall upon you thousand persons, two thousand horses, and and throughout Bohemia!" one hundred carriages, drawn each by Of all his crowns, the last and only one four horses; and the other princes apremaining to him now was.that of the em- peared equally well attended, in proportion pire; death, however, which soon after- to their means. Festival succeeded festiwards delivered him from all his troubles, val, and foreigners, witnessing all the saved him likewise from the final disgrace grand and brilliant scenes that passed, and of resigning this, which mortification, it is all the joy and hilarity that everywhere but too probable, he would have been forced prevailed, must have regarded Germany as to undergo; he died on the 20th of Janua- the first country in the world, especially ry, 1612, aged sixty years. when they beheld this assemblage of all its princes thus met in, apparently, friend~ —*< — ~ ly association. But behind this galaxy of royal and noble personages hovered the C H A P T E R X X II. spirit of dissension; the profound observer Matthias I., 112-1619-His Coronation-Its Pomp and might have recognised in the joy expressed Splendor deceptive-The Protestants-Increase of by the Catholics the hopes they entertained 312 ELECTORS OF COLOGNE AND BRANDENBURG. for their party, based upon the activity however, while at dinner, and heated with and firmness of the new emperor; and in wine, a dispute arose between him and the the delight evinced by the Protestants, he elector; both forgot each other, and the might have perceived the expectations they latter gave the prince-palatine a blow on formed, founded upon the illness expressed the ear. Never, perhaps, did such an in. in his appearance. Prince Christian of significant circumstance produce more Anhalt, one of the most active among grave and serious results in the history of the latter party, made rather a humorous the country; they operated upon the whole observation in reference to the double system of the empire down to the latest meaning in which this festival must be re- period of its records. The indignant prince garded: " If it should come to a dance, quitted Berlin immediately; and out of our emperor Matthias will make no very hatred to the house of Brandenburg, he high springs." allied himself with the house of Bavaria, In truth, the new emperor did not by by marrying one of its princesses, and any means show the activity and energy adopted the Catholic religion. The elector which had been anticipated from him; it of Brandenburg, on the other hand, who appeared as if he had only compelled his was in dread lest Wolfgang William, with late brother to resign his crowns in order the aid of the league or the Spaniards, to perpetuate his indolence and irresolu- should attack his portion of the Juliers tion. On the other hand, the passions of territory and wrest it from him, claimed the multitude continued to operate more the assistance of the Netherlanders, who and more seriously, and prepared the way were still at war with the Spaniards; and for those violent and disastrous eruptions in order to satisfy them and ensure their which burst forth again even during the aid, he abandoned the Lutheran church reign of Matthias. In the Austrian terri- and adopted that of the Calvinists. Actories, the religious parties, excited by cordingly, the Juliers possessions were attheir preachers from the pulpit, resumed tacked by the allies of both sides; the their violence towards each other with re- Netherlanders occupied Juliers itself, and doubled fury, all human relationship be- the Spaniards, commanded by Spinola, tween the contending parties disappeared held possession of Wesel; and thus both and became annihilated, for such hatred these armies brought into effect the decree as adheres to that which is held most sa- of the emperor pronounced against Aix-lacred in man remains the most implacable Chapelle and Miihlheim. Accordingly, of all. the dissensions throughout the empire beIn other parts of Germany, some very came more and more confirmed in their serious occurrences took place about this hostility, and the German states commenced time. Fresh disturbances broke out in forming alliances with foreign countries. Aix-la-Chapelle as well as in Cologne, be- The uneasiness and anxiety of the Protween its inhabitants and the two princes, testants became now much increased by governors of the territory of Juliers, be- the selection which was made of a succescause the latter, to the injury of the for- sor to the imperial throne. Matthias hirnmer, had raised the small town of Mihl- self, as well as his two brothers, Maxiheim, on the Rhine, to the rank of a city. milian and Albert, were without any chilIn both these cases, the emperor decided dren, and as the affairs of the empire prein favor of the Catholic party, and conse- sented no attraction sufficiently great to quently excited fresh anxiety in the minds induce the latter princes to undertake the of the Protestants. His judgment, how- government, they renounced all claim to ever, in the cause of the Miihlheim dispute the succession of the Austrian states, and would have produced but little effect, had proposed as their substitute their cousin, not both the princely houses who had pos- the young Archduke Ferdinand, who alsession of the patrimonial estates of Juliers, ready possessed Styria, Carinthia, and Carbecome divided with each other. The niola. The emperor was very much op. prince-palatine, Wolfgang William, had posed to this arrangement, but his brothers been accepted as the future husband of a were so urgent in their representations that princess of the house of Brandenburg, and he was obliged finally to yield. Accordhe paid a visit to the court of Berlin upon ingly, Ferdinand was acknowledged at the business connected with this affair. There. diet of 1617 as future king of Bohemia, and FERDINAND OF AUSTRIA KING OF BOHEMIA. 313 three weeks afterwards he was crowned sults who filled his mind while yet a as such with great pomp at Vienna. The child with such intolerant doctrines, and states demanded nothing beyond the con. which they only strengthened more and firmation of the rights they had hitherto en- more in the youth, and matured in the joyed, and the non-interference of the new man. king with the affairs of government during The young prince had no sooner become the lifetime of the emperor. lord over his states than he commenced reThis Ferdinand, in the course of his forming them, by reintroducing the anreign, became a principal cause of all the cient form of divine service. He maintained violent commotions and revolutions that the principle, that the sovereign of a counwere produced in his time, and as he has try, in order to promote one uninterrupted at all times been more or less subjected to unity of thought and action, ought not to severe condemnation or impassioned praise, tolerate more than one established religion his acts merit here a more impartial inves- in his dominions; and as, by the treaty of the tigation and equitable judgment. His edu- Augsburg religious peace, no other resource cation, which he received in the university was left to the Protestants but expatriation, of Ingolstadt, in Bavaria, was superin- he compelled those who would not join the tended more especially by the Jesuits, under ancient faith to leave the country. These the eyes of William, duke of Bavaria, a measures were very severe, as nothing can zealous Catholic, and, from his boyhood be more trying to the feelings of a truly upward, the most strict principles of Ca- sincere and conscientious man, than to be tholicism were instilled into his mind. Con- forced to quit the soil of his ancestors and sequently he firmly believed in that one the home rendered so dear to him from church, by which alone he could hope to childhood by the ties of love and affection. obtain salvation, and he held it to be the Such harsh proceedings necessarily profirst duty of his life to use every means at duced most serious consequences throughhis command, whether by the gentle power out the territories of Ferdinand. Above of reason, or by the more definite argument all others of his subjects, the inhabitants of of the sword to bring back those who had the mountainous districts were the first to renounced the faith, and support all who rise in opposition; accustomed as they adhered to it-for the salvation of the soul, were to live uninterruptedly amidst their as he had been taught, " took the prece- mountains, and existing in a state of comdence of every other human consideration." plete isolation from the rest of their fellowWhence the faithful maintenance of these subjects in the lowlands-wholly occupied principles constituted the aim and direction as they were with the grand and eternal of his whole life; he looked upon himself creations of nature around them-they as appointed by God to be the champion of scarcely troubled themselves with the scenes the Catholic church and the restorer of the of human contention and dissension occurancient faith. And of this conscientious ring beyond their native hills. They adbelief he never attempted to make the least hered, therefore, with far greater obstinacy mystery; he entered the arena openly and and firmness to their peculiar habits and honestly, and herein is presented a grand opinions, which they regarded, like the soil and noble feature in his history. For every they dwelt upon, as their hereditary birthman who undeviatingly and obstinately pur- right. Nevertheless, in the measures sues, with all the powerand energy of his na- adopted by the young prince, so much reture, that which he has recognised as just solution was combined with temper, and he and sacred, is assuredly worthy of honorable evinced so much determined seriousness, appreciation. And if Ferdinand, throughout that he succeeded in quelling the disturhis entire career, and in the error of his con- bances excited by this discontent almost viction, did continue to believe that that same before their outbreak; and although, as a God who vouchsafes to spread the light of warning, he had caused to be erected in his sun with equal mercy over nations of various parts places of execution for the every faith, was only to be worshipped in most turbulent, still tranquillity was effectone exclusive form, and persisted in his ef- ed without its being necessary to have reforts to establish with fire and sword this course to them, or even to shed a drop of said form of devotion all over the world, blood. Thence, within a few short years, those alone were answerable for such re- as if produced by a miracle, not a single 40 314 FERDINAND'S DEVOTION TO CATHOLICISM. Protestant church was left standing, nor a the danger which threatened even the proxProtestant sermon allowed to be preached imity of his own house. throughout the whole of those dominions in Since the nomination of Ferdinand as which, until then, the majority of the in- future king of Bohemia, the whole body of habitants had professed the Protestant faith. Protestants in that country very soon had Such persevering energy displayed by so reason to observe much greater activity and young a prince, very naturally excited assurance among the Catholics. Report, great hopes in the one party, while it pro- which in extraordinary times is ever more duced serious alarm in the other. The active in spreading alarm and terror than united states of Germany, and especially in ordinary periods, was now busily occuthe electoral-palatinate, beholding now, in pied in announcing the most arbitrary the elevation of Ferdinand as chief of the measures against the Protestants. "( The Austrian house, fresh cause for exertion, letter of majesty which guarantied their renewed and strengthened their bond of security and liberty, was now no longer union. They endeavored, by every means valid, it having been extorted from King in their power, to gain over to their party Rudolphus,"-such was the language of the the elector of Saxony; but all in vain. Catholics. " When King Ferdinand arHis unwillingness to join the union was, no rived," they said, " it would be found that doubt, produced principally by his dislike with their new king they would receive to the Calvinistic doctrine; but in this res- likewise new laws;" while some again olution he was also influenced by his sin- exclaimed, " Then more heads must be cere desire for the preservation of peace decapitated, and property transferred into throughout the empire-a desire participa- other hands, and many a beggar would be ted in by all the Lutheran princes, more made rich therewith," &c. In addition to particularly since the death of Maurice. this, when Ferdinand did homage in MoA letter from the elector of Saxony to the ravia, pictures were everywhere circulated Archduke Ferdinand proves, at least, that in which the Bohemian lion and the Mothis feeling was sincerely cherished by him; ravian eagle were represented bound in he therein exhorts him thus: " That as chains, while a sleeping hare, with eyes things had reached that sad state that little open, was introduced to indicate that the or no good understanding could be found to states, with their eyes widely opened as exist any longer among the states of Ger- they were, were still not able to perceive many, and all confidence had nearly van- the fate that threatened them: these, and ished, he would earnestly recommend him many similar demonstrations, augmenting to do his utmost towards the re-establish- in number as they progressed from place ment of both, if only in a partial degree. to place and mouth to mouth, excited inFor if matters continued to remain in their creasing terror and dismay in the minds of present dangerous condition, when recourse all. was had to measures of extreme severity At length a cause was soon presented rather than to those of a more mild and whereupon to base the foundation of open simple nature, it was evident these attempts hostility. In the aforesaid letter of majesty to effect a cure of the evils existing must the Protestants of Bohemia were granted lead either to the total ruin of the one or the the privilege of building new churches, but other of the two parties; or, after having the present government restricted its meancaused much sacrifice of blood, and pro- ing to the Protestant provinces of the kingduced the destruction of the country and dom, and refused its application to the its inhabitants, end in adopting that middle Catholic provinces. The Protestant party, course which might now still be made avail- nevertheless, insisted that the article inable without any violent or dangerous cluded all their co-religionists throughout means." The import of these words was the land. Accordingly, in 1617, the Prolike an announcement of future events, and testants residing in the jurisdiction of the might have opened the eyes even of Ferdi- archbishop of Prague, built for themselves nand himself to the contemplation of the a church in the small town of Clostergrab, coming struggles, if he had not held them while those in the territory of the abbot of immoveably fixed upon one point. Circum. Braunau also erected one in the latter stances, however, very soon indicated, in place. The archbishop and abbot would still more expressive and forcible colors, neither of them tolerate their existence, MARTINITZ AND SLAVATA EJECTED. 315 and they both appealed to the emperor; while many cruel acts were laid to their and as soon as ever the buildings were charge, by which they had at various times completed, the archbishop put into execu- displayed their zeal for the Catholic church. tion an imperial decree, according to which Among the rest, it was related of Martinthe church in Clostergrab was razed to itz, that he had caused his Protestant dethe very foundation, and that in Braunau pendents to be hunted out of the Catholic was closed; and as in consequence of this church on his estate, with his own dogs; arbitrary act the inhabitants of the town while of Slavata it was said, that he had rose up in opposition against it, several of compelled his people to adopt the Catholic them were cast into prison. faith by refusing to allow them the service The Protestants, however, now loudly of baptism in the church, or burial in concomplained of this violation of the letter of secrated ground. majesty, and they found a determined Rendered more indignant and furious champion for their cause in Count Matthias by these reports, the deputies of the states, of Thurn. This nobleman, who was a na- armed to the teeth, presented themselves, tive of Gratz, on the borders of Italy, but on the 23d of May, 1618, before the imwho had long since resided in Bohemia, perial governors and such of the council supported their cause and its privileges as were then assembled in the council-hall with all the warmth and zeal of his Italian of the castle of Prague, and demanded blood, and being chosen at once as defender whether or not they had been present in of the Evangelists in Bohemia, he, as such, council when the imperial document in convoked the Protestant states to meet in question, so harshly and inimically worded, Prague. Several petitions were forwarded had been deliberated upon, and if they had to the emperor, in which his majesty was voted for it? And when the governors reearnestly besought to remove the causes of plied, that in order to decide upon the ancomplaint, and to order the liberation of the swer to be given to such an important imprisoned citizens of Braunau. question, it would be necessary to have the The emperor's reply was very harshly presence of the absent members of the worded. Therein he characterized the resist- council, several of the deputies stepped ance made by the inhabitants ofBraunau and forward and exclaimed: "We know full Clostergrab as a revolt, and he condemned well that the head burgraves, Adam von the states for having occupied themselves Sternberg, and Diphold von Lobkowitz, with the affairs of citizens who to them now present, did attend during the compowere strangers, and for having held illegal sition of that hated writing, but we are meetings, and seeking, by the false reports likewise aware that they did so unwillingly, they made of the danger to which the letter and did not sanction its adoption." Sayof majesty was exposed, to alienate from ing which they advanced and conducted his majesty the love and fidelity of his sub- them into another room for safety. The jects, &c.; while the threat with which it other deputies meantime rushed upon concluded, " that the matter should be in. Count Martinitz, and dragging him to the vestigated, and each should be treated ac- window, ejected him forthwith into the cording to his merits," sufficed to produce court below. All stood now aghast and in the minds of all, excited as they already trembling; when Count Thurn, pointing were, still greater cause to anticipate and to Slavata, exclaimed to his confederates: prepare for the worst results. To this "Noble friends, yonder you behold the was now added the report that the said other!" upon which they immediately seizdocument had not issued from Vienna, but ed him and precipitated him after his colhad been prepared in Prague itself, in the league. The next doomed to the same office of the imperial governors, and more fate was the private secretary, Fabricius, especially superintended by two Catholic who was known to be the sycophant of the privy-counsellors, Martinitz and Slavata. two preceding victims. Wonderful to reThe indignation of the Protestants was now late, however, although the depth of their directed at once against them, as the more fall was more than fifty-six feet, they esimmediate objects. Both these noblemen caped with life, because, in their descent, had long been hated, because they refused they fell, happily for them, upon an imto take any part in the procuration of the mense pile of paper shavings and other letter of majesty nine years previously; soft materials; and even afterwards, when 316 THIRTY YEARS' WAR BEGUN. they were assisted to their homes, they ful, unchristian, and culpable, the grand were no less fortunate in getting clear of pretext of the rebels, that they were enthe shots that were fired at them as they gaged in the cause of religion, might be were led away. completely frustrated. For under this pre. The Bohemians endeavored to justify text they have hitherto only sought to rob this act by referring to several examples their rulers of all their rights, all their of the same kind in ancient history; among revenues, and all their subjects. If, there the rest to the period when the Romans fore, government is of divine authority, the precipitated traitors from the Tarpeian conduct of these men must originate with rock, and to the portion of the Old Testa- the devil, and it is impossible that God ment in which it is found recorded that should approve of the concessions heretoQueen Jezebel was thrown from a high fore made by the government. Possibly window for having persecuted the people He may have permitted these extremities of God. Nevertheless, they were well to come to pass in order that the rulers aware that such a plea of justification may at once break loose from this state of would not secure them against the punish- bondage to their own subjects." Accordment that must follow, unless they made ingly, it was his opinion, that nothing reimmediate preparations for self-defence. mained but to have recourse to arms. Accordingly, the castle was garrisoned From this epistle of Ferdinand we at with their own troops; all persons in office once perceive the firmness of his princitook the oath of fidelity to the states; all ples. From words he immediately prothe Jesuits, who were considered as the ceeded to action, levied soldiers in every main cause of the hostile feeling evinced quarter, and manifested such determinaagainst the Protestants, were banished from tion, that it was evident he would not suffer the country; and, finally, a council of the indecision of the emperor to thwart thirty noblemen was established for the his career. And at his instigation, and government of the land. All this indi- that of the other archdukes, backed-by the cated the determination of the people to pope, the pacific Cardinal Klesel was undefend themselves to the last, and in all expectedly arrested, and charged with a these preparations the chief mover and di- variety of crimes. The intention was to rector was Count Thurn, whose whole soul remove him from the presence of the old was devoted to the cause. and weak emperor, who was now without The emperor was not a little discon- support, and obliged to resign all to the certed when he received the news of what archdukes. From this moment the impowas passing. For whence could he re- tency of the emperor was complete, and ceive the aid necessary to put down these all hopes of an amicable pacification of revolutionary acts and restore order in Bo- Bohemia lost. hernia? Discontent, indeed, was scarcely The Bohemians, likewise, took to arms, less formidably expressed even in his Aus- and possessed themselves of every city in trian territories, while in Hungary its de- their country as far as Budweis and Pilsen, monstration was equally as serious. which were still occupied by the imperial Conciliation appeared to be the only troops. They obtained assistance, quite means of preserving to the house of Aus- unlooked-for, in the person of one who may tria that important country, and even the be regarded as one of the most remarkable confessor and usual counsellor of the em- heroes of that day, and furnishes a distinperor, Cardinal Klesel, the most zealous guished example of a single individual, opponent of the Protestants, advised that who, without territory and people, by the course. But such considerations were mere celebrity of his name, gathered round most strenuously opposed by young Ferdi- him legions of brave soldiers, and, like the nand: "It is of the utmost importance that ancient warrior-princes of Germany in the men should know," says he, in writing to time of the Romans, conducted them as his the emperor, "that God himself has ap- Gefolge or retinue, for hire and booty, pointed the troubles of Bohemia; for he whithersoever his prowesswas needed. Men has manifestly struck the Bohemians with of this character came forth at this period blindness, that by means of the direful likewise, as the signs of an extraordinary deed, which to every rational being, what- age thrown out of its usual course. Their ever his religion, must appear to be hate- armies were maintained and furnished by DEATH OF MATTHIAS I.-FERDINAND II. 317 the war; the war had to sustain itself; and face like oil." He came before Vienna, therein is the mystery explained how it con- and his men fired even upon the imperial tinued to rage on upon the German soil for castle itself, where Ferdinand, surrounded thirty years. Count Ernest of Mansfeld, a by open and secret foes, had taken up his warrior from his youth, was of a bold and quarters. He dared not leave his capital, enterprising spirit; he had already encoun- for by so doing, Austria, and with it the tered many dangers, and had just been preservation of the empire itself, must have raising some troops for the duke of Savoy been sacrificed. But his enemies looked against the Spaniards. The duke, who upon him as lost; and they already spoke now no longer required them, gave him of confining him in a convent, and educapermission to serve in the cause of the ting his children in the Protestant faith. Evangelical Union of Germany; and by At this most critical moment, when Thurn that body he was dispatched with 3000 was in the suburbs of Vienna, encamped men to Bohemia, as having apparently re- before the gate of Stuben, on the 10th of ceived his appointment from that country. June, 1619, sixteen members of the AusHe appeared there quite unexpectedly, and trian states appeared before Ferdinand, and immediately took from the imperial army vehemently demanded his consent to their the important city of Pilsen. taking arms, and to the treaty which they Meanwhile the emperor Matthias died on wished to conclude with Bohemia. Nay, the 10th of March, 1619, after having wit- their leader, Thonradel, went even so far nessed in quick succession the interment as to hold the king by the button of his of his brother Maximilian and his consort; coat, urging their demand, that he would and the Bohemians, who acknowledged his put his signature to the proposed articles, sovereignty while living, now resolved to in the most impressive manner. But just renounce his successor Ferdinand, whose then, as if by miraculous interference, five hostile intentions were already too clearly hundred of the imperial cavalry arrived in expressed. the city from Krems, and, ignorant of what Ferdinand attained the throne under cir- was passing in the castle, with a flourish cumstances the most perplexing. Bohemia of trumpets marched into the court-yard. In arms, and threatening Vienna itself with The deputies immediately retired and made invasion; Silesia and Moravia in alliance their exit in the greatest consternation and with them; Austria much disposed to unite alarm, imagining that the arrival of the with them; Hungary by no means firmly cavalry was preconcerted, and thus Ferdiattached, and externally menaced by the nand was extricated from his distressing Turks; besides which, encountering in situation.* every direction the hatred of the Protest- Count Thurn was obliged soon to return ants, against whom his zeal was undis- to Bohemia, as Prague was menaced by the guised. But in these circumstances Ferdi- armies of Austria, and Ferdinand availed nand manifested his undaunted firmness himself of this moment in order to underand courage: "Notwithstanding these im- take another hazardous and daring project. minent perils," says Khevenhiller,' this Although the Austrian provinces had not illustrious prince never desponded; he still yet declared their allegiance, and during retained his religion and confidence in God, his absence much that was untoward might who took him under His protection, and, occur, he nevertheless resolved to proceed contrary to all human expectation, deliv- to Frankfort to attend the election of emered him through this Red sea." peror. The spiritual electors had been Count Thurn advanced upon Vienna gained over; Saxony also adhered closely with a Bohemian army, and when he was to the house of Austria; Brandenburg was questioned respecting the purpose of his not unfriendly; hence the opposition of the expedition, he answered, "That he marched palatinate alone against him could accomin search of any collected bodies of troops plish nothing; accordingly Ferdinand was or people, and wherever he found them he unanimously chosen emperor on the 2Sth would forthwith disperse them. That in of August, 1619. By a strange reverse future there must be perfect equality between Catholics and Protestants, and the * Since this period, in commemoration of that imformer must not, as heretofore, hold the as- portant event, this regiment of cavalry has permission, in passing through Vienna, to ride over the Burgplatz, cendency, and, as it were, float on the sur- which others are not allowed to do. 318 FERDINAND DEPOSED IN BOHEMIA-FREDERICK V. of fortune it happened, that at the very of him who has resolved to wear a hazard. moment when, after the conclusion of the ous crown. election, he, with the electoral princes, was Ferdinand in returning from Frankfort retiring from the hall to proceed in proces- passed on to Munich, and there concluded sion to the church of St. Bartholomew, he with the duke of Bavaria that important received the intelligence of his deposition treaty which secured to him the possession in Bohemia, and which had just been made of Bohemia. These two princes had been public among the people. companions in youth, and the Evangelical The Bohemians having, on the 26th of Union had by several incautious proceedAugust, 1619, at a general assembly of the ings irritated the duke. Maximilian unstates, deposed Ferdinand, " for having, in dertook the chief command in the cause of opposition to the fundamental compact the Catholic party, and stipulated with the which he had entered into with them be- house of Austria that he should be indemfore the emperor's death, intermeddled with nified for every outlay and loss incurred, the administration of state affairs, intro- to the extent even, if necessary, of the surduced war into Bohemia, and concluded a render of the territories of Austria itself treaty of alliance with Spain to the preju- into his hands. dice of the liberty of the country;" they With Spain also the emperor succeeded proceeded at once to another election. in forming an alliance, and the Spanish The Catholics proposed the duke of Savoy general, Spinola, received orders to invade and Maximilian of Bavaria, while, in the the countries of the palatinate from the Protestant interest, the Elector John George Netherlands. of Saxony, and Frederick V. of the pala- Subsequently the elector of Mentz artinate, were put forward. The latter ob- ranged a convention at Miihlhausen with tained the election, being a son-in-law of the Elector John George of Saxony, the King James I. of England, from whom elector of Cologne, and the Landgrave they expected assistance, and who person- Lewis of Darmstadt, wherein it was deterally was regarded as resolute, magnani- mined to render all possible assistance to mous, and generous. The incorporated the emperor for the maintenance of his provinces of Moravia, Silesia, and Lusatia, kingdom, and the imperial dignity. supported the election, and even the Cath- Frederick, the new Bohemian king, was olic states of Bohemia pledged their fidelity now left with no other auxiliary but the and obedience. Frederick was warned EvangelicalUnion; for the Transylvanian against accepting so dangerous a crown by prince, Bethlen Gabor, was, notwithstandSaxony, Bavaria, and even by his father- ing all his promises, a very dubious and in-law; but his chaplain Scultetus, and uncertain ally, while the troops he sent his own consort Elizabeth, who as the into Moravia and Bohemia were not unlike daughter of a king aspired to a royal crown, a horde of savage banditti. Meanwhile the persuaded him with all their influence to union commenced its preparations for war accept it. Frederick was accordingly ruled as well as the league. The whole of Gerby them, received the regal dignity in Bo- many resembled a grand depot for recruithemia, and was crowned at Prague with ing. Every eye was directed to the Swagreat pomp on the 25th of October, 1619. bian district, where the two armies were He considered it to be his duty, as he him- to meet; there, however, at Ulm, on the self says, not to desert those of his own 3d of July, 1620, they unexpectedly enterfaith by whom he had been appointed. If ed into a compact, in which the forces ot this youthful king of twenty-three years of the union engaged to lay down their arms, age had possessed the strength of mind re- and both parties pledged each other to quisite for a successful prosecution and preserve peace and tranquillity. The accomplishment of the work, history would unionists felt themselves too weak to mainhave ranked him among those daring men, tain the contest, since Saxony was now who, relying upon their own internal re- likewise against them, and Spinola threatsources, never hesitated to venture upon ened them from the Netherlands. It was, great and noble enterprises; but fate had however, a great advantage for the emdecided against him, and in adversity he peror, that Bohemia was excluded from failed to show that energy and presence of this treaty, for now the forces of the league mind which must ever be at the command were at liberty to aid him in subjugating BOHEMIA-BATTLE OF WEISSENBERG. 319 his royal adversary. Maximilian of Ba- taken by the enemy. Frederick himself, varia, therefore, immediately took his de- who, at the commencement of the battle, parture, and on his way reduced the states was quietly seated at his dinner-table, of Upper Austria to the obedience due to which he would not leave, saw its termiFerdinand, joined the imperial army, and nation only at a distance from the ramparts made a spirited attack upon Bohemia. On of the city, and with it lost all the little resthe other side, the elector of Saxony took olution he still retained. Against the adpossession of Lusatia in the name of the vice of a few of his more intrepid friends, emperor, after lying four weeks before he on the following night, with Count Thurn Bautzen, which he subdued after a smart and some others of his suite, fled from resistance. Prague-which otherwise might still have Frederick of Bohemia felt now the dif- defended itself-into Silesfa;there, howficulty of his situation; nevertheless, with ever, he could not resolve to stay, although the aid of a faithful and courageous people, he might have rallied his' friends around who had already two hundred years before him, but fled still farther into Holland, and defended their country in the Hussite wars dwelt there without a kingdom, and with. against the combined power of Germany, out courage to reconquer it-maintained at he might still have maintained his ground. the expense of his father-in-law, the king But, either from ignorance or indifference, of England. The emperor, however, prohe failed completely in gaining the con- nounced the imperial ban of excommunicafidence of the nation. His life was care- tion against him, in consequence of which less and his time wasted in extraneous mat- all his estates were confiscated. ters, and his mind without that inward dig- Prague at once yielded submission; the nity of self-possession and calm reflection whole of Bohemia, except Pilsen, which so necessary at a moment so portentous; Mansfeld bravely defended, followed the while he even made the Bohemians sub- example; the countries of the palatinate servient to his German counsellors and were occupied by the Spaniards, under generals. The Bohemian nobility, who Spinola, and the union, alarmed at their had in fact brought about and directed the proximity, was, in 1622, quite dissolved. entire movement, availed themselves of Like the Schmalkaldian league it termitheir preponderating influence for their own nated ingloriously, and both were, through advantage, inflicted great injury upon the a concurrent fatality, destroyed by the incitizens in their trade, and transferred to fluence of the Netherlands; for it was by them and the rural districts the whole means of the Netherland troops under Count weight of taxation. There was one gen- Buren that formerly Charles V. became the eral complaint against the imposts and vanquisher of that league. the burden and oppression of the soldiery, Sad for Bohemia was the punishment besides which the Calvinistic party, by which the emperor now inflicted upon the their ecclesiastical domination, annoyed country. During the first three months no less the Lutherans than the Catholics. nothing took place, but many of the fugiFrederick was not able to govern these tives having meantime returned, forty-eight conflicting elements, and this weakness leaders of the Protestant party were sudeffected his ruin. denly taken prisoners, on the same day As the imperialists advanced, the Bohe- and in the same hour, and, after a judicial mian forces marched into Prague and in- investigation, twenty-seven of their number trenched themselves on the Weissenberg were condemned to death; of whom three (white mountain) near the city. But be- belonged to the nobility, seven were knights, fore the intrenchments were concluded, the and the others citizens. The property of Austrians and Bavarians advanced and those condemned was confiscated, as well gave battle at once, as Maximilian's impa- as that of the absentees, who were declared tience would not suffer the event to remain traitors, among whom Count Thurn was undetermined for a single hour. And in included. Afterwards by degrees all the less than an hour the fate of Bohemia was Protestant clergymen were banished from decided. Frederick's troops, in spite of the the country, and finally, in 1627, it was bold resistance made by several companies, declared to all nobles, knights, and citizens, were beaten, and the whole of his artillery, that no subject would be tolerated in Bohetogether with one hundred standards, were mia who did not adhere to the Catholic 320 MILITARY EXPEDITIONS IN GERMANY. church. It is calculated that the number upon the adoption of extraordinary measof families who at this time were forced to ures. leave Bohemia amounted to thirty thou- Accordingly, he collected quite unex. sand; they for the most part resorted to pectedly, after having left Pilsen, new Saxony and Brandenburg. The lot of Si- troops, and declared that he would still lesia was much more fortunate, for through farther maintain the cause of Frederick the intervention of the elector of Saxony it against the emperor. In a short time he obtained the establishment of its religious had an army of about 20,000 men, and and civil liberties and a general amnesty, obliged the forces of the league, under the securing Protestantism within its borders. Bavarian general, John Tserklas Tilly, (raised by the emperor, since 1623, to the dignity of count,) to keep the field against him. By rapid and well-planned marches he deluded his antagonist, and in his course spread desolation among the Catholic bishC I A PTER XXIII. oprics of Franconia, Wirzburg, Bamberg, and Eichstadt, together with those of Spires, Military Expeditions in Germany, 1621-1624-Generals Worms, and Mentz on the Rhine; and, Mansfeld and Tilly-Successes of Mansfeld-Joined finally, in the beautiful and flourishing by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach and Christian, Duke of Brunswick-Tilly-The Palatinate-The provinces of Alsace. Heidelberg Library-Ferdinand resolves to continue His example was followed by others. the War-The Duke of Bavaria made Elector-Palatine-Tilly defeats the Duke of Brunswick in Miin- First of all, George Frederick, margrave ster-War with Denmark, 1624-1629-The Protestant of Baden-Durlach, took the field in favor of forces under Christian IV. of Denmark, the Duke of Brunswick and Mansfeld-The Emperor without a the palatine house, collected a strong army Leader-Count Wallenstein-His extraordinaryCha- and united with Mansfeld. He would not racter- Ambition — Astrological Studies-Faith in Destiny - His Bravery-Weissenberg-Wallelstein fight as a prince of the German empire, Duke of Friedland-His stately Palace and royal lest his land should be made to suffer for it, style of living-Raises an Imperial Army —His Appearance-Pursues Mansfeld-Death of Mansfeld, but as a knight and champion in that 1626-Death of the Duke of Brunswick-Christian IV. of Denmark-His Flight-Dukes Adolphus and cause which, to him, appeared the most John of Mecklenburg banished-Their Estates seized just; accordingly, before he entered into by Wallenstein-Created Duke of Mecklenburg and action he transferred into his son's ands a Prince of the Empire, 1628-Pomerania-Stralsunda, d into his son's hands -Besieged by Wallenstein —Its Brave Resistance- the government of his country. For him, Forces Wallenstein to retire-Peace between the King of Denmark and the Emperor, 1629-The Edict united with Mansfeld, Tilly was no equal of Restitution, 1639-Its Effect-Augsburg-The Ca- match; but when, however, they separated, tholic League-Tyranny and Cruelty of Wallenstein and his Army-Complaints of the Catholics and Pro- he defeated the margrave at Wimpfen on testants against Wallenstein to the Emperor-The the 8th of May, 1622. Princes and the Nation insist upon his Dismissal — His Resignation. ansfeld next found an ally in Christian, duke of Brunswick, brother of the reigning ACCORDING to all human calculation, the duke, who, full of youthful ardor, likewise contest appeared now decided; Bohemia came forward in the cause of the banished was subjugated, the Evangelical Union dis- electoral prince. After a variety of advensolved, the palatine house overthrown, and tures, he at length joined Mansfeld with a the elector a mere fugitive. Whence, there- considerable body of men, and, thus united, fore, could resistance be apprehended? they entered Alsace once more, extending And yet it came, and that, too, from the their march to the provinces of Lorraine, restless activity of Count Mansfeld, who and, in fact, made even Paris itself tremble would not abandon victory at so easy a for the moment, as they threatened to adprice, and who knew the age in which he vance thither to the aid of the Huguenots. lived too well, not to calculate upon those After devastating all the neighboring provunexpected means which a change of for. inces, they finally marched into Holland, tune must present to men of a daring and where they joined the Netherlanders in confident disposition. He knew how high- their struggle against the Spaniards. ly the minds of the people were excited, Tilly, meantime, retained possession of and that they were only waiting for leaders the entire palatinate, and it was on this ocin order to recommence the obstinate strug- casion that he seized upon the magnificent gle in favor of their faith. Whoever com- library of Heidelberg, of which the duke manded their confidence might venture of Bavaria made a present to the pope CHRISTIAN IV. OF DENMARK-WALLENSTEIN. 321 Gregory XV.; it was conveyed to Rome, might be subjected, but felt themselves and placed in the Vatican.* bound to exercise forthwith the little energy It appeared now as if the moment had once and self-possession still at their command. more arrived when peace might have been The first movement was made in the states restored to Germany, if the victors had of the circle of Lower Saxony, on the fronbeen at all inclined to act with moderation. tiers of which Tilly, the terror-striking But Ferdinand had no idea of halting in general of the Bavarians, had taken up his the midst of all his revolutionary move- position with his formidable army. After ments. He considered himself, as he states having made in vain their representations in a letter written by himself and sent to for his recall, they took to arms, and chose Spain, as called upon by Providence " to the king of Denmark, Christian IV., as duke crush all the seditious factions, which had of Holstein, for their commander-in-chief. been supported chiefly by the heresy of He promised them considerable aid, and Calvinism, and he recognised in the success England on its part did the same. Chriswhich had hitherto rewarded his efforts, an tian of Brunswick and Mansfeld reappeared, intimation from God that he ought to perse- and enlisted troops with English money. vere in the course he had entered upon." Hitherto the war in Germany, on the CathoA grand step would be gained towards lic side, had been carried on almost wholly the promotion of his plans, if he could ar- by the army of the league; but as the prerange the investiture of his friend the duke parations of the Protestants became now of Bavaria as electoral-palatine, and as a more extensive, they demanded from the recompense for his faithful services; a emperor supplies of troops accordingly. matter upon which they both agreed in se- At the same time it was likewise the emcret together. In the aforesaid letter of peror's wish to furnish an imperial army Ferdinand, he says: "If we could gain himself, in order that the house of Bavaria, one more vote in the electoral college, we might not claim the merit of performing; should be forever secured in our object of every thing alone; but he was in want of placing the empire in the hands of the the necessary means to effect this object, Catholics, and ensuring its possession to the and he was at a loss how to raise and equip house of Austria." the number of men required. Under these But this step was one of great danger, as circumstances, however, an individual preit was likely to bring upon him the most sented himself to his notice, who contemdetermined opposition of all the Protestants, plated carrying on the war by means of his and more especially might make an enemy own resources, and single-handed-simiof the electoral house of Saxony, hitherto a larly to Mansfeld; and offering at once to friend so faithful. Nevertheless, Ferdi- relieve the emperor from his difficulties, he nand accomplished his wish; he hastened lost no time in bringing his plans into opera, to summon together the electors at Ratisbon tion. in 1623, in order to confer the investiture Albert of Wallenstein —more properly upon Maximilian, and after many negotia- Waldstein-the descendant of a noble famitions Saxony was induced to give its con- ly in Bohemia, was born in the year 1583, sent by the concession of Lusatia. in Prague, of Lutheran parents; as they In the same year, Duke Christian of died when he was young, he was sent by a Brunswick was routed by Tilly near Stad- maternal uncle to a celebrated convent of lov in Miinster, at the moment when he Jesuits at Olmiitz, and was thus educated in was about to recommence operations, and the Catholic religion. Later he travelled with thus fortune appeared to realize the antici- a wealthy nobleman from Moravia through pations of the emperor, and crown his con- a great part of Europe, and became acfidence with continued success. Neverthe- quainted with Germany, Holland, England, ess, many links were still necessary to form France, and Italy. The learned compan-.he chain of this war. ion of the illustrious pair, the mathematician The Protestants, meantime, considered and astrologer Peter Verdungus, (subsethat they could not remain in a state of in- quently a friend of Keppler,) encouraged active expectation of the fate to which they Wallenstein's predilection for astrology, and in Padua he was initiated in cabalistic ~ This library at the intercession of the emperor of lore and the other occult sciences of the Austria and the king of Prussia, was restored to Heidelberg in the year 1815 stars by Professor Argoli. A mysterious 41 322 WALLENSTEIN'S EXTRAORDINARY CHARACTER. inclination of his nature led him to this time he felt much discontented at finding dangerous study, which at that time was the war carried on without him. Now, universally pursued, and occupied even however, when he found the emperor was great minds like that of Keppler; his soul anxious to raise for himself an army, he, was lost in its dark labyrinths; but this as we have already seen, offered his sermuch he saw with the greatest certainty in vices to levy troops of his own for the im. the stars, since he intuitively felt it, viz., perial service, taking upon himself nearly that he was destined to effect something ex- the whole cost. He stipulated only that traordinary. An unbounded ambition pos- he should be allowed to exercise unlimited sessed his whole soul, and he was conscious control over them, and possess the excluof an energy sufficient to carry the entire sive power of appointing officers, and colage with him; whence he regarded as within lecting a force, not of 20,000 but of 50,000 his reach the accomplishment of the greatest men-as such an army, he said, would enterprise. soon be enabled to maintain itself. He He attached himself to the Archduke obtained, accordingly, the full authority Ferdinand, whose firmness and determina- required, and in a few months afterwards tion he recognised, and set out in 1617, the army was raised and completely accompanied by 200 cavalry, raised at his equipped-such was the influence his very own expense, to render him aid in an ex- name already produced. pedition against Venice. By way of re- Wallenstein was born to command; his muneration, Ferdinand assigned to him the acute eye distinguished at the first glance, rank of a commander of the militia in from among the multitude, such as were Moravia. During the troubles of Bohe- competent, and he assigned to each his mia he aided the Viennese in their defence proper place. His praise, from being but against the Bohemians, fought against rarely bestowed, animated and brought Bethlen Gabor of Transylvania, who into full operation every faculty, while his raised his pretensions to the crown of steady, reserved, and earnest demeanor seHungary, and filled the situation of quar- cured obedience and discipline. His very ter-master-general in the imperial forces appearance inspired reverence and awe; under Boucquoi, when he, with Maximilian his figure was lofty, proud, and truly warof Bavaria, gained the battle of Weissen- like; his jet-black hair was cut close berg near Prague. After this battle he above his high and commanding forehead, had another engagement with Bethlen, by while in his bright piercing eye was exwhom the imperial generals Dampierre pressed profundity of thought, combined and Boucquoi had been defeated, made with gravity and mystery-the characterhim retreat, and obliged him to accede to istics of his favorite studies and researches terms of peace, and to relinquish his claims in the language of the stars and the. labyto the Hungarian crown. For these ser- rinths of the planets. vices, and at the same time as an indemni- He marched with his new army, in the fidation for the devastation of his estates in autumn of 1625, through Swabia ane this war and the expenses he had incurred Franconia into Lower Saxony. Tilly -having at his own cost furnished and withheld from joining a rival whose ambisupported several regiments-Wallenstein tion he saw was to excel him, and both received, in 1622, the territory of Fried- conducted the war apart. Wallenstein, land in Bohemia, together with the title of after having put to rout a body of armed prince, and later that of duke. In addi- peasantry who had attempted to intercept tion to this, he purchased for a large sum his march near Gottingen, advanced to the of money about sixty estates of the Bohe- districts of Halberstadt and Magdeburg, mian nobility, which had been confiscated which had not as yet been subjected to the by the emperor after the battle near devastations of the war. The campaign Prague, and thus came into possession of of 1626 commenced with more serious more than princely wealth. The duchy deeds of arms. Count Mansfeld, who adof Friedland alone comprised nine towns vanced along the Elbe against Wallenand fifty-seven castles and villages. Sub- stein, having been defeated on the bridge sequently, and while Tilly was in com- of Dessau, directed his course with a bold mand at the head of the leagub, he lived determination towards Silesia, in order to retired on his estates, although at the same join Prince Bethlen Gabor, and carry the DEATH OF MANSFELD- WALLENSTEIN IN DENMARK. 323 war into the Austrian dominions, whither and Mecklenburg, and with Tilly entered Wallenstein, to his great regret, was forced Holstein, in order to force the king of Dento follow him. After a most harassing mark to abandon Germany altogether. and difficult march, Mansfeld arrived in The whole of that country, with the exHungary; he was, however, very badly ception of a few fortifications, was speedily received there, because he had not brought conquered. Silesia and Jutland were next with him the sums of money expected by invaded and fearfully devastated. The the prince. Pursued by Wallenstein, his king was obliged to take refuge in his retreat cut off, and without the means of islands, and some letters of Wallenstein procuring supplies in such a remote coun. even mention that he seriously contemplated try, he was forced to sell his artillery and causing the emperor Ferdinand to be chosen ammunition, and disband his soldiers; and king of Denmark, having been informed then crossing Bosnia and Dalmatia, he that the states were dissatisfied with their proceeded with a small suite along the own king. It was in this same year that road to Venice. Thence it was his inten- Wallenstein added to his immense possestion to repairto England, in order to pro- sions the duchy of Sagan and the territory cure the necessary supply of money; but of Priebus in Silesia, which he purchased on arriving in the village of Urakowitz, of the emperor for 150,000 florins. near Zara, his nature, already completely Meantime the army of Wallenstein had overwhelmed by the superhuman struggles gradually increased to 100,000 men, and and fatigues undergone, finally sank be- this mysterious and incomprehensible man neath these heavy trials, and the noble continued enlisting fresh troops with still warrior breathed his last on the 20th of greater zeal in proportion as the numbers November, 1626, in the forty-sixth year of the enemy diminished and disappeared. of his age. When the dying man felt at It was not known whether it was for himlength the approach of death, he had him- self or for his sovereign that he was thus self clothed in his military coat, his sword paving the way for the attainment of unlimbuckled on, and thus equipped, and stand- ited dominion. The Catholic princes theming supported by the arms of two friends, selves regarded him with suspicion and he patiently awaited the final moment of doubt, for it became more and more evident his mortal career. His remains were in- that his grand object was to abolish their terred in Spalatro. league, while Tilly especially hated him In this same year died likewise his friend, because he monopolized for himself all the Duke Christian of Brunswick, who was only fruits produced by their victories. The twenty-nine years of age; and thus the princes of Mecklenburg, Pomerania, and Protestants were deprived of their best gen- Brandenburg, appealed to the emperor to erals. Christian, king of Denmark, was remove the heavy and oppressive burden of not able to replace them, for in him was war from their lands; but the will of his wanting all that warlike spirit and energy general was more powerful than that of the so necessary in a commander; added to emperor himself, and the whole of North this, there was no union between the prin- Germany obeyed his slightest nod, and ces of the circle of Lower Saxony, and one trembled beneath his wrath. He himself of whom, indeed, George, duke of Celle, a lived in a style of pomp and splendor far general of the Saxon army, passed over to beyond his imperial master, in which exthe emperor, whose service he entered. ample he was imitated by all his officers Thence, although Lower Saxony was much in proportion; while around him thousands relieved by the retreat of Wallenstein, King of human beings were forced to languish in Christian was, nevertheless, not only unable inexpressible misery, and without exaggerto defend it against Tilly, but he was com- ation, literally died through starvation. In pletely defeated by him on the 27th of Au- addition to all this, the general brought gust at Lutter near Barenberg, in Hanover, against the emperor a heavy account of the and lost all his artillery, together with sixty sums he had advanced out of his own funds ensigns. for the expenses of the war, and which he In the year 1627, Wallenstein marched calculated at more than three millions of back again through Silesia, whence he florins. This sum the emperor found it imdrove all his enemies before him into the possible to pay, and resolved, therefore, to north of Germany, crossed Brandenburg seize the territories of the dukes Adolphus 324 SIEGE OF STRALSUND Frederick and John Albert of Mecklenburg, the Hanseatic league, enjoyed many priviand transfer them into the hands of his gen- leges, and an independent administration eral, in consideration of the debt. Thus in all its internal affairs. This city, as Wallenstein was made a prince of the em- well as the whole country, had contributed pire, and while on a visit at the castle of very large sums towards the maintenance Brandeis, in Bohemia, put into immediate of the imperial troops; and now it was inpractice the privilege he now commanded tended to furnish it with a garrison. This of appearing with covered head in the im- the citizens refused to receive; and in the perial presence. spring of the year 1628, Wallenstein gave In vain did the inhabitants supplicate to orders to General Arnim to march against, have their rightful dukes, whose family had and lay siege to the place. The citizens, reigned in their dominions for nearly a however, defended their walls with deterthousand years, restored to them, and who, mined courage and perseverance, while the they said, had not committed themselves kings of Sweden and Denmark furnished more than the princes of the other provin- them with liberal supplies of troops, together ces in the circle of Lower Saxony. Ferdi- with ammunition and provisions from the nand forgot again, this time, the laws of sea-side. Their obstinate resistance excimoderation in victory, and shamefully vio- ted the furious wrath and indignation of the lated the constitution of the empire in thus imperious general, and he exclaimed: banishing these princes from their territo- " Even if this Stralsund be linked by chains ries without legally impeaching them before to the very heavens above, still I swear it the electoral princes, and without giving shall fall!" He then advanced in person them a hearing or pronouncing judgment against the city, and repeatedly assaulted against them. On the contrary, it was to it; but he now learned to know what the him an object of great importance to secure heroic courage of citizens can effect under for himself the presence of a Catholic prince prudent guidance; for after having remained of the empire on the coast of the Baltic Sea, before the walls for several weeks, and sufferwho would thus be enabled to keep in check ed a loss of at least twelve thousand men the north of Germany, and form a protec- in the various desperate assaults made, he tive power to watch the proceedings of the was forced, to his no little mortification, to Protestant kings of Denmark and Sweden; withdraw without accomplishing his object. while from this point he confidently hoped Meantime, the king of Denmark had deto be enabled to re-establish the Catholic manded peace, which, contrary to all exfaith throughout the north. He also ap- pectation, the emperor was advised by Walpears to have contemplated holding cor- lenstein to conclude; from which it may be plete dominion over the maritime commerce presumed that as he was now a prince of of the Baltic from this quarter, for Wallen- the empire himself, he no longer considered stein even assumed the title of admiral of it desirable to destroy farther the power of the north and eastern seas, and it is seen by the German princes. The king, through his letters addressed to Arnim, general-in- the mediation of the general, made on the chief of the army in the north of Germany, 12th of May, 1629, in Libeck, a very adduring his absence, that the desire he had vantageous peace, and he received back all most at heart was to burn all the Swedish his lands, without paying the expenses of and Danish vessels that sailed within the the war. But this peace did not add much range of his dominion, and to collect and to the glory of the king, inasmuch as for establish a fleet of his own. his own preservation, he sacrificed in the From Mecklenburg Wallenstein now dukes of Mecklenburg two faithful allies. turned his looks towards its neighboring He promised not to take any share in the territory, Pomerania. The old duke, Bo- affairs of Germany, otherwise than as a gislas, was without any-family, and after member of the imperial states, and thus his death his duchy might be very conve- resigned the right he possessed to protect niently united with that of Mecklenburg. the two dukes. Wallenstein now received What, however, was to this ambitious man from the emperor the investiture of the of the utmost importance, was the possession duchy of Mecklenburg, and was thus conof Stralsund, which, it is, true, was in the firmed in his rank among the princes of the dominion of the duke of Pomerania, but empire. which at the same time, as forming part of How rejoiced must the peacefully dis. PEACE BETWEEN DENMARK AND GERMANY. 325 posed inhabitants of Germany have been, tion of their adversaries hailed it with exafter their long persecution, when they re- ultation." The cause, however, for such ceived the happy tidings of peace! The exultation, produced eventually unutterable contest, indeed, could not now be continued calamity all over Germany. any longer, for no enemy was left to oppose Under these circumstances, therefore, it the emperor; while the duke of Bavaria was determined not to disband either of the had obtained quiet possession of the electo- two grand armies at this moment engaged ral dignity, and that portion of the palatinate in their devastations throughout the empire; which had been promised to him as an in- their services were retained in order to bring demnification for his expenses in the war. into effect the execution of the edict of resThe Protestants were now so completely titution, and orders were accordingly issued, reduced and subdued, that there was no that they should assist if necessary, with longer cause to dread fresh hostilities on the force of their arms, the various impetheir part. The war had now reached its rial deputies authorized by the government twelfth year, and every year had left be. to witness the due accomplishment of its hind it fresh traces of the ravages produced decrees. Operations were immediately throughout the whole empire, turning flour- commenced, and the south of Germany ishing provinces into deserts, and rendering was selected as the spot to receive the first:nce opulent citizens beggars and fugitives. visitation. The city of Augsburg-where The war, indeed, might now have easily only shortly before the treaty of religious been brought to a termination, had the vic- peace had been signed-was forced, among torious party only known when to fix the the rest, to acknowledge the ecclesiastical just limits of their course, and if the em- jurisdiction of the bishop, and renounce the peror, after having thus completely purified Protestant form of worship, while the duke his states of the new doctrines, and re- of Wurtemberg was obliged to restore all established his authority therein with all his monasteries. In addition to all this, the its original power, had secured religious Catholic league, in a meeting which took peace in all its plenitude to all the other place in Heidelberg, made a resolution independent states of the empire, disband- "not to restore any of the possessions coned his army, and thus delivered the re- quered by their arms, whether spiritual or duced and miserable country from that es- temporal, unless they were indemnified pecially heavy burden. But nothing is beforehand for all their war expenses." more difficult to the human mind than to Thence the Protestants were threatened restrain itself in its course amid prosperity. with still greater danger from the league The Catholic party imagined this was a party than even from the emperor himself. moment too favorable for them to neglect, But the intolerable tyranny exercised by and they determined, accordingly, to draw Wallenstein's army produced increasing all the advantages they could from the for- indignation, and excited still more loudly tunate state of circumstances in which they the complaints and murmurs of both parwere placed. They demanded of the Pro- ties, which attained at length that degree testants the restitution of all the ecclesiasti- of irresistible power, that the emperor could cal benefices, of which they had taken pos- no longer shut his eyes against the universession since the treaty of Passau, in 1552: sal ruin-no respect being shown for either being no less than two archbishoprics, Bre- party, friends or foes, Catholics or Protestmen and Magdeburg, twelve bishoprics, and ants-caused by those ov rbearing, rutha multitude of inferior benefices and con- less violators of right and justice. The vents. Until this moment, the restitution emperor's own brother, Leopold himself, of what it had been so long the acknow. wrote him a long letter, in which he gave a ledged right of the Protestants to hold pos- dreadful and harrowing description of the session, had never been for an instant con- pillage, incendiarisms, murderous outrages, templated; but now, however, urged on by and other shameful oppressions inflicted by the Catholics, the emperor published a the imperial troops upon the peaceful insolemn edict, known under the title of the habitants. Such testimony overbalanced Edict of Restitution, dated the 6th of March, all the arguments to which, hitherto, the 1629. " The Protestants," says a distin- friends of Wallenstein had had recourse, guished historian, <" were completely par- and successfully brought to bear in his de5 lyzed, while the more short-sighted por- fence; while, finally, at the assembly of 326 DISMISSAL OF WALLENSTEIN. the electoral princes held in Ratisbon in the unlicensed fury, and from which they are summer of 1630, the emperor found himself not to be deterred. They seize upon every overwhelmed with petitions from every thing, they overcome every thing, and quarter. "The imperial soldiers," cor- strike down all and every thing that may plained the Pomeranian deputies, " marched oppose them. In short, it is impossible to into our country, and were received as imagine the disorder and riot thus profriends, and yet they have already exacted duced; for, constituted as the army is of from the principality of Stettin alone, ten all nations, they all vie with each other in millions of dollars as a contribution, while their exercise of the most monstrous acts. in spite of this they have nevertheless re- The German, the Netherlander, the Frenchduced to ashes seven of our towns, and man, the Italian, and the Hungarian, each completely devastated the whole country contributes something peculiar to his own around. And yet in the moment that they nation in violence and cruelty, as well as were scattering such dreadful ruin and in cunning, deceit, and invention. I am misery everywhere around, they them- aware of this, and have, I confess, even selves lived in such an expensive style, been forced to witness all these infamous that every captain and even his lieutenant acts, while my heart has grieved at the exercised more princely extravagance than sight. But what is to be done? It is not their own Duke Bogislas himself. Besides enough to know and deplore these things; all this, the innkeepers and landlords upon if we wish to remove the evil, we must whom the troops were billeted experienced adopt such measures as will ensure strict the most brutal treatment, and many men discipline in the army, but which cannot were constantly being murdered in cold exist unless the troops receive their pay blood, and their bodies thrown to the dogs; regularly." in short, no act of cruelty could be men- Ferdinand could no longer resist the tioned or even thought of that these savages unanimous voice of complaint thus urged, had not exercised, and many hundreds of and as now the whole body of princes inthe wretched inhabitants, in order to pre. sisted that Wallenstein-whom they all vent these horrible acts from being inflicted hated without exception-should be deupon themselves, and to escape from dying prived of the chief command, and more through starvation, had committed sui- especially as at their head Maximilian of cide." Bavaria'expressed himself most warmly in This frightful picture shows us the ex- favor of it, the emperor, after some hesitaact nature of the war carried on by these tion, gave his consent, and yielded to their troops serving for pay, and presents us wishes. It was, however, still left to be with a description of the misery existing at seen whether or not the proud and mighty this period of our history: nor in this is chief would obey the summons: to' the there any exaggeration. Count Mansfeld, surprise of all, however, he did so. His the original projector of this system for astronomical calculations appeared to have the promotion of the war, has himself giv- produced their tranquillizing effects, and en us his testimony in a defence he was mollified his haughty spirit. "He by no called upon to make against similar accu- means complained against or reproached sations upon the subject of the license given the emperor," he said calmly to the impeto and practised by his own army: When rial deputies, Count Werdenberg and Barthe soldiers do not receive their pay," he on Questenberg, " for the stars had already says, "it is wholly impossible to maintain indicated to him that the spirit of the electhem in their discipline. Neither they them- tor of Bavaria held its sway over that of selves nor their horses can live upon air; the emperor; but.," he added, "in discharwhile what they wear, both in clothing and ging his troops, his imperial majesty was arms, soon becomes ragged and useless. rejecting the most precious jewel of his Thence they take whatever they can find, crown." He now withdrew to his duchy of although not in proportion with what may Friedland, establishing his seat of governbe due to them; for they neither calculate ment at Gitschen, which he considerably the number nor weigh the amount of the enlarged and beautified. This dismissal articles they seize. The gate once opened of Wallenstein took place in September, to them, they rush through and proceed to 1630. act upon the plan they have laid down with Such of the imperial troops as did not GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS OF SWEDEN. 327 receive their discharge, joined those of the was this firm conviction, so deeply implantleague, and the united army was placed ed in his mind, by which Gustavus felt under the command of Tilly. inspired to undertake the mighty contest against the powerful house of Austria. Opinions equally contrary and inconsistent have been pronounced upon the character of this great monarch, because, living at a period when party spirit raged so furiously, it was not to be expected that CH A Pr T E R XA AX1 V~* his actions could undergo a more impartial CGustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden, in Germany, review than those accomplished by his 1630-1632-His Character-Motives and Plans in contemporaries. On the one hand he has favor of Protestantism-Stralsund-Gustavus declarescontemporaries. On the one hand he has War against Ferdinand-Lands with his Army in been regarded only as a conqueror, comPomerania-Stettin-The Protestant Princes hesi- lle th itmnt rod tate to join Gustavus —Ciistrin and Spadau-The pelled by the excitement produced by Elector of Brandenburg-The Elector of Saxony- burning ambition to cross the ocean in Siege of Magdeburg-Count Tilly-Conquers andrr t van h frin whih h burns the City-Dreadful Massacre-Gustavus and order to vanquish foreign lands, which he Tilly-Battle of Leipsic-Defeat of the Imperialists- sought to effect more securely under the Glorious Results to Gustavus-Surrender of the co oreln, xc Cities-Ingolstadt-Tilly wounded-His Death-e was Munich-Prague-Ferdinand and Wallenstein- enabled to conceal his desire for war; and Regal Splendor of Wallenstein-His Palace-Reassembles an Army for the Emperor-Extravagant again, on the other hand, he has been Conditions-Appointed Generalissimo-The Camp of viewed only as an enthusiastic champion Nuremberg-The Swedish and Imperial Armies — i t.... Gustavus in Saxony-Battle of Lutzen, 1632 —Gus- in the cause of his faith, while the extavus killed-His Death revenged by the Swedes- istence of all the ambitious motives attriTotal Defeat of Wallenstein-Portraiture of Gusta- vus Adolphus. buted to him, and by which his adversaries have insisted he was alone influenced, has THE power of the Protestant princes had been denied, and the charge thus made now become much weakened, and the edict condemned. In either case there is a of restitution was carried into effect gener- mixture of truth and falsehood. Gustavus ally. Those who knew the character of was by no means influenced by a feeling Ferdinand might easily foresee what were of ambition, which in its usual sense means his designs against the new church, and it the vain passion of personal and selfish was scarcely necessary to question whether glory, although assuredly the love for that or not his grand object was to annihilate reputation which is inherent in all men, its entire existence, for the proceedings and which in the mouths of people adorns adopted throughout the empire clearly the object with immortal life, occupied showed what its party had to expect. But likewise a space within his heart; neither, amid this growing danger, and indeed al- on the other hand, was it solely in order to most in the very moment itself when the rescue his fellow Protestants in Germany minds of the Protestants, as they beheld that he took up arms, although faith and the crisis gradually approaching, had sunk piety exercised sufficient influence over into that state of despondency and settled his soul to inspire him to fight in such a gloom, which the sad succession of events cause. Both these motives, however, acted must naturally produce, they received, in concert together upon his mind, united most unexpectedly, assistance from a na- by another law of his nature-that which tion hitherto but little known, and living in inspired him with the feeling and convicuninterrupted seclusion within the frontiers tion of being destined to perform a conof their northern territory. This people- spicuous part in that eventful epoch of the Swedes-were nevertheless distinguish- the history of the world. He felt he was ed for their bravery, while they were stead- called upon to lead forth from their seclufast and faithful in their religious prin- sion and obscurity his noble people-who, ciples, being the descendants of the Goths, although limited in number, were inferior the noblest of all those nations most justly to none in courage and virtue-and to entitled to boast of their German origin. place them in the ranks of the other naIn the year 1611, Gustavus Adolphus sue- tions of Europe. Hitherto, in connection ceeded to the Swedish throne, and he it was with the other states of Europe, Sweden's who was destined to lead his people upon position had been similar to that of Macethe grand scene of this eventful period. It donia before Philip and Alexander in the 328 GUSTAVUS DECLARES WAR AND LANDS IN GERMANY. ancient world, and as subsequently that of that the cause of Protestantism was menRussia was, previous to Peter the Great, aced more seriously than ever throughout in mdoern history; and as the lives of the whole of Germany, he took the decithose great men can only be thoroughly sive step, and formally declaring war comprehended when they are viewed in against the emperor, he, on the 24th of connection with the historical facts alluded June, 1630, landed on the coast of Pometo, so likewise in the same point of view rania with 15,000 Swedes. As soon as he must the life of Gustavus Adolphus of stepped upon shore, he dropped on his Sweden be regarded. For although this knees in prayer, while his example was monarch left behind but very inconsidera- immediately followed by his whole army. ble results when placed in contrast with Truly he had undertaken, with but small those effected by the sovereigns with whom and limited means, a great and mighty enwe have compared him, it must, at the terprise! same time, be remembered that he was When the emperor was informed of his snatched away by death at the age of landing, he, in his feeling of confidence, thirty-eight years only, and at the very inspired by his continual success, appeared moment when he had commenced to lay to treat the affair with so much indifferthe foundation of his grand work. ence that the news had no influence whatHis great plan was immediately demon- ever in the dismissal of Wallenstein, which strated in the first moment of his appear- just at this moment'formed the subject of ance upon the scene. Previous to the war discussion in the diet of Ratisbon. All in Germany he had already conquered the Catholic party throughout the empire from the Russians and Poles the provinces turned the fact of the arrival of the petty along the coast, Ingria, Carelia, and Li- king of the north, as they termed him, into vonia, together with a portion of Prussia. ridicule, and styled him, in contempt, the Various important motives compelled him snow-king, who would speedily melt benow to take a share in the affairs of Ger- neath the rays of the imperial sun. But many. He had been very seriously pro- these 15,000 men constituted an army of voked and mortified by the emperor Fer- heroes, a phalanx of hardy warriors, bedinand; his intercession in favor of the longing as it were to another world; their Protestants and his cousins the dukes of ranks were regulated by strict discipline Mecklenburg, as well as his mediation for and religious principles, while those oppeace with Denmark, had been treated posed to them knew nothing of war but its with great contempt, and disdainfully re- barbarism, and that licentious exercise of jected; while, in addition to this, Wallen- its worst passions which under no circumstein had even sent 10,000 imperial troops stances would be curbed or submit to reato the aid of the Poles against him. Be- son. The imperialists were a mixture of yond all these causes of complaint, how- all nations and creeds, and bound together ever, which might perhaps still have been by no other ties but those of mutual warpeacefully adjusted by negotiation, his fare and pillage; the Swedes, on the other presence was summoned by the danger hand, were strengthened in the confidence which now hovered over the Protestant they felt that God fought on their side, and church, and the fear he entertained lest, in to him they offered up their prayers reguthe person of Wallenstein, a fresh power larly twice a day, each regiment possessmight usurp the coast of the Baltic sea, ing its own chaplain. Besides this, the inand thus strengthen and extend the cause ventive genius of Gustavus had introduced of Austria and Catholicism. the exercise of some new military tactics The danger to which the city of Stral- in his army; and in this he may bear sund was exposed had already, as we have comparison with many great men of anbefore shown, produced his co-operation in tiquity, inasmuch as he surprised his enefavor of that place. HEe not only yielded mies by the novelty and boldness of his to its wishes in this respect, but formed an positions, order of battle attacks, and thus alliance with it, by which it placed itself he was soon enabled to throw all those under his protection, and it was indebted who still adhered to the old system into to the succor he afforded especially for its confusion. Hitherto they had made a pracpreservation when besieged by Wallen- tice of forming their line of battle ten rows stein. Now, however, when he beheld deep, but Gustavus reduced it to six in the THE PROTESTANT PRINCES HESITATE TO JOIN HIM. 329 infantry, and four in the cavalry; whence divided among themselves by jealousy and his little army gained considerably in ex- prejudice. The palatinate was entirely tension, and was more easy and rapid in subjected; and Saxony, which for a length its movements when in battle; while the of time had kept aloof from the Evangelists, balls from the enemy's artillery committed and at times, during the period of the palless damage among their ranks, thus less atine's influence, had even adhered to Ausdensely crowded. The Swedish troops, tria, was now vacillating between its dread especially the foot-soldiers, were likewise of Austria and a foreign prince. George less heavily supplied with armor and other William, the elector of Brandenburg, a accoutrements, by which they were en- weak prince, was guided by his minister abled to fire off their muskets with much Schwarzenberg, who was opposed altomore ease and dispatch, and which were gether to an alliance with Sweden. Among constructed too of far lighter materials the petty princes, of whom many were in than those of the imperialists. truth much more determined, but were at The imperialists, whose forces were by the same time dependent upon the power of no means strong in the vicinity of the coast, Austria, there were only two who joined were soon driven out of Rigen and the the king, the landgrave of Hesse Cassel smaller islands at the mouth of the Oder, and the duke of Saxe-Weimar. The and Gustavus now marched against Stettin, others, together with Saxony and Brandenthe capital of the duchy of Pomerania. burg, held a meeting in April, 1631, at The duke, who was both old and timid, Leipsic, and resolved to raise an army for would not venture to decide upon joining themselves in defence of their territories the king of Sweden, and yet he could not against any attack, whether proceeding resolve to oppose him. After long hesita- from the Swedes or Austrians. The emtion, during which Gustavus used every peror, who perceived clearly that the grand means of persuasion in firm but mild and struggle must be decided by the sword, consoling language, he at length surren- and would not for a moment entertain the dered to him the city, which the king in- idea of submitting his will to the diet, tended at once to convert into a principal commanded the immediate dissolution of military depot during the war. the Leipsic alliance, and commenced forthThe Protestant princes of the empire, with disarming all the princes and cities like the duke of Pomerania, appeared in the south of Germany forming a porquite undetermined how to receive their tion thereof. new ally. The king had invited them all The king of Sweden, now reinforced by to unite and form one grand alliance; but a large number of enlisted troops, advanced many felt too much afraid, and dreaded with rapid marches direct through Pomethe vengeance of the emperor: others rania, and completely beat and put to again were jealous of all foreign dominion flight the whole of the imperialists before in case of success, while the rest felt dis- him. The latter in their retreat devastated posed rather to remain faithful in their al- the country, pillaged all the towns, many legiance to the empire and government, of which they burnt, and ill-treated and than to risk any change whatever. Gus- murdered the inhabitants. This dreadful tavus was by no means pleased with the war now resumed all its horrors. The disposition thus shown: "We evangelists," Swedes, so steady and strict in their discihe said, in his address to the inhabitants pline, appeared as protecting angels, and of Erfurt, " are placed in a position simi- as the king advanced, the belief spread far lar to a vessel when in a storm. In such and near throughout the land, that he was a moment it does not suffice for a few only sent from heaven as its preserver. to labor with zeal for the general safety, Gustavus was desirous to march in sewhile the rest of the crew look quietly on curity step by step, and not to leave any with their arms folded; all ought to work fortified place in his rear; whence, after together, and each ought to assist with all he had carried by assault Frankfort on the his might in the particular part assigned Oder, which contained a garrison of 8000 to him." The Protestants, however, pos- imperialists, he desired the elector of Bran. sessed no such spirit of union, neither did denburg to surrender into his hands the they cherish that conscientiousness of pur- fortified towns of CiiLtrin and Spandau. pose so necessary. As usual, they were The latter, although related by marriage 42 330 COUNT TILLY-CONQUERS AND BURNS MAGDEBURG. to Gustavus, who had married his sister, tion of such an important place, used all hesitated; but the king marchedon towards diligence to make himself master of it Berlin, and invited him to a conference on before the king's arrival. He commenced the plain between Berlin and Cospenik. the siege in the month of March, 1631, Here, however, the prince still continued seconded by General Pappenheim, a brave to hold out, when, at length, the king ex- and determined officer. In the city itself claimed with warmth: " My road leads to there were only two hundred Swedes, unMagdeburg-at this moment closely be- der the command of Melcher of Falkensieged by Tilly-whither I must hasten, berg, whom Gustavus had shortly before although not for my own advantage, but dispatched as commandant of the city; solely for that of the Evangelists. If none, but the inhabitants, full of courage and rehowever, will lend me their aid, I will free ligious zeal, united in defending the place myself from all reproach and return to with determined perseverance. They had Stockholm; but bear in mind, prince, that even erected two strong intrenchments in on the last day of judgment you yourself front of the city walls, which, in testimony will be condemned for refusing to do aught of their undaunted resolution, they styled in the cause of the gospel, and, perhaps, Trutz-Tilly, (defiance to Tilly,) and Trutzeven in this world you may receive the Pappenheim, (defiance to Pappenheim.) punishment due from God. For if Magde- But in the mean time, unhappily, the burg be taken, and I withdraw, imagine to want of provisions increased the distress yourself what must happen to you!" This with each succeeding day more and more, appeal produced its effects; the elector for the old general left no means untried surrendered Spandau into his hands at to bring them to a surrender. Their only once. The distance thence to Magdeburg hope now was in the succor they expected was but short, and the inhabitants of that to receive from the king, who, they knew, hard pressed city were most urgent in was close at hand; and on the 19th of their prayers for assistance; unhappily, May, when the thunder of the enemy's however, Gustavus found it quite impossi- artillery ceased, and the guns were actualble to cross the Elbe in face of the enemy ly wheeled away from the trenches, they so as to proceed by the direct road. Ac- firmly believed their deliverer had now cordingly he requested permission from the arrived. This, however, was only the elector of Saxony to pass through his signal for their destruction, and the prelude territory, his object being to proceed to to preparations that were being made by Wittenberg; but the prince refused to the iron-hearted general for the final as grant the accomniodation desired. While, sault he had now determined upon making. however, the kiMg was engaged in.en- In the silence of the night the scaling laddeavoring to prevail upon the elector to ders were all fixed ready, and the attack accede to his request, the dreadful, fatal ordered to be made at five o'clock in the day of conquest arrived-and the devoted morning. The sentinels on the walls havcity was lost. ing kept watch until the dawn of day, The city of Magdeburg, which, from now finding all quiet, and, as they unthe commencement, had continued to dis- suspectingly thought, every thing secure, tinguish itself for its zeal in the cause of retired to get a brief half hour's repose. the Protestant faith, was likewise the first Shortly afterwards the dreadful, fatal in the list to throw itself into the arms of hour struck. The signal for the assault the preserver of religious. liberty. They was given, and the division of the imperiurgently invited him to direct his march alists under Pappenheim scaled that portowards the Elbe, and promised not only- tion of the wall next to the new town, and to throw open their gates to him, but the artillery again thundered forth against enlisted at once a number of soldiers for the walls, which here and there were now his service; while Gustavus, who per- soon shattered to pieces. The enemy neived the great importance of such a speedily succeeded in mounting the ramgrand depot, accepted their offers with parts, and while the brave commandant, eagerness, and lost no time in endeavoring Falkenberg, was hastening to the most to meet their wishes. Tilly, however, who dangerous part, he was shot dead. The was equally aware of the advantage to be terrified citizens, now deprived of their derived by his adversary from the occupa- commander, and completely deadened with GUSTAVUS AND TILLY. 331 thi sound of the roaring cannon, abandon- considered he was not yet in sufficient force ed their walls and hurried to their homes. to risk a meeting, and he continued to keep Many were mad enough to imagine that himself intrenched in his camp of Werben, they would be enabled to defend them- in Altmark. He was likewise extremely selves more securely there, and fired upon anxious to restore his cousins, the banished the enemy from their windows, while the dukes of Mecklenburg, to their hereditary females themselves hurled stones and other possessions. Accordingly, he furnished missiles from the roofs of the houses. But them with the necessary quantity of troops this only served to increase the rage of the with which they reconquered their dominimperialists, and neither mercy nor pity ions, and made their solemn entry in their was shown. Men, women, children, the town of Giistrow, in which Wallenstein aged and the young, all were massacred had previously established his court resialike, the very infants at the breast of dence. The king heightened the interest their mothers being seized, stabbed, and of the grand festival given upon the occahurled into the flaming mass beside them: sion by attending it in person, and he ordera scene of horror which these monsters in ed that every mother with a suckling child human shape continued from ten o'clock should attend in the open square, and that in the morning and during the whole day each infant should receive some of the wine until night. Every possible cruelty, and there generally distributed, in order that torments of every description were put in- the children of their children might forever to practice on this direful day-the insatia- remember the day of the return of their ble imperialists devoting all their energies own legitimate princes. to the performance of their sanguinary Tilly, meantime, now turned his eyes and destructive work. It is related that a towards the rich provinces of Saxony which few of his officers, touched with a little had hitherto escaped the devastation of remorse, repaired to Tilly, who had re- war, and in the vicinity of which he had mained in the camp, and inquired whether now taken up his position. At the same he would not, perhaps, give orders to close time, however, it was certainly an act of the scene of pillage and murder? But he injustice and ingratitude to inflict the burreplied: " No, no; let them go on for an- den of war upon the elector of Saxony, other hour, and then come to me again. who had shown so much fidelity towards The men must have some reward for the the house of Austria; but Tilly very soon danger and fatigue they have undergone." found a pretext for such proceeding. He By ten o'clock in the evening, nothing referred to the imperial decree, which ormore was left of this ancient and magnificent dered that all the members of the Leipsic city but the cathedral, one solitary convent, league should throw down their arms; and, and a few stray fishermen's cabins on the as he found that the elector, in spite of this Elbe; all else was reduced to cinders and command, still continued on the defensive, ashes. More than twenty thousand human he immediately marched into Saxony withbeings perished, either by the sword or in out even making.any declaration of war, the flames, and when, two days afterwards, and taking possession of and pillaging the the cathedral was opened, more than a cities of Merseburg, Zeiz, Naumburg, and thousand miserable beings were found Weissenfels, he advanced to Leipsic itself. heaped together, who, having taken refuge This unjust act of violence effected more there, were now sinking and dying around than all the persuasive eloquence of the from starvation and mental agony. Such king might have produced, for the elector as were still to be saved, Tilly supplied threw himself immediately, and without with food; his wrath was now appeased, any reserve, into his arms, concluded with but all glory and good fortune, hitherto him a firm and definitive alliance, offensive so faithful to him, abandoned him from this and defensive, and joined him with his day, and his name henceforward was never army at Dtiben on the 8d of September, pronounced without a malediction. 1631. A fter the conquest of Magdeburg, Tilly On this same day, the imperial general was very desirous of having a drawn battle made his attack upon Leipsic, which had with the king of Sweden, for his troops suf- closed its gates against him, and he took fered much in that ravaged district from possession of it the next day; but the king want of supplies; Gustavus, however, now advanced with his united forces to re 332 THE BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. cover the city, and the day had at length invulnerable wall; seven times were his arrived on which the decisive trial was to attacks repulsed by the brave Swedish take place between the old and hitherto general, Banner. Tilly, who had abanunconquered general of the emperor, and doned the pursuit of the Saxons, now dithe royal and youthful hero of Sweden. rected his attack upon the exposed flank Gustavus, who knew how necessary it was of the Swedes; but, here again, the royal that he should succeed by a grand action hero promptly turned his efforts in good to secure and command the confidence of time against the old warrior, whose troops Germany, based upon his genius and good were forced to expend all their fury in fortune, felt deeply the importance of this vain against the invincible firmness of day, and wavered in his determination. their Swedish adversaries. The imperial He still doubted the prudence of staking general found himself completely puzzled the fate of the war upon a single battle; and put out of his way by this new order for there was too much reason to believe of battle; the system was entirely changed, that the loss of this action must put an end and against all expectation the confidence to all his hopes on that side of the ocean, he usually placed in all his plans and calwhile it would produce the ruin of the culations now deserted him for the first electors of Saxony and Brandenburg, to- time; he found he had to deal with a sugether with the complete and final destruc- perior genius, and while he was thus struck tion of the Protestant church throughout with embarrassment and mortification, the whole empire. Gustavus availed himself of this moment The elector of Saxony, however, who of hesitation, and making an attack upon could no longer endure to behold his coun- the enemy's artillery, took possession of it, try thus demolished by the hands of a piti- and turned the muzzles of the guns against less and ruthless foe, urged the king in the the imperialists themselves. most forcible language to give battle, and This moment was decisive; the ranks Gustavus accordingly yielded and marched of the enemy fell into disorder and were on to Leipsic. The two armies met in the put to rout; 7000 were left dead on the fields of the village of Breitenfeld, on the field of battle, and Tilly himself was in 7th of September, 1631, and there fought great danger of his life. He was pursued the decisive battle. Gustavus divided the by a captain of the Swedish cavalry, who Saxons from the rest of his troops, and struck him several times upon the head posted them on his left wing, for as they with the handle of his pistol; but was were only recently enlisted, he could not himself shot dead by an imperial officer put entire trust in them. The cannona- who came to the rescue of his distressed ding on both sides commenced about mid- leader. The sexagenarian general esday, and the shots told with far greater caped, at length, with several wounds, and, precision and consequent effect among the completely exhausted in body and spirits, crowded ranks of the imperialists than on reached Halle, where he was joined by the other side; and, in order to put an end Pappenheim, who was the last to quit the at once to this opening scene of destruction, field, having killed with his own hand, as the right wing of the imperialists fell upon Tilly relates in his bulletin of the battle, the Saxons with such force that they were fourteen of the enemy. Of all his own soon overthrown and put to flight, when, brave squadrons of cavalry, formerly so having partially rallied again at some dis- dreaded, he had now only a small troop tance from the scene of action, they re- left. assembled round their elector, who had This victory proved for Gustavus the withdrawn to Eilenburg, where, according grand foundation upon which was based to Chemnitz's account, he fell into a state his great reputation as a warrior throughof despondency. out Germany, and from that moment was At the same moment that this first at- excited thatveneration-almost amounting tack was made, Pappenheim, who was dis- to adoration-for his person and character. tinguished as the best cavalrist of his day, For this was a period, as in all extraordi. with the dlite of his cavalry, threw him- nary epochs of history, when, properly self upon the right wing of the Swedes, speaking, public opinion was all-powerful; in order to break through their line. Here, when the faith, confidence, respect, and however, he found himself opposed by an enthusiasm produced in the minds of the DEATH OF TILLY. 333 people by the actions of one man, were the river Lech, in the passage across which sufficient to establish him in their favor, he was to oppose the king, and to assist in and whoever knew how to avail himself which object Maximilian himself joined of this moral force must be certain of suc- him near Rain. But Gustavus, before cess. All now turned towards the star whom every thing now yielded, surmountthus ascending from the north; and he ed likewise this obstacle. After a vigorwas enthusiastically received by zealots ous cannonade, the imperial army being both in religious and superstitious faith. forced to quit the position it had taken, the Prophecies, miracles, and dreams, were king crossed the river and marched in all made to refer to the great Gustavus; pursuit of the enemy. But in the early and wherever he appeared the Protestants part of the action, Tilly himself was received him as their deliverer, with inde- struck in his right knee by a cannon-ball scribable transports of joy, and truly, dur- weighing three pounds, and fell from his ing the whole period of the world's exist- horse; he was conveyed to Ingolstadt, ence, the royal presence of a king was followed by Maximilian. Thither, after never so gratefully honored and rever- he had taken and placed a garrison in enced as was that of the heroic and nobly- Augsburg, Gustavus repaired and immeborn champion of the Protestant faith, diately laid siege to that town. The garGustavus Adolphus of Sweden. rison defended the place bravely, and the Gustavus possessed a glance too keen king himself narrowly escaped, his horse and comprehensive not to perceive and being shot dead, and overthrowing its royal fully understand the power which was rider. Tilly, although sinking fast, still now contributing all possible strength to encouraged the garrison to the last; he his cause; and, although formerly he ex- died twenty-five days after he received his ercised the greatest and most anxious cau- mortal wound, in the seventy-third year tion in the steps he took, marching his of his age. He was a stern, iron-hearted army slowly through the country, and se- man, who made a merit of boasting that curing his safe retreat by making himself he had never once known the feeling of master of all the fortified places in his love or affection; at the same time he was route, he now pressed boldly onward of a firm and incorruptible character, and through the empire, his progress present- a good general. In personal appearance ing one triumphant march. Proceeding he bore a great resemblance to the duke through Thuringia and across the Thurin- of Alba, under whom he had served in the gian forest, he arrived in Franconia, and Netherlands. He was of middle height, thence continued his course to the Rhine; and very thin; his eyes were large, but where, having fixed his quarters during a their expression, together with the contour short winter's rest, he resumed his pro- of his whole countenance, indicated the gress, and, returning to Franconia, march- stern and rigid nature of the man. He ed on direct to Bavaria. The most im- was the descendant of a noble family in portant cities fell into his hands, some Liege. after a slight resistance, and most of them The Swedish king raised the siege of yielded themselves voluntarily, including Ingolstadt and marched to Munich, which Halle, Erfurt, Wiurzburg, Frankfort, trembled at his approach. The inhabitants, Mentz, Nuremberg, &c. Tilly, whose and the Bavarian people generally, in their army was now so reinforced, that he found hatred against the Swedes, had treated himself at the head of a much more numer- many of that nation with great cruelty, ous body of troops than the king himself putting them to death and then mangling had under his command, nevertheless their remains; by which inhuman conduct would not venture to oppose his march; they had excited the greatest indignation in for since the battle of Leipsic he found it the king. Nevertheless, he received the impossible to recover that confidence with- deputies of the city graciously when they in himself which, until then, he had al- presented the keys to him: " You have ways had at his command. done well," he said, " and your submission The Elector Maximilian of Bavaria hav- has disarmed me. I should have been jusing, however, summoned him to march to tified in making an example of your city his aid in order to protect his own heredi- in revenge for the unhappy fate of Magtary estates, the old general advanced to deburg; however, fear nothing, depart in 334 THE EMPEROR AND WALLENSTEIN. peace, and fear not for your property or upon him, and some of his officers and religion. My word is more valuable than chamberlains had even previously served all the signed capitulations in the world." the emperor himself in the same rank they The greater portion of the Bavarian ter- held under Wallenstein. Three hundred ritory was now in the hands of Gustavus, horses of choice breed filled his magnifiand the elector was forced to seek refuge in cent stables, and the assemblies in his palRatisbon. ace rivalled in character the imperial The Saxons, meantime, agreeably to the court itself, for he was always visited by plan of war drawn up by Gustavus, had the most distinguished men of the day, too marched into Bohemia, under the command eager to seek and enjoy intercourse with of Field-marshal Arnim-who had quitted such extraordinary genius. Outwardly he the service of the emperor and passed over observed the greatest ease and tranquillity into that of the elector of Saxony-and of manner, but internally he was still agi. very easily made themselves masters of tated with burning ambition. He had bePrague, which was but slightly defended; held the progress made by Gustavus with there, on the 11th of November, 1631, the inward joy, because therein was satiated elector made his solemn entry. his revenge against the emperor and the Thus that single battle of Leipsic snatch- hated elector of Bavaria, and all eyes would ed from the hands of the emperor the en- soon again be directed towards him as the tire fruits of a twelve years' war, and he only friend in need. And in reality, as he now saw himself threateneS'even in his expected, the imperial deputies did arrive. own patrimonial estates; this was a crisis Wallenstein received them coldly, and for which he was by no means prepared, it was only after being most urgently pressand which came upon him like a clap of ed by them that he yielded the promise to thunder. In such a critical moment he, raise for the emperor an army of 30,000 with his council, saw but one means of ex- men; but he would not engage to take tric&tion, and this was the recall of that command of it. And now the mighty man proud and ambitious man, Wallenstein, sent forth his followers in all directions to who, offended and indignant at being dis- erect his recruiting standard. Thousands missed from the imperial service, now lived rallied around it, for it had ever led to pilin mortified retirement brooding on the past. lage and fortune; and in this stormy age No other was now left who could venture it was easier to gain a livelihood in war to enter the lists against the powerful king; than in the workshop or behind the plough. no other who was capable of again raising The heavy horsemen under Wallenstein an army for the emperor's service. received each nine florins monthly pay, But the task of winning him over to the the light cavalry six, the infantry four, beimperial cause, seemed now more difficult sides daily rations of meat, bread, and wine. than ever. He lived upon his estates in The 30,000 men were collected together Bohemia in a style of luxury truly royal, already by March in the year 1632; but and appeared to bid defiance to emperor he alone who had raised them was capaand kings; and it was thus the millions he ble of conducting them. had gained in the war enabled him to live. Of this the emperor was well aware, His palace in Prague was erected with royal and he accordingly submitted to the incredmagnificence, and which even at the pre- ible degradation of permitting Wallenstein sent day bears the stamp of its original to dictate to him the following conditions character. While his enemies congratu- " The duke of Friedland, generalissimo of lated themselves upon having reduced him the emperor, shall have the supreme corn to this condition of a private individual, he mand of the whole archducal house, and of had his own figure represented in fresco on the crown of Spain without any limitation the walls of the state saloon of his palace, whatever, (in absolutissima forma;) neither by artists whom he procured from Italy and the emperor, nor king Ferdinand (son of Germany, in the character of a conqueror the emperor, whom the adverse party would seated on a triumphant car borne along by fain have made general-in-chief) shall apfour milk-white steeds, while over his lau- pear in person with the troops; to secure the rel-crowned head was placed a star. Sixty remuneration of his services he shall receive pages, each of noble family, in their rich as a guarantee a portion of the Austrian costume of blue and gold velvet, attended patrimonial estates, and with it he shall be WALLENSTEIN REAPPOINTED GENERALISSIMO. 335 entitled to exercise an exclusive and irre- vast multitude increased daily, for they sponsible control over the conquests he shall subsisted upon rapine and plunder. In make in the empire, and command the priv. Gustavus's army, likewise, strict order ilege of conferring distinctions as he may was no longer maintained as at first, it bedeem best. Mecklenburg or some other ing now considerably increased by recruits indemnification shall be made over to him and German auxiliaries. These he could during peace, and during the war, if ne- not restrain as he wished, although he cessary, he shall be at liberty to choose adopted the severest measures for that purany of the hereditary provinces of the pose. The disorder however was produced empire for his seat of retirement." mainly through their own leaders, who Clothed with such-almost imperial- were negligent of all discipline. The )ower, Wallenstein again appeared upon pious mind of the king was sorely pained he stage, increased his army to 40,000 and indignant when he heard of the outnen, conquered Prague once more on the rages perpetrated by his troops upon the ith of May in the year 1632, and with poor inhabitants of the country. He called little difficulty expelled the Saxons from the leaders together, sharply rebuked them, Bohemia. and exclaimed: They made him so misThe elector of Bavaria, who, in the erable, that he was weary of having longer mean while, was sorely pressed at home, any thing to do with such a perverse set.' applied to Wallenstein in the most urgent Unfortunately his eye could not be everyterms for help, which the latter, appearing where, and the mischief had already be. to enjoy thoroughly his distress and hu- come too deeply rooted. He then resolved miliation, for a long time hesitated to af- to bring this undecided and ruinous state of ford; at length, after the elector had affairs to a conclusion by making a daring engaged to comply in an unqualified man- attempt. On the 24th of August he storm. ner with all his instructions in the conduct ed the heights of Wallenstein, but foun'. of the war, he sent him an invitation to the undertaking too formidable; the most join him at Eger, intending thence to make determined courage availed nothing against an advance upon Nuremberg, one of the these fastnesses defended by their thundermost considerable places of defence the ing artillery; the king was therefore obliking possessed. But Gustavus, who per- ged, after serious loss, to give up the asceived the design, anticipated him, and sault. He waited fourteen days longer in made his appearance quite unexpectedly his encampment, and as Wallenstein still with an army near the city, which he in- continued immoveable, he retired and retrenched, being vigorously aided by the turned to Bavaria on the 8th of September, devoted and enthusiastic inhabitants, whose marching with sounding trumpets past the youths filled the ranks of his army, and enemy, who would not venture to attack thus he was prepared for the enemy. The him. latter advanced and likewise made an Wallenstein now abandoned his encampintrenchment on the heights of Zirndorf ment likewise, set fire to it, and unexpectand Altenberg, in full view of the Swedish edly formed the resolution of carrying a encampment. Both parties had formed determined war once more into northern the plan of forcing each other by famine Protestant Germany; he marched at once and disease to leave their strong-hold. for Saxony, and his approach was indicaThey maintained this position eleven weeks, ted by carnage and conflagration. The and neither would stir. But the distress king hastened to afford relief, and reachof the whole surrounding country had now ed Naumburg on the 11th of November. become very great; every thing was con- The people welcomed him as their guarsumed or laid waste. In Wallenstein's dian angel, gathered around him as he encamp alone, in addition to the large army tered, and kissed his feet. A sad misgiving itself, there were about 15,000 servants and possessed his soul at this excessive veneraattendants upon the baggage, and an equal tion: "' Our cause is good," said he to his number of women whom he had permitted chaplain Fabricius, " but I fear that God to follow their husbands, together with will punish me for the folly of these peo30,000 horses, which had been employed pie. Does it not seem as if these people chiefly in removing the immense quantity were actually making an idol of me? How of baggage. The licentiousness of this easily could that God, who abases the proud; 336 THE BATTLE OF LUTZEN-DEATH OF GUSTAVUS. cause them and myself to feel, that I am considerably in advance to descry the weak nothing but a feeble and mortal man!" points of the enemy; a few of his attendAs just about this time the weather was ants only, and Francis, duke of Saxeintensely cold, and the king had intrenched Lauenburg, followed him. His short sighthimself near Naumburg, Wallenstein did edness led him too near a squadron of not deem it advisable to commence hostili- imperial horse; he received a shot in his ties before the spring, and dispatched Count arm, so that he nearly fell to the ground Pappenheim to the Rhine with instructions, powerless; and just as he was turning first of all to drive the Swedes out of Halle round to be led away from the tumultuous and the contiguous town of Moritzburg. scene, he received a second shot in the Gustavus immediately took his departure, back. With the exclamation, "My God! advanced to Weissenfels, and in the evening my God!" he fell from his horse, which of the 15th of November took his position had likewise been shot in the neck, and in frontofWallenstein's armynear Litzen. hanging by the stirrup he was dragged Both made immediate preparation for bat- some distance along the ground. The tie, and the imperial general summoned duke of Lauenburg abandoned him, but a Pappenheim, who was still engaged in the faithful page, Leubelfing, endeavored to siege of Moritzburg, to return with all raise him up; the imperial horsemen, possible speed. however, shot him also, killed the king The king spent the cold autumnal night with several wounds, and completely plunin his carriage, and advised with his gen. dered him; the page died of his wounds erals about the battle. The morning five days after at Naumburg. dawned, and a thick fog covered the entire The corpse of the king was so much plain; the troops were drawn up in battle trampled upon by the hoofs of the horses array, and the Swedes sang, accompanied that it was quite disfigured. His bleeding by trumpets and drums, Luther's hymn: horse returning without its rider, conveyed " Eine feste Burg ist unser Gott," (A to his friends the sad news; this kindled mighty rock is our God;) together with in their breast a feeling which thirsted for the hymn composed by the king himself: revenge, and under the leadership of Duke " Verzage nicht, du Hauflein klein," (Fear Bernard of Weimar, who with heroic not, thou little flock.) Just after elev- firmness now rallied and cheered on the en o'clock, when the sun was emerging troops afresh, they again pushed forward from behind the clouds, and after a short over the trenches and rushed upon the prayer, the king mounted his horse, placed ranks of the enemy. These could no longhimself at the head of the right wing,- er make resistance; Piccolomini, already the left being conducted by Bernard of covered with blood, mounted his fifth horse, Weimar,-and cried, "Now, onward! and Pappenheim, who had fought nobly, May our God direct us! Lord! Lord! fell mortally wounded by a ball. Many Help me this day to fight for the glory of fled, and disorder prevailed: "The battle thy name!" and throwing aside his cuirass is lost, Pappenheim is dead, the Swedes are with the words, " God is my shield!" he upon us!" was the cry. Wallenstein gave led his troops to the front of the imperials, orders to sound a retreat. A thick fog, towho were well intrenched on the paved gether with night coming on, prevented the road which leads from Lttzen to Leip- Swedes, no less than their own weariness, sic, and stationed in the deep trenches on from making pursuit; they spent the night either side. A deadly cannonade saluted on the field of battle, and kept possession the Swedes; many here met their death, of the imperial artillery. Wallenstein but their places were taken by others, who marched with the remains of his army to leaped over the trench, and the troops of Bohemia, although he had formerly deterWallenstein made a retreat. In the mean mined to winter in Saxony. Thus the iswhile, Pappenheim had come up with his sue unequivocally declared the Swedes cavalry from Halle, and the battle was victorious, although Wallenstein representrenewed with the utmost fury. The ed the battle as undecided, and the empeSwedish infantry fled in trepidation behind ror ordered a Te Deum to be sung in all the trenches. In order to render them as- his cities. sistance, the king hastened to the spot with On the following day the Swedes made a company of horse, and rode in full speed a search for the body of their beloved king, PORTRAITURE OF GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS. 337 among the thousands which covered the meanor, that he universally commanded wide battle-field; they found it at length, veneration, admiration, love, and fear. His among many others, so disfigured by the hair and beard were of a light brown color, hoofs of the horses, and covered with the his eye large, but not far-sighted. War blood issuing from eleven wounds, that had great charms for him, and from his they could hardly recognise it. It was earliest youth honor and glory were his carried to Weissenfels, and thence by the passion. Eloquence dwelt upon his tongue, desire of the queen, Maria Eleanor, who (he spoke-in addition to the German, the had followed her consort to Germany, at- native language of his mother-the Swedtended by weeping multitudes, it was re- ish, Latin, French, and Italian languages;) moved to Stockholm, where it was interred. and in discourse he was agreeable and The collar, also saturated with blood, lively. There never was a general who and which the king had worn in battle, was served with so much cheerfulness and was brought to the emperor Ferdinand at Vi- devotion as was Gustavus. He was of an enna; it issaid, that when he saw it he shed affable and friendly disposition, readily extears, by which he did honor to his fallen pressed commendation, and noble actions enemy and himself. Ferdinand's soul was were indelibly fixed in his memory; on great enough to admire heroism even in a the other hand, excessive politeness and foe. flattery he hated, and if any person apThus, in the thirty-eighth year of his life, proached him in this way, he never trusted in the midst of a career of victory, was him." Gustavus Adolphus called away; the pre- He was severe against all the excesses ponderating influence of his mind gave of the soldiery, and was greatly concerned another character to the constitution of for the security of the citizens and peasGermany and the progress of our devel- antry. When, after taking a Catholic town, opment. He had already conceived the some sought to induce him to treat the idea of getting himself nominated king of burghers with harshness, and to give them Rome, and his design, the extent of which new laws, he made answer: " The city is is known to none, may also have compre- now mine, and no longer the enemy's. I hended other countries of Europe. He am come to loosen the fetters of freedom often expressed his astonishment that the and not to rivet them afresh. Let them present age did not produce generals like live as they have lived heretofore; I give those of antiquity; and when he was told no new laws to them who know how to that the altered character of the weapons live as their religion teaches." " In dealand tactics of war, and the existence of ing with Protestants and Catholics he made strong fortifications were the cause, he re- no distinction. His maxim was, that every plied: " The difference is not in the nature one is orthodox who conforms to the laws, of the weapons, but in the degeneration of and to keep men from going to hell was men; if we could again meet with the not the calling of princes, but that of the heart of an Alexander, the courage of a ministers of religion." Hannibal, and the enterprising spirit of a Thus he carried out these sentiments Caesar, we should see renewed the deeds during his stay at Munich, as well as on of Alexander, the conquests of Hannibal, other occasions. On Ascension-day, in and the successes of Caesar." Such lofty the year 1632, he went to the chapel of conceptions of human life, such a thorough Our Lady, to be present at a mass celeacquaintance with the agencies which gov- brated with all the solemnity of the Cathoern the world, and with history, did he lic worship; he then visited the college of possess; and who will venture to deter- the Jesuits, replied to the rector's Latin admine what limits a mind like this had pre- dress in the same language, and conversed scribed to itself? A contemporary, whose with him for nearly an hour on the subject of judgment may be regarded as impartial, the Lord's Supper. In magnanimity and Count Galeazzo Gualdo, a Venetian and a liberality of sentiment he occupies a posiCatholic, who spent several years in the tion strikingly in advance of his generation, imperial as well as in the Swedish armies, no less for the respect he paid to the relidescribes the personal and mental qualifi. gious feeling of others, however it might cations of the king thus: " Gustavus was differ in form from that which he conscientall, stout, and of such a truly royal de- tiously preferred, than for the homage he 43 338 CONTINUATION OF THE WAR. paid to greatness and truth in general. to hold the strength of his party together. How natural it was that the affections of Nevertheless, he had not the suavity and mankind should be gained by a character generous magnanimity of his late master. like this, by the side of such narrow-minded The electoral princes, especially Saxony, and prejudiced rulers of the day as Ferdi- found it irksome to yield obedience to the nand II., Maximilian of Bavaria, or even dictates of a Swedish nobleman, and althe well-meaning but weak John George of though he succeeded in uniting the ProSaxony! Besides Gualdo, other Catholic testant states of the four upper circleswriters, such as Khevenhuller, Riccius, Swabia, Franconia, and the Upper and Burgus, &c., do not conceal their venera- Lower Rhine, in the treaty of Heilbronn in tion for Gustavus Adolphus. the spring of 1633, it was soon manifested, The monument of Gustavus Adolphus by the indecision of some, the opposition of in Germany was for a long time a mere others, and the want of union among the stone land-mark, placed in the battle-field leaders of the army, that the genius of Gusof Litzen, upon the spot where he fell; tavus Adolphus no longer presided over the more recently, however, an admirer of his whole. character has erected in the same place Wallenstein alone, whose genius suranother plain but more worthy memorial. passed all others, might have availed himself of this moment of doubt and hesitation by bringing the war to a decision, ~ —* — ~ and making the emperor triumphant, but he was occupied with other cares, and remained in a state of incomprehensible inacCHA P T E R XXV. tion. After the battle of Liitzen he summoned a court-martial, in order to remove Continuation of the War 1632-1635-Chancellor Oxen- from his own shoulders all responsibility stiern-Wallenstein's inaction-Court Martial overrom hs own shoulders all responslity his Officers-Military Executions-Count of Thurn for the loss of that action; and as he postaken Prisoner and released by Wallenstein-The s t po r of li a d or ll Emperor's Remonstrance and Wallenstein's Reply- sessed the power o life and death over all The Swedes in Bavaria-Wallenstein withholds As- those under his orders, he forthwith con. sistance-Prohibits his Officers from obeying the Imperial Commands-Pilsen-Military Council and demned several of his generals and supeCompact between Wallenstein and his Officers- rior officers to the axe, and adjudged a great Counts Terzka, Illo, and Piccolomini-The Emperor divests Wallenstein of all Command-Italian-Span- number of private soldiers to be hung; ish Conspiracy against Wallenstein-Piccolomini finally, he ordered more than fifty names marches against Wallenstein-Wallenstein negotiates with France and Sweden for his Services-The of absent officers to be nailed to the gallows Crown of Bohemia offered to him-Retreats to Eger in Prague, as those of traitors and cowards. -The Supper in the Citadel-Murder of Counts Terzka, Illo, and Kinsky by Deveroux and Geraldin He then enlisted fresh troops, replaced his -Assassination of Wallenstein, 1634-His Estates artillery by melting down the bells of the confiscated-Succeeded in Command by Ferdinand,y elt King of Rome —The Battle of Nordlingen-The churches, and was soon in possession of an Elector of Saxony-Peace of Prague, 1635-Dreadful army equally as powerful as his former Condition of Germany-Cardinal Richelieu and army equally as powerful as hs former Chancellor Oxenstiern-French and Swedish Al- one. Instead, however, of directing his liance against the Emperor-Inglorious Character of marh h he iel tat an a the War-Death of Ferdinand II., 1637. march through the mperial states, and ad vancing against the Swedes under Gustavus IT now became a question whether or Horn and Duke Bernard of Weimar, who not the Swedes, after the death of their were masters of the frontiers of Germany, king, would continue to carry on the war. he marched on to Silesia, where such a If they did not, the Protestant allies had large army was not at all required, and negood reason to be apprehensive that Wal- gotiated with the Saxons for a length of lenstein would visit them with a heavy time upon the subject of a separate treaty retribution. The Swedish council, how- of peace, after he had already concluded ever, to whom the guardianship of Chris- an armistice with General Arnim, in comtina, the daughter of Gustavus, was in- mand of the Saxon army. At the same trusted, resolved to continue the war which time, according to the subsequent accusamight entitle Sweden to some of the prov- tions brought against him, he endeavored to inces of Germany, and the late king's ascertain what amount of indemnification friend, the Chancellor Axel Oxenstiern, was the enemy would allow him in case he determined to fill his place; a man whose went over to their side, for he had long comprehensive and prudent mind knew how since believed to have read in the stars that BAVARIA-CONSPIRACY AGAINST WALLENSTEIN. 339 it was his destiny to reign and hold unlim- of his army still more closely to himself, ited sway as king. Meantime, in order, and to that end summoned them all to asby more active proceedings, to prevent the semble, at the commencement of the year emperor from suspecting his intentions, he 1634, at Pilsen. It was by no means difattacked the Saxons and the Swedes, and ficult for him to gain them over to his exdrove them out of Silesia, taking prisoner clusive interest, for it was upon his promise, the old count of Thurn, the originator of and in the hope of being completely indemthe war. The whole of Vienna was in a nified through his recommendation, that state of excitement, and fully expected that they had all raised and equipped regiments the man they so much hated would be led at their own expense, and, in some, inthrough their streets as the most culpable stances, staked their whole fortune. If, of all those connected with the dreadful therefore, he fell, they were in danger of scenes of the revolution; Wallenstein, how. losing all compensation. Consequently, on ever, to the astonishment of all, gave him the 12th of January, 1634, forty superior his liberty, and when he was remonstrated officers, having at their head, Field-marwith by the emperor for releasing his pris- shals Illo and Count Terzka, assembled at oner he replied: " What use was I to make a dinner-at which, however, through seof such a fool? I wish the Swedes pos- vere illness, Wallenstein himself could not sessed no better generals than this Thurn, preside-and entered into a solemn comfor at the head of the Swedes he will do pact " to adhere faithfully to the duke in more service for the imperial cause than he life and death as long as he should remain could if in prison." in the emperor's service, or as long as the During this interval Bavaria was very latter should require his services in the hard pressed by Horn and Bernard of war;" and they at the same time made Weimar, and, urged by the elector's ear- him promise them " to remain with them nest demands for aid, the emperor had al- for some time longer, and not to withdraw ready repeatedly summoned his general to from the supreme command without their march to the relief of that country. Wal- privity and consent." Field-marshal Piclenstein, however, delayed doing so for a colomini, who subsequently betrayed his considerable time; at length he advanced general, attached his signature to this slowly through Bohemia, arrived in the agreement, likewise, with the rest. upper palatinate and marched back again Wallenstein's enemies availed theminto Bohemia, where he fixed his winter selves of this certainly important circumquarters. He gave strict orders to all his stance to bring him more and more under generals, in command of distinct divisions the emperor's suspicion, and carried out of the army, under the most severe penal- their designs to such an extent as to make ties, not to obey the orders of the emperor; Ferdinand resolve, at length, to divest hinm and when the latter caused a Spanish army of the supreme command, and to transfer to march from Italy into Germany without it into the hands 6f Gallas. It is not to be placing it under the orders of Wallenstein, at all doubted but that an Italian-Spanish and even commanded that a portion of the conspiracy was firmly established against grand army should be detached from the Wallenstein in the imperial court, and main body in order to form a junction with which was joined by the elector of Bavaria, the Spanish division, the generalissimo who continually complained, in most bitter complained loudly and indignantly at this terms, against the general. The principal violation of the treaty made between him- agent in these secret proceedings was an self and the emperor. Italian, Colonel Caretta, marquis of Grana. Wearied with these mortifications, and These intrigues against Wallenstein tormented by his attacks of gout, to such were conducted so secretly-the emperor an extent that he was obliged to have pieces Ferdinand himself being in actual correof raw flesh cut out of the excoriated foot, spondence with him on official business he resolved to resign the supreme com- twenty days subsequently to that o' the mand; but he was determined to do so in 24th of January, when he had issued the such a manner as to place himself in a po- instrument for Wallenstein's dismissalsition to command the fulfilment of the that the latter only first learned it when promises originally made to him. He en- Gallas, Piccolomini, and Aldringen pub4eavored, therefore, to attach the leaders lished their ordinances, in the name of the 340 WALLENSTEIN'S MURDER. emperor, in which they interdicted all the comprehensible man, anticipating the pro. leading officers of the army from accepting bable loss of the emperor's favor, was defarther orders from Wallenstein, Illo, and sirous not to refuse altogether the proposiTerzka. Wallenstein drew up imme- tions of the enemy, but rather to hold this diately a solemn declaration, signed by resource in reserve in case of being again himself and twenty-nine of his generals overturned, as he was before at the diet of and colonels, in Pilsen, in which it was Ratisbon. stated that the compact entered into be- Wallenstein quitted Pilsen on the morntween himself and officers on the 12th of ing of the 22d of February, borne along in January, contained nothing whatever that a litter, and suffering excruciatingly from was hostile to the emperor or the Catholic the gout; he was accompanied by only religion. He also dispatched two officers ten followers, including Colonel Butler, to the emperor with the declaration that he by whom he was subsequently murdered; was ready to resign his office of general- and at the end of the second day's journey issimo, and would appear to justify himself he reached Eger, taking up his quarters in before any tribunal the emperor might be the house of the burgomaster, Pechhelbel, pleased to appoint. These two officers, in the market-place. On the following however, were met and detained on the evening, Terzka, Illo, and Kinsky proceedroad by Piccolomini, and the message they ed to the citadel to sup with Colonel Gorbore only reached the emperor after the don, the commandant. While they were death of Wallenstein. dining, thirty dragoons, commanded by Piccolomini marched with his own troops Captains Deveroux and Geraldin, suddenagainst Pilsen, and Wallenstein was obli- ly burst into the hall from the ante-room in ged to withdraw to the citadel of Eger, which they had been waiting, and, falling of which the commandant, Colonel Gor- upon their victims, pierced them to death; don, was especially attached to him from not, however, before Terzka, who bravely motives of gratitude for favors he had con- defended himself, had killed two of the ferred upon him. Here, three days pre- band of assassins. Immediately after this viously to his death, having too much rea- murderous act, Deveroux proceeded with son to feel assured of the hostile intentions six dragoons to complete t.e sanguinary of his enemies, he was impelled by neces- plot by assassinating Wallenstein himself. sity to seek for aid from the Duke Bernard It was now midnight, and the duke had alof Weimar, who was now encamped in Ra- ready retired to rest. Having, however, tisbon, and whom he urgently requested to been roused by the shrieks of the Counadvance with some of his troops towards tesses Terzka and Kinsky, who had just the Bohemian frontiers. It is historically learned the fate of their husbands, he rose, proved that Wallenstein's brother-in-law, and opening the window, asked the sentiCount Kinsky, banished from Bohemia on nel what had happened? At the same account of his Protestant faith, was in moment, Deveroux forced open the door of treaty with the French ambassador, Feu- the chamber, and, rushing upon him, ex. quieres, for the engagement of his relative's claimed, as he stood at the window: services in the cause of France and against "Death to Wallenstein!" The latter, the emperor, and that Cardinal Richelieu without uttering a word, laid bare his promised Wallenstein the crown of Bohe- breast, and received the fatal blow. mia as a recompense; and, according to Thus silent and reserved to the hour of the Swedish writers, similar negotiations his death, all the profound and mysterious were carried on with their party. But thoughts and sentiments of his soul reno written document, nor any direct act mained hidden from the world, and a veil of Wallenstein himself corroborates these of obscurity was cast over his whole life statements, or proves that he did charge and actions. He was one of those men Count Kinsky with the execution of such whose deep-laid plans and motives it was commission, while both the French and impossible to fathom, and of whom little or the Swedes remained to the last moment in nothing can be said in explanation of their doubt whether or not Wallenstein was views or ideas. merely playing with them in order to gain After his death his estates were confistheir confidence. At the same time it is cated, and a great portion of them were not unlikely that this extraordinary and in- transferred as a reward into the hands of BATTLE OF NORDLINGEN. 341 his enemies, and even to those by whom This battle might have proved as favorhe had been murdered. Gallas received able in its results for the Catholic party as the duchy of Friedland, Piccolomini had the that of Leipsic had been for the Protestants. principality of Nachod, while Butler, and The Swedish power seemed annihilated in the actual assassins, were rewarded with Germany, and this produced at once the others of his estates and large sums of his secession of the Saxons from the Swedes. money. The major part of his possessions, Their elector, John George, had for a however, was retained by the emperor length of time beheld with pain and morti. himself. The value of Wallenstein's land- fication the province of Lusatia continue in ed property alone was estimated at fifty the hands of the imperialists, and appre. millions of florins. His widow received hended that he should not only never rethe principality of Neuschloss; and his on- cover that, but perhaps might lose still ly surviving child, Maria Elizabeth, became more; accordingly, in the spring of 1635, shortly afterwards the wife ofCountCaunitz. he made peace with the emperor at Prague. In order to justify Wallenstein's assas- He received back Lusatia, together with a sination, a lengthy document was drawn portion of the province of Magdeburg, and up by the especial command of the empe- full liberty of religious worship for forty ror himself, containing all the accusations years. The evangelical portion of Gerbrought against the duke, and which, for a many was extremely irritated against the long time, continued to convey the most elector, but several other states soon folfalse and unjust ideas and opinions of the lowed his example and made terms with character of that extraordinary man. the emperor, such as, Brandenburg, MeckAfter the death of Wallenstein, Ferdi- lenburg, Weimar, Liineburg, and others; nand, king of Rome, and son of the em- and it appeared as if this sanguinary war peror, obtained the chief command of the would find its termination by the enervaimperial army, and fortune opened the com- tion of the factions. In truth, unhappy mencement of his career with the most Germany, which had been overwhelmed brilliant success. After having followed by warriors from almost every part of Euthe Swedes beyond the frontiers of Bava- rope, presented a sad and mournful picture ria, he overtook them near Nordlingen, in at the present moment; everywhere the Franconia. His own army was composed land devastated, the population frightfully of the most choice troops, and augmented diminished, the corn-fields trodden down or by 15,000 Spaniards; while that of the uncultivated, the towns laid waste, and Swedes was by no means in a state of piles of ruins and ashes, where formerly union and discipline. The command was blooming regions had everywhere greeted devided between General Horn and Duke the eye. What had escaped the sword Bernard of Weimar; the more experienced was destroyed by famine, misery, and dis. and prudent counsel of the former chief, in ease, while the pen itself refuses to describe anticipation of defeat, opposed giving bat- the horrible extent to which the sanguinary tle altogether, while the more young and and cruel scenes of this war were carried. daring spirit of the latter insisted upon In such a state of general distress and making a stand, and receiving the enemy's misery, when the German states everyattack. Accordingly the action tookplace where showed an inclination for peace, on the 6th of September, 1634; but the and the emperor himself was disposed to reduced number of the Swedes, their bad revoke at least a portion of the Edict of position, the disunion existing between the Restitution-as he had already proved by leaders, and the misunderstanding and con- his treaty of peace with the Saxons-the fusion arising therefrom, combined alto- oppressed nation found at length some gether to act against them; and, in spite foundation to hopr hthe period when its of all their courage, they, after a combat sufferings woul' close at of eight hours, were completely defeated hand. and nearly cut to pieces. Twenty thou- But once ar sand of their troops were either slain or tiny, which made prisoners, and among the latter was ready collec General Horn himself, while Duke Ber- disaster, re! nard with the remnant of his army retreat- French mi ed towards the Rhine. served wit 342 OXENSTIERN-DEATH OF FERDINAND II. tunes of the house of Austria, and of the character assumed an ignoble and merceempire generally. The French govern- nary stamp. The royal hero, whose elevament regarded it as the most wise and pru- tion of soul shed a brilliant lustre over all dent motive of state policy, to torture and around him, and who was inspired by his execute, on the one hand, the Protestants religious faith, combined with the glory of France throughout the entire kingdom; and honor of his nation, was now no more; while, on the other, it lent its aid to those the impenetrable, mysterious, and allof Germany, and thus rendered that faith powerful general, who alone could venture a means by which it might serve to con- to make a stand against the forces of Swe. ceal its thirst after conquest. The moment den, had also been snatched from the rehad now arrived when the cardinal thought alization of his dark projects; while those he was able to vend the services of France who now had the command of the imperial at a dear rate. Accordingly he offered armies, although brave and not without disthem to the Chancellor Oxenstiern, stipu- tinction, were only second in rank of gelating for the fortress of Philipsburg on nius, and wholly incapable of aspiring to the Rhine as a recompense; while, at the the elevated thoughts and feelings of their same time, he indicated that his designs predecessors. In this war it was egotism extended to the still more important terri- alone by which the parties were swayed; tory of Alsace. This was the first time consequently, however remarkable its opethat foreigners had ever negotiated for the rations may appear, they must still be refrontiers of our country. With this treaty garded in the light of ordinary events. between Richelieu and Oxenstiern affairs The emperor Ferdinand himself, who at once assumed a character both ignoble ranked among the most distinguished spirits and degrading; for from that moment the of his age, now also disappeared from the Swedish minister sought only to transfer a great scene of contention without living to portion of Germany to his own nation. witness its termination, and died on the They found in Duke Bernard of Weimar, 15th of February, 1637, aged fifty-nine otherwise a brave and noble prince, the years, after having had the satisfaction of arm so desirable to second their measures, seeing his son Ferdinand unanimously acmore especially as he himself was anxious knowledged, at the diet of Ratisbon, as his to gain possession of a province on the successor. Rhine. Accordingly, a powerful and wellequipped army was soon collected with French money, and placed under the duke's orders, with which he marched against the imperialists and Bavarians, and from this moment the Rhenish provinces became the C H A P T E R XX V I. scene of war, being pillaged and devastated the same as those along the Oder, Elbe, FerdinandIII., 1637-1657-Continuation of the Warthe same as those along the Ode, be,Duke Bernard of Weimar on the Rhine-His Death and Weser, had been previously. The -Cardinal Richelieu-The Swedish Generals-BanSwedes, however possessed likewise a ner-Torstenson-Wrangel-Negotiations for Peace Swedes, however, possessed likewise a -Tedious Proress-French and Swedish Claims of brave and active general in Field-marshal Indemnification —Humiliation and Dismemberment Banner; ad reinorcd by Freh tr of the Empire —Territorial Sovereignty of the Princes Banner; and reinforced by French troops — Switzerland-The Netherlands —Final Arrangefrom Sweden, he marched in all haste from ment and Conclusion of the Peace of Westplalia, Pomerania-whither the remnant of his army had fled after the battle of Nbrdlin- IN the year 1637 and 1638, Duke Bergen-against the Saxons, now the allies of nard of Weimar pursued his victorious the emperor, and on the 4th of October, career along the Rhine; he surprised the 1634, gave the elector battle at Wittstock, army of the league at Rhinefeld, attacked near Meckle-' - nmpletely defeated and overthrew it, taking prisoners four genhirm erals, including the brave leader, John of n this moment, Werth, and Rhinefeld, Rbteln, and Friof gloomy and burg, surrendered to his arms. But the anting, as it chief object of his wishes was to gain the and uninflu- important fortification of Brisach, which he motives of a was anxious to make the principal seat of, its whole his dominion along the Rhine. He accord. FERDINAND III. 343 ingly laid siege to it, and once more de- holm more than 600 standards he had capfeating the Catholic army which came to tured from the imperialists; but although its relief, he conquered that stronghold af- he possessed talents as a leader, his heart ter it had become completely reduced by was cruel and without the least mercy, and famine and disease, and caused himself to his campaigns were attended with more be solemnly acknowledged by the inhab- bloodshed and oppression than all the others itants as their ruler. But he remained during this war. While he was quartered only a short time in the enjoyment of his in Bohemia, there were often more than conquest; for just as he was about to pre- 100 villages, small towns, and castles, pare for another expedition, he was seized burnt tluring the night; and one of his with sudden illness, and died on the 18th principal officers, Adam Pfuhl, boasted of July, 1639, in the thirty-sixth year of that he had, with his own hands, set on his age, being the youngest of eight equal- fire about 800 different places in that unly brave and warlike brothers. He him- happy country. And when soon after self declared his belief that he was poison- wards, on an expedition he made against ed, and his chaplain at once confirmed this Thuringia, this same officer felt his end suspicion in the sermon he preached over approaching, and desired the last services his remains. If this was, indeed, the case, of a minister of religion, such was the the act can be attributed to no other source wasted and forlorn state of the country, but France, for immediately after the that none could be found within the disduke's death, the army was visited by tance of many leagues. several French agents who negotiated for Banner was succeeded in command by the services of the army, which they pur- Leonard Torstenson, who, although so weak chased for large sums, together with all in body that he was always forced to be the places in its possession. Three regi- carried in a litter, was nevertheless the ments of Swedes alone refused to sell them- most active and talented of all the geneselves to the French, and they marched out rals in this war. He commenced, in 1642, of the place with beat of drum and un- by invading Silesia, attacked and defeated furled banners to join the main body of Francis Albert, duke of Saxe-Lauenburg their army; and thus Brisach was con- -the same general at whose side the great quered for the French by the valor of the Gustavus fell at Ltitzen, and who had now German troops. gone over to the Austrians, and conquerAlready in the year 1636, the appeal ed Schweidnitz. Thence he marched on to made by thousands of those unhappy be- Moravia, took Olmtitz, and made Vienna ings who suffered so much from the disas- itself already begin to tremble. Disease trous state of the country, for that peace so in his army, however, forced him to remuch wished by all, had at length produ- treat; but in the autumn of this year, he ced some effect, and some attempts were attacked the imperial general Piccolornini made for this purpose; but Richelieu was at Leipsic, who had followed him in his far from wishing for pacification, inasmuch retreat, and completely overthrew him. as war made France an indispensable ally, This was the greatest battle fought in this and the hostile views of its state policy last period of the war; Piccolomini having were promoted by seeing Germany cut to lost 20,000 men, forty-six pieces of artilpieces by its own people as well as foreign- lery, and nearly two hundred ensigns. ers. Still, in the year 1640, fresh and In the beginning of the following year more serious attempts were commenced to Torstenson resumed his march through establish peace, and in 1643 the ambassa- Moravia, advancing as far as Olmmtz, so dors of the various powers assembled in that his light cavalry approached the vicinMunster and Osnaburg. These negotia- ity of Vienna; and then, while it was tions, however, continued during a space thought he was occupied in this quarter, of nearly five years; while, meantime, the he suddenly appeared, as if by magic, hunwar was carried on with all its sanguinary dreds of miles distant on the coasts of the results. Baltic sea, in Holstein and Schleswig, the Banner, the Swedish general, died in the territories of the king of Denmark. year 1641, at Hallerstadt, after he had These territories, which had long concommitted dreadful devastation in Bohe- tinued untouched by the destructive arm mia and other lands. He sent to Stock- of war, presented the Swedes with every 344 NEGOTIATIONS FOR PEACE thing valuable and desirable wherewith to The allies now once more attacked t;e enable them to fix their winter quarters hereditary states of the empire; the Swethere; while it was easy to find a pretext dish general, Kinigsmark, laid siege to for making war with Denmark in the Prague, and had already made himself jealousy with which that kingdom had master of that portion of the city, called always regarded the victories gained by the Kleinseite, while Wrangel was in full the Swedes. Accordingly, in the ensuing march to support him with his whole army spring of 1644, the Swedes, who had re- -when the happy tidings of peace were ceived considerable reinforcements, ad- announced from Westphalia. vanced again into Germany, attacked and The conferences for the settlement of completely overthrew the imperial army peace had already been opened in the sumunder Gallas, and in the spring of the sue- mer of the year 1643: with the Swedes in ceeding year, 1645, Torstenson defeated Osnaburg, and with the French in Munthe imperial troops, under Generals Gotz ster. The imperial envoys arrived even and Hatzfeld, at Jankau, in Silesia, which before the time fixed, but those from Swehe entirely destroyed; Gitz himself fell, den only appeared at the end of the autumn mortally wounded, Hatzfeld was taken of that year, while those from France preprisoner, and the whole of the ammunition sented themselves as late as the month of and provisions fell into the hands of the April, in the following year, 1644: an Swedes. The victorious army now march- ominous sign for the progress of those ed through Moravia, and advanced to Vien- measures of pacification, towards which the na itself, and had not the city of Brtinn, by eyes of the oppressed empire were turned its most obstinate and heroic defence, ar- with anxious and painful longing. And, rested the progress of the Swedish general, in truth, these congresses commenced with there is little doubt but that capital must the discussion of such numberless details, have been taken. But his army was so that there appeared little or no chance of much reduced by disease before the walls any prompt decision being effected. Many of BrUinn, that Torstenson was forced to months were lost in petty and miserable make a retreat, and as he himself was disputes of precedence, and the French completely worn out with illness and de- ambassadors, with all imaginable pride and bility, he was compelled to give up the pomp, more especially insisted upon taking command of the army. the first rank, and assumed all the state He was succeeded by Gustavus Wran- and ceremony of a royal court. Subsegel, who continued the war with considera- quently, much time was again sacrificed ble success. The French armies, under in deciding whether or not the deputies for their distinguished generals, Turenne and all the petty states of the empire should be Conde, fought against the imperialists and convoked, and which was, at length, deterBavarians along the Rhine, and in conjunc- mined in the affirmative, so that the French tion with them Wrangel soon afterwards were enabled to produce still greater disconquered and subjected the whole land of cord among us. Bavaria, so that the elector was forced to The chief subject of negotiation ought to abandon all further hostilities; and, in have been the re-establishment of order 1647, concluded an armistice. Branden- upon a solid basis in all the provinces of burg had already been obliged to do the Germany, and more especially among the same in the year 1641, and Denmark and various religious parties, for through their Saxony followed the example in 1645 and contentions the war had originated; but 1646: thus the emperor was left alone to the two foreign powers insisted upon recontend with his successful enemies. The ceiving first of all their indemnification for grand cause of the ill success he experi- the expenses and losses incurred by them enced at this period, emanated from his during the war, and in the degraded state want of efficient leaders; his two best gen. of necessity to which they were reduced, erals, Werth and Merci, having been killed, and at the urgent persuasion of the elector he was forced to confide the chief command of Bavaria, the Germans were forced to of his troops to General Melander of Holz- satisfy the demands of these foreigners beapfel, a Protestant, who had deserted the fore they ventured upon the arrangement Hessian party and gone over to the impe- of their own affairs. rialists. France, which had contributed so little DISMEMBERMENT OF THE EMPIRE. 345 of its own powers, and which had only of the war, when Bavaria became so vacil. mixed itself up in the war for its own ad- lating; while every dispatch they received vantage, and the pleasure it derived from announced the success of the enemy, and producing evil as a Catholic state for a overturned all the advantages they might Protestant cause-France, we say, de. otherwise have effected by the'r confermanded enormous sacrifices; and her am- ences. Hence they were obliged to make bassadors, d'Avaux and Servien, well prac- the following arrangements: tised in the art of verbosity, political cun- 1. France received the bishoprics of ning, and deception, intruding themselves Metz, Toul, and Verden, as much of Alwith all the authority and command of sace as had belonged to Austria, the Sundmasters, insisted upon their claims. The gau, and the important fortresses of Brisach Swedes, although rather more moderate, and Philipsburg; besides which, it forced nevertheless grasped at and tore asunder Germany to destroy a great number of large portions of the empire, and the friends fortifications along the Upper Rhine, in and well-wishers of the country felt as if order that the French army might have cut to the heart when they thus beheld the an open and free passage into Germany. mortifying treatment it was forced to un- Thus all those places which had served as dergo: " On the same soil where, in former the bulwarks of the south of Germany, times, our noble ancestors hurled defiance fell, through this peace, into the hands of against the insolent Varus and his legions," the hereditary enemy of the empire. The says a contemporary, " we are notv doomed French envoys themselves, in the excess to behold foreigners without arms insult us of their joy, declared loudly that France and triumph over Germania. They sum- had never concluded a peace upon such mon us, and we humbly obey the call; advantageous terms. they speak, and we listen with humility 2. Sweden, which had likewise made and attention as to an oracle; they prom- great claims for compensation, but whose ise, and we place faith in them as in God; interests were but too inadequately and they menace us, and we tremble like slaves. unfavorably represented by the grand A sheet of paper filled up by a woman, chancellor's son, John of Oxenstiern, a whether at Paris or Stockholm,* makes the proud but inexperienced statesman, towhole Germanic empire tremble or rejoice. gether with the counsellor Adler Salvius, They already, in the very heart of Ger- a man too much open to bribery, was many, discuss and dispute together over forced to content herself with Western Germany, as to what they shall take from, Pomerania and Stettin, the island of Rigen, and what they shall condescend to leave the city of Wismar in Mecklenburg, tous, what feathers they shall pluck from the gether with the sees of Bremen and VerRoman eagle, and therewith decorate the den on the Weser; a territory the major Gallic cock. And we ourselves, divided portion of which was very poor and much continually among each other, abandon our devastated. On the other hand, Sweden tutelary divinity for the idols of foreign na- never availed herself of these possessions tions-to whom we sacrifice life, liberty, to act inimically towards Germany. As and honor!" an indemnification for the expenses of the The imperial envoys acted with firmness war, the Swedes received five millions of and dignity;*Count Trautmannsdorf and dollars extracted from the already exhaustDoctor Volmar sought, with all the strength ed sources of the empire. of reason and principle, to grapple with the 3. The elector of Brandenburg, who pretensions set forth by foreign powers, had just claims to the whole of Pomerania, while they endeavored, by mildness and only received the eastern portion of that patience, to conciliate the discordant feel- country, and, as an indemnification for the ings existing in the German states. They western division, he received the archbishdid not, however, find themselves suffi- opric of Magdeburg, and the bishoprics of ciently seconded by the other members of Halberstadt, Minden, and Kanim, as laythe empire, especially in the latter period principalities. 4. Mecklenburg received, in lieu of * In Sweden the throne was occupied by Christiana, Wismar, the sees of Schwerin and Ratzedaughter of Gustavus Adolphus, and, during the minority of Louis XIV., his mother, Queen Anne, reigned burg. as regent in France. 5. Hesse Cassel, which from the com. 44 346 FINAL ADJUSTMENT OF RELIGIOUS QUESTIONS. mencement of the war had adhered firmly den, and Gernrode. It was likewise to Sweden, and whose beautiful and tal- ordered and approved, that no sovereign ented landgravine, Amelia, succeeded in prince should oppress any of those of his captivating all hearts, received through subjects whose faith in religious matters the mediation of Sweden and France, al- deviated from his own; while it was also though it had suffered no loss, the abbey decreed that the imperial chamber should of Hersfeld, a portion of the country of be composed of an equal number of counSchaumburg, and six hundred thousand sellors and members-Protestant and Cathrix-dollars. olic. By these regulations the peace of 6. Brunswick-Lineberg, which extend- Westphalia became a fundamental law of ed its claims to Magdeburg and Minden, the empire, and although some causes for and subsequently to Osnaburg, received dispute and discontent were not altogether the privilege by which one of its princes removed, the minds of the people in geneshould hold possession of this latter coun- ral were more trenquillized. Feelings of try alternately with a Catholic bishop. hatred were no longer cherished, the prin7. The eldest son of the unfortunate ciples of tolerance became more and more Frederick V., of the palatinate, Charles widely disseminated, and gradually exertLewis-Frederick himself having died ed their beneficial influence in the hearts thirteen days after Gustavus Adolphus- of all; so that very soon the bigotry of received back all his patrimonial estates, parties disappeared, and the hand of fraexcept the upper palatinate, which the ternity was held out between those who, elector of Bavaria retained; and as he although differing in their faith from each likewise would not yield the title of the other, nevertheless now acknowledged electoral dignity-the fifth-a privilege themselves to have an equal claim to rank which belonged to the palatine house, a as fellow Germans and Christians. Diffresh title-the eighth-was created for it ference in religion now no longer formed purposely. an insurmountable wall of separation be8. The negotiations for the adjustment tween men; and certainly in this point of of religious affairs in Germany were at- view the peace of Westphalia, by estabtended with extreme difficulty and consid- lishing fixed laws in the external affairs of erable delay. The Protestants demanded the Church, produced highly satisfactory religious liberty, not only for themselves, and beneficial results. but likewise for all the Protestant subjects 9. Respecting the rights of sovereignty of the emperor; -while on this point, the due to the princes, and the relations of the latter was equally firm and inflexible in states of the empire with the emperor, the withholding his consent. They were peace of Westphalia contained such regiobliged, therefore, to restrict the operation lations as must in the course of time proof this measure to the empire itself, and, duce a still greater relaxation of those ties, after a deliberation which lasted six months, already partially loosened, which held tothe decree of the religious peaceof Passau gether the empire in one entirety. In was eventually renewed and fixed as the earlier times the constitution of the empire fundamental basis of the present measure, contained already many defects: great and it was resolved that the Protestants disorder, abuse of power in defiance of the should retain all the ecclesiastical property laws, nay, the evils produced by the existthey possessed in the year 1624, in land ence of an entire century, during which and churches. This year was henceforth force prevailed over justice-all this was styled the normal year, and from that time sufficient evidence of the corrupt state of the question of the edict of Restitution things. The main cause, however, of these was altogether abandoned. The Protest- results originated in the want of fixed ants accordingly retained the archbishop- written laws, whence, as we have already rics of Magdeburg and Bremen; the bish- seen, after the edict of the golden bull, oprics of Libeck, Osnaburg, (alternately,) various measures were adopted in order to Halberstadt, Verden, Meissen, Naumburg, establish in Germany, by imperial laws, Merseburg, Lebus, Brandenburg, Havel- a more determined form of constitution. berg, Minden, Kanim, Schwerin, and Ratze- Nevertheless, there.existed in earlier times burg; the abbeys of Hirschfeld, Walken- a bond of union which operated with more tied, Gandersheim, Quedlinburg, Hervor- success in periods of disorder than even SWITZERLAND-THE NETHERLANDS. 347 the written laws might have done, and this war, concluding peace, and forming alliconsisted in those ancient characteristics ances among themselves, as well as with for which Germany was ever distinguished: foreign powers, provided such alliances sincere and faithful loyalty, antipathy to were not to the injury of the empire. But foreigners, a holy veneration for the impe- what a feeble obstacle must this clause rial majesty of the sovereign, produced by have presented? For henceforward,.if a the conviction that the dignity of emperor prince of the empire, having formed an alwas derived from God as a divine favor for liance with a foreign power, became hostile the homage of mankind. In such light to the emperor, he could immediately avail was the imperial presence regarded by the himself of the pretext that it was for the princes themselves, as expressed by them benefit of the empire, the maintenance of in various authentic documents. Subse- his rights, and the liberty of Germany. quently it was the feudal system, based And in order that the said pretext might, upon the ancient customs and manners, and with some appearance of right, be made springing from the essential condition of the available on every occasion, foreigners es. people, which served on great occasions, tablished themselves as the guardians of the in spite of the want of written laws, to hold empire; and accordingly France and Swe. together the various portions of the empire. den took upon themselves the responsibility When in ancient times the prince, the of legislating as guarantees, not only for the nobles, and the people, assembled together, Germanic constitution, but for every thing and when later the emperor himself pre- else that was concluded in the peace of sided at the head of the princes of the ern- Westphalia at Munster and Osnaburg. pire at the diets, it was then the prompt Added to this, in reference to the impeand decisive power of the sovereign's voice rial cities whose rights had hitherto never and animated eye which decreed the means been definitively fixed, it was now declared of remedying existing evils; and if at times that they should always be included under disputes arose, his regular presence, the at- the head of the other states, and that they tention with which he observed with eye and should command a decisive voice in the ear all that passed before him, and the con- diets; thenceforth, therefore, their votes fidence he accordingly produced and estab- and those of the other states-the electoral lished between himself and those around and other princes-should be of equal him, placed him at once in a position to validity. command the reconciliation of the dispu- 10. By an article in the treaty of Westtants. At the same time, this proximity of phalia, French cunning likewise separated the imperial dignity, and the respect it in- the Swiss confederation from the Germanic spired in all sensible and well-minded men, empire, and acknowledged it as an indepenoperated for the benefit of the entire nation, dent state. It is true it had long since diswhile the emperor himself, by the high continued rendering homage to the empire, consideration he commanded throughout but its dismemberment therefrom had never Christendom, represented and maintained been legally declared, whence the way for its honor. its return to the imperial dominion always Now, however, for a length of time, as lay open and feasible, in case any of the we are already aware, the princes but confederates might have felt a desire to rerarely attended personally at the diets; but new their alliance. were satisfied with sending their envoys, or 11. In the same moment that the empire merely their written communications. The thus sacrificed one of its most secure denegotiations were often carried on at a most fences on the frontiers of the south, the tedious rate upon subjects of the most loss of the Netherlands left it completely trivial nature, and only under pressing and bare in the northwest: for in this peace extreme cases of necessity were the de- Spain was forced to acknowledge the inde. cisions pronounced. Meantime this state pendence of that country, and Germany of legislation was not at all sanctioned by was equally obliged to free it from all obany law of the empire; but at the peace of ligation of fealty. That country had likeWestphalia the independence of the princes wise originally belonged to the same race was made completely legal. They received as ourselves, it forming, from the period of the entire right of sovereignty over their Charles V., part of our confederation, and territory, together with the power of making commanding the mouth of our national 348 FROM 1648 TO THE PRESENT TIME. river-the Rhine. Thence Germany was they demanded as indemnification for the left equally exposed to the attacks of its war expenses, and which, in the already enemies in the north from the Nether- reduced and miserable state of our unhap. lands, as it was in the south from Switzer- py country, could only be collected with land. great trouble and difficulty. In addition to It was only after great care and exertion this, it has been calculated that during these that the intricate work of pacification was two ruinous years, the maintenance of the at length brought into operation, and it foreign soldiers quartered throughout the could only be perfected by slow degrees empire, cost at the rate of 170,000 dollars and at much additional sacrifice. The per day. Nay, even six years after the French obstinately refused to evacuate the settlement of peace, a certain number of conquered fortifications until the most petty Swedish regiments levied contributions in details of the conditions had been fulfilled; the bishopric of Miinster, and Duke Charle' while the Swedes remained two years longer of Lorraine, who had been driven out of his in Germany, distributed in seven circles of territory by the French, continued for a the empire, determined not to withdraw un- considerable time to hold possession of sevtil they received the five millions of dollars eral fortifications on the Rhine. SEVENTH PERIOD. FROM THE PEACE OF WESTPHALIA IN 1648 TO THE PRESENT TIME. IN the first portion of this period, from 1648 to 1740, 12. The Life of CharlesVI., by Zshackwitz, Schwarz, the art of historical research made but little progress in Schmauss, and Schirach. Germany: we find the sources of record to consist On the history of the War of Succession to the Spanchiefly of compilations made from public acts, collect- ish throne the principal works are: ed together in numerous and heavy masses, interspers- 13. De Lamberty, Memoires pour servir a l'histoire ed with the lives of the emperors, written in the most du 18me siecle; 1700-1718, La Hague, 14 vols., and partial and inflated style. Any regular and critical 14. History of the War of Succession to the Spanish statement or investigation of facts, presenting in their throne, by two anonymous writers. Two Editions; one treatment elevation of thought and originality of genius, in French, printed at Cologne in 1708; the other in is not to be found among them. In France, however, English printed in London in 1707. among the numerous memoirs of the time of Louis 15. M6moires du Prince Eugene de Savoie ecrits par XIV., we meet at least with that peculiar style of rep- lui-meme. Weimar, 1810. resentation, by which the connecting links in the chain 16. W. Coxe, Memoirs of John, Duke of Marlboof state policy are far more clearly traced, and the ideas rough, 6 vols., 1820. and motives of individuals more strikingly developed. The great events which took place during the period As collections embodying especially public transac- of 1740 to 1789, especially those of the Seven Years' tions and political events we find included: War, and the enthusiasm with which Frederick the 1. Records of the Imperial Chancery, 1657-1714. Great inspired all his contemporaries, excited a spirit 2. Diarium Europseum 1659-1681, 45 vols. for historical composition which, although it may not 3. Sylloge Publicorum Regotiarum, 1674-1697, by Lu- have produced works of the first order, is nevertheless nig., (died in 1740.) entitled to place its writings in the second rank. 4. European Court of Chancery, commenced by The great Frederick himself devoted his pen to the Leucht, and continued by Faber and Konig, 1697-1760, task of writing a history of his own times and ac115 vols. Resumed by Paber under the title of New tions, hisCourt of Chancery, 1760-1783, 17 vols. 17. Frederick II., Histoire de mon Tems, and His5. European Fame, 1703-1734, 350 parts in 30 vols., toire de la Guerre de Sept Ans; and other works relaand New European Fame, 1735-1756, 192 parts in 17 ting to history and politics, together with his corresvols. pondence with many distinguished persons, are valua6. Mercure Historique et Politique, commenced by G. ble documents in our historical collection. Sandras, tom. I., Parma, 1686; from 1688 to 1782, at the 18. Adelung, History of the States of Europe from Hague, in more than 200 vols. 1740 to 1798, 6 vols., treats especially upon the history 7. The History of the Emperor Leopold I., has been of the succession of the house of Austria. written in a very good historical style in Italian by Ga- The following works give especial details of the Seven leazzo Gualdi, Bapt. Comazzi, and Jos. Maria Reina; Years' War: and in German by i. J. Schmauss, C. B. Menkin, G. 19. War-office reports, (Deutsche Kriegskanzlei,) Rink, and best of all in Latin, by F. Wagner, but only 1757-1763,18 vols. to the year 1689. 20. Contributions to the more recent History of War 8. S. von Puffendorf, Res gestae Frid. Guil. Magni, and State Policy, (Beitrage zur Neueren Staats- und Elect. Brand. Berlin, 1695, and Lips. et Berol., 1733. Kriegs Geschichte,) 1756-1762, 13 vols. 9. Camill. Contarinus, History of the Turkish war in 21. Lloyd, Histoire de la Dernitre Guerre en Alle1683, in Italian; Venice, 1710. magne; traduit de l'Anglais par Templehof, 5 vols. 10. L. de St. Simon, CEuvres, 13 vols. Especially 22. Archenholz, History of the Seven Years' War, valuable in reference to the time of Louis XIV. 2 vols. 11. The Life of Joseph I., by Wagner, Zshackwitz, 23. Retzow, Criticism of the important events of the Nink, and Herchenhahn. Seven Years' War. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 349 24. De Mauvillon, Histoire de Ferdinand de Bruns- 57. Odeleben, Napoleon's Campaign in Saxony in the wick, 1790. year 1813. 25. Campaigns of the Allied Armies, 1757-1762, from 58. Aster, The Battle of Leipsic, with plans; with the journal of Major-General von Rheden, 1805. many other works upon the same subject. 26. History of the Battle of Kiinersdorf, by Kriele, 59. The Central Administration of the Allies under pastor of Kuinersdorf. Berlin, 1801. Baron Stein. 27. The Lite of Frederick II. has been written by 60. General Muffling, History of the Campaign of several historians, including Koester, Seiffart Zim- 1815, under Wellington and Bliicher. mermann, Funke, Garve, Stein, Thibault, Forster 61. F. Forster, Field-marshal Rliicher and his operaPreuss, and Nicolai, the latter of whom has added tions, 1821. numerous anecdotes in Frederick's life. 62. Saalfeld, History if Napoleon Bonaparte, 2 vols. On State Politics we have: 63. Kliiber, View of the Diplomatic Transactions at 28. Count Hersberg, Recueil des Deductions, Mani- the Congress of Vienna, 1816. festes, Declarations, Traites, &c., publi6s par la Cour 64. Protocol of the German Diet, 1816. de Prusse depuis l'annee 1756-1790, 3 vols. 65. G. von Meyer, Repertory of the Transactions of The following are the works which treat upon the the German Diet, 1822. period subsequent to the Seven Years' War: 66. Monumenta Germanise Historica, ed. G. H. 29. Manso, Geschichte des Preuss. Staats vom Hu- Pertz. bertusburger Frieden bis zur zweiten Pariser Abkunft, 67. J. Schmidt, History of Germany, continued by 3 vols. Milbiller and Dresch, 27 vols. 30. Dohm, Memoirs of my Times, 1778-1806, 5 vols. 68. Heinrich, ditto, ditto, 3 vols. A work of great importance connected with the latter 69. A. Menzel, History of Germany, 9 vols. period of the reign of Frederick the Great and the 70. Luden, History of the German Nation, 12 vols. French Revolution, but more especially valuable for the impartiality displayed by the author. 31. Biisching, Magazine of History and Geography, 1761-1781, 15 vols., Hamburg; and 1781-1793, 23 vols., Halle. 32. Schlozer, Historical Correspondence, 1775-1782, 10 vols., and Political Advertiser, 1782-1793, 18 vols. 33. Schirachs, Political Journal, 1781-1804, continued by his son to the present day. C H A P T E R X X V I I. 34. Archenholz, Minerva, 1792-1809, continued to the present time by A. Bran. General Observations —State of the Empire-Agricul35. Girtanner, Political Annals, 1793-1794. ture-Commerce-The Nobility-French Language, 36. Posselt, European Annals, 1795-1804, and con- Fashions, and Customs-Decline of National Feeling tinued to the present time by other authors. in Germany-Death of Ferdinand Ill., 1657-Leo37. Review of the Prussian Monarchy under Fred- pold I., 1658-1705-The Rhenish League-Louis erick William III., 1798-1801. XIV. of France-His ambitious and aggrandizing From the commencementofthel9th centurywehave: Spirit-Conquers the Netherlands-The Elector Fre38. The Times, by C. D. Voss, 1805-1820. derick William of Brandenburg-Westphalia-The 39. Bredow, Chronicle of the 19th century, 1801-1808, Rhine-War between France and Germany-Battle continued by Venturini as a history of our times, from of Fehrbellin, 1675-Successes ofthe Elector of Bran1809 to the present moment. denburg-His energetic Character-Extends and imOn the History of the French Revolution, the follow- proves his Territories-Berlin-Konigsberg-Generals ing are the principal works in Germany: Montecuculi and Turenne-Peace of Ninwegen, 40. Girtanner, Historical Revelations of the French 1678-The Four French Chambers of ReunionRevolution continued by Buchholz 17 vols. Treachery and Dishonesty of Louis XIV. towards 41. Von Eggers, Memoirs of the French Revolution, Germany-Claims and takes possession of Strasburg vols. and other German Towns on the Rhine-Enters 42. J. G. Eichhorn, The French Revolution at one Strasburg in Triumph, 1681-Pusillanimity and DisView, 2 vols. graceful Inertness of the Germans-Thle Turks in 43. Rehberg, Researches into the French Revolu- Hungary-Advance and lay Siege to Vienna, 1683tion, with a critical notice of the most distinguished Flight of Leopold and his Court-Brave Defence of works upon the subject. the Viennese under Count Riidiger of stalirenbergThe following treat upon the wars of the French Rev- Relieved by Duke Charles of Lorraine aud,-obieski olution: King of Poland —Heroism of Sobieski - Blattle of 44. Scharnhorst, Military Memoirs of our Time, 6 Naussdorf-Total Overthrow and Flight of the Turks vols. by Sobieski-His Letter to his Queen-Description of 45. Charles, Archduke of Austria, History of the the Battle. Campaign of 1799 in Germany and Switzerland, 2 vols. On the Negotiations of the Peace of Rastadt: IT ill not require many words nor will 46. Von Haller, Private History of the Rastadt Ne-., nr gotiations of Peace in connection with the political it prove a task of much difficulty to repretransactions of this period. Germania, 6 vols. sent the sadly depressed state of the coun47. Munch von Bellinghausen, Protocol of the Deputation for the Peace of the Empire at Rastadt, com- try after a war of such devastation, and pared exactly with the original documents, with notes, which had continued during half the period 6 vols. On the Wars of the 19th Century: of that existence commonly allotted to man. 48. Von Billow, The Campaign of 1805 in a militaryTwo thirds of the population had perished and political point of view, 2 vols.wo t s o e population ad pe 49. The Battle of Austerlitz, by an officer present. not so much by the sword itself, as by those 50. K. von Plotho Journal of the Military Operations more lingering and painful sufferings which in the years 1806 and 1807. 51. Von Valentini, Essay upon the History of the such a dreadful war brings in its train: Campaign of 1809. 52. Von Hormayr, the Austrian army in the war of contagion, plague, famine, and all the other 1809, in Italy, the Tyrol, and Hungary, from official attendant horrors. For death on the field sources. 53. Bertholdy The War of the Tyrolese in 1809. of battle itself is not the evil of war; such a 54. History of Andreas Hofer, from original sources. death, on the contrary, is often the most gloLeipsic and Altenburg, 1817. 55. Liiders, The War of 1812, between France and rious, inasmuch as the individual is taken Russia. off i a moment of enthusiastic ardor, and 56. K. von Plotho, TheWar in Germany and France, in n 3813-1815. while he is inspired with the whole force 350 STATE OF THE EMPIRE. of his vital power; thus he is relieved from flourishing than ever by the prosperous the anxious and painful contemplation of state of its agriculture, for it is from the the gradual approach of his last moments. maternal earth that a nation draws its But the true curse of war is based in the source and strength of life, when it devotes horrors and miseries it spreads among, and its powers to that object; but essential and with which it overwhelms, those who can general causes interfered, unhappily, to take no active share in it-women, chil- prevent the fulfilment of this desirable dren, and aged men, and from whom it object. snatches all the enjoyments, all the hopes In the first place, the declining state of of life; thence the germ of a new genera- the cities operated in a special degree to tion becomes poisoned in its very principle, destroy the beneficial results of agriculture. and can only unfold itself with struggling The prosperity of the cities had received a pain and sorrow, without strength or cour- vital blow, as already shown, by the comage. plete change which had been introduced Nevertheless, in Germany the natural in the whole system of commerce; its deenergy of the people speedily aroused itself dine, however, was only partial until the among them, and a life of activity and period of the war of thirty years. Shortly serious application very soon succeeded in previous to the commencement of this war, a proportionate degree to that which had a foreign writer placed Germany still at the so long been characterized by disorder and head of every other country, in respect to negligence: and it is thus that the two ex- the extent and number of its cities, and the tremes often meet. The demoralization genius, talent, and activity of its artists and so generally existing-produced on the one artisans. They were sent for from every hand by the warriors who, on their return part of Europe. At Venice, for instance, home from the camp, introduced there the most ingenious goldsmiths, clockmuch of the licentiousness they had pre- makers, carpenters, as well as even the viously indulged in, and, on the other hand, most distinguished painters, sculptors, and through the juvenile classes having grown engravers, were, at the end of the sixteenth up and become matured without education, century, all natives of Germany. But it and being by force of example in almost a will suffice to mention the names of such savage state-obliged the princes now to celebrated artists as Albert Diirer, Hans devote all their attention and care towards Holbein, and Lucas Cranach, to form an re-establishing the exercise of religious idea of the prosperous state of the arts in worship, and restoring the schools and ec- the cities of Germany at the commenceclesiastical institutions; measures which ment of the sixteenth century. This ternever fail to produce beneficial results. rible war, however, gave them their mortal But it was agriculture which more espe- blow; numerous free cities, previously in cially made rapid strides in the improve- a flourishing state, were completely rements introduced, and which was pursued duced to ashes, others nearly depopulated with an activity hitherto unexampled. As altogether, and all those extensive factories a great number of the landowners had per- and institutions which gave to Germany ished during the war, land generally be- the superiority over other nations, were, came materially reduced in price, and the through loss of the workmen, completely population accordingly showed everywhere deserted and left in a state of inactivity. the most active industry in the cultivation Thence, at a meeting of the Hanseatic of the soil; so that within a short space of league in Ltibeck, in 1630, those few cities time the barren fields were replaced by which still remained in existence declared fertile meadows, and fruitful gardens amidst they were no longer able to contribute smiling villages greeted the eye in every towards the expenses of the league. Ecopart. The moment had now arrived, like- nomy and strict industry might perhaps wise, when the claims of the peasantry to have raised them gradually from the state the rights of freeborn men were acknow- of misery into which they had thus fallen, ledged more and more, and the chains by but their ancient prosperity and importance which they had been hitherto bound were were both forever gone; and, as is stated gradually relaxed, until at length the final by one of our early writers, on the forelink which held them fell to the ground. heads of these once wealthy citizens might Thus Germany might have become more be traced in characters too clearly ex THE NOBILITY-NATIONAL DEGRADATION. 351 pressed, how fallen was their state, reduced balance of the whole; while, on the other as they now were to endure a painful and hand, instead of restricting themselves to laborious existence. Many of the cities, that simple order of life-so especially some voluntarily, others through the ne- necessary among an agricultural people — cessity of the times, saw themselves com- and thus trying to avert the coming indipelled to submit to the power of the princes, gence, they launched out more and more as for instance, Christopher, bishop of into a luxurious state of living; and acGahlen, made himself master of Minster, cordingly, in exchange for precious and in 1661; the elector of Mentz, of the city exotic articles of merchandise, they gave of Erfurt, in 1664; the elector of Branden- up to foreign nations all the rich fruits of burg, of the city of Magdeburg, in 1666; agriculture and industry produced at home and the duke of Brunswick, of the city of at the expense of so much toil and anxiety. Brunswick, in 1671; while those which For, however fertile the soil of our country, retained the title of free cities, how poor and however varied its produce, it could and miserably did they drag on their exist- not possibly equal in value the rich wares ence, until at length, in more recent times, imported from all parts of the world. they likewise lost their privilege altogether. When, however, the love of luxury and The nobility had likewise lost much of sensual pleasure has gained the upperhand, their ancient dignity and lustre. Ever nothing can restrict or check its extravasince they no longer formed more espe- gant and insatiable demands. cially the military state of the empire, and This evil, however, was not one origi. their noble cavaliers no longer conferred nally implanted in our nature, it was cornexclusively glory upon the nation; ever municated to us by those foreigners whom since they had abandoned their indepen- we sought to imitate in every thing-even dence, by attaching themselves to the court, in their degeneracy. The excursions now or wasted all their strength in a life spent made beyond Germany, and especially to in indolence, and without any noble object France and its metropolis; the imitation in view; and, finally, ever since they had more and more indulged in of the fashions commenced imitating and adopting the man- and manners of the French, and even of ners, customs, and languages of foreign their immorality itself; the introduction nations, and substituted their effeminacy and reception of French professors and and refinement for the ancient energy and governesses into various German families sincerity for which Germany had ever been for the education of the juvenile branches; so renowned-ever since, we say, these the contempt more and more shown and felt changes and innovations had been intro- for our own native language; the enthuduced, the nobles of the empire had gradu- siasm indulged in for that French philoally degenerated and lost all their conse- sophy, so superficial, and yet at the same quence and dignity. Thus were eclipsed time so easily adapted to render the indivitwo of the most important and essential dual wholly indifferent to his religious, states of the empire, and which above moral, and social duties; all these causes, every other had both contributed to give to we repeat, had operated more and more the middle ages, in spite of all their other injuriously among the higher, as well as defects, that grand and vigorous character the middling classes of society, and thence, for which that period was so much distin- at the present period, their influence preguished. sented the most baneful effects. It is true, that during the last few centuries On the other hand, however, it is not to changes of a similar nature had taken place be denied but that our relations with foreign in other countries of Europe, and which, countries have materially promoted the by thus substituting a new order of things, civilization of Germany; and it is imposobliterated all that which had characterized sible not to recognise in the course of modthe middle ages. But with all this, ample ern history a tendency to render more and compensation was found in the wealth and more firm and durable the bond of union prosperity commanded by commerce, while between all the nations of Christendom. in this respect Germany was now deprived Placed as we are in the centre of the p-inof all such resources. The share which a cipal nations of Europe, we have ever few of the cities still took in the commerce warmly sympathized with, and the forms ot of the world could not establish or effect a our political constitution have ever encour 352 LOUIS XIV.-DEATH OF FERDINAND III. aged the movement of moral and intellec- policy ever shown so much weakness and tual progress. For in most other countries, pusillanimity as when suffering from his each of which was constituted into one ho- ambitious designs. During the short inmogeneous kingdom, the chief city was the terval of tranquillity from the time of his first to set the example in the adoption of death to the war of the Austrian succession, all that it might judge worthy of patronage the arts of peace once more revived a litand dissemination, and thence it established tle, but the progress of their development the rule or law for the co-optation thereof was again checked by the storms of that generally throughout the provinces: by this contest, and more especially by the still means, however, the progress made be- more ruinous war of seven years, which came gradually subjected to certain fixed immediately succeeded. The interval of forms, whence it could not be exempt from twenty-five years, from the conclusion of partiality. In Germany, on the contrary, this war to the commencement of the science and art have marched together full French revolution, was the longest period of activity and independence as in a free of tranquillity we had hitherto enjoyed; dominion. The superior, equally with the and during this space of time, art and scilesser states, rivalled each other in their ence once more came into activity, and patronage; no single town, no particular made such flourishing progress, that in individual, was empowered to impose laws; spite of the war of twenty-five years by and, finally, no favoritism, no exception of which the French revolution was succeedperson, was shown, but every thing bear- ed, this progress, although much checked, ing within it essential and sterling merit, was not altogether destroyed. Let us hope was sure sooner or later to meet with due that the state of peace we at present enjoy, acknowledgment and appreciation; and may long continue to heal the wounds so thence it is that our nation has made such bitterly inflicted upon our country, and progress in all the sciences. thus encourage more and more the growth Nevertheless, this moment must be re- and development of the intellectual regarded as teeming with dangerous error. sources of the German nation. Nothing is more difficult for human nature The emperor Ferdinand III. lived nine than to maintain the one direct and central years after the peace of Westphalia; he path without diverging to one side or the reigned with moderation and wisdom, and other; nothing more difficult than to corn- until his death the peace of Germany rebine civilization and enlightenment with mained undisturbed. He had already proreligious and moral strictness, to unite an cured the decision of the princes in favor acute sensibility for all that is really of his son Ferdinand, as his successor to good and valuable in genius, wherever the imperial throne, when unfortunately found, with honesty and constancy of prin- that young man, who had excited the most ciple, and to conjoin independence of spirit sanguine hopes, and towards whom all with self-denial and submission. This me- eyes were turned with confidence, died in dium course ought, therefore, to be the main 1654 of the small-pox. Ferdinand was, object of the endeavors of all, both of in- therefore, forced to resume his efforts with dividuals and nations. The period we are the princes in favor of his second son, about to trace will show us in what degree Leopold-although he was far from posthis object was alternately approached by sessing the capacity of his deceased brother or receded from our nation; while, at the -but he himself died on the 2d of April, same time, it will present us with all those 1657, before the desired object was fully vicissitudes to which mankind is subject. obtained. This series of good and bad fortune is, The election of the new emperor met we shall find, more especially shown in with considerable difficulty, because the our external relations: days of prosperity government of France was anxious to avail and peace were succeeded by those of dis- itself of this moment to obtain possession tress; but the latter down to and during of the imperial dignity, to which it had this period, continued in their degree to long aspired. It had in fact already sucoutweigh the former. In no period of our ceeded in gaining over the electoral princes history do we find presented such melan- of the Rhine; but all the rest of the Gercholy pictures as during the long reign of man princes felt the shame and disgrace Louis XIV. of France, nor has our state such a choice must bring upon the nation, THE RHENISH LEAGUE. 353 and decided at once in favor of Leopold, were united great cunning with unlimited archduke of Austria, although this prince ambition and insolent pride. France now was only eighteen years of age; and he pursued, with persevering determination, was accordingly elected at Frankfort on the grand object she had in view, of making the 18th of July, 1658. the Rhine her frontiers, and of gaining posMeantime Cardinal Mazarin, the prime session of the Spanish Netherlands-which, minister of France, had already formed under the name of the Burgundian circle, an alliance, which, under the name of the belonged to the Germanic empire-LorRhenish league, had for its object the total raine, the remaining portion of Alsace, not annihilation of the house of Austria, al- yet in its occupation, together with all the though apparently its only aim was the con- lands of the German princes situated on servation of the peace of Westphalia. The the left bank of the Rhine. This spirit of parties included in the union were France, aggrandizement was shared in equally by Sweden, the electors of Mentz, Cologne, the king and the people, and it is an error and Treves, the bishop of Miinster, the to suppose this feeling was only first palatine of Neuburg, the elector of Hesse- brought into existence in our time through Cassel, and the three dukes of Brunswick- the revolution, and the wild ambition of Liineburg; a singularly mixed alliance of a few individuals. Already, during the Catholic spiritual and lay princes with the reign of Louis XIV., the French authors Protestant princes and Swedes, who had began to write in strong and forcible lanonly so recently before stood opposed to guage upon the subject of conquest, and each other in open warfare. A learned one among them, a certain d'Aubry, even historian of that period unfolds to us what went so far as to express in a pamphlet were the real intentions of France in form- his opinions founded on the question-at ing this league, as well as the motives by that moment a novel one, but which afterwhich she was guided throughout her pro- wards became of serious consideration, and, ceedings against Germany: "Instead of was nearly carried into execution-that,. resorting to open force, as in the war of viz. " The Roman-Germanic empire, such thirty years, it appeared more expedient to as was possessed by Charlemagne, belongFrance to hold attached to her side a few ed to his king and his descendants;" and of the German princes, and especially those the Abbe Colbert, in an address to the along the Rhine, by a bond of union-and, king, in the name of the clergy, adds the as it is said, by the additional obligation of words: " Oh, king, who givest laws to the an annual subsidy-and, above all things, seas as well as to all lands; who sendest to appear to take great interest in the af- thy lightning wherever it pleasest thee, fairs of Germany; thus, the princes might even to the shores of Africa itself; who be brought to believe that the protection of subjectest the pride of nations, and forcest France would be more secure than that their sovereigns to bend their knee in all of the emperor and the laws of the empire. humility before thee in acknowledgment of This means of paving the way for the de- the power of thy sceptre, and to implore struction of all liberty in Germany was, thy mercy," &c. Such was the language as may be easily judged, by no means used already in 1668, and in the face of badly conceived." Europe, by a state which ought to have surFrance very soon showed that she only passed all others in moderation and truth. waited for an opportunity of seizing her Accordingly, Louis now commenced opprey with the same hand which she had erations by conquering the Netherlands, so recently held out in friendship. The pleading his ancient hereditary right to the long reign of Leopold I. was almost wholly possession of that country. The Spaniards filled up with wars against France and her appealed for aid to the other circles of the arrogant prince, Louis XIV.; and our poor Germanic empire, but not one of the princountry was again made the scene of san- ces came forward to assist them; some guinary violence and devastation. Leo- through indifference, others from fear, and pold, who was a prince of a mild and reli- the rest again from being disgracefully gious disposition, but, on the other hand, of bought over by French money: such were an equally inactive and pusillanimous char- the results of the Rhenish league. Abanacter, was by no means calculated to enter doned thus by all, the Netherlands fell into the qeld against the French king, in whom the hands of the king, and at the peace of 45 354 WAR BETWEEN FRANCE AND GERMANY. Aix-la-Chapelle, in 1688, the Spaniards Now, however, the emperor, after having saw themselves forced to surrender a whole lost his best allies, determined to pursue line of frontier towns to France, in order the war with more vigor. Montecuculli to save a portion only of the country. gained some advantages along the Lower In addition to this, in the year 1672, Rhine, and, among the rest, he succeeded France, with equal injustice, invaded Hol- in making himself master of Bonn; but land itself, and had she succeeded in her all along the Upper Rhine and in Francoplans, she would very soon have been in a nia, the French redoubled their ravages, condition to hold dominion over the Euro- and more especially in the palatinate, which pean seas. This new danger, however, pro- was now made the most sanguinary scene duced as little effect upon the princes of of the whole war, as in fact it was subGermany as the preceding one; they paid sequently, where the French have.eft little or no attention to it, nay, the elector of eternal monuments of their cruel proceedCologne, and the warlike bishop of Mtinster, ings. As they thus continued to invade Bernard of Gahlen, one of the most dis. even the very empire itself, the princes tinguished men of his day, actually con- now united to resist them, and the elector eluded an alliance with France. One only of Brandenburg renewed his alliance with of the princes of Germany, the elector the emperor. On this occasion, Austria Frederick William of Brandenburg, known was distinguished especially for her energy likewise under the title of the great elector, and activity. At the diet of Ratisbon, long acted with the energy so necessary; and, discussions were held upon the subject of' completely aware of the exact condition of the war, but nothing was concluded; and the nation, felt the necessity of preventing Austria, having discovered that this delay the total subversion of the equilibrium of was produced by the French ambassador, Europe. Accordingly, he made immediate who there endeavored by every means to preparations for placing his territories of deceive, first one and then another of the Westphalia in a state of defence, exposed princes, that power immediately commandas they were in the immediate vicinity of ed him, without waiting for any other forthe scene of action; for by the definitive mality, to quit Ratisbon within three days, arrangement of the inheritance of Juliers, and on his departure a declaration of war in 1656, he had received the duchy of was forthwith made by the emperor against Cleves, and the provinces of Mark and the king of France. Ravensberg, while to the prince-palatine of The war was carried on with varied Neuberg had been allotted the duchies of success and loss, but altogether the advanJuliers and Berg. Frederick William in. tage was on the side of the French, whose duced likewise the emperor Leopold to generals were completely successful in adopt measures for opposing the farther their object of making the German soil progress of the French invaders; and both alone the field for their operations; while, together raised an army which they placed on the other hand, the leaders'of the allied under the orders of the imperial general, forces were without activity or union. In Montecuculli; but the co-operation of the order to furnish occupation in his own land Austrians became almost nullified through for the most powerful of the German printhe influence of Prince Lobkowitz, the em- ces, the elector of Brandenburg, Louis peror's privy-counsellor, who, gained over XIV. concluded an alliance with the by France, opposed all the plans of the Swedes, in 1674, showing them the great imperial general. Thence the elector be- advantage they would derive by the invaheld his fine army harassed and worn out sion of that territory. This they accordby hunger and sickness, and in order to ingly did, severely handling that country; prevent the French from completely de- nevertheless, the elector would not abandon stroying his territories in Westphalia, in the Rhine, but contributed his assistance, 1673, he concluded with them a peace in and remained as long as his presence was their camp of Vossem near Louvain. His necessary, and it was only in the following possessions were restored to him with the year, 1675, that he at length did withdraw exception of the castles of Wesel and Rees, from that seat of war, and by forced marchwhich the enemy resolved to retain until a es hastened to the aid of his suffering coungeneral pacification was permanently es- try. tablished. To the astonishment of both friends and THE ELECTOR OF BRANDENBURG. 355 foes, the elector suddenly arrived before of a ruler who desires that his people shall the city of Magdeburg, and passing through be inferior to none of all the other nations, it, continued on his march, until he came and whose sole object is nobly to raise it in right in front of the Swedes, who believed their estimation. And who can reproach him to be still in Franconia. They im- him for acting with such energy and demediately retired, and sought to form them- termination, at a moment, too, when the selves into one body, but he pursued them, German alliance had lost all its strength, and came up with them on the 28th of when the power of the emperor himself June, 1675, at Ferbellin. He had only was reduced almost to a mere shadow, and his cavalry with him, his infantry not being when many of the princes of the empire able to follow quick enough; nevertheless had actually already entered into a league he determined to attack the enemy at once. with foreigners? Had he himself joined His generals advised him to await the ar. in such treaties to the injury of the empire, rival of his foot-soldiers before he gave and thus inflicted the final blow upon battle; but every moment of delay ap- the small remnant of hope still left, he peared to him as lost, and the action began might assuredly have merited severe and forthwith. It was attended with the most just condemnation; but, on the contrary, brilliant success; the Swedes, who ever the whole aim of his life was to oppose as since the Thirty Years' War had been much as possible the aggressions of the regarded as invincible, were now corn- French, and to protect, as far as was in his pletely overthrown and put to flight, direct- power, the liberties of the German and ing their course towards their Pomerania. European nations generally. Thither they were pursued by the elector, In the year 1675 the imperial general, who conquered the greater portion of that Montecuculli, an old and experienced solprovince. dier, received a second time orders to This elector may be regarded as the march to the Rhine, and he commenced founder of the Prussian monarchy, and his operations with more favorable results. successors only built upon the basis he laid Opposed to him was the celebrated French down. Besides acquiring the Westphalian general, Vicomte de Turenne, one of the territories from the Cleve inheritance, he greatest men of his time. They advanced made the duchy of Prussia independent, against each other with extreme caution, and wisely availing himself of the pecu- for they were already well known to each liar circumstances of the times, obtained, other. At length Turenne fixed upon a in 1675, the treaty of Welau, by which favorable spot for giving battle, combining Prussia was declared free of all enfeoff- every advantage necessary, near the vilment to Poland. Berlin, its capital city, lage of Sasbach and in the vicinity of he enlarged by the Werder and Neustadt; Oppenheim. But while he had advanced while in Frankfort and Konigsburg he pro- in front of the enemy in order to make his moted the progress of the universities, and observations, and form his army in line of had already formed a plan for the erection battle, he was mortally wounded by a of an additional one in Halle. He en- cannon-ball which struck him off his couraged all kinds of art and industrial in- horse. His death produced the greatest vention throughout his lands, and hospita- alarm and dismay among his troops. who bly received and employed a considerable immediately retreated and took to flight, in number of refugee artisans from France. which they suffered severe loss. Frederick William always thought and Nevertheless, very little advantage was acted for himself, pursuing his own inde- gained by this affair. The French, in pendent course, and we shall again find order to drive the imperialists out of their him on various occasions successfully pro- country, had recourse to the most extreme ducing that respect for the power and measures. As they were unable to defend dignity of his small dominion which he their frontiers with troops, they proceeded to was determined to maintain with all his adopt other means of protection; and, acinfluence, not only as a German prince, cordingly, in the following year they laid but with all the authority of one who rank- waste the whole of the country along the ed among the rest of the monarchs of river Saar to such an extent that, throughEurope. Such is the true sign which in- out a space of more than seventy miles, dicates the hereditary princely grandeur nothing else was to be seen but burning 356 PEACE OF NIMWEGEN. villages and fields. Thence the German peace themselves were still written in the troops could no longer remain encamped in Latin tongue. a country thus destitute of the means of The oppressed provinces began now supply, and they were forced to turn back, again to breathe more freely and enjoy the while the unfortunate inhabitants were blessings of peace, after the insatiable amobliged to seek refuge in the forests, where bition of the French became at length satisa great number of them perished through fled. But our enemy was ever ready, even famine and disease. in the very bosom of peace, to pursue his All eyes were now directed with anxious prey. A member of the French parliahope and expectation towards Nimwegen, ment from Metz, a certain Rolland de Rewhere now, in 1679, a conference was vaulx, laid before the king a plan by which being held for the establishment of peace. he might extend his dominion far beyond The French, it appears, were forced at the Upper Rhine, if he only gave the right length to hasten the conclusion of a peace, interpretation to the words used in the artiwere it even disadvantageous to themselves, cle of the Westphalian treaty: " That Albecause they were at this moment sur- sace and the other territories shall be ceded rounded with enemies. Nevertheless, they to him with all their dependencies." It was, were at all times extremely happy in their therefore, he said, only necessary to seek attempts to produce division among their out what territories and places had formeradversaries, and in this instance they were ly belonged to that country, and in the equally successful. By making large and course of a short time many possessions advantageous offers they induced the Neth- might be found, of which, under this preerlanders, for whom the war had been prin. text, he might make himself master without cipally undertaken, and who owed their any difficulty. This suggestion was apsafety to the imperialists, to withdraw from proved of, and it was taken into further conthe empire, and concluded with them ex- sideration; and, in order to give it an apelusively a treaty of peace, and by this pearance of justice, the French government they received the citadel of Maestricht. instituted, in 1680, four courts of council They were succeeded by the Spaniards, under the title of Chambres de Reunions, at who, in order to make peace, were obliged Metz, Dornick, Brisach, and Besan;on; to make good most of what the Nether. these were appointed to examine what lands landers had been relieved from paying; and subjects might still belong to the king, accordingly they ceded a great extent of according to the wording of the article reterritory in the Netherlands, together with ferred to. It is easy to be conceived that the whole of the Franche-Comte. Finally, these judges were not long in making their the emperor, who was not disposed to carry discoveries; the most trifling foundation on the war alone, was forced to make terms was laid hold of in order to carry out their of peace likewise, and to give up the im.- plans. The convent of Weissenburg, for portant fortress of Friburg in Breisgau. instance, although situated beyond Alsace, Thus the elector of Brandenburg, who was declared attached to it, and as such had conquered nearly the whole of Pome- belonging to the king, because it had been rania from the Swedes, and was in hopes of founded by King Dagobert, more than one making an advantageous peace, abandoned thousand years previously; and the acquias he was now by all, even by the Nether- sition of Weissenburg served them as a prelands-for whom he had fought, but who text to demand that of Germesheim, inasnow refused their assistance, was forced much as it had formerly belonged to Weisto restore nearly the whole of his con- senburg. In this way the four chambers quests. At this conference of Nimwegen extended their claims for the restoration it was easy to observe the preponderance of Zweibriicken, (Deux-Ponts,) Saarbrick, now commanded by France over Europe, (Sarre-Louis,) Veldenz, Sponnheim, Mumeven by the circumstance of the language pelgard, Lautenburg, and many other plaitself; for among those ambassadors as- ces, more particularly, however, the free sembled thirty years previously at Miinster imperial cities of Alsace, and among the and Osnaburg, only very few understood rest Strasburg especially. These places French at all; while now, at Nimwegen, had not been given in the Westphalian every one present knew and spoke it treaty, as Austria could only then cede in fluent'. Nevertheless, the articles of Alsace her own hereditary possessions. SEIZURE OF STRASBURG. 357 The princes and nobles whose property ments in the Latin tongue; but at Frankwas thus suddenly to be transferred from fort they were composed in French, and all German into French hands, exclaimed the arguments used by the imperial ambasloudly against it. The emperor himself sadors against this innovation were perfectly protested against it, and Louis XIV., in order useless; the only reply made was: " It is to observe at least appearances-such was by command of our king." Thence they his cunning policy-and to shut the mouths were forced to succumb, and from this moof his adversaries, promised to examine ment the French language was adopted as their counter claims, and summoned a con- the established medium of communication begress at Frankfort. tween France and all other countries. Men Meantime he resolved, beforehand, to of intelligence and enlarged views easily make himself master of the citadel of Stras- foresaw the danger to be dreaded from this burg, which to him was of more value than arrangement, and prophesied the gradual esall the rest, and which had always been trangement which must be produced in a regarded as the key to the Upper Rhine. country imitating the language and customs Charles V. considered it of such import- of a nation like France, so anxious to hold ance, that he said, should ever Vienna and it under dominion. Strasburg be both threatened at the same The disputes which arose between the moment, he would hasten first to save Stras- different imperial envoys themselves were burg. In the month of September, 1681, sufficient to show how weak and futile must and while the principal citizens were ab- be the attempts they made to seek indemni. sent at the Frankfort fair, several regiments fication from the usurpers; for here again were secretly assembled in the vicinity of at Frankfort all those old and contemptible that place, and, to the astonishment and questions of pre-eminence, the madness of alarm of the inhabitants, suddenly sur- which exceeds all belief, were renewed, rounded its walls. In a day or two after- and while they thus wasted away their wards, Louvois, the minister of war and con- precious time in a war of words, the French fidential adviser of the king, appeared with took advantage of their miserable neglect, a numerous army and a train of artillery, and fortified themselves more and more and with heavy threats summoned the citi- strongly in the lands they had usurped. zens to surrender. Not being at all pre. At length, however, Austria succeeded in pared to resist this attack, and urged on by forming an alliance with several princes in a party in the city bribed by the king, they order to repulse force with force; but a were forced to yield, and opened their gates revolt which at this moment arose in Hunon the 30th of September, 1681. The gary, together with a fresh invasion of the troops took immediate possession of the Turks there, which had been promoted by arsenal and the citizens' arms, the Protest- Louis himself to suit his own purposes, preants were obliged to vacate the cathedral vented any result arising therefrom. of which they had enjoyed possession for Ever since the year 1670, Hungary had more than a hundred and fifty years, and been continually agitated by dissension. immediately afterwards Louis XIV. arrived That country was extremely annoyed and himself, and, as in triumph, made his solemn indignant at beholding its constitution vioentry in the city. No sign of shame at this lated, and all its cities garrisoned by Geract was visible in the countenance of that man soldiers, whom they thoroughly hated; king, who had, nevertheless, already loudly while, in addition to this, the Protestants boasted that he made honor the law of his complained loudly against the persecutions life. they endured at the instigation of the JesuThe conference at Frankfort, meantime, its. Accordingly, the discontented portion produced no change in the plans of the of the nation having, in the year 1678, king; his deputies evaded with much ad- found a determined leader in Count Emdress all serious discussion upon the inqui- meric of Toeckly, they rose en masse, and ries made, and continued to maintain their even formed an alliance with the Turks. principles; while on this occasion, for the The warlike and ambitious grand vizier, first time, they introduced as a law the use Kara Mustapha, prepared at once for the of their own language in all diplomatic invasion of Hungary at the head of an army transactions. Hitherto, as with other na- far exceeding any in strength since the tibns, they had written all their state docu- conquest of Constantinople. Fortunately 358 SIEGE OF VIENNA. for the emperor Leopold, he found in the the siege commenced; the walls were unPolish king, John Sobieski, a brave and de- dermined, and every preparation was made termined ally, while the German princes by the Turks for blowing up the bastions in now faithfully, and contrary to their cus- order to rush pell mell into the devoted tom, speedily came to his aid, and Charles, place, where they hoped to make a glorious duke of Lorraine, was appointed chief in booty. The besieged, however, made an command of the imperial army. This he- heroic defence, and repaired in the night roic prince, the conqueror of the Turks, what had been damaged during the day. and the instructor of the subsequently dis- Every step of ground was obstinately distinguished Prince Eugene, was equally puted, and thus a struggle equally desperate great and magnanimous in his character as and determined was maintained by the asa man, as he was in that of a warrior and sailants and the assailed. The most fierce a supporter of the house of Austria. and sanguinary scene of contest was at the Nevertheless, the spring of the year 1683 L6bel bastion, where scarcely any part of had commenced before the preparations the ground was left unstained with the blood were completed, while the Turks, who of friend and foe. Meantime the Turks were never accustomed to open a campaign gained a footing more and more; at the before the summer season, had already be- end of August they were already in posgun their march in the winter of the pre- session of the moat of the city walls, and on ceding year, and on the 12th of June they the 4th of September they sprung a mine crossed the bridge of Esseck. The impe- under the Burg bastion; the explosion made rial army was hastily formed and reviewed half the city shake and totter, the bastion in Presburg, and consisted of 22,000 foot itself was rent asunder to an extent of more and 11,000 cavalry; while that of the than thirty feet, and pieces of its walls scatTurks exceeded 200,000 men. The latter tered around in all directions. The breach continued on their march direct for Vienna, was so great that the enemy made an imwithout halting to lay siege to any of the mediate assault, but they were repulsed. towns in Hungary, as it was hoped they On the following morning, they made another would have done. Consternation and alarm attack and were again driven back by the filled the whole city; and the emperor with brave defenders. On the 10th of Septemhis court fled, and sought refuge in Linz. ber another and final mine was sprung unMany of the inhabitants followed him; but der the same bastion, and this time the breach the majority, after the first moment of terror was so extensive that a whole battalion of was over, armed in defence of. their city, the enemy's troops was enabled to penetrate while the slow progress made by the Turks through it. This was now a moment of who, as they proceeded, occupied them- most extreme danger; the garrison was selves with pillaging all the villages and completely exhausted by constant fighting castles along their march, left time for the and fatigue, and sickness had reduced their duke of Lorraine to send a body of 12,000 number considerably, while the commandmen into the city as a garrison; and as he ant had sent courier after courier to the could not venture to advance with his small duke of Lorraine in vain. At length on army in order to cut off the passage of the the 11th, while the whole city was in moenemy, he drew off his troops from the high mentary expectation and dread of the eneroad, and awaited the arrival of the Polish my's assault, the Viennese observed from king. their walls that, by the movements in the Count Rudiger of Stahrenberg was ap- enemy's camp, the expected and so much pointed by the council of war commandant longed-for succor must be near at hand; of the city, and he showed all activity and and soon afterwards, to the joy of all, the haste in doing every thing possible to place Christian army showed itself on the Kalen it in a state of defence, and every man ca- Hill, and announced its presence by dispable of working or bearing arms assisted charges from the artillery. The brave cheerfully. On the 14th of June the vizier Sobieski had now arrived at the head of his appeared with his immense army before valiant army; and he was immediately the walls, occupying a space of the country followed by the electors of Bavaria and around them to an extent of six leagues. Saxony, Prince Waldeck with the troops of Two days afterwards the trenches were the circle of Franconia, the duke of Saxeopened, the cannon fired upon the city, and I Lauenburg, the margraves of Baden and OVERTHROW OF THE TURKS-SOBIESKI'S LETTER. 359 Baireuth, the landgrave of Hesse, the prin- The booty made in the camp was imces of Anhalt, and many other princes and mense; it was estimated at 15,000,000 nobles of the empire, who all brought with dollars, and the tent of the grand vizier them a numerous body of their own troops. alone was valued at 400,000 dollars; in With such a select body of leaders Charles the military chest were found 2,000,000 of of Lorraine felt he might venture to advance dollars. The king of Poland obtained against the enemy, although his entire force 4,000,000 of florins for his portion, and amounted only to 40,000 men. in a letter to his consort, he writes respectOn the morning of the 12th of Septem- ing the battle and the great joy felt by ber, the Christian army descended the the delivered inhabitants of Vienna, in the Kalen Hill in order of battle. The vil- following terms: "The whole of the enelage of Nussdorf, situated on the banks of my's camp, together with their artillery the Danube, was first attacked by the im. and an incalculable amount of property, perialists and Saxons, who occupied the has fallen into our hands. The camels left wing, and was taken after an obstinate and mules, together with the captive Turks, resistance. Meantime, towards mid-day, the are driven away in herds, while I myself king of Poland had descended into the plain am become the heir of the grand vizier. with the right wing, and at the head of his The banner which was usually borne becavalry dashed against the innumerable fore him, together with the standard of Mabattalions of the Turkish horsemen, and homet, with which the sultan had honorwith irresistible force penetrated through ed him in this campaign, and the tents, the very centre of their ranks, spreading wagons, and baggage, are all fallen to before him confusion and dismay; his my share; even some of the quivers capdaring courage, however, carried him a tured among the rest, are alone worth sevlittle too far, for he was speedily surround- eral thousand dollars. It would take too ed by the Turks, who now closed upon him long to describe all the other objects of and his few companions, and he must soon luxury found in his tents, as for instance have been overcome and destroyed, had he his baths, fountains, gardens, and a variety not summoned the German cavaliers who of rare animals. This morning I was in were in his rear to the rescue, and who, the city and found that it could hardly have galloping up with lightning's speed, fell held out more than five days. Never bewith tremendous force upon his turbaned fore did the eye of man see a work of captors, and delivering him from their equal magnitude dispatched with a vigor hands, put them to flight, and soon the like that with which they blew up, and whole of this body of the Turkish army shattered to pieces huge masses of stone and was overthrown and sent flying in all rocks. I myself had to sustain a long directions. contest with the vizier's troops before the This action, however, only served as an left wing came up to my aid, but after the introductory scene to the grand battle which battle I was surrounded by the elector of was to decide the fate of the war; for the Bavaria, Prince Waldeck, and several immeasurable camp of the Turks, covered other princes of the empire, who embraced with thousands of tents, still maintained its me with warm affection. The generals position, while their artillery continued to took hold of my hands and feet, the colonels bombard the city. with their regiments of horse and foot saluThe imperial commander-in-chief held a ted me with,' Long live our brave king!' council of war whether the battle should This morning the elector of Saxony, tobe commenced that evening, or whether gether with the duke of Lorraine came to the soldiers should rest until the following me; and, finally, the governor of Vienna, morning, when he was informed that the Count Stahrenberg, with a multitude of the enemy appeared to be already running people, rich and poor, came to meet me; away in every direction. And such was all greeted me most cordially, and called the case in reality. An irresistible terror me their deliverer. In the streets were loud had come over them; they fled, abandoning rejoicings and cries of' Long live the their camp and all their baggage and am- king!' When I rode out into the encampmunition, and very soon even those who had ment after dinner, the populace with upfired upon the town followed the example lifted hands accompanied me out of the and decamped with the whole army. city gate. Let us, for this most glorious 360 FRESH WAR WITH FRANCE victory, render to the Most High, praise, tria, 1701-1714-William III. of England-Louis XIV, honor, and thanksgiving, for ever! proclaims his Grandson, Philip of Anjou, King of ono, and tank n, pain-Prince Eugene-His Military Genius and The Austrians had good cause to feel Private Character-Appointed Commander-in-Chief grateful for this deliverance. For this of the Imperial Army-His Reply to Louis XIV. — grateful for this deliverance. For this Marches into Italy-Defeats the French at Carpi and formidable foe not only plundered and Chiari-England-Louis XIV. and the exiled Stuarts slaughtered the people according to his -The Duke of Marlborough, General of the Allied slaghtredth pepleaccrdng to Army-The Elector of Bavaria —The Bavarians in usual practice in war, but without making the yrol-Their Overthrow by the Tyrolese-Battle of Hochstadt-Blenheim-Triumphant Victory gainany distinction, dragged after him all he ed by the Duke of Marlborough and Prince Eugene could seize as slaves. It has been calcu- 1704-The Duke of Marlborough created a Prince of the Empire —Death of Leopold I., 1705. lated that altogether, Austria lost in this the Empire-Death of Leopold., 1705. way 87,000 individuals, among whom were Louis XIV. had employed the interval, 50,000 children and 26,000 women and while Austria and the German princes young females, and of the latter alone 204 were subjugating their formidable enemy belonged to thb families of counts and others in the southeast, in gathering new forces, of the nobility, for he did not deem the usurped possesThe whole of Europe took an interest sions already in his hands sufficient. And in the deliverance of Vienna; Louis XIV. as he thought the present to be the most alone was greatly confounded, and none of favorable moment, he availed himself of his ministers could command sufficient certain insignificant disputes respecting the courage to bear the intelligence to him; hereditary title of Charles, the electoral nay, credible writers assert that, in the prince of the palatinate, and the succestent of the grand vizier, letters were found sion to the electorate of Cologne, after the from the king, containing the entire plan death of Maximilian Henry; and pretendfor the siege of Vienna. ing that it devolved upon him to protect The war with the Turks continued with the constitution of Germany, he issued a a few intermissions fifteen years longer, fresh declaration of war against the empeending gloriously for the imperial arms. ror in 1688. Before it was even made The terror felt for their name ceased, and known, his troops invaded the Netherlands their military fame had now declined. In and began to lay waste as before. Sumthe year 1687 they were totally defeated moned by this danger, numerous armies at Mohacz by the duke of Lorraine and from Northern Germany, Saxony, HanoPrince Eugene of Savoy, and as a conse- ver, and Hesse, hastened to the Rhine on quence of this victory the whole of Hun- the defensive. This was the more praisegary submitted to the imperial dominion, worthy, as at Ratisbon they were yet disand even made its regal dignity hereditary, cussing the question whether or not there instead of being, as hitherto, only elective. should be a war. However, even here, After the great victory of Prince Eugene things began to wear a more determined at Zeutha, in 1697, an armistice for twenty- aspect; an imperial war was declared, five years was concluded with the Turks without allowing any one of the states to at Carlowitz. remain neutral, and the emperor added to the declaration: " The government of France is not to be considered simply as — t~ — the enemy of the empire, but, like the Turks, the enemy of all Christendom." The arrogance of France and the vioC H A P T E R XXVIII. lations of the Nimwegen treaty of peace excited also the indignation of the other Fresh War with France, 1688-1697-Alliance of Eng- European states; soon England, Holland, Holland, and Spain, against Louis XIV.-The French in Germany-Dreadful Devastation and un-land, Spain, and subsequently Savoy, heard-of Cruelties committed by orders of Louis XIV. took part in the war, and the new king of -Conflagration and complete Destruction of Hei- delberg, Worms, and Spires-Deplorable Condition England, William III., who was at the of the Inhabitants-The Tombs of the Emperors pil- same time stadtholder of the Netherlands, laged-Peace of Ryswick, 1697-Compensation de- manded for Germany-Insolence of the French Am- in his declaration of war, likewise calls bassadors-Elevation of the German Princes-The King Louis —" A disturber of the peace and First Elector of Hanover-Frederick, Elector of Saxony, ascends the Throne of Poland, 1696-Frederick, the common enemy of all Christendom." Elector of Brandenburg, places the Crown on his own In order that France might wage a suc Head as King of Prussia, 1701-War of the Spanish mi aea Succession between France and the House of Aus- cessful war against so many adversaries, THE FRENCH IN GERMANY. 361 unhappy Germany was again subjected to towns and villages which were yet to be the inhuman treatment which the minister destroyed. These enormities were perLouvois had suggested: the flourishing petrated by a nation, calling itself the banks of the Rhine were reduced to a state most civilized and polished in the world, of complete desolation, and the recital of and just at that period of its history too, the cruelties inflicted excites but one feel- which it denominated the golden age of its ing of horror. refinement; they were the commands of a As early as January, 1689, the cavalry king, who wished to assume the character of General Melac surrounded the country of a protector of the arts and sciences around Heidelberg and set fire to the towns wherever he found them. Before he made of Rohrbach, Nuszloch, Wisloch, Kirch- known the designs which his thirst for conheim, Eppenheim, Neckarhausen, and quest had led him to form, he sent presents many others, while the poor defenceless to sixty foreign savants, accompanied with people, who supplicated for mercy on their the following letter from his minister, Colknees, were stripped and hunted naked bert: "Although the king," he says, " is into the fields, then covered with snow, not your sovereign, he is desirous of being where many perished through the cold. your benefactor; he sends this present as Heidelberg itself was set on fire in several a token of his regard." In this way he lifferent places. The towns of Mannheim, succeeded in attaching to himself partisans Offenburg, Creuznach, Oppenheim, Bruch- amidst the most learned men of other nasal, Frankenthal, Baden, Rastadt, and many tions; but now none had longer confidence other small towns and villages, met the in the honesty of his intentions, and those same fate. The inhabitants were not even who formerly wished success to his arms, permitted, after being plundered and ill- broke out into execrations and curses treated, to take refuge in the German dis- against him and his people. tricts, but were obliged to betake them- This animosity against France, and the selves to the French territory. The an- excellent generalship of the old duke of cient free cities of the empire, Spires and Lorraine, rendered the German arms, durWorms, underwent a lingering and truly ing the first years of the war, tolerably sucpitiable state of suffering. After innu- cessful; and several fortified towns on the merable calamities, after the inhabitants Rhine were recovered from the French. had for seven months endured all and sac- After the duke's death, however, and when rificed all, and now thought that at least the zeal of the first moment had cooled their cities would be saved, it was an- down, the advantage turned in favor of the nounced to them that the interest of the indefatigable enemy, especially after the king required that both these cities should great French general, the marshal of Luxbe razed to the ground. The unhappy emburg, had in 1690 routed a German lepeople were compelled to wander forth out gion at Fleurus. Subsequently, however, of their gates, as mendicants and destitute in 1693, they in some measure regained of all means of subsistence, into the near- their former position under a new German est French cities, and Spires and Worms general, Prince Louis of Baden, a pupil of were both set in flames and reduced to the duke of Lorraine, who ably defended ashes. On this occasion French avarice the banks of the Neckar; and with an violated and sacrilegiously broke open the army of inferior numbers, he made such very graves of the ancient Salic emperors an admirable stand at Heilbronn, that the in the cathedral of Spires; several silver enemy would not again venture to invade coffins deposited there were removed, and Swabia. the venerated bones they contained scat- All the belligerent nations being wearied tered upon the ground. In Worms alone, out, a congress of peace was at length confifteen Catholic churches and convents, vened at Ryswick, a small village with a besides those of the Jesuits and Domini- castle near the Hague, in Holland. Louis cans, were reduced to ashes. When the XIV. was desirous of peace this time, in young duke of Crequi, who had the chief order to prepare for a new war which he command in these operations, was asked anticipated as near at hand. The death of why he visited these cities with such se- Charles II. the king of Spain, was expected verity, he merely replied, " It is the king's shortly to take place, and as he had no pleasure,"-and produced a list of 1200 children, Louis wished to obtain that coun46 362 ELEVATION OF GERMAN PRINCES. try for himself. Accordingly, he now of- Another cause also of the discord which fered to deliver up many places, and among at this period prevailed in Germany, was the rest the important citadel of Strasburg. the creation of a new electoral dignity, on But the negotiations were hardly entered behalf of the house of Hanover, or Brunsupon before he succeeded, with his usual wick-Luneburg. That princely house had cunning, in disuniting the allies, by pro- rendered the emperor very important sermising especial advantages to England, vice in the wars against the Turks and the Holland, and Spain. They therefore con- French; Leopold, therefore, was desirous eluded a separate peace for themselves, and of rewarding it with the said electoral digabandoned the emperor and empire alto- nity, and a majority of the other electors, gether. And now the ambassadors resumed even those of the Catholic party, became by their high and haughty tone. degrees agreeable to this proceeding, alWhen the question was discussed re- though it would, at the same time, add a specting the compensation to be made for new Protestant vote to the electoral college; the excessive losses produced by the war, still, to them, this appeared not unreasonand when the cities of Worms and Spires able, since the Protestants had lost a vote alone demanded, as an indemnification, through the elector-palatine having gone 9,000,000 florins, while the duchy of Ba- over to the Catholic religion. But the den claimed 8,000,000, and Wurtemberg princes, especially Brunswick-Wolfenbut10,000,000, they replied in an ironical tel, struggled vehemently against this elevatone: "War brings with it many evils; tion of one of their number, for thereby one if the Germans are determined to have sat- of their most valuable votes would be withisfaction, let them lead their army into the drawn from them. When, therefore, the centre of France, and there plunder or emperor, notwithstanding their opposition, conquer as much as they please." At last conferred, in 1692, the investiture of the new they engaged, out of all they had conquered, electorate on Ernest Augustus of Hanover, to deliver up Freiburg, Brisach, and Phil- it produced so much contention and general ipsburg, together with those places reuni- discontent in the college of princes, that it ted by the four chambers beyond Alsace. was deemed advisable, for the present, that On the evening before the ratification of Hanover should not be permitted to occupeace, and just when all considered that py a place in the electoral assembly. The every thing was arranged for signature, the new electorate was not inconsiderable; the French ministers came forward with an ad- elder brother, George William of Lineburg, ditional stipulation, insisting upon its being had transferred his dukedom to his youngacceded to, viz., " That in all the reunited er brother Ernest Augustus, so that now places now about to be restored, the Catho- Luneburg, Calenburg, and Grubenhagen, lie religion should remain as it was;" that with the provinces of Hoya and Diepholz, is, in 1922 German townships which had formed together one of the largest of the been previously Protestant, and into which German territories. The new elector was the French garrisons had introduced, with also chief standard-bearer of the empire, a high hand, the Catholic worship, the lat- and he promised, in all cases of the election ter should remain the state religion. The of an emperor, always to give his vote to Protestant ambassadors of Germany stren- the house of Austria, and to grant the Cath. uously resisted this clause; but their re- olics in his own dominions the free exermonstrances were not attended to, and the cise of their religion, as well as to furnish treaty of peace was signed. The worst in aid of the war 500,000 dollars, together feature of the case, and what Louis un- with 6000 men to Hungary, and 3000 to doubtedly aimed at, was that the Protest- the Rhine. When Ernest Augustus died ants looked upon the emperor himself as in 1698, even those of the electoral princes the secret mover of this so-called Ryswick- who had not heretofore approved of the creian clause, whence it produced in Ger- ation of a ninth electorate, now voted for many fresh distrusts on the subject of re- the investiture of his son George Lewis; ligion; and, in truth, the imperial ambas- the college of princes, on the other hand, sadors by no means showed themselves protested anew against it; nor did they revigilant against the designs of France, nor cognise it till the year 1705. The house were they sufficiently determined in their of Hanover, however, was soon to rise yet opposition. higher, for in the year 1714, George Lewis FIRST KING OF PRUSSIA. 363 ascended the English throne by inherit- to her, and her soil was the principal arena ance, on the demise of Queen Anne, who on which others spent their rage in war. had survived the whole of her thirteen chil. Hence it is that the plains of Saxony, dren. Swabia, and Bavaria, are distinguished by The year 1696 also witnessed the ele- the names of so many battles, and this is vation of a German prince to a royal the reason why the banks of the Elbe, the throne; the Elector Frederick Augustus Saale, and the Elster, as well as those of of Saxony, after the death of the gallant the Danube, the Lech, the Inn, and the Sobieski, was elected king by the Poles, Neckar, have been so severely trodden and took the title of Augustus I. He was down by the burning foot of war. obliged to change his creed and conform to In like manner, at the commencement the Catholic church; in his Saxon domin- of the eighteenth century, that shock ions, however, no alteration was attempted which convulsed the southern half of Euin the constitution of the church. The rope, was, to a great extent, fought out on Polish crown, however, proved no boon to the plains of Germany. This was occathe Saxon house, and was soon lost again. sioned by the death of Charles II., king of This was a period of aggrandizing ef- Spain. fort among the princes, and these examples Two sovereign families, at that period, influenced several. A prince of Orange had the government of the greater part of had just become king of England, and the Europe-the houses of Austria and Bourelector of Saxony was king of Poland; bon: the former had separated into two this prompted Frederick III., elector of branches, the Austrian proper and the Brandenburg, who was at the same time Austro-Spanish branch; but the moment duke of Prussia, likewise to assume the had now arrived when both could again royal title. His territories were indeed blend together in one. Louis XIV. had, it small, but Frederick loved splendor and is true, married the eldest sister of the deoutward show more than any thing else; ceased king of Spain, but she had, by a he caused himself to be proclaimed king at solemn covenant, renounced her right to Konigsberg, on the 17th of January, 1701, the Spanish succession. The second sister and on the following day he solemnly was married to the emperor Leopold; she placed the crown on his own head and that had made no such renunciation. Her of his consort; henceforth he was known daughter, however, consort of Maximilian as Frederick I. of Prussia. Emanuel, elector of Bavaria, was obliged The circumstances of the times were before her marriage, like her aunt, to reexceedingly favorable for these self-promo- nounce all her hereditary claims to Spain. tions; at another period they might have The emperor Leopold, however, by a secencountered much opposition. The Span- ond marriage with a princess of the palaish war of succession was on the eve of tine house of Neuberg, had two sons, breaking out, and the powers which were Joseph and Charles; Leopold demanded implicated in it hastened to obtain allies. the crown of Spain on behalf of the latter, The emperor Leopold was the first to ac- on the ground that Leopold's mother was knowledge the new Prussian royal title, an aunt of Charles II. France, however, and he received in return assistance in the as well as Bavaria, refused to allow that war, and the assurance that the imperial the renunciations of these princesses afdignity should continue in the house of fected their families, because they had Austria. Sweden, England, Holland, Po- given up only their own claims, and had land, Denmark, and Russia, also soon fol- no power to renounce the rights of their lowed, all equally from motives of state posterity. Each of these powers now enpolicy. On the other hand, France and deavored, through their ambassadors, to Spain, together with the pope, finding their induce King Charles II., during his lifeadversaries had already gained over the time, to make a will in their favor; and king, delayed their recognition until the Charles, with the view of maintaining the peace of Utrecht. independence of Spain as much as possiThe curse of our history since the Thir- ble, named Joseph Ferdinand, elector of ty Years' War, has been that our country Bavaria, his successor. This youth, howwas drawn into all the quarrels of the na- ever, died of the small-pox, even before tions of Europe, even such as were foreign the king, in the year 1699, and the contest 364 TWO KINGS OF SPAIN, PHILIP V. AND CHARLES III. between the houses of Bourbon and Austria court. When he entered from his cabinet, commenced afresh. Leopold could easily leading the prince by the hand, he exclaimhave obtained the victory if he had been ed, as stated by a French writer, with the Represented by a more able envoy at Ma- air of a lord of the universe: " My lords, drid, and if he himself had possessed more you see here the king of Spain. Nature decision of character; for both the Spanish has formed him for it; the deceased king queen and Cardinal Portocarraro, arch- has nominated him, the people desire him, bishop of Toledo, the most influential man and I consent." at the court, were favorably disposed to- This was the signal for a new and direwards Austria. But Leopold's ambassa- ful struggle in Europe. Germany was, dor, Count von Harrach, a haughty, ava- alas! divided in itself; Prussia, Hanover, ricious blunderer, left the field quite clear the palatinate, and a few other states were, for the adroitness and cunning of the French from the beginning, for the emperor. Maxagent, the Marquis d'Harcourt; this man imilian Emanuel, elector of Bavaria and gained over the most considerable of the also stadtholder of the Spanish NetherSpaniards one after another, and, at last, lands, was on the side of the French, and even the cardinal, and through him the Louis, in consideration of his claims to the king himself. Charles made a secret will, Spanish succession, had already made a and when he died, on the 1st of November, secret promise to him of the Netherlands; 1700, it was discovered that he had named whether seriously, it is difficult to say. therein the grandson of Louis XIV., Philip, The brother of Maximilian, the elector of duke of Anjou, heir to the whole Spanish Cologne, followed his example and received monarchy. The emperor was thoroughly French troops into his territory, " for the confounded by this unexpected blow; but good of the Germanic empire and the he had to thank himself alone for it, for preservation of its peace, (!)" as it is expreviously, when the Spanish court had pressed in the official declarations. repeatedly pressed him to let his son, the The emperor Leopold determined withArchduke Charles, come into Spain with a out delay on sending an army into Italy, small army-during the continuance of the to take possession of the Spanish territoformer war with France-the emperor, ries in that country, Milan and Naples. owing to his want of resolution, refused to He placed at its head Francis Eugene, give his consent. prince of Savoy, one of the first of the Louis XIV. knew well that, notwith- warriors and statesmen of his time, as well standing the will of the late king, to take as of all history. IHe sprang from a collapossession of Spain for his grandson with- teral branch of the house of Savoy, and out war was not possible; for Austria had was intended in his youth for the clerical been too severely injured; while the other profession; but his genius led him to the states of Europe likewise viewed, with study of history and its great examples, great jealousy, the excessive power of the and this again impelled him into the rapid house of Bourbon. William III., king of current of active life, where the skill of England and stadtholder of the Nether- such as aspire to glory is put to the test lands, an active and very able man, who in sight of waving laurels. When in his considered it his province to preserve the twentieth year, he offered his services to due balance of the powers of Europe, and Louis XIV. The latter, not deeming him therefore had always been the enemy of worthy of notice on account of his diminLouis, concluded an alliance between both utiveness, treated his offer with ridicule, of his dominions and Austria; this was and advised him to continue in the clerical the more important, as England and Iol- profession. Eugene immediately turned to land were the wealthiest and most power- Austria, where the Turkish war seemed to ful rulers of the sea. Hence Louis con- favor his wishes, and he soon distinguished sidered awhile whether he should accept himself so greatly, that, after the deliverof the Spanish king's will; he then called ance of Vienna in 1683, on which occahis council together, and as they unani- sion he fought gallantly, the emperor gave mously concurred, he resolved to do so; him the command of a cavalry regiment. accordingly, he proclaimed his grandson Charles, duke of Lorraine, already recogking of Spain and both the Indies, in the nised him as a hero, and predicted what presence of a brilliant assembly of his he would one day become in relation to PRINCE EUGENE-LOUIS XIV. AND THE STUARTS. 365 the imperial house; and, in 1693, Leopold the rocks and precipices to the extent of appointed him field-marshal. Louis would thirty miles, in which they marched, and now gladly have gained him over to him- thus, before the enemy could be at all self, and for which object he sent to him aware of it, his army poured forth from an offer of the stadtholdership of Cham- the terrific passes of the mountains, and paign, and the dignity of a marshal of encamped on the plains of Verona. By France; but Eugene answered the person two victories gained at Carpi and Chiari, deputed: " Tell your king that I am an im- Eugene drove the French from a part of perial field-marshal, which is worth quite Upper Italy, and established his winter as much as the staff of a French mar- quarters there. shal." As early as the autumn of 1701, an Eugene was in every respect a great alliance was formed between England, general; his mind embraced at once the Holland, and Austria. The maritime most important enterprise, together with all powers stipulated that they should retain its details, and while engaged in forming possession of all the conquests they might his plan of battle, and all its accompanying make in the Spanish Indies; and in return, operations, he never neglected to provide they promised the emperor to assist him in for the most minute wants of his army, conquering the Spanish Netherlands, Miwhich consequently placed the greatest lan, Naples, and Sicily. The English confidence in their commander. His eagle would not have taken so active a part in eye eagerly seized with the greatest promp- the war, if Louis XIV. himself had not titude the advantages of the moment, and foolishly and impudently provoked their the errors of his adversary were speedily exasperation. England had just succeedcaught at and made available for his own ed in driving from the throne the family of object. He was, however, not less distin- the Stuarts, on account of their zeal for the guished in-his private character as a man; Catholic religion, and had transferred it for his spirit rose superior to the religious to William of Orange. Louis received and political prejudices of his day, and he the exiled family and gave them his proesteemed more highly the arts of peace tection, and in 1701, on the death of than the dazzling glories of war; while, James II., (who died at Saint Germain,) at the same time,, he was so modest and he recognised his son James III. as king unpretending, and estimated his own qual. of Great Britain; and it was even reported ifications with so much moderation, that he that this prince was about to effect a landnot only regarded the promotion of others ing in England at the head of a French without envy, but, on the contrary, he wil- army. The English were so incensed lingly occupied a subordinate post, if by that a stranger should thus presume to so doing he could promote the general good. dispose of their throne, that king William, In person Prince Eugene was under the instead of 10,000 men, now obtained from middle size, and as he walked amidst the parliament a vote for 40,000. tents of his camp, enveloped in his gray William placed at the head of this army military cloak, it may be supposed that the earl of Marlborough, created afterfew would recognise in his small figure wards a duke. He had not deceived the renowned leader of armies, except those himself in making this selection of his to whom the brilliant fire of his dark eye commander-in-chief; Marlborough had betrayed his presence. learned the art of war in the school of the In the month of March, 1701, Eugene great Turenne, and, as a general, stood marched against Italy with the imperial second to none of his day. Nature had army, together with ten thousand auxiliary formed him for a martial leader; being troops from Prussia, and a division ofHano- tall, handsome, energetic, and of such verians. The forces assembled at Rover. noble deportment and superior genius, that edo, and ascended the mountain chain; but the most elevated in rank and distinguishall the passes on the other side were al- ed men of every country involuntarily ready occupied by the French, so that it did homage to him. In individual feeling, appeared impossible to descend. The im- he stood inferior to Eugene; he did not perial general, however, ordered his men, possess that integrity and nobleness of who always obeyed him with enthusiastic mind which in the contemplation of grand ardor and alacrity, to cut a passage over objects loses sight of self; while he is 366 ELECTOR OF BAVARIA-INVADES THE TYROL. also accused of an immoderate thirst for the borders of the Netherlands, and cap. gain. tured Bonn, Tongern, Huy, Limburg, and In March, 1702, Marlborough landed in Guelders. the Netherlands and placed himself at the In Southern Germany affairs were not head of the Anglo-Dutch army; his im- so prosperous, for the emperor was obliged mediate object was to drive the French to withdraw a considerable part of his out of the electorate of Cologne. King army from the Rhine, in order to suppress William III. died the same month in con- the dangerous insurrection beaded by sequence of a violent fall from his horse Count Ragoczi, which had been raised in while hunting; but his successor, Queen Hungary by French influence. The proAnne, implicitly adhered to all his plans, tracted struggle in that country had the and the war was continued. effect generally of greatly hindering the With this firm determination shown on Austrian powers from making any thing the part of foreigners, the states of the like a demonstration against France. In Germanic empire resolved upon taking a the year 1703, the French field-marshal, decisive part in this war of vengeance Villars, succeeded in crossing the Rhine against their hereditary enemy. The de- and uniting with the elector of Bavaria. claration of war followed on the 6th of The latter now devised the plan of making October, 1702, and it concluded thus:- an incursion into the Tyrol, and possessing "France has done every thing in her himself of that country, situated for him power to humble and crush the German so conveniently. He marched thither nation, in order that she might the more with about 16,000 of the flower of his easily effect, what she has so long and army, and the French marshal remained zealously been aiming at, viz., the estab- behind to cover Bavaria. Owing to a fire lishment of a universal monarchy." The which unfortunately broke out in Kufstein, conduct of the elector of Bavaria had that strong mountain fortress fell immelikewise provoked the decision of the other diately into the hands of the elector, and members of the empire in favor of the in their first terror several other places same cause; for, obstinately adhering to surrendered, and among the rest even InFrance, he had collected a considerable spruck itself. Thence the Bavarians force with which he suddenly attacked and ascended the Brenner mountain to make took possession of the free imperial city their way into Italy. Here, however, they of Ulm, on the 3d of September; an act were anticipated by the brave Tyrolese, a severely condemned by the other states. people ever ready to lay down their lives The dukes of Brunswick also, in con- and their all in the cause of their beloved sequence of their continued indignation country, who on the present occasion were against the elector of Hanover, forgot strengthened by a large reinforcement of themselves so far as to raise troops for the Austrian soldiers, under the leadership of service of France; and as they paid no the gallant amtmann, Martin Sterzing. regard to the reiterated warnings given to They climbed up the rugged heights on the them, they were forcibly disarmed, in sides of the passes, and hurled trees and 1702, by the elector of Hanover, and rocks down upon their foes, as they defiled thenceforth compelled to submit to the will beneath them, who, finding it impossible to of the emperor and the nation. continue their march, retreated in all haste. The fortress of Landau on the Rhine A Tyrolese sharpshooter in a ravine lay was also this year besieged and captured in ambuscade for the elector himself, but, by the imperial general, Lewis of Baden. deceived by his rich uniform, he shot the The Roman king, Joseph, came himself count of Arco in his stead. The Bavarian into the camp, and evinced great courage army suffered still greater loss on its reand resolution. In Italy, Eugene was as treat, and, after two months, the elector reyet too weak to attempt any thing of im- turned to his territory with only half the portance; and it appeared as though the forces he had taken with him. hostile parties had determined to test each As a sort of indemnification he succeeded, other's strength merely in skirmishes. during the winter of the same year, in takThe following year was one more rich ing possession of the opulent town of Augsin exploits. Marlborough employed it in burg, as well as of that of Passau, the fronthe conquest of several fortified places on tier fortress of Austria, and on the Rhine BATTLES OF HOCHSTADT AND BLENHEIM. 367 the French had in the mean time conquered most fierce, and the assailants were several the strong fortresses of Brisach and Landau. times driven back by a most terrible fire To counterbalance these losses, the allies from the enemy's artillery. The contest proposed the following year to try with all was most severe on the left wing, where their forces united for better success, and Maximilian fought with the utmost bravery, according to the plan laid down it was de- skilfully availing himself of his covered termined that the three generals, Marlbo- position in the bog. Eugene perceived that rough, Eugene, and Lewis of Baden, should something extraordinary must be hazarded; fight in conjunction in Southern Germany, careless of his own life, he rushed forward and that General Stahrenberg should re. animating his men, when a Bavarian dramain in Italy to carry on a defensive war. goon close by levelled his piece at him, but The three generals met at Heilbronn on the one of the prince's orderlies cut him down. Neckar, and Marlborough, with the mar- At that moment Prince Leopold of Dessau, grave of Baden, directed his course to the with a number of Prussian infantry, pressed Danube, and Eugene marched along the forward to his aid, and to him Eugene himRhine. The Bavarians had stationed a self ascribes the determination of the conpart of their army in an advantageous po- test in favor of this wing. Meanwhile sition on the Schellen mountain, near Do- Marlborough likewise had with his wing nauwerth, to dispute the passage of the im- routed the French, and when the elector perialists over the Danube; but they were saw them flying from the field, he also reattacked there themselves, and after abrave treated with his division. Twenty-eight defence compelled to fly, their entire camp battalions and twelve squadrons of French falling into the hands of the enemy. still sought to defend themselves in the vilAfter this engagement the united powers lage of Blenheim, but they were surrounded made overtures of peace to the elector, and and forced to yield themselves prisoners. promised -him considerable advantages if Thus a great and decisive victory was he would withdraw from the alliance of gained by the allies; 20,000 French and France. He began to waver, and was on Bavarians lay on the field of battle, 15,200 the point of signing the articles of peace, were taken prisoners, among whom was when a messenger informed him that Mar. Marshal Tallard himself, with his son and shal Tallard was advancing with a fresh 818 officers. As to booty, the victors had army to his assistance. On receiving this won a rich military chest, 117 cannon, 24 news, the elector threw the pen out of his mortars, and 300 stand of colors; and behand and refused to sign the treaty. The sides this, 5000 wagons, 3600 tents, and marshal came, but with him came likewise two pontoon bridges. From this day the Prince Eugene, who had followed at his name of Marlborough became the theme of heels and now joined Marlborough. They heroic song throughout Germany, and the sent the old unyielding prince of Bacen emperor created him a prince of the empire. away to the siege of Ingolstadt, lest he The elector of Bavaria saw himselfcomshould derange their plans of battle; and pelled to cross the Rhine with the French, the English general cordially fought hand- and take up his position in Brussels; his in-hand with the unpretending Eugene, as territory was occupied by the imperialists, the latter was ever ready to sacrifice his and his consort retained for her support own personal renown for the success of the only the town and revenue of Munich. common cause. Thus, unhappily for him, terminated the On the 12th of October both generals campaign of 1704. took up their position immediately in front In the following year, 1705, the emperor of the French, and the Bavarians near the Leopold I. died of dropsy on the chest, in small town of Hochstadt; and on the 13th the sixty-fifth year of his age; few of his they began the battle. The enemy was subjects mourned for him, for he by no far superior in numbers, and commanded a means possessed that affability with which highly advantageous situation, while they princes so easily win the hearts of those were well defended by morasses. Marl- who surround them, and what rendered borough led the right wing, composed of the him still more unpopular, was that he was English, Dutch, and Hessians, against the too fond of intrenching himself behind the French; Eugene with the left advanced bulwark of the severest Spanish court etiagainst the Bavarians. The battle was quette then still in practice. His dress 368 JOSEPH I.-WAR CONTINUED was always black, while the color of his cute the war with vigor, and he kept his stockings and the plume of his hat were of word. scarlet, and on his head he wore a peruke Nevertheless, there was nothing of im. with long descending ringlets. His form portance accomplished anywhere during was insignificant, his deportment serious the campaign of 1705. Eugene was sent and frequently gloomy, while his counte- to Italy, in order to reorganize the army nance was disfigured by a large projecting there, which had fallen into great disorder; under lip. The most marked trait in his but more than this he was not able to do character was a severe, austere tone of this year. Marlborough had returned to piety, but it was of such a nature that it the Netherlands, where he was obliged to placed him completely under the direction collect fresh forces. In Bavaria, meanand sway of the will of his clergy. In time, a violent tumult broke out, in conseother respects he was conscientious, good- quence of the oppressive measures adopted natured, and very charitable to the poor, by the Austrian officers and garrisons. but from want of judgment, his liberality They forced the youth of the country into was severely imposed upon. Leopold 1. the Austrian service, and this outrage led was not a sovereign equal to the times in to a revolt on the part of the sturdy and which he lived, neither was he at all a independent Bavarians. They took up match for an antagonist like Louis XIV. arms, liberated the young men who had He was succeeded by his eldest son Joseph, been pressed into service, attacked several in his twenty-seventh year. bodies of the Austrian troops, and encouraged by their first success, they collected together about 20,000 of the bold peasantry under the orders of a young and fiery student named Mainl. They proceeded at once to make an assault upon, the fortresses CHAPTE R XXIX. of Braunau and Scharding, and fbrced the small garrisons to surrender. The AusJoseph I., 1705-1711-Continuation of the War-Riots trians were obliged to negotiate with them in Bavaria-The Elector outlawed-Marshal Villeroi and to conclude an armistice, not as with -Battles of Ramillies and Turin, 1706-Triumph of but as with men defending their Marlborough and Eugene-Complete overthrow ofrebels, but as ith men defending their the French-General Capitulation-Naples-Spain- independence. They, however, availed Battles of Oudenarde and Malplaquet, 1708-1709Defeat of the French under Bourgoyne, Vendome, themselves of this circumstance by collectand Villars-Humiliation of Louis XIV.-England- ing together a small imperial army from Queen Anne-Marlborough recalled and dismissed — Death of Joseph I., 1711-Charles VI., 1711-1740-the neighboring districts, and with this asPeace of Utrecht. 1713-Peace of Rastadt and Baden sistance they routed the peasants, recov1714-Death of Louis XIV., 1715-The House o f Austria in its Relations with the Germanic Empire-ered from them one town after another, Peaceful Reign of Charles VI.-His Death, 1740 — and in some measure re-established order. Maria Theresa of Austria-Her Title to the Imperial Throne disputed by Charles Albert of Bavaria-Fred- This, however, was attended with many erick II. of Prussia —His extraordinary Genius and acts of severity, and the feeling of bitter energetic Character-His Army —Invades Austria — The first Silesian War, 1740-1742-Glogau-Sanguin- animosity between the two parties inary Battle of Molwitz-Defeat of the Austrians- creased more and more. The elector himAlliance of France, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony, against Austria, in support of Charles Albert-Hano- self, being looked upon as the first mover ver-George II. of England-Charles Albert, King in the insurrection, and an enemy of the of Poland-Election of Emperor in Frankfort. empire, was, together with his brother, the LEOPOLD I. was succeeded by his eldest elector of Cologne, now formally declared son Joseph, in his twenty-seventh year, an outlaw, and his territory escheated as a who was endowed with an energetic and fief of the empire. At the urgent request aspiring mind. During a short period it of the elector palatine, the emperor rewas doubtful whether or not the new em- stored to him the upper palatinate which peror would continue the war with equal his family had lost in the Thirty Years' energy in,favor of his brother Charles, War, and which had been transferred to who had proceeded to Spain in 1704, where Bavaria, together with its ancient seat in he had since continued, and had been actu- the assembly of electors. About this time ally acknowledged as king in Aragon, also the princes, who had hitherto disputed Catalonia, and Valencia. Joseph, how- the electoral dignity of Hanover, at length ever, declared his determination to prose. yielded; it was universally acknowledged, BATTLE OF RAMILLIES-BATTLE OF TURIN. 369 and the elector palatine resigned to the and through a country wholly occupied new elector of Hanover the office of grand by the enemy, in order to effect a junction treasurer. with the duke of Savoy, wh( was closely France had determined to turn her chief pressed, and Whose capital city, Turin, force in the succeeding campaign against was at that moment besieged by the enethe Netherlands, in order that she might, my. To the astonishment of every one, if possible, obtain in wealthy Holland the the expedition succeeded. Eugene arrived means of continuing the war. Accordingly in time to aid the duke, and hastened to she sent into the field the finest army that the relief of Turin. Although his army had as yet appeared in this war; but its was much inferior in strength, and only general, Marshal Villeroi, was no match indifferently equipped, he nevertheless for the daring Marlborough. Actuated by ventured an attack upon the French lines vain confidence, he left his strong position on the 7th of September, at four o'clock in at Louvain on the 22d of May, in order to the morning. He was received by a terattack the enemy on the plains of Ramil- rific cannonade, which, however, did not lies.* This was exactly what Marlbo- prevent his men from bravely rushing forrough desired; his position was excellently ward. Prince Leopold of Dessau, subsedefended by a morass and some ditches quently known by the name of the old filled with water, so that when the enemy Dessauer, led the Prussians on the left advanced to the attack, it was impossible wing against the intrenchments, followed for them to approach the weaker and more in the centre by the Wiirtembergers and. exposed points in his order of battle, pro- the troops of the palatinate, and those of tected as they were by a natural defence; Gotha on the right wing; at the same, while he, on the other hand, could turn his time Count Daun made a sally with his whole force upon their separate points and men from the citadel. The battle was break through them. Before the battle, a extremely obstinate; two assaults madeFrench officer declared their army to be so by the Germans were repulsed, when at superior, that if they did not conquer that length, after two hours' fighting, the Prus-. day, they ought never again to show their sians* succeeded in mounting the ramparts; faces before the enemy. Nevertheless first, and were soon followed by the others.. they were defeated; for no bravery can The confusion of the enemy was greatly atone for the faults of a general. More increased through their rear line being at — than 20,000 men were lost, and eighty tacked by the garrison of Turin, and the standards, together with the drums and loss of both their chief generals, the duke colors of the royal guard itself; and two of Orleans and Count Marsin, who weremonths elapsed before the French army severely wounded and obliged to leave the was able to repair its losses. field of battle. Marsin was taken prisoner On the other hand the conqueror march- and died next day at Turin; 5,000 dead, ed through Brabant and Flanders, took and a yet greater number of wounded covpossession of all the towns, made them ered the field of battle, and the rest fled in swear allegiance to Charles III. as their such disorder over the mountains into rightful sovereign, and a council of state France, that of the whole army, originally was established at Brussels in the name of 80,000 strong, scarcely 16,000 men esthe new king. caped. All the immense supplies they Prince Eugene, on his part, would not had brought with them, 213 pieces of canallow this year to pass without some great non, 80,000 barrels of gunpowder, together action in Italy. He undertook one of the with a vast quantity of ammunition, fell most daring expeditions to be found in into the hands of the victors. The results the annals of war. With not more than of the battle, however, presented still 24,000 German troops he completed a greater advantages than all this booty, for march of more than two hundred miles, ascending mountains and crossing rivers, h In a letter to Count Singendorf, Prince Eugene himself says: "The prince of Anhalt has once more done wonders with his troops at Turin. I met him twice in the thickest fire, and in the very front of it, * This field is almost identical with that on which and I cannot conceal it, that in bravery, and especially the great battle of La Belle Alliance and Waterloo in discipline, his troops have far surpassed mine. was fought, and the latter name already was employed The emperor Joseph himself wrote to Prince Leopold, to designate the engagement above referred to more as well as to Prince William of Saxe-Gotha, very honthan a century ago. orable letters of thanks. 47 370 NAPLES-THE RHINE-SPAIN. the French lost rapidly one place after an- previously undertaken by Charles V. in other in Italy, and were forced to conclude the same quarter, while King Louis had a general capitulation, according to the the satisfaction to see his grandson Philip terms of which they evacuated Italy en- V. once more master of nearly the whole tirely, and engaged to send no more troops of Spain. The Archduke Charles had there during the whole war. The heroic been, it is true, extremely fortunate in his conduct of Prince Eugene during this operations in Spain the preceding year; memorable campaign had produced such his army, which chiefly consisted of Portuglorious results, that his fame resounded guese auxiliaries, had succeeded in taking from one end of Europe to the other, and the capital, Madrid, and he had there been in token of his high regard for his great proclaimed king of Spain; but his own and distinguished merits, the emperor pre- natural indolence, the dissension existing sented him with a valuable sword, and ap- among his generals, the hatred of the Caspointed him governor-general of Milan. tilians towards him and the Aragonians, as In the year 1707 France lost a third well as to the English and Portuguese, portion of the Spanish inheritance, which together with other causes, assisted gradufell into the hands of the emperor; Lom- ally to deprive him of his conquests, so bardy and the Netherlands had already that in the year 1707 he retained nothing been secured to him by the two great bat- more beyond Catalonia. ties of the preceding year. Naples, where Meantime Louis XIV. had already sufonly a small body of Spanish troops was fered such severe losses in this war, and quartered, was taken possession of without his country was so exhausted, that he most any difficulty, and thus France lost its last anxiously longed for peace, and by conhold in Italy; while in the Netherlands trolling his innate feeling of pride, he made not a single place was now left for Marl- attempts to purchase it even at great sacriborough to take. The only compensation fices. His adversaries, however, deterleft to Louis XIV. was in the Upper Rhine, mined to punish him severely this time for where he availed himself of the slow pro- all his former arrogance; Eugene and gress made by the imperialists in their Marlborough especially, being hostilely operations. The old general, Lewis of disposed towards the vain monarch, used Baden, who died in 1707, was succeeded all their influence equally both in Austria by the margrave of Baireuth, who was and England to prevent any pacificatory equally as inactive in his movements as measures, being resolved to reduce him to his predecessor, and who, by his irresolu- the most humiliating condition, and in tion, allowed the French to cross the Rhine which object they succeeded. at Strasburg, and to resume their whole Both these generals, after Eugene had system of relentless devastation in Fran- regulated affairs in Italy, formed a junction conia and Swabia. It has been calculated once more in the Netherlands; and thus that, in the space of only two months, they united, they gave battle to, and completely levied contributions to the amount of nine defeated the dukes of Bourgoyne and Venmillions of florins. The margrave, to the dome-between whom there was great dissatisfaction of all, did not long delay giving union-on the 11th of June, 1708, at in his resignation as commander-in-chief, Oudenarde. After this victory, Eugene and he was replaced by a more active boldly attacked the citadel of Ryssel, which leader, George Lewis, elector of Hanover. was regarded as impregnable, and of which The ill condition of the imperial army, he made himself master. however, prevented him from undertaking Tfie ill success experienced by France any thing important; he was obliged to in this campaign, was made still more content himself with forcing the French, grievous by its being followed by an unthrough want of supplies, to recross the paralleled severely cold winter, 1708, and Rhine, and with opposing their passage a the consequently serious injury produced second time in the following year. thereby. The cold was so intense that the An expedition which Prince Eugene had very animals in the forests and the birds in to make, by desire of the maritime powers, the air were frozen to death, and the vines.n the same year, 1707, from Italy to the and fruit-trees completely destroyed-while south of France, in order to take possession the inhabitants themselves, already sufof Toulon, succeeded no better than those fering so acutely from the war, were driv BATTLE OF MALPLAQUET. 371 en completely to despair by this terrible Another campaign was now lost, and visitation of nature; their lamentations Louis XIV. was again forced to renew his were heart-rending, and all resources for offers of peace. He agreed to every thing the supplies of the army in the next cam- that was demanded, excepting that in order paign were entirely destroyed. Thence not to be obliged to send an army to assist in the king, being now completely discouraged the expulsion of his grandson from Spain, he and crestfallen, was obliged to humble him- promised to furnish the allied powers with self once more, and make overtures of a sum of money instead for that purpose. peace; he declared, accordingly, that he But Louis was now to experience in his was willing to renounce Spain, India, Mi- own person what others had but too often lan, and the Netherlands, if they would felt through him, viz., how acutely severe leave to Philip V. Naples and Sicily. But the haughty insolence of the conqueror the two generals, who appeared at the pierces the heart of him whom misfortune Hague in the midst of these negotiations, has laid prostrate at his feet. He was now declared briefly that the house of Austria forced to witness what was but too clearly should not lose even a single village of the manifested, how by the duplicity he had Spanish monarchy, and when this severe himself formerly practised in all his neexaction was at length agreed to, they de- gotiations, he had alienated from him the manded still farther concessions from the confidence of all the other European naterritory of France itself: " Alsace," they tions; he was answered that, as long as said, " must be given up. and an entire Philip V. remained in Spain, they could line of strong places in the Netherlands, as put no trust in the promises of his cabinet; well as in Savoy, must be surrendered, to and if he seriously desired peace, he must secure these countries for the future against commence by satisfying all the demands the crafty proceedings of France." All made by the allied powers, and fulfil all the this the French envoys successively con- conditions of the treaty within the period of ceded; they only refused their consent to two months. one proposal of their enemies, and which After such a declaration, expressed in was in truth of a character highly derog- terms so haughty and overbearing, the atory and dishonorable, viz.: that in case humbled monarch was forced to recomhis grandson Philip would not resign mence war, at whatever sacrifice, and Spain of his own accord, Louis should Eugene and Marlborough succeeded withhimself assist in expelling him therefrom out much difficulty in capturing one town by force of arms. To such an indignity after the otheron the frontiers of France; the French monarch would not submit, and while in addition to this the news now arthe war was commenced again. rived from Spain, that Count Stahrenberg, Part of the summer of 1709 had already Charles's general, had completely defeated passed away in these negotiations, and Eu- the army of Philip V., and that on the 28th gene and Marlborough hastened to avail of September, 1710, Charles had made his themselves of the remaining portion of the triumphal entry into Madrid. season. They took possession of Tournay, Louis XIV., already old and feeble, was and marched against Mons. This place now reduced to the last extremity, and was Marshal Villars wished to protect, and had left without one resource. After so many accordingly taken up a strong position at wars, and the consequent sacrifice of so Malplaquet, in front of the city. The two many thousands of lives, together with such victorious generals, however, attacked him large sums of money, he was forced to bein his intrenchments without delay, on the hold the destruction of the whole of that fab11th of September, and after a battle, the ric built to perpetuate the grandeur of his most obstinate and sanguinary during the name and government, and he was even whole war, victory declared in favor of the called upon to offer up a portion of his own allies. Eugene himself, at the very outset ancient patrimonial realm. of the action, received a grazing shot in Never did fate appear to have dealt the head; but he very calmly folded his more hardly with one who felt secure in pocket-handkerchief round his head, and the conviction that he had elevated himled on his troops into the very hottest fire. self to the highest pinnacle of monarchal Mons was now closely besieged, and shortly greatness and imperial glory. But his afterwards taken. adversaries had themselves now lost sight 372 DEATH OF JOSEPH I.-PEACE OF UTRECHT. of that moderation in the moment when its come so preponderating? For Chailes influence would have saved them; they VI. would have possessed the same domihad likewise become arrogant through nation as Charles V., if he united the their good fortune, whence they lost a whole of Austria to the Spanish monarchy. great portion of the fruits of their victories. Such a predominance appeared dangerous Three favorable circumstances at once to the other states, especially to the marirescued France from the great extremity time powers, and they accordingly proto which she was reduced, and gained for moted the election of Charles as emperor, her more liberal conditions of peace. with the view of afterwards depriving him These fortunate events were: the recall of a portion of the Spanish succession. and dismissal of the duke of Marlborough, He was therefore crowned at Frankfort, on the triumph of the French partisans in Spain, the 22d of December, 1711. and the death of the emperor Joseph I. Charles, however, had in the mean time In England, where the friends of Marl- lost all he had gained in Spain. Defeated borough had hitherto governed the state, an several times by the able French general, opposite party had, during his absence, the duke of Vendome, all his possessions gradually and secretly formed itself into there were reconquered, and Philip V. was a powerful body, and adopted the term re-established in his kingdom. Tories or Royalists, in contrast to the During this interval the English minisother-the Marlborough party, which re- ters had been secretly negotiating with presented the Whigs or friends of the peo- France, and the preliminary conditions of ple. The efforts made by Marlborough in peace were already signed; so that the the war were now regarded as suspicious allies found themselves forced to agree to by Queen Anne, and his wife, who had stipulations by no means advantageous to hitherto held great sway over her mind, them-so little honorable had been the was now supplanted by another influential conduct of England in her proceedings party, Lady Masham; a new parliament with regard to her confederates. The was elected in 1710, of which the Tories conferences for a general peace now comformed the majority, and thence measures menced, and Utrecht was chosen as the for peace were loudly advocated in substi- place of assembly. tution for those of war. Marlborough was Upon the subject of the main point to be allowed to hold command for a short time discussed-the Spanish inheritance-they, longer, but with such restrictions that he notwithstanding the protestations of the emalmost immediately afterwards resigned it peror, were soon agreed. Philip V. was altogether. to have Spain and India, and Charles the The death of the emperor Joseph I., on remainder; at the same time Philip was to the 17th of April, 1711, contributed not a renounce all claim to the throne of France, little to establish a peace. He died of the so that the two crowns of Spain and France small-pox, in his thirty-third year, and is could never be placed upon the same head. represented in history as a prince of an France ceded to England Hudson's Bay active and prompt character, and far supe- and Newfoundland, and moreover, by derior to his father and brother. His mind sire of that power, she demolished the was capable of entertaining the most noble whole of the fortified works of Dunkirk. and enlarged ideas, and thence it was that To Portugal she gave up likewise various his penetrating eye selected Eugene, with territories in South America; to Prussia his extraordinary genius, as worthy of his the possession of Spanish Guelderland, and entire confidence. As the emperor died the sovereignty of Neufchatel and Valenwithout heirs, he was succeeded to the gin, and she acknowledged its prince as throne by his brother, the Archduke Charles. king of Prussia. Savoy obtained impor. The question now arose respecting the tant fortresses on the French frontiers, and equilibrium of the powers of Europe, as in as that country could also lay claim to the the time of Charles V.: whether it were Spanish crown, the island of Sicily was re. advisable that the present Charles, if elect- signed to her as an indemnification. Holed by the Germans as their emperor, under land, which had adhered to the league the title of Charles VI., should be allowed more faithfully than all the others, and to preside over the half of Europe, and the had always refused the advantages offered power of the house of Austria thus be- by a separate peace with France, received DEATH OF LOUIS XIV.-THE HOUSE OF AUSTRIA. 373 but very poor amends, while she was for- perial ban, and were reinstated in all their ced to relinquish the strongest fortresses possessions and dignities. she had conquered, only being allowed to These were the principal conditions of retain a few of the weaker places, to her peace, but there were many other points, esof little service. Spain eventually sur- pecially relative to the Germanic empire, rendered to England the stronghold of which were definitively agreed to on the 7th Gibraltar and the island of Minorca, and of September, 1714, at Baden, in Aarau. thus England reaped the greatest benefit And thus, once more, a violent tempest from this treaty of pacification. had passed over our heads. Meantime, the The emperor and the imperial states, great war in the north, and which at this deserted now by their allies, found them- moment convulsed the other moiety of selves obliged either to negotiate a peace Europe, north and east, although not much or prosecute the war alone. The stipula- felt in Germany, pursued its course until tions made by the French were of the most the death of the Swedish monarch, Charles shameful and humiliating nature; inas- XII., in December, 1718. During the ill much as Louis, in order no doubt to prove fortunes of Sweden, Brandenburg took poshimself extremely generous towards his session of a portion of Swedish Pomerania, ally, the elector of Bavaria, demanded and Hanover secured to itself by purchase, that all the estates of that prince should be the bishoprics of Bremen and Verden, and restored to him, and that the territories of both retained their acquisitions during the Burgau and Nollenburg, together with the peace. On the death of Louis XIV. in island of Sardinia, as a kingdom, should 1715, Europe, after these two great wars, likewise be ceded to him: a truly royal was suffered to enjoy for some time a state recompense for him who had been the of repose. faithful ally of the empire's foe! To have We have described the important war agreed to such conditions would have been just concluded more in detail, because too dishonorable; accordingly the war was therein France lost her ascendency; while resumed-but with what chances of suc- for Austria and Germany in general, it process? Eugene with his forces, now re- duced that favorable moment by which they duced to a mere handful of imperialists, were enabled to occupy, once more, their was not in a condition to face the entire ancient honorable position in the world's French army under the command of Vil- history. As it was to be feared, since lars, nor even to maintain his ground in Louis XIV. had manifested such desire for defence of the banks of the Rhine; whence conquest, that if left to itself, a single state the adjacent circles of that territory were must be too weak to resist the preponderaagain devastated, and the important for- ting power of France, King William III. tresses of Landau and Friburg again fell of England strenuously labored, singleinto the hands of the French. handed, to oppose, by means of a convenIn this state of things, Eugene and Vil- tion of several states, a barrier to that lars, in November, 1713, met in the castle ambition, so that in future the laws of of Rastadt, and recommenced negotiations. justice and equity should alone govern These two great generals, who had already nations among themselves. Thence he more than once confronted each other on was the founder of the new system of pothe field of battle, were now equally de- litical equilibrium, and merits the apprecia. sirous of being distinguished as the pro- tion due to a great man; for he effected moters of peace, and after overcoming the great things with small means, and was, in difficulties thrown in their way, and which truth, the shield of Europe. Beyond every in one or two instances were produced by thing else, however, he founded his hopes the overbearing pride of Louis himself, for the maintenance of lasting peace and they at length signed the treaty of peace security upon the union of England with on the 7th of March, 1714. The emperor Austria-an alliance, to use the expression received the Spanish Netherlands, Milan, of that period, of the most independent Sardinia, Mantua, and the sea-ports of Tus- Protestantism with the most legitimate Cacany; and France restored all the con- tholicism. This union, in fact, produced quered places she had gained on the Rhine, an entire new form in the development of as far as Landau. The electors of Bava- all the relations of the different European ria and Cologne were freed from the im- states. But one of its most important re 374 STATE OF AFFAIRS IN GERMANY. suits has been to render the principles of their independence, not in the love of their tolerance, reciprocal esteem, and moral subjects, where alone it rests, but in the dignity, more prevalent among nations; great number of their soldiers, ever ready and it is in this respect especially that the to strike the blow. Whenever one state first moiety of the eighteenth century dis- augmented its mercenaries, its neighbor tinguished itself, in spite of its many im- followed the example, and this was almost perfections. Thence, by this means, Austria the only scale of proportion between nations; was placed once again in the centre of while, at the same time, all moral and inEurope, as the power destined to establish tellectual power was accounted as nothing, relationship between all other nations, and because it could not be reduced to measureto maintain among them order and union; ment. Such a state of things must bring while with respect to Germany itself, she with it a heavy judgment; intellect thus was called upon to defend, with still greater misprized, abandoned altogether the strucpower, the pristine dignity and the ancient ture, the formation of which had cost so constitution of that empire. The glory and much labor and pain, and which it alone the acquisitions that had fallen to her share could uphold, and thence this system of through the late war, appeared indeed as an equipoise, after a short duration of splenindication of the favor of divine providence, dor in the time of Eugene and William, and as a ratification of the rank she was and an extended period of doubtful existto hold in order to bring into operation the ence, finally fell its own sacrifice at the objects she was destined to realize. She end of the same century in which it took its was, in fact, more powerful now than even rise. if she had succeeded in uniting the Spanish In consequence of this system, and the crown with that of Austria; for the reign position therein occupied by the house of of Charles V. himself had already shown Austria, Germany found itself implicated that such an extension of dominion is any in the wars of that dominion; besides thing but real augmentation of power. which, it was forced to share in all the Austria was chiefly indebted for her pres. commotions of Europe, without reaping ent state of elevation to the great genius any advantage by them, until the veneraof Prince Eugene, and to the sovereign she ble and tottering fabric of the empire, comlost too soon, the emperor Joseph I., who pletely overcome by continual concussion, entered completely into the exalted ideas fell to pieces. For in the existence of of that distinguished man. nations, as in that of individuals, there is Had the emperor Charles VI. possessed no pause; if they do not press onward sufficient penetration of mind to perceive they retrograde incessantly, and Germany the position he was called upon to secure had just shown itself frigidly indifferent and to Austria and Germany in the history of unwilling to embrace a favorable opportuEuropean policy, and of which he might nity for its elevation. have made himself master forthwith, he Meantime, the last twenty years of the would have been enabled to establish the reign of Charles VI. were, with trifling exgreatness and renown not only of his own ceptions, a period of peace. He more esportion of the empire, but of the whole of pecially devoted himself to the internal adGermany, and have laid the foundation for ministration of his extensive and beautiful a long and glorious peace throughout provinces; and this, after an epoch of so Europe. But Charles's genius, as well as much suffering and calamity, operated that of the age he lived in, was not capable gratefully and beneficially. As he had no of comprehending, much less executing male issue, he had drawn up a solemn law, such an important plan. The idea of the called the Pragmatic Sanction, according equilibrium of the states became more and to which he transferred to his daughter, more materialized into a careful estimation Maria Theresa, the peaceful possession of of the physical powers, a measurement of his hereditary lands. This he was exthe produce of countries, and an exact tremely anxious to have confirmed.y the census of their subjects and soldiers. leading states of Europe, and in this object, Thence one of the greatest evils origina- after many abortive endeavors, he succeedting in the reign of Louis XIV., became ed; but this sanction, nevertheless, did not now more universally adopted, inasmuch serve to secure his daughter, after his death, as sovereigns sought for the security of from the attacks of a host of enemies, who DEATH OF CHARLES VI.-MARIA THERESA. 375 hoped to make good their pretensions by ment he received from France, who secretforce of arms. ly promised him her aid in the dismember. The emperor himself carried on a war ment of the Austrian inheritance. from the year 1733 to 1735, on behalf of Before, however, the dispute in this quarAugustus III. of Saxony-who had been ter was brought to a decision by force of elected king of Poland-against the French, arms, another enemy presented himself to who were desirous of dethroning him, and oppose Maria Theresa, and whose appearsubstituting in his place Stanislaus Leczin- ance was still more unexpected, viz: the ski, father-in-law to the French monarch, young king of Prussia, Frederick II., who Louis XV. This war, however, was not only having just mounted the throne in the favorable to Austria and Germany; Au- same year, 1740, marched suddenly into gustus III. continued, indeed, by the subse- Silesia, and took possession of that country. quent treaty of peace, king of Poland, but In his manifesto, which he published at the in return for this, Germany was obliged to same time, he laid claims to various prinsacrifice to its rapacious neighbor a new cipalities of Silesia, viz., to Jagerndorf, province: Lorraine being ceded to Stanis- Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohlau respectively. laus, and through him it came into the With regard to the first territory, he traced hands of France; Francis Stephen, then his rights from the period of the Thirty duke of Lorraine, being made grand-duke Years' War, when the margrave of Branof Tuscany, while the Spanish infante, Don denburg-Jagerndorf was placed under the Carlos, was indemnified for Tuscany by the ban of the empire, and his principality concession of Naples and Sicily. The Austri- fiscated by the emperor Ferdinand II., bean army was equally unsuccessful against cause he had formed an alliance with the the Turks, and at the conclusion of peace Bohemian king, Frederick V. The king in 1739, the government was forced to give of Prussia maintained, that even supposing back the important fortress of Belgrade, the said act of outlawry against that prince which Prince Eugene had conquered, and was just, still the land in fee simple ought which had served as a frontier stronghold not to have been withheld from his kindred, in that quarter. when they were not implicated in the ofThe emperor Charles VI. died October fence he committed. But his claims to the 26, 1740, and his daughter, Maria There- principalities of Liegnitz, Brieg, and Wohsa, by virtue of the Pragmatic Sanction, lau, Frederick based upon a covenant of a took possession of the government in all his much earlier date, viz., upon that of Duke dominions. But immediately after the de- Frederick of Liegnitz with Joachim II. in cease of the emperor, an envoy of the elec- the year 1507. What, however, more estor of Bavaria arrived, furnished with a pecially worked and operated in the soul declaration from his master, in which he of the young and ambitious king, and said: "He could not acknowledge the which, in the very first year of his reign, young queen as the inheritress and suc- made him take up arms so eagerly, in orcessor of her father, because the house of der to seize the opportunity by which he Bavaria had legitimate claims to the hered- might renew those claims-which but for itary Austrian provinces." These preten- his appearance in the world might have resions the elector founded upon his descent mained perhaps in abeyance forever-this from the eldest daughter of the emperor incentive he himself discloses to us in a Ferdinand I., whose posterity ought to insist very few words. After having recorded, upon their title to those possessions, seeing in his History of the house of Brandenthat the male line of the house of Austria was burg, the elevation of Prussia into a kingnow extinct. This claim, however, it was dom by Frederick I., he gives the followevident, could only be made valid in case ing explanation: " This act of Frederick the late emperor had not left a daughter; I. served as a stimulus to all his succesbut as he had done so, she must take pre- sors, for by that he seemed to indicate to cedence of all collateral female relations. them the grand object by which he was The law advisers of the elector attempted swayed, and to address them thus:'I have to justify the claims of their sovereign upon gained now a title for you, and it is for you several grounds; but what, however, in- to render yourselves worthy of it; I have fluenced the elector in his proceedings be- laid the foundation for your greatness, and yond every thing else was, the encourage- it is for you to complete the work I have 376 FREDERICK THE GREAT. commenced.'" These words are the key It was soon shown that he was resolved to which throws open to our view the motives be his own ruler; his activity in the adby which Frederick the Great was actua- ministration of affairs, the attention he deted throughout his whole reign. The same voted to all subjects, from those of the most sentiments by which Charlemagne had been grave import down to those of the most tri. incited, and which, brought by him. so suc- vial nature, his sacrifice of rest and plea. cessfully into operation, made him a con- sure, the strict distribution of his hours, so queror; the same ideas by which Gustavus that not one should be lost in:nactivitywas urged on to the most daring enterprises, all this excited the greatest astonishment even to the sacrifice of his life on the field in those of his court, who had never heard of battle, worked likewise in the mind of of, or been accustomed to witness their Frederick. Thence he held himself to be sovereigns imposing upon themselves so the chosen instrument appointed by fate to many sacrifices for the government of their raise his people to the rank which, in his dominions. The extraordinary effect thus strength of mind, he regarded as complete- produced is very aptly described by a ly feasible, and to embody in the title of resident ambassador when writing to his king the more substantial possession of own court: "In order to give you a corroyal power and aggrandized dominion. rect idea of the new reign," he says, "it is Nature had endowed him with a genius so only necessary to state that the king posibold and aspiring, that he felt his pres- tively does all the work himself, while his ent sphere of action much too contracted prime minister has nothing to do but to is. for the exercise of his vast plans, and he sue forth immediately from the cabinet the accordingly lost little time in extending his commands he receives, without ever being field of operations. In energy and activity consulted upon the subject. Unfortunateof character Frederick has never been sur- ly, there is not one at the king's court who passed by even the most distinguished and possesses his confidence, and of whose inenterprising men in the pages of history, fluence one might avail one's self in order to and none ever acted with such command- follow up with success the necessary preing influence upon his age. But again, liminaries; consequently, an ambassador the greatest man is an evidence of his age, is more embarrassed here than at any reflecting in a clear mirror its virtues and other court." In truth, the policy introdefects. We must not, therefore, be sur- duced by France into Europe, which conprised if Frederick II., notwithstanding the sisted in envenoming all relations of sovgreatness of character inherent in him, does ereigns between each other, by employing not in many points maintain his superiority every art of cunning and espionage in orwhen placed in comparison with the great der to discover the projects of foreign men to whom we have alluded, and if even in courts, even before they had been matured certain circumstances he may appear mean by those courts themselves, could not be and ignoble, when, perhaps, in ordinary brought to bear against Frederick II.; for times his acts might have merited a more he weighed over every plan within the sinoble interpretation; neither must we be lence of his own breast, and it was only in astonished that the evils he produced in his the moment of its execution that his resolucountry called forth the severe and bitter tion was made known. complaints against him. Thus it was that he proceeded with his At the death of Frederick William I., invasion of one of the Austrian provinces on the 21st of May, 1740, Frederick was on the death of Charles VI. Some prepaonly twenty-eight years of age; his essen- rations for war were observed being made, tially active mind, excited still more by in- it is true, but these were only partially ne~cessant application-to the sciences, and by cessary, inasmuch as the system of econoconstant communication with learned men, my and good order pursued by Frederick was adapted for the most profound subjects William I. had enabled him to leave to his of research. The study of history had son an excellent army of 80,000 men, and transported his thoughts far beyond the nar- a treasury of more than eight millions of row confines of his own times, and had in- dollars; besides which, every thing was stilled within him the most elevated ideas arranged with so much silence and secrecy, of the dignity of kings, of which his first that none could penetrate into the real inacts as sovereign gave immediate evidence. tentions of the young king. Usually, be. FIRST SILESIAN WAR-BATTLE OF MOLWITZ. 377 fore undertaking a war, it was necessary the 9th of March the hereditary prince of to seek an alliance with other powers; but Dessau scaled and carried the walls of the in this case Frederick communicated with fortress of Glogau, and on the 10th of no ambassador, nor would he enter upon April the king, with the main army, came or contract any treaty with any one sover- up with the Austrians at Molwitz, where eign. He knew full well that the best help he was not at all expected by them; they, lies in ourselves; and he likewise calcu- however, gained sufficient time to form lated upon the strict discipline and activity their line of battle, and the action comof his army, upon which, devoted to it as menced about two o'clock in the afternoon. he was with his whole soul, he never failed It remained for a long time undecided, to rely during his entire reign. for the Austrian cavalry fought with the " When the king resolves to make a greatest bravery, and throwing the right journey," says the afore-mentioned ambas- wing of the Prussians into confusion, rushsador, " it is his custom never to announce ed on to their train of battery, of which they his intention to those around him, nor to took possession, and turned the muzzles of those even who are to accompany him, un- the cannon against the Prussians themselves. til a few hours before his departure, when The king, who now for the first time beheld he finds them all ready in waiting, for his war in all its fearful reality, lost his selfretinue consists neither of court nor cour- command; Schwerin, his experienced fieldtiers, but is formed of the Hlite of his prin- marshal, who viewed all that passed with ces, generals, and adjutants." Thence, by the greatest coolness and resolution, being means of such expedition and secrecy, he well acquainted with and depending upon was enabled to augment the power of his the chances of war, advised his sovereign states and to supply the wants of the mass. to fall back upon the division commanded The emperor Charles VI. died on the by the duke of Holstein-Beck, in order 20th of October, 1740, and on the 13th of with him to cover the retreat if necessary. December of the same year Frederick II. This advice, after considerable hesitation, marched already into Silesia. While his the king followed, and towards dusk he army however was en route for Silesia, his withdrew with a small retinue, and rode ambassador appeared simultaneously at to the little town of Oppeln. He imagined the court of Vienna with proposals for a the place was still occupied by the Prusconvention. Frederick offered the queen sians, but they had been driven from it the of Hungary, if she would give up peace- previous evening, and when in answer to fully the principality of Silesia, the aid of the sentinel's " Who goes there?" he rehis arms in the maintenance of her other plied, " Prussians!" the king and his small dominions, and his vote at the electoral col- party were forthwith greeted with a dislege for her husband, Francis Stephen of charge from the muskets of the Austrians Tuscany, on electing the future emperor behind the grated gate. The king quickly of Germany; but these proposals were re- turned round and galloped off to the small jected. The few Austrian troops quir- town of Lowen, and was only saved by the tered in Silesia were very soon routed; darkness of the night from being taken the fortified places alone made resistance prisoner. Meanwhile, scarcely had he and were closely besieged; the following quitted the field of battle before fortune spring, however, was to decide whether the changed in favor of the Prussians; Fieldpossession of this country, thus so easily marshal Schwerin, by a dexterous attack subjected, could be maintained against an on the enemy's flank, turned the success of Austrian army. Field-marshal Neuperg, the day to the side of his sovereign; and an Austrian general of the school of Eu- the sharp-shooting of the Prussians, to gene, advanced with a numerous body of which the Austrians were as yet unaccustroops to reconquer Silesia, and the young- tomed, completely decided the battle. The er soldiers of Prussia, who were as yet on- king received the happy tidings on the folly acquainted with the theory of war and lowing morning at Liwen, and hastened not with its realities, stood now front to to congratulate his brave general and his front opposed to those who ranked unques- army upon their success. tionably among the first warriors of Europe. This sanguinary and dearly-purchased But the first essay of the Prussian arms victory turned the eyes of all his contemcrowned them with glory. In the night of poraries upon the young sovereign of Prus. 48 378 GENERAL ALLIANCE FORMED AGAINST AUSTRIA. sia; and this enterprise, because it was no longer hesitated to march upon Lintz, successful, was applauded as being the which he took and entered, causing himself decision of fate in his favor. Had how- to be acknowledged there as hereditary duke ever Frederick been unfortunate, a thousand of Austria. Vienna, the capital, began now voices would have condemned and ridiculed to feel alarmed, and every thing valuable him as a fool, for having undertaken the and precious was forthwith transported to realization of projects without having cal- Presburg in Hungaria; the elector being culated upon the power necessary to ensure only within three days' march of the city. their success; similar to the judgment pro- But quite suddenly and unexpectedly he nounced upon Charles Albert of Bavaria, altered his line of march and proceeded to who with equal ambition advanced and Bohemia. This change of resolution exstretched out his hand to seize the royal cited universal astonishment, more espeand imperial crown. And in truth, the cially as, by the taking of Vienna, Maria daring power which attempts aught of a Theresa must have lost every thing, as she nature uncommon and extraordinary in the was without an army to oppose the elector. grand theatre of the world, is only appre- But it was his jealousy of Saxony which ciated in proportion to the success with made him alter his plans, and removed him which the execution of its design may be from the heart of Austria. A Saxon force crowned. had entered Bohemia; and Charles Albert, The ill success of the Austrian arms in who was anxious likewise to gain possesSilesia encouraged the French government sion of that country, and dreaded lest the to avail itself of the moment now offered Saxons might wrest it from him, preferred to promote the dismemberment of the Aus- abandoning Vienna for the moment, and trian states. Cardinal Fleury, who now determined to conquer Bohemia. Accordruled in France at the head of the govern- ingly he marched at once against Prague, ment, and found in Marshal Belle-Isle a and was favored so much by fortune that clever diplomatist, succeeded in concluding this important place was surprised and fell with that view an alliance between France, into his hands, with scarcely any resistance, Prussia, Spain, Bavaria, and Saxony; for on the 29th of November. Immediately the elector of Saxony, Augustus III., afterwards he caused himself to be declared although he was likewise king of Poland, king of Bohemia, and received from all came forth with his claims to the Austrian the civil and military estates the oath of inheritance, originating in a preceding mar- fealty. Thence he marched to Mannheim, riage of the house of Saxony, and Spain where he resolved to await the result of the was anxious to appropriate to herself the election of emperor. Thus the house of duchies of Parma and Placenza. Besides Bavaria appeared to attain an elevation which, the plan of this coalition was to more and more splendid and glorious. elevate the electoral prince of Bavaria, Charles Albert, to the imperial throne; and although he at first hesitated, he, nevertheless, eventually decided to accept of the CHA R heavy burden attached to such an important election. It was agreed that the choice Charles VII., Emperor of Germany, 1742-1745-Maria should be made in Frankfort. Theresa in Hungary-Her Appeal to the NoblesAccordinrly, two French armies march- Their Devotion to her Cause-March into BavariaAccordingly, two Frenc armies marc- Seize that Country and banish its Elector-Charles ed in the summer of 1741 across the Rhine; VII. a Fugitive-Battle of Czaslau between the Austhe one advanced against h frontiers of trians and Prussians, 1742-Treaty of Peace between the one advanced against the frontiers of Maria Theresa and Frederick lI.-Continuation ol Hanover, whereby Maria Theresa lost her the Austrian Succession War 1742-1744-The French last ally, George II. of England, who, in Prague under Marshal Belle-Isle-Prague besieged last ally, George I[. of England, who,by the Austrians-Abandoned by the Frenchanxious to preserve his electorate, conclu- Charles VII. in Bavaria-Again a Fugitive-George ded a.. treat by.wich h I II. of England in Germany-Battle of Dettingen ded a treaty by which he engaged to remain 1743-Defeat of the French-Alliance of Saxony and neutral. The other French army marched Austria-Second Silesian War, 1744-1745-I11 Success of Frederick-Death of Charles VII, 1745-Silesiaon direct to Austria, and joined the elector Battle of Hohenfriedberg -Frederick victoriousof Bavaria in the month of September. Battle of Sorr-The Princes of Brunswick-Frederick triumphant-Battle of Kesseldorf-Frederick This prince, who, since the month of June, conquers and enters Dresden-Peace of Dresden had already taken by surprise the impor- and End of the Second Silesian War-Francis I. elected Emperor, 1745-1765-Austria and France tant city of Brunau on the frontiers, now -Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 1748-Brief Interval of CHARLES VII., EMPEROR OF GERMANY. 379 Repose, 1748-i756-State of Affairs-Alliance of nobles and chiefs were assembled, mounted England and Prussia, 1756 —Alliance between and completely armed, and collected toFrance and Austria, 1756-Saxony-Russia-Sweden-Combination of Powers against Prussia-The gether numerous bodies of troops on every Seven Years' War, 1756-1763-Frederick in Sax- side, in Croatia, Slavonia, Wllachia, a ony-Battle of Losowitz, 1756-Frederick victorious side, Croatia, Slavona, Wallacha, as -The Saxons lay down their Arms-Frederick Con- well as in Austria and the Tyrol. And queror of Saxony-Immense Armiesopposed to Fre what official commands would only erick-His Presence of Mind-Desperate Battle of thus what official commands would only Prague-Charles of Lorraine-Death of the Prussian have produced after long intervals of delay, General Schwerin, and the Austrian General Brown 1 -Frederick victorious-Battle of Kollin-General attachment and devoted courage completed Daun-Frederick's grand Manceuvre-Generals Zie-in a few weeks. The whole of Upper then and Hulsen-Frederick and Prince Maurice of Dessau-Defeat of Frederick-Shameful Conduct of Austria was delivered from its enemies in the Duke of Cumberland-Convention of Closter- six days, when the victorious army marchSeven between him and the French-Battle between the Russians and Prussians at Grossjagersdorf-De- ed on to Bavaria, and, as we have seen, feat of the Prussians-Withdrawal of the Russians- took possession of Munich, and the new The Empress Elizabeth of Russia-The Grand Chancellor Bestuschef-Retreat of the Swedes. emperor was forced to live in retirement at Frankfort, far from his own dominions. CHARLES ALBERT succeeded in his de- In another quarter, however, fortune was signs upon the imperial crown, and was not equally favorable to Austria. Prince elected at Frankfort on the 22d of January, Charles of Lorraine had received orders 1742, his cause being seconded by France from the council of war at Vienna to give and Prussia; but his reign was short and battle to the Prussian army, in order to agitated. It already commenced under check the further successof Frederick II., very unfavorable auspices, for on the very who still maintained his position in the day that Charles was crowned emperor at beautiful territory of Silesia, and was now Frankfort, the Austrian general, Barenk- penetrating into Moravia. Prince Charles lau, took possession of Munich, his capital. followed him to Bohemia, and their armies Maria Theresa was indebted to the ener- met at Czaslau. They were nearly equal gy of her own mind alone for this happy in force, and the position each occupied change in her fortunes. She knew per- had its advantages and disadvantages, and fectly well wherein was based the power the troops on both sides fought valiantly, of the sovereign, and she accordingly avail- whence the fate of the battle wavered on ed herself of this advantage. She lost no either side, until the king, who here distime in exciting in a high degree the af- played his generalship, caused an adjacent fection and enthusiasm of the nation over eminence to be suddenly taken possession which she still held sway, and which ad- of, whence he attacked the entire flank of hered to her with the greatest fidelity; and the Austrians. This manceuvre, added to this it was that saved her. She convoked the disorder caused among the Austrian a grand imperial diet of the Hungarians at cavalry by the pillage of the Prussian Presburg in the autumn of 1742; here, camp, decided the contest, and Charles overwhelmed as she was with affliction at sounded the retreat. The loss sustained, the persecutions of her enemies, the prin- however, was nearly equal on either side, cess presented herself before the assembled and eighteen pieces of cannon were all the nobles of Hungary, and holding in her trophies gained by the Prussians. arms her infant son, as yet unweaned- The results of this battle, however, were subsequently Joseph II. —she presented the more important than the battle itself, for it child to them, and with her eyes filled with brought to maturity a treaty of peace betears, which operated with irresistible force tween Maria Theresa and Frederick, by upon the audience, she addressed and ap- the terms of which, severe as they were, pealed to them for aid against her enemies the former nevertheless agreed to resign all in language thus expressed: " To your claim to the conquests made by the young valor and heroic fidelity we confide ourself king, and which was all the latter desired. and infant; and in you alone will we put Negotiations of peace, therefore, were our whole trust." At these words the quickly commenced, and on the 28th of Hungarian warriors exclaimed with en- June the treaty was signed by both powers thusiasm, "We will die for our Queen at Berlin. The king retained Upper and Maria Theresa; our lives and every drop Lower Silesia and the province of Glatz, of our blood shall be devoted to her!" In with the exception of the towns of Troppau, a very brief space of time more than 15,000 Jagerndorf, and the mountains of Silesia 380 PEACE BETWEEN PRUSSIA AND AUSTRIA on the other side of the Oppa; being an 27th of June, at Dettingen, pursuing them extension of territory measuring seven across the Rhine. In addition to this the hundred German square miles. On the court of Vienna succeeded in gaining over other hand he paid over 1,700,000 dollars the Saxon minister Brtihl, whose influence to the English, who had previously advan- over his sovereign was all-powerful, and ced that sum to the country he had thus through him an alliance was formed beconquered. tween Saxony and Maria Theresa. Thus Thus freed from such a formidable ene- fortune had now crowned her firmness, and my, the Austrians were now enabled to transferred the victory to her side, while turn all their force against the French and the only loss she sustained was that of the Bavarians, for the Saxons, following the Silesian possessions; this, however, she example of the Prussians, had withdrawn hoped either to recover or find compensated from the war. The French army was by some other acquisition. still in Bohemia, and held possession of Meantime, Frederick had not beheld Prague. The prince of Lorraine marched without some anxiety and alarm the sucagainst that place and besieged it, and very cessful progress made by Austria, and soon reduced it to a state of famine, which, more especially her treaty of alliance with however, as is generally the case, pressed Saxony; for how easily might they now, more heavily upon the inhabitants, for the when no longer occupied with France and military seized upon all provisions by force Bavaria, turn their combined power against of arms. When, however, all was consum- him? At the same time he felt it due to ed, and after more than a thousand unhappy his own dignity not to allow the emperor, beings had fallen a sacrifice to starvation, whose election he had promoted, to be overthe whole city resembling a large infirm- thrown; accordingly, the urgent appeals ary, Marshal Belle-Isle put into operation made to him by Charles VII. prevailed. a plan he had determined upon in the last The king of Prussia forthwith made preextremity. He collected all the troops parations for a fresh campaign, in 1744, still available, amounting to about 14,000 entered the field with 100,000 men, " impe. men, abandoned the city in the night of the rial auxiliaries" as he termed them, march17th of December, 1742, and marched ed into Bohemia, and took Prague; the forth in the most bitter cold weather, duke of Lorraine, however, advanced through mountain regions and across path- against him with a numerous army, and less, snow-covered ravines to Eger, where forced him to retreat from Bohemia into after a toilsome march of eleven days he Silesia. This was an unfortunate camarrived. But in those eleven days more paign for the king; he suffered great losses than four thousand men had perished, be. in men, ammunition, and provisions, exsides those left behind in Prague. Thus hausted all his military stores and money, ended the dominion of France in Bohemia; and found to his cost that no faith was to nor was Charles VII. more fortunate than be placed in his French allies; while, his allies. While the Austrians had march- finally, he lost the emperor Charles VII., ed their whole force against Bohemia, he who died suddenly, on the 20th of January, had availed himself of the moment, and 1745. retook possession of the whole of Bavaria The aid of Frederick came only in time in the course of the autumn; in the sub- to afford the emperor the consolation of sequent spring, however, he was forced to dying in his own palace at Munich, which abandon his territory once more as a figi- city he had reconquered for the third and tive, and took refuge again in Frankfort, last time, but which immediately after his an Austrian administration being organ- death fell once more into the hands of the ized meantime in Bavaria. enemy. With his death the principal moIn the year 1742, England likewise took tive urged by the French for carrying on an active part in the war against France; the war vanished, and Frederick now found she captured all her ships at sea, took pos- himself abandoned by his ally. Meantime, session of her colonies; while King George Maria Theresa declared publicly that, II. landed in Germany with an army of inasmuch as the king of Prussia had bro. English troops, reinforcing it with Hano- ken the treaty of peace concluded at Belverians and Hessians, with which he at- lin, Silesia must revert to the house of.acked and overthrew the French on the Austria. Upper Silesia, accordingly, was PEACE OF DRESDEN-EMPEROR FRANCIS I. 381 overrun with Austrian troops, several of he entered on the 18th of December, and the principal fortresses fell into their hands, procured the peace of Dresden, which and it required all the firmness and strength terminated the second Silesian war, and of soul at his command to prevent the confirmed the Prussians in their posseshard-pressed king from sinking under the sions. weight of his difficulties. Full of confi- In the beginning of the year 1745 Maria dence, however, in his army, and in the Theresa had already concluded a treaty of chances of fortune in his favor, he, on the peace at Fiissen, with the son of the late 4th of June, attacked the prince of Lor- emperor Charles VII., by which Maxirnilraine at Hohenfriedberg. The prince was ian Joseph recovered his principality, on by no means prepared for such an unex- renouncing for himself and his descendants pected and sudden attack, and the victory all claims to the succession of Austria, and was soon decided in favor of the king of promising to give his vote for the election Prussia; thus he retained Silesia, while of emperor to the grand-duke of Tuscany, the Austrians made a hasty retreat back to Maria Theresa's husband. Meanwhile, Bohemia. the other electors also, with the excepIn the ensuing year, however, they re- tion of the elector of the palatinate and appeared in Silesia; the prince of Lorraine Frederick II., gave their votes to the same saving received orders to advance at the duke, and Francis I. was elected at Franklead of 40,000 men, and give battle to the fort on the 15th of September, 1745, and sing, whom he. surprised in his camp near crowned on the 4th of October following. 8orr of only 18,000 men. This was a The king of Prussia, likewise, formally hard-fought battle for this small body of acknowledged him in the treaty of peace Prussians, and lasted more than five hours; concluded at Dresden. but, eventually, they gained it. The Aus- The war with France continued some trian general committed many important years longer without any successful results blunders; while the generals in Frederick's to Austria; for since the celebrated general, service were, on the other hand, perfect mas- marshal of Saxe, commanded the French'ers in all the tactics of the war. One of army, he had continually been gaining hem, Prince Ferdinand of Brunswick, after- ground in the Netherlands. This general wards so celebrated, took possession of an obtained two victories over the Austrians mportant height, which by a singular ac- in the year 1745, one at Fontenoi, and anJident wars defended by his brother Lewis, other at Raucour, and took both the Ausat the head of a party of Austrians. trian Netherlands and Dutch Flanders. Nevertheless, this victory had not re- These victories gained by the French army moved all the danger with which Frederick tended more and more to increase the inwas threatened; for it was now resolved clination for peace, and in April, 1748, the that the Austrians should form a junction ambassadors met at Aix-la-Chapelle. The with the Saxons, and the army thus united peace drew nearer and nearer to its conshould march direct to Berlin, in order to clusion during the whole course of the force the king, by the capture of his capi- summer, and followed on the 18th of Octal, to abandon Silesia; and by this means, tober. Austria gave up in Ita!y, Parma Saxony was in hopes of gaining from him and Piacenza to Don Philip, the vo i:gest the duchy of Magdeburg. But as soon as son of the king of Spain; Frtcte, howFrederick perceived this movement, he ever, got nothing for the great sacrifice speedily collected together his whole army she had made, both of men and money, in and marched to Lusatia. At the same this war, and was obliged to see the house time he gave orders to the old duke of Des- of Austria, which she wished to destroy, sau to collect his forces near Halle, and secured afresh, and put in possession of marching into the electorate, to proceed the imperial dignity. direct to Dresden. He overtook the Sax- The period of eight years which had ons and a division of the Austrians on the been allowed to the different states of Euheights near the village of Kesseldorf, at- rope, from the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle untacked them at once, and, in spite of their til a new war broke out, did not produce favorable position, gained a complete vic- in them the desired feeling of united firmtory over them. This triumph gained for ness and security; but, on the contrary, Frederick the capital city, Dresden, which all seemed unsettled and in dread of the 382 TREATY OF PEACE-ALLIANCE OF ENGLAND AND PRUSSIA. new commotions which hovered over this give her an opportunity of reconquermng brief state of repose. For it was but too her Silesian territory. evident that the inimical powersso recently This, indeed, was the period of that roused up-not having as yet found their cunning and refined diplomacy which has equilibrium-had only made a pause for been termed state wisdom; an epoch which the purpose of soon resuming hostilities established between sovereigns false and against each other with renewed vigor. artificial relations, but never inspired noble The empress-queen could not brook the and exalted ideas and principles. Fredeloss of Silesia, and she felt this loss the rick the Great, although he understood more acutely, inasmuch as she was obliged well how to calculate after the manner of to undergo the mortification of knowing his contemporaries, was, nevertheless, so that the king of Prussia, by adopting a far superior to them in the feeling of his proper course of administration, had been own strength and resources, that he placed able to double the revenue of that beauti- his whole and exclusive reliance on himself ful country. Frederick, on the other hand, and people. The others sought assistance was too clear-sighted not to foresee that a chiefly from among each other; and, as a third struggle with her was inevitable. necessary consequence, were often in great Among the other European powers, too, difficulties; while Frederick, inasmuch as there was a restless spirit at work; they his calculations were far more simple, atentered into alliances, looked about them- tained with greater certainty the object in now here, now there-for friends, and in- view. Thence it was that he now formed creased their strength by land and sea. and put into immediate execution a plan Europe was at this moment divided by two no less unexpected than extraordinary. leading parties-France, Prussia, and Abandoning the lukewarm aid of France, Sweden adhered to the one, Austria, Eng- which lay, as it were, in a state of political land, and Saxony to the other; the rest had lethargy, and had afforded him but very not yet come to any conclusion as to which trifling assistance in his two Silesian wars, party they should support, but their assist- he suddenly turned to England, now so ance was eagerly sought by both. Maria much increasing in power and enterprising Theresa at first cast her eye upon the pow- boldness, and claimed her alliance; and erful state of Russia, whose empress, Eliz. the English nation, which has always abeth, appeared inclined to hurl back her shown a preference for engaging in a cause bold northern neighbor into his former in- backed by patriotic and straightforward significance; and eventually both parties principles, readily acceded to his proposal: concluded an alliance by means of the nor, perhaps, was an alliance ever accepted grand-chancellor of Russia, Bestuschef, in England with more universal enthusiasm who had a personal dislike to the king of and cordial feelings than this. Both naPrussia, because the latter refused to grat- tions, which in their essential endeavors ify his avaricious disposition. In order to could not become dangerous to each other, induce Russia to take active measures needed this reciprocal aid against other adagainst Prussia, England found it necessary versaries; and, at the time, required the to act upon the grand-chancellor with her mutual confidence of each other in order money, and by this means a war was all that England might be at ease with regard but declared already between Russia and to Hanover. Hence the alliance between Prussia. George II. of England more es- England and Prussia, which based its sepecially desired this, in order that he might curity in the sympathy of both nations, by such war be relieved of the anxiety he might be truly termed a natural alliance, felt for his principality of Hanover; for, and was founded upon firmer grounds than as he was already engaged in a maritime those of mere state policy. war with France, with the view of acquiring By this single turn the relations which new territories in other parts of the world, had hitherto existed between the different it was to be expected that France in union states of Europe were altogether changed. with Prussia would forthwith attack his Prussia had declared itself independent of electorate. Maria Theresa, however, on France, and England of Austria; and, her part, saw this storm preparing in the through a singular capricious sport of fornorth of Europe without fear or inquietude, tune, France and Austria, who had been as she nourished strong hopes that it would enemies for three hundred years, now COMBINATION OF POWERS AGAINST FREDERICK. 383 found themselves, to their own astonish- in imagination, the bold and enterprising ment, placed in close proximity, and called king reduced to the government of his sinupon to give each other their hands; and gle duchy of Brandenburg. In this cal. all the rules of political calculation hitherto culation, however, they had altogether lost held as immutable, were at one blow de- sight of that power of mind with which molished. Luckily for Austria, she pos- this prince was endowed, and the prodigies sessed in her prime minister, Prince Kau- of courage and endurance a nation can nitz, and in the empress Maria Theresa perform when inspired with pride and conherself, two whose power of mind enabled fidence by their ruler. them at once to perceive and avail them- The king was already acquainted with selves of the altered position of affairs, their designs, for through a secretary of and did not suffer themselves to be held in the Saxon government, whom he had check by ancient custom. They sought bribed, he received copies of all the docufor an alliance with France, and obtained ments and treaties between the courts of it. On the 1st of May, 1756, the treaty Vienna, Petersburg, and Dresden, and by of Versailles was drawn up, after that be- these means saw what storms were gathertween England and Prussia had been al- ing over his head. In this trying position ready concluded at Westminster in the the great Frederick had recourse to those month of January of the same year. extraordinary means suggested at once by The elector of Saxony and king of Po- his bold and undaunted spirit. Determined land, Augustus III., was guided in every not to lose a moment by preparing only for thing by his minister, Count Briihl; he his defence, and thus quietly await the himself was fond of ease and a life de- coming danger, he forthwith rushed to meet voted to sensual pleasure; but his minis- and face it as it advanced; for, however ter, who, without any true merit, had unfortunate might be the result produced raised himself from the office of page to by adopting this daring and immediate that of minister of state, was full of se- course, still it could not equal, much less cret designs. He hated King Frederick, exceed, the evil he beheld in the distance, because he himself was despised by him, and which could only grow inore and more and allied himself with Prince Kaunitz serious and fatal by tardy measures. for the purpose of ruining Prussia, and Frederick made his preparations for the both found in the Russian chancellor, Bes- campaign with so much secrecy and order tuschef, the third associate in their alli- that none could observe his design; and ance. The empress Elizabeth of Russia thus, in the month of August, 1756, sevwas also personally an enemy to King enty thousand Prussians suddenly made Frederick, inasmuch as he made her the their appearance in Saxony, and demandsubject of his satire; and various malicious ed a free passage to Bohemia. The object members of her court had even laid before of the king was not so much to proceed to her some of the king's productions, con- hostilities against the Saxons, as to force taining much mockery and scandal. them, by a bold manceuvre, to join him, as With respect to Sweden, she, this time, had previously been done by Gustavus adhered so much to France and her inter- Adolphus; for, in order to attack Boheests, and followed in her footsteps so close- mia, as he hoped, with success, it was nely, that the king of Prussia could not but cessary that he should make sure of Saxexpect to find an enemy in this otherwise ony in order to serve him as a point d'appui. so honorable a nation, when it came to a Accordingly, he endeavored by every posgeneral war. sible means of persuasion, through his enThus Austria, Russia, France, Sweden, voys and negotiations, to bring Augustus and Saxony, had now all united against III. to form an alliance with him; when, one king, whose dominions scarcely con- however, he found he could not succeed, tained five millions of inhabitants, and who and all he could gain from Count Briihl was deprived of all foreign aid, with the was a promise of remaining neutral, Fredexception of England, who, however, in a erick felt he could not with safety allow a continental war, could not ensure much doubtful and armed power to remain in his resource. Accordingly, the three minis- rear, and proceeded at once to act upon ters felt secure within themselves of the the offensive. The Saxons, amounting to fate of Silesia; and already they beheld, seventeen thousand men, thus surprised, 384 BATTLE OF LOWOSITZ. gave way, and leaving behind their bag- well supplied with excellent artillery. gage and provisions, hastily retreated to Mid-day had now arrived, but the Prus. the narrow valley of the Elbe, between sians, in spite of their skill and bravery, Pirna and the fortress of Konigstein, and were not able to gain any advantage over encamped there, where they raised up the firmness of the Austrian ranks. strong and almost impregnable intrench- After six hours' incessant firing, the left ments. This plan was the best for them wing of the Prussians at length expended to adopt; while for Frederick it was more all their ammunition, and began now to disadvantageous than if they had crossed lose courage on finding they could receive the mountains and formed a junction with no fresh supply. " What!" exclaimed the the Austrian army; for this army, still in duke of Bevern, who commanded this dia disordered and weak state, could not, vision, "have you not been taught to ateven when reinforced by the Saxons, have tack the enemy with the point of the bayosucceeded in resisting the first attack of net?" At these words they closed their the Prussians in Bohemia, in addition to ranks, and rushed in full charge against which, the latter now saw themselves the Austrians; all resistance was in vain, forced to lose much precious time in block- for like an impetuous, sweeping torrent, ading the Saxons, and cutting off their sup- they threw down all before them, and took plies; while the imperial army availed the little town of Lowositz by storm. This itself of this interval, and recovered its was the decisive moment; and although organization and strength, and would be but a small portion of his troops had been enabled, by a successful battle, to relieve engaged in the action, General Brown the Saxons. Such, indeed, was the course nevertheless sounded a retreat and withtaken by the imperial general after the drew to Budin, on the opposite side of the king had been four weeks quartered in Eger. Saxony. Frederick in this battle learned to know On the 30th of September Field-marshal the new and improved system of warfare Brown, commander-in-chief of the imperial now exercised by the Austrians, and altroops, advanced to Budin on the Eger, and ready felt how severe must henceforth be directed his march against the position the struggle he should have to maintain taken up by the Prussians on the moun- with them. On the other hand again, the tains which separate Saxony from Bohe- heroic courage and devotion displayed by mia. Meantime, the king advanced against his own troops had excited within him the him with a portion of his army, consist- greatest admiration, and on this point he ing, however, only of 24,000 men against addressed them thus: " I have now seen 70,000, being compelled to leave the rest what my warriors can do; never, indeed, behind to keep the Saxons at bay, while since I have had the honor to lead them on the Austrians were commanded by the to battle, have they performed such prodibest officers in the service; nevertheless, gies of valor." he did not hesitate to risk making a des- Frederick now saw how urgently necesperate attack, and he succeeded. The sary it was that he should put an end to two armies met on the 1st of October, the delay so long produced by the Saxon close to the little town of Lowositz. The army, which, indeed, although placed in a country around was mountainous, and the most distressing position, nevertheless enAustrian general, accordingly, was unable dured every privation with the most heroic to draw up the whole of his army in line firmness. Both men and horses had long of battle, especially his cavalry, which been in want of the most necessary supconsequently could not take its share in plies, and all were now so much reduced the action; while, on that account, the fire that if succor did not quickly arrive, they from the artillery and small arms was must perish. They had received intellimuch more severe, and in which latter the gence in their camp that Field-marshal Prussians excelled the Austrians. But it Brown was on his march, and they were was now no longer by the Austrians of the all buoying themselves up with the hope Silesian wars that they were opposed, but of soon seeing his colors waving on the by men who, for ten years, had undergone mountains instead of those of the Prussians, severe practice, were better disciplined, when all at once loud shouts of victory more active than ever before, and were proclaimed the success gained by the Prus SAXONY-IMMENSE ARMIES AGAINST FREDERICK. 385 sians in the battle of Lowositz, and resound. rick an aspect in prospective affairs of a ing through valley and mountain, were character any thing but encouraging. The echoed forth in the Prussian camp. The great powers of Europe, infuriated by the impression produced by this event upon the stand he made, had now become more distressed Saxons was truly painful, redu- firmly united than ever in their determinaced as they were to the last extremity of tion to destroy him, and combined together suffering and want. The only chance of with all their armies to overwhelm him. deliverance now left to them was by mak- Austria came forth with all the troops, toing a desperate effort to fight their way gether with all the wealth and resources through into Bohemia; this they accord- furnished by her extensive territories; Rusingly attempted, but opposed by the very sia contributed no less than 100,000 men; elements themselves, for they were over- France supplied even a greater number; whelmed by a complete hurricane of wind Sweden came forward with 20,000 men; and drenching rain, and harassed by the while the Germanic empire generally, rePrussians, they failed in their object, and garding the invasion of Saxony by Fredethus these brave men, who having now rick as a violation of the peace of the. been three days and nights without food or country, offered to the imperial court an rest, were nearly dropping down from ex- additional aid of 60,000 men. Thus a haustion and disease, were forced to lay combined army of at least 500,000 men, down their arms, their number now re- stood under arms ready to march against duced to 14,Q00, and with their general, the king of Prussia; while he, on the Count Rutowski, gave themselves up pris- other hand, could only oppose to this mighoners to the Prussians on the 14th of Oc- ty and overwhelming force 200,000 men,. tober. and those collected together only at theThe officers were set at liberty on their sacrifice of every resource at his command.. parole of honor, but the men were forced As allies he only possessed England, the to enter the Prussian service. Frederick landgrave of Hesse, and the dukes of calculated that these 14,000 men, if he Brunswick and Gotha, and he was obliged! gave them their liberty, would serve as a to leave them alone to carry on the war considerable reinforcement in the ranks of with France; and, with respect to the the enemy, and if he detained them as other powers, he hoped to make up for his, prisoners of war they would cost him an- inferior force by the ability of his great nually some millions of dollars to support; generals and doubling his strength by thence he determined to derive some ad- rapid marches, and thus swiftly passing: vantage for the expense they incurred for with the same army from one point to, their maintenance. For at this period the another, be enabled to fight his enemies soldier was considered less as a citizen of one after the other. Thence, he resolved the state than as a man who equally sold to direct his first and principal effort against over both body and spirit to the military Austria, whom he regarded as his chief service for a certain period, and could, enemy, while in the mean time he left betherefore, soon accustom himself to serve hind 14,000 men under the command of' in the ranks of him against whom he may his old Field-marshal Lehwald, for the deeven have previously fought: military fence of Prussia itself against the attack honor was distinct from civil honor, and of the Russians, leaving only 4000 men the oath of the soldier was held to be more for the protection of Berlin against the sacred than the word of the citizen. Nev- Swedes; fortunately, however, for Prussia, ertheless Frederick derived but little ser- the Swedish portion of the allies took no vice from the Saxons; they deserted his very serious share in the war. colors in troops on the first favorable op- Maria Theresa, influenced by an extraportunity, and hastened to return to their ordinary predilection for her husband's king in Poland, whither he had repaired brother, Prince Charles of Lorraine, apafter the loss of his army, or they went pointed him, although he had already been over to the Austrians. Such were the re- twice beaten by Frederick, commander-insults of the first campaign: Saxony re- chief of the imperial army; while, under mained in the hands of Frederick II. his orders she placed the talented and ex. The preparations made for the ensuing perienced soldier, General Brown. This campaign presented to the eyes of Frede- arrangement proved of great service to 49 386 BATTLE OF PRAGUE. the king. Brown, with his usual prudence Prussians in their attack. The venerable and forethought, advised Prince Charles to Field-marshal Schwerin, who had only aranticipate the quick movements of the rived at head-quarters that morning with Prussians in the attack they contemplated, his fatigued troops, and was altogether and penetrating into Saxony and Silesia, unacquainted with the spot chosen for the thus remove the seat of war from the scene of action, suggested that they should hereditary states of Austria; Charles of postpone operations until the following day; Lorraine, however, although on other oc- but the king, whose impetuosity was not to casions too precipitate, resolved in this case be restrained, and who, having now formed to be the very opposite, preferring to adopt in his mind completely the plan of a glothe defensive, and was anxious to wait un- rious battle, was impatient to put it into til he had drawn around him all the forces execution, would not listen for a moment to he could collect. This was exactly what any further delay. Upon this the old Frederick most anxiously desired, and he warrior, who, in his seventy-third year, contrived to strengthen the prince in the retained still a great portion of his youthbelief that he himself, overmatched by so ful fire, exclaimed, as he pressed his hat many powerful enemies, thought it most over his eyes: " Well, then, if the battle prudent to assume the defensive likewise, shall and must be fought this day, I will Suddenly, however, and while the Austri- attack the enemy there on the spot where ans imagined themselves in perfect securi- I see him!" ty, the Prussians broke up, and dividing The battle only commenced at ten themselves into four divisions, poured forth o'clock in the morning; so much time in rapid marches across the mountains into having been taken up in making the necesBohemia, and, like so many mighty and sary preparations, as the ground turned impetuous mountain rivers, swept all before out to be generally swampy and hilly. them, taking possession of all the supplies As the Prussians worked their way through of the imperialists, which served to furnish and approached the enemy, they were rethemselves with provisions during several ceived with a terrific cannonade; the carmonths, and reunited their forces at a cer- nage was dreadful, and whole ranks were tain hour in the morning of the 6th of levelled with the ground; indeed, it seemMay, at the appointed quarters in the ed impossible for human courage to hold vicinity of Prague. out against such tremendously destructive The prince of Lorraine, hastily collect- odds. Each attack made was unsuccessing together all his troops, had now taken ful, and the ranks of the Prussians began a strong, intrenched position in the moun- to waver. At this moment the brave old tains, near Prague, where he considered marshal, Schwerin, seized an ensign, and himself secured against every attack. calling upon his troops to follow him, Frederick, however, to whom every hour rushed into the thickest of the fire, where, which delayed the execution of the final however, pierced with four balls, the veteblow appeared as lost, resolved to give bat- ran warrior fell and died the death of a tie at once now that the enemy was within hero. General Manteufel released the sight, and in this determination he was gory standard from the firm grasp of the cordially seconded by his favorite officer, dead old soldier, and led on the troops, General Winterfeld, a bold and undaunted now burning with revenge at the loss of warrior, whose ardor nothing could with- their brave commander. The king's brothstand. Accordingly the latter received er, Prince Henry, sprang from his horse, orders to reconnoitre the enemy's position, and led on his men against a battery, and he reported that their right wing might which he conquered; and Duke Ferdinand be easily attacked, as in front of it were of Brunswick attacked and overthrew with several green meadows, which would fa- the greatest courage the left wing of the cilitate the advance of the troops. But Austrians, pursuing the enemy from mounthese-as he thought-meadows, were no- tain to mountain, and conquering seveh thing else but deep dried-up ponds, with intrenchments. Nevertheless, the victory slimy bottoms, which had been sown with remained undecided as long as Field-maroats, and after the harvest, were again to shal Brown was able, by his influence and serve as fish ponds. This error served command, to maintain order among the ultimately to produce much injury to the ranks of the Austrians; at length, how BATTLE OF KOLLIN. 387 ever, he fell, mortally wounded, and with object so easily, and it was decided that his fall vanished all success from the Aus- his career of success should receive a trian side. King Frederick, who with his check, while his spirit was doomed to unkeen eye surveyed the field of battle, dergo bitter and painful trials. quickly perceived the enemy begin to give He determined not to wait for the attack way, and seeing a large gap in the centre of Daun, but to anticipate it; and after he of their ranks, he at once advanced, with had remained five weeks before Prague, some of his chosen troops, and, dashing he withdrew, with twelve thousand men, into it, completely destroyed all communi- in order to join Prince Bevern, who had cation between them, and put them entirely kept the army of Daun in observation, and to rout. Thus the victory was gained: which Frederick forthwith attacked, near the Austrians fled in every direction, the Kollin, on the 18th of June. The plan of greater portion of the fugitives throwing the order of battle adopted by the king themselves into Prague, and the rest has- was excellent; and had it been followed tening to join Marshal Daun, who was out entirely it would have given him the posted in Kiittenberg with an army of re- victory. Frederick decided upon this ocserve. casion to employ the same order of battle Dearly, however, was this victory pur- as that used in ancient times by Epamichased! Twelve thousand five hundred nondas, and by which he overcame the inPrussians lay dead or wounded on the bat- vincible Spartans: this was termed the tle-field, and among them was included oblique line of battle. By this plan, the one precious corpse-that of Field-mar- weakest force, by promptitude of action, shal Schwerin; but the remembrance of was enabled to operate with advantage his heroic death, and the blood-stained flag over a superior body; for instance, if the he bore in his nervous grasp, were regard- general in command has recourse to such ed by the Prussian army as the most sa- a bold manceuvre it is very rare if he does cred legacy, serving them as a continual not succeed, but to ensure this victory he source of excitement to follow in the same must be certain of the perfect co-operation path of glory. The Austrians, likewise, of his army, so that by the celerity and suffered an irreparable loss in the death exactitude of its movements the enemy of Field-marshal Brown; he had grown may be completely deceived and vangray in the wars of his country, and the quished before he has even had time to experience he had undergone rendered perceive the plan of attack by which it him the most distinguished general of his has been accomplished. Such was the day. manceuvre practised by the Prussians at The struggle in Bohemia was by no Kollin, and the first onset made by Genemeans decided by this battle, although the rals Ziethen and Hulsen upon the right actual position of the parties was such that wing of the Austrians put.them entirely to the campaign bid fair to terminate glori- rout. The centre and the:other wing of ously in favor of Frederick, for he now the Prussian army had now only to follow kept the prince of Lorraine a prisoner in it up forthwith, by falling upon the enemy's Prague, together with 46,000 men, without flank, battalion after battalion in succesany resources left to enable them to hold sion, and thus complete its entire annihilaout for any length of time. Their only tion. While, however, every thing was hopes of relief rested in Field-marshal thus operating in the right direction, the Daun, who was then in the immediate vi- king himself, as if the usual clearness of cinity with a considerable body of troops; his mind became suddenly clouded in imbut if he himself should be defeated by the penetrable gloom, gave orders for the rest king, the army hemmed in within the walls of the army to make a halt! In truth, of Prague must be lost, the campaign it- throughout the whole of this important self won in the most glorious manner by day, Frederick presented in his own perthe Prussians, and, perhaps, peace obtain- son and manner something so unaccountaed, already in the second year of the war; bly gloomy and repulsive that it rendered for Frederick desired nothing more than him totally incapable of attending to the what he obtained at the end of the war- ideas and observations suggested by those the retention of Silesia. Fate, however, around him; he rejected every thing they had not decreed that he should obtain this advised, and his sinister look, together with 388 DEFEAT OF FREDERICK.-THE ALLIED ARMIES. his bitter remarks, only made them shun ing, at the first moment of its commence. his presence. ment, and in the short space of eight months, When, at the most important and deci- the most dreadful war, he found himself sive moment, Prince Maurice of Dessau forced to raise the siege of Prague, and ventured to represent to the monarch the abandon Bohemia altogether; having, in serious consequences that must result from addition to these reverses of fortune, to lathe change he had commanded to take ment, with sincere grief, the death of his place in the plan of the order of battle, and beloved mother, who died ten days after the reiterated his observations and arguments sad battle of Kollin. The allies of Ausin the most urgent manner possible, Fred- tria, after this unexpected victory, resumed erick rode up close to his side, and with operations with greater activity than ever. uplifted sword, demanded, in a loud and The Russians invaded the kingdom of Prusthreatening tone of voice, whether he would sia, the Swedes pursued their preparations or would not obey orders? The prince at more'vigorously, and two French armies once desisted and withdrew; but from that crossed the Rhine in order to attack the termoment the fate of the day was decided. ritory of Hesse, Hanover, and thence to Through the halt thus made so ill-timed, march against the hereditary states of Prusthe Prussian lines found themselves right sia. One of these armies, under the cornin front of the position held by the Aus. mand of Prince Soubise, advanced towards trians, and which they had strongly in- Thuringia, in order to form a junction with trenched and made completely insurmount- the imperial forces under the orders of the able; and when they made an attempt to prince of Hilburghausen; while Marshal take it byassault, the regiments were swept d'Estree, who commanded the leading away one after the other by the destructive French army, on entering Hanover, fought fire of the Austrian artillery. No exertion, and beat the duke of Cumberland at the no desperate effort, could now obtain the head of the Anglo-Germanic troops, on the victory; fortune had now changed sides. 26th of July, near Hastenbeck, on the WeGeneral Daun, already despairing of suc- ser. This defeat was produced through cess at the commencement of the battle, the inexperience and imbecility of the Enghad marked down with a pencil the order lish general; for his army, although limitto sound a retreat, when, just at that mo- ed in force, had, nevertheless, obtained conment, the colonel of a Saxon regiment of siderable advantages through the courage cavalry having perceived that the ranks of and good generalship of the hereditary the Prussians changed their order of bat- prince of Brunswick, and had forced the tle, resolved to delay execution of orders, French general to sound a retreat, when and placed the official paper in his pocket. the duke, to the no little surprise and inThe Austrians now renewed their attack, dignation of every one, abandoned the field and the Saxon regiments of horse were of battle, nor halted in his shameful retreat more especially distinguished for the des- until he reached the Elbe near Stade. Nay, perate charges they made, as if determined to complete the disgrace, he was forced to revenge themselves for the injuries en- shortly afterwards to conclude at Closterdured by their country. In order that all seven, on the 9th of. September, a convenmight not be sacrificed, orders were issued tion by which he engaged to disband his to make a retreat, and Daun, too well troops, and give up to the French Hanover, pleased to gain this, his first victory over Hesse, the duchy of Brunswick, and the Frederick the Great, did not follow in pur- whole of the country situated between the suit. The Prussians lost on this day Weser and the Rhine. 14,000 men, in either killed, wounded, or The duke of Richelieu, who succeeded prisoners, and forty-five pieces of artillery. Marshal d'Estree in the command of the This formed nearly the moiety of the Prus- French troops, was a man of a most oversian army, for in this battle 32,000 Prus- bearing and prodigal character, devoid of sians had fought against 60,000 Aus- all conscientious feeling or principle, and trians. gloried in draining the country by every What a change of fortune was this to possible means of cruel exaction; and as Frederick! After having been on the point all around him followed his example, and of capturing an entire army in the very made the gain of money and licentiousness capital of the country, and thus extinguish- their all-ruling passion, this degrading BATTLE OF GROSSJAGERNDORF. 389 practice spread more and more widely as that was the seat of war against the throughout the ranks of the entire army, French, the cause of Frederick was regarduntil there was no excess to which it did ed as that of Germany. not resort. In their system of devastation, The convention of Closterseven paved the indeed, the French, although belonging to way for the French as far as the Elbe and a more polished nation, surpassed even the Magdeburg itself; and their second army, Cossacks and Calmucks, who, at this mo- now united with the imperial troops, was ment, were similarly occupied in the king- already in Thuringia, and made preparadom of Prussia itself. The destruction of tions for depriving the Prussians of the morals is more surely to be dreaded from a whole of Saxony, whence the latter received civilized than a barbarous people; because, their stores and supplies of provisions. under the charm of seduction, it leaves be- This was not the only side by which hind a consuming poison in every city and Frederick was hard pressed. The Swedes village generally, and especially in the spread themselves throughout the whole of more sacred bosom of domestic life. The Pomerania and Ukermark, and laid those bad reputation of the French army, and the countries under heavy contributions, while hatred felt and shown by the Germans, na- they had only to avail themselves of their turally more plain and simple in their man- whole force in order to advance direct upon ners and customs, against the smooth and Berlin itself, and make themselves, with polished mask of vice, contributed not a lit- scarcely any opposition, masters of that city. tie to gain over the hearts of the majority The Russian general, Apraxin, had already of the people throughout Germany in favor entered Prussia with 100,000 men, and to of the cause of Frederick. Indeed, it was oppose him, Field-marshal Lehwald had almost inconceivable, with what joy the only 24,000 men; nevertheless, he was people generally received the news of the forced to give the Russians battle, however victories he gained, although perhaps at the great the sacrifice, as Frederick sent him same moment their own princes, as mem- strict orders to drive out these barbarians and bers of the imperial states, were in arms put an end to their devastations. Accordagainst him. Such is the commanding in- ingly the action took place at Grossjagernfluence exercised by a superior mind over dorf, near Welau; but the most undaunted his age; such the sympathy which a gen- and desperate courage displayed by the erous heart can rarely withhold from him Prussians was employed in vain against who by strength and courage is enabled to a force so overwhelming. Lehwald was battle with an overpowering and inflexible forced to retreat, after a loss of several destiny! But much of this feeling was thousand men, and thus Prussia now approduced, likewise, through beholding how peared irretrievably lost-when, to the astoFrederick, with the aid only of his own nishment of all, Apraxin, instead of advanPrussians, had to contend against hordes of cing, withdrew to the Russian frontiers ten barbarians from the east, as well as the days after the battle he had gained. hated and most formidable enemy from the Thus we find, fiom time to time, the west; while in the interior, he had to face troubled path of Ffederick illumined by a the Austrian armies composed of soldiers glimmering ray of hope, which appeared all differing in language, customs, and man- to lead him on to better fortune. This time ners, but all equally eager after pillage, it originated in the serious illness of the including Hungarians, Croatians, and Pan- empress Elizabeth of Russia; and the durians. Had Frederick carried on the grand-chancellor Bestuschef, believing her war merely against the Austrians and other death close at hand, and having his eye Germans, true patriots would only have directed to her successor, Peter III.deplored the blindness of the hostile parties an admirer and friend of the Prussian in thus contending against each other when hero-lost not a moment in commanding they ought, on the contrary, to have General Apraxin to withdraw his troops sheathed the sword and held out to each from the Prussian dominions. This enabled other the hand of fraternal peace and friend- the army under Lehwald to march against ship. The north of Germany was more the Swedes, who, on the approach of the especially attached to Frederick, ranking Prussians, evacuated the entire country itself on the side of his own people, and and retreated as far as Stralsund and participating in their joys and sorrows; for Riigen. 390 CONTINUATION OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. ment arrived, about half-past two o'clock C H A P T ER X X XI. in the afternoon, he gave his orders accord. Continuation of the Seven Years' War, 1757-1760-Bat- ingly, and in an instant, as if by magic, tie of Rossbach, 1757-Total Defeat of the French- the tents were struck, the army drawn up General Seidlitz and the Prussian Cavalry-Reverses in battle array, the artiller opened its treof Frederick-Silesia-Battle of Leuthen, 1757-Fred-pened erick's Appeal to his Officers and Army-Their mendous fire, and Seidlitz, at the head of Enthusiasm —Complete Overthrow of the Austrians- his brave cavalry, dashed amo the batGlorious Results to Frederick-His Proposals of Peace his brave cavalry, dashed among the batrejected by Maria Theresa-France-Russia-Eng- talions of the enemy as they arrived. The land's Enthusiasm for Frederick-William Pitt —Eng- French had never hitherto, encountered land supports Frederick-Treaty of Closterseven disavowed-Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick General- such rapidity of action fror the Germans, in-Chief of the Allied Army-Defeats and drives away the French from Germany-FrederickinSilesia and they found it totally impossible to form -Schweidnitz —Frederick's rapid March intoMoravia into line; for they were completely over-Olmiitz-Bohemia-Pomerania-Battle between the Russians and Prussians at Zorndorf, 1758-Dread- whelmed and routed before they could even ful Slaughter and Defeat of the Russians-The Prus- attempt it, and in the course of less than sians attacked and defeated by the Austrians at Hochkirch, 1758-Frederick's Presence ofMind-The Prus- half an hour the action was decided, and sian Army-The Imperial Diet —he Prince of Meck- the entire French army put hors de combat. lenburg-The Imperial Ban against Frederick proposed-Negatived-The Allied and French Armies- They were seized with such a panic that Battle of Bergen, 1759-Partial Success of the French they never halted until they reached the -Battle of Minden-Shameful Conduct of the English General, Sackville-Defeat of the French-Bat- middle states of the empire, while many, tie of Kay and Kiinersdorf, 1759-Total Defeat of even n them s still in, the Prussians-Frederick's Misfortunes-His Despair even deeming tmselves still insecure, on-Prince Henry of Prussia-Continued Reverses of ly paused when they reached the opposite Frederick-Battle of Liegnitz, 1760-The Prussians ba of the Rhin S n toun ri defeat the Austrians-Beneficial Results to Frederick a of the he Seven thousand pris-Battle of Torgau, 1760-Total Defeat of the Aus- oners fell into the hands of the king, intrians-Frederick in Leipsic. eluding nine generals and three hundred and FREDERICK, after having endeavored for twenty officers of every rank, together with a considerable time, but in vain, to give sixty-three pieces of cannon and twentybattle to the Austrians in Lusatia, broke two standards; while this glorious victory up his army, and in the month of August only cost the Prussians one hundred and advanced up the Saale into Saxony, in sixty-five in killed, and three hundred and order to drive the French out of that coun- fifty wounded. The king was indebted for try. After various marches and counter- this great triumph to the excellent state of marches he at length came up with them discipline and order maintained throughout and the imperial army on the 5th of No- his whole army, which was thus enabled, vember, in the village of Rossbach, close at such momentary notice, to execute so to the Saale. Frederick had only 22,000 successfully the daring plans formed often men, while the enemy had 60,000; and so suddenly and unexpectedly by their royal they already began to triumph in anticipa- chief; above all, however, he owed much tion of his overthrow, being determined of this victory to the rapid and overwhelmthat the king, with his handful of troops, ing courage of General Seidlitz and his should not escape them this time. He en- cavalry. camped his army upon a height, and the Saxony was now rescued and secured on French advanced by forced marches, with this side, while the moral effect of the batsound of trumpet, towards his camp, curious tle of Rossbach produced much benefit to to see whether or not he would have the cour- the king; nevertheless, his military labors age to make a stand against them, for their and fatigues, for this year, were not yet object was to surround him completely, and completed. For, during his absence, his thus, by making him prisoner, put an end to favorite and confidential friend, General the war at once. The Prussians, however, Winterfeld, had perished in an action near fired not a single shot, but remained per- Moyes; the duke of Bevern had retreated fectly quiet, apparently unprepared for, or with his army into Silesia as far as the walls not taking any notice of the movements of of Breslau, and as he could not undertake the enemy; the smoke ascending from their any thing against the united forces of the cooking fires indicated their present occu- prince of Lorraipe and Field-marshal Daun, pation, while Frederick himself took his the important fortress of Schweidnitz fell, meal with his general officers and staff with on the 11th of November, into the hands of the appearance of the greatest coolness and General Nadasti. On the 22d, the entire indifference. But when the favorable mo- Austrian army attacked the Prussians at FREDERICK'S REVERSES-APPEALS TO HIS ARMY. 391 Breslau, and vanquished them after a vig- thus be prevented from rewarding you for orous defence; the duke of Bevern, dread- your courage, be assured our country will ing his sovereign's wrath, yielded himself not neglect to do so. Farewell then, my prisoner-according to all appearance vol- friends and comrades; in a short time we untarily so-to the Austrians; and, finally, shall either have driven away the enemy the capital, Breslau, with all its rich sup- now before us, or this will have proved our plies of provisions and ammunition, was eternal adieu!" given up to the imperialists through the The enthusiasm called forth by this inspicowardice of General Lestwitz. Thus ringlanguage soon produced its good effects Silesia appeared now to be lost for Freder- throughout the entire army, and ail awaitick; for, if it should be allowed to remain ed with eager impatience the moment for only one winter in the hands of the enemy, marching against the foe. The latter had they would fortify it in every possible way, taken up an equally strong and advanso as to make it totally impossible for him tageous position behind the river Lohe, ever to reconquer it. On the other hand, where it was extremely difficult for the it appeared equally impossible, unless by a king to attack him. The cautious leader, miracle, to recapture it with the 14,000 Field-marshal Daun, was desirous of holdmen he brought with him from Saxony, ing possession of it, for he had already and the 16,000 forming the remnant of the learned to know at Kollin how necessary it vanquished army under the duke of Bev- was to command a good position in order to ern. check and hold at bay the impetuosity of the It was in moments like this, when all king. But General Luchesi and others of around him assumed that gloomy charac- the imperialists, who held it degrading to a ter, such as must naturally produce despair victorious army to seek to intrench itself in and desolation in the mind, that King Fred- a position against a force so much inferior in erick displayed in the most striking manner numbers, persuaded Prince Charles to the greatness of his genius, the treasure of march at once and meet the king, assuring mental resources at his command, and the him, " that the parade guard of Berlin," irresistible power with which he operated as they thus styled the Prussian army, upon the feelings of all under him. He "would never be able to make a stand summoned a council of his generals and against them." This advice was most acchief officers, and addressed them in such ceptable to the prince, naturally of a more soul-inspiring language, that they were impetuous than reflective disposition, and aroused to a state of the most ardent and he marched forth. The two armies accordzealous enthusiasm. He represented to ingly met on the vast plain in the vicinity them the difficult, and even desperate con. of Leuthen, on the 5th of December, exactdition in which their country was at that ly one month after the battle of Rossbach. moment placed, and under which it must The imperial army, in its plan of attack, inevitably sink, if he could not calculate extended its lines over a space of nearly upon their courage to save it. " I know five miles; while Frederick was forced to you all feel that you are Prussians," he have recourse to those means by which he added, in conclusion; "nevertheless, if was enabled to double his power by the cethere be one among you who fears to share lerity of his manceuvres, and adopted, on such dangers with me, he is at liberty to re- this occasion, his former oblique order of sign his command from this very day, without battle. He caused a false attack to be made having the slightest reason to dread any re- on the right, while his principal attack was proach from me for so doing." And when directed against the left wing; and having in reply to this he beheld in the eyes of all overcome this completely, the consequent around him the expression of the one uni- disorder was communicated to the whole versal determined feeling-that they would of the Austrian army. Resistance had now all rally around their brave sovereign, and become useless, and in the course of three devote their lives to his and their country's hours Frederick gained the most complete cause, he exclaimed, with gratified mien: victory. The field of battle was covered "I was well convinced, beforehand, that with the slain, and whole battalions surrennot one of you all would desert me in this dered themselves prisoners, amounting altrying moment; whence I am sanguine in together to 21,000 men. Added to this, my hopes of victory. Should I fall, and the Prussians captured one hundred and 392 THE ALLIED ARMIES thirty cannon, and three thousand ammuni- much embittered against the conqueror of tion and other wagons. This is one of the Silesia to admit of the acceptance of his most extraordinary victories met with in proposals; and, in addition to this, every history, where 30,000 men only were op- care had been taken to conceal from her posed to 80,000, and by which it was am- the heavy losses sustained by her army at ply proved how superior genius may some- the battle of Leuthen, as well as the distimes triumph over superior numbers, and tressed condition to which the war had remore especially when the ideas and plans duced her states. She was likewise influformed, are seconded and carried out with enced in her resolution by France, which that proportionate activity and firmness, so insisted upon the continuation of the war in gloriously displayed on this occasion by the Germany, otherwise that power would be Prussians. obliged to contend alone against England. Meantime, Frederick and his army, how- Thence the offers of Frederick were reject. ever great had been their efforts, would not ed, and preparations for a fresh campaign allow themselves time for repose, although renewed on a more extensive scale than so much needed, but followed up without ever. Prince Charles of Lorraine, who had the least delay the fruits of their victory, lost the confidence both of the army and the until they had completely driven out the country, was forced to resign the chief Austrians from the Silesian territories be- command. It was found, however, exyond the Bohemian mountains. This was tremely difficult to meet with his substitute, undertaken by the ever-active and indefat- for the brave Field-marshal Nadasti, owigable General Ziethen, and was accom.-ing to the jealousy and intrigue excited plished by him with his usual success, against him, was completely supplanted, making immense booty and numerous pris- and eventually the choice was fixed upon oners; while, meantime, the king himself Field-marshal Daun, for whose reputation attacked Breslau, which he captured with the victory of Kollin had effected far more its garrison of 17,000 men, and in the same than his otherwise natural tardiness of acmonth, December, Liegnitz likewise sur- tion and irresolution merited. rendered to his conquering arms. Thus, The French armies were likewise reinby one bold stroke, upon which he risked forced, and another general-in-chief, Count his all, cost what it may, Frederick recon- Clermont, was appointed instead of the quered the whole of Silesia-where he was duke of Richelieu. The latter, accordingly, enabled to take up his winter quarters as returned to France with all the millions he far as Schweidnitz-as well as Saxony; had exacted, during the period of his ser. and, what was more than all, he gained for vice, upon which he lived in the most exhimself that immortal renown in the annals travagant, gorgeous style, in the face of the of his country which will continue to be whole world, and in defiance of all shame handed down to the latest posterity. The and disgust. Russia also joined in the deAustrian army, however, which so shortly sire for a continuation of the war, and the before was so powerful in numbers, exceed- chancellor Bestuschef, who had in the preing 80,000 men, and so perfect in its ap- vious year recalled the army from Prussia, pointments, had suffered so much that its was removed from office, and another lead. relics when collected in Bohemia, scarcely er, General Fermor, was placed at the head mustered 17,000 fighting men. All the of the Russian troops; he, in fact, lost not Prussian territories, as far as Westphalia, a moment, but marched at once against were now completely freed of the enemy. Prussia, in the month of January, and con. Four grand battles, and numerous ac- quered the kingdom without any resistance, tions more or less important, had combined owing to the absence of General Lehwald, to make the preceding year, 1757, one of who with the army was then in Pomerania, the most sanguinary to be found in history. contending against the Swedes. Both parties had sufficiently tested their In order to oppose and make a stand strength against each other; and Frederick against such serious and overwhelming now offered at the court of Vienna terms danger, Frederick was forced to summon of peace, manifesting by this the principles together the entire and extreme resources of ancient Rome-not to propose peace un- of his own dominions, as well as those of til after he had gained a victory. But the the Saxon territories. Levies in money pmpress Maria Theresa still continued too and troops were forthwith made with equal FERDINAND OF BRUNSWICK-DEFEATS THE FRENCH. 393 activity and rigor, and the king found him- much negligence and frivolity existed, in self reduced to the necessity of coining coun- combination with the incapacity of their terfeit money for the payment of his troops: general, that in a very few weeks the duke a measure which such a case of extreme completely succeeded in driving them out necessity alone can justify or excuse. He of the entire country situated between the knew, however, too well that, since the feu- Aller and Weser, and the Weser and the dal system of war had been succeeded by Rhine; their haste being such that they that of modern times, the grand principle abandoned all their provisions and ammuupon which war must now be carried on nition, and more than 11,000 were taken was founded upon the employment of its in- prisoners by the allied army. They refluential agent-money. For as regarded crossed the Rhine near Diisseldorf, hoping allies upon whom he might place depend- there to be secure; in this however they ence, he possessed only England and a few deceived themselves. Duke Ferdinand princes in the north of Germany, and these pursued them to the other side of the Rhine, were already paralyzed by the disgraceful attacked them at Crefeld, and, in spite of convention of Closterseven. Fortune, how- their superiority in numbers, he put them ever, served him very favorably at this completely to rout, causing them a loss of moment in England; the British nation, seven thousand slain. After this battle the always ready to acknowledge and appreci- city of Diisseldorf surrendered to the duke, ate patriotic achievements in every quarter, and his light cavalry scoured the country was inspired by the battle of Rossbach with throughout the Austrian Netherlands, even the greatest enthusiasm for Frederick; to the very gates of Brussels itself. while the most complete disgust was gen- Frederick, during this interval, had not erally excited against the shameful conven- been idle. -Ie commenced with laying tion of Closterseven. In accordance with siege to Schweidnitz, which strong and irnthese feelings, the celebrated William Pitt, portant place still remained in the hands who had just been appointed prime minis- of the Austrians, and carried it by assault ter, caused this treaty, which had not as on the 18th of April. Field-marshal Daun yet been confirmed, to be at once disa- meantime remained stationary in Bohemia, vowed, and determined to continue the war and used every exertion to cut off the with renewed vigor. The army was forth- march of Frederick into that country, for with augmented, and the appointment of its he fully expected to be attacked there by leader was intrusted to Frederick himself. the king. But while he imagined himself His eagle eye soon fixed upon the genius perfectly secure, Frederick suddenly broke best adapted for its extraordinary powers to up with his army, and instead of proceeding be chosen to co-operate with himself, and to Bohemia, advanced, by forced marches, he accordingly furnished the allied army to Moravia, and laid siege to Olmutz. In with a truly distinguished chief, Ferdinand, this expedition was shown the peculiarity duke of Brunswick, who, by his good of Frederick's genius, which led him to generalship, so well justified Frederick's undertake the most bold, extraordinary, choice, that his name will ever continue to and perilous enterprises, while his constant maintain its brilliant position on the side of aim and glory was to take his enemy by that of the great king, in the records of this surprise; and on this occasion he was more sanguinary war. especially influenced by the idea, that if he According to a plan agreed upon between once became master of Olmutz, he would Frederick and himself, the duke already then have the command of the most imopened the campaign in the month of Feb- portant position in an Austrian territory ruary, and, marching at the head of his hitherto perfectly undisturbed, and thus be small army, he surprised the French in enabled to threaten the immediate vicinity their winter quarters, where they were liv- of Vienna itself. Fortune, however, did ing in abundance and luxury at the ex- not this time second his bold design; the pense of the Hanoverians and Hessians; place defended itself with the greatest brathe odds between the two armies were very, the inhabitants of the country, faithgreat, for the duke had only 30,000 men ful to their empress, annoyed the Prussians against their 100,000. But with him all as far as was in their power, and conveyed his measures were so well calculated, intelligence to the imperial army of all while on the part of his adversaries so their movements. By this means Daun 50 394 BATTLE OF ZORNDORF. was enabled to intercept and seize upon a of Seidlitz, which flew in every direction convoy of three thousand wagons, upon the where the danger was greatest, to the suparrival of which the entire success of the port of their sinking comrades, and thus, by siege depended; whence it was obliged to efforts almost superhuman, overthrew whole be given up. But now the retreat into battalions of the enemy, the victory would Silesia was blocked up; and Daun, hav- still have remained doubtful, as indeed ing taken possession of every road, felt cer- was acknowledged by Frederick himself. tain that he had caught the enemy within As it was, however, the Russian general, hisown net. Frederick, however, suddenly Fermor, abandoned Prussia entirely, and turned back, and marching across the moun- retreated into Poland; while Frederick tains, arrived in Bohemia-where the Aus- marched into Saxony, where his brother trian general did not at all expect him- Henry was hard pressed by the superior without the loss of a single wagon; and he forces of the Austrians. would not have been forced to leave this General Daun, on the approach of the country so soon again had not the invasion king, retired to a strong position he had seof the Russians recalled him to Pomerania lected in Lusatia. His object was to cut and Neumark.. Accordingly he recrossed off the passage of the king into Silesia, in the mountains from Bohemia into Silesia, order that his general, Harsch, might have and leaving Marshal Keith behind to pro- time to conquer the fortress of Neisse. tect the country, he hastened with 14,000 Frederick, however, who perceived his men to attack the Russians. aim, hastened to occupy the route to SileAt every step he took as he marched sia through Bautzen and Gorlitz, and through the provinces he met with the sad marched close past the lines of the Austrieffects of the devastation committed by these an army, in order to encamp himself upon barbarians, who spared neither women, chil- an open plain situated between the villadren, the young, nor the old. The town ges of Hochkirch and Cotitz. This plan of Cistrin was burnt to ashes, with the ex- was any thing but wise, although it showed ception of three houses, and the land around great contempt for the enemy. His quarpresented one vast desert. When the king, ter-master, Marwitz, and at the same time as well as his entire army, beheld these a confidential favorite, represented to him melancholy scenes, they were overwhelmed the great danger to which he was exposed with burning rage, and the moment they by taking up this position, and, hesitating came in sight of the enemy they com- at first, he finally refused to pitch the menced the attack, when one of the most camp there, in spite of the king's commands. sanguinary battles of the entire Seven He was, however, forthwith placed under Years' War was fought, and which raged arrest, and his duties transferred into the from nine o'clock in the morning until ten hands of another. The army continued at night. Thirty-seven thousand Prussians here encamped three days, completely exwere opposed to sixty thousand Russians, posed to the attacks of the enemy, so much fighting hand to hand in the manner of the superior in numbers; while Frederick reancient Germans, each combatant resolved mained obstinately deaf to all the repreto perish rather than yield in the fatal sentations of his generals. He considered struggle-and in which the Prussians, after that as the Austrians had never attacked what they had seen, were more especially him first, he might easily calculate that excited to wreak their vengeance upon the Field-marshal Daun would never think, savage invaders-giving by their sovereign's and was quite incapable of undertaking command no quarter, but fighting for life or such a bold step; while, in addition to death. On the evening of this sanguinary this self-deception, he was betrayed by an day more than 19,000 Russians lay dead or Austrian spy, whom the enemy had bought wounded on the field of battle; but, on the over, and who accordingly furnished him other hand, nearly 11,000 Prussians were with false reports of their plans and proslain or disabled, for the Russians, finding ceedings. they were completely edged in, and to all On the morning of the 14th of October, appearance without any hope of escape, and before the dawn of day, the Prussian sold their lives dearly, and fought, like- army was aroused by a discharge of arwise, with desperate courage. If, indeed, tillery; the Austrians having, during the it had not been for the invincible cavalry night, silently advanced to the village of BATTLE OF HOCHKLRCH. 395 Hochkirch, and exactly as the church- his baggage, nothing was left wherewith clock chimed the hour of five, they fell to supply his troops with clothing for the upon the Prussian advanced posts, took approaching winter. possession of the strong intrenchment at Meantime, the king maintained the utthe entrance of the village, turned the most tranquillity and firmness of mind muzzles of the cannon against their ad- throughout this period of trial, and his apversaries, and, by a murderous fire, de- pearance inspired his troops with the same stroyed all the Prussians that attempted to feeling. And, in truth, if Frederick ever make a stand in its defence. The slaughter showed himself great in misfortune, he did committed was dreadful, for the troops so especially after this serious loss; for, poured forth in thousands to assemble in although deprived of all the necessary prothe principal street of the village as head- visions and supplies for his army, he neverquarters. The generals and principal offi- theless was not less successful in accomcers endeavored in vain, amid the dark- plishing by hasty marches and masterly ness, to form them in regular line of battle; manceuvres his original plan; and thus, the brave Prince Francis of Brunswick deceiving the enemy, and circuiting his had his head carried away by a cannon- position, forced General Harsch in all ball, in the very moment he was about to haste to raise the siege of Neisse. Silesia attack the enemy on the heights of Hoch- was now entirely freed from the enemy; kirch; Field-marshal Keith, a venerable while Daun, conqueror as he was, after but equally brave and well-tried warrior, being unable to prevent Frederick from fell pierced with two bullets, and Prince entering Silesia, and obtaining, by his atMaurice of Dessau was likewise danger- tack upon Dresden, no other result but ously wounded. Generals Seidlitz and that of forcing the Prussian general, Count Ziethen formed their squadrons of cavalry Schmettau, in his defence to set fire to the on the open plain, and threw themselves beautiful suburbs of that capital, returned with all their usual bravery upon the Aus- in mortification to Bohemia, where he estrians; but the advantages they gained tablished his winter-quarters. Thus sucould not compensate for the serious loss periority of genius produced those results already sustained. Hochkirch, the camp, for the conquered, which otherwise might together with all the baggage and ammu- have fallen to the share of the conqueror. nition fell into the hands of the enemy. At the end of this year Frederick found The dawn of day brought with it no ad. himself, in spite of the vicissitudes he had vantage, for an impenetrable fog prevented undergone, in possession of the same counthe king from reconnoitring the enemy's tries as in the preceding year, in addition position as well as his own, so as to be to which he now had Schweidnitz, which enabled, perhaps, by a prompt movement, was not in his hands previously; while in to bring back to his colors that good for- Westphalia all his provinces which had tune which had thus so unexpectedly aban- been captured by the French were now doned him. Nevertheless, his regiments reconquered by the valor of Prince Ferhad now, through that discipline which dinand. The latter had not certainly been was never so admirably displayed as at able to maintain, with his small army, his this moment, succeeded in forming them- position on the other side of the Rhine; selves into regular order, and when, tow- but, at the end of the campaign, he forced ards nine o'clock, the sun made its ap- the French to abandon the whole right pearance, he perceived that the Austrian bank of that river, and to establish their army had already nearly surrounded him winter-quarters between the Rhine and the on every side, and he accordingly gave Meuse. orders for a retreat. This took place in The following year, however, in spite of such good order, that the Austrian general the perils he had already undergone and was taken so much by surprise that he battled against, the heroic king found himfound it impossible to attempt to oppose it, self destined to encounter vicissitudes, which and returned to his old quarters. The rendered this period of the war more trying king, however, had suffered a loss of sev- than perhaps any other. The hope of beeral of his best generals, nine thousand ing at length enabled to crush him, excigood soldiers, and more than one hundred ted his enemies to strain every effort in orpieces of cannon; and, as he had lost all der to effect this object. The Austrian 396 THE AUSTRIAN AND PRUSSIAN ARMIES. army was completely reorganized and rein- sive taxation, and the continual conscription, forced to its full complement, and indeed, which thus seriously diminished the male with every coming year, it marched into population, that it seemed as if they never the field with increased vigor and augment- could recover from the sad effects. The ed numbers, because the ranks were filled duke of Mecklenburg, indeed, in his indigup with the hardy peasantry of the heredi- nation, acted with such imprudence at the tary lands, who were well drilled, and who diet of Ratisbon, as to place himself at the being intermingled with the more experien- head of those princes who were most loud ced and well-tried veterans of many a hard- and bitter in their complaints against Fredfought battle-of whom, notwithstanding erick, and demanded nothing less than that the heavy losses sustained, the army still the ban of the empire should be at once retained a powerful body-were soon initi- pronounced against him; for which act the ated in the rough and perilous scenes of duke's land was subjected to the most exthe camp. In Frederick's small army, on treme severity of treatment, and, in fact, the other hand, which had to contend equal- dealt with rather asthat of an enemy than an ly with Austrians, Russians, Frenchmen, ally. The imperial ban, however, was not and Swedes, as well as with other troops of adjudged against the king, for as the same the empire itself, the number of those who sentence must have been pronounced against had escaped the sword and disease, formed the elector of Hanover, the evangelic states but a small body, and consequently its refused to condemn two such distinguished ranks were principally filled with newly- members of their body. Besides which, levied and inexperienced recruits. And this word, which in ancient times was more however speedily these young soldiers, who fatally annihilating in its effects than the often joined the army at the early age of sharp edge of the sword itself, had, unforboyhood, entered into the spirit and honor tunately, long since become void of power of the cause for which they fought, and in and effect, and if pronounced, would only which they emulated, as much as possible, have exposed more degradingly the dissoluthe acts of their more veteran comrades- tion of the Germanic confederation. sometimes, perhaps, even surpassing them Maria Theresa, however, by her urgent in daring courage-still their number was appeals to the sovereigns of France and far inferior compared with those levied in Russia to carry on the war, endeavored to Saxony, Anhalt, Mecklenburg, and such effect the destruction of Frederick with far as were collected in various other parts, more certainty than could have been acconsisting chiefly of deserters. Thence, complished by all the bans pronounced although the Prussian army was soon corn against him by the imperial diet. The pleted in all its numbers and appointments, empress of Russia, in order to obliterate the it fell far short when compared with the stain of the battle of Zorndorf, sent fresh Austrians in internal organization and uni- troops under the command of General Soltited strength.* Besides this, Frederick's kow, a brave and active officer. In Paris, own estates, as well as those of Saxony and the duke of Choiseul, hitherto French amMecklenburg, suffered so much by oppres- bassador at Vienna, and the chief promoter of the war against Frederick, was now A foreigner of rank and great wealth, having re- chosen prime-minister, and he determined quested to be permitted to serve il the campaign of 1757 as a volunteer, Frederick granted his wish, and the no- to employ all the forces at command, in ble recruit arrived in a splendid carriage, and attended order to reconquer Westphalia, Hanover, by several servants; in fact, displaying an unusual lavishment of expense and luxury. lie received, how- and Hesse. Had this design been brought ever. no mark of distinction, and, indeed, very little or into execution, these countries would have no attention, being generally stationed in the wagontrain. He bore no part in any engagement, much less experienced the most dreadful persecution, in any general battle, and had to experience the morti- and Hanover more especially would have fication of not sharing in the victorious action of Ross- and Hanover more especially wou ave bach. He had often sent a written complaint to the been singled out by France upon which to king, but without any effect; at length, however, he k h nan for th sh had had an opportunity of addressing the king in person wreak her vengeance, for te losses she had when, in reply to his representations upon the subject, sustained both at sea and on her coasts, Frederick said, "Your style of living, sir, is not e the n l f Great Britain fashion in my army; in fact, it is highly objectionablerom e aval expeditions rea n. andoffensive. Without the greatest moderation, it is For the glorious victories obtained by the impossible to learn to bear the fatigues which accom- Britih m ar hd pany every war, and if you cannot determine to sub- British men-of-war had completely dminmit to the strict discipline my officers and troops are ished the maritime force of France, while forced to undergo, I would advise you, n a friendly Noh A a ad te Et way, to return to your own country." —iiLcher. both North Amerca and the ast Indies BATTLES OF BERGEN AND MINDEN. 397 all her settlements and possessions were placing full confidence in his resources, reduced or captured. Prince Ferdinand, marched to meet the French army, and with his small army, was, however, the found it, on the 1st of August, near Minden, only disposable power at command to op- occupying a position, the nature of which pose the enemy in his designs against Ger- offered him every advantage for the attack. many from this quarter. Contade was forced to fight, inasmuch as Ferdinand was menaced upon two sides: his supplies were cut off, but he calculated on that of the Maine by the army of the upon his superiority in numbers; he, howduke of Broglio, whose head-quarters were ever, gave very few proofs on this day at Frankfort, which he had taken by sur- of his talent and experience, although at prise-for, in spite of its being an imperial other times he had not shown himself wantfree city, and although it had accordingly ing in ability. Contrary to all military furnished, without hesitation, its quota of practice hitherto, he placed his cavalry in contributions to the confederation in men the centre, and this very error in his tacand money for the war against Frederick, tics, and which, no doubt, he expected must it was not the less exposed to attack; and operate to his advantage, produced his defrom the point of the Lower Rhine, Marshal feat and Ferdinand's triumph. He orderde Contade advanced with the main body ed the British and Hanoverian infantry, of the army, to invade and overrun Hano- whose steady firmness he had already testver. Ferdinand was in hopes of being ed, to advance and charge the enemy's cavable, like Frederick, to make a successful alry-a bold and happy idea, and which stand against both armies through the ce- by the results effected, was through its relerity of his movements, and marching at alization an additional evidence of Ferdionce against the duke of Broglio at the nand's superior genius, which at such a opening of the campaign, came up with moment directed him to swerve from the him on the 12th of April at Bergen, near ordinary course of operations. The French Frankfort. He immediately attacked him cavalry, forming the (lite of the whole arwith his brave Hessians, but the position my, astounded at this daring attack of the occupied by the French was too strong, allied infantry, met the charge with tolerawhile they were enabled to replace the ble firmness at first, and endeavored to troops they lost by continual fresh sup. force the ranks of their bold opponents and plies, whence the Hessians were repulsed gallop over them; but every attempt they in three attacks. Ferdinand now pru- made against these solid and invulnerable dently resolved not to expose his army to ranks of bayonets was completely defeated, the chances of a total defeat, and accord- and at length the sweeping discharges of ingly made a retreat in good order. It re- the artillery, together with the destructive quired, however, the exercise of all the execution made by the well-aimed muskets genius and experience he possessed to ena- of the infantry, produced the greatest conble him to protect Lower Saxony against fusion among them, and put them completethe attack of Marshal de Contade. This ly to flight. Ferdinand now gave orders general had succeeded in crossing the to General Sackville to dash through the Rhine near Disseldorf, and, marching hollow space thus left in the centre of the through the Weser forest towards Giessen, French line with his British cavalry, and formed ajunction with Broglio. and tookCas- to pursue the flying enemy; by obeying sel, Paderborn, MUnster, and Minden, on the which orders he would have completely Weser. In all his operations thus far he divided the two wings of the French army, was equally prompt and successful, and and thus overpowered by the allies, its enFerdinand found himself forced to with- tire destruction must inevitably have foldraw as far back as the mouth of the Weser lowed. But whether it was through jealnear Bremen, while the French general ousy or cowardice-for his unaccountable now regarded Hanover as already within behavior has never been clearly explainhis grasp. ed-the English general turned traitor, disIn Paris all were in high glee at this obeyed the order given by the duke, and glorious beginning-but the German hero thus allowed the French time to reassemble soon changed that exultation into the oppo- and make good their retreat. As it v-s, site feelings of sorrow and depression by however, they lost eight thousand men and gaining a brilliant victory. Ferdinand, thirty pieces of cannon. But the results 398 BATTLE OF KAY. of this battle were still more important. sians. According to the royal instructions Contade, being now continually pursued, he received, he was to attack the enemy withdrew along the Weser to Cassel, and wherever he came up with them. These thence continued his retreat southward to instructions the young dictator obeyed to Giessen; while the army of Ferdinand cap- the letter, but without reflecting upon what tured successively Marburg, Fulda, and such orders presupposed. Accordingly he Minster, in Westphalia, so that, by the end attacked the Russians on the 23d of June, of the year, this distinguished general found at the village of Kay, near Ztillichau, but himself once more in possession of the same planned his attack so badly that, in order territories he occupied at its commence- to make it, his army was forced to cross a ment. bridge and march through a long narrow King Frederick had not shown his usual line of road, in single files, so that the bateagerness to open the campaign this year, talions were only able to reach the field of inasmuch as his advantage did not now, so battle in successive bodies; where, as they much as at the commencement of the war, arrived, they were received by a murderdepend upon the results of prompt meas- ous discharge of grape-shot, and were thus ures; but the main object of his plans at destroyed in detail by the Russians. The this moment was rather if possible to pre- Prussians lost more than 5000 men, and the vent the junction of the Russian and Aus- enemy being thus no longer opposed, effecttrian armies. He encamped himself in a ed a junction with Laudon without any strong position near Landshut, whence, by further delay. sudden incursions directed equally against It was necessary now that Frederick the Russians in Poland and the Austrians himself should hasten with his 43,000 men in Bohemia, he wrested from them their to meet the combined forces of the enemy. most valuable magazines, and thus prevent- He knew and felt the great danger to ed both armies, for a considerable time, which he was about to expose himself perfrom undertaking any important enterprise; sonally, and summoning his brother Henry for when, according to the system pursued from his camp at Schmottseifen, gave him by the belligerent parties at this period, the strict charge to watch the movements of armies remained quartered in a country for Field-marshal Daun, and besides this, apany length of time, they abstained as much pointed him regent of the Prussian dominas possible from depriving the inhabitants ions, in case he himself should be either of all their provisions; whence much great- killed or taken prisoner in this expedition. er supplies were rendered necessary for the At the same time, however, in the event of troops. such a misfortune, he demanded from him At length, however, the Russians, con- the most solemn promise, never to submit sisting of 40,000 men, crossed the Oder, to a peace which in the slightest degree and Laudon was waiting ready to join them might bring shame or disgrace upon the with his 20,000 Austrians. Frederick, in house of Prussia. Frederick well knew such an extremity, resolved, in order to save how to live and die as a king, and he would himself, to have recourse to extraordinary willingly have lost his life rather than be measures. Among his generals he had made a prisoner; for he was too well aware one, young it is true, but at the same time what great sacrifice his enemies would distinguished beyond any other for his dar- have demanded for his ransom. ing courage in difficult circumstances: this On the 12th of August, he found the was General Wedel. Him he held as best united forces of the Russians and Austriqualified to be intrusted with the command ans, amounting to 60,000 men, strongly inagainst the Russians, but he was doubtful trenched upon the heights of KUinersdorf, whether or not, perhaps, the senior generals near Frankfort on the Oder. After reconwould submit to his orders. The king, noitring their position, he formed his plan however, decided at once to adopt the plan of battle, and which was so drawn out as of the Romans-who in extreme danger to ensure not only a complete victory, but made it a rule to place the whole authority likewise the entire annihilation of the eneand direction of affairs in the hands of one my. Many have condemned the king for man, whom tht y styled their dictator-and conceiving his plan upon such desperate accordingly appointed General Wedel dic- and cruel principles; but this very plan is tator over the army opposed to the Rus- a characteristic evidence of the greatness BATTLE OF KUNERSDORF. 399 of a general, who prefers terminating the himself, led them on to the attack, they war with one blow rather than tediously were repulsed, until at last the entire army prolonging it by a succession of insignifi- was seized with terror and dismay, and cant actions, and which, nevertheless, when took to flight. The Austrian cavalry now summed together, prove by their results pursued and fell upon the fugitives, causing still more murderous in the lives sacrificed. the most dreadful carnage, and all hopes And, again, why should such a reproach of making a retreat in good order were out be made against Frederick, seeing how of question. Frederick himself, when he many enemies he had to battle with at witnessed the defeat of his troops, a defeat once, and how much reason he had rather, such as he had never before experienced, if possible, to bring hostilities to an end was seized with such overpowering feelwith each, by contending with them sepa- ings of depression and despair, that he rerately? But the plan of the battle of nounced all thought of saving his own life; Kinersdorf was not the cause of the mis- there he was seen amidst the dead, the fortune of the day; it was produced, firstly, dying, and the wounded, in every part of through ignorance of the different localities the field, during which he had two horses around-for although the king had collect- killed under him, and he himself received ed information from those who knew the a bullet in his left side which penetrated country, he was still left without an exact through his coat to his waistcoat pocket, knowledge of the field of battle; and, where fortunately its dangerous course was secondly, through the too great confidence stopped by his gold snuff-box. At length, he placed in human strength. For after as he continued utterly regardless of all having succeeded, by the most extraordi- that passed around him, paying no attennary exertions of his troops, in his attack tion to the warnings of those near him to against the left wing of the Russians, cap- save his life, and as at that moment several turing ninety pieces of cannon, and putting squadrons of the Austrian cavalry were the whole of this left wing to flight-so that galloping towards him, some of his suite the king, in his elated hopes, had already seized the bridle of his horse and led him dispatched a courier to Berlin with the an- away almost by force from the field of nouncement of victory-and the day now battle. He was conveyed under the esdeclining, his generals advised him to pause cort of Captain Prittwitz and his troop of and spare his worn-out soldiers, especially hussars to a temporary place of security. as the Austrians had not as yet taken any Here the king wrote with his pencil a share in the battle, and the right wing of hasty note to his minister, Finkenstein, the Russians still remained immoveable. saying, "All is lost! save the royal famThey likewise added their expectations, ily!" and a few hours afterwards he sent that the enemy would withdraw from the another note with the words: " The consefield in the course of the night of his own quences of this lost battle will be still more accord. The king, however, who would dreadful than the battle itself. I shall not not hear of any work being half done, paid survive the ruin of my country. Farewell no attention to their representations; while forever!" at the same time, no doubt, he perceived Such was the depressed and gloomy state how dangerous it would be to break off of Frederick's mind and heart; and when the fight in the immediate vicinity of the on the evening of that dreadful day, as he Austrian army, ready prepared and wait- lay stretched sleepless upon his bed of ing for battle; accordingly, he gave imme- straw, in the almost roofless hut of a poor diate orders to make a fresh attack. Thus peasant, in the village of Oetscher, and the soldiers, already faint and exhausted while his small retinue were asleep on the with the great exertions they had made stone floor around him, he was thus abanduring the whole of that hot day, were doned to his own thoughts, he felt more again doomed to scale the heights and con- acutely than ever how little it is that man, quer the strongest positions, whence the with all his strength, can accomplish when batteries of heavy artillery scattered the left to himself, and how vain are all his most dreadful havoc among their ranks. calculations. For, in his present reverses, The greatest courage could not possibly he saw and acknowledged that if he and hold out before such superiority of force; his nation were not rescued by a higher each time that their generals, and the king power, they must be irretrievably lost. The 400 JEALOUSY OF THE RUSSIAN AND AUSTRIAN GENERALS. road to Berlin was now left completely open Nevertheless, Prince Henry could not for the invasion of the conquering enemy, prevent the king from suffering at the end and he would be enabled to penetrate without of this campaign two severe losses. The opposition into the very heart of the king- first was the evacuation of Dresden, the dom. Of the Prussian army the king, on most important place for the Prussians the morning after the battle, was only able during the whole war, and which was surto collect together about 10,000 men, and rendered to the Austrians. Frederick, it was only after some time had elapsed, after the battle of Kiinersdorf, had sent when a considerable body of the fugitives orders to Count Schmettau, the governor of had returned, and he had been joined by all that city, in case he was seriously attackthe stray troops he could muster, that his ed, to save, before every thing else, the whole force was increased to 20,000 men; military chest which contained seven milwhile with great difficulty he partially re- lions of dollars. Following but too exactly placed the 165 pieces of cannon he had these commands, General Schmettau gave lost at Kiinersdorf, by a fresh supply from up the city to the imperial army the same Berlin. Nevertheless, his capital was day (the 4th of September) on which Gensaved; for the Russian general-influ- eral Wunsch-sent too late by the king to enced either by some secret consideration the succor of the city-arrived in the towards his hereditary prince, Peter, or vicinity. The chest was saved, but all perhaps, by the indignation excited against the provisions, together with the place itthe Austrians for their inactivity, did not self, were sacrificed: a loss which enabled follow up his victory. For when he was General Daun to establish his winter quarsummoned by Field-marshal Daun to ad- ters for the first time in Saxony. Fredevance with his forces, Soltikow wrote to rick used all his efforts in order to dislodge him in reply: " I have already gained two him from this position. He dispatched battles, and now I only wait to march in General Fink with 13,000 men to attack advance until I receive news that you have the rear of the Austrian army near Maxen; gained two victories likewise. It is not but, in his desire to see the idea he had just that the troops of my empress should formed brought into operation, the king be expected to do every thing alone." lost sight of the danger of the enterprise. This jealousy and discontent between the The general, who, however, at once perleaders of both nations continued during ceived this peril, but who, in spite of his rethe whole war, and produced more than presentations, was forced to proceed to aconce the salvation of the Prussian monarch tion, lost, immediately on being attacked, in moments of extreme difficulty and dan- all confidence and presence of mind, and, ger. after a brief but sanguinary combat, surMeantime the Austrian general was de- rendered, together with the remains of his tained in Lusatia by the king's brother, army, about 5000 fighting men, to the Prince Henry, who on this occasion em- Austrians. Such an event was hitherto ployed every stratagem in the art of war to unheard-of in the Prussian army, and it gain his object, and by continual marching served as an expiation for the 14,000 Saxand counter-marching, without risking a ons who, at the commencement of the war, single battle, forced his enemy to retreat were made prisoners by the Prussians across the mountains of Bohemia. The nearly on the very same spot. Daun prudence and caution exercised by the entered the city of Dresden with his prisonprince in conducting this war were such, ers in triumph, and nothing could now alter that he effected, without shedding a drop his determination to take up his winter of blood, that which the impetuosity and quarters in Saxony. The king, who could rash courage of his brother would only not endure the idea, resolved to harass him have accomplished after a sanguinary bat- by his firmness, and remained encamped, tie; and it appeared as if fate had brought in the open plain, and in spite of the most the two together, in order that the one severe frost, near Wildsruf, during the brother might repair the faults of the other. space of six weeks; through which he forFrederick himself has avowed this charac- ced Daun to do the same, and to suffel ter of his brother, when he says: " He was equally from the inclemency of the season. the only general throughout the entire war Finally, however, in the month of January, who committed no faults." 1760, the excessive, rigorously cold weather CONTINUED DISASTERS OF FREDERICK. 401 forced both leaders to afford their armies 23d of June, he, with his 8000 Prussians, some repose, and the king, determined not was attacked and surrounded on all sides to abandon that portion of Saxony which by 30,000 Austrians, he bravely maintainstill belonged to him, established his head- ed the unequal contest for more than eight quarters in Freiburg. hours, and in order to resist the charges of The situation of King Frederick became the Austrian cavalry, he formed his infantry more and more difficult at the opening of into squares, and thus, as long as strength every fresh campaign. The sphere of in. prevailed, they disputed every inch of dependence which he could still call his ground. At length, however, the brave own, and in which he could move freely, general's charger having received a shot, had not been much, if at all, circumscribed; fell and overthrew his rider, who must but the resources upon which he depended have been cut to pieces by the enemy, had for life and strength to carry on the war, not his faithful yager rushed forward, and, declined materially. His army was con- shielding him with his own body, received siderably diminished in numbers, and was the thrusts aimed at his master. The very deficient in its appointments; while, general was then recognised by an Austrion the other hand, the forces of the enemy an officer, who, seeing his wounded state, appeared to increase more numerously after took him under his own charge and saved each successive loss. His ever bold and him. The Prussian cavalry cut their way enterprising spirit, which indeed was only through, but the whole of the infantry, brought into full operation when on the with the exception of four thousand prisonattack, was now forced to submit to a war ers, were put to the sword. of defence; and even this, at the com- This was a severe blow to Frederick; mencement, yielded him but little advan- Fouquet was his friend, and Silesia now lay tage. In this campaign he determined to open before the enemy. Nevertheless, heprotect Saxony himself, while his brother soon rallied, and with the view of obliteraHenry was to maintain the Marches against ting, by one bold act, the impression of this the Russians, and General Fouquet was to defeat, he deceived Field-marshal Daun by defend Silesia against the Austrians, under simulated marches, got considerably in adLaudon. But the latter, the most distin- vance of him, and appeared suddenly beguished of all the Austrian generals, had fore the walls of Dresden, which he immeunder his command an army thrice the diately bombarded. It would have been, strength of that of the Prussians, and was of great advantage to him, had he been able enabled to hold it in a state of perfect inac- to make himself master of that place; but tivity, while a detachment of his own forces its brave commandant, General Macquire, laid siege to the important town and citadel although a third portion of that handsome of Glatz. Fouquet, therefore, now relin- city was completely laid in ashes by the quished his position in the Silesian moun- vigorous firing of the Prussians, would not tains, in order to afford more immediate for a moment think of a surrender, knowsuccor wherever it might be required. ing, as he did, that the grand Austrian arBut now the towns and villages in the my was following close in the rear of the mountains, inhabited by an active and in- king, and must shortly relieve the place. dustrious people, were forthwith most se- And, as he expected, Daun did come up verely and cruelly handled by the Austrian just in time before the city was forced to troopers, and their urgent appeals deter- surrender; and had that tardy generalonmined the king to give his general orders ly been more prompt in his measures, he to resume his former post in the mountains might have averted the whole of the injunear Landshut. Fouquet, who was of a ries inflicted upon Dresden. The king severe and austere disposition, whence he abandoned the siege and hurried on, in was by no means liked in Silesia, although hasty marches, to Silesia, where a fresh at the same time he was a most brave and disaster had summoned his presence: Gendetermined soldier, perceived the peril he eral Laudon, having, through the treachery was in; but, as his representations were and cowardice of the commandant, Oo, ant quite ineffectual, he resolved, at any rate, Italian, made himself, in one day, master to meet his fate, not, like Fink at Maxen, of Glatz-after Magdeburg, the most im. by a surrender, but by defending himself portant fortification of the Prussian states, to the last. Accordingly, when on the and the key to the whole of Silesia. For 51 402 BATTLE OF LIEGNITZ-SILESIA FREED. tunately, Laudon found in the governor of ed, and either slumbering upon their arms, Breslaw (the capital) General Tauenzien, or softly whispering together as they lay in a most determined opponent, whom nothing groups, the warriors awaited the approach could dismay, and who was soon relieved of day. Towards two o'clock, however, by Prince Henry, the officer in command of the patrol of husThe king had now likewise arrived in sars arrived at the royal tent in full gallop, Silesia, followed, or rather accompanied, by and awoke the king with the unexpected the Austrian army; for, onone side of him report that the foe was at hand, and within marched Field-marshal Daun, and on the a hundred yards only of the camp This other, General Lasci; and, at length, announcement acted like an electric shock; amidst constant fighting by day and night, in a few moments, however, the generals being incessantly attacked by the lighter were already mounted in their saddles, the troops, his army took up its position at Lieg- troops under arms and drawn up in line of nitz. Beyond this, Frederick was unable battle, and the cannon poured forth its deto proceed; for Daun, who had now form- struction. The astonished Laudon soon ed a junction with the army of Laudon, perceived, as the day dawned, that he had blocked up his passage towards Breslaw before him the greater part of the Prussian and Schweidnitz, which contained all his army, but far from being discouraged by magazines; while, on the other side, Prince that, he redoubled the ardor of his attack, Henry was detained by the Russians on the in hopes that Daun might hear the thunder Oder. The king had only enough provi- of the cannon and march to his aid; but sions to serve his army for a few days, and this was prevented by an adverse wind, the Austrians were as near to him as at which turned aside the echo, and that geneHochkirch, so that he was forced to change ral heard nothing. After a conflict of three ~his quarters every night, in order to secure hours, the battle was decided. Laudon himself against a surprise. At length the had lost four thousand killed, six thousand Austrians thought they had found the fa- wounded, together with eighty-two pieces vorable moment for giving battle, and ac- of artillery, and was forced to retreat in all cordingly, on the night preceding the 15th haste across Katzbach. Daun, who adof August, Laudon marched in advance, in vanced on his side against the king's army, order to gain possession of the heights of fell in with the right wing of the Prussians, Puffendorf, and thus take the Prussians in commanded by General Ziethen, and was the rear. It was resolved to attack the king received by a heavy discharge of artillery, on every side, and, if possible, to completely and having then found that Laudon had annihilate him. But it happened that on been defeated, he likewise made a retreat. this very night the king had ordered his This victory, with which the king was army to remove their camp in the greatest so opportunely favored by his good fortune, order and silence, inasmuch as, on the pre- ameliorated his condition materially, and ceding day, the Austrians had caused his he proceeded at once to profit by it with position to be too closely reconnoitred, and his usual promptitude. Three hours after accordingly he encamped his troops on the termination of the battle, he was althose very eminences of Puffendorf towards ready on his march, the prisoners in the'which Laudon was now advancing. The centre, the wounded, both friends and foes, watch-fires, kept up by peasants, were still being conveyed in wagons, in the rear, and seen burning in the old forsaken camp, and the captured cannon added to the train of patrols of Prussian hussars continued to cry artillery. The main body of the army out the challenge every quarter of an hour; marched that day more than fifteen miles, but the king and his troops were already and the road to Breslaw.was;now no longer established in their new quarters. The obstructed, neithei'r was! there any fear of].soldiers lay with their arms in their hands; the supplies being cutoff.;,while the king himselfg wrapped in his mil-. i ISilesia tvas' noxv ih a great measure deitary cloak andiseatld by the fire,:with his livered; but, meanttitrie, sad reeVerse'shad brave arld-faithful Ziethen and a few'others taken -plac;e;:in' the- Marches'and ih Saxof his- principal officers around hirii, had ony. The Russians had:>itreated from gradually falleh asleep. A -solemn still Breslav, -in order to-advance -^lotg the ness:rei-gned' tlrougiout'the whole army; Oder,; anid they resolved to march on with all noise, the slightest sound was interdict" 20,000 men, in jincti:ii with 15,000 AUlas BATTLE OF TORGAU-DREADFUL CARNAGE. 403 trians under General Lasci, to Berlin it- delay; as soon, however, as the king with self. This city was unable, with its feeble the advanced guard emerged therefrom, he garrison, to make any stand against such heard a heavy firing proceed, as he thought, a formidable force, and on the 4th of Octo- from Ziethen's division, and concluded that ber it surrendered to the Russian general, he was now fully engaged with the enemy. Totleben. Fortunately for Berlin, this This, however, was not the case, as the general was of a mild and humane dispo. firing only proceeded from the advanced sition, and preserved the place from pil- posts, and Daun was enabled to turn his lage, with the exception of the royal sum- whole force against the king; accordingly, mer residences in the vicinity, and several when the latter in his impetuous haste, and monuments of art, which were despoiled without waiting for the rest of his infantry by the Saxons. The allies held possession and cavalry, led on his grenadiers against of the city during the space of an entire the Austrian intrenchments, he was reweek, and large sums of money were ex- ceived with such a destructive cannonade tracted from the citizens; however, it be- from more than two hundred pieces of aring reported that the king was on his march tillery that whole lines of his men were to the relief of his capital, the enemy im- swept away as if by a thunderbolt, and mediately abandoned their conquest, and their bodies, thus stretched in rows upon retired into Saxony and across the Oder. the ground, prevented his cannoniers from Frederick came not merely on account bringing their guns to bear against the foe, of his captured city, but more especially and they themselves, with their horses, on account of Saxony. While he was were laid prostrate by the murderous fire, occupied in Silesia the imperial army had which continued without ceasing. The entered that territory, and, meeting with king himself declared to those around him no resistance, had taken possession of the that he had never witnessed such a scene entire country. Daun had now arrived of carnage; while the loud, thundering likewise with his army and encamped near peals of the artillery instantaneously deTorgau, in a very strong position. It was prived many of those who survived this now necessary for Frederick, if he did not dreadful day of their hearing. A grazing wish to lose that beautiful country alto- shot struck the king on his breast, but, gether, nor renounce the hope of fixing his happily, without producing any material winter quarters, for the first time, on his effect. Fresh battalions of the Prussian own soil, to reconquer it before the coming infantry came up and gained some ground, winter. No alternative was left him; and, but they were beaten back by the Ausas had happened several times already at trian cavalry, who, however, were rethe end of a campaign, he was once more pulsed in their turn by the Prussian horse, forced to stake a great loss against a great which had at length arrived on the field of gain, and, in truth, this time his destruc- battle, and now the conflict was kept up tion appeared inevitable should this peril- with varying success until night. But ous chance miscarry. Nevertheless, he the heart of the king was bowed down appears in such case to have made up his with grief and affliction; the flower of his mind to die-and as it proved, he was this infantry lay before him on the field, and time once again nearly on the point of yet the Austrian bulwarks were not gained, losing the battle. while Field-marshal Daun had even disThe attack upon the strongly-intrenched patched a courier to his empress with the lines of the enemy on the heights of Tor- announcement of victory. Fortune, howgau, was to be made on the 3d of Novem- ever, had ordained otherwise. ber from two sides by two separate divi- While, on the king's side, the contest sions of the army, one headed by the king was still carried on in the darkness of the in person, the other by Ziethen, who was night, and often friend against friend, owto lead his men round towards the Siptit- ing to the number of troops who had lost zer heights, and thus fall upon the rear of their way; and while, on account of the the Austrians. A thick forest concealed bitter coldness of the night, innumerable the king's approach, but his troops became fires were kept burning on the heath of more and more bewildered in the wood as Torgau, to which both the unwounded as they advanced, and were obliged to halt well as the wounded were glad to creep, several times, which produced considerable including even enemies as well as friends, 404 CONCLUSION OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. and again, just as the disheartened king, events. The exhaustion of the troops beseated on the lowest step of the altar of came more and more apparent, and Fredthe little church in the village of Elsnig, erick, who had usually been the foremost was occupied in writing his dispatches, his in enterprising vigor and activity, was veteran general, Ziethen, had gained the forced to act on the defensive, and to summit of the Siptitzer heights, after hav- devote all his strength in protecting what ing fought his way through until ten he still possessed, which truly was no easy o'clock at night, and finally formed a task. In 1761 he himself took the comjunction with General Saldern. By this mand in Silesia, and employed every the position of the Austrians became bro- stratagem in order to prevent the junction ken; they were unable to resume the of the Russian army under Butterlin with action next morning, and Daun, who had Laudon, who alone led on 72,000 Austrinimself received a wound in the heat of ans; and in this the king succeeded for a the battle, retreated during the night, in time, by which a great portion of the sumthe greatest silence, through Torgau across mer passed away in inaction, an advantage the Elbe to Dresden. This retreat was Frederick was anxious to avail himself of. effected so secretly that the Prussians were At length, however, the two armies united even preparing for a fresh action on the together on the 12th of August, in the enfollowing morning, completely unconscious virons of Strigau, and thus combined of the withdrawal of the enemy. When, formed a force of 130,000 men, by which however, Frederick rode out of the village Frederick found himself forced with his at early dawn, he, to his no little surprise, 50,000 men to retire to a strong position. found the field of battle abandoned by the Accordingly he fixed his quarters near Austrians, and he was hailed as victor by Bunzelwitz, where, for the space of twenhis troops. By this sanguinary battle he ty days, he was kept completely shut in reconquered the greater part of Saxony, by the enemy, and was forced to employ and he accordingly fixed the winter quar- so much vigilance that his men were kept ters of his army there, and established his under arms and formed in battle array own head-quarters in Leipsic itself. during the night, being only able to take their rest in the day-time.* And his adversaries being, as they were, nearly three times his superior in number, by falling upon and overwhelming the weakest points C H A P T E R XXXII. of his intrenchments, might have comConclusian of the Seven Years' War, 1761-1762-The pletely conquered the king, had they been Austrian and Russian Armies-The Camp of Bun- under the guidance of a genius capable of zelwitz-Frederick's difficult Position-Jealousy be- acting with the energy so necessary; but tween Generals Butterlin and Laudon-Schweidnitz necessary Glatz, and Colberg-Saxony —Berlin threatened by the two generals not being of accord, the Russians-The Prussians rise en mnasse to expel either in feeling or principle, and jealous them-Death of Elizabeth of Russia-Peter III.-i Peace and Alliance between Russia and Prussia- of each other's claims to distinctions, they Sweden-Battle of Reichenbach-Frederick victorious-Schweidnitz-Final Battle and Defeat of the Austrians at Freiberg-Peace between France and In the intrenched camp near Bunzelwitz FredeEngland, 1763-Peace between Prussia and Austria rick shared in all the fatigues and sufferings of his comat Hubertsburg, 1763-Observations-The Age of mon soldiers. Many nights he slept on one of the batFrederick the Great-His Army-Exerts himself to teries, reposing on a bundle of straw among his men. repair the Calamities of his Country-His indefatiga- One night he rose and thoughtfully proceeded with ble Industry-His Labors and Recreations-Genius General Ziethen between the lines of watchfires, around for Poetry and Music-His Early Years-His Father's which his worn-out men were lying asleep. One troopTyranny-Its sad effects eventually proved-His Pre- er, however, was very busy baking a cake, made of dilection for French Education and Literature- bacon and flour. The fragrant smell reached the king's Voltaire-Helvetius, &c.-His Anti-German Feel- nose; he halted, and addressing the busy soldier in a ings and neglect of National Genius-Lessing-Klop- friendly tone, said: " That cake, comrade, smells very stock-Goethe-Kant-Fichte-Jacobi, &c.-Joseph nice!" " Yes," returned the man, without looking up II., 1765-1790-Dismemberment of Poland, 1773 — from his cake, "I believe you, but you won't catch any Prussia and Russia-Stanislaus Poniatowski-Bava- more than a smell of it-that I can tell you!" " Hush, rian War of Succession, 1778-Death of Maria The- for heaven's sake!" exclaimed one or two of his comresa, 1780-Innovations and intolerant Measures of rades, who had started up at the king's voice. " What Joseph II.-Frederick and the Allied Princes of Ger- are you about? Why, don't you see that is the king many against Joseph II.-Death of Frederick the himself?" The soldier, believing theywere onlyjoking, Great, 1786-Death of Joseph II., 1790-Leopold II., and still attending to his cake without allowing him1790-1792. self to be disturbed, exclaimed laughingly: " Ha! ha! Well, and suppose it really was old Fritz, why what THE concluding years of the war are would that matter?" "Come along, Ziethen," said E concluding years o the war are the king to his companion, "I see we shan't be invited less distinguished for great and striking to supper here to-night l" -Machler. THE AUSTRIANS IN SILESIA. 405 refused to co-operate either for the renown ardent expression of that confidence with of the one or the other. Each imagined which he inspired all classes; a cordiality he was burdened with the most heavy por- of feeling which was echoed forth in tion of the common labor, and, as was strains of loyalty and patriotism by the usual in this war, the Russians not being youth of all ranks throughout the land, as able to act in unison with the Austrians, they hastened to join the standard of their they again on this occasion separated with- heroic leader. Thence it was clearly out having effected any thing. Thus manifested that as long as they continued Frederick with his army was now left in to be thus strengthened by the zealous cogreater freedom, and in order to secure operation of the inhabitants themselves, himself against all pursuit from the Rus- both the king and his army might still bid sians-at least for this year-he caused all defiance to the invaders: for king, army, their magazines in Poland to be pillaged and people, being firmly united by one inand destroyed by a bold expedition he dissoluble bond, the ruin with which all placed under the orders of General Platen; were threatened, should it prove inevitable, in the execution of which commission that must at least be gloriously shared by all. brave commander so well succeeded, that The new year, however, unexpectedly the Russian army was completely para- brought with it a bright ray of hope; for lyzed for this campaign. on the 5th of January, 1762, the Russian Nevertheless, this year was not to pass empress, Elizabeth, died, and in her Fredaway without some misfortune for the erick was relieved of one of his bitterest king. When he abandoned his camp of foes. Her nephew, Peter III., now asBunzelwitz, in order to allure the Aus- cended the throne, and being an enthusiastrians down to the plains of Silesia, Lau- tic admirer of Frederick the Great, he don suddenly descended the mountains, obeyed at once the impulse of his mind, and and instead of following the king, he di- forthwith discharged all the Prussian prisonrected his march at once to Schweidnitz, ers without any ransom, and not only signed which he surprised, and it being but on the 5th of May, at St. Petersburg, a slightly garrisoned, he took it by assault in treaty of so disinterested a character, that the night of the 1st of October. Thus, by he relinquished the whole of Prussia withthe occupation of Schweidnitz and Glatz, out any indemnity whatever, but likewise the Austrians had now at command the immediately formed an alliance with Fredentire moiety of Silesia, and were enabled erick, and caused his own general, Czerto pass the winter there. In addition to nitschef, to march with 20,000 Russians this the Russians, on their part, took pos- to the aid of the Prussians in Silesia. session of Colberg on the 13th of Decem- Sweden followed the example of Russia; ber, after a siege of fourmonths, by which for, weary of a campaign producing so they were enabled to establish their winter little honor and glory, she made peace quarters for once at least in Pomerania. likewise with Prussia, at Hamburg, on the The king had never before been so com. 22d of May. pletely hemmed in. Prince Henry, it is Frederick was now enabled to employ true, had, during the summer, succeeded all his energies against the Austrians, and against all the attacks of Daun's forces, in calculated upon speedily recovering Silemaintaining possession of the whole of that sia from them. He resolved to commence portion of Saxony still remaining in his with Schweidnitz itself; and as Fieldbrother's hands, but this only formed the marshal Daun protected it from a very moiety of that country, and thus the Rus- strong position he occupied near Burkerssians, in the course of the coming spring, dorf, Frederick decided accordingly to atwould be enabled to advance within a few tack him at this point immediately after yards of Berlin itself. Reduced to such being joined by his Russian allies. He extremity, it might have been expected was already on his march, when suddenly that the Prussian nation would have at the discouraging report reached him that length resigned all hope; on the.contrary, the Russian emperor, Peter III., had been however, they did not abandon themselves murdered, and his consort Catherine proto despair, but, showing themselves worthy claimed empress, news almost immediately of their king, they cheered and supported confirmed by the commands received from him in this adversity by one enthusiastic, St. Petersburg by Czernitschef, to return 406 CATHERINE OF RUSSIA. with his army to Poland forthwith. The without committing herself by promising young emperor, on coming to the throne, him her aid in the prosecution of the war had imprudently and most prematurely against Austria. commenced introducing many innovations Frederick now commenced the siege of into Russia, by which he produced great Schweidnitz, which, however, occupied the irritation and disgust among the clergy entire summer; for badly as the Russians and nobility, in addition to which he had themselves had, on the one hand, on two preill-used his wife, and by various ill-judged viousoccasionsdefendedthisimportantplace, acts, evinced a striking partiality for the Ger- it was now determined by the Austrians, on mans around him, whence he was deprived their part, to maintain its possession as long of his throne and life within six months after as they possibly could, and with which obthe commencement of his reign. ject, General Guasco, the commandant, and Frederick beheld himself now again Gribauval, its engineer, exerted all their threatened with danger from a quarter courage and skill. The siege lasted nine whence he had vainly hoped to receive weeks, the king himself superintending the important aid in his war against Aus- operations with unabated zeal to the last tria; for he could not but anticipate that moment; and it was not until they had lost Catherine would be similarly disposed to- all hopes of relief, and were left completely wards him as had been her predecessor, without provisions, that the Austrians at Elizabeth. Nevertheless he took courage, length, on the 9th of October, surrendered and arranging his plans, resolved at any the place with its garrison of 10,000 men rate to derive all the advantage he could to Frederick. from the presence of the Russians. And This year Prince Henry, with his usual so great was the influence of Frederick's measures of prudence, conducted the war genius over other men, that he soon pre- in Saxony so successfully, that he retained vailed upon General Czernitschef to with- possession of the whole country with the hold from the knowledge of his army, at exception of Dresden, while he at the same least for three days, the orders he had re- time was equally fortunate in the expediceived for his return; and marching with tions he made into Bohemia and the impehir against the Austrians on the day of rial states, in which he was ably seconded attack, thus succeeded by his presence in by the brave generals under his orders, holding a portion of the enemy's troops in Seidlitz, Kleist, and Belling. When finally check-a service which Czernitschef, al- the Austrians, with the imperial auxiliaries, though he could not resist the king's per- attempted by superiority of numbers to suasion, felt he yielded at the risk of his drive him from the advantageous position head. Frederick gave battle on the fol- he held in Freiberg, he attacked them at lowing day and gained it. The Russian once on the 29th of October, and com. army next day separated from the king, pletely routed them. This was the last and and retired. Czernitschef, however, was concluding engagement in the Seven Years' not called to account for his conduct in this War. The king, on the 24th of Novemaffair, inasmuch as the opinions and feel- ber, signed an armistice with Austria, and ings of the empress towards Frederick had distributed his troops in their winter quarnow undergone a favorable change. She ters, extending through the country from had at first imagined that Frederick him- Thuringia to Silesia; General Kleist, howself had excited her husband to adopt the ever, was left with 10,000 men to keep the harsh measures he had pursued against field against the princes of the empire, and her; but when, after the death of Peter, penetrating into Franconia, forced each she looked through his papers, and unex. prince, one after the other, to conclude a pectedly found several letters addressed to peace. him by Frederick, in which he exhorted Duke Ferdinand of Brunswick, meanhim most earnestly to exercise prudence in time, during the last three years of the all the measures he adopted, and more es- war, had well and gloriously maintained pecially to act with kind and gentle feelings his reputation in defending Lower Saxony towards his wife, the empress immediately and Westphalia. France employed all changed the course of her policies against her powers to reconquer these countries, Frederick, and ratified the peace made be- and preserve the honor of her arms; fresh tween her late husband and the king, yet commanders were continually appointed, END OF THE SEVEN YEARS' WAR. 407 and her army in 1761 was reinforced to the of conquests was made-the prisoners ex. numberof 150,000 men, but which,although changed-and neither party claimed inonly opposed by a force of 80,000 men, demnification for the expenses or losses in. could effect nothing but the occupation of curred. Frederick remained, therefore, in Hesse, which it was impossible for Ferdinand possession of Silesia, and he restored to to defend, inasmuch as he was threatened the elector of Saxony his estates. Thus from two quarters at once, viz., from the this severe and sanguinary war had in its Lower Rhine and the Maine. On the results produced no change in the external other hand, neither stratagem nor menace state of things, although it had at least incould make him quit his position on the left culcated certain great lessons, and to which bank of the Weser and on the Dimel, it cannot be denied but that Europe was whence he protected Lower Saxony and indebted for the happy state of tranquillity Westphalia simultaneously. The gener- she enjoyed after the conclusion of this als under his command-the hereditary peace, during the space of nearly thirty prince of Brunswick, Sporken, Kielmann- years. Agitation in public affairs, suspisegge, and Luckner, distinguished them- cion and jealousy, productive of so much selves in many separate engagements. At hostility among states, were now at an end, the close of the last campaign, a success- and all were sincere in the conviction that ful battle near Wilhelmsthal placed the the actual condition of affairs would be duke in a position by which he was enabled lasting. Fate had pronounced its decree to act on the offensive, and by a second in favor of Prussia, that, viz., its power restengagement near Lutterberg, which ter- ed upon a sure and solid basis as long as it minated equally to his advantage, he suc- was guided and governed by united thought ceeded in driving the French from the vi- and action, however limited might be its cinity of Cassel, and thus completed the sphere. An earnest, industrious, and warcampaign of the year 1762, as well as the like feeling evinced both by king and peoentire war, by the conquest of this city, on pie, justice and economy in the administrathe 1st of November. An armistice was tion of affairs, a progressive spirit of renow likewise concluded with the imperial search for all that the age brings with it powers in this quarter. and yields of the really good and nobleThe whole of the belligerent nations such were the means which enabled Fredwere now exhausted and longed for repose. erick and his nation to maintain singleEngland had made great and important handed the war against the moietyof Euconquests beyond the seas, but had at the rope, and such means must ever continue same time increased her national debt by to operate for the preservation of Prussia, at least one hundred and twenty millions as long as she knows how to treasure up sterling, and, since the demise of George and avail herself of these resources. II., and after the earl of Bute, the precep- Austria indicated at this time, likewise, tor of the new sovereign, had become as on every former occasion when threatprime-minister instead of Pitt, a desire for ened with the danger of vicissitude, that peace was more and more strongly felt, a her power was not so easily destroyed, that feeling in which France likewise joined. her rich and beautiful domains, the faithful Thus Frederick and Maria Theresa were adherence and co-operation of her inhabitnow left to carry on the war alone; but Aus- ants, their attachment to a mild and patertria, although amply provided with troops, nal government, nourished within thembeing, nevertheless, without money to fur- selves a germ of life, unchangeable and nish the necessary supplies, was not in a unsurpassed. And equally on their parts condition to continue hostilities unaided, and the Hessians, Hanoverians, and the troops as Frederick's only object from the first of Lower Saxony, when fighting against was to retain possession of Silesia, he agreed the French invaders, evinced enduring peraccordingly, upon having that territory severance and courage to such a degree as secureo.i him, to sign a treaty of peace. to add greatly to the glory of the German Austria having, therefore, yielded to him name; and, in fact, the fame of this war this point, he at once ratified the convention conduced especially to the honor of the Geras framed by his own plenipotentiary and mans generally. those of Austria and Saxony, in the castle And when it was inquired who had shown of Hubertsburg in Saxony. A restitution a superiority of mind in the tumult of bat. 408 OBSERVATIONS-MERITS OF BOTH ARMIES. tie, and had given undeniable proofs of that empire. The condition, in fact, of the de. rapidity of thought which knows how to liberative and influential portion of our con. seize the immediate moment for action, all stitution was so imperfect; the forms esmouths proclaimed and referred to the tablished for the direction of affairs were so names of Frederick the Great and Duke antiquated; the course of proceedings so Ferdinand of Brunswick. Nor was it for- tedious and inefficient-that unless both gotten to include, as equally worthy of dis- heart and arm had done their duty so well, tinction, that of Prince Henry, who, as the and thus shown to other lands that the marmodel of what a prudent and wary general tial spirit of ancient Germany had not yet should be, well knew how to keep an enemy vanished, the country must long ere this of far superior force in constant exercise, have become the spoil of the stranger. while at the same time, by wisely-laid plans, France gained but little honor in this he adroitly maintained his own ground with- war; her feeble, unsystematic government out exposing his little band to that destruc- had clearly shown that its administration tion otherwise so inevitable. Finally, in was in the hands of women and their favor. the list of heroic names, those of Ziethen* ites, and thence it languished in mortal and Seidlitz, who so especially distinguished throes. Nevertheless, that country did not themselves at the head of their cavalry, ap- lose so much by the peace of Paris, which peared conspicuous with the rest. On the was signed five days previous to that of other hand, all who wished to study the art Hubertsburg, as might have been expected of selecting good and masterly positions for after the success of the English at sea; but an army, or of choosing the critical, well- this peace was brought about by the not timed moment for bringing the guns to work over-sagacious statesman, the earl of Bute, with fatal and unerring effect, were referred while Pitt, on the contrary, when presiding to the Austrians, and the names of Generals at the head of the administration, had in the Brown, Laudon, Nadasti, Lacsi, and others, course of the war made manifest in the most were justly registered on the side of the brilliant manner what extraordinary energy older celebrated generals of Austria. dwelt in the English nation, and which only It is consoling to reflect that such great waited for the proper moment to be brought renown was calculated to mitigate at least into full operation. the sorrow and pain arising from the state During the period of repose, which conof embittered strife existing between the ri- tinued for nearly thirty years, consequent val nations of a country with which all were upon the peace of Hubertsburg, various equally allied as its children, and who, new developments, the germs of which had forgetting all distinctions, and considering been planted at an earlier date, now began themselves as one people, ought rather to to attain a degree of perfection. With the have joined in the grasp of fraternal friend- view of characterizing this era by one ship and peace; while these warlike term, we have denominated it the Age of achievements served in some measure to Frederick the Great, because in him was throw into the shade the bad system pur- embodied the spirit of the age, and in him sued by the interqal government of the were seen on a grand scale both the good and the evil of his contemporaries. It re*Once Frederick marched at the head of the grena- mains for us, in order to become thoroughly diers of his guard until the depth of night. At length acquainted with the man, to contemplate he made halt, dismounted, and said: "Grenadiers, it his character in peace as well as during is cold to-night. Come, light a fire and let us warmcter n peace as well as during ourselves."-Saying which, he wrapped his blue man- the continuance of war. tie around him and seated himsel upon some bundlesrst and most immediate object of of wood, while some of his grenadiers laid themselvest an most mmeate ect down around him. At length General Ziethen came Frederick's attention and anxiety was the up and sat himself down next to the king, and both, extremely tired and worn out, soon fell asleep. There-establishment of his army, in order that king however, was the first to awake, and observing no enemy might hope to reap advantage that Ziethen in his sleep had s!ipped off from one of the bundles of wood, and that a grenadier was replacing it from a sudden renewal of hostilities. In under him, he exclaimed softly: "Ah, the old man is order to bring the recently-levied troops indeed knocked up!" Just afterwards another grenadier, only half awake, sprang up, and proceeding to upon a par with his veteran well-trained light his pipe, happened to touch against the old war- warriors-of whom, however, but a very rior's foot. Frederick rose up suddenly, and holding up his finger to the soldier, said, in a whisper, "Hush, small number still remained-military ex. grenadier! Take care, don't wake up our old Ziethen, and dwith th he is tired enough. Let him sleep on; he has watched ercise and drilling were enforced with te long and often enough for us!"-Miichler. most rigorous exactness. But in this instance FREDERICK'S GREAT ECONOMY-IMPROVES HIS KINGDOM. 409 it happened, as is too frequently the case in dissipating the entire mass in the most unthe generalityofhuman affairs, whenendeav- licensed prodigality and waste, he lived in ors are made to preserve entire and perpetu- a style so simple and frugal, that out of ate an institution which in the moment of its the sum appropriated to the maintenance most glorious development appeared perfect, of his court, he saved annually nearly a that the form which then belonged to. it be- million of dollars comes essential, while the spirit, which can He explained on one occasion to M. de never assume a second time the same mode, Launay, the assessor of indirect taxes, the abandons that form, and gradually puts on principles by which he was actuated in another which is new and strange; but this respect, in clear and distinct terms: men continue for a length of time to respect "Louis XV. and I," he said, "are born that which is merely the envelope, equally more needy than the poorest of our subas much as if they possessed the reality it jects; for there are but few among them encloses. The illustrious monarch himself, who do not possess a small inheritance, or when he beheld the whole of Europe adopt who cannot at least earn it by their labor his military tactics, was deceived in the and industry; while he and I possess nothover-estimation of their value. The sys- ing, neither can we earn any thing but tem of maintaining standing armies was what must belong to the state. We are carried to its highest point, and became the merely tile stewards appointed for the adprincipal object in the administration of ministration of the general fund; and if, as every state; grave utility degenerated into such, we were to apply to our own personal mere display, until a grand convulsion of expenditure more than is reasonably necesthe world made its vanity and puerility but sary, we should, by such proceeding, not too apparent. only bring down upon ourselves severe The care taken by Frederick to effect condemnation in the first place for extravathe restoration of his overwhelmed country gance, but likewise for having fiaudulently was a much more beneficent employment taken possession of that which was confided of his energies, and was productive of in- to our charge for the public weal." calculable good, while it formed the most The particular care and interest shown by imperishable leaf in his wreath of glory. the king in the cultivation of the soil, proThe corn which was already bought up duced its speedy improvement. Large tracts for the next campaign he bestowed upon of land were rendered arable, fresh supplies the most destitute of his people, as seed for of laborers were procured from other counsowing, together with all his superfluous tries, and where formerly marsh and moor horses. The taxes were remitted for six were generally prevalent, fertile, flourishmonths in Silesia, and for two years in ing corn-fields were substituted instead. Pomerania and Neumark, which were com- These happy results, which greeted the eye pletely devastated. Nay, the king, in or. of Frederick whenever he took his regularlyder to encourage agriculture and industry, appointed journeys throughout his domin. appropriated large sums of money for that ions, were highly grateful to his feelings; purpose in proportion to the greatness of while during these tours of survey nothing the exigency, and these various sums escaped his acutely-observing mind; so amounted altogether during the four-and- much so, that few sovereigns could boast twenty years of his reign after the peace of of such a thorough knowledge of their doHubertsburg, to no less than twenty-four mains-even to the most trifling detailsmillions of dollars. Such noble generosity as the king of Prussia acquired of his own redounds still more to the glory of Freder- estates through continual.and indefatigable ick, inasmuch as it was only practicable application to this one object. Silesia, through the exercise of great economy, which had suffered so much, was especially and to promote which, he subjected himself dear to his feelings, and to that territory he to every personal sacrifice. His maxim devoted particular attention; when, therewas that his treasure belonged not to him- fore, upon a general census in the year self, but to the people who supplied it; and 1777, he found it contained 180,000 more while many other princes-not bearing in inhabitants than in the year 1756, when mind the heavy drops of sweat which ad- the war commenced; and when he perceive hered to each of the numerous gold pieces ed the losses sustained during that war wrung from their subjects-only thought of thus amply repaired, and the glorious re. 52 410 FREDERICK'S INDUSTRY AND RECREATIONS suits produced by agricultural labor and were of such an animated and enlivening commercial enterprise, he, in the gladness nature, that they were not inaptly comparof his heart, expressed, in a letter to his ed to the entertainments of Socrates himfriend Jordan, the sensations he felt at be- self. Unfortunately, however, according holding the flourishing state of a province, to the taste of that age, nothing but witthe condition of which was but a short time ticisms and humorous sallies were made before so sadly depressed and miserable. the subject of due appreciation and apIndustry is indispensable in a people plause. Vivacity of idea promptly exwho depend on their energy and activity pressed, and strikingly apropos allusions, for their rank among nations; but this were the order of the day, while profunrank is not the only attendant advantage: dity of thought, and subjects of more grave a benefit far greater is the fresh, healthy and serious discussion, were banished as vigor it imparts to the people. And in ill-timed and uncalled-for: a necessary this respect Frederick the Great was a consequence, arising from the exclusive striking example, truly worthy of imitation adoption of the French language which by all his subjects; for even during the formed the medium of communication at early period of his life, he already wrote these rtunions of Frederick the Great. The to his friend Jordan thus: "You are quite rest of the day was passed in the perusal right in believing that I work hard; I do of official dispatches, private correspondso to enable me to live, for nothing so near- ence, and ministerial documents, to each ly approaches the likeness of death, as the of which he added his replies and observahalf-slumbering, listless state of idleness." tions in the margin. After having gone And, subsequently, when he had become through this all-important business-routine old and feeble, this feeling still retained of the day, he directed his attention to the its power, and operated with all its original more recreative occupations of his pleasinfluence upon his mind, for in another let- ure-grounds and literary compositions-of ter to the same friend, he says: " I still feel which latter Frederick has left behind him as formerly the same anxiety for action; as a rich collection; and finally, as a last rethen, I now still long to work and be busy, source of amusement, he occasionally deand my mind and body are in continual voted a few stolen moments to his flute, contention. It is no longer requisite that upon which he was an accomplished perI should live, unless I can live-and work." former.* This, his favorite instrument inAnd truly in making a profitable use of deed, like an intimate and faithful friend, his time, King Frederick displayed a per- served often to allay the violent exciteseverance which left him without a rival, ments of his spirit, and while he strolled and even in his old age he never swerved from the original plan he had laid down In the course of a jourey which Frederick once ~i> ^..*n~~ made into Holland, quite incognito giving himself out and followed from his earliest manhood, as a musician he arrived at a small tavern in Amsterfor even on the very day before his death dam, especially celebrated for the rich cakes produced there. Feeling a desire to taste one, he commanded he was to be seen occupied with the busi- his travelling companion and aide-de-camp, Colonel ness of his government. Each hour had Von Balby, to order one of the landlady. The colonel obeyed the command, but the landlady, rather suspiits occupation, and the one grand principle cious of her plainly-dressed guests, measured the meswhich is the soul of all industry, viz. to senger from top to toe, and exclaimed, " Why, it is all very well for you to order it, but pray, sir, cal you pay leave overfrom to-day nothing for the mor- for it when it is made? Do you know that such a cake row, passed with Frederick as the inviola- as you order will cost more than six or seven guilders?" row, passed with Frederck as the inviola- Tro this the colonel replied by assuring her that the ble law of his whole life. The entire day gentleman with whom he travelled was immensely -commencing at the hour of four in the rich, that he played the flute so beautifully, that whenever he performed in public a considerable sum was morning and continuing until midnight, collected in a very short time. "Indeed! Oh,then," accordingly five-sixths of the day-was landlady, I must certainly hear him directly, accordingly five-sixths of the day-wasI am sovery fond of music." Saying which, she hurdevoted to some occupation of the mind or ried on before the colonel to the king's chamber and foi r, p in order that even the hour of said very politely: "I understand, sir, that you play a heart, for in order that even the hour oftune very well; oblige me by warbling something for repast might not be wholly monopolized by ne to hear!" Frederick could not, at first, imagine the1 mere g* rat a h m Fred- what she meant, but the colonel explanining to him in the mere gratification of the stomach, Fred- French the origin of this singular request, he laughed, erick assembled around him at mid-day and seizing his flute from the table, played in such a masterly style, that the listener was struck with admiand in the evening, a circle of intellectual ration, and when, to her sorrow, he ceased, she exmen, and these conversaziones-in which claimed, "Excellent! You do, indeed, play sweetly and Idare say can earn a few guilders. Well, youshall the king himself took an important share- have your cake, at any rate!" —Miichler HIS YOUTH-EDUCATION-HIS DESPOTIC FATHER. 411 with it through his suite of rooms, often for tion, which alone is capable of developing hours together, his thoughts, as he himself the tender feelings of youth, and this want relates, became more and more collected, he continued to evince unhappily throughand his mind better prepared for calm and out his entire after-life to the day of his serious meditation. Nevertheless, he never death. In the fire of youth his heart was permitted affairs of state to be neglected open to impressions of the most enthusiastic for the sake of the enjoyments he sought friendship; but this ardor of feeling, howboth in music and in poetry, and in this ever sincere and pure, gradually dissolved point of view Frederick's character must into icy indifference and misanthropy unever command respect and admiration. der the rigor of discipline to which he was Hence how glorious might have been the subjected; so that, finally, the great king reign of this monarch, and overwhelming saw himself abandoned and, anchorite-like, every intervening obstacle, how nobly might left to the solitary enjoyment of his own he have exalted the age he lived in, and by thoughts and feelings. his acts have identified himself with the The injurious and baneful custom of the elevated position to which his nation might age required that French preceptors and have aspired, had his mind, when in its French books should furnish the means by infancy, received from the cherishing hand which to direct the sphere of thought both of his parents that encouraging and uner- of the boy and youth; and already, in the ring direction by which those noble, honest, earlier period of his youth, Frederick unand upright feelings implanted in him by happily became acquainted with the wrinature must have become more and more tings of a man, whose influence upon the developed and confirmed. age he lived in produced no little evil, and Unhappily, however, the bad education whose acute mind and satirical, cutting wit, Frederick received left many a noble germ left nothing sacred undefiled. This, manwithin him neglected. His father, Fre- Voltaire-was to the youthful and suscepderick William I., was a man of a stern tible mind of the prince, a model worthy of and forbidding character, for whom the imitation. The productions of this writer muses had no charms, neither did he ever were daily studied by him, and they so show the least affection for his son Fre- completely fascinated his mind, that he rederick, who from his earliest age evinced garded him as exalted above all other men, a strong desire to cultivate habits of a more and impelled by his enthusiasm, he sought refined nature than those indulged in by the friendship of that dangerous individual his father, whence the latter subjected him as a treasure far beyond appreciation. The to the most harsh and despotic treatment. vain and selfish Frenchman well knew how He placed no confidence in him as his to profit by this feeling, so clearly expressed successor to the throne, and he even pro- in the letters he received from the young jected substituting his second son, Augustus prince. He flattered his royal friend in William, instead; and by this means the return, and in this game of reciprocal heart of Frederick became more and more egotism, Frederick imagined he had sucestranged from the paternal roof. until it ceeded in forming the basis of a friendship was rendered cold and dead to all the ties which should prove to be not only sincere, of filial affection. At length this state of but lasting. But as friendship can only things operated with such influence upon subsist on a foundation of truth, and in conhis mind, that in the year 1730 the prince, nection with joint and zealous efforts for the when on a journey to Wesel with his father, attainment of virtue, the union of these two made a desperate attempt to escape from men, resting upon so unstable a basis, the oppression he endured under the pa- could not withstand the force of any severe ternal control; but being discovered and test. In their subsequent intercourse, after retaken, it was with great difficulty that Voltaire, in 1750, had taken up his resihe escaped being made a sacrifice to the dence at the court of the king, the coldindignant, ungovernable rage of his ruth- ness, jealousy, and malignity of the favorite less father, who would but too willingly became more and more manifest; the film have sentenced his persecuted, although of fascination dropped from before the king's perhaps imprudent, son to the guillotine. eyes, the sentiments of friendship between Thus Frederick grew up to manhood with- the two declined with each day, and beout experiencing the true warmth of affec- coming eventually estranged from, and in. 412 FREDERICK'S DESPOTIC GOVERNMENT. imically inclined towards each other, they sive light, the bearings of the intricate ques. parted as enemies. Voltaire, however, on his tions connected with government. Neverreturn to France, gave vent to his revengeful theless, however penetrating his eagle eye feelings by writing the most bitter satires that individual survey was not sufficiently against the king.* comprehensive to command a knowledge of Such mortifying results closed the heart every thing, whence many essential cirof Frederick more and more against all curmstances must have remained concealed amicable impressions, and produced a mis- from his view. anthropy, which previously formed no part Thence it is, that a government supported of his character, and the necessary effect by the states of the kingdom is difficult to of which is to overshadow the path of life be overturned, while its power increases in with the clouds of gloom. proportion; inasmuch as according to the The government of the king itself was form of such government, the voice of the impressed with this mark of the reserved most enlightened and well-intentioned of and isolated state of his soul; for it was a the public may be heard by the whole nadespotic government in the most strict sense tion through legitimate means, and thus of the word; every thing emanated from every active member of the state may, althe king, and every thing reverted to him though he holds no office, aid his country again. He never accorded any share in with his opinions and advice. the administration to an assembly of states, But such views and principles were altonor even,to the state council-which, gether unknown at this period, which devicomposed of the most enlightened men, ated from the simple course of nature, and would have been able to have presented to only endeavored to elevate itself upon the their sovereign, in a clear and comprehen- basis of the subtlety of the mind; the object then sought was to found the stability * In 1752 an Englishman was received at court wh of a government upon the ground-work of possessed an extraordinary memory, so much so, that after some fifty, nay, a hundred pages of a work had mere external forms, while, on the contrabeen read to him, he could forthwith repeat the whole y, i ecurit rests uon the heart co word for word, from recollection. Frederick was much security rests pon the hearty - struck with this person's gift of memory, and putting operation of all for the common weal of the it one evening to the proof, found by the result a confirmation of the statement. Just as he was about to dis-country, to the exclusion of all individual miss the Englishman, Voltaire sent to inquire if his power. These magnanimous principles of majesty had half an hour's leisure time to hear him read a poem he hadjust completed? Frederick, struck government would, no doubt, have operated with the inquiry coming so apropos, determined upon with happy results upon the naturally vigpassing a joke at that vain man's expense and sent a. reply in the affirmative. He ordered the Englishman orous and clear mind of Frederick, had to take his station behind a screen, and requested him they been at all brought forward during to treasure up in his memory every line and word that Voltaire might recite. The great poet arrived and read his time; but they could not originate with through the whole of his verses with great declamation him, inasmuch as he felt in himself the and evident self-satisfaction. The king listened with apparent coolness and indifference and then said, power to govern alone, seconded by the " Why, I must candidly contess, my dear Voltaire, that strongest desire of making his people happy it strikes me you appropriate as your own the produc- d tions of others! I have noticed it more than once be- and great. Thence it appeared to his mind, fore; this poem is again another instance." His indig- that the predominant strength of a state nation at being thought a plagiarist produced upon Voltaire's countenance-always a subject for the cari- was based upon the means which are the caturist-an expression more than usually harsh and readiest and most efficacious in the hands bitter. He expressed himself highly offended andeadest and most ecaci the hands mortified; his majesty had been misled by his treacher- of one person, viz.: in his army, and in ous memory to commit a great error, and he had acted te t ry. His chief aim, terefre, with still greater injustice. "But how if I prove tothe treasury. Hischie aim, therefre, you that these verses are already well-known to an was to manage that these two powerful imEnglislman atmycourt here?" "All that your majesty of government should e placed may bring forward in contradiction, all assurances are plements of government hould be placed to me mere empty words, for I can disprove all and in the most favorable condition possible; every thing!" Upon this Frederick ordered the Englishman (who had just before glided away from his and thus we find, that Frederick often screen into the next room) to be introduced. He was sought the means to obtain this, his grand commanded by the king to recite the verses he had.. shortly before heard repeated, and accordingly gave the object, without sufficiently taking into conwhole of Voltaire's poem word for word, without a sideration the effect they might subsequentsingle omission. Almost mad with rage, the poet rose and exclaimed: "Heaven! destroy with thy thunder ly produce upon the disposition and moralthis robber of my verses! Here is some magic in play it of the nation. In accordance with this which will drive me to desperation!" With these it words he rushed from the king's presence in the great- principle, he, in the year 1764, invited a est agitation. Frederick was, however, delighted with distinguished fermier-general of France, tair tato how ttle ahe esteemed Vol- Helvetius, to Berlin, in order to consult him TRIUMPH OF NATIVE OVER FRENCH LITERATURE. 413 upon the means of augmenting the revenues tioned, being, as they were, the founders of of the state, and in consequence of his a more sterling age. They were joined by suggestions, measures were adopted which many others, and thus united, they constiwere extremely obnoxious to the public, and tuted an intellectual phalanx in opposition caused many to defraud, instead of co-ope- to the progress made by the sensual French rating with, the government. At the same school. These intellectual reformers were time, however, by these and other means soon strengthened by such auxiliaries as resorted to by the king, the revenues of the Kant, Fichte, Jacobi, &c., who advanced kingdom were increased considerably. It firmly under the banner of science, and must, however, be advanced in Frederick's from such beginnings grew, by degrees, vindication, firstly, that he adopted these that powerful mental reaction, which has measures, not for his own individual advan- already achieved such mighty things, and tage, but for the benefit of all; and, sec- led the way to greater result still. ondly-we must again repeat it-that the This awakening of the German mind was great errors of the age completely obscured unnoticed by King Frederick; he lived in his own view. With what eagerness would the world of French refinement, separate not his clear mind have caught at the en- and solitary, ason an island. The waves of lightenment produced by reform, had he but the new rushing stream of life passed withlived in a time when freedom of thought out approaching him, and struck against the was more appreciated, for to him this free- barriers by which he was enclosed. His dom of thought was so dear, that he nev- over-appreciation and patronage of foreigner attacked the public expression of opin- ers, however, impelled the higher classes ion. His subjects enjoyed under his reign, of society to share in his sentiments, equalamong other privileges, that of the liberty ly as much as his system of administration of the press; and he himself gave free scope had served as a model for other rulers to to the shafts of censure and ridicule aimed imitate. Several among his contemporaagainst his public and private character: ries resolved, like him, to reign indepenfor the consciousness of his own perseve- dently, but withoutpossessing the same comring endeavors in the service of his coun- manding genius, whence, however welltry, and of his sincere devotion to his duties, intentioned, they were wrecked in their elevated him beyond all petty susceptibility. career; among whom, may be more esThe chief object of the king's care was a pecially included, Peter III. of Russia, search into truth and enlightenment, as it Gustavus III. of Sweden, and Joseph II. was then understood. But this enlighten- of Germany. ment consisted in a desire to understand In the year 1765, Joseph II. was acevery thing: to analyze, dissect, and-de- knowledged as successor to his father, molish. Whatever appeared inexplicable Francis I., who died in the same year, but was at once rejected; faith, love, hope, and whose acts as emperor present little or nofilial respect-all those feelings which have thing worthy of record. His son, however, their seat in the inmost recesses of the soul, was, on this very account, the more anxwere destroyed in their germination. ious to effect great changes, to transform But this annihilating agency was not con- ancient into modern institutions, and to fined to the state; it manifested itself also in devote the great and predominating power science, in art, and even in religion. The with which he was endowed towards reFrench were the promoters of this pheno- modelling the entire condition of his states. menon, and in this they were eventually All his projects, however, were held in imitated throughout the world, but more abeyance until the death of his mother, especially in Germany. Superficial orna- Maria Theresa, in 1780, who, ever wise ment passed for profound wisdom, and witty, and active, had, even to the last moments sarcastic phraseology assumed the place of her existence, exercised all her power of soundness and sincerity of expression. and influence in the administration of afNevertheless, even at this time, there were fairs, and, accordingly, her maternal aua few chosen men who were able to recog- thority operated effectually upon his feelnise that which was true and just, and rais- ings as a son, and served for a time to sused their voices accordingly; and, in the pend the accomplishment of his desires. world of intellect, the names of Lessing, Meantime, in the interval, between the year Klopstock, Goethe, &c., need alone be men- 1765 and 1780, various events took place, 414 DISMEMBERMENT OF POLAND. which exercised an important influence aim of the then state-policy was to devote upon the last ten years of his reign. every effort towards aggrandizement; nothAmong the rest may be more especially ing was held more desirable than some mentioned the dismemberment of Poland in fresh conquest, which might advantageous1773, and the war of the Bavarian succes- ly round off a kingdom, while all considersion in 1778. ation of equity and justice was forced to Augustus III., king of Poland, died in yield before this imperious principle. When the year 1765, leaving behind him a grand- one of the larger states effected such an son, only as yet a minor; consequently acquisition, the others. alarmed, considered the house of Saxony, which had held pos- the balance of Europe compromised and session of the throne of Poland during a endangered. space of sixty-six years, now lost it. Both In this case, however, the three kingRussia and Prussia stepped forward forth- doms bordering upon Poland, having shared with, and took upon themselves the ar- between them the spoil, were each augrangement of the affairs of Poland: an in- mented in proportion, whence all fear of terference which that nation was now un- danger was removed. This system had able to resist, for strong and redoubtable become so superficial, so miserable and as it had been formerly, dissension had so absurd, that they lost sight altogether of much reduced its resources, that it was, at the principle that a just equilibrium and this moment, wholly incapable of main- the permanent safety of all can only be taining, or even acting for itself. Both secured by the inviolable preservation of powers required that Poland should choose the rights of nations. The partition of for her sovereign a native-born prince, and Poland was the formal renunciation itself an army of 10,000 Russians which sud- of that system of equipoise, and served as denly advanced upon Warsaw, and an the precursor of all those great revolutions, equal number of Prussian troops assem- dismemberments, and transformations, tobled upon the frontiers, produced the elec- gether with all those ambitious attempts at tion of Stanislaus Poniatowski to the throne. universal monarchy, which, during a space Henceforth there was no longer an impe- of five-and-twenty years, were the means rial diet held at which foreigners did not of convulsing Europe to her very foundaendeavor to bring into effect all their in- tions. fluence. The people of Poland, menaced as they Shortly after this event, a war took were in three quarters, were forced in the place between Russia and Turkey, in autumn of 1773 to submit to the dismemwhich the former took possession of Mol- berment of their country, of which, acdavia and Wallachia, which that power cordingly, three thousand square miles was extremely desirous of retaining. This, were forthwith divided between Russia, however, Austria opposed most strenuous- Prussia, and Austria. ly, lest Russia should become too power- Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria, ful, and Frederick the Great found himself having died in 1777 without issue, the inin a dilemma how to maintain the balance heritance of his estates and electoral digbetween the two parties. The most expe- nity came into the hands of the elector dient means of adjustment appeared in the palatine. The emperor Joseph, however, end to be the spoliation of a country which with his usual rashness, resolved to avail was the least able to oppose it, viz., Po- himself of this inheritance in favor of Ausland; and, accordingly, a portion of its tria; he accordingly raked up old claims, territory was seized and shared between and marched suddenly with his army into the three powers-Russia, Prussia, and Bavaria, of which he took immediate posAustria. With whom this idea first ori- session. The pacific palatine, Charles ginated has not been clearly ascertained, Theodore, thus surprised and overawed, but it is easy to see that it was quite in ac- signed a treaty, by which he ceded two cordance with the character of the times. thirds of Bavaria to the house of Austria, For as the wisdom of that age only based in order to secure to himself possession of its calculations upon the standard of the at least the other third portion. The consenses, and estimated the power of states duct of Austria on this occasion, together merely by their square miles, amount of with the part she had previously taken in population, soldier s, and revenue, the grand the dismemberment of ill-fated Poland, was DEATH OF MARIA THERESA.-JOSEPH II. 415 the more unexpected, inasmuch as she was petuosity of his fiery and enterprising nathe only one of all the superior states which ture, to bring into immediate execution the had hitherto abstained from similar acts of great and ambitious plans he had formed, aggression. But the mutability of the age and to give to the various nations spread had now destroyed likewise in Austria the over the boundless surface of his vast pos. uniform pacific bearing for which she had sessions, one unique and equal form of so long been distinguished. government, after a model such as he had These proceedings gave rise to serious himself formed within his own mind. Incommotions in various parts of the empire, deed, from the daring, reckless character and Frederick the Great more especially he displayed, and the conduct he pursued, felt he could not and ought not to remain he might with justice have been regarded an inactive observer of what was passing. as one only anxious, by the changes he Accordingly he entered the lists against made, to pave the way for the most unpreAustria at once, and commenced opera- cedented revolution in the annals of Eutions as protector of the heir of Charles rope. But this prince, together with others Theodore, the duke of Deux-Ponts, who of the age he lived in and that which folprotested against the compact signed by lowed, beheld all their creations destroyed the former with Austria, and claimed the almost as suddenly as they had been assistance of the king of Prussia. The formed, inasmuch as they had involved young and hot-headed emperor Joseph ac- themselves in the error of believing that cepted, the challenge forthwith, and taking they could change, in the short space of a up a position in Bohemia, he there awaited man's life, or perhaps of only a few years, the king; the latter, who had already that which the human race was only able crossed the mountains, finding him, how- to bring into operation in the slow growth ever, so strongly intrenched, was reluctant of centuries. This arrogant presumption to hazard an attack under such difficult evinced by a man, who would thus pretend circumstances, and withdrew from Bohe- to realize the ideas he has conceived solemia. After a few unimportant skirmishes ly because he deems their realization posbetween the light troops of both sides, sible-however opposed they may be to peace was signed by the mediation of reason-was manifested in Joseph in the France and Russia, at Teschen, on the highest degree, and hence he was frus13th of May, 1779, even before the end of trated and disappointed in all his expectathe first year of the war. The empress tions and good intentions. He himself was Maria Theresa, now advanced in years, influenced, it is true, by a mere desire for by no means shared in her son's taste for all that is just and good, for the prosperity of war, but, on the contrary, earnestly de- his dominions, for the progress of enlightensired peace; while Frederick himself, who ment and liberty of spirit; but he neglecthad nothing to gain personally by this cam- ed to search strictly but calmly into human paign, was equally anxious for a recon- nature, and thus make himself thoroughly ciliation. Moreover, he was likewise far acquainted with the peculiar character of advanced in years, and possessed an eye his variously-disposed subjects. What he sufficiently penetrating to perceive that the undertook to effect was too often altogether former original spirit and energy of the unsuited to their actual condition, and what army, which had performed such prodigies was acceptable to one was repugnant to of valor in the war of Seven Years, had another. In the feeling of his good intennow almost disappeared, although the dis- tions, Joseph adopted as his model the abcipline under which it was still placed was solute principles of:Frederick in his system equally severe and tyrannieal asiiinormer of government; but Frederick occupied times.::: Under,_-these -aAd other ": ceircum-,himselfn.moreswit-external- Aerangements, stances —therefore, peace.wavs peferableto} with-the administaation of the state, the wai., iBy the treatynnow.conluided iAuis-, prnmotion of -industry, and the increase of tria restored:to:-the palatine; hou se all -the the revenune in;terfring veryilittle with the estates of Bav7aria;.excepeti he imEle-of.progress of intellectual culture, which folBurga,l and the suieessionswas secured to lowed its particular courseu, often altogeththe-due of:Deiix-Ponts. i:*'' er wit.holui hisi. lknowledge.,lc, v hile in this After the' death of-Maria iTheresa';in respect Joseph, by:his new -measures, often 1780iJoseph IL. strove, with'al- thei,im; encroached: upon. tle dearest privileges of 416 INNOVATIONS-FREDERICK AND THE ALLIED PRINCES. his subjects. He insisted certainly upon be the unique object of this alliance acliberty of conscience and freedom of cording to the king's own words; and this thought; but he did not bear in mind, at league was accordingly effected in the the same time, that the acknowledgment year 1785, between Prussia, Saxony, Han. of this principle depended upon that close over, the dukes of Saxony, Brunswick, conviction which cannot be forced, and Mecklenburg, and Deux-Ponts, the landcan only exist in reality when the light of grave of Hesse, and several other princes, truth has gradually penetrated to the depth who were soon joined by the elector of of the heart. Mentz. This alliance was based upon The greatest obstacles, however, thrown principles in their nature less inimical in the way of Joseph's innovations pro- than strictly surveillant; nevertheless, it ceeded from the church; for his grand effected the object contemplated, by acting object was to confiscate numerous monas- as a check upon the house of Austria in teries and spiritual institutions, and to the various innovations threatened by the change at once the whole ecclesiastical emperor, while it operated as a lesson inconstitution: that is, he contemplated ob- dicating to that house that its real distinctaining during the first year of his reign, tion among the other nations of Europe what would of itself have occurred in the was to preserve the present order of things, space of half a century. to protect all rights and privileges, to opBy this confiscation of ecclesiastical pos- pose the spirit of conquest, and thus to consessions more than one neighboring prince stitute itself the bulwark of universal libof the empire, such as the bishop of Passau erty; but failing in all this, it must ineviand the archbishop of Salzburg, found tably lose at once all public confidence. themselves attacked in their rights, and did This alliance of princes, however, pronot hesitate to complain loudly; and in duced little or no important results for the the same way in other matters, various advantage of Germany, owing partly to other princes found too much reason to the death of Frederick II., which took condemn the emperor for treating with place in the following year, and partly to contempt the constitution of the empire. the circumstance of the successors of JoTheir apprehensions were more especially seph II. happily returning to the ancient increased when the emperor, in the year hereditary principles of the house, both in 1785, negotiated a treaty of exchange of its moderation and circumspection; and territory with the electoral prince-palatine finally, owing to the unheard-of events of Bavaria, according to which, the latter which transpired in Europe during the last was to resign his country to Austria, for ten years of this century, and which soon which he was to receive in return the Aus- produced too much cause for forgetting all trian Netherlands under the title of a new previous minor grievances. kingdom of Burgundy: an arrangement This alliance of the princes of the emby which the entire south of Germany pire was the last public act of the great would have come into the exclusive pos- Frederick of any consequence; and he session of Austria. The prince-palatine died in the following year. He continued was not at all indisposed to make the ex- active and full of enterprise to the last, in change, and France, as well as Russia, at spite of his advanced age, but his condition first favored it in its principle; but Fred- became gradually more isolated, inasmuch erick II. once more stepped forward and as all the companions of his former days disconcerted their plans, in which he sue- had in turns disappeared and sunk into ceeded likewise in bringing Russia to co- their last resting-place before himself, the operate with him. last among them being the brave old warThe commotions, however, produced by rior, Ziethen, who died in the January these efforts made by Joseph to bring his previous of the same year as his royal rash projects into immediate operation, master, at the age of eighty-seven; and, caused the old king of Prussia to form the on the other hand, heaven had not blessed idea of establishing an alliance of the Ger- him with any family, and thus he was deman princes for the preservation of the barred from the endearing enjoyment ex. imperial constitution, similar in charac. perienced by a father, when he sees himter to the unions formed in previous times self growing young again, and revivified for mutual defence. Such at least was to in his posterity. At the same time, he DEATH OF FREDERICK-DEATH OF JOSEPH II. 417 was wanting in all those feelings condu- out into open rebellion at once; the clergy, cive to this state of life-a state against the nobility, tile people, and the cities alwhich his whole nature recoiled. together, perceiving, by the reforms too preHis mind, with scarcely any interrup- cipitately enforced upon them by the empetion, retained all its power during the long ror, the attacks that were being made upon space of seventy-four years, although his their ancient rights and privileges. They body had latterly become much reduced seized arms, and on the 22d of October, and enfeebled. Through the extravagant 1789, the provinces of Brabant declared use he had always made of strong spices themselves independent in a grand meeting and French dishes, he dried up the springs held at Breda.'Nearly all the cities took of life, and after suffering severely from part with the revolters, who had at their head dropsy, he departed this life on the 17th of a barrister, named Van der Noot, and the August, 1786, and was buried in Potsdam, Austrian officials were forced to take their under the pulpit of the church belonging flight. This was, in fact, a kind of introto the garrison.* ductory scene to that which was being preAlthough the news of Frederick's death pared, about the same time, in France at such an advanced age excited no very itself. During the period of these contengreat astonishment, it nevertheless produ- tions Joseph died in his forty-ninth year, on ced a considerable sensation throughout the 20th of February, 1790, an event greatly the whole of Europe. He left to his suc- hastened by the fatigues he had undergone cessor a well-regulated state, containing a in the Turkish war, and more especially population of six millions of inhabitants; a promoted through bitter mortification at powerful, strictly-organized army, and a finding all his mad and ill-timed projects treasury well provided; the greatest trea- fall to the ground, and the pain he felt at sure however he left, was the recollection the state of anarchy and revolt existing of his heroic and glorious acts, which in among his subjects. subsequent times has continued to operate As he left no family behind him, his; upon his nation with all its awakening brother, Peter Leopold, hitherto grandpower and heart-stirring influence. duke of Tuscany, succeeded him in his The emperor Joseph, meantime, had en- hereditary estates of Austria. The task gaged, in 1788, in a war with the Turks, undertaken by the new sovereign was by which did not produce the results he had no means the most easy one, inasmuch as been led to anticipate. His army suffered he found everywhere dissatisfaction, convery considerable losses, more especially tention, and sedition. He perceived that in through sickness, and, although he himself order to steer the vessel safely through was present in person, his troops effected the raging tempest he must employ modenothing, for he was wholly without those rate and reconciliatory measures, and, necessary qualifications-firmness and pres- happily, Peter Leopold possessed the neence of mind; characteristics so highly cessary disposition and ability to effect this requisite in a general, in order to ensure object. The dangerous innovations introsuccess. About this time also the Hun- duced by his predecessor were at once garians began to show strong symptoms of abolished, Hungary pacified, and the Nethdiscontent, caused by the unjust treatment erlands, partly by the necessary force of they received at the hands of him they had arms, and partly by the confirmation of formerly saved when appealed to by his their rights and constitutions, were restored mother, Maria Theresa. In the Nether- to a state of tranquillity; and, finally, in lands, however, the whole population broke the following year, a treaty of peace was concluded with the Turks. On the 20th * In his last illness Frederick displayed great mild- of September, 1790, the hereditary prince ness and patience, and acknowledged with gratitude of the house of Austria was chosen emthe trouble and pain he caused those around him. During one of his sleepless nights he called to the page peror of Germany, under the title of Leowho kept watch in the roorm, and asked him what pold lI. He, however, died on the 1st of o'clock it was? The man replied it had just struck two. "Ah, then it is still too soon!" exclaimed the March, 1792, and thus his short reign of king, "but I cannot sleep. See whether anyof the two years ended at the moment when a other attendants are awake, but do not disturb them if they are still sleeping, for, poor fellows, they are tired new and eventful era commenced in the enough. But if you find Neuman (his favorite yager) history of Europe, teeming with scenes of stirring, say to him, you believe the king wishes soon to rise. But mind,do notawaken anyone!"-Miichler. intrigue, anarchy, and atrocious outrage, 53 418 LEOPOLD II.-FRANCIS II. already but too well known in the annals the language which it had been the prac. of that disastrous period to require much tice of France to express during the last farther comment or description in the five-and-twenty years. The imperialists, present work. however, should have borne in mind that to a country in a state of revolution, a war -^- with a foreign power is both desirable and beneficial, inasmuch as it acts as a check upon internal divisions, and by promoting CHAPTER XXXIII. a more united feeling, furnishes it with still greater power against the common Leopold II. and the State of France-France declares enemy. War against Austria, the Imperial States, Holland, Te Spain, &c., 1792-Francis II., Emperor of Germany he new emperor, Francs II., formed 1792-1806-Prussia-Successes of theAllies-Gene- now an alliance with Frederick-William ral Dumouriez and the Republican Army-The Aus- T * trians defeated at Jemappes-The Netherlands Re- II. of Prussia, against France, but which publicanized-Defeat of Dumouriez at Neerwinden, the latter government anticipated by de1793-Joins the Allies-Continued Successes of the Allies under the Dukes of York and Coburg-Carnot daring war against Austria in 1792. -Generals Pichegru and Jourdan-Battles of Tour- The attack of the Prussians took the nay and Fleurus-Jourdan's Aerial Reconnoitring' Messenger, or the Adjutant in the Balloon-Defeat young republic-which still retained the of the Allies-Successes of the French-Conquestsin kin i although powerless, at its headFlanders, Holland, and the Rhine-Kaiserslautern-oug weress, at its headPeace of Basle, 1795-England and Austria-France completely by surprise. The country — The Austrian Generals, Beaulieu, Wurmser, and was not as yet prepared for war, and the Archduke Charles-Napoleon Bonaparte 1796-or war, and the Appointed General in Italy-His Army-f-is Con- first invasion was accordingly attended quests and rich Booty made in Italy-The French in with successful results. The armies of Germany —Archduke Charles-Moreau-His famous ith successful results. e armies of Retreat-Mlantua-Bonaparte in Germany-His the imperialists continued to march in rapid Marches-Vienna-Peace of Campo-Formio, ad, aof all 1797-Shameful Conditions-State of Europe-Al- advance, and took possession of all the liance of England, Russia, Austria, and Turkey- towns along their route. Valenciennes, Hostilities resumed, 1798-Bonaparte in Egypt- y, and Verdun, were quered, Cairo-Aboukir-His'Fleet destroyed by Nelson-It- ongwy, and Verdun, were conquered, aly-General Suwaroff-His Successes in Italy-Ge- all the passes of the forest of Ardennes noa-Switzerland-Suwaroff's Passage across the Alps-Hisdesperate Appeal to his Soldiers-Hisrecall occupied, together with the plains of -:The Emperor Paul and England-Bonaparte First Champagne; and even Paris itself began Consul, 1799-Genoa-Battle of Marengo, 1800-General Desaix-Moreau in Germany-Peace of Lune- to tremble. But the people now aroused ville, 1801-Sad Results to, and Sacrifices made by themselves, and this was promoted, in fact Germany-Resignation of William Pitt-Peace of w Amiens, 1802-England declares war against France, by their enemy himself. For, misled no 803 —Bonaparte takes possessionof Hanover-The doubt by the presumption and mad hopes German~ ~Legion. cherished by the emigrants, the duke of THE emperor Leopold II. remained Brunswick, who commanded the Prussian faithful to his system of pacification, al- army, issued a manifesto, which was disthough he could not but feel serious ap- tributed everywhere throughout the entire prehensions when he beheld the alarming kingdom, and which was so insultingly state of affairs in France. Several of the and cruelly worded, as to make the heart princes of the empire had already ex- of every Frenchman recoil and tremble pressed a strong desire to take up arms within him, and of those more especially against that revolutionary country, in who refused to acknowledge the ancient favor of the emigrated princes and nobles, rights of royalty; for, among the other who, making the banks of the Rhine their threats it contained, the document declared place of refuge, collected together in nu- that Paris should be burned to the ground, merous bodies at Coblentz, and finally and the inhabitants put to the sword, and prevailed upon the princes of the land to not a single stone of the metropolis should maintain their rights, and commence hos- be left standing. These dreadful words tilities. The revolution had, in fact, af- acted upon the people with all the power fected and seriously injured a number of of an electric shock, and forthwith, from the German princes in the privileges they every part of the country, were to be seen enjoyed from the earliest times in France, both young and old hastening in shoals and more especially in Alsace-and now, with all possible speed to join voluntarily when they demanded an indemnification the standard of General Dumouriez, and for these losses, they only met with the under which they burned to conquer or same arrogant and scornful reception in die in the defence of their country's free. ENGLAND AND ALLIES AGAINST FRANCE-SUCCESSES. 419 dom. The army was soon in a condition tented with the liberty they had thus far to face the invaders, and it marched forth enjoyed all along. and took up an advantageous position on The sanguinary proceedings-but more the high-road near Sainte-Menehould; especially the dreadful and revolting fate but, as the Prussians now began to suffer of Louis XVI., on the 21st of January, greatly from the want of supplies in that 1793, excited universal indignation and impoverished part of the country, as also horror; and England and Spain, together from the sickness and disease produced with Holland, armed at once against the through the continual heavy rains which, French republic, which had declared war badly clothed as the troops were, thinned against them. Germany was not long in their ranks sadly, they were forced, after joining these powers, and as Naples, Rome, a slight cannonade at Valmy, to make a Tuscany, and Portugal, came forward retreat; this they were happy enough to likewise, a coalition of the governments of succeed in effecting in good time, and they the moiety of Europe was brought to bear gained the banks of the Rhine, which they against that of France. lost no time in crossing. The commencement of the campaign of At Jemappes, however, Dumouriez came 1793 was distinguished by a series of brilup with the Austrians, and giving them liant victories gained by the allies in the battle at once, on the 5th of November, Netherlands. Dumouriez was defeated at 1792-the first under the republican gov- Aldenhoven, and he was again overthrown ernment-gained a decisive victory. His on the 18th of March in a grand battle force was greatly superior in numbers to near Neerwinden; and, dreading lest he the Austrian army, while he was likewise might be summoned to Paris and thus fall in possession of an overwhelming train of into the hands of the Jacobins, of whom he heavy artillery, which at each discharge was no friend, and who, he knew too well, mowed down whole ranks of the enemy, were the last to treat misfortune with mercy, and made the very earth tremble. The he passed over to the ranks of the allies. Austrians, nevertheless, fought with a The latter now pressed forward in rapid courage truly heroic for two entire days marches; their united army comprised the against their formidable adversaries, but Austrians, the Prussians, the English, the were eventually forced to yield the field Hanoverians, and the Dutch, commanded of battle. By this single battle, the house by the duke of Coburg and the duke of of Austria lost the whole of the Nether- York. Dumouriez's successor, General lands, for the victorious army, like a rush- Dampierre, was again defeated on the 8th ing torrent, carried all before them, and of May on the plains of Famars, being the inhabitants, already dissatisfied with himself killed in the action; and the allies the dominion of Austria ever since the having now made themselves masters of reign of Joseph II., and seduced by the Valenciennes and Conde, the road to Paris thoughts of liberty, threw off the imperial lay open before them. yoke and received the French with open Meantime the Prussians and Austrians, arms. They planted everywhere the tree on the Rhine, reconquered Mentz, and of liberty, established a national conven- having forced the lines of the hill of Weistion, and adopted all the republican prin- senberg, they commenced the siege of ciples and institutions of their conquerors. Landau under the command of the crown At the same time General Custine had prince of Prussia. marched against the Rhenish provinces, In the Pyrenees a Spanish army crossed and through treachery made himself mas- the Alps and marched into France, where ter of the important imperial city of Mentz. the progress made was attended with conThe mania for liberty now held its sway siderable success; in conjunction with the in that place, and the republican institu- English they took possession of the importtions of Paris were likewise introduced ant seaport of Toulon, which, having dethere. Frankfort, however, its neighbor- dared itself opposed to the convention of ing city, maintained itself firmly against Paris, they defended against the republiall the influence of these insinuating and can forces. destructive principles, and when invited to Towards the end of the year, however, follow the example set by those around, the republican forces were more successful the citizens replied, that they were con- along the frontiers of the kingdom. On 420 THE ALLIES DEFEATED. the Upper Rhine, Landau and the whole the Austrians and their allies, the English, of Alsace, after continued and most san- Dutch, and Hanoverians, harassed and guinary fighting, fell again into their hands, overcome with fatigue, were ultimately and the republican flag was everywhere defeated on the 22d of May near Tournay planted along that portion of the banks by Pichegru, and on the 26th of June at of the Rhine; while, in the Netherlands, Fleurus, by Jourdan, in two sanguinary Dunkirk was delivered, and many severe battles. At Fleurus the French general actions gained by the French. In this turned the course of the contest, which was quarter the forces were commanded by going against him, eventually in his favor Houchard and Jourdan; while on the by adopting an expedient completely novel Rhine the troops were headed by Piche- and hitherto unknown in war; he caused, gru and Hoche-names elevated from their namely, one of his aides-de-camp to get original obscurity by the rushing tide of into a balloon in which he ascended, and the revolution. On the 30th of September this enabled him to observe exactly the po a grand fete was held in Paris, on which sition of the allied army, and on this offi. occasion fourteen different armies were re- cer's return from his aerial expedition he presented in a triumphal procession, in gave his report accordingly to the general, honor of the victories they had gained. who renewed the action, and, guided by the At the commencement of the year 1794 instructions he had received, gained the the allies united all their forces in the battle. Netherlands, under the orders of the duke After this victory the success of the of Coburg, and the emperor Francis him- French arms continued without interrupself joined the camp, in order by his pres- tion; nothing could check their progress ence to encourage the troops. On the 7th either in Holland or on the Rhine. All of April they gained a complete victory the places taken from them in Francenear Cateau-Cambresis, and on the 30th of Landrecies, Le Quesnoy, Valenciennes, the same month they made themselves and Conde, were reconquered one after masters of the town of Landrecies. For- the other; besides which, the republicans tune, however, now changed. Carnot, took possession of Brussels on the 9th ofJune, who properly understood how to employ and in the autumn they commanded the the system of war by which a nation in rivers Meuse and Vahal. These successes, arms might obtain victory, issued his or- however, appeared to have now reached ders forthwith to the grand armies, com- the term of their duration, and more espemanded by Pichegru and Jourdan, to at- cially as the sluices of all the canals tack the allied army with the most daring throughout Holland had been opened, in impetuosity and without ceasing, so that order, by a general inundation, to rescue not a single day might pass without constant that country from the French arms. But hard fighting. With respect to the num- nature herself came to the aid of the inber of French troops that were slain, that vaders, by converting these very waters was a matter of no consideration; fresh into a secure passage for their troops, inbattalions were marched up to replace asmuch as the winter of this year, 1794, those that had fallen, and thus the allied becoming extremely severe, they were all generals, findingthemselvessohard pressed, completely frozen, and to such a depth looked in vain for an opportunity where was the ice, that, by means of these natuand how to form their principal point of ral, seasonable bridges, soldiers, artillery. defence. All their ordinary tactics of war and baggage-trains, were enabled to adwere perfectly useless; for when whole vance, and penetrate into the very heart battalions, on being repulsed, fell back of Holland; thus, on the 17th of January, upon each other, and instead of taking to 1795, they were in possession of Utrecht, flight rallied again and renewed the attack, and on the 19th they took Amsterdam. and fought on without yielding an inch as The stadtholder was forced to seek refuge long as life gave them the power, and when with his family in England, and Holland neither the fear of death nor any thing else, was forthwith converted into a republic. however formidable its nature, could make Meantime Jourdan, in the autumn of them quit the field of battle, then neces- 1794, had driven the Austrians out of sarily at the end of the action victory re- Brabant towards the Lower Rhine, and mained with the greatest number. Thence completely defeated them in several en. PEACE BETWEEN PRUSSIA AND FRANCE. 421 counters; and eventually he forced them and Hanover, as well as Hesse Cassel, to cross the Rhine to Cologne. Liege, concurred therein likewise. A line of deAix-la-Chapelle, Juliers, Cologne, Bonn, marcation was drawn for the north of Ger. and Coblentz, fell into the hands of the many, which exempted the Prussian terriFrench; Luxemburg alone holding out by tories in Westphalia, including Hesse and a brave and determined defence until the Lower Saxony. month of June, 1795. Shortly afterwards Spain, through want In the circle of the Upper Rhine the of means wherewith to pay her troops, as campaign of 1794 took almost the same well as of that firm, determined will so direction as in the northern provinces. At necessary under the circumstances, likethe commencement, on the 22d of May, wise separated herself from the coalition a great victory was obtained by the Aus- against France; whence, of the higher trians and Prussians at Kaiserslautern; powers, Austria and England alone rethis was succeeded by continuous attacks mained in the grand arena, and thus it has made upon the allies by the republican always happened with Austria ever since army, now considerably reinforced by the time of Maximilian I., whenever that levies en masse produced through the na- power formed an alliance to maintain a war tional summons, and finally, on the 15th in conjunction with several other states. of June, by another battle fought at Kai- During the conferences of peace with serslautern, in which the French, although Prussia, and even afterwards, in the sumrepulsed eight times with great loss, re- mer of 1795, as Austria and the Germanic turned to the attack for the ninth time, empire appeared equally desirous for a and gained the victory. After a short pacification, both parties agreed to a cessacessation of hostilities, the allies retired at tion of arms, and the two armies retained this point, to the right bank of the Rhine; their position in front of each other on the The success of the French arms had opposite banks of the Rhine, separated only now become so great, and produced so by the waters of that noble river. This much alarm, that whoever attentively con- short repose was of great benefit to France, sidered the condition of Europe, and espe- for the general scarcity of provisions which cially Germany, could easily perceive that prevailed throughout this year-producing it could not do otherwise but unite all its almost a state of famine-would otherwise forces, in order to carry on the war for its have completely prevented the army from own preservation. The French already accomplishing any extraordinary operamade no mystery of their intention to re- tions. But as the harvest was now safely tain possession of the whole of Germany gathered in, Jourdan, on the night of the situated along the left bank of the Rhine, 6th of September, crossed the Rhine beto the extent of the entire course of that tween Duesburg and Diisseldorf, which river. Were we then, through the unfa- latter town he forthwith invested, and purvorable results of one campaign, to allow suing his impetuous course of victory, our dangerous neighbor to remain master drove the Austrians from the banks of the over those territories, which to gain he had rivers Wupper-the commencement of the been striving in vain for centuries? No; Prussian line of demarcation-the Sieg, Germany ought never to have permitted and the Lahn, over the Maine. Fieldsuch a disgrace; but where in such times marshal Clairfait, however, had reassemwas to be found that ancient, hereditary, bled his troops behind the latter river, and and noble feeling of independence, coupled he now attacked the French at H6chst, with that inborn magnanimity to uphold near Frankfort, completely routed them, and defend the honor of our common fa- and sent them back over the Rhine with therland? Jealousy and envy among the the same expedition that they had used in commanders-in-chief and the first ministers advancing across it; thus Mentz was deof the empire had paralyzed the powers livered from its state of siege, and Mannof the army, and obstructed the success heim retaken. The summer armistice had of every operation; and now the entire reduced the strength and spirit of the reconfederation allowed itself to be dissolved publican armies, and their zeal had beby its crafty enemy. On the 5th of April, come considerably diminished. A war Prussia concluded at Basle a separate conducted on the opposite bank of the treaty of peace with the French republic, Rhine was no longer regarded as a war in 422 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE-HIS CHARACTER-HIS ARMY. the cause of liberty, and many volunteers condition itself serve as a means to lead to of the higher classes had now returned to victories all the more glorious, for, in their their homes. present desperate state, the soldiers had no When, in 1796, the new order of things other choice but conquest or death. had become gradually consolidated in And truly the newly-appointed leader France, the directory resolved to force Aus- soon succeeded in gaining the most extratria and the Germanic empire to conclude ordinary influence and sway over his troops, a treaty of peace by one general overwhelm- and in infusing among them no small share ing invasion. It was determined that the of his own daring and undaunted spirit. armies should, in the ensuing spring, cross This indeed formed the spirit of his military to the other side of the Rhine and the tactics, and the means by which he was Alps, and penetrate from every point into led on to adopt the most ambitious plans, the heart of Germany. Moreau was to and sought to make himself the conqueror march through Swabia, Jourdan through of the entire world. By his bulletins, Franconia, and a third army was to over- couched in the most concise and forcible run Italy. In the latter country, the Aus- language, in the style of the ancient Romans, trian troops were commanded by the old thoroughly adapted tothe French character; general, Beaulieu; in the Upper Rhine, by the distribution of marks of honor and the old veteran, Wurmser, held the chief distinction, of colors and eagles, to those command; and in the Lower Rhine, the regiments which he at the same moment general-in-chief was the Arch-duke Charles was about to place in the most dangerous of Austria; to the two latter armies were part of the battle, together with other simiunited the troops of the imperial states. lar incentives to honor and glory, BonaThe war commenced in Italy. But there parte well understood how to generate the the old and experienced general found him. highest enthusiasm at the decisive moment. self confronted with a young daring leader, He even had the temerity to announce in filled with the most gigantic projects, and advance the result of the battles, and forwho now on this occasion first came forth tune verified his words; people speedily to develop his marvellous powers and indo- believed what he had predicted, and this mitable perseverance before the eyes of very faith produced the accomplishment of astonished Europe. the event. He more especially confounded Napoleon Bonaparte, born at Ajaccio in his enemies by never doing what might Corsica-where his father was an advocate, have been anticipated and calculated upon, and subsequently promoted to the French but by performing exactly what was comprocuratorship of Corsica-educated in the pletely opposed to these expectations, and military schools of France, and inured to was the most bold and perilous in its nathe most extraordinary scenes and enter- ture. All experience and practice, thereprises by all the horrors of the revolution, fore, in the science of war, were nugatory in which he had been a participator, was against him; a defensive war with him only six-and-twenty years of age when he must be unsuccessfully carried on, for the received his appointment as general of the blow always came before it could be preItalian army. Barras, one of the five di- ceived, or even anticipated, and he never rectors of the executive power, and who had allowed his adversary to commence the attaken him into his especial favor, concert- tack, because no one was so prompt in his ed a marriage between him and the widowed measures and resolves as himself. Princess Josephine de Beauharnais, and had The opening of this campaign was folnow caused his promotion to the rank before- lowed by the most brilliant success. By mentioned. The post he held was one of the promptitude of his manceuvres and sudgreat difficulty and danger; the army over denness of his attacks, he completely overwhich he was placed, was in such a dis- came and separated the army of the Sarorganized state, being without supplies of dinians from that of the Austrians, and provisions and clothing, and even without forced the king of Sardinia to sign a treaty ammunition, that its condition could only of peace; and this he followed up by turnbe improved when under the direction of a ing his arms against the Austrians, and resolute and daring general, and who, by pursuing them to the north of the river Po. judicious management, might perhaps suc- Thus the whole of central Italy lay now ceed in making even that very unfavorable open before him, and all the princes of that GENERAL WURMSER-ARCHDUKE CHARLES-MOREAU. 423 country trembled at his vengeance. They nearer the war approached the Austrian alternately demanded peace and obtained it, frontiers, so much tne more did the danger but at the sacrifice of millions in money, thus menacing their native soil spur on the numerous invaluable paintings, together imperial troops; while at the same time with other treasures of art and precious their numbers were augmented more and manuscripts. It was with these spoils that more by fresh reinforcements from the inhe intended to decorate Paris, in order sub- terior. The Archduke Charles now came sequently to make it the metropolis of the fbrth, and suddenly marching with his entire world. The duke of Parma was the troops against Jourdan, attacking him at first who bound himself by a treaty of the Neumark on the 22d of August, and at 9th of May, to furnish in payment for peace, Amberg on the 24th, beat him so completea large collection of the most rare paint- ly that the whole army of the Sambre and ings; and from this moment the example Meuse took to flight, and never halted till of ancient Rome towards Greece was emu- it gained the Lower Rhine. Jourdan rallated in every part where the French armies lied them at Mihlheim on the Rhine, got a footing. Vanity, combined with the marched thence to Diisseldorf, and shortly eager desire to collect together and concen- afterwards resigned the command. By this trate in their capital, and thereby render disaster of the other army, Moreau was it the counterpart of ancient Rome and the forced likewise to make a retreat to the central point of nations, urged the invaders Upper Rhine; and this he effected in such to pillage the sanctuaries and monuments masterly style, that after marching over the of art and science of every country they most perilous roads through Swabia and the marched through. The pope was obliged Black Forest, and being continually purto purchase neutrality by the payment of sued and hemmed in by the enemy, as well 21,000,000, francs, and by giving up to as exposed to the attacks of the enraged them 100 costly pictures, and 200 rare mountaineers, he gained the banks of the manuscripts. Naples obtained peace with- Rhine well provided with booty, and bringout any sacrifice; because it lay at too great ing with him even a number of prisoners a distance, and because, likewise, its hour, taken on his march. By this admirable according to Bonaparte's calculation, had retreat, the fame of Moreau as a general not yet arrived. was permanently established. The leaders Meantime great events had likewise on both sides now agreed upon an armistice transpired in Germany. The forces there being concluded on the Rhine during the had scarcely commenced operations, when winter. already the principal blow was struck in The Archduke Charles, on whom the Italy, and the brave old warrior, Wurmser, eyes of all were now turned with admirawas summoned from Germany with 30,000 tion, received a hasty summons to repair to men to the relief of Mantua, the last strong- Italy, in order to reorganize the Austrian hold of the Austrians in Italy. The French army. Wurmser, although successful in armies, according to the plan of the cam- several attacks, was only able to throw paign drawn up by the French directory, himself, with a subsidy of 10,000 men, into were now enabled to penetrate into the Mantua; but Bonaparte had now arrived, heart of the Germanic empire. About the and renewing the siege, forced them, on middle of August, Jourdan was only within the 6th of February, 1797, to surrender. a few days march of Ratisbon, and Moreau The Archduke Charles, with a brokenwas close to Munich, with the army of the down and dispirited army, was not in a Rhine and Moselle; the latter general de- condition to check the progress made by dared openly that his object was to give Bonaparte. The latter, after the fall of his right hand to the army under Bona. Mantua, penetrated more and more northparte in Italy, and his left to that of Jour- ward, crossed the Alps which separate dan. This junction of such overwhelming Italy from Carinthia, and, marching into masses of troops brought with it the most Styria, took possession of Clagenfurth, and alarming appearances, and this was one of advanced as far as Judenburg, on the river the most critical and dangerous moments Mur, whence he threatened Vienna itself. for Austria. Nevertheless, the peril thus But his course, this time, had been pursued threatened was once more diverted by the with too much impetuosity, and the situayouthful hero of that imperial house. The tion in which he now found himself war 424 PEACE OF CAMPO-FORMIO. extremely critical. In his front he had the ing, in a secret article, consented to sur. imperial army, which, at every retrogres- render the whole of the left bank of the sive step became more and more formida- Rhine, as the limits of the Germanic em. ble, as Vienna had already armed itself, pire, who had we now left as its shield, and Hungary was now rising en masse; when its most powerful protectors had thus on his left flank, the imperial general, Lau. deserted it? And yet no one individual don, was marching in advance against him state can be condemned, inasmuch as all from the Tyrol; and, in his rear, in the committed themselves; and, having with. vicinity of Trieste, another numerous body drawn from the general co-operation as soon of troops, together with the whole of the in- as they found the danger approaching them habitants of the Venetian territory were un- closely, it could not be required of Austria der arms; while, in order to gain the first that she alone should make herself the sacand nearest garrisoned town, Mantua, he rifice. It is only with painful feelings that would have to march a distance of more we can dwell upon these sad results, and than two hundred miles, over rugged hills, we willingly hurrv over the close of the and an impoverished and naked country:eighteenth and thet, -ening of the nine. in addition to all which evils, his army had teenth century, when Germany lay in its scarcely sufficient supplies for ten days deepest humiliation; nevertheless, these longer. In this state of things, it is almost times ought not to be passed over in sicertain, that if Austria had been willing to lence, for it is necessary that we should stake the chances, she might have succeed- know the sad condition to which the dised in annihilating her dangerous adversary cord, schism, and egotism of individuals, as at once, and with one blow. But this, it well as the total want of patriotic feeling, appears, was not at all contemplated, for could bring the German nation. when, with his usual cunning, Bonaparte, The congress of peace was accordingly with the arrogance of a conqueror, now of- convened at Rastadt, and Bonaparte apfered peace, she accepted it, and concluded peared there himself as negotiator. But in the principal conditions on the 18th of what style of insult and contempt was not April, at Leoben, and the definitive treaty the empire treated in these negotiations? was signed on the 17th of October, 1797, With what arrogance were our princes met at Campo-Formio, a nobleman's castle in by the French envoys, who exercised the the neighborhood of Udine. Thus Bona- authority of masters over them? Neverparte, in two campaigns, subjugated Italy; theless, ill-used and imposed upon as they gained fourteen battles; wrested the arms were, the states were forced to submit and from the grasp of all the states in that agree to every thing, viz.: to the cession quarter; and, finally, brought over Aus- of the left bank of the Rhine, to the seculatria to sign a peace. rization of the right bank, as an indemnity The emperor, by this treaty, ceded the for what had been lost on the left, and to Austrian Netherlands to France, and re- the destruction of the fortress of Ehrenbreitnounced his Italian possessions, including stein, together with various other equally the capital city of Milan, together with humiliating demands. These negotiations several other Italian provinces, which were had continued until the end of the year to form a Cisalpine republic, under the pro- 1798, when they were brought to a termitectorship of France. In return for this, nation; but, in the mean time, Europe itAustria received Venice, the Venetian self had undergone a material change. Isles, Istria, and Dalmatia, and engaged to The members of the French directory, in deliver up Breisgau to the duke of Modena, their arrogance, had undertaken to revoluand to summon, forthwith, a congress at tionize and overturn the governments of Rastadt, in order to treat more fully the other countries, and the measures they several conditions of the peace concluded adopted made it very soon manifest that between the republic and the Germanic the French republic was even more danempire. gerous in a time of peace than during a But this peace of Rastadt was in every war. In the beginning of 1798, they, in respect humiliating and disgraceful to Ger- scornful defiance of the pope, remodelled many. The empire was wholly abandoned the states of the church into a Roman reand sacrificed by the emperor, as it had public, and shortly afterwards, they transpreviously been by Prussia. Austria hav- formed the government of Switzerland, after BONAPARTE IN EGYPT-HIS FLEET DESTROYED. 425 several sanguinary contests, into an Hel- and after having made himself master of vetic republic; and under the pretext of the island of Malta, landed in the bay of securing these new advantages, they left Aboukir, on the 2d of July, 1798, and havtheir armies in possession of the countries ing taken Alexandria by storm, continued which they drained by unheard-of exac- his march, and took up his position near tions. Austria, who still considered her- Cairo, the capital of that country. Here, self called upon to watch over the safety at the foot of the great pyramids, he found of Europe, could not sanction such proceed- himself opposed by twenty-three Mameluke ings, and she found in the emperor Paul Beys at the head of their cavalry, drawn of Russia, who had succeeded to the impe- up in battle array. Having made his prerial throne on the death of his mother Cath- parations for the attack, Bonaparte turned erine, in 1796, a co-operative spirit. He to his troops, and exclaimed, as he pointed was a decided enemy to all the principles with his sword to the pyramids: " Behold, professed and followed out by the French; and remember, that four thousand years are and his mother had already denounced and looking down upon you from those monuthreatened those "regicides" and "athe- ments!" After this short address, so well ists." Paul at this moment was more es- adapted to the French national character, pecially excited against France, because the troops attacked the enemy, and corn the knights of the order of St. John had pletely overthrowing their whole army, elected him their grand-master, after the advanced against the capital, which they French had taken possession of the island captured, and now looked upon Egypt as a of Malta. This circumstance was well conquered country. But this success was adapted to act as a spur to his ambition. very speedilychanged into disaster. France Accordingly, a coalition of powers was now had imagined that the Turks, who were formed against France, such as had never rather in name than in fact the masters of before been brought into operation: being Egypt, would view her successes with ina union of Russia, England, Austria, and difference-not so, however; for on the con. even Turkey, which, until now, had always trary, they regarded the matter more sericherished the greatest enmity towards two ously, and renouncing their alliance of of these powers; France herself, however, three hundred years with that country, had forced Turkey, hitherto her old ally, united with the other states against that to a war, by the formidable expedition she power. England now clearly perceiving sent against Egypt in May, 1798. the great importance arising from this exThe republic of France had never con- pedition, strained every nerve to defeat and ceived a more grand and stupendous design, destroy it; Admiral Nelson, the great naof which they contemplated the realization val hero, after a long search, came up with by this enterprise. At the moment when the French fleet on the 1st of August, in the negotiations with the Germanic empire the bay of Aboukir, and although the sun had as yet made but little progress, and had already set, he nevertheless, with his consequently, the peace of continental Eu- usual undaunted valor, formed his plan of rope was not yet secured, and when Eng- battle and commenced the action, broke land was maintaining a gloriously victori- through the enemy's line of battle, and ous struggle on the seas, the flower of the gained a glorious victory; having cornFrench army, headed by Bonaparte and pletely annihilated the French fleet, of their best and most successful leaders, sud- which the admiral's ship itself, L'Orient, denly embarked, and set sail towards a dis- was blown up with more than one thousand tant land, "in order," as stated in the of her crew. By this victory, Bonaparte French manifesto, " to deliver Egypt from found himself completely separated from the tyranny of the Mamelukes, and to Europe, and cut off from all succor; while, avenge the Porte upon those overbearing in the mean time, the most formidable pre. and insolent vassals." A plan more strange parations were being made by the coalesced and unexpected could not have been thought powers for the war against France. of, only that behind these words was con- The emperor of Austria now, at the cealed a deep-laid scheme, which events commencement of the year 1799, recalled very soon made clearly manifest, but which his ambassador from the congress at Raslikewise fell to the ground. tadt, and the meeting of plenipotentiaries Bonaparte, after a prosperous voyage, was dissolved. On the 6th of March, the 54 426 THE FRENCH IN ITALY-MARSHAL SUWAROFF. French republic, according to its system an adversary Moreau found it impossible of always anticipating the measures of its to make head with the ill-conditioned troops enemies, declared war once more against under his command. Accordingly Suwa. the emperor of Austria, for having allowed roff completely defeated him on the 27th the Russian army to enter the Austrian of April, near Cassano, and on the day folterritory. lowing entered Milan in triumph. By this In Italy the war had commenced a few victory the whole of Lombardy was re. months sooner; for the queen of Naples, conquered, the Cisalpine republic destroya violent enemy of the French, would not ed, and the north of Italy restored to the wait for the moment of general attack, but house of Austria. After this the Russian caused the Neapolitan troops, in Novem- general marched against Macdonald, who ber, 1798, to advance against the Roman had returned with the French army from territories; an impatience, however, which Naples, and beat him, in the month of produced very bad results. The French, June, in several sanguinary actions on the with their usual celerity, directed their banks of the Trebia, nearly on the same whole operations against that quarter, and spot where Hannibal vanquished the Rodriving the king of Naples with his family mans. The whole of Italy as far as the out of Sicily, they took possession of Lower states of Genoa was retaken from the Italy, as far as Calabria. The kingdom French, all the fortresses were besieged of Naples was now changed into a Parthe- and captured, the republican governments nopian republic, and in order to transform disappeared one after the other, and the the whole of Italy into one entire republic, ancient duchies were restored. the states of Genoa and Tuscany were de- Meantime General Joubert had collected dared free states. another army; but he met with the same This time, however, these new creations fate as his predecessors. On the 15th of had but a short existence, for the armies August the hard-fought battle of Novi, of the allies now marched forth from every which continued for twenty hours, was side to open the campaign, led on by able fought, in which Joubert himself fell morand well-tried generals. The French di- tally wounded. Genoa was now the only rectory had lost much of its former influ- city that remained in the hands of the ence and power even in France itself: La French. Leaving the siege of this place Vendee had again taken up arms, the to be conducted by the Austrians alone, French armies were for the greater part Suwaroff directed his march towards the badly conducted, and in the government of Alps, in order to penetrate into Switzerland the state, as well as in the administration and to make himself master of that giganof war, the greatest lethargy and disorder tic fortress of nature-the bulwark of prevailed. Added to this, Archduke Charles France. When he arrived at the foot of completely overthrew General Jourdan at those vast mountains, the summitsof which, Stockach, as well as in several other en- towering to the very heavens above, becounters, and drove him out of Germany; came lost in the mist of the clouds, his while from General Massena he reconquer- warriors were struck with awe and dread ed the whole of the western portion of at a scene of such majestic grandeur, by Switzerland beyond Zurich itself, and then them wholly unknown amidst their own awaited on the banks of the Rhine the re- vast plains, and they hesitated for a mosults of the war in Italy. ment before they ventured to ascend the There the French army was under the rocky, precipitous heights. Beholding this, orders of General Scherer, a man of a li- the veteran general, who commanded the centious character and addicted to drink. entire devotion of his soldiers, threw himDefeated by the Austrian general, Kray, self upon the ground before them, and exat Verona and at Magnano, he resigned claimed: "Behold, comrades! rather than the command into the hands of Moreau, return, my body shall be buried here at when the latter found the army reduced to the foot of these mountains, so that the a state of the greatest disorganization and world may know that you have abandoned confusion. At this moment Marshal Su- your leader, Suwaroff, on this spot!" The waroff, an old but active, daring warrior, soldiers, struck with shame and confusion with his Russians, formed a junction with at these words, delayed no longer, but the Austrian army in Italy. Against such marching forth with reanimated vigor and RUSSIA AND ENGLAND-BONAPARTE FIRST CONSUL. 427 courage, they commenced the ascent of while, in addition to this, the government of St. Gothard, and passing onward through France itself was in a state of disunion, and its intricate defiles amidst constant fight- had lost public confidence. Bonaparte, ing, gained the Devil's bridge, and thence however, now arrived to extricate the na. descended into the valley of Luzern. tion from its embarrassed condition. During this interval, however, Massena When this general, who had during this having by a successful manceuvre taken interval been actively engaged in Egypt the Russian general, Korsakow, by sur- and Syria, learned the dangers that threatprise, completely overthrew him; while ened France, the unsuccessful battles fought, General Soult defeated the Austrians un- and the loss of Italy, he quitted his then scene der Hotze in the neighborhood of Zurich. of action in the east, without waiting to be Suwaroff's object was to join the Aus- recalled, and, with only a few followers, trians; but after their defeat it became hoisted sail homeward. Having, with daring impossible to save Switzerland, and the courage, miraculously escaped the vigilance war could not be protracted in a country of the British fleet, he landed on the 9th of so poor that no supplies were to be obtain- October at Frejus, and appeared suddenly, ed for the troops. Accordingly, Suwaroff and to the wonderment of all, in Paris itself. retreated to Feldkirch in Swabia, directing His presence, thus unexpectedly, produced his march through Graubindten, across considerable alarm among those to whom his such narrow passes that his soldiers were arrival was any thing but welcome, and to only able to march in single file: a retreat whom his ambition was well known; oth. accomplished in such a masterly style that ers again, who had already witnessed and he lost not a single man. Shortly after- appreciated the victories he had gained, and wards he was recalled with his whole army, by which he had been the means of proand he returned to Russia. The Russians ducing peace, hailed his reappearance as had only shared in this one campaign with the harbinger of a beneficial change in the the Austrians; but it was a campaign al. state of affairs; while the majority congratmost unparalleled in the annals of war, ulated themselves with the sanguine hope both in respect to the deeds accomplished, that by his means their personal interests and the profitable results produced. For, would be promoted. And truly he did very besides the several battles gained, eight soon succeed in reforming the government strong fortresses, and no less than five thou- of the country, which at once placed in his sand pieces of artillery, had been taken. hands the predominating power, and he was The restless and false character of the chosen consul. emperor Paul, who pretended that he was His first word was peace; and at this neglected and insulted by his allies, was moment this was his principal object in orthe cause of the sudden termination of the der to fix himself more securely in the new alliance. An attempt had been made in power he commanded; but all the other the autumn of this year to invade Holland nations, doubtful of his faith, refused to rewith a combined force of English and Rus- ceive his offers of peace. " Well then!" sian troops; but through various blunders he exclaimed, "we must conquer peace which occurred in the expedition, it turned ourselves." And these striking words were out unsuccessful, and this result produced soon re-echoed throughout the country, opmore especially the discontent of the em- erating with such powerful influence, that peror of Russia. Thence France, through a numerous and well-appointed army was this ill success of her adversaries in Hol. already assembled for action in the spring land, and by her repossession of Switzer- of the year 1800, at Dijon. land, was delivered from the great and The Austrian army closely besieged Ge. more immediate danger with which she had noa on every side, and however bravely debeen threatened. Nevertheless, she was fended by Massena, still, owing to the want not yet altogether free from difficulty; for of provisions, disease and misery prevailed the victorious troops of Austria, after having to such a dreadful extent throughout that reconquered Italy, maintained their position populous city, that great numbers of the on the banks of the Rhine, which they made wretched inhabitants perished daily. The preparations for crossing in conjunction idea of any aid being furnished across the with the rest of the imperial forces, which Alps, did not for a moment enter the minds had at length resolved to join in the war; of the members of the war-council in Vien 428 BATTLE OF MARENGO-MOREAU na, and so far were they from entertaining quired possession of the whole of Italy. such a suspicion, that General Melas re- Melas, who by this defeat lost all self-comceived instructions to march across Nizza, mand, as all retreat into Austria was now and from this point enterthe south of France. completely cut off, abandoned all the ItalBut at this moment the first consul suddenly ian fortresses he held, except Mantua and marched from Dijon with the army of re- Ferrara, on condition of being allowed to serve, and leading his troops, with all his retire without molestation. cavalry and heavy artillery, in spite of ev- General Moreau pursued hostilities in ery obstacle, over the great mountains of Germany during the interval between the St. Bernard, the Simplon, and St. Gothard, months of April and December, 1800, with he descended to the other side, and arrived a boldness and good fortune almost unexamin safety on the plains of Lombardy before pled. On the 25th of April he crossed the even Melas had been informed of his expe- Rhine, and already a fortnight afterwards dition; for had he known it, it would have he gained the banks of the Iller, having been extremely easy for him to have anni. made himself master of the entire country hilated the troops, corps after corps, as they between that river, the Rhine, the Danube, descended the mountains. On the 2d of and the lake of Constance, and fought two June Bonaparte made his public entry into successful battles at Stockach and MosMilan; and on the same day Massena sur- kirch; thence he penetrated farther into rendered to the imperialists the city of Ge. Bavaria, and conquered the whole line of noa, in which both garrison and inhabitants territory as far as Munich. The Austrian were suffering all the horrors of famine. general, Kray, having now proposed a susThe Austrians allowed him and such of his pension of arms, Moreau consented, and troops as were fit for active service to march negotiations were commenced; as, howout with flying colors. ever, Austria would not treat without the Shortly after this, on the 14th of June, a co-operation of England, and as France regrand battle was fought near the village of fused to receive the English envoys at the Marengo, on the vast plains between Alex- conference, hostilities were resumed on the andria and Tortona; a battle the most ob- 1st of December. At the commencement stinate and sanguinary of all those hitherto the Austrians appeared to have the advanfought in the war of the revolution, and in tage, but on the 3d of December they met which all the destructive powers at man's with a complete defeat at Hohenlinden. command were employed to hurl forth their Moreau, after this great victory, advanced murderous effects during a space of thirteen with hasty marches, and crossing the Inn hours. Both armies fought with great spirit to Salzburg, he proceeded by Linz and arand determination, and victory was already rived to within twenty leagues of Vienna inclining towards the Austrian side-their itself. Another proposal for a suspension valorous battalions having beat back the of arms was agreed to, and the negotiations French in four different attacks, until their for peace were now resumed with greater retreat was becoming more and more gen- determination at Luneville. This subseeral-when, most opportunely for Bona- quent treaty of peace concluded at Luneparte, Desaix, one of the bravest of all the ville, owed its origin entirely to the exploits French generals, and especially esteemed of Moreau in this campaign; for, in the as a man by all, arrived at this moment on short space of eight months, of which four the field of battle with the corps-de-reserve. had been devoted to a suspension of arms, The battle was forthwith resumed by De- he had crossed the Rhine, the Danube, the saix, and he was followed by the rest of the Lech, the Iller, the Inn, the Salza, and the army, who rallied around him. He him- Ens; he had been conqueror in six grand self was mortally wounded by a cannon- battles, and had enriched the treasury of ball; but his soldiers, rendered more furi- the republic with 40,000,000 francs. ous by this, fought with such desperation, After the losses of the year 1800, Engthat they eventually gained the victory, land absolved the emperor of Germany which, after such great efforts, had now be- from all his obligations previously entered come decisive. into not to make a separate peace; whence Thus was lost in one day the fruits of all the negotiations between the Austrian enthe successes gained by the Austrians dur- voy, Count Cobenzl, and Joseph Bonaparte, ing the campaign; while the French ac- the eldest brother of the first consul, were SACRIFICES OF GERMANY-FRENCH ARROGANCE. 429 carried on with such dispatch, that the all the lay princes, four only received the treaty of peace was signed on the 9th of electoral power, a power which, a few February, 1801; which treaty confirmed years later, lost all its ancient and venerthat of Campo-Formio in all its points, and ating signification; for these newly-created Austria acknowledged therein the Bata- princes were not allowed even the time to vian, Helvetic, Ligurian, and Cisalpine re- exercise their noble privileges. This was publics. A fresh condition which had not regarded as the prognostication of the apbeen included in the treaty of Campo-For- proaching downfall of every thing; for, mio was now added, inasmuch as it was comparatively speaking, the changes introagreed that the duke of Parma, a near re- duced in consequence of the Westphalian lation of the king of Spain, should be ele- treaty, in the administrative forms of the vated to the rank of a king, with the title empire, were nothing. What had then been of king of Etruria, such being the name cautiously brought into operation, merely into which that of Tuscany had now be- for a trial, the peace of Luneville accomcome changed; the grand-duke, on the plished at once, without any fear or dread other hand, in return for his duchy, re- of the ruinous results entailed upon instituceived in Germany the archbishopric of tions existing for more than a thousand Salzburg as a temporal principality, to- years. Such acts of spoliation could not gether with' other frontier territories, and but fill the hearts of all patriots with pro. the title of elector. The duke of Modena found grief; for who could contemplate, likewise received, as had been already without bitter feelings, the scattered heaps agreed upon at Campo-Formio, the mar- of ruins into which the raging storm had graviate of Breisgau as an indemnity for converted the once-beloved home? But, the losses he had suffered in Italy. although the columns of the ancient edifice Besides these concessions made by Ger- were torn asunder, and razed to their very many to the princes of Italy, who were foundation, still, on the walls were to be thus transplanted among us, great changes traced the symbols of its ancient majestic were effected within the empire itself; for grandeur, and the remains of a powerful Germany ceded to France the whole of and prosperous nation, such as are recordthe left bank of the Rhine, consisting of ed of few other nations. twelve hundred square miles of territory, A short period of tranquillity now reand four millions of inhabitants; while all appeared once more on the continent, after those princes, who were losers on that side the long war; but the maritime war still of the river, were to be indemnified with continued: for the great statesman who the ecclesiastical possessions and the impe. was at the helm of the British government, rial cities, situated on the right bank. A and who penetrated into the very depths or diet, appointed for the regulation and ad- Bonaparte's designs and motives, knew justment of the rights of all interested, was full well that peace could never exist beassembled under the mediation of France tween the latter and England. The poand Russia. Its sittings were opened on sition of France and England towards each the 24th of August, 1802, and terminated other, at this period, has been compared to on the 10th of May, 1803. In these con- Rome and Carthage in ancient times: a ferences, France dictated the law with even comparison equally just and happy. For, still greater authority and arrogant arbi- between these two powers existed a mortrariness than formerly at the peace of tal hatred, and thence Pitt was resolved, Westphalia. She granted or refused her similar to Hannibal, to fight a war of life favor according to her caprice, and thus and death. At the same time, however, established her influence over dependent many voices in England were in favor of Germany more firmly than ever. peace, inasmuch as commerce was in a The peace of Luneville deprived the very depressed state; the embargo laid by ecclesiastics of all their domains in Ger- France on the exportation of corn had promany, even to the very last in the list; of duced a considerable augmentation in its forty-eight imperial cities only six now price in England; and, finally, the national remained: Lubeck, Hamburg, Bremen, debt had increased to the enormous amount Frankfort, Augsburg, and Nuremberg; of five hundred and fifty-eight millions the counts and knights were made only sterling. Consequently, Pitt gave in his mediately dependent on the empire, and of resignation, in order not to throw any ob 430 PEACE OF AMIENS. stacie in the way of the said peace, although Holland and Switzerland, which being he could not, conscientiously, sign the treaty refused, she declared war against him, in himself. May, 1803. Bonaparte had only waited The peace of Amiens was concluded on for this opportunity, in order to take immethe 27th of March, 1802, by the terms of diate possession of the territory belonging which England restored all she had con- to the English crown on the continent, and quered from France, Spain, and Holland, already, in the following month of June, except Trinidad and Ceylon, resigning even the French armies marched into Hanover, Malta, and her conquests in Egypt under and made themselves masters of the entire General Abercromby; the former being country, wholly indifferent to the fact, and restored to the knights, and the latter to slighting, altogether, the consideration that the Turks. Such a peace, however, the it formed a portion of the Germanic emterms of which, after the great victories pire, and, as such, could not be held or gained at sea, were held to be both unfavor- bound to take any share with England able and highly disadvantageous, could not in the war. The moment was deemed last long, and in less than a year it termi- too opportune not to be made available, nated. England very soon perceived that and thus a new source was presented for Bonaparte's object, in desiring peace, had visiting us with fresh exactions, for mainonly been to increase his naval power, and, taining a strict watch over the maritime if possible, to raise it to a level with that commerce of the neighboring cities, and of Great Britain, and make himself master restricting their trade with England. All of the Mediterranean. He formed alli- the Hanoverian troops were disarmed; but ances with the Porte, the bey of Egypt, thousands of them successively passed over and with the piratical states; and, soon to the British shores, and, forming themafterwards, he prohibited all introduction selves into a select battalion, fought, under of English produce into France and Hol- the title of the " King's German Legion," land. Thus England found she had no against the enemy with the greatest courless cause to dread a state of peace than age, and sustained the ancient glory of she had that of war; for, assuredly, she the Hanoverian arms in many subsequent was as little inclined to submit to a rival on battles, sieges, and expeditions, in Portuthe seas,, as France was to endure one on gal, Spain, Italy, France, and Germany the continent. Other causes, however, itself; while at Salamanca, especially, the soon operated to add to this discontent. It brilliant services of this corps obtained for became more and more evident, that the the officers a permanent rank in the Eng. new regulations and institutions, already lish army, as was afterwards confirmed by brought to.bear in Europe by Bonaparte, act of parliament, in 1812. formed merely the introduction to those other grand plans of usurpation he had still in contemplation. The Cisalpine republic was made to acknowledge the first consul of France as its president; while APTP Holland remained in the occupation of theHX X XIV. French army, and was placed completely Napoleon's Consulship-Gains the Nation's Confidence under the control of the French govern. -Restores internal Tranquillity and improves the Inment. Switzerland, which could not be stitutions-Napoleon Emperor of the French, 1804ment. Switzerland, which could noHt be soHis Usurpations-Alliance of Austria, Russia, and brought to agree unanimously to the new England-War declared-Napoleon in Germany, constitution forced upon her, was at once 805-Defeats the Austrias-Ulm-Genral Mackconstitution orce upon er, was at once Battle of Austerlitz-The Alliesdefeated-Peace of disarmed, and changed into a federative Presburg-Dismemberment of the States of Germany r it being declared, " that she was -Naples-Joseph Bonaparte-Holland-Louis Bonarepublic, it being declared, " that she was parte-Rhenish Confederation, or League of the Gerleft to the free administration of her in- man Princes-Their Degeneration-T'he Emperor of Austria lays down his title of Emperor of Germany, ternal affairs, but, in all external mat- 1806-Prussia-Declares War against France —Tlhe ters, she was henceforth dependent upon Prussian Army-Battle of Saalfeld-Death of Prince F-~ran^~~'c)) e."Lewis Ferdinand of Prussia-Battles of Jena and France." Auerstadt-Defeat of the Prussians-Napoleon enters England, after these events, preferring Berlin-The Russian and Prussian Alliance-Battles &9<~~ 7'~.< ~~ t of Eylau and Friedland-Defeat of the Allies-Peace open war to an insecure peace, determined of Tilsit between Russia and France, 1807-Prussia's upon the course she should take, and de- Dismemberment-Westphalia —Hesse-Jerorne Bonaparte - Prussia- Lieutenant Schill- Napoleon's manded from Bonaparte the evacuation of Triumphant Return to Paris. NAPOLEON'S CONSULSHIP-NAPOLEON EMPEROR. 431 THE first years of the consulship were afterwards, he changed the Cisalpine refor France a period of repose, and marked public into a kingdom, and created himself by order, industry, and prosperity through- king of Italy, together with all his descendout the country; the most turbulent, as ants; and as a proof of his moderation, as well as the most timid, were now tranquil- he said, he appointed his son-in-law, Eulized and breathed more freely, while the gene de Beauharnais, viceroy of Italy. name of the first consul was repeated Parma, Piacenza, and Guastella, were now everywhere with praises and blessings. altogether united with France, as also the And even beyond France many looked Ligurian republic. All these changes towards him with sanguine hopes and ex- were contrary to the treaty of peace conpectations, as the only one who, after the cluded at Luneville, and gave great ofrecent period of savage and inhuman crime, fence to Austria, who found sympathy in could re-establish order upon a solid basis: the emperor Alexander of Russia, now so nor did he want the ability and energy ne- much exasperated by the execution of the cessary to effect this desirable object. The duke d'Enghien-shortly before effected power with which he made every thing by the cruelty of Bonaparte-and who alyield to his will was truly astounding, ready felt himself called upon to aid in the whether we regard the promptitude dis. protection of Europe.. Accordingly these played in his measures of administration, two powers now came forward and made or the indefatigable zeal with which he known to William Pitt, the prime minister, undertook to condense into a single code their wish-by him long desired-to renew the results of multiplied experience in their alliance with England against France. public life. All that was held most valu- A coalition was immediately formed beable in the civil institutions of his period- tween these three governments, to which the recognition of the rights of man in every Sweden was added; and, according to their thing; equality of the citizen in the eye plan of war, the French power was to be of the law; abrogation of all feudal rights; attacked at every point, in Italy, Switzerliberty of conscience in all invisible mat- land, Holland, and in France itself. Naters; and a government which, in an poleon, however, overthrew this design, in eminent degree, combined the force of his usual way, and by tbe celerity of his union in the execution of laws, with the movements he was enabled to anticipate advantages of variety of counsel in their the allies in all their operations, and was formation-all these, and many other in- already in advance of them when and where stitutions, under the fostering care of that least expected. Since 1803 he had stationextraordinary man, were seen to grow, in ed nearly the whole of his army along the the now genial soil of France, and to northern coasts of France, in order to operipen into maturity, as a striking and rate as a check upon England, and where, praiseworthy example for other nations. indeed, he contemplated making a landing; What might not this man have been to now, however, the troops received marchEurope, how different his history in the ing orders, and suddenly abandoning their annals of the world, had he made real and present quarters, they proceeded by hasty complete this beautiful and noble picture, marches to the Rhine, which they speedily of which his zeal, thus far pure, in the crossed, and forced the princes of South cause of truth and justice, already pre- Germany to form an alliance with France; sented, before the eyes of all, a glorious while the Austrian army, now under the sketch! How might he not have been command of general Mack, remained comenabled, for centuries to come, to have led pletely inactive in its quarters near Ulm. on the way to enlightenment, and having General Mack, otherwise an efficient carried all with him, have merited the leader, was on this occasion entirely desertblessings, instead of the curses of all man- ed by his good fortune, and evinced a total kind! want of resolution and judgment; for, imaNapoleon Bonaparte was now elected gining the enemy would advance upon him emperor of France, and thus, in the 11th direct from the side of Swabia, he quietly year of the republic, his imperial throne awaited his coming. On his right flank he was erected upon the ruins of the royal had at command the Franconian territories and legitimate dynasty; nevertheless, his belonging to the king of Prussia, who took ambition was not yet satisfied. Immediately no share in the war, and he accordingly 432 ULM-BATTLE OF AUSTERLITZ. considered himself completely covered in purpose, a rather premature conference that quarter. But such a bulwark furnish- with Napoleon in the mill of Saroschitz, ed but a poor means of defence in front of for on the following day a body of 12,000 an army led on by Napoleon. Bernadotte, Russians arrived to reinforce the army, Marmont, and the Bavarians, disregarding which had now rallied. In addition to this, the neutrality of Prussia, very soon ad- too, the Archduke Ferdinand had collected vanced direct through Franconia towards an army of 20,000 men in Bohemia, and the Danube, and attacking the Austrian completely routed the Bavarians, taking general in the rear, cut him off from all possession of the whole country; Hungary communication with Austria. Surprised was arming everywhere; Archduke Charles and stupified, he, after a sanguinary battle, was now in full march from Italy with his threw himself into Ulm, where, instead of victorious army to the aid of his country, forcing for himself a passage with his and would arrive in a few days to deliver sword through the very centre of his ene- Vienna and harass the enemy's rear; while mies, as any other brave and determined the Russians and English had now landed spirit would have done-and which indeed at Naples, and the Russian, Swedish, and had been previously accomplished by Duke English troops had already entered HanFerdinand in Bohemia, atthe head of only over; finally, however, what was more a few squadrons of cavalry-he surren- important than all this, the Prussian troops dered himself prisoner, together with the were now assembling in order to revenge whole of his army, on the 17th of October, themselves for the violation of their terri1805. Napoleon, after this first part of tory of Anspach. Nevertheless the emthe campaign, during which he had almost peror of Austria, very anxious for peace, annihilated 80,000 men, sent to the senate signed a treaty for a suspension of arms. in Paris forty standards he had taken, say- The misfortunes of his country were a ing, "They were a present from the chil- source of great pain to him, and he flatdren to their fathers." tered himself with the hope that a peace, The French army marched on without purchased as it must be from such an eneany obstacle to the capital of Austria, and my at such heavy sacrifices, might still be took possession of it on the 11th of Novem- rendered permanent; as if sacrifices, howber, 1805. The Russians and Austrians ever great, could ever satiate the latter's had retreated to Moravia, and on the 2d inordinate love of conquest! of December the allied and French armies The Prussian ambassador, Count von stood front to front near Austerlitz, re- Haugwitz, who had been deputed by his solved to hazard a decisive engagement. government to prescribe either the terms of The battle-called by Napoleon the three peace or to declare war, found himself emperors' battle-commenced on a beauti- placed in a very embarrassing position affully sunbright, frosty morning. The al- ter the resolution expressed by Austria, lies, however, were not well supplied with and, under the circumstances, he deemed leaders, and their movements, therefore, it most prudent, instead of giving vent to were not made in the best order; in addi- the menaces as instructed by his sovereign, tion to which, they were unacquainted with to adopt a more moderate and pacific style the strength and position of the French of language. The French, when they army, whence the Russian line of battle found this, expressed themselves thus: was very soon broken through; and, in "That they could not but praise the wisspite of all their bravery, the troops were dom shown by the Prussian government, put to rout. The left wing sought to save which had never possessed a more faithful themselves by crossing a frozen lake, but and disinterested friend than France; alNapoleon ordered the artillery to play upon though, at the same time, the French nathe ice, which speedily dissolved and im-tion was wholly independent of every mersed the whole of the fugitives within other, and that 150,000 enemies more in its deep waters, where they perished. Never- the war would only have tended to prolong theless this victory was not so easily gain- it a little longer." The Prussian ambased, nor would its results have been so de- sador ought to have given the right intercisive, had not the emperor Francis, in pretation to this language, and feeling the his anxiety for his subjects, hastened to dignity of his country wounded thereby, conclude a peace, and demanded, for this he was bound forthwith and on the spot to PEACE OF PRESBURG. 433 have made known the resolution he con- of to-day or yesterday-and whom he was veyed from his government-especially as born only to obey. Austria had not yet signed the treaty-a In order to complete the ruin of the Gerresolution which, nevertheless, six months manic empire, the electors of Bavaria and afterwards, his king was forced to carry Wtrtemberg were created kings, and they, into execution. And Austria, had she seen as well as the elector of Baden, were grantthat Prussia was really in earnest, would, ed the uncontrolled government, or rather without doubt, have preferred even a con- -to use the more favorite expression of tinuation of the war to a disgraceful peace. that period-the sovereignty of their lands. Instead of this, however, Haugwitz, with- The emperor himself renounced all claim out even possessing the necessary power, to the exercise of supreme power over their signed the treaty of Vienna, by which states, and thus the empire by this act Prussia gave up the province of Anspach to paved the way for its eventual dissolution, Bavaria, Cleves and Neufchatel to France, and the storm gathered more and more receiving in exchange Hanover, to which fiercely, until it finally burst forth in all England by no means renounced her claim. its fury, producing those sad effects which Thus Napoleon strewed the seeds of divi- sealed the doom of our country. sion between Prussia and England, well The first word pronounced by Bonaparte knowing that if united those two powers after the peace of Presburg, was, as usual must be too formidable for him. with him, the sentence of confiscation. Five days after, the treaty being drawn The king of Naples having received into. up, it was signed by Austria, at Presburg, his territories an allied body of English on the 25th of December, 1805; and by and Russian troops, the French emperor this peace, the terms of which were more immediately ordered his brother Joseph severe than any hitherto made, Austria and Massena, with 60,000 men, to march lost one thousand square miles of territory, into and take possession of the whole of' and three millions of subjects-constituting Italy; adding, in the manifesto he sent: its most valuable possessions. The Tyrol with them, " That the Bourbon dynasty-ever faithful, and which had shown its had ceased to reign in Naples." This attachment to the house of Austria, more dreadful word produced so much alarm in especially in the last war-Burgau, Eich- the royal family of that house, that the stidt, a portion of Passau, Voralberg, to- king abandoned his capital and fled to gether with other lands in eastern Austria, Sicily, while Napoleon declared his brother were ceded to Bavaria; what Austria pos- Joseph king of Naples. This new throne, sessed in Swabia was given up to Wiirtem- nevertheless, was not gained without the berg and Baden, and the Venetian states sacrifice of much blood, for the inhabitants. were yielded to Italy. In compensation of Lower Italy rose up en masse against for all this Austria received but a trifling the invaders, and defended themselves with indemnification, viz., Salzburg; the elec- great courage; but they were at length toral prince of Salzburg being forced to forced to submit to the French, who poured leave that territory, which he had only re- large bodies of troops into the country, and: cently received, and accept of Wurzburg, both Calabria and Abrazza were conquered which Bavaria renounced. All these coun- and completely devastated. tries with their inhabitants were treated Holland was next on the list, being likelike so much merchandise, passing from wise changed into a kingdom, and given to the hands of one into those of another, ac- another brother, Louis Bonaparte, as his cording to the state of the market. Such portion. That country, however, did not were the principles of the despotic con- suffer by the change, as the new sovereign queror, by which he sought to eradicate anxiously promoted its prosperity, feeling all love and attachment towards the ancient it his duty rather to reign for the good of hereditary princes of the empire, and thus, his people than be controlled by the will of by destroying all national patriotic feeling, his brother. Immediately afterwards, the his object was to reduce the subject to a brother-in-law of the emperor, Joachim complete state of submission, alive only to Murat, received the duchies of Cleves and the mortifying conviction of the service he Berg, on the Rhine, the former having had to render to whatever master he was been ceded by Prussia, and the latter by placed under-whether native or foreign, Bavaria for Anspach; and, finally, to, 55 434 THE RHENISH CONFEDERATION. Alexander Berthier, who was the emperor's fortress of Wesel was arbitrarily taken confidential adviser, was allotted the prin- possession of by the French, and chosen as cipality of Westphalia. the head-quarters of the seventy-fifth divi. It was in the middle of this eventful year sion of their army. that the last blow was inflicted upon the The hostile designs contemplated by the constitution of the Germanic empire; its dis. formation of the Rhenish confederation were solution, which already existed in the act, directed against Prussia as well as Austria; was now clearly and definitively confirmed. for both powers beheld those who had remainOn the 12th of July a Rhenish league was ed their natural allies during the existence formed, by which the kings of Bavaria and of the imperial government, now changed Wiirtemberg, the electoral arch-chancel- into enemies, ready to declare their hostility lor, the elector of Baden, the landgrave of towards them at the first outbreak with Hesse Darmstadt, and the duke of Berg, France. Napoleon had up to this moment (the last four as grand-dukes,) together with tantalized the king of Prussia with the prosthe princes of Nassau and Hohenzollern, pect of being able to form, under his protecand other petty princes and nobles, separ- tion, an alliance in the north, embracing ated themselves from the imperial alliance, the whole of that portion of Germany, aftet and acknowledged the emperor of France the model of that of the Rhine; now, howas the protector of their confederation. He ever, such alliance was completely repudicommanded the right of naming the prince- ated, and even the restoration of Hanover primate of the league, who presided at the to England was not withheld by France. assembly; of deciding upon the question of Every thing, indeed, was done to mortify war and peace, and fixing the contingent Prussia, and make it evident that the French to be furnished; so that each war of France emperor was resolved not to endure the exmust become a war of the Rhenish confed- istence of any independent nation beside his eration, and thus forcing its members to own. At length the indignant king felt take up arms in her cause, even against himself called upon to protect his country their compatriots of Germany. By such against farther insult and humiliation from sacrifices the princes obtained unlimited the hands of the insolent invader, and in authority, without being dependent upon this determination he was supported by the any tribunal to which their subjects in case voice of his army and the nation throughout. of necessity might appeal, and without be- Accordingly he demanded that France ing bound to adopt any ameliorated meas- should withdraw her troops from Germany, ures of government. On all these points, that she should no longer oppose the formathe resolutions of the league were clear and tion of a northern alliance, and that Wesel precise; but in all the rest, every thing should be at once evacuated by the French was obscure and equivocal, in order that troops. Compliance with these demands the protector's will might operate with all having been refused, Prussia forthwith dethe effect of a law. It is unnecessary to clared war. pronounce an opinion upon this confedera- When he received this declaration Nation; its fate was very soon decided, and pos- poleon said: " His heart grieved to see that terity will no doubt seek to obliterate all the genius of evil swayed continually, and traces of its existence from our history. ever frustrated his plans for the promotion The emperor of Germany, deposing the of the peace of Europe and the happiness degraded crown of the ancient empire more of his contemporaries." He now assemthan a thousand years after Charlemagne bled his armies, which were all ready for had placed it upon his own head, declared action, in France and Swabia, and he adhimself, on the 6th of August, 1806, hered- vanced with rapid marches towards the itary emperor of Austria. Thuringian forest. On the north side of What protection, however, Germany had this forest was posted the grand Prussian to expect from her new self-made guardian, army under the orders of the duke of Brunswhen compared with that afforded her by wick, an intrepid but old soldier of seventythe house of Austria, was immediately two years of age, and whose principal offishown. For, at the very moment itself, cers were in a state of disunion. Only a when the French envoy, Bacher, renewed very small portion of the Prussian army the assurance that France would never ex- had taken any share in the war of the Revotend her frontiers beyond the Rhine, the lution, and thus been enabled to make BATTLES OF JENA AND AUERSTADT. 435 themselves acquainted with the lightning- whole army, nor effect a general restoralike celerity of movement now practised by tion of confidence. Surrounded on every the French armies in all their operations; side, the Prussians retreated in the direc the majority had abandoned themselves to tion of Weimar, where they hoped to find ease and indifference during the long peace themselves reinforced by the corps under of three-and-forty years, and it was because the command of the prince of Hohenlohe, the outward form of the institutions of Fred- not being aware that his army had experierick the Great still existed, that their con- enced a similar fate at the same moment. tinued reliance upon themselves became the They were, however, very soon undemore dangerous. Not that either courage ceived; for the disorder was so general in or capacity was wanting in many individu- both armies, that in the course of the night, als, but they were altogether without that while the one army was retreating in all energetic genius so necessary to unite the haste from Auerstadt to Weimar, it met a whole. Thence they were forced to expe- portion of the other which was in full rience-what indeed the most pusillanimous flight from Weimar to Auerstadt. among them could never have thought pos- Ten days after the battle of Jena, Nasible-that, as in the wars of the ancient poleon marched into Berlin itself; and in world, one unlucky day decided the fate of less than six weeks from the commencean entire kingdom. ment of the war, he had already advanced On the 10th of October, Prince Lewis of as far as the Vistula and made himself Prussia, the king's cousin, in his impetuous master of nearly the entire kingdom, conwarlike ardor, imprudently engaged the taining nearly nine millions of inhabitants enemy in an equal contest near Saalfeld, and numerous fortified towns-the fruits and was mortally wounded on the spot. of a single battle, in which an army, which This unfortunate affair laid open for the had hitherto maintained its character as French the entire route of the Saale, and the most distinguished body of troops in advancing now with a superior force, they Europe, was completely annihilated. surrounded the left flank of the Prussian This speedy conquest of the Prussian army, and cut off all communication with states-a conquest far beyond the expectaSaxony; hence, on the 13th of October, tions even of the emperor himself-had Davoust was already in possession of Naum- completely banished from the heart of the burg. The supplies of the Prussians were conqueror every feeling of moderation, lost, which reduced the whole army to a and only served to excite within his ambistate of the greatest want, unavoidably pro. tious soul a greater desire for unlimited ducing depression and disorganization, and dominion. Encouraged by his success, he in this condition the troops were called upon declared in Berlin, that he would never to fight, having the Saale and the Elbe in give up that city until he had conquered a front of them instead of in their rear: thus general peace; and it was from the same the army was vanquished already before city that he issued the decree of the 21st the battle. of November, 1806, against the English, A portion of the Prussian army was at by which the British islands were declared Auerstadt, under the command of the duke in a state of blockade, British manufacof Brunswick; and the other, under the tures excluded from all the continental orders of the prince of Hohenlohe, was ports, all British property on the continent, stationed at Jena and Vierzehnheiligen, and vessels that had only even touched on but both without at all acting in combina- the shores of Albion, were to be seized. tion with each other; and they were ac- This unheard-of system might have crushcordingly attacked and defeated on the ed the commercial prosperity of England; same day. Marshal Davoust fought at but the results, as it turned out, were more Auersttidt, and Napoleon at Jena. The injurious to the continent. For England, duke of Brunswick at the very commence- now taking possession of all the colonies ment of the battle was killed by a cannon- of Europe, cultivated their soil with great ball; his death disarranged the plan of care and industry, and instead of import.,the battle and threw the army into confu- ing the timber for the construction of her sion. The desperate courage of a few ships from the north of Europe, supplied scattered regiments could neither compen- herself therewith from Canada and Iresate for the want of the co-operation of the land; while Europe itself found its com. 436 BATTLES OF EYLAU AND FRIEDLAND. merce languish and sink, and although its 24th of May, although upon honorable industry furnished many articles which it terms of capitulation. The Russians and would otherwise have imported from Eng- Prussians, after having neglected to avail land, it could not compensate for the loss themselves of the former favorable and of its commerce on the seas. decisive moment, now advanced and atThe remains of the Prussian army under tacked the French intrenchments on the Kalkreuth and Lestocq, now made more Passarge. They fought with the greatest wise by the bitter experience of the few bravery, but the enemy having been reinlast months, and rendered a more select forced by the 30,000 men who had just and organized body of troops, formed a returned from the siege oI Dantzic, and junction with the Russians, who now en- being likewise well protected by their tered once more the field of battle. After strong intrenchments, they repulsed the several skirmishes in Poland, all without allies, and were now, in their turn, ena. any important results, the two armies, bled to act upon the offensive. A succesamounting to nearly 200,000 men, again sion of severe and obstinate fighting took met in Prussia, and on the 7th and 8th of place from the 5th to the 12th of June, on February, 1807, during the most severe which day the decisive battle of Friedland frost and amidst a continuous fall of snow, was fought. This hard-contested action they fought another sanguinary battle at lasted from the dawn of day to the middle Eylau, near Konigsberg. The elite of the of night. The Russians fought with great French guard were here completely anni- bravery, and the victory was decidedly on hilated, and the battle still remained unde- their side; but in their elated feelings, cided. The Russians fought with the most they neglected to exercise that caution determined and unshaken courage, and the which should always be observed, even by Prussians under the orders of Lestocq, ar- a conqueror. Thus, towards the afterriving just in time to the aid of the right noon, the divisions under Ney and Victor, wing, which was hard pressed, bravely together with Bonaparte's guard, marched repulsed the final attack of the French into the field, and the fate of this sanguiwith complete success. Both armies main- nary day was at once decided; the Rustained the field, each claiming the victory; sians were overthrown on all sides, and the advantage, however, was on the side retreating across the river Alle, they fell of the allies, and it was generally believed back upon their own frontiers, and gained that a fresh attack on the third day must the river Niemen. On the 19th of June, force the French to make a retreat. But Napoleon took and entered Tilsit, the last Beningsen, the Russian general, did not of the Prussian towns, and on the 16th of hold himself bound to exact from his army, the same month, his army took possession already so much fatigued, such superhu- of Konigsberg. man efforts, and he therefore retired to A conference now took place between Konigsberg. The French likewise with- the emperors of France and Russia, on a drew to their old position on the Passarge, raft erected on the river Niemen, at which and an uninterrupted cessation of hostili- a peace was speedily agreed upon, the disties was preserved for the space of four memberment of Prussia was decided, and months, during which the two armies a compact for mutual support in the relastrengthened their forces as much as pos- tions of Europe concluded for a fixed pesible; while, meantime, this overwhelming riod. Napoleon, always so happy in the burden of several hundred thousand for- employment of cunning and specious laneign troops dispersed all over her kingdom, guage, of which he was a perfect master, inflicted upon ill-fated Prussia incalculable succeeded this time, likewise, in persuading suffering and distress. the emperor Alexander, that his sole obNapoleon, during this interval, hastened, ject was the pacification of the continent; with all possible activity, to lay siege to while all his plans were uniquely directDantzic; this strong fortification was com- ed towards protecting the coasts against manded by General Kalkreuth, and was the insolent arrogance of the English nabravely defended by him, until, finding all tion, and to secure eventually the free docommunication with the sea cut off, by minion of the seas. He then pretended which he was deprived of all hopes of re- that his chief desire was to form a bond of lief, he was forced to a surrender on the lasting friendship with Russia, in order JEROME BONAPARTE-LIEUTENANT SCHILL. 437 that, both united, they might be enabled to King Frederick William, was now left establish the prosperity and happiness of with only a small portion of his states and Europe, inasmuch as then, without their subjects, yet in the latter he found himself concurrence, no war could arise to inter- surrounded by a firm and devoted body of rupt the union of nations. men; while he had the additional gratifiAccordingly, in this peace, Cattaro, Ra- cation of knowing that at least three of his gusa, and the seven isles (of the Ionian fortified cities in Prussia-Colberg, Grauseas) were given up to France by Russia, denz, and Pillau, bravely refused to accept who received in return, as compensation, terms of surrender from the enemy, and large tracts of land, together with 400,000 that two others in Silesia-Kosel and Glatz subjects belonging to Prussian Poland; -likewise maintained a successful dewhile Frederick William, who was scarce- fence. Graudenz was commanded by a ly able to call any part of his kingdom his veteran, General Courbiere, who, when own, was forced to submit to the most de- summoned by the French to surrender, grading and painful sacrifices, and ceded and who represented to him that the king eventually the moiety of his possessions had now lost his kingdom and had crossed with 5,000,000 ofsubjects, including, among the Niemen, replied: "Well then, I will the rest, the city of Dantzic, which was be king in Graudenz." now declared a free city, and the Polish The king had placed Colberg under the territory, which was changed into a grand- command of Colonel Gneisenau, well asduchy of Warsaw, of which the king of sured beforehand that in him he sent a pilSaxony was chosen grand-duke. Thus, lar of strength to that city, and one who Frederick Augustus, who had declared would never yield. In addition to this, a himself a neutral power three days after free corps of light hussars had been formed the battle of Jena, and soon afterwards in the neighborhood, under the sanction of joined in alliance with France, was now the king, by a young heroic officer, Lieuking of Saxony and a member of the Rhe- tenant Schill, assisted by others of equally nish Confederation. daring character, which continually harIn addition to all this, Prussia lost the assed and fell upon the enemy's troops whole of her territories between the Elbe everywhere around. and the Rhine, the greater part of which Meantime Napoleon returned to Paris, Bonaparte converted into a new kingdom- and brought with him, as tokens of triumph, Westphalia-which he gave tohis youngest the car of victory which he had removed brother, Jerome; to which he added a por- from one of the gates of Berlin, together tion of Hanover, the duchy of Brufswick- with the sword of Frederick the Great; because its duke had been leader of the while he caused two bridges to be erected Prussian army-and the principality of in the capital, bearing the names of the Hesse-Cassel. Thus the terrible ban was two great battles of Jena and Austerlitz. now at once pronounced and executed His domination, indeed, was by this new against the house of Hesse, viz.: "That it peace raised to such a pinnacle of glory, should cease to reign, for having," as he and appeared in the eyes of all men to be said, "always shown itself inimical to so firmly established, that whoever would France, and for having farther, in this war have predicted that ere the elapse of a few with Prussia, maintained so equivocal a more years those very Prussians, then trodposition." Such was termed the neutrality den under foot, would march into Paris itwhich Hesse had so strictly observed of self, and, arms in hand, retake possession her own accord throughout the war. The of their car of victory, would only have entire country was forthwith invaded and been laughed at and treated as a maniac. conquered, and the elector driven from his But those who could penetrate into Napocapital and made a fugitive; while the leon's character, might have easily forenew king, a complete stranger, entered its seen that his restless ambition must soon gates in triumph, followed by a train of hurry him on to contend for fresh conFrench officials, and, to the shame of Ger. quests; but which, although acquired, only many, mounted the throne of this ancient produced his eventual overthrow. princely family, the descendants of the Saxons and Chatti. 438 AUSTRIA DECLARES WAR AGAINST FRANCE. -CHTAPTT~ER X~Vlar regiments of Landwehr or patriotic CH A PT E fR XX XV. defenders, appealed to the nation in the Austria declares War against France, 1809-Battles of most eloquent and heart-stirring language, GrossAspern and Esslingen-Archduke Charles- placed the princes of her own royal house The Austrians Victorious-Lieutenant Schill killed — Execution of Palm, the Bookseller-The Tyrolese- at the head of the troops, and finally availBattle of Waram-Defeat ofthe Austrians-Peace ed herself of, and brought at once into of Vienna —he French in the Tyrol-The Mountaineers overpowered-Execution of Hofer, the Ty- operation, all the powers and resources of rolese Patriot-The Duke of Brunswick-His territory her rich and beautiful possessions, to an seized-His bold March-Embarks for England-His Heroic Death-Napoleon at the Height of his Power extent never before effected: productive -Marriage with tile Archduchess MIaria Louisa of altogether of such determined co-operation Austria, 1810-His continued surpations in Ger-determined cooperation many-His Campaign in Russia in 1812-Conflagra- throughout the entire nation, that if ever tion of Moscow-The French Anny destroyed —Na- its immediate deliverance and permanent poleon's Flight and Return to Paris-The King of Prussia's Declaration and General Arming of his liberty might be looked upon as secured Nation against the Invaders, 1813-Napoleon's Prepa- through its own united strength, such glo. rations —'he French in Germany. rious results might be justly anticipated on AUSTRIA was once more roused, and the present occasion. actuated by the same motives of honor as But now in 1809, as previously in 1806, influenced Prussia in the year 1806, she Europe was not yet ripe for her deliverdetermined at any sacrifice to revenge her- ance; it was still necessary that the fire self for the insolent arrogance and menaces of purification should penetrate in all parts, of her detested enemy; accordingly she and that the misery, already so general, took up arms again, and recommenced war should be rendered infinitely greater, in in 1809. Her own immediate territory, it order that every feeling of egotism should is true, had not undergone the same treat- be renounced, and the history of the entire ment as that of her neighbor, but it was world present the grand and unusual specthis very state of suffering and degradation tacle of a holy war, in which all nations of in which she beheld those around her, that the east and west, north and south, should induced her to take this step. In addition rise up as one single individual, animated to this, Napoleon had in the preceding by one spirit only, and, united by one comsummer held a meeting with the emperor mon bond, fight for liberty, honor, and Alexander at Erfurt, and there had renew- virtue. ed more firmly his alliance with that mon- What German patriot, to whom his naarch, by which it appeared as if Russia tive country is more dear and precious and France had resolved to arrogate to than all other possessions, can ever forget themselves the right of assuming the cha- the fluctuating feelings of hope and fear racter of arbitrators of Europe, and thus by which he was agitated during this war treat Austria, which for so many centuries of 1809, or the indignation aroused within had been the central point of the European him when he beheld the enemy he so hated powers, as no longer worthy of considera- and loathed advancing with his army, the tion. This conduct could no longer be flower of which was composed of his feltolerated with patience, for beyond a cer- low-countrymen, the federalists of the tain degree, patience itself degenerates Rhine? Who can ever forget how with into pusillanimity. Thence Austria's de- this brave body of Germans he forced the claration of war was in all respects honor- Austrians by furious and incessant attacks able, noble, and generous, for she came to retreat from Bavaria, into.which terriforth and entered the field of battle unsup- tory they had only just penetrated, and ported by any other power, trusting alone how in his arrogance he declared, that ere to her own resources. the lapse of another month he would march At the same time, however, Austria, into Vienna itself? Truly, this was a diswell knowing that on the present occasion astrous period for Austria, and the actions she must not depend upon her regular ar- fought at Pfaffenhofen, Tann, Abensberg, my alone for her safety, resolved upon Landshut, Eckmuhl, and Ratisbon, from carrying on the war in all its extent and the 19th to the 23d of April, although making it national. She issued proclama. maintained with the greatest bravery and tions for a general rising of the people to determination, ended in the complete disrally under her banners as volunteers; comfiture of the Austrian army; these sad formed numerous bodies of them into regu- results, however, were more especially BATTLES OF ASPERN AND ESSLINGEN. 439 produced through the fault committed by themselves into squares, and thus present the Austrians in extending their line of an invulnerable wall against all attacks forces to too great a length, and thus Na- from the enemy's cavalry; and in this obpoleon, with his usual celerity of move- ject he succeeded completely, as was ment, brought his entire force against one evinced on the present occasion. Every single point. He was then enabled to ad- attempt made by the French cuirassiers to vance with the elite of his army, and espe- penetrate these masses was in vain; firm cially his cavalry, and by throwing him- as rocks, they maintained their ground in self now against one division, then against the most cool and undaunted manner, and another, he succeeded by these overwhelm- the furious horsemen were repulsed at ing attacks in throwing the Austrian line each renewed attack, until at length, reinto complete disorder. And it must cer- ceiving the reserved fire of the Austrians, tainly be admitted that on this occasion they were completely overthrown, and takespecially, he gave remarkable proofs of ing to flight, were pursued in all directions his military genius and talents. He ap- by the Austrian cavalry. peared everywhere, and in the thickest of This firm and unshaken courage disevery danger at the moment he was re- played by the Austrian infantry, the perquired, his presence and example inspiring sonal bravery for which the Lichtenstein his soldiers with the greatest enthusiasm. cavalry were so much distinguished, toIndeed, it appeared as if he had determined gether with the excellent generalship and to devote all his strength and power this heroism shown by Prince Charles himself, time towards the total annihilation of the who was in every part where danger Austrian army, for he followed up his vic- threatened, most combined on this great tory without a moment's loss of time, rest- day, the 21st day of May, to paralyze all ing neither night nor day. efforts made by the French, who were The Archduke Charles retreated with fairly beaten. The village of Aspern, of his troops, which, in spite of the sanguinary which the enemy had taken possession as days of April, still formed a powerful ar- the central point of operations, was now my, to the left bank of the Danube, to- retaken by the Austrians. And now the wards Bohemia; while Napoleon advanced archduke, availing himself of every realong the right bank to Vienna. The source, brought to his aid another powerful Archduke Maximilian defended this city for ally, by which still more to incapacitate a few days successfully; but owing to its the enemy. Thus turning to advantage great extent, and the want of necessary the present swollen state of the waters of means of defence, it was impossible to hold the mighty Danube, he caused heavy out a siege, and the place accordingly sur- barges and other loaded craft to be launchrendered to Bonaparte, who entered it on ed down its course against the bridge of the 12th of May; immediately after which boats, recently constructed by Bonaparte. conquest the French army resumed its And in this he likewise completely sucmarch, and crossing the Danube, pursued ceeded. The bridge was torn asunder, the Archduke Charles, in order to inflict and thus the French leader found himself the last annihilating blow upon Austria. on the left bank of the river, cut off from On the 21st and 22d of May, a severe bat- Vienna and tie rest of his army; being tie was fought on the immense plains of now forced in that position to renew the Aspern and Esslingen, close to the spot battle on the following day, the 22d. All where in former times Rudolphus of Haps- his efforts and tactics were, however, on burg overthrew Ottacar, king of Bohemia. this occasion futile; neither his cavalry, Napoleon, however, found that the Aus- infantry, nor artillery could hold out against trian army was more difficult to contend the Austrian forces. The battle was lost, with now than previously, and he found it and if Massena had not succeeded in capanimated with a far more active and ener- turing the small town of Esslingen, the getic. spirit than when last he met it at walls of which served as a rampart to Ratisbon. The heroic Charles, during cover and secure their retreat, the entire the short interval that had elapsed since French army would have been annihilated. the reverses of April, had applied him- Nay-as it has subsequently been asserted self more especially to perfect his in- -independently of this, it must have still fantry in the improved system of forming ibeen destroyed had the archduke followed 440 DEATH OF LIEUTENANT SCHILL-EXECUTION OF PALM. up his victory, and immediately attacked fusing to give up the name of its author. the island of Lobau, where Napoleon had This tyrannical act produced such revolttaken refuge, and awaited in the greatest ing effects upon the minds of all through. anxiety, until the bridge was repaired on out Germany, that the feeling of bitter the other arm of the Danube; but being hatred, already excited so universally left unmolested, he recrossed the river, by against him, became more and more conwhich means he was enabled to return to firmed and deep-rooted, and the cry of Vienna. The field of battle, however, vengeance for the innocent blood thus was covered with his slaughtered troops, shed did not long remain unsatisfied. of which the Austrians counted three thou- An event of a more serious character sand cuirassiers alone. than those alluded to in the north of Ger. This decisive battle excited fresh hope many, was the revolt of the faithful Tyroin all hearts. Already, in various dis- lese under Hofer, Straub, and Specktricts throughout the land, the people now bacher. These bold and hardy men of emulated each other in evincing their the mountain had already driven away the hatred and fury towards the invaders, and French invaders twice from their land, shaking off their yoke. In the north, the adopting the same system of warfare forbold patriot Schill again came forth at merly pursued with such overwhelming the head of his hussars and a numerous effect by the Swiss, and by which the body of brave volunteers, and directed all latter so completely succeeded in humbling his energies against the common enemy; the pride of their Austrian rulers, and the while in Hesse another daring leader, flower of their nobility and cavaliers. All Dbrnberg, united with several others for Germany rejoiced when it beheld on the the purpose of driving from the throne of summit of these majestic mountains that their legitimate prince, the foreign usurper liberty still maintained her sway in the who had fixed his seat of government in bosom of that home where all spoke the Cassel, and thus the work of deliverance national tongue, and fervent was the hope commenced in that quarter. Nevertheless, that victory would crown those efforts deowing to the universal respect in which voted to so noble and sacred a cause. the law and spirit of public order were Other hopes were now likewise excited, held by the people, there was a want of by encouraging events in another quarter, that co-operation so necessary, and the at- inasmuch as the English had, at this time, tempts thus made turned out unsuccessful. sent a numerous fleet to the island of Schill, who had unfortunately found him- Walcheren, on the coast of Holland, and self less supported than the cause he fought thence it was expected a grand blow for merited, was forced eventually to throw would be inflicted upon the power of himself into Stralsund. Thence he hoped France-all these hopes and anticipations, to be enabled to set sail for England, in however, only proved once more illusive. order subsequently to return at a more Bonaparte, after the battle of Aspern, favorable moment to Germany, and re-collected reinforcements from Bavaria, commence operations upon a more effective Wiirtemberg, Saxony, Italy, and Illyria, plan. Stralsund, however, was besieged so that he was now enabled to recross the and taken by the united forces of France, Danube, and advance against the ArchHolland, and Denmark, and Schill, with duke Charles with a very superior force. his little band of heroes, was unhappily The passage across the river was effected cut to pieces. From this moment, terror during a most tempestuous night, and and dismay produced their disheartening amidst the continual roaring of cannon; effects in every part of Germany, and de- and on the 5th and 6th of July, was fought terred all from attempting to free them- the grand and decisive battle of Wagram. selves from the despotic sway of the ruling From the towers of Vienna the inhabitants powers. They were, indeed, not only beheld the two armies drawn up in battle, fettered in their liberty of action, but also and were enabled to observe clearly the in that of speech, inasmuch as Napoleon movements of the right wing of the Auscondemned an innocent bookseller-Palm trians; when they saw these troops gain. of Erlangen-to be shot for having pub- ing upon the enemy and in full pursuit, lished a pamphlet containing remarks upon one universal shout of joy was echoed the humiliating state of Germany, and re- forth from every quarter. But this wel. THE DUKE OF BRUNSWICK-NAPOLEON'S POWER. 441 come, grateful feeling of elation had but there, with his brave legion, he embarked a brief existence; for, in the mean time, and set sail for England, where he safely the left wing of the Austrian army had landed, and was received with that hospibeen completely surrounded-the auxiliary tality and admiration due to him as an troops from Hungary not having marched exile and a hero.* up in time-and the Archduke Charles Austria, by the peace of Vienna, was was forced to retreat. Thence, only six forced to yield Salzburg and several other days after the battle, an armistice was territories to Bavaria; the major part of concluded, and negotiations for peace were her possessions in Poland she gave up to commenced. the grand-duke of Warsaw and to Russia; The news of this unexpected reverse and she was likewise deprived of her rewas very disheartening to the Tyrolese. maining provinces in Italy, together with Nevertheless, they once more united all the whole of Illyria; and thus she was their efforts, and expelled the French forced to sacrifice, on the one side, all her under Marshal Lefevre from their country, possessions annexed to the sea; and, on in the hope that, stimulated by such pa- the other, all her frontier line of fortified triotic devotion, the Austrians would re- places, together with the mighty bulwarks commence war. But the misfortunes and of her mountains. These latter sacrifices deprivations endured by his subjects ope- were even more severely felt than the loss rated too strongly upon the feelings of the she now again sustained of two thousand emperor Francis; while, in addition to square miles of territory, and more than his own depressed condition, the news three millions of her subjects. arrived of the disastrous results of the The emperor Napoleon, by the peace of English expedition to Holland. Accord- Vienna, had now raised himself to such ingly, the negotiations were continued, an eminence, that all hope of reducing his and a peace was finally concluded. Mean- power was nearly extinguished. In order time, the Tyrolese were again assailed by to fix himself more securely in the posithe French, now united with the Bava- tion he commanded, and to exalt himself rians, and this time the invaders were in the eyes of the world by an alliance triumphant. The entire country was sur- with the most ancient of all the princely rounded on every side, and, in spite of the houses of Europe, he compelled his wife, desperate resistance made by the brave the empress Josephine, to sign a divorce, mountaineers, and the consequent losses and offered his hand to the Archduchess sustained by their foes, pass after pass, Maria Louisa, daughter of the emperor mountain after mountain, were conquered, Francis. The latter consented to make and the whole land devastated with fire this great sacrifice: "It was in order and sword-the brave defenders being to promote," as was stated in a subseeither killed or made prisoners. Their quent declaration of Austria, "the most heroic and devoted chief, Hofer, was seized, sacred interests of the monarchy and of and dragged to the other side of the Alps, humanity itself, and as a bulwark against in Italy, and cruelly shot, as a traitor, in evils the extent of which could not be seen, the citadel of Mantua. and as a pledge for the maintenance of Another hero, the duke of Brunswick, order, that his majesty resigned one of the likewise made a brave attempt to recon- most precious objects of his affections: quer his own possessions; but his efforts and thus he formed an alliance, the object were in vain. However, by a bold and of which was to console and relieve his successful march he made with his devo- oppressed and unhappy subjects; to reted corps of twelve hundred men-the store and make permanent the long-desired black hussars-commencing at the fron- feeling of security after the sufferings and tiers of Bohemia, and continuing his calamities produced in a struggle so unecourse over a space of nearly four hun- qual; to incline the powerful and overdred miles, and in the midst of the enemy's bearing to act with moderation and justice, troops-he crossed the territories of Leipsic, Halle, Halberstadt, his own hereditary " The subsequent history of this heroic man may be summed up in a few words. He died as he had lived duchy-whence the usurpers had driven the bravest of the brave, in the desperate action of him-and Hanover, and paved his way to Quatre Bras, on the evening before the never-to-beforgotten day of Waterloo, at the head of his Black the mouth of the Weser at Elsfleth; Hussars. 56 442 MARRIAGE WITH MARIA LOUISA OF AUSTRIA. and thus establish an equilibrium, without French dominion. In fact, an arbitrary which the community of states could only line of demarcation was marked out across form a community of misery." The em- countries and rivers, as it suited the conperor Napoleon had now attained that point queror's caprice, so that it was easy to in his career, when the object of his desire perceive that this was only the introshould be rather to confirm, than with in- duction to that which was to follow satiable ambition to extend the conquests upon a much more extensive scale, and already obtained. By his alliance with that the whole of Germany must gradthis, the most ancient imperial house in ually, and part by part, be drawn into Christendom, the edifice of his grandeur and ingulfed in the one universal, final would acquire in the eyes of the French abyss. nation and the whole world such solidity, Meantime, Napoleon was far from comthat farther attempts to augment it, espe- prehending the legitimate means by which cially by wars, would only have the effect he would have been enabled to secure of impairing it, and ultimately, perhaps, to his power, sb newly established, and bringing about its total destruction. After originally produced by the violation of so many years of futile efforts and incal- all sacred and human rights, that fixed culable sacrifices made by Germany for duration extending beyond the existence the establishment of peace, it was hoped even of the founder himself; he was ignothat now the confidence and good faith rant of the method by which to inculcate thus shown and proved on the part of Aus- in the minds of his people the necessary tria towards France, must produce prosper- faith in this lasting power, and all that he ous and happy results. did only tended to produce the opposite of But how much was the noble-minded this impression. Already, in 1809, while in Francis deceived in the confidence he thus Vienna, he caused the pope, the venerable so generously and naturally expressed! father of the Catholic community, to be In the same year that the new alliance made a prisoner like a criminal in his own was formed-the marriage having taken ancient capital; and now he followed up place on the 2d of April, 1810-the vice- this act of tyranny by annexing Rome itroy of Italy was elected successor to the self to his own vast empire, and decided prince-primate, now grand-duke of Frank- that his son, newly born, as well as all fort; Holland, after Lewis had resigned eldest sons of future emperors, should rethe crown because he would not allow his ceive the title of king of.Rome. Such acts brother to make him his agent in the de- called forth the most bitter hatred against struction of the people, was now annexed him in the hearts of millions of men in all as a province to the kingdom of France, countries, and his name was pronounced "that country being," as was pretended, with curses; but upon his iron-hearted " nothing else but an alluvion of the Rhine, nature neither curses nor blessings left the Meuse, and the Scheldt, the principal any impression. His empire appeared to arteries of France." And, finally, in him immoveably fixed, and based, as it order to show the power he possessed of was, upon the strength of 500,000 soldiers, doing as he pleased, and that no considera. and an auxiliary force of innumerable tion should operate as a check upon his spies, he felt secure in all his power. designs, Napoleon suddenly determined to Nevertheless, scarcely had two years unite with France the whole of the north- passed over his head, before the colossus west of Germany, situated at the mouth of of this mighty power was overturned, and the Weser, the Ems, and the Elbe, together the emperor of France forced to sign his with the ancient free cities of Hamburg, abdication. Bremen, and Ltibeck. His pretext for this Napoleon now turned upon the emperor was, " that a system of contraband trading Alexander, and accusing him of maintainwith England was pursued along these ing a secret understanding with England, coasts, and by those cities." Thus Ger- and encouraging the people of Germany many found herself wholly deprived of her to revolt against him, he forthwith.declared coasts and maritime commerce; the great war against Russia; he accordingly comriver which had hitherto formed the natu- menced preparations for this campaign, ral division of territory between France the results of which produced his ruin, and and Germany, was now wholly under enabled the Germanic empire to throw off HIS CAMPAIGN IN RUSSIA-MOSCOW BURNED-HIS FLIGHT. $43 the yoke imposed upon it by the ruthless misery. Disorder and insubordination invader. spread throughout the ranks, and the light In the summer of the year 1812, Napo- cavalry of the Russians now harassing leon commenced his march for the inva- them in every direction, night and day, sion of the gigantic empire of Russia, with their numbers diminished more and more. an army of 400,000 infantry and 60,000 Nevertheless the common danger held tohorse, together with a train of twelve hun- gether great numbers of the retreating dred pieces of artillery. The preparations army, and out of such an immense body for this great expedition had occupied him hundreds of thousands might still have full two years; having collected together escaped had it not been for their more the most choice troops from all parts of destructive and mighty enemy-the dreadEurope, and supplied and equipped them ful winter-which sealed their inevitable with every necessary matEriel for the doom. But the pen refuses longer to dwell campaign. The first and immediate ob- upon the horrors resulting from this camject in view was the destruction of the paign, which, in truth, were beyond all Russian empire; but there is no doubt that description. Suffice it, that out of half a it was the intention of Napoleon, if he sue- million of human beings, who were led into ceeded in forcing the Russians to conclude this war by their arrogant chief, scarcely a peace, to extend his progress even to 30,000 returned capable of bearing arms. Asia itself, in order, if possible, to expel Germany now saw the favorable moment his greatest enemies, the English, from arrive of which she must avail herself at their vast possessions in the East Indies. once in order to throw off the tyrant's yoke, He crossed the Niemen, and directed his and reconquer her liberty. Prussia was march towards Moscow, where he arrived, the first to set the example. Her army, and made his triumphal entry on the 14th which had been compelled to follow in the of September, taking up his residence in ranks of the French in the Russian expethe Kremlin, the ancient palace of the dition, was, fortunately, in good condition czars. Here, however, Providence fixed to fight for the liberty of its country, inasthe term of his victorious career, for, much as the position it had occupied in scarcely had he established himself in his the invader's forces having been the exquarters before the entire city was a mass treme left, it had scarcely suffered at all. of flames, having been set on fire in more General York, the Prussian commander, than a hundred different parts, and very who was equally well acquainted with the soon this place, so shortly before the mag- sentiments of the king as he was with the nificent metropolis of the country, was feelings of the people, had nosooner gained completely reduced to a heap of ruins and the frontiers of Prussia than he abandoned ashes, and all the supplies upon which the French, and hastened to demand of his Napoleon had calculated, so necessary for king whether he should form a junction his troops during the five months of win- with the Russians. Frederick William, ter, became likewise a prey to the flames. who was still in Berlin, which was garrisonHe had now only sufficient provisions to ed by the French, decided in the affirmalast for a few weeks, and as the emperor tive, and repaired immediately to Breslaw, Alexander refused to come to any terms whence, on the 3d of February, 1813, he of peace, he was forced, at the end of Oc- called upon the youth of his dominions to tober, to make a retreat; instead, however, come forth and assemble around him in deof taking the route across Caluga, as the fence of their fatherland. His appeal penemost wise and prudent course, inasmuch trated the hearts of all, and thousands of as the war had not touched that territory, young men poured in and ranged themselves he returned by the road of Smolensko, under his banner; Berlin itself contributing along the whole of which all the magazines a force of 10,000 men. had been sacked, and every thing laid In addition to this, the king summoned waste by both the French and the Rus- together the Landwehr or militia of the sians themselves. Thence the fugitives, country, and on the 17th of March, 1813, amid the rigors of this particularly bitter he declared war against France. This winter, very soon experienced all the hor- bold and determined step, however, was not rors of famine; which, added to the want unattended with danger, for the French of clothing and shelter, completed their still possessed in Prussia and Poland eight 444 NAPOLEON MARCHES INTO GERMANY. strong fortifications, and more than 65,000 march into Saxony with several hundred of their troops were in occupation of the thousand men, and as his army was con. Prussian dominions; nevertheless, Prussia tinually augmented, he eventually entered was soon enabled to develop her entire the field with the gigantic force of 500,000 strength. For the king, in conjunction men. Completely blinded by his success with those around him, had not allowed the in raising such an army, in which he placed short interval to pass away idly, and the his entire. reliance, he would not listen for most prudent measures were adopted in se- a moment to any proposal for peace. Auscret in order to be ready at the desired mo- tria took great pains in endeavoring to proment. The youth had been kept in the mote this object, and if his proud and ob. continual practice of arms, mustering alter- stinate mind had only partially yielded to nately in small bodies, at the appointed the dictates of reason, he might have sucplaces, and thus the country was supplied ceeded in retaining possession at least of with its brave defenders, uniting the power all the territories along the Rhine. On with the will to exterminate their hated in- the 31st of March, shortly after he had revaders. ceived the king of Prussia's declaration of Napoleon, in the mean time, having de. war, he caused to be inserted in the govtermined to provide for his own personal ernment journal of that day, his determinasecurity, had abandoned the remnant of his tion, viz.: " that if even the enemy were army in Russia and fled to Paris, travelling to march into Paris, and take up his position night and day, and arrived there on the on Montmartre itself, still he would not 18th of December. give up a single village out of all the conHe immediately ordered a fresh levy of quered territories in his possession!"' and 350,000 men to be made, in order to replace, on the following day, the 1st of April, he as he said, the loss, mentioned in his twenty- published a counter-declaration of war ninth bulletin, of 30,000 men and great against the king of Prussia, and resolved in part of his artillery and baggage; and his heart this time to completely annihilate when the king of Prussia's declaration of the kingdom as well as the very name of war was published, he ordered an additional Prussia. levy of 180,000 men. The French nation, accordingly, accustomed as it was to obey the emperor's commands without a murmur, did not hesitate a moment to pour forth its youth, and to the astonishment of the whole CHAPTER XXXVI. of Europe, a numerically superior and well-appointed army was collected, which Successes of the Prussians-TheDuke of Mecklenburgforthwith marched to and crossed the Rhine Strelitz-His Daughter, the Queen o; Prussia-Erturt-Russia unites with Prussia-Battle of Liitzenand advanced into Germany to fight for Napoleon in Dresden-The King of Saxony-Battle and maintain the glory of the French em- of Bautzen-Ilamburg taken by Marshal DavoustHeavy Contributions-The Armistice-Prussia —The peror. Liitzow Free orps-Theodore Korner-Austria enAt the same time, in order to secure him deavors to negotiate a Peace between France and the self a gu e for the tqui f his - Allies-The Congress at Prague-Napoleon refuses self a guarantee for the tranquillity of his all Concession-The Emperor of Austria declares empire, he appointed a guard of honor, War and joins Russia and Prussia-Dresdenempire, e appointed a guar o onor, Renewal of Hostilities-Strength and Position of consisting of young men of the most dis- the Allied Forces-Bernadotte-Bliicher-Prince tigise fmlewosreasvun Schwartzenberg-Marshal Oudinot-Battle of Grosstinguished families, who served as volun-Beeren-Defeat of the French. teers, armed and equipped at their own expense. And as he had lost the whole of THE Viceroy Eugene was encamped his cavalry in Russia, he collected together with the remnant of the French army all the gendarmerie throughout France, out which had escaped from Russia, and a few of which he formed a body of 16,000 cav- additional troops, under the walls of Magalry; while to serve as artillerymen he deburg, and found himself forced to leave collected together 30,000 of his marines. the river Elbe completely open. The In addition to these troops, he received French were, nevertheless, anxious to 50,000 auxiliaries from Italy, and the maintain, at least, possession of its mouth, Rhenish confederation furnished him with a together with the important city of Ham. considerable contingent ofsoldiers. Thence burg, and General Morand advanced acbe was enabled, in the month of April, to cordingly with the four thousand men who THE QUEEN OF PRUSSIA-MAGDEBURG. 445 had held possession of the coasts of Meck. rejoiced at the change, and united together lenburg and Pomerania; but he was pur- in order to promote the general cause of sued by the light troops under the command liberty. Doernberg, at the head of four of three brave leaders, Tettenborn, Czer- thousand men, advanced against General nitschef, and Doernberg, who prevented him Morand, who was now quartered in Lunecompletely from gaining any footing on the burg, and scaling the walls of that town, right bank of the Elbe, and thus forced him took it by assault, and mortally wounding to recross the river and retire to Bremen. their leader, either slew or made prisoners The people throughout the whole north of of the whole garrison. With this brilliant Germany greeted their deliverers with the feat of arms General Doernberg opened the greatest joy and delight. The duke of second campaign. Mecklenburg-Strelitz was the first to follow About the same time, the Viceroy Euthe example of the king of Prussia, and gene suddenly attempted to advance from shake off the French yoke, exclaiming that Magdeburg with his 30,000 men upon Ber" with the help of God, he would at any lin, imagining that on his march he should rate show himself worthy of the honor of only have to contend against an insignifibeing a German prince."* The citizens cant force; but Generals Wittgenstein. of Liibeck and Hamburg were not a little Bulow, and York, having forthwith mustered together all the troops at hand, at* This noble-mindedprince wasthe father-in-lawof tacked him with a far inferior force on the the king of Prussia, who married his amiable daughter Louisa. The sad reverses and heavy afflictions it was 5th of April near Moeckern with so much the fate of this virtuous woman to undergo, on the inva- fury, that he was compelled to renounce sion of the French, may be too visibly traced in the following pathetic letter she wrote to her affectionate his design of marching to Berlin, and refather. Overwhelmed with the misfortunes inflicted treated to Magdeburg with heavy loss. In upon her, her delicate constitution gradually sunk under their effects, and she died on the 19th of July, 1810 this, their first encounter with the French, aged 34, to the great grief of her beloved husband, andian foafter the universal regret of the wholung Prussian foot-soldiers, ater " Memel, June 17, 1807. firing a few volleys, cast aside their fire"My dearest Father,-I have perused your letter of locks altogether, and rushed upon the eneApril last with the deepest emotion, and amid upon the enethe most grateful sensations. How shall I thank you, my, club in hand, deeming that the most dearest, kindest of fathers, for the many proofs you e dtio mode warfr have shown me of your paternal love, your gracious fa-epeditous mode of warare. vor, and indescribable benevolence! What secret As soon as the new forces of France had consolation is not this for me in my sufferings-how r i strengthening to my spirits! When one isthus beloved,assembled on our side of the Rhine, Nato be completely unhappy is impossible. poleon himself set out from Paris, and on We are again threatened with another dire calamity, and are about to abandon the kingdom. Imagine the evening of the 25th of April he arrived my state of mind at this juncture; but I solemnly be- at Erfurt. Thence he proceeded towards seech you not to mistake the feelings of your daughter. There are two grand principles by which I feel myselfthe Saale, and forced the allied cavalry to strengthened and elevated above every thing: first, the retreat behind this river. Both armies now recollection that we are not led blindly onward by chance, but are guided by the hand of God; and sec- approached each other and prepared for a ondly, that if we must sink, we, at all events, will do grand and decisive battle. so with honor. The king has shown, and to the whole world he has proved it, that he prefers honor to disgrace; When, on the 29th of April, Napoleon Prussia would never voluntarily wear the chains of reached the shores of the Saale he beheld slavery. The king, therefore, could not deviate onereac hores theaale e beheld step without becoming unfaithful to his character and the allied army immediately facing him, in a traitor to his people. But to the point. By the unfor- the vicinity of Pegau. The Russians were tunate battle of Friedland Konigsberg has fallen intoegau. he ns ere the hands of the French. We are surrounded on every commanded by General Count Wittgenside by the enemy, and as the danger advances I shalltein, and the Prussians by Genrals be forced to fly with my infants from Memel, and then an e russans y enera endeavor to reach Riga, trusting to Heaven to assist me Bltcher, York, and Kleist; while both the in the dreaded moment when I have to pass the fron- a tiers of the empire. And truly my strength and cour-emperor Alexander and King Federick age will then be required; but I willlook towards God William cheered on their warriors by shawith hope and confidence; for according to my firm persuasion, we are not suffered to endure more than ring in the campaign. The French army, we can. Once more, then, be assured, my dearfather, after a few skirmishes, advanced by different that we yield only with honor, and respected as we shall be, we cannot be without friends, inasmuch as routes towards the plains of Leipsic, which we have merited them. The consolation I experience Bonaparte had fixed upon as the spot to by this conviction I cannot express to you; and, consequently, I endure allmy trials with that tranquillity and give the grand battle. On the 1st of May, resignation of mind which can only be produced by a good conscience and a firm faith. Therefore, my dear father, be convinced that we can never be completely Heaven with peace in our hearts, we must ever find unhappy, while many, perhaps, whose brows are op- cause to rejoice. I remain, forever, your faithfully dutipressed with the weight of crowns and wreaths are as ful and loving daughter, and, God be praised that your unhappy as ourselves; for as long as we are blessed by gracious favor permits me to add-friend, LOUISA." 446 BATTLE OF LUTZEN-COURAGE OF NAPOLEON. after having proceeded towards Weissen. through their ranks and cheered them on; fels, he was met, near Poserna, by the ar- regardless of his own danger; for he knew tillery and cavalry of the Russians, who too well that the loss of this battle must resolved to dispute his passage. This corps necessarily produce discouragement among was under the command of General Win- his troops, and deprive him of his hold in zingerode, who had been sent forward for Germany. The action was accordingly the purpose of attacking the French, and renewed on both sides with still greater ascertaining whether the entire army was fury around the villages, which were taken en route. Marshal Bessiere, commander and retaken several times. For the fourth of the emperor's guards, having advanced time the allies united all their strength and to meet the attack, was killed by a cannon- made a final attack, and were successful; ball. The position was carried, and Na- they retook the whole of the villages and poleon continued his march on to Liitzen, completely defeated the French, who rethe same field of battle on which, two hun- treated in great confusion as far as Weisdred years previously, Gustavus Adolphus senfels and Naumburg. When informed met his death when fighting against Wal- of this, Napoleon, according to the testimony lenstein. Here the French halted for the of an eye-witness, turned round, and with night; but when in the morning Napoleon a look of fury at his officers, exclaimed was about to resume his march for Leipsic, " What, do you believe then that my star he suddenly heard heavy discharges of ar- is on the descent?" He however soon retillery in his rear and on his left flank. covered his presence of mind, and adopting The Prussians and Russians had already one of those sudden resolutions, which, when well perceived that it was Napoleon's in- brought into operation, disconcerted all the tention to gain possession of Leipsic in plans of his adversaries, he gave immeorder to cut them off from the Elbe; and diate orders to his general of artillery, as they resolved not to leave him the Drouet, to bring together the whole of his liberty of forming as usual his own dispo- cannon-eighty pieces-and planting them sitions, and choosing the field of battle on one spot, thence scatter destruction himself, they anticipated his movements this amidst the ranks of his enemies: for such time and attacked him, on the 2d of May, operations he always held in reserve the when he least expected it, and imagined guns belonging to his guard-at the same they could not possibly be prepared to give time he posted sixteen battalions of the battle before the following day. Towards guard upon the heights in the rear of the mid-day they pressed onward with all their village of Kaja. The artillery, with volstrength through the villages of Gross- cano-like fury, swept every thing before it, Gorschen and Klein-Gorschen, Rhano and whole ranks of the allied forces were Kaja, of which Marshal Ney still held pos- mowed down, the villages were reduced to session. The emperor Alexander and the cinders, and consequently they were abanking of Prussia ascended an eminence in doned entirely. At the same moment the the rear of Gross-Gorschen whence they Russians were hard pressed on their right commanded a full view of the scene of en- flank by the Viceroy Eugene, who had now gagement, while their presence, now so arrived from Mark-Ranstadt with 30,000 visible to all, inspired the troops with the fresh troops. greatest courage. The brave and dauntless Napoleon, urged on by his impatient deBlticher with his Prussians commenced by sire to see the victory decided, continued carrying the village of Gross-Gorschen by to advance, protected by the unceasing fire assault, and immediately afterwards a most of his sixty to eighty pieces of artillery, obstinate and sanguinary contest took place planted in his centre. Nevertheless, the around the other villages, terminating in Russians and Prussians, although almost favor of the allies, who remained masters overcome with heat and fatigue, only reof the ground, and forced the French to fall tired slowly, and step by step, and bravely back in the rear. It was just at this moment maintained every inch of ground capable that Napoleon arrived on the field of battle of defence, until the fall of night. with his guards and the rest of the troops Profound darkness now enveloped the he brought with him; and he lost not a sanguinary field of battle; nothing else moment in pushing them forward to rein- was visible except the alternate flashes of force Ney's corps, while he himself rode the cannon which were still discharged at NAPOLEON IN DRESDEN-THE KING OF SAXONY. 447 long and irregular intervals, and the flames and threatened to treat Saxony as a conof the villages, which were gradually be- quered country if he refused compliance coming more and more faint. Napoleon, with his order, and did not give up for his having issued his orders for the operations service the fortress of Torgau, and supply of the next morning, had retired to his them with all his Saxon army for the reinquarters, within the strong bulwark of forcement of the French army-granting the regiments of his guards; when, sud- the king only two hours for his decision. denly, the silence of the night was broken The dread he entertained lest the emperor, in upon by the clashing of swords, and a who now already occupied the major pordesperate attack, as if by magic, was made tion of his territory, should carry his threats upon the French, even to the very guards of into execution, operated upon his feelings che emperor himself. This bold assault was more than any other consideration; and made by a corps of Prussian hussars, led not daring to form an alliance with Auson by the heroic Bliicher, who, with his tria, as he would have wished, he returned usual intrepidity, resolved to make a last to Dresden on the 12th of May. The emattempt, in order to serve as a warning to peror met him at a short distance beyond the French, that the allies were not yet the gates of the city, and they both made beaten. He succeeded in his object; for their triumphal entry-as ordered by Nathe enemy did not venture a pursuit, but poleon-the latter addressing the municipal passed the entire night under arms. authorities who were waiting to receive This first battle may be truly character- them, as follows: "Behold, here I bring ized as a battle of honor, and, as such, it to you your deliverer; for if your sovewas a won battle. For, in spite of the great reign had not thus shown himself a faithful numerical superiority of the French, the ally, I should assuredly have treated your allies had not lost a single color or cannon, country as a conquered state. Hencenor had they, notwithstanding the heavy forth, however, my armies shall only fire kept up by the French artillery, turn- march through it, and protect it against all ed their back upon the enemy-while the its enemies." force of the latter was 120,000 men, and On the previous day, the 11th of May, that of the allied army was only 70,000. the French army having hastily rebuilt The amount altogether, on both sides, in the bridge over the Elbe, crossed that river, killed and wounded, was about 30,000 the passage having occupied seven hours; men. The Prussians, especially, fought during the whole of which time, Napoleon with such a desperate defiance of death, remained seated on a bench, watching the that several of their heroic leaders fell a troops-French, Italians, and Germanssacrifice on the field, including the prince as they marched by, a sight which proof Hesse-Homburg himself-and Generals duced in him feelings of exultation. He Blucher and Scharnhorst were both se- now determined to attack the allies a secverely wounded. ond time in the strong position they occuOn the following morning, Napoleon ex- pied near Bautzen and Hochkirch, and pected to be again attacked; but the allies whose force now consisted of 100,000 men, having taken into consideration the loss while that of their enemy amounted to already sustained, and their great inferior- 150,000. The emperor sent Marshal Ney ity compared with the French army, de- and General Lauriston from Hoyerswerda termined to retreat, and, accordingly, with- to turn the right flank of the allies, which drew across Borna and Altenburg on the being perceived by the latter, they deElbe, and took up a strong position at tached several battalions under York and Bautzen: the Prussians crossing the Elbe Barclai de Tolly as far as Konigswartha at Meissen-the Russians at Dresden, and to meet them. They came up with and both the emperor Alexander and the king surprised an Italian division of 9000 men, of Prussia quitted that city on the morn- whom they immediately routed, and caping of the 8th of May. tured all their cannon and ammunition On this same day, the 8th of May, Na- wagons. But as the main body of the poleon marched into Dresden, whence he French was now advancing they retired, immediately dispatched an envoy to the and fell back upon their own lines. king of Saxony, in Prague, in order to de- On the following day, the 20th of May, mand his immediate return to his capital, after a sanguinary combat on the heights 448 BATTLE OF BAUTZEN-NAPOLEON'S LOSSES. of Burg and near Bautzen, Napoleon forced they must either sacrifice every thing, and a passage to the Spree, which he crossed collect all their remaining strength to storm with his whole army; while the allies re- and regain these heights, or end the battle tired in the greatest order to their head- at once, as their present position could no quarters near Gleina and Kreckwitz, as longer be maintained. The same reasons far as the mountains. The Russians form- by which they were influenced to retreat ed the two wings, and the Prussians under from Litzen, operated upon them in the Blucher occupied the centre. Although present instance. The moment had not the movement effected by Ney had weak- yet arrived in which it was advisable to ened their position, still they resolved not risk extreme measures; as yet, they were to leave it without a battle. Napoleon's not supplied with the reinforcements which plan was to cause the left wing of the al- were en route to join them, both from Ruslies to be attacked by Marshals Oudinot sia and Prussia; and they felt certain that and Macdonald, in order to draw their the emperor of Austria must very soon whole attention to that side; while at the abandon his son-in-law and join their cause. same time, according to his original in- Accordingly, they determined upon a restructions, Marshal Ney was to gradually treat, and this they commenced about three surround their right flank. Early in the o'clock in the afternoon, effecting it in such morning of the 21st of May, and before good order, that the French found it use. sunrise, the emperor mounted his charger, less to attempt a pursuit, whence they sufand with the attack of the left wing of the fered little or no loss. Napoleon, who was Russians, commanded by the prince of at that moment on a high hill, near NiederWtirtemberg and General Milloradowitsch, kuyna, had mounted one of the drums bethe battle commenced. The charge was longing to his guards, and thence observed bravely met and sustained by the Rus- the allies as they retreated; he then sent sians, who being masters of the heights, some of his troops to harass their rear, but had g.-. -, advantage over the enemy, so the light cavalry of both the Russians and that after an obstinate and severe action, Prussians, which covered their retreat, the French were obliged to give way. kept them at bay, and he was forced to The battle did not become general until content himself with remaining master of about mid-day, as Napoleon waited pa- the field of battle-an advantage gained tiently until Ney had made himself mas- very dearly, for his loss in this action ter of the position he was to take. The was more than 20,000 men, while that of latter succeeded in his manceuvre, and the allies altogether was not more than forcing General Barclai de Tolly to re- 12,000. treat, he captured the heights of the Glei- The allied forces retired into Silesia, ner windmill, as well as the village of and Napoleon marched in rapid pursuit of Preititz. This was a most critical mo- them. Each time, however, that the ment for the allies, as this village lay com- French advanced too closely upon the pletely behind them; Bliicher, however, heels of their rear-guard, the latter turned hastened to dispatch General Kleist to its upon their pursuers, and after hard fightaid, and it was retaken. Napoleon now ing, drove them back. Napoleon, vexed saw that it was necessary to bring up his at finding that his generals took so few fresh troops, which he had held in reserve. prisoners from a retreating army, took upHe placed at their head his best general, on himself the command of the advanced Marshal Soult, and at the very moment guard, and attacked the rear of the allies that the Prussians had weakened their on the 22d of May, at Reichenbach. But centre by the corps they sent to support the his cavalry was completely beaten back, right wing, Soult was ordered to make an and a cannon-ball killed close by his side attack upon it. This was done with so his generals Kirgener, Labruyere, and much fury, seconded by the heavy can- Marshal Duroc, his especial friend and nonade kept up by the French artillery, favorite, and whose loss was acutely felt that the Prussian infantry were forced to by Napoleon, for the marshal, possessing give way before the overpowering enemy, his entire confidence, never hesitated to who remained masters of the heights of express his opinions openly and sincerely, Kreckwitz. The allies now saw that they and they had both been school-fellows towere placed in such a predicament, that gether. THE ARMISTICE-DAVOUST TAKES HAMBURG. 449 On the 26th of May, Blicher gave orders fend itself against the attack of the enemy, to Ziethen to wait in ambush with his cav- much disappointment and alarm was exalry until the French arrived close to pressed-far more so than if the war had Hayiau; and when, according to agree- been continued. The king, however, soon ment, the windmill of Baudmannsdorf was succeeded in restoring confidence, by pubset on fire as a signal, the 3000 troopers lishing a declaration, in which he assured rushed from behind the heights, and fall- his people "that this armistice was only ing on the enemy's squares with loud hur- concluded in order to afford time for the rahs, put them to flight, after making 300 perfect development of the whole strength prisoners. Colonel Dolfs, however, the of the country. As yet the enemy was leader of this brave squadron, fell glorious- much too' powerful to be overcome, and Iv while fighting in the midst of the enemy. what the nation had thus far accomplished, Napoleon now plainly saw that the allies had only served to uphold once again its were not to be overcome, and accordingly ancient honor and heroic courage; now, he proposed a suspension of arms, to which however, they must become so strong as to, the allies having consented, a truce for six be enabled to reconquer their independence weeks was signed on the 8th of June. The and permanent liberty. He conjured his French abandoned Breslaw, of which they subjects to maintain their firmness, to conhad shortly before made themselves mas- fide in him, their devoted king, and the ters, and retained only a portion of Silesia; object so much desired must be attained." while, however, Hamburg, through unfor- Meantime, whenever he could, Napoleon tunate circumstances, now fell into their did not hesitate to increase by his treachehands. For at the very commencement rous acts, the bitter feeling already existof May, when Napoleon opened the cam- ing against him, and the following instance paign, Marshal Davoust marched with presents another proof of his revengeful 14,000 men to lay siege to that place, which disposition. Major Liitzow, with his squadcontained but a very feeble garrison corn ron of hussars, had boldly advanced to manded by General Tettenburg, by no the rear of the French troops far into Saxmeans sufficient to defend so large a city. ony, and even beyond, into Franconia, The citizens, however, calculated upon the harassing them continually, and cutting to aid of their Danish neighbors in Altona, as pieces or making prisoners of whole dewell as upon that of the Swedes, who had tachments, so that Napoleon was much excollected in considerable force under their asperated against this brave, intrepid band. crown-prince in Pomerania and Mecklen- According to an article of the armistice, burg. The latter, however, were anxious the Litzow corps was to have crossed the to possess Norway, and had already stipu- Elbe by the 12th of June, but it was not lated with England and Russia to have it till the 14th that their commander received transferred into their hands as the price official intelligence of this condition, which of their aid in the war; and as Denmark it was thus impossible for him strictly to on her part resolved not to submit to this fulfil. On this, Napoleon gave orders "to loss of half her territory, she formed an destroy these robbers wherever they might alliance with France; and accordingly, be tnet with," and on the evening of the on the 30th of May, the very day they en- 17th of June, as they were proceeding to tered the ill-fated city, the Danes gave it pass the Elbe, they were suddenly attacked up to the enemy. Thus Hamburg was in the village of Kitzen, near Leipsic, in a sacrificed through the jealousy of these two most treacherous manner by the enemy's powers. Napoleon, embittered against the cavalry, who were to escort them. The inhabitants for their independent principles, little band was easily dispersed, many were and the opposition shown against him, im- cut down, wounded, and taken, and a part posed upon them a comtribution of no less only, with their brave leader, succeeded in than 48,000,00.0 of francs. fighting their way through.* The news of the armistice reached Ber- This free corps, it maybe observed was an associalin on Whit-Monday. The public were by tion formed of youths chiefly of the middle and superior no means tranquillized by this information, classes, who united themselves under the command of a military officer of great gallantry and experience, the but on the contrary, when they beheld the above-mentioned Major von Litzow, for the freedom present unguarded position of thir io f their their fatherland. Their exploits were of the most present unguare positn r daring and heroic character, partaking rather of the which was no longer in a condition to de- bold and chivalrous spirit of the middle ages than the 57 450 THE CONGRESS OF PRAGUE-AUSTRIA JOINS THE ALLIES. Meantime, the emperor of Austria came peror; his suite, which was at a considera. forward as a mediatory power, and endeav. ble distance off, watching their master with ored to effect a peace; a congress assem- anxious looks, and waiting the result of this bled in Prague, and the emperor Francis meeting, upon which the fate of so many proceeded to Gitschen, near Prague, in or- thousands of human beings depended. Sudder to assist in person towards the promo. denly, Napoleon was seen to stop, and by a tion of the object he so much desired. Na- hasty and indignant movement of his hand, poleon, however, felt his pride hurt when he seemed to reject at once the offered terms beheld another power attempt to dictate of peace. War again! now sounded from terms to him, and refused to abandon any every side, and spread from mouth to mouth. of the conquests he had made. Thence, The emperor, however, his eyes still sparkalthough the armistice had been prolonged ling with fury, returned to the palace, and to the 17th of August, the negotiations were proceeding with hasty steps across the hall attended with no results affording any of marshals, entered his carriage, and galhopes for peace; while, in the interval, loped off for Bautzen and Girlitz, towards both sides were occupied in making their Silesia. preparations for renewed hostilities. Napo- The allies had, during the interval of the leon's army received continual reinforce- armistice, strengthened their forces to such ments from France, so that he was soon an extent, that they were far superior, even enabled once more to bring into the field a in numbers, to the French; for Austria force of no less than 350,000 men, besides alone, when joining them, brought an addiwhich, his faithful adherent, the Viceroy tion of 200,000 men, and which was renEugene, collected in Italy another army of dered the more necessary, as their immense 60,000 men to defend that country against army being distributed at various points, Austria-in case a rupture should occur they were forced to advance against the between that power and France; and, on French in extended circles; while Napothe frontiers of Austria, Bavaria was forced leon, who concentrated his forces into one to support him with another army of 30,000 circle, was enabled to attack first one point, men, under General Wrede. then another, and thus decide the contest at The emperor of Austria, finding that all once with the same body of men. The pohis efforts to bring his son-in-law to agree sition of the allied army was as follows: to any terms of peace were made in vain, 1. The crown-prince of Sweden, Bernanow resolved, without further delay, to join dotte, who had likewise entered the field the emperor of Russia and the king of Prus- with 24,000 Swedes, was appointed com. sia, and to take an active part in the con- mander of the whole of the northern army, federation for the overthrow of the usurper. and was instructed to defend, with a force Meantime, the latter had been anxiously of 125,000 men, Berlin and the whole of waiting in Dresden for the declaration of Brandenburg. Besides his own troops, he Austria, although he continued confident in had under his orders the Prussian divisions his expectations, that by means of his cun- under Billow and Tauenzien, the Russian ning management, he would continue to divisions under Winzingerode and Wallmohold that power in a state of inactivity. At den. The latter general, with 25,000 men, length, on the 15th of August, his envoy, consisting of Russians, English, HanoveCount de Narbonne, arrived from Prague, rians, Mecklenburgers, the Russian-Gerand Napoleon, summoning his minister Ma- man legion, and the corps of Ltitzow, was rat, had a long conference with both soon appointed to oppose Marshal Davoust and after. They were seen, all three, engaged the Danes on the frontiers of Mecklenburg. in earnest conversation, walking, with has- 2. Marshal Blicher commanded the Sity strides, to and fro in the garden of the lesian army of 95,000 men, and he had Marcolini Palace, the residence of the em- with him General York, at the head of the first Prussian division, and the Russian dicold and calculating nature ofmoderawarfare. Among visions under Generals Sacken, Langeron, those whojoined its standard were many who are highly distinguished in letters and the arts, as for instance, and St. Priest. The first general of his the Baron de la Motte Fouqu6, (the author of Undine, staff however, was Gneisenau, who, from &c.,) Frederick F6rster, (the historian of Wallenstein,) and more especially the gifted poet and gallant soldier, this time, became more and more distinKorner who fell mortally wounded. Even women,uis in th field inspired with the prevailing spirit of patriotism, served gus u ne e in their ranks undiscovered. 3. The main division of the allied army FORCES OF THE ALLIES. 451 m Bohemia, consisting principally of Aus- The more wise and prudent, however, trians, but reinforced by a Prussian divi- not coinciding with the majority, counselled sion under Kleist, a Russian division corn-m. their leader to abandon his position on the manded by Wittgenstein, and the Russian Elbe, which was too seriously menaced on guard under the orders of the Grand-duke its right from the Bohemian side. Marshal Constantine, was commanded by the Aus- Oudinot, amoing other things, wrote to him, trian field-marshal, Prince Schwartzenberg, "That if he withdrew his garrisons from who, together with great courage and ex- the fortifications he held, reinforced his arperience, possessed all that calmness and my with them, and then retreated to the decision of character so necessary in the Rhine, distributing his invalided troops in commander of such numerous armies of good cantonments, and establishing the rest mixed nations. This division of the allied of his army in suitable positions, it might forces amounted to 230,000 men. still be in his power to dictate to the allies This position and the division of the al- his terms of peace." But such advice, lied forces into three armies were well however wise and discreet, appeared madplanned, for whichever of these forces Na- ness itself to that mighty and all-violent poleon might attack, he was sure to have man, who held himself so much beyond all the other two in his rear or in the flank. others in thought and action; and thus it When, with his grand army, he pressed was ordained that his obstinate pride and forward from Dresden and Lusatia towards egotism should eventually produce the deSilesia, Blicher retired in order to draw liverance of Germany. him towards the Oder; but during this in- In order not to lose the advantage of terval the main army of the allies advanced making the first attack, he determined to from Bohemia, and, taking possession of turn all his strength against the Silesian Dresden in his rear, caught him complete- army, and fall upon that division separately in their net; so that if he turned to the ly; while, meantime, to prevent the Ausright along the Elbe, in order to penetrate trians from advancing from Bohemia and into Bohemia, Bluicher must meet him in harassing his rear, he posted Marshal Gou. the front, and pursuing him into the passes vion St. Cyr with 40,000 men at the enof the Bohemian mountains, thus place him trance of the mountains near Giesshubel. between two fires. Finally, Napoleon ad- At the same time Marshal Oudinot received vanced with a superior force direct against orders to march, with his 80,000 men, diBernadotte towards Berlin; the latter, how. rect against and capture the city of Berlin. ever, followed the example of Blucher and If his plan had succeeded, his complete triretreated, leaving the Prussian capital ex- umph must have been infallibly secured; posed, it is true, although only for a mo- but the old and expert general in Silesia ment; for, in the mean time, the army of was too much on his guard. For when he Bohemia conquered Dresden and Leipsic, perceived, after several encounters between together with all the supplies of the French the 18th and 23d of August, that the main in Saxony. army of the French was now in full march, The French emperor had little imagined and was gaining upon him near Lowenthe allies would have been capable of form- burg on the Bober river, he refused to give ing such a grand plan; and especially of battle, and according to the previously arbringing it into operation so unobservedly ranged plan, retreated to Jauer. Napoand successfully. On the contrary, he had leon, who in the mean time had received calculated, as usual, upon availing himself hasty news of the advance of the Schwartzof the happy chances thrown in his way by enberg forces upon Dresden, could not venthe errors of his adversaries, and in this he ture to pursue him; but on the 23d of Auwas supported by his generals around him. gust he, with his guards and the sixth corps Fully confiding in the lightning-like celeri- of his army, commenced his retreat back to ty of their emperor's plans and movements, Dresden. they comforted themselves with the assur- On the same day the brave Bilow came ance to which they repeatedly gave utter- up with the French army en route for Ber. ance, that their enemies must commit blun- lin, and attacked it near Gross-Beeren. ders which they would take advantage of, They had already advanced to within eight and falling upon their whole army, com- or nine miles of the capital, and Napoleon pletely annihilate it. had already publicly announced that Oudi 452 BLUCHER'S VICTORY AT KATZBACH. not would be there on the 23d of August. York-Preparations for the Battle of Leipsic-The, O, French Army-Honors and Promotions conferred by General Regnier had, by Marshal Oudi- Napoleon-The Allied Forces —Prince Schwartzern not's orders, already taken possession of berg. Gross-Beeren on the 23d of August, and NAPOLEON, on quitting Silesia for Dres. thus the road to Berlin being secured, he den, had left behind him Marshal Macdon. made sure of making his triumphal entry ald with a body of 80,000 men, in order to there on the following morning. But his hold at bay the Prussians and Russians. hopes of the attainment of this grand object But no sooner did Blucher perceive who were completely destroyed, even on the was now his opponent, than he forthwith very night before; for scarcely had the advanced against him-for it was not his day declined and evening set in, before system to keep the enemy waiting long. Bulow with his brave Prussians attacked He soon learned that Marshal Macdonald, the French with such fury in Gross-Beeren with his whole army, was in full march itself, that they were completely routed, across the mountains on the left bank of and obliged to abandon the village in the the river Katzbach, in order himself to greatest disorder, the darkness of the night make an attack upon the allies. The wary alone protecting them from total destruc. veteran allowed his enemy to proceed withtion. In another quarter, on the extreme out interruption until he knew him to be left wing and with a very small force, secured amidst the ravines and narrow General Tauenzien had bravely resisted, passes, when, the favorable moment having and finally repulsed, the attack made by now arrived, he exclaimed to his soldiers: General Bertrand. "Now, lads, there are enough Frenchmen The French marshal now clearly seeing passed over-come on-forwards!". And that he had to contend with a superior ene- on the Prussians rushed after their leader, my, would not venture upon a general bat- with re-echoed shouts, and soon the battle tie, but retreated in all haste as far as the became general. This attack took place Elbe, having suffered a loss of twenty-six on the 26th of August between Brechtels. cannon, and several thousands of his men hof and Groitsch, amidst torrents of rain. made prisoners. Berlin, which had been The right wing was commanded bySacken, in a state of fearful suspense, was now full the centre by York, and the left by Lan. of joy and rapture when the news arrived geron; while the heroic Blucher, as com. of the glorious victory by which it was de- mander-in-chief, with all the fire of his livered from the invaders, and thousands of youthful days, led on the cavalry himself, the citizens poured out of its walls, and and, at their head, dashed among the para. eagerly sought the battle-field, in order to lyzed foe. Such an unexpected, overwhelmcheer and rescue their wounded preservers, ing attack the French could not withstand, conveying all back with them to the city, and, consequently, they were everywhere where they were carefully attended to. put to flight. One entire division, under Just about the same time, on the 27th of General Puthod, which attempted to attack August, the French general, Gerard, who the Prussians in the rear, was, at Lowenhad made a sally with the flower of his berg, either cut to pieces or taken prisontroops forming the garrison of Magdeburg, ers. Terror and dismay seized upon the in order to assist in the taking of Berlin, whole of the French army, and they were was attacked by the brave veteran, Gene- pursued in every direction by the embitral Hirschfeld, near Libnitz and Hagels- tered Prussians. At length Bliicher soundberg, and, completely routed, being forced ed the recall, and, in an address, congratto shut himself up within the walls of Mag- ulated his troops upon the laurels they had deburg. gained, and so truly merited, by their courage displayed in this grand battle. The — ~~*- -results of this victory are thus described by him in the conclusion of his address: CHAPTER XXXVIII. " By this great victory we have forced the French to abandon the whole of Silesia; Glorious Victory of the Prussians under Blicher at we have captured one hundred and three Katzbach-Blicher created Prince of Wahlstadt-e Battle of Dresden-Defeat of the Austrians-Death pieces of cannon, two hundred and fifty of General Moreau-Battle of Kulm-General Kleist ammunition-wagons, two French eagles, -Generals Vandamme and Haxo made prisoners-a Battle of Dennewitz-Battle of Wartenburg —General together with numerous other trophies, and THE ALLIES BEFORE DRESDEN-NAPOLEON'S ARRIVAL. 453 we have made 18,000 prisoners, including the allies occupying the whole range of many of their superior officers."* heights along the left b'nk of the Elbe to Henceforth from the day of this trium- the extent of three miles around the city. phant battle of Katzbach, the great Prus- The signal being announced by three cansian general was called, by his army, Mar- non-shots, the allied troops descended from shal Forwards, and in honor thereof, and their position on the heights in six separate as a mark of his own and the nation's grat- divisions of attack, each preceded by fifty itude and esteem, the king of Prussia short- pieces of cannon. Having arrived in the ly afterwards made him a field-marshal, plain, they drew up in line of battle, and the and created him a prince by the title of infantry advanced and stormed the French Prince of Wahlstadt.t intrenchments, upon which their artillery, On the same day that the battle of Katz- at the same time, poured forth the most debach was gained, and also on the following structive fire. One brave corps of Austriday, the two grand armies met and fought ans succeeded in making themselves maswith great obstinacy near Dresden; but the ters of an intrenchment defended by eight results were not yet ordained to be deci- pieces of artillery, and pressed forward to sive. Prince Schwartzenberg and the three the very walls of the city; but they were not allied sovereigns, after having marched sufficiently strong to maintain their ground, with their grand army across the mountains while Napoleon now kept sending forth from which separate Saxony from Bohemia, and the city gates, and under shelter of his batdriven the French from their position at teries, large bodies of infantry and cavalry. Giesshiibel, arrived before Dresden on the Both sides fought with great courage, and 25th of August. The city, during the ar- the city itself was much injured and many mistice, had been strongly fortified and sup- of the inhabitants killed by the artillery of plied with a numerous garrison; neverthe- the allies. The latter, however, who were less, it might have been taken if the attack forced to contend against intrenchments, had been made a day sooner. But the roads ramparts, and masses of the enemy's troops, across the mountains were, in some parts, so continually increasing in number, could not impassable that twenty and even a greater succeed in gaining their object, and accordnumber of horses were scarcely able to drag ingly, night having set in, they retreated along a single cannon, while the convoys of and fell back upon their former position on provisions for this army of 100,000 men were the hills. obliged to remain behind, and the troops During the whole of this night reinforcewere reduced to the greatest possible want. ments of French troops kept incessantly Thence the allies were only able to assem- arriving at Dresden from the opposite shore ble before Dresden in the night of the 25th of the Elbe, and on the next morning, at of August; while Napoleon arrived in that about seven o'clock, they were marched city on the following morning, followed by forth from their intrenchments. Napoleon's a great portion of his army. His presence object as to force the allies to abandon alwas quite unexpected, as it was generally together the neighborhood of Dresden, where believed that he was in the depths of Sile- he had established his head-quarters, and to sia. He had a short conference with the drive them back across the Bohemian mounking of Saxony, and then gave directions tains. He had now assembled together the for the defence of the city. The grand gar- flowerofhis army, and even hisguards,which den of his palace was already in possession were only employed in extreme and decisive of the Prussian sharp-shooters, one of whom moments, were now selected to share in the shot a page dead close to the side of his im- battle. His plan of battle was to occupy perial master. The principal attack was the attention of the enemy's right wing and made about four o'clock in the afternoon, centre by a well-sustained fire from his heavy guns, as if intending to direct his Once when Blicher's heroic deeds were lauded.ene forc a gainst that oarter; while in his own presence, he exclaimed: "What is it myentire force against that quarer; while, friends you are praising 2 What I did was accomplished meantime, the king of Naples, with a nuthrough my own natural temerity, seconded by Gnei-f infan and th of senau's presence of mind, but above all, through the merous body o infantry, and the lite of Almighty's mercy!" the cavalry was to march on to Freiberg t Wahlstadt is a princely but spiritual domain in Si- he cavalry, was to march on to Freiberg lesia, founded by St. Hedwig in remembrance of Duke and fall upon the left wing of the Austrians; Henry of Lower Saxony, who lost his life on this spot and, as the latter portion of the allied army in the year 1241, in a great battle against the Mongo- lians. was divided from the main body by the 454 GENERAL MOREAU KILLED-GENERAL VANDAMME. valley of Plauen, and the rain poured down have produced what he so much wished — in such torrents that every thing around but all his plans very soon rebounded against was obscured, the French were completely himself. successful, and came up close to the Aus- Presumption, ambition, and especially ty.ans before they could be discovered. the sanguine hopes he entertained of ob. The attack commenced, and the heavy taining the marshal's baton by a brilliant cavalry of the assailants dashed among the action, stimulated General Vandamme to Austrian newly-levied foot-soldiers, and as march boldly forward, and he well nigh the latter, owing to the deluging rain, found succeeded in giving the allies a decisive their firelocks perfectly useless, they were blow. But on the 20th of August, when all either killed or made prisoners, of which he arrived at the entrance of the valley of the latter, amounting to 12,000, including Toplitz, he found his passage opposed by their general, Mezko, were all marched into the Russian guard, amounting to 8000 men, Dresden. commanded by General Ostermann-a pha. Among those who lost their lives on this lanx of heroes, who firmly planted themsad day was General Moreau, who had just selves across his path like an impenetrable returned from America, whither he had wall of adamant. His own force consisted been banished by Napoleon, and who had of 30,000 picked men, but who were, neverengaged to aid the emperor Alexander theless, held at bay by these 8000 guards with all his knowledge and experience for the entire day, who at length slowly retired, the deliverance of Germany and Europe, and disputed every inch of ground before in the cause of which he entered most the superior numbers of their foe; nor did heartily. Both his legs were shot off by they retreat indeed, until half their force a cannon-ball on the morning after his was either killed or wounded, and their arrival at head-quarters, and while he was brave leader, Ostermann, had lost an arm. in conversation with the emperor Alexan- Nevertheless, it was determined that Vander. He underwent the painful operation of damme should not maintain the position he amputation of both thighs with the firmness commanded, which was so dangerous to the and resignation of a hero accustomed to allies, and he was again attacked upon the meet death in any form; but he, neverthe- heights of Kulm and Arbesau, on the 30th, less, sunk under it, and died at Laun in by the Russians and two divisions of the Bohemia, on the 2d of September. He was Austrians, who had come up during the an excellent general, an upright and noble- night. His right flank was protected by minded man, and one whose whole soul was the Geiers mountain, and by the road across so devoted to liberty that it was universally the hill of Nollendorf he expected aid from regretted he was not spared to witness as the forces under Marmont, St. Cyr, or Morwell as to assist in its restoration. tier, who were likewise in pursuit of the The want of supplies and of the means allies, and were only distant a few hours' of their conveyance, together with the over- march. Both armies fought with great throw of the left wing, by which the high obstinacy, and the rocks and precipices road to Freiberg was completely cut off, around vibrated a thousand-fold with the induced the allies to withdraw their forces cries of the combatants, the clashing of and retire into Bohemia, more especially their swords, and the fire of their guns. as news now reached them that General Suddenly, however, appeared upon the Vandamme, with a chosen body of troops, heights, in his rear, what Vandamme at was advancing by hasty marches from the first thought was the very aid he expected, opposite side across Pirna, in order to cut but he soon found out his mistake, it being, off likewise the second grand route. Na- on the contrary, several battalions of Pruspoleon's chief aim was to annihilate the al- sians led on by Kleist, and who were now lied army, by forcing it to retreat across descending upon the French in all haste. bad roads, and thus, by entangling it in the The latter were struck as with a clap of difficult passes of the mountains, destroy it by thunder, and no longer thought of victory, famine and disease, or, having thus reduced but only of their own safety, and a portion the whole of the forces to the last extreme, of the cavalry unexpectedly rushing upon oblige them to lay down their arms and the Prussians with the greatest fury, sucgive themselves up prisoners. And truly the ceeded in cutting their way through and dangers to which they were exposed might escaping. But the Austrians and Russians TE DEUM-BATTLE OF DENNEWITZ. 455 coming up now joined the Prussians, and consisted of only 40,000 men, suffered a sethey completely surrounded Vandamme vere shock from this overwhelming force, and the rest of his army. From ten to against which they had to contend the twelve thousand men were made prisoners, whole day, until the arrival of the Russian together with Vandamme himself and Ge- and Swedish troops. The French generals neral Haxo; in addition to which, eighty used all their efforts in order to gain the pieces of artillery, all their ammunition- battle; Ney exposed himself so much that wagons, two eagles, and three standards, half of his staff officers were killed around fell into the hands of the victors. him, and his example was followed by This was an unexpected blow to Bona- Oudinot, who attacked the corps under parte; and while he praised the courage Tauenzien at the head of his men; while displayed by his general, he condemned Regnier continued for a long time fighting him for his want of prudence. On the amidst the enemy's sharpshooters, as if other hand, the brave Prussian general, seeking his death at their hands. But the Kleist, was honored by his sovereign with courage of the Prussians was not to be the title of " Kleist von Nollendorf." overcome, although more than a third of Nearly about the same time that these their number became a sacrifice; and at glorious achievements were effected in the length, towards the evening, when fifty batpresence, as it were, of the three sovereigns talions of the Swedish and Russian infanthemselves, the news arrived of the vic- try, together with 6000 cavalry and 120 tories gained at Katzbach and Gross-Beer- pieces of artillery, marched into the field en; which was immediately followed by and joined in the battle, the French were the announcement of the triumphant battle forced to yield, and were put to rout at fought at Vittoria by the British troops un- once, pursued by the allied cavalry to the der their heroic leader, Wellington. In very banks of the Elbe, losing from 18,000 gratitude to Heaven for these glorious re- to 20,000 men in killed, wounded, and suits, the three monarchs ordered a solemn prisoners, together with eighty pieces of Te Deum to be celebrated at Tiplitz on the cannon and other trophies. 3d of September, in the presence of them- After such repeated reverses experienced selves and the whole of the allied army. by his generals, Napoleon gave up planning Napoleon now resolved to make up for any fresh attacks, and had he only given the losses he had sustained by gaining ad- ear to the voice of reason and moderation, vantages in another quarter, and appointed he would, at the same time, have perceived Marshal Ney, whom he had created Prince at once that he could only defend himself de la Moskwa, to succeed General Oudinot for a short time longer in Saxony. But in command of the army which was to take the presumption, wrath, and the thirst after possession of Berlin. The crown-prince vengeance with which his heart was filled, of Sweden, Bernadotte, managed very suc- completely blinded him, and like the gamcessfully to deceive and draw him into the bler, who in his despair stakes his all upon net, by pretending to detach 25,000 men the last throw, Napoleon madly resolved to from his army in aid of General Wall- lose or gain all, and obstinately determined moden against Davoust, taking care, how- not to move fiom the spot. ever, to allow his preparations to be made Throughout the whole of September he known to the watchful spies of Napoleon, was continually marching either between to whom the information thereof was very Dresden and Lusalia on the one side, or speedily conveyed. Ney received imme- towards the mountains of Bohemia on the diate orders to march from the Elbe with other, in order to inflict a decisive blow upon his 80,000 men, and attack all before him the Silesian army, or to keep at bay the -under the idea that the aforesaid 25,000 main body of the allied forces in the latter men were en route for Mecklenburg. country. The allies, however, took good Ney succeeded, nevertheless, in deceiv- care not to venture an action in an unfavoring the crown-prince as to his intentions, able position, and as he advanced they seby counter-marches, and on the 6th of Sep. cured themselves in such a locality as comtember he fell all at once, with the whole pletely prevented him from attacking or of his army, upon the Prussians command- drawing them into a general battle. This; ed by Billow and Tauenzien, at Dennewitz continual marching and counter-marching near Jiiterbogk. The Prussian army, which harassed and depressed his soldiers so niuch,, 456 BLUCHER'S BOLD MANCEUVRE. that they began now to murmur and express ceive or dispatch messengers, for they were disgust at the war which but a short time sure to be attacked and robbed of their previously they entered upon with such en- letters. He determined to put these daring thusiasm. intruders to rout, and accordingly gave He now advanced once more from Dres- orders to General Lefebvre-Desnouettes to den with his guards, apparently for the march with eight thousand infantry and purpose of gaining upon Blucher, who cavalry of the guard against them, and exneared the Elbe more and more; but he terminate them. But he was met at Zeitz, changed his plan, and irritated and furious on the 28th of September, by the Hettmann at being so often foiled, he turned his march Platoff and General Thielmann, who so against the allied army in Bohemia, and on completely defeated him that he never venthe 17th attacked them in a narrow valley tured to show himself before them a second of the mountains near Nollendorf, in order time. to force a passage on to T6plitz. Once Those events, however favorable to the again, and for the last time, the thunder of allied powers, or disastrous to the French, artillery vibrated here from rock to rock, effected, nevertheless, nothing decisive; and the sanguinary struggle was resumed; while unhappy Saxony was suffering dreadbut Napoleon was again unsuccessful, and fully from the presence of such large arwas forced to fall back with the loss of ten mies. Blicher, who in spite of his age cannon and 2000 prisoners taken by the still evinced all the fire and activity of Austrians under General Kolloredo. On youth, could no longer endure this state of the 22d he advanced once more against uncertainty, and he resolved to form a Blicher, who took up a strong position on junction with the army of the north, which the river Spree, and on the 24th Napoleon had already shown the example by throwwas forced to return to Dresden. ing a bridge across the Elbe, near Dessau, This was a losing game at war, which and making other preparations for more the longer it lasted must turn the tide of active measures. Suddenly, by a rapid fortune more and more against him; while, counter-march, equally bold and unexpectin addition to this, the want of supplies was ed, he arrived at Jessen on the Elbe, at the felt increasingly by his whole army. He moment he was thought to be at Bautzen; was now almost surrounded on every side, and while, in order to deceive the enemy, and only a narrow road across Leipsic he ordered music and dancing to be conwas still left open for him, by which to tinually performed in his camp, he caused keep up his communication with France. two bridges to be constructed during the And even of this he was very soon deprived, night on the river, and on the following for several daring leaders at the head of morning the Silesian army was already their light squadrons were now constantly marching along its left bank. This was a harassing his troops in that quarter; among bold and dangerous undertaking, for the these was more especially Colonel Mens- army was exposed to the fire of two fortifidorf, who more than once advanced to the cations in front and rear, Torgau and Wit. very gates of Leipsic itself; General Thiel- tenberg; General Bertrand had likewise mann, who, having abandoned the Saxon just marched into that country with 20,000 service, now devoted his arm to the allied men, and had taken up a very strong posicause, and made frequent incursions in tion near Wartenburg. Scarcely had he Weissenfels, Ltitzen, Naumburg, and Mer- established himself there before he beheld seburg; and, finally, the Russian general advancing upon him the veteran marshal Czernitschef, who, with his daring flying and his Prussians, whom he little expected, cossacks, penetrated even as far as Cassel, and who themselves were equally surprised and, driving before them the effeminate and by the presence of so strong a French force. voluptuous Jerome from his usurped king- General York, however, at the head of the dom of Westphalia, returned to the Elbe vanguard, immediately attacked the adloaded with rich booty. vanced posts, and an obstinate and sanguiThese bold operations were extremely nary battle took place. The French, howannoying and injurious to Napoleon. All ever, were forced to retreat after a loss of his convoys were seized, and the guards 1000 prisoners, and thirteen pieces of cankilled or made prisoners; every passage non; and the Prussians suffered likewise being so unsafe that he could neither re- considerably, especially the Landwehr or PREPARATIONS FOR THE BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. 457 militia of Silesia, commanded by General their presence on that day at LiebertwolkHorn, which eminently distinguished itself. witz. Murat had placed himself at the Shortly afterwards, in honor of this victory, head of six squadrons of the old cavalry the king of Prussia conferred upon General from Spain, and was determined to give York the titleof "York von Wartenburg." the allies some farther proofs that the Bliicher marched thence to Diiben, and former bravery of the French horsemen joined the army of the north, which had could still be maintained; but he had to crossed the Elbe, and arrived at Dessau. deal with those who sat yet more firmly in At the same time the grand allied army their saddles. The Russian, Prussian, and broke up from Bohemia, and leaving Napo- Austrian cavalry fell upon them with such leon in Dresden, to the right, advanced fury, that they were completely overthrown across the passes of the Hartz mountains, and put to flight, and Murat himself nearly and reached the large plains of Saxony. taken prisoner. On the 5th of October, the army established According to official statements made its head-quarters at Marienberg. at the time, the French army, originally Napoleon could now no longer remain in 300,000 strong, now amounted to 208,000; Dresden; the allied forces threatened to the rest having been already swept off by close upon his rear, and to cut off his road the war. If from this number are deducted back to France. Accordingly, he marched the 28,000 men forming the garrison of away on the 7th of October, accompanied Dresden, it will be found that the numerby the king of Saxony. He left in Dresden ical force of the entire army at Leipsic itself a corps of the army amounting to was 180,000 men. These forces Napoleon, 28,000 men, under the command of Mar- on the 15th of October, drew up in a circle shal Gouvion Saint-Cyr, and this circurn- around the city, an action being now instance shows clearly, that he had not as yet evitable. The army was still strong and decided upon abandoning the Elbe. select, for all those of its ranks who had He now directed his march against Blu- become tired and disgusted with the war cher; but what was his astonishment when, had returned to France, and such again as on arriving on the 10th of October at Du- were of weakly constitution had been carben, he found the Prussian general was no ried off by famine and the severity of the longer there, and learned that instead of weather, or had sunk under the infirmities withdrawing to the Elbe, he had marched and illness produced by their continual behind the Saale, there to be ready to form marching. The troops that now remained a junction with the Bohemian army, as formed a firm and hardy body of men, soon as it arrived in the neighborhood of defying all danger, and well aware that, Leipsic. Under these circumstances there surrounded as they were at every point by remained nothing else for him to do but to an embittered and vengeance-seeking foe, march to Leipsic himself, and to assemble their united strength and courage alone there all the forces he could command. could save them. At the same time the But before this could be effected, and every confidence they continued to place in their thing be prepared for action, he was forced master was so strong and unchangeable to pass four tedious days of supense at Du- that they regarded victory as certain, and ben itself. themselves as invincible in his presence. The whole of the French army had now At the same time Napoleon sought still collected at Leipsic, and Marshal Auge- more by every possible means to inflame reau having arrived from Naumburg with the courage of his men. He created new 15,000 of the old troops, including a corps leaders, made fresh promotions, distributed of cavalry from Spain, Napoleon immedi- crosses of the Legion of Honor and other ately followed, and entered Leipsic on the marks of distinction, while several regi14th of October. The greater part of his ments were furnished with the imperial army was encamped near Wachau, about eagle. Thus he celebrated a grand milifour miles southeastward of Leipsic, where tary fete throughout the entire camp, as they awaited the appearance of Prince was his custom on the eve of any great and Schwartzenberg with the main body of the decisive event. allied army, for whom, however, they had On his part, Prince Schwartzenberg, the not long to wait. His cavalry had already commander-in-chief of the allied army come up, and caused the French to feel neglected nothing in order to encourage 58 458 THE THREE DAYS' BATTLE OF LEIPSIC. his troops, and in his address pointed out to I on the part of the allies amounted to be. them, that the moment had now arrived, tween 800 and 1000. when by their valor and firmness they The battle raged with great fury at must reconquer and establish, once more three principal points, but the most serious and forever, the liberty of their country. engagement was southwest of the city, near Markleeberg, Wachau, and Liebertwolkwitz, where the main body of the _______ ~ ~allied army fought; next, to the west near Lindenau, between Bertrand and the Austrian general, Giulay; and, finally, towards C H A PTER XXXVII I. the north, near Moeckern and Lindenthal, between Blicher and Marshal Marmont. The Three Days' Battle of Leipsic-Murat-The Aus- This last action assumed a more distinct trian General Meerveldt taken prisoner-Battle of form, and was called the battle of Moeckern. Moeckern-Marshals Marmont and Bliicher-General Horn-Total Defeat of the French-Bonaparte's Prince Schwartzenberg had posted at Offers to Negotiate rejected-Breitenfeld-Bernadotte his extreme left, on the other side of the -Bennigsen-The Prince of Hesse Homburg-Prince is t Poniatowsky-Probstheyda-The Saxon Army de- Pleisse, General Meerveldt, who was to serts Bonaparte and joins the Allies-The Allied attack the flank of the right wing of the Sovereigns-Night Scene on the Field of Battle-Bonaparte's Slumber-Retreat of the French-Destruc- French; at this point was stationed Prince tion of the Elster Bridge-Prince Poniatowsky's Poniatowsky with his Poles, who, as usual, Death-Triumphant Entry of the Allies into Leipsic. i r r r r fought with the greatest bravery for NapoTHE French army had so encamped leon. The centre was occupied by the itself around Leipsic that it commanded all Russians and Prussians, commanded by the approaches to it within a distance of Wittgenstein and Kleist; and at the right four miles, except on the west side near wing were the Austrians under Klenau. Lindenau, whence Napoleon felt secured All these divisions of the allied army had from any serious attack, and where, about arrived in the morning, prepared for the two miles from the city, General Bertrand attack. General Kleist took possession of was posted with the fourth division of the Markleeberg; to the left, the prince of army. Wurtemberg penetrated through the centre During the night of the 15th of Octo- into Wachau with the Russians and Prus. ber, Prince Schwartzenberg ordered three sians; and the Austrians under Klenau rockets to be fired off as the agreed signal made themselves masters of Kolmberg to the Silesian army on the other side of near Liebertwolkwitz to the right. The Leipsic, which was immediately answered whole battle-line of the French army fell by the ascension of four rockets in that back, and Napoleon himself with his guards quarter, an acknowledgment producing was so close to the fire of the allies, that universal joy and confidence among the several of his staff were killed around allied forces. him; but he was not the man to abandon The morning of the 16th was at first the field of battle on the first assault. extremely misty and gloomy, but towards In the midst of the battle's rage, he had nine o'clock, after a second signal had with his keen eye examined the whole been given by the discharge of three can- range of contention around him, and to the non-shots, which was succeeded by the right and left of Wachau had prepared thunder of artillery on both sides, the meantime two strong columns of attack, clouds of vapor gradually disappeared, the composed of the flower of his infantry, sky became serene, and during the whole cavalry, and artillery; which he now, of this sanguinary day the sun shone upon seeing it the most favorable moment, the field of battle. The cannonading kept pushed forward against the centre. This up on both sides was so terrific that the attack, ordered by himself and effected very earth trembled with the continued under his own eyes, was so impetuous that concussion, and the oldest warriors present the allies were forced to abandon the vil. declared never until that moment to have lages they occupied, and to retreat within witnessed such awful discharges of artil- the lines they had quitted in the morning. lery: for on the side of the French alone The French now succeeded in capturing the number of cannon employed in this several of the heights on the opposite side destructive work was 600 pieces, and that of these villages, and penetrating as far as MURAT AT GULDENGOSSA-DEFEATED. 459 the village of Giildengossa, took possession and used every effort to take possession of of the hills called the Swedish intrench- the place; and had they succeeded, the ments, which command the country many allied army would have been thrown into miles round. the utmost confusion, and its centre forced Victory appeared now as if inclined to into the marshes of the valley of Gosel. pronounce in favor of Napoleon; already The enemy's battalions of infantry had al. the left and right wings of the allies were ready penetrated into the middle of the vilnearly both cut off from their centre, and lage, their cuirassiers attacked and carried at three o'clock in the afternoon Napoleon by a desperate assault a battery of twentydispatched a courier to Leipsic to an- six cannon, cutting down all before them, nounce his triumph to the king of Saxony, and pushing on, they had nearly gained with the command that all the bells should the height where the monarchs of Russia be rung in honor of the glorious event. and Prussia were attentively surveying the These sounds brought with them but battle, when the emperor Alexander imgloomy prospects to our fellow-Germans mediately ordered his body-guard of Don shut up within the walls of their city-but Cossacks, under the command of Count circumstances very speedily produced a Orloff-Denissow, to attack the daring inmore cheerfil state of feeling, for the can- truders, and he was immediately obeyed; nonading had not yet discontinued, nor had with their usual loud and savage shouts its echo become more distant; nay, it ap- they rushed down like lightning with their peared, on the contrary, to approach more lances, and completely overthrew their and more closely. This changed aspect mailed and more heavily accoutred adverin affairs was produced by the following saries, whose principal leader, Latourhappy circumstance: Maubourg, in a charge he made, had his Some officers of Prince Schwartzen- leg completely smashed. berg's army stationed in Gautsch, having The danger was now over; the enemy observed from the tower of the church, lost all the advantages previously obtained. whence they commanded a full view of It was now five o'clock, and the day was the field of battle, the dangerous turn drawing to a close, when Murat ventured events had taken, made their report to the upon another attack against Gildengossa; prince forthwith, who saw at once that this but it was valiantly met and repulsed by was now the decisive moment. It was of Prince Eugene of Wurtemberg with his the last importance not to allow the enemy, Russian grenadiers, and the Prussians unagainst whom the powers of Europe were der Pirch and Jagow, and the enemy was assembled in arms, to retain even a mo- forced to give it up. This was the last mentary advantage. Accordingly he or- effort made on this side; night broke in dered forth the Austrian reserve under the and terminated the contest. command of the hereditary prince of Hesse- Thus, after a struggle of ten hours, Homburg, and these troops, consisting of during which so much blood had been the various regiments of cuirassiers de- shed, both armies at this point remained in nominated those of Albert, Lorraine, Fran- the same position as in the morning; excis, Ferdinand, and Sommarina, advanced cepting that the French retained possesacross difficult roads, crossed the Pleisse, sion of the Swedish intrenchments on their and attacking the French division, which left wing; while, on the other side, the had established itself to the right of Wa- moiety of the village of Markleeberg rechau, dislodged it; whence the junction mained in the hands of the Prussians and of the left wing with the centre was re- Austrians. formed. Thus Kleist, who with his Prus- By this plan of battle the allies did not sians had maintained possession of Mark- realize their expectations, and in this releeberg against every attack, was, at five spect, therefore, Napoleon was a gainer by o'clock, relieved from his arduous duty by this sanguinary day: their object having the arrival of the Austrians, and was per- been to cut off his retreat to the Saale. mitted, after his hard-fought defence, to An Austrian division had been dispatched take a little breath. in advance to Weissenfels; General Giulay On the other side, the left column of was to make himself master of Lindenau, Napoleon's attack, led on by the impetuous and General Meerveldt with the left wing Murat, had already reached Gildengossa, was to advance along the Pleisse against 460 BATTLE OF MOECKERN-GENERAL HORN. Leipsic, and form a junction with General and Klein Wiederitsch; and as the two Giulay. Had these objects been effected, points of attack were widely apart from and had Bliicher at the same time ad- each other, Sacken was stationed in the vanced from the northwest as far as Leip- centre with the reserve, to furnish aid sic, the French army must have been com- either to the right or left. pletely cut off and lost. But Giulay en- Glorious recollections wiere attached to deavored in vain throughout the entire day this field of battle, inasmuch as it was the to gain possession of Lindenau, which was same spot on which the great Gustavus defended by General Bertrand; the strong Adolphus had, in former times, completely intrenchments were gained for a moment defeated Tilly, the ruthless destroyer of by the Austrians, but were almost immedi- Magdeburg. ately afterwards recaptured by the French, The Prussians had to sustain the most and the former were eventually forced to obstinate and hard-fought contest of all in withdraw. General Meerveldt was still Moeckern and its neighborhood; nevermore unfortunate; he made various at- theless they did not flinch, although their tempts to advance from the other side of numbers diminished very seriously; and the Pleisse and dislodge the Poles from the reserve, consisting of General Horn's Dilitz, Lbsnig, and Connewitz; but, owing brigade, was all now left to them. Fieldto the marshy ground and the incessant fire marshal Bliicher now sent orders to Genekept up by the enemy, he failed in his ob- ral Sacken to advance with his troops; ject altogether for a length of time, and but the distance was too great, and York when, finally, at five o'clock in the after- saw well that at this critical moment he noon, he did succeed in taking Dolitz with had no time to lose, but must depend upon a portion of his troops, he was immediate- his own resources. Accordingly, he disly followed by a large body of the guards patched one of his aides-de-camp to Genewhich Napoleon dispatched to relieve the ral Horn, who was stationed in the open Poles, and thus the Austrians being pressed plain, and announced to him the pressing on all sides, were completely overthrown danger in which he was placed: " Eh! is and their brave leader himself made pris- it so, Captain?" exclaimed the brave oner, at the moment when his horse was general.* " Well, then," addressing his shot under him in a final charge he made. soldiers, " let us in our turn, comrades, This was a fortunate event for Napoleon, advance to the rescue with our cheers!" and he determined to avail himself of the Saying which, he led on his troops amidst circumstance by getting General Meer- loud shouts to the attack, and, penetrating veldt to use all his influence with the em- to the left of the village, charged the eneperor of Austria, and persuade that mon- my with the bayonet, and before the latter arch to abandon the other allied powers. were enabled to load their cannon a third But Napoleon lost at Moeckern against time, they were captured and their ranks Bliicher three times over the benefits he overthrown. Happily arrived also, just derived from the action gained at Linde- at this moment, the entire corps of Mecknau and the capture of General Meer- lenburg hussars, who, dashing upon the veldt; for at the very moment that he French squares of infantry, completely made known his victory at Leipsic, and overpowered them, and putting them to the bells were set ringing in order to stim- flight, pursued them as far as the Partha, ulate the courage of his soldiers by their thus coming up just in time to terminate deceptive sound, Bliicher by one well- gloriously the fate of the day, without timed blow, entirely disappointed his pre- awaiting the arrival of Sacken and the mature calculations. He had not been Russian reserve. More than fifty pieces prepared for this promptitude displayed by of artillery, besides ammunition, were capthe old warrior, however willing he was tured. to acknowledge the celerity of his move- Langeron, on his part, had fought at the ments generally. That general had ar- By a singular coincidence of good fortune, it was rived about mid-day, and immediately ordained that General Horn should thus essentially ordered the attack to be made, with the contribute to the glorious decision of this day, on the very same spot where, in 1631, his ancestor, Gustavus entire force under York, against Marshal Horn, leader of the left wing of the Swedes, fought so Marmont in Moeckern, simultaneously with valiantly at the head of his foot-soldiers against Pap penheim's cavalry that he produced the most triumphthat executed by Langeron against Gross ant results in that great battle. NAPOLEON REFUSED AN ARMISTICE. 461 head of the Russians with no less courage, Russians and Prussians under Wittgenstein and carried the villages of Gross and and Kleist was to attack the central point Klein Wiederitsch, taking thirteen cannon; of the French, and the other constituting so that Marmont found himself, on the eve- the flower of the Austrian army, under the ning of this day, pursued as far as the hereditary prince of Hesse-Homburg, was left bank of the Partha, close to Leipsic. to fall upon Prince Poniatowsky, who had On the following day, the 17th, Napo- defended himself so obstinately on the leon used every effort in order to divide Pleisse, and force him to retreat to Lelpsic. the allied parties, and obtain a suspension Napoleon, on his part, had drawn togeth. of arms, during which he hoped to recover er more closely his half circle in order to from his present dilemma. But the pro- render it more firm. He had abandoned posals he caused to be made to the emperor Wachau and Lieberwolkwitz, where so Francis through the medium of Count much blood had been spilt on the 16th, Meerveldt were not listened to for a mo- and made Probstheyda the central point of ment; for his character was now too well operations; he himself, however, with his known not to see that his object was only to guards, took up his position between this gain time. If, as he declared, his only village and the right wing on the Pleisse, motive was to save all farther effusion of establishing his head-quarters upon a hill blood, it was only necessary for him to close to a wind-mill, pierced through and withdraw and make the retreat, which, through with cannon-balls and half in ruins. after all, he was forced to effect two days Exactly as the clock struck eight fhe later, and after an additional sacrifice of battle commenced. The hereditary prince 50,000 men. He might have known by of Hesse-Homburg advanced towards the the actions already fought on the 10th, Pleisse against Dolitz, which he stormed. that he could never succeed in beating the The Poles and the French under Poniabrave forces of the allies. He himself towsky defended themselves with desperacould expect no more reinforcements, all tion, and the struggle was extremely fierce the troops he commanded were now as- and sanguinary. The Austrians were sevsembled around him; while the allies, on eral times repulsed, and their brave cornthe other hand, still had large corps of mander himself receiving two wounds, his reserve. Bernadotte arrived during the place was immediately filled by Kolloredo. night, driving before him General Regnier, Finally, being supported by Bianki, he sucwhose troops were chiefly composed of ceeded in conquering Dolitz. Disen, and Saxons; while Bennigsen marched up in the heights on the right bang, and mainthe morning with a fresh army of Rus- tained his position the whole lay in spite of sians, and at mid-day Kolloredo advanced Marshal Oudinot and the guards, who came with an Austrian division. up to the aid of the Poles. Napoleon, however, could not summon To the right, the Russians and Prussians up resolution to quit the field of battle as had likewise been successful, and drove the long as there was the least shadow of hope enemy before them as far as Probstheyda, remaining; and yet, at the same time, he where, at mid-day, they came right in front lost all that activity he had on former oc- of Napoleon. Here was fought the most casions so frequently shown, and which had obstinate battle; for upon the retention of so often crowned him with victory. this village depended the fate of the whole The French army which Napoleon had French army. Thence Napoleon had asdrawn up in the form of a crescent, was to sembled within and around it, large bodies be attacked from three sides: from the of troops of all arms, and had erected benorth by Bernadotte and the Silesian army; sides several strong intrenchments; while from the east by Bennigsen, who, with the he himself remained on the spot with his Russians, had also under his command the guards, in order to furnish aid without a moAustrians under Klenau, and a division of ment's loss of time, every house in the vilthe Prussians under Ziethen; and from the lage being converted into a kind of citadel. south, whence, however, the grand attack The Prussians, nevertheless, under the was to be made, as that was the enemy's command of Prince Augustus and Pirch, strongest point. Here, accordingly, the penetrated into the place after a fierce and general-in-chief divided his army into two heroic combat; but it was only for a mogrand divisions, of which one composed of ment, for they were unable to maintain 462 THE ALLIES VICTORIOUS-JOINED BY THE SAXONS. their ground. A strong division of Russians haste to Schonfeld; while the Saxon regi. now advanced to the attack, but they were ments of hussars and lancers, together with likewise repulsed, and were equally unable several battalions of infantry, received the with all their courage to make themselves allies with open arms and joined their ranks masters of the village. The carnage was at once. so great that the allied troops could scarce- About mid-day the army of the north, ly move along, the bodies of their slain which had remained to cross the river at comrades completely choking up every pas- Taucha, advanced to fill up the gap left sage. At length the three allied sovereigns, between Blicher to the right and Bennighaving from a neighboring height where sen to the left, thus making the line perfect they were assembled in order to watch the to its whole extent, and by which the progress of the battle, observed the super- French were gradually surrounded more human efforts made by their brave troops and more closely. Langeron, at the head in that quarter, gave orders at five o'clock of the Russians, took possession of Schonto give up the contest for the place, and feld, on the Partha, which, however, was spare the lives of the men; especially as defended with the greatest obstinacy by the victory was now made decisive in dif- Marmont. The contest lasted four hours, ferent parts of the field, and Napoleon had, and fresh troops on both sides were conin fact, already given orders to Marshal tinually brought forward; until, at length, Bertrand to retire with his troops from Lin- between five and six o'clock, when the vildenau towards the Saale-an undeniable lage and its church were completely in proof that he had decided upon the retreat flames, the French quitted the place and of his whole army. retreated by Reudnitz and Volkmansdorf Such were the results produced in this to Leipsic. Ney and Regnier, who had to part of the field of battle. On the west maintain possession of the open country beside Bennigsen attacked Marshal Macdon- yond Paunsdorf, being attacked, in the ald, who was ordered to defend the French afternoon, by the army of the north and the lines in this direction. The marshal main- Prussians under Billow, were driven altotained his position with great bravery, es- gether out of Paunsdorf, and when they atpecially in Holzhausen, which was taken tempted to defend themselves in the plain and retaken several times. At length, the Russian and Prussian cavalry, which however, about two o'clock, the Austrians had all this time been unemployed, as the and Russians made themselves masters of fighting had been confined to the villages, this place; while the Prussians took Zick- dashed with all their fury among them, elhausen, and now Macdonald retired to seconded by several congreve-rockets, Stotteritz, close to Probstheyda. The whole which were fired into their squares, and of the troops which had formed the centre spread death and destruction in every part. were now concentrated around these two They were completely overthrown and put villages, and they maintained their position to flight, never stopping until they reached there until night. Volkmansdorf, and the villages were reOn the left wing, however, Marshal Ney captured. experienced the most severe defeat of the It was at this moment that the entire whole day. He had under his charge the army of the Saxons, which had been led defence of the entire line of country from forth, very unwillingly, to draw the sword Macdonald's position to the Partha; but in the cause of Napoleon, resolved to he found it impossible to hold out against abandon him; and forthwith marched the-two armies-the Northern and Silesian over in a body to the ranks of the allies, -which now advanced against him, and under their various commanders, and with he was forced to retreat to within a short their ensigns flying, accompanied by the distance of Leipsic itself. The two armies music of their different bands, and followed crossed the Partha in two directions, Blii- by all their cannon, ammunition, and bagcher, with the Russians, fording the river gage-wagons. at once near Mockau, although up to the Napoleon, completely disconcerted by waist in water, because he found it would this event, hastened to send the cavalry of take up too much time to cross over by the guard, under the command of NausouTaucha. The French, under Marmont, ty, to fill up the vacant ranks. These made no resistance, but retreated in all troops had no sooner arrived than, accom NIGHT-NAPOLEON'S SLUMBER-HIS RETREAT. 463 panied by a heavy train of artillery, they the charge of the retreat to his superior advanced to attack the flank of Billow's general, Berthier, who gave the necessary division; but the Austrians, under Bulow, orders to his aides-de-camp before another who were close by, marched forward watch-fire which appeared behind his masthemselves to meet the enemy's assault; ter; during which a profound silence while from another quarter the Swedes, reigned around. The French emperor, by Bernadotte's orders, discharged among overcome at length by.the extraordinary their ranks the artillery just brought over exertions of the present and preceding by the Saxons. The old French guard days, as well as by the agitations of his was accordingly forced to retire and aban- mind, now gradually sunk into a slumber; don possession of the country to the al- with his elbows upon his knees and his lies. head resting between his hands, he thus At length the sanguinary day approach- for a short time reposed amid the horrors ed its end; the last rays of the sun shed of the gory scene around him-of that their parting genial lustre over the heads field covered with the lifeless bodies of of the three sovereigns and their distin- those who had fallen the victims of his inguished companions, as, standing upon the ordinate ambition and pride. His generals hill, they contemplated the gradual termi- near him preserved a deep and gloomy nation of this memorable scene of action. silence, which was interrupted at intervals Thither also Prince Schwartzenberg sum- by the low murmuring noise of the retreatmoned a council of war, including the ing columns as they marched underneath principal leaders of the allied army, and at the base of the hill, or pursued their arrangements were forthwith made for the course in the distant plain; At the end of operations of the ensuing day. a quarter of an hour Napoleon awoke, and Napoleon, on his part, awaited the ap- cast around him a look of inquietude and pearance of night with impatience and wonder. The present reality may have anxiety, for then the remainder of his struck him for a moment as a dream, for, troops might hope to be rescued from the starting up fiom his chair, he mounted his farther fury of the enemy. He had lost a horse and galloped on to Leipsic, which he great deal of ground, and had reduced re-entered at nine o'clock. considerably his crescent-formed army of The retreat of the whole army through the morning, so that it was now diminished Leipsic commenced immediately after midinto the form of a triangle, of which one night; but as the various regiments, point was at Probstheyda, whence the line marching from all parts of the field of joining Connewitz and the Pleisse com- battle, could arrive by one route aloneposed one side, and that joining Stitteritz the narrow paved road of Ranstadt-conand Volkmansdorf formed the other. Had siderable obstruction and confusion was not his army fought with the greatest cour- unavoidable; wagons and cannons were age, and, notwithstanding the difficulties mingled and clogged together, while the with which they were beset, retreated in foot-soldiers with difficulty extricated perfect order-for this praise cannot be themselves from this scene of disorder. withheld from them-one of these lines of The rear-guard was ordered to remain bethe triangle would inevitably have been hind and defend Leipsic as long as was destroyed beforethe evening, Leipsic taken, possible, and although the place was not and the entire army lost. Napoleon this fortified, the utmost was done to render it day fought only for a retreat, and already, strong by forming intrenchments, barricaat ten o'clock in the morning, immense ding the gates, and putting in a state of detrains of baggage-wagons and others of fence the moats and garden-walls. every description, together with innumera- Meantime the allied army, by no means ble horses, had quitted Leipsic under an inclined to permit the French to retire so escort of troops, belonging to General Ber- quietly, and carry away with them the trand's division. spoils and supplies of ammunition they had When darkness covered the wide field accumulated in Germany, advanced at of battle, Napoleon still remained at his eight o'clock in the morning and stormed station on the hill near the windmill, where the gates of the city. This sudden attack he sat gazing on the watch-fire he had increased the disorder still reigning, and ordered to be lighted. He had confided Napoleon himself was forced to quit the 464 THE ALLIES ENTER LEIPSIC-BAVARIA. place by a by-path. The allies might happy inhabitants, who greeted with joy have added to this embarrassment consider- the appearance of their deliverers; the ably, and have caused more extensive de- emperor Francis arrived a few days later, struction, if they had brought their artillery and participated in this glorious scene. to bear against the gates and walls of the city. But such a proceeding, which must have involved the innocent as well as the guilty in one common ruin, would have been too cruel, and they, accordingly, confined themselves to storming the gates. C H A P T E R XXXIX. The French and the Poles made an obstinate resistance and disputed every inch of Napoleon's Retreat across the Rhine-Bavaria-General Wrede-Hanau-The Allied Forces invade ground; the victory, however, was not France-The Minister Von Stein-Their rapid March long doubtful, and the allied troops made -Napoleon against Blucher-Battle of Brienne-Batthemselve mas te' o,,. tie of Rothiere-Repulse of the French-Temporary themselves masters of the city. Successes of Napoleon-The Congress of ChatillonIt was just at this moment that the bridge Napoleon's Confidence restored-His DeclarationBlucher's bold Movement-Soissons-Laon-Napoon the other side of the city, that of the leon against Schwartzenberg-Rheims-Arcis —NaElster-Muhlengraben, the only one left for poleon's desperate Courage and final Charge with his the French to cross over, was blown up in the air, without its being known positively BAVARIA, by the treaty of Ried, had alby what cause: whether by command of ready joined the grand alliance before the Napoleon to secure his army from the pur- battle of Leipsic; and she now sent her suit of the allied troops, or whether it origi- general, Marshal Wrede, to the provinces nated in the too precipitate alarm of the on the Maine, with a large army, to which officer in charge of it. An exclamation of were united some Austrian and Wtirtemhorror arose from the crowds as they berg troops, in order to oppose the passage hastened to reach the spot in time to cross. of the French across the Rhine, and effect A great number threw themselves into the their total annihilation. Wrede directed Elster, in order to swim to the other side, his march to Hanau and Frankfort, while but the majority were either drowned or the grand army of the allies pursued the perished in the mud-banks. Several of fugitives from another side, and York esthe generals sprang likewise with their pecially overtook and attacked them at horses into the river, in order to escape Freiberg on the Unstrut, causing them being made prisoners; but they nearly all great loss. In front and on each side of lost their lives, and among the sufferers them, they were harassed by Czernitschef was Prince Poniatowsky, whom but three and other light troops, and all who detached days before, Napoleon had created a field- themselves from the main body were made marshal of France; Macdonald fortunately prisoners. Thus they proceeded along the escaped, whilst Regnier, Bertrand, and route from Leipsic to Erfurt, and thence Lauriston were taken prisoners. to the Rhine, abandoning at every moment Napoleon lost more men on this day than all that could not follow in their train, canon the day of battle itself. More than nons, baggage, and such of their comrades 15,000 well-armed soldiers were taken as were tooill toproceed along with them; prisoners after the bridge was blown up, for the march was so rapid and continuous, and more than 25,000 sick and wounded that at the end of eleven days, the army were abandoned and left to the discretion had already reached Frankfort. of the conquerors. In the city, and on the Napoleon arrived with the remnant of road leading to it, an incredible quantity his forces of from 70,000 to 80,000 men of cannon and ammunition-wagons were before Hanau, where he encountered Mareverywhere scattered, of which more than shal Wrede, who determined to oppose his 300 of the former, and 1000 of the latter, passage, although his army was inferior in fell into the hands of the allies. numbers; for if he succeeded in detaining At one o'clock, the emperor Alexander him until the arrival of the allied grand and the king of Prussia, attended by their army, his ruin was certain. This Naponumerous staff of generals, entered the leon well knowing, he employed his guard, city of Leipsic, the acclamations of their as yet in good condition, to force their pasown brave troops mingling with those of the sage onward. During three entire days, THE ALLIES INVADE FRANCE-THEIR ARMIES. 465 the 29th, 30th, and 31st of October, the the duke of Saxe-Coburg; the sixth was contest was carried on with the greatest commanded by the prince of Hesse-Homobstinacy before and within the town of burg, and formed the contingent furnished Hanau, Marshal Wrede himself being by Darmstadt, Wurzburg, Frankfort-on-theseverely wounded. Finally, however, the Maine, Isenburg, and Reuss; the seventh French succeeded in cutting their way consisted of 12,000 Wurtembergers under through, although at a great loss. the leadership of their own crown-prince On the 2d of November Napoleon himself; and, lastly, the eighth was placed gained the banks of the Rhine, which he under the command of the Baden general, now saw for the last time; he was imme- Count von Hochberg, which included the diately followed in all haste by his troops troops of Baden, Hohenzollern, and Lich. over the bridge of Mentz, while General tenstein. Bertrand intrenched himself on the heights Although the entire mass of these troops of Hochheim. This, however, was not could not be sent into the field all at once, tolerated by the allies, who would not suffer and there was a necessity for continuing to the French to possess an inch of ground on retain possession of a great extent of this side of the Rhine; accordingly, on the country, while many thousands of troops 9th of November, Prince Schwartzenberg were required to invest the numerously caused him to be attacked by General fortified towns which the allies would not Giulay, and he was forced to retreat to lose time in laying formal siege to, it is, Mentz. The three allied sovereigns were nevertheless, certain, that an army connow reunited in Frankfort, where they de- sisting of at least 500,000 men was now in termined together upon the continuation of full march against France, and which the war. would surround the enemy's forces, not With the commencement of the new amounting now to half that number. At year, 1814, the allied powers, seeing clear- the same time, in the rear of the alliedk ly that nothing but the sword could decide army every preparation was made necesbetween them and their obstinate adver- sary to ensure its complete equipment and: sary, redoubled their efforts, confiding in organization, for which purpose, and in their superior strength and in the justice order that operations might be carried on of their cause. The Russians brought at with all possible order and uninterrupted least 200,000 men into the field; the Prus- unanimity, a sort of central administration sians 160,000; and Austria 230,000, equal- or council of war was established and prely divided on the Rhine, in Italy, and in sided over by a man who might truly be the interior of Germany. In addition characterized as a hero, and one, too, who, to these forces, the brave Field-marshal worked indefatigably for the liberty of our Wellington had already placed his foot on country, although not actually marching, the French territory with the British army at the head of her armies. This nobleof 80,000 men. Finally, the other states minded patriot and persevering championi of Germanyfurnished their contingent of was the minister Baron von Stein. He troops of 150,000 to 160,000 men. was one of those who, while Germany was These were divided into eight distinct sighing under the yoke of the usurper, incorps, viz: the first comprised 36,000 dignantly and resolutely spurned every Bavarians under General Wrede; the attempt made to render him subservient; second was under the command of the duke for, on the contrary, he never ceased, as beof Brunswick, and consisted of 33,000 fore stated, devoting his superior genius as Brunswickers, Hanoverians, Oldenburgers well as all his thoughts and actions towards and Mecklenburgers, together with some the emancipation of his country, and gainHanseatic troops; the third, amounting to ing thus the confidence of his fellow-coun23,000 men from the Saxon territories, was trymen, he was looked up to as.a tower of commanded by the duke of Saxe-Weimar; strength in their cause. When the war the fourth, consisting of 14,000 Hessians, of 1812 broke out against Russia, he rewas led on by the elector of Hesse-Cassel paired thither at the head of many others himself; the fifth, comprising 10,000 men of an equally bold and dauntless mind, from the provinces of Waldeck, Lippe, in order to assist in annihilating the expeNassau, Coburg, Meiningen, Hildburghau- dition thus directed against a nation whose sen, and Strelitz, was under the orders of energy was'well known to, and appreciated 59 466 RAPID MARCH OF THE ALLIES. by him. The emperor Alexander found leon might set fire to his cradle with his in him all the support he so much needed own hand." Nevertheless, the latter did at that all-important, trying moment, and not succeed in cutting off Blucher's army it must ever be acknowledged that it is to from that of Schwartzenberg. the bold and active genius of Von Stein The battle of Brienne took place on the that Germany owes her complete deliver- 29th of January, and on the 1st of Febance from the yoke of foreign despotism. ruary the intrepid BlUcher was already During the first twenty days of January, again on the same spot, drawn up in battle the allies had already traversed Switzer- array. He had not as yet assembled all land, Franche.Comte, Alsace, Lorraine, his troops, for Langeron was still at Mentz, and Burgundy, without meeting with any and York and Kleist were en route; but obstacle; and the mountains of the Jura, Schwartzenberg had furnished him with the Waldensis, the Hundsruck, and the the greater part of his army-the divisions forest of Ardennes, together with numer- of Giulay and the prince of Wiirtembergous rivers and a triple line of fortifications together with the Russian reserve corps: on the frontiers, were all happily captured by which means he found himself sufficientand cleared, and the armies of Schwartzen. ly strong to advance against Napoleon. berg and Buicher were already, within a The latter had taken up a strong position short distance of each other, in full march in the neighborhood of Brienne, and estabalong the banks of the Seine and the Aube, lished his centre in the village of Rothiere, and within some ninety or a hundred miles about four miles distant. The battle began of Paris itself. Now, however, Napoleon at mid-day at all points. To the right the entered the field at the head of his army. prince of Wiirtemberg, having paved his His object was to penetrate between his way through the forest of Eclance, took enemies, prevent their junction, drive them possession of the villages of Lagibrie and back one after the other to the mountains Petit-Mesnil. On the side of the Wirtemthey had just left, where the effects of the bergers, General Wrede, at the head of the winter and the armed inhabitants would Bavarians and Austrians, advanced likecombine together to render their retreat one wise and conquered the villages of Morvilequally disastrous and fatal. Blucher had liers and Chaumenil, and thus laid bare established his head-quarters in Brienne, a the whole of Napoleon's left wing. The small town near the Aube, with a castle latter now came up himself with the artilwhich had served as a military-school for lery of his guard, and fired upon Morvilyoung Frenchmen, and where Napoleon liers, whence he succeeded in dislodging had himself learned that science in which the Bavarians. Wrede now detached his he afterwards so distinguished himself. best regiment of cavalry, commanded by the Suddenly the French appeared and attack. brave Diez, which forthwith threw itself upon ed the town. The assault was repulsed, the French and completely routed them. but as soon as it was dusk, the French Meantime the battle was continued with general, Chateau, who was well acquainted the utmost fury in the village of Rothiere, with the localities of the place, penetrated which formed the principal point in the with his grenadiers into the gardens of the position held by the French. Here Napocastle as far as the terrace itself, without leon commanded in person, and continually being observed. Blicher was in great brought up fresh troops against the Rusdanger of being taken, and had scarcely sians. On the other side, the emperor time to mount his horse and escape by a Alexander and the king of Prussia encourprivate road. He immediately placed him- aged on their troops by their presence, self at the head of his troops, and inspiring whence prodigies of valor were performed. them with the most undaunted courage, he At length Marshal Blicher placed himself warned them not to let the enemy boast of at the head of his troops, and threw himhaving put them to flight on their first en- self into the village, exclaiming, " Forcounter upon French ground, and he main- wards!" The village was carried and tained the contest until midnight, and taken definitively. The right wing of the completely drove back the left wing of the enemy, which had defended the village of enemy, not abandoning the place before it Dieuville against Giulay, was likewise was set on fire by the French, " in order," forced to retreat at midnight, and the vic. as he wrote in his dispatch, "that Napo- tory was now decisive at all points. SUCCESSES OF NAPOLEON. 467 The allies finding that Napoleon's force for Champaubert with Kleist's division, was not so extensive as they imagined, and the Russians under General Kapcze. and knowing that the late actions must witsch, in all about 20,000 men. But'ave reduced it still more, deemed a corn- the generals whom he wished to join bined plan of operations unnecessary, and had already recrossed the Marne, and on determined therefore to divide their armies: the 14th he found himself attacked by the that of Bliicher to take the route towards French, with a far superior force. Their the Marne, while that of Schwartzenberg cavalry threw itself upon the two wings, was to proceed along the Seine. This was while the infantry and artillery attacked exactly what Napoleon wished; for by this the centre with such desperate fury, that separation he should be enabled to resort to on the first'onset several of the Prussian his former promptitude of manceuvring. battalions were completely destroyed. In He maintained his position between the addition to this force, the allies found antwo armies, and watching his opportunity, other body of French cavalry advancing alternately attacked the one or the other upon them in their rear upon the high road division as his prey, and overpowered it by between Champaubert and Etoges. No the superiority of his forces. By this means, other resource was left them now but to he succeeded in obtaining those temporary trust to their courage and resolution and successes which enabled him to detain them cut their way through. They formed on their march to Paris several months. themselves into solid squares, and advanThe Silesian army, accordingly, advan- ced with charged bayonet against the cavced towards the capital by the route of alry, which gave way before them. The Champagne, in detached bodies; Sacken enemy now attacked them in the flank, to the rear, Kleist the centre, and Bliicher, and harassed them in every direction, in the general-in-chief, brought up the rear- order to bring their ranks into disorder; division of Kleist. The Russian advanced- but by the able management of the brave guard had now arrived to within fifteen and prudent general, Gneisenau, the furileagues of Paris, which many of the in- ous attacks were received with firm and habitants were now abandoning in all haste, unshaken courage and order, and to this believing the emperor's reign completely alone is the preservation of the army to be at an end. Suddenly, however, the latter, attributed. being now reinforced with 20,000 men of At length night arrived, and promised the old troops, which he had conveyed from the Prussians the repose they so much Spain in coaches and light wagons, oblique- needed. They, however, were forced to ly traversed the immense plains between encounter some hard fighting when they the Seine and the Marne, in spite of the arrived at Etoges; but they once more representations of his generals, who held opened for themselves a road at the point the execution of his plan to be impossible; of the bayonet, and gained at length their and, although forced to leave his cannons former position at Vergeres. The divisions in the mud behind him, he came in front of the Silesian army united together behind of the enemy, and seeking his opportunity, the Marne, and shortly after marched tofell upon the rear-guard of Sacken, corn- wards the Aube, in order to form a junction manded by General Olsufiew, cutting the with the grand army. moiety of them in pieces, or making them Napoleon was delighted beyond all measprisoners. This was the first ray of good ure in being able once again to boast of fortune which once more shone upon Na- his victories in his bulletins and gazettes; poleon, and reproduced confidence within but these triumphant strains were very him. He wrote to the duke of Vicenza, speedily hushed when it was known as a his plenipotentiary at the congress of Cha- certainty, that the advanced guard of tillon, then sitting, that his arms had been Schwartzenberg was only ten leagues disonce more crowned with a brilliant victory, tant from the capital, while the French and that the French government might army was fighting on the Marne. Naponow reassume its independent, dictatorial leon gave up at once all farther pursuit of tone. the Silesian troops, in order to turn his Meantime, Field-marshal Blucher, when force against Schwartzenberg. The latter news reached him of the danger threaten- had detached Wrede and Wittgenstein to ed, marched with all possible haste en route the rear of the French army, in order to 468 BLUCHER'S BOLD MARCH. relieve the Silesian army; but as all the Meantime, at head-quarters, the ques. operations in that quarter had been ex- tion of a peace was seriously discussed, tremely rapid, the aid came too late, and and it was already suggested, that the these two generals found themselves op- allied forces should gradually retire to the posed to Napoleon, who with his superior Rhine, in order to await the result of the army forced them, after a severe action, conference held at Chatillon. The veteto retreat to the Seine. The brave prince ran Bliicher, however, opposed this with of Wiirtemberg, who led the advanced his whole force. He offered, in a dispatch guard of the grand army, had taken up his he sent to the allied sovereigns, from his position with his Wiirtembergers and Aus- quarters at Merry, to march direct to trians, in the village of Montereau. Na- Paris, and thus draw off Napoleon from poleon, after pursuing Wittgenstein, on the the grand army, if they would place under 17th of February, as far as Nangis, made his orders the divisions of Biilow and Wina violent attack on the prince's troops on zengerode. He would then find himself the 18th. The latter, nevertheless, main- again at the head of an excellent army of tained themselves firmly throughout the 100,000 men, and with that alone he would whole day; but having expended all their venture to threaten the capital without any ammunition, and finding themselves taken farther delay. His wish was accorded. in the flank by the French, they were for- This unexpected movement-pronounced ced to give way and to recross the river. by a French historian to be the boldest These ten days of success restored to throughout the campaign-completely disNapoleon all his former presumption, espe- concerted the French emperor, who was cially as just at this moment Marshal Au- at this moment in'royes. He had just gereau sent him a message from Lyons, refused the offer of an armistice, and althat he had driven back the Austrian gen- ready beheld himself in imagination once eral, Bubna, as far as Geneva, and was again on the banks of the Rhine, whereas penetrating into Switzerland with a power- he found himself now forced to abandon ful body of troops. If the French general the grand allied army, and devote all his succeeded in reconquering that country, attention to the bold adversary he thought then the retreat of the allied army must he had completely beaten. be completely cut off, and already calcu- Napoleon's object was to come up with lating upon this conquest, Napoleon's ima. the old marshal before he had formed a gination foresaw Alsace and Lorraine junction with the other corps of the army, rising en masse against the allies, and all from which he was separated by the river the numerous garrisons along the frontiers Aisne. But Biulow and Winzengerode had uniting with the national guard to anni. already laid siege to Soissons, situated on hilate the enemy. Thence, although the this river, where an excellent bridge formconference at Chatillon was still continued, ed a desirable point of reunion for the two he would no longer hear of peace; and armies. This strongly fortified city conwhen, among the terms stipulated, it was tained a numerous garrison, but Biilow required that he should resign Holland and forthwith made preparations for an assault. Italy, he exclaimed: " What are our ene- Already, towards night, the scaling-ladders mies thinking of? Tell them, I am at this were fixed and the assailants about to mount moment closer to Vienna than they are to them, when the commandant of the place, Paris!" not aware of Napoleon's presence in the Paris was in a state of joyful excite- vicinity, surrendered the city, and retired ment, and the whole of France shared in with his garrison. Blicher immediately the hopes of the emperor. At the same crossed the river and advanced northtime any acute observer could easily see ward as far as Laon, where he united that it was merely a moment of illusion; all his forces and took up a strong position for although the grand army did partially near that city. Napoleon, in order to grapwithdraw, still it was in accordance with ple with and overthrow this daring oppothe plan of the campaign, and not after nent, pursued him closely to the other side any general defeat, nor because there was of the river, although by so doing he left any discouragement in the soldiers, who, more and more distant in his rear both the on the contrary, were more eager than grand army of the allies and Paris itself, ever to march to Paris. which was three-and-thirty leagues off. NAPOLEON AGAINST SCHWARTZENBERG. 469 On the 7th of March he attacked Win- prompt manceuvre to bring the allies into zengerode and Woronzow in their intrench- confusion, and thus be enabled to make the ed position on the heights of Craone, and attack contemplated; but he found their only forced them to retreat to Laon after he ranks too firmly knit together, and he was himself had suffered a great loss. Here thus, a second time, defeated in his design. Bliicher awaited him,having made the city, The emperor Alexander and the king of which was situated upon an almost impreg- Prussia themselves, who were resolved not nable height, the central point of his position. to defer longer a decisive battle, had has. On the 9th of March, at break of day, the tened by forced marches to rejoin the army, French attacked and took the village of Se- and on this day, the 20th of March, a most milly, at the base of the hill, which, how. serious engagement took place near Arcis. ever, they retained only a short time, being The regiments of French guard were redriven from it by Billow's troops, and Napo- pulsed with so much force, that Napoleon, leon did not venture to ascend the height. in order not to lose such an important place, The contest, at both wings, lasted the entire drew his own sword, and rallying the fly. day, Napoleon's object being especially to ing squadrons, placed himself at their head, drive the Prussians from the high road to and led them on to the attack again. In Belgium. Towards mid-day he succeeded this charge he exposed himself so much in obtaining the advantage, and the Prus- that, in order to defend himself against a sian advanced-guard was forced to abandon cossack who rushed upon him with his lance, the village of Athis; but, in the evening, he was forced to fire at him one of his own Generals Kleist and York resolved to an- pistols. A great number of his staff were nihilate his plan at once by a coup de main. killed and wounded around him, and his As soon as it was completely dark, and the own horse was shot under him; nevertheenemy, believing the sanguinary day at an less, instead of shunning danger, he apend, had already lighted their fires in the peared only to court it. It was only by camp, the Prussians returned to the attack. these extraordinary exertions, and the arriEvery thing succeeded; the enemy was ut- val of a reinforcement of infantry, that he terly overthrown and forty-six pieces of was enabled to save the town. artillery captured. This complete victory was gained with scarcely any loss on the side of the Prussians; while that of the corps of Marmont, which had suffered this defeat, was very considerable. Napoleon was not a little mortified at CHAPTER XL. finding this attack upon the Silesian army The French and Allied Armies in Battle Array-Naposo unsuccessful. Nothing now remained leon's sudden and mysterious Retreat before Action for him but to turn his arms against -His secret Designs for the Destruction of the Allies tor-... ^~~~ -mu-ttu ar gas His Plot Discovered-The Allies before Paris-Its Schwartzenberg, surprise the grand army, Capitulation-Triumphant Entry of the Allies in and, endeavoring to separate it, attack and that City-Napoleon Deposed-Louis XVIII. King and, endeav g to s e i, a k of France-Napoleon at Fontainebleau-His Abdidestroy each detached corps. cation-Banishment to Elba-Peace signed in Paris The commander-in-chief had again taken Conclusion. up his position on the Aube, whither he had THE allied army prepared for a grand marched immediately after the departure and final action on the following day; Naof Napoleon in pursuit of the Silesian army. poleon himself formed his line of battle in The issue of operations between Bliicher front of Arcis, and the two armies thus and Napoleon he soon learned by the sud- facing each other waited a considerable den appearance of the latter himself, who time-extending even to several hours-for returned from Laon to commence his move- each other's attack. In truth, it was a ments against the grand army. He had solemn moment, and one portending the scarcely arrived before he, on the 13th most important and decisive results to the of March, suddenly attacked and took the whole world. It was during this interval town of Rheims, which was occupied by that Napoleon brought into operation a plan General Saint-Priest and the Russians, he had long contemplated, and upon which killed that general, and on the 20th he was he based all hopes; but which, neverthein front of the grand army, and took pos- less, produced his ruin. While, therefore, session of Arcis-sur-Aube. He hoped by a the eyes of the allied army were anxiously 470 NAPOLEON'S RETREAT-HIS PLOT DISCOVERED. fixed upon his movements, it was observed, war, assembled at Vitry, resolved at once to their no little astonishment, that the ranks that the two united armies should march of the enemy were broken up, and the for Paris, and that General Winzengerode troops, crossing over the Aube in confused should remain behind to meet Napoleon masses, were seen ascending the opposite with 10,000 cavalry and flying artillery, hills, and the field of battle was abandoned in order to make him believe that the main by them without a blow being struck. Af- body of the allied army followed them in ter long consideration, Napoleon felt he had the rear. already good reason to remember how often After various victories, the allied armies he had met the allied armies in the open marched forward in conjunction, and arfield, and he accordingly determined now rived at length, on the 29th of March toto change the plan of battle. wards evening, before the gates of the His manceuvre this time was to gain the proud city which had styled itself the capirear of Schwartzenberg by forced marches, tal of the whole world. Joseph, Napoand as the allies would doubtless fall back leon's brother, and formerly king of Spain, in order to secure for themselves a safe re- was there with numerous partisans, and he treat, he was in good hopes they might fall continued to deceive the inhabitants, by into the various ambuscades, which he assuring them that it was merely a dewould take good care, with the aid of the tachment of the allied army, which had different garrisons and the inhabitants them- advanced for the purpose of frightening selves, to have planted ready to meet them the city. Marshals Marmont and Mortier in Lorraine and Alsace. He had, in fact, had assembled all the troops they could long since made his preparations for the muster, and posted them on the heights execution of this design; all his command- outside the city, with all their artillery; ants throughout those countries having re- their army thus distributed on the Montceived his instructions to this effect through martre and other hills, consisted altogether secret messengers and spies. The inhabit- of 25,000 men, and 150 pieces of cannon. ants entered most cordially into the spirit Their object was to hold the allies at bay of the plot, and had already commenced until the emperor marched up to their reoperations by concealing themselves in the lief. woods, narrow passes, and cross roads, and Napoleon was in truth advancing with attacking all the couriers and small detach- all speed to their aid, but he was at too ments of soldiers proceeding in those direc- great a distance to arrive in time. He tions. All the convoys were stopped, and had been the victim of his blind confithe allies already began to experience the dence, and had thus given the allied army want of ammunition; and thus a retreat the advantage of four days' march in ad. must have produced the total ruin of the vance of him. Generals Winzengerode allied armies. and Czernitschef had completely deceived Meantime, a letter addressed by Napo- him, in making him believe they were the leon to the empress, in which he detailed to advanced guard of the allied army in purher the whole of his plan, was found upon suit of him, and he already congratulated one of his messengers who was taken pris- himself upon the successful results of his oner, and was the means of making the ruse. Nevertheless, finding the troops whole plot known to the allies. This then consisted of nothing else but cavalry, and was a most important moment for them. that not a single foot-soldier was visible, One party held it advisable to secure their re- he became suspicious, and, determined to treat and march back to the Rhine; the other convince himself, he attacked General again, more confident, deemed it preferable Winzengerode, who was accordingly forced to proceed direct to Paris, which could not to give way before him. Still he could resist: and this last counsel was adopted. ascertain nothing certain, until the 29th It was resolved to leave Napoleon in the of March, when an estafette arrived from rear, and that the grand army should forth- Paris and met him at Doulancourt, on the with march in advance, in order to form a Aube. He hastened to peruse the contents junction with Blucher on the Marne. of these mysterious dispatches, and was On the following day, the 24th of March, struck as by a clap of thunder, when he it was found that the Silesian army was found that the allies were before the gates already in the vicinity, and the council of of the capital, while he himself was at THE ALLIES BEFORE PARIS-ITS CAPITULATION. 471 that moment more than forty leagues dis- attack upon the enemy-who defended the tant! He lost not a moment, but aban- village of La Villette to the last-and doning his army at once, departed with a forced them to evacuate it, and thence few followers in hopes of still arriving in Montmartre fell forthwith into the hands time; but he urged his postilions on in of the allies. vain, for in spite of all the efforts made, he At the extreme left, the prince of Wfirwas forced to content himself with only temberg had, likewise, in spite of the vighearing at a distance the heavy cannon- orous defence maintained by the various ading before his capital; and on the 30th, troops posted in the quarter of Vincennes, at six o'clock in the evening, on reaching forced them to give way and advanced to Fromenteau, five leagues from the metrop- the gates of the city on that side. Thus olis, he learned he had arrived a few the entire army of the allies was now ashours too late-Paris had surrendered. sembled on and around the heights they Napoleon was only separated by the Seine had conquered, ready to follow up their from the advanced posts of the allied army; victory by penetrating at once into the the fires from their bivouacs lighted up the capital. But the two marshals, and the whole length of the left bank, while the authorities of the city, having come fordarkness of the night concealed from ob. ward and offered to capitulate, it was acservation the presence of himself, a few cordingly agreed that the place should be companions, and the two post-chaises. At surrendered to the allies on the following four o'clock on the following morning, day, the 31st of March, and that the said when he was convinced positively that the Marshals Marmont and Mortier should recapitulation was signed, he turned his tire with the remnant of their troops. horses' heads and drove off to Fontaine- Accordingly, as arranged, and on the bleau. day fixed, the emperor Alexander and the On the morning of the 30th of March, king of Prussia-the emperor Francis havGeneral Barclai de Tolly, who commanded ing remained behind at Lyons with his arthe Russians and Prussians, under the my-accompanied by their staff, and folorders of Prince Schwartzenberg, com- lowed by a portion of their army, made mander-in-chief, attacked the heights of their triumphant entry into the city. Belleville, which formed the central point On the 1st of April the emperor Alexanof defence. The contest was extremely der published, in the name of himself and obstinate, and at the same time indecisive; allies, a declaration, " That he would, in because the gardens, vineyards, and shrub- no way whatever, treat either with Napoberies everywhere around greatly facilita- leon or any one of his family; and the ted the means of defence, but more espe- French were at liberty to choose another cially because the troops of the prince of government." Wiirtemberg and Blucher, who ought to In consequence of this decree, the munihave aided on the right and left, did not cipal council of the metropolis declared itarrive before mid-day. The French artil- self absolved from its oath of fealty to Nalery, which commanded a good position, poleon, and demanding the restoration of did great execution in the ranks of the the ancient royal house, that body, on the brave assailants; but, finally, the heights 2d of April, in the name of France, deof Belleville were carried, and the cannon dared the deposition of Napoleon. taken. Then it was that the Parisians This event acted with the force of a perceived that the troops before the place thunder-stroke upon Napoleon, who had formed a more numerous and powerful continually flattered himself with the cerbody than a mere detachment, and they tainty of reassembling his army, and once soon had too much reason to know the real more trying the chances of war. He was state of things. At mid-day, the Silesian still at Fontainebleau, twelve leagues from army stormed the heights of Montmartre. Paris, where he remained a prey to his York, Kleist, and Langeron, drove the feelings, and alternately excited by disapFrench before them out of all the villages, pointment and hope; at length he resolved and on this occasion, the cavalry bore a on marching to Paris, being full of confiprincipal part in the achievements of this dence in his army. The 3d of April was day; the black hussars, and those of Bran- fixed for his departure, and already a crowd denburg especially, making a most valiant of warriors assembled to follow him; but 472 PEACE SIGNED IN PARIS —CONCLUSION just at that moment his marshals refused to armed and advanced against him, and act in co-operation with him for the promo- Providence crowned their wishes with suction of his design. Ney and Lefebvre fol- cess. On the memorable plains of Ligny lowed him into his chamber, and made and Waterloo, the pride and ambition of known to him the fact of his deposition, that dangerous man were forever crushed, and declared they could not depend upon his troops completely beaten and almost the army. He was, however, still desirous annihilated, and he himself forced eventuof securing the crown of France for his ally to yield himself a prisoner, and end son, whom he had made king of Rome, his days on the rock of St. Helena. and he offered to abdicate on this condition; It is not necessary here to describe the but neither the allies nor the provisional well-known details of a victory unparaigovernment would accede to it. leled in history, the beneficial results of Accordingly, on the 6th of April, the which have been, and still continue to be senate acknowledged Louis XVIII. as so distinctly felt and gratefully acknowking of France, and invited him to ascend ledged. The great and glorious achievethe throne, while to Napoleon was offered ments of the arms of combined Europe the possession of the island of Elba, on the under Wellington and Bliicher, can never coast of Italy. Against all expectation he be forgotten or too highly appreciated. calmly signed the abdication of all his im- According to the arrangements made in perial power and sovereignty, and de- the general and-happily as it hasprovedparted, on the 20th of April, for his new lasting peace, concluded by all the powers dominion, where he arrived and fixed his of Europe at the congress of Vienna, in residence. Louis XVIII. made his entry 1815, Germany received back all the in the capital on the 3d of May, and provinces she possessed anteriorly to the mounted the throne of his ancestors twenty. Revolution, but of which she had been deone years after his brother's execution. prived during that and the subsequent On the 30th of May the first peace of period. They were now so divided among Paris was concluded between France and the members of the newly-formed ConEurope. France retained the same limits federation of Germany, that the majority as she had possessed under her kings, and received either the same territories they consequently held possession of Alsace and previously owned, those granted to them by Lorraine, which in former times belonged the peace of Luneville, or such as they to Germany; while she also had secured held at the period of the Rhenish league. to her an extent of territory conquered The members of the Confederation conduring the wars of the republic. She had stituted at first a body of thirty-eight, viz.: likewise, in addition to this, no share to Austria, Prussia, Bavaria, Saxony, Hanpay of the expenses of the war; the city over, Wirtemberg, Baden, Hesse-Cassel, of Paris was not obliged to restore the Hesse-Darmstadt, Holstein, Luxemburg, valuable productions of art and science, Brunswick, Mecklenburg-Schwerin, Meckcollected from all parts of the world, and lenburg-Strelitz, Nassau, Saxe-Weimar, all the thousands of French prisoners in Saxe-Gotha, Saxe-Coburg, Saxe-Meiningen, Germany, Russia, and England, were Saxe-Hilburghausen, Oltenburg, Anhaltforthwith set at liberty. Dessau, Anhalt-Bernburg, Anhalt-Coethen, Schwarzburg-Sondershausen, Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt, Hohenzollern-Hechingen, Hohenzollern Sigmaringen, Lichtenstein, We have now traced the history of Ger- Waldeck, Reuss, (senior branch,) Reuss, many from the earliest time down to the (junior branch,) Schaumburg-Lippe, to. moment when it was fervently hoped, that gether with the free cities of Lubeck, the peace of that severely-dealt-with coun- Frankfort-on-the-Maine, Bremen, and Hamtry, together with that of Europe gene- burg. Subsequently was added Hesse. Tally, was finally and permanently es- Homburg; but, on the other hand, the tablished. The restless ambition, how- house of Saxe-Gotha becoming extinct, in ever, of Napoleon produced a renewal of 1825, it was incorporated with that of Cohostilities, and once more, but for the last burg, so that the number of members still time, all the sovereigns and princes of remained thirty-eight. The ducal houses Germany, as well as the whole of Europe, of Saxony are divided thus: Saxe-Coburg THE STATES OF GERMANY —OLY ALLIANCE. 473 Gotha; Saxe Meiningen-Hilburghausen; any secret compact, nor conclude any par. and Saxe-Altenburg. tial armistice or peace with the enemy. Austria has received back her faithful Meantime they reserve to themselves the Tyrol, together with Salzburg and the coun- right of forming alliances of every kind, but try around; Bavaria rules over her own they bind themselves down not to conclude herditary lands as well as Franconia; any one such alliance which may injuriouswhile, as an indemnification for the losses ly affect the welfare and security of the she sustained, she has been accorded the country, or be opposed to the interests of palatinate of the Rhine; her entire popu- any one individual member. At the same lation thus forming more than 4,000,000 of time the members shall not be allowed, subjects. Wirtemberg holds dominion in under any pretext whatever, to carry on a Swabia over more than 1,500,000 subjects, war against each other, but shall lay all and is separated by the Black Forest from matters of dispute before the Diet, which Baden, whose possessions extend along the shall either mediate or adjudge accordingly, Rhine to Basle, and beyond Manheim, and to the decision of which the parties through a beautiful and fertile country. must submit. Hesse-Darmstadt has likewise enlarged "In all the states of the Confederation her former line of territory very considera- there shall be a constitutional government, bly, and holds in her possession the city (Landstandische Verfassung.) of Mentz, the most important stronghold of "The difference of Christian sects canthe Confederation. Above all the rest, not affect the enjoyment of civil and political however, the king of Prussia has under his rights in any of the states of the Confederasovereignty the greatest number of subjects tion; but as amelioration is necessary in the speaking the mother tongue, amounting to civil condition of those professing the Jewish more than 14,000,000. So that Prussia is faith, the Diet of the Confederation shall at the present moment one entire, and all advise and determine upon the matter. but exclusively, German state. " The subjects of the German princes As regards the government of Germany, shall have the right to pass from one state it has been converted by the so-called Holy into the other, and to accept of either civil Alliance into a confederation of free and or military service therein, if no military independent states, according to the follow- engagement already binds them to their naing decrees:- tive place. "The object of the alliance is the main- " The Diet shall occupy itself with the tenance of the internal and external securi- formation of laws for the liberty of the press ty of Germany, together with the indepen- and against piracy, as well as for the comdence and inviolability of the confederated mercial and trading intercourse between states. the states of the Confederation. " All the members of the alliance have, " Further, the Diet has decreed the exact as such, equal and uniform rights. numerical force of the army of the Confed" The general interests of the body shall eration to be maintained in peace and war; be discussed and arranged at a Diet, the of what arms it shall consist; a fixed conseat of which it is appointed shall be fixed tingent to be supplied by each member; to at Frankfort-on-the-Maine, and at which whom and by whom the chief command Austria shall hold the presidency; this diet shall be given; and, finally, how many is perpetual, and the period for the adjourn- and what fortifications shall be garrisoned ment of the session, when the state of busi- and maintained by the Confederation." ness allows, must not extend beyond four The army of the confederation consists months at the most. of 300,000 men: to which Austria con" The assembly must devote its attention tributes 94,000; Prussia, 79,000; Bavaria, especially to the subject of the fundamental 35,000; Wurtemberg, 13,600; Hanover, laws of the Confederation and its organic 13,000; Saxony, (the kingdom,) 12,000; regulations, in connection with its internal, Baden, 10,000; Hesse.Darmstadt, 6000; external, and military relations. Hesse-Cassel, 5400; and thus in proportion "All the members of the Confederation the other members. The whole army is promise to unite together against any and placed under the command of one generalevery attack, and when a war takes place in.chief, who is appointed by the Diet, to they pledge themselves not to enter upon whom he renders the oath of duty and ser60 474 THE ARMY OF THE CONFEDERATION. vice, and from whom he receives authority only from the general-in-chief. Of these and orders, and to which body, likewise, ten corps Austria contributes three; Prushe is bound to send in his reports. The sia, three; Bavaria, one; and the remainDiet also appoints a lieutenant-general as ing three are formed out of the other conhis representative or successor in command. tingents. The fortified places garrisoned The army is divided into ten distinct corps, and maintained by the Confederation are the leaders of which receive their orders Mentz, Luxemburg, and Landau. THE END. INDEX. ABDIRACHMAN the Arab, Page 88. Alcuin, the historian, 98. Anti-German feelings of Frederick the Abderam the Arab, 94. Alexander III., Pope, 161. Great. 411. Abdication of Charles V., 301. ----- and Frederick the Emperor, Antony of Freisingen, 113. Aboukir, battle of, 425. 165. Appeal of Frederick the Great to his Abulabaz the elephant, 101. Alexander, the Autocrat of Russia, 446. army, 391. Abuses of the Papacy, 254. Alexandria, a city of Italy, 165. Appeal of Maria Theresa to the HunAcre, the siege ot, 170. Alfred of England, 174. garians, 379. Acts of the Apostles, 146 Algiers, the siege of, 1541,274. Ara Flavia, 42. Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen, 142 Aliso, castle of, 33. Arabs, the, 87, 94. Adalbert, archbishop of Mentz, 154. -- the battle of, 56. Arbalo, 34. Adalbert of Carinthia, 137. Allemanni, the, 64. Arbesau, battle of, 454. Adalbert of Prussia, 134. Alliance against Austria, 378. Arcadius, Emperor, 69. Address by Blicher to his soldiers, 452. Alliance against France, 419. Archbishop Boniface, 86. Address of the Emperor Charles V. at Alliance between the Emperor Charles Archbishop of Cologne, ducal authority his abdication, 301. V. and the Pope, 266. of, 179. Adelaide, the princess, 124. Alliance between Ferdinand of Bohe- Archbishoprics of Germany, 182. Adelbert, the son of Berengar, 124. mia and Maximilian of Bavaria. 318. Archbishops, the, 142. Adelhard, bishop of Reggio, 124. Alliance of Britain with Prussia, 382. Archduke Charles, 423. Ademar of'uy, 156. Alliance of the princes of the empire Arcis, the battle of, 469. Adgandaster the Chatti, 31. formed by Frederick the Great, 416. Arctaunum, 37. Adjustment of the religious differences Alliance, the first electoral, 215. Arderic, king of the Gepidi, 75. in Germany, 346. "Alliance, the Holy, so called," 473. Ardovine of Italy, 136. Administration ot affairs in Germany Alliance, the Protestant, at Torgau, 267. Arechis the Longobardian, 95. under Maximilian, 238. Allied armies, the, of Austria and Rus- Ariovistus the Marcoman, 47-49. Adolphus III., of Holstein, 166. sia, 432. Aristocracy, the German, 183. Adolphus of Nassau, 209. Allied Protestants, retreat of the, from Aristotle, 174. Adrian, Pope, 93. before the army of Charles V., 283. Armanarich the Goth, 66. _, death of, 97. Allies of Britain against France, 419. Armies allied with Austria, 385. Adrian IV., Pope, 161. defeat of, 420. Armies of the Allies for the invasion of Adrian VI., Pope. 260. Allies, the, before Dresden, 453. France, 1814, 465. Adrianople, the city, 69.- before Paris, 1814, 471. -- rapid march of, 466. iEneas Sylvius, Pope Pius II., 188. - enter Leipsic, 1813, 464. Arminius, 55-61. Affairs, religious, 276. forces of the, 1813, 451. Armistice between Napoleon and the Age of Frederick the Great, 408. --. invade France, 1814, 465. Allies, 1813, 449. AGEs, THE MIDDLE. 182. -- - rapid march of, 466. Armistice proposed by Napoleon to the architecture of, 190. —--- the Saxons join, 1813, 462. Allies, 1813, refused, 461. arts of, 189. -- - victorious over Napoleon, Armoricae, the, 76. - chivalry of, 182. 461. Arms of the ancient Germans, 14. - cities of, 185. Alphonso of Castile, 178. Army and Treasury of Frederick the convents of, 194. Alsace, the Count of, 181. Great, 412. Faustrecht of, 196. Alsace, the Shoe-league of, 242. Army of Bonaparte in Italy, 1796, 422. Freistuhls of, 200. Amalians, the, 66. Army of Gustavus Adolphus, 329. Hanse towns of, 187. Amasia, 33. Army of Modern Germany, 473. jurisprudence of, 197. Ambassadors, the, of the Emperor Fer- Army of Schmalkald, 280. laws of, 199. dinand at the Council of Trent, 304. Army of Wallenstein, oppressions and literature of, 191. Ambition of Wallenstein, 322. tyranny of the, 335. - monasteries of, 193. Ambroni, the, 45. Army, the Prussian, 1806, 435. monks of, 194. Ambrosius of Milan, 163. Arnold of Winkelried, 220. - nuns of, 194. America, discovery of, 246. Arnulf of Bavaria, 114. - painting of, 191. Amiens, peace of, 430. Arnulf, the king, 109. - peasantry of, 189. Amisia, 33. Arquebus, invention of the, 243. - poetry of, 191. Amsivarians, the, 33. Arrival of Napoleon at Dresden, 453. - - Roman priesthood of, 195. Anabaptists, the, 272. Arrogance of France, 1697, 364. sciences of, 189. Anarchy in Germany and Italy, 248. -- of the French, 1802, 429. troubadours of, 191. Ancient German history, sources of, 15. Arslan, the Sultan of Iconium, 169. Vehmgericht, or secret tribunal ANCIENT GERMANS, 19. Artillery, the invention of, 243. of, 201. -- arms of, 28. Arts and industry of modern Germany, - warlike spirit of, 192.- arts of, 30. 352. Aggrandizement of Charles IV., 218. ---- civil institutions of, 25. Arts of the ancient Germans, 30. Agitolfingi, the, 95.- customs of, 23. Ascalingium, 33. Agricola of Berlin, 293. — - Gefolge of, 28. Aspern, battle of, 439. Agriculture of Germany, 350. -- history of, 15. Assembly of Crusaders at Clermont, 155. Aistulph, the Longobard, 88.- manners of, 23. Athanaric the Goth, 69. Aix-la-Chapelle, the city of, 101. --- manufactures of, 31. Athaulf the Goth, 71. - peace of, 354.- music of, 31. Athens, the city of, 164. Alani, the, 71. - races of, 20. Attack on the French army by Ziethen, Alaric the Goth, 72. -- religion of, 29. 403. death of, 71.- trade of, 31. Attempted reconciliation of the ProtestAlba, the Duke of, 291, 307.- war-regulations of, 27. ants and Catholics vain, 277. Albert I. of Austria, 209. Ancona, siege of, 192. Attila the Hun, 72-75. Albert II. of Austria, 226. Anecdotes of Frederick the Great, 396, Auerstadt, the battle of, 435. Albert of Brandenburg, 229. 404, 408, 410, 412, 417. Augsburg Confession, the, 269. Albert of Longwy, 141. Angaria, 34. Augsburg, the city of, 37. Albert of Saxony, 188. Angeli, the, 36.- Diet of, 1518, 242, 255. Albert the Bear, 158. Angilbert the poet, 103. Diet of. 1530, 267. Albert, the Margrave of Brandenburg- Angrivari, the, 34. Diet of, 1555, 300. Culmbach, 296. Annals of Tacitus, 17. submission of the city to the Uboni, the Longobard, 81. Ansibari, the, 33. Romanists, 300. 476 INDEX. Augustulus, the last of the Roman em- BATTLES-Of Fleurus, 420. BATTLECS-of Stralsund, 324. perors, 75. —- Frankenhausen, 262 ----- Taun, 438. Augustus III. of Poland, 378. Freiburg, 406. —--- Teutoburger forest, 59 Augustus the Roman emperor, 50. Friedland, 436. ------ Toplitz, 456. Aulic Council, the, of Germany, 239. —---- Giengen, 229. ----- Torgau, 403. Austerasia, 35. —----- Gross-beeren, 451 ----- Tournay, 420. Austerlitz, the battle of, 432. -- Gross-jiigersdorf, 389. -- Tours, 88. Austria, alliance against, 378. ----- Guldengossa, 459. ----- Tunis, 273. and Prussia, alliance against —--- Hanau, 464. ---- Turin, 369. France, 418. -- Hastenbeck, 287. ----- Ulm, 432. ----- and Prussia, peace between, —--- Hochkirk, 395. -- Veronice, 78. 1742, 380. —---- Hochst, 421. ----- Vienna, with the Turks-, ----- — and Prussia, peace between, — Hochstadt, 367. 1683, 358. 1763, 407. ---- Hohenburg, 145. ----- Vienna, with the Turks---- declaration of war by, against —---- Hohenlinden, 428.. 1809, 439. France, 438. — Hohenfriedburg, 381. ------ Wachau, 458. ------ emperor of, 434. ----- Idistavius, 60. ----- Wagram, 440. grand duke of, 208. ----- Jank.au, 344. ----- Wartenburg, 456. ----- house of, 373. — Jemappes, 419. Waterloo, 472. ------ invasion of by Frederick the ----- Jena, 435. —--- Weissenberg, 319. Great, 376. —--- Jerusalem, 1099, 156. -- Wittstock, 342. ---- joined the alliance against ----- Kaiserslautern, 421. -- Xeres de la Frontera, 88. France, 1813, 450. ----- Katzbach, 452. ------ Zeitz, 456. Austrian and Prussian armies, condition — Kay, 398. —--- Zorndorf, 394. of, in the year 1757, 396. Kesseldorf, 381. Zulpich, 78. Austrian and Russian generals,jealousy — Kollin, 387. —--- Zurich, 427. of, 400. — Kulm, 454. Bavaria, elector of, 366. Austrians, defeat of at Leipsic, 332. ----- Kunersdorf, 399. Bavaria, the house of, 216. ----- in Silesia, 405. —----- Landshut, 284, 401. Bavarian war of the succession, 375. __ —-_ —- retreat of, 402. ---- Langensalza, 145. Bavarians, the ancient, 21. victorious over Frederick the - Laon, 469. Beginning of the Thirty Years' War Great, 1757, 401. Lauffen, 271. 316. Authentic history of the Germans, the —--- Lechfeld, 125. Belisarius, 72. commencement of, 15. —--- Leipsic-1631, 322. Benedict VIII., Pope, 136. Authors on the ancient history of the —--- Leipsic-1642, 343. Benedict IX., Pope, 140. Germans, 15, 16. —---- Leipsic-1813, 458. Benedict XII., Pope, 215. Avari, the, 92-95. Lenzen, 119. Benedict XIII., Pope, 223. Azzo the Italian, 144. — Leuthen, 391. Benedict of Nursia, the monk, 193. Liegnitz, 402. Benevento, the principality of, 81. BADEN, margrave of. 229. —--- Lignano, 165. Berengar, the king of Italy, 126. Baldwin, king of Jerusalem, 157. ILigny, 472. Bernadotte, Prince, 450. Baldwin II., 184. —----- Lowositz, 384. Bernard of Seckau, 206. Baltians, the, 66. —--- Lutterberg, 407 Bernard, the Abbot, 195. Banquets of the ancient Germans, 25. Lutzen-1632, 336. Berne, the city of, 219. Barbarossa, Frederic, 159. -- -- Lutzen-1813, 446. Bernward of Hildesheim, 133. Barrit, the, or war-cry of the ancient -- -- Magdeburg-1631, 330. Bertrand, General, 452. Germans, 29. -- Malplaquet, 371. Besancon, the city of, 48. Bartholomew, massacre of, 306. -- Marchfeld-1278, 207. Bible, the first printed-1462, 245. Basle, the Council of, 227. —--- Marengo, 428. --- the Gothic translation of, 67. Bastarnians, the, 20. —--- Melrichstadt, 151. --- the, with other religious books of Batavi, the, 40. —--- Merseburg, 119. the elector of Saxony seized, 294. BATTLES-of Aboukir, 425. ----- Milan, 162. Bliicher, Marshal, 452. Adrianople, 69. ----- Minden, 397. Bohemia, 76. Aldenhoven, 419. -- Moeckern, 460. ----- evangelical union of, 309. ------------ Aliso, 56. —--- Molwitz, 377. -- united with Hungary, 238. ---------- Amberg, 423. ----- Morgarten, 213. Bohemians, the, 1415, 225. ------ Aqume Sextia, 45. ------- Muhlberg, 288. Boi, the, 43. ----------- Arbesau, 454. — Muhldorf-1322, 214. Bojorix, a German prince, 45. Arcis, 469. —--- Murten, 231. Boleslas the Pole, 136. ------- Aspern, 439. — Nancy, 231. Bologna, council at, 292. ----- -- Auerstadt, 435. -- Nangis, 423. Bonaparte, Jerome, 437..~ —------- Austerlitz, 432. Neerwinden, 419. Bonaparte, Joseph, 433. -------- B':utzen, 448. --- Nordlingen, 341. Bonaparte, Louis, 433. ----- -- Belgrade, 228. ----- Noreja, 44. Bonaparte, Napoleon, 422. ------- Belleville, 471. ------ Novi, 426. —--- army of, in ltaly-1796, 422, -------- Bergen, 397. ------ Oudenarde, 370. ----- character of, 422. Besancon, 49. -- Paunsdorf, 462. -- emperor, 431. -------- Blenheim, 367. ----- Pavia-1004, 136. ---- first consul, 427. ------- Breslau, 391. -- Pavia-1525, 264. --- in Egypt, 426. -------- Brienne, 466. ----- Pfaffenhofen, 438. ------ in Germany, 432... —.- - - Cassano, 426. ----- Pillerent-1456, 230. -- in Italy, 422. ------- Catalaunian plain, 74. — Prague, 386. —-- marriage of, to Maria Louisa ------- Champaubert, 467. ------ Probstheyda, 461. of Austria, 442. ------- Chateau-Cambresis, 420. —---- Ramillies, 369. ----- success of, 441. Cortenuova, 173. ------ Ratisbon, 438. Boniface, archbishop of Mentz, 86. Craonz, 469. — Raucour, 381. Bonn, the fortress of, 51. Crefeld, 393. Raudian plain, 47. Botschkai of Hungary, 309. Crecy, 243. —----- Riesenberg, 225. Bourbon, the duke of, 265. -------- Cuma, 80. ----- Rome-1111, 153. Brahe, Tycho, 309. Custrin, 394. ------ Rome-1520, 266. Brandenburg, elector of, 354. Czaslau, 379. ------ Rossano, 390. proclaimed king of ---------- Dennewitz, 455. Rossbach, 390. Prussia, 363. Detmold, 95. —--- Rothiere, 466. Brandenburg, margraviate of, 2'29. Dnrneck, 236. -- -- Saalfeld, 435. marches of, 118. -- ---- Dresden, 453. ------ Schweidnitz, 405. Bravery of Wallenstein, 322. Eckmuhl, 438. ----- Sempach, 220. Bremen, the city of, 95. Esslingen. 439. ----- Soltau, 248. Brennus the Gaul, 47... —--- Etoges, 467. ------ Sorr, 381. Bridge of Elster-Mihlengraben, 464.. —----- Eylau, 436. —----- Southern Gaul, 44. Brittany, 76. Famars, 419. --- - Spurs, the, 237. Brukteri, the, 32.: —------. Ferbellin, 355. - Squillace, 131. Bruno the Monk, 194. INDEX. 477 Brunswick, the duke of, 277. Charles V., Emperor, 248. Clothaire II., the Frank, 86. Brutal character of the German Lanz —--- abdication of, 301. Clotilda the queen, 78. knechte, 244. - and the Pope, 279. Clovis the Frank, 77. Bulgarians, the, 155. — character of, 249. Clunv, the Monks of, 195. Bull of Pope Leo X., burning of by Lu —---- coronation of, 250. Coalition against Napoleon, 431. ther, 256. —---- death of, 302. Code of Laws, the Imperial, 197. Bull of the pope in favor of the crusade -- declaration of, 269. Cuecina the Roman general, 59 against the Protestants by Charles —--- farewell address of, 301. Cceur-de-Lion, 170. V., 282. --- - flight of, 297. Colbert, the Abbe, 353. Bull, the golden, 217. foreign relations of, 263. Cologne, diet of, 240. Burgundians, the, 39. -- in Africa, 273. — elector of, 278, 312. Burgundy, Charles duke of, 230. ----- in France, 274. —-- university of, 278. Burgundy, Mary of, 230. —-- in Saxony, 287. Colonia Agrippina, 62. Burkhard, duke of Swabia, 114. Charles VI., Emperor, 372. Combination of Powers against FrederBurning, the, of Moscow, 443. - --- death of, 375. ick of Prussia, 383. Charles VII., Emperor, 379. Comes palatii, 106. C2ESAR, Julius, 48. —--- death of, 380. Commerce of Germany, 31. Cajetan, Cardinal, 255. Charles VIII. of Anjou, 235. Commodus, the Emperor, 63. Calamities of the fourteenth century, Charles XII. of Sweden, 373. Commotions of 1270, 205. 216. Charles Martel, 87. Companionship in arms, 28. Calixtus II., Pope, 154. Charles of Anjou, 178. Concessions, mutual, of the German Calixtus III., Pope, 227. Charles of Burgundy, 230. princes, 300. Calvinism, 308. —- and the Swiss, 231. Concordat of Vienna, 227. Calvinists, the, 303. —- defeat and death of, 231. Condemnation of the Elector Frederick, Camaldulensian Monks, the, 195. ---- wealth of, 231. 289. Cambray, the League of, 237. Charles of Lorraine, 359. Condition of Germany, 18. Camp of Bunzelwitz, 404. Charles, the Archduke, 423. Condition of the Austrian and Prussian Camp of Charles V. at Ingolstadt, 284. Charles the Bald, 108. armies, 396. Campaign of 1793, 419. Chasuari, the, 33. Confederation of modern Germany, 472. Campaign of Napoleon in Russia, 443. Chateau-Cambresis, battle of, 420 ----- of Saxons, 65. Campo-Formio, peace of, 424. Chatillon, Congress at, 468. --- of the Swiss, 211. Canninefati, the, 40. Chatti, the, 35. —-- of Swabia, 219, 233. Canute of England, 138. Chattuari, -the, 33. — the Germanic tribes, 27, Capistran, John, the Hungarian, 227. Chauci, the, 18, 34. 64. Capitulars, 106. Cherusci, the, 34. —-- the, of Lombardy, 163. Capitulation of Paris, 1814, 471. ---- alliance of, 27. ------- - the Rhenish, 353, 434. Capitulation of the French in Italy, 265. Chevalier Bayard, 264. Conference between Frederick III. and Caretta the Italian, 339. Childeric IlI., the Frank, 88. Charles of Burgundy, 230 Carinthia, grand dukes of, 182. Chivalry, decline of, 235 Confession of Augsburg, 269. Carlovingians, the, 89. —-- end of, 243. Confidence of Napoleon, 468. end of the, 110. -- - legends of, 191. Confiscation of Wallenstein's estate, Carlstadt, Andrews, the Reformer, 261. —--- period of, 183. 340. Carnage at Torgau, 403. Choiseul, duke of, 396. Congress at Chatillon. 468. Carnot, the French Minister of War, 420. Christian architecture, 190. Congress of Prague, 450. Carocium, the, 163. Christian doctrine, perversions of, 252. Conquest of Jerusalem, 156. Carthage, the city of, 429. Christian liberty, 262. Conquest of Magdeburg by Tilly, 330. Carthusian Monks, the, 194. Christian of Mentz, 192. Conquests of Clovis, 77. Casimir III. of Poland, 233. Christianity in Germany, 85. Conrad I., the Frank. 111. Casimir, John, Count Palatine, 308. Christiern IV. of Denmark, 321. ---- death of, 115. Cassiodorus, 77. Christina of Sweden, 338. Conrad II., Emperor, 137. Castellum Valentiani, 42. Christopher of Stadion, 251. Conrad III., Emperor, 158. Catalaunian Plain, the, battle of, 74. Church, Roman, abuses in the, 254. -- - in Palestine, 159. Catharine of Russia, 406. schism in the, 250. Conrad IV., Emperor. 177. "Catholic League," the, 310. Church, the, dominion of, 127. Conrad League, the poor, 242. Catulus, the Roman Consul, 46. ---- protection of by Otho the Em- Conrad of Franconia, 157. Causes of the Schism in the Papacy, peror, 128. Conrad of Hochstedt, Archbishop, 190 250-254. Chytraus, David, of Rostock, 308. Conrad of Hohenstaufen, 181. Celestin III., Pope, 176. Cimbri, the, 35, 43. Conrad of Swabia, 132. Centgrafen, the, 26. Cimbrian era, the, 16. Conrad of Wurzburg, the poet, 191. Centgraviates, the, 200. Cimbrian panic, the, 44. Conrad, the Emperor, 111. Challenge, the, of Claudius Barre, 243. Cimbrian war, the, 17. Conradin of Swabia, 178. Chamavi, the, 33. Circles of Germany, the, 240. Conspiracy against Wallenstein, 339. Chamber, the Imperial, 239. Cisalpine republic, the, 424. Constance, Council of, 222. Chambres de r. unions, 356. Cistercian Monks, the, 195. Constantine the Great, 67, 154. Champaubert. battle of, 467. Cities of Germany, the origin of, 122. Constantinople, 67. Changes in the Germans, 82. Cities, the free imperial, 241, 285. Constanza, the Norman princess, 168. Character, the brutal, of the Lanz- --- decline of, 350. Constitution of the Germans, the, 82. knechte, 244. -- surrender of, 351. progress of, 180. Character of Bonaparte, 422. -- yield to Gustavus Adolphus, 333. ----- the Germanic, 179. of Charlemagne, 100 Civil Institutions, 25. Consulship of Bonaparte, 431. ----- ofFerdinand of Bohemia, 313. Civilization, progress of, 122. Convention of Closterseven, 388. of Frederick of Prussia, 409. Civitas Aurelia Aquensis, 42. Convents, the, 196. of Gustavus Adolphus of Claims of Indemnification by France Coronation of Matthias I., 311. Sweden, 327, 337. and Sweden for the Thirty Years' ---- of Rudolphus, 206. of Maurice of Saxony, 299. War, 344. Corpus Christi day, 268. ---- - - of Maximilian I., 234. Clairfait, General, 421. Corvinius, John, the Hungarian chief, ------ of the ancient Germans, 24. Classes of the people, 183. 228. --------- of Wallenstein, 322. Claudius Barre, the challenge of, 243. Cortenuova, battle of, 173. Charlemagne, 90. Claudius Civi'is, the Batavian 62. Council of Basle, 227. -------- ---- administration of, 105. Clement II., Pope, 140. Council of Constance, 222. character of, 100. Clement III., Pope, 169. Council of Trent, 278, 292. coronation of, 98. Clement IV., Pope, 178. -- - the imperial ambassadors at death of, 99. Clement VI., Pope, 216. the, 304. decrees of, 105. Clement VII., Pope, 266. Council, the Aulic, 241. ---- -- portraiture of, 100-106. Clergy, the, ignorance and vices of, in Council, the Imperial, in the year 1530, Charles II. of Spain, 361. the year 1500, 251. 269. Charles II. of Spain, 369. Clergy, the, in the year 614, 87. Count Mansfeld, 317 Charles IV., Emperor, 216. Clermont, the Crusaders at, 155. Count Thurn, 315 aggr'tndizement of, 218. Cleves, the duke of, 275. Count Tilly, 330... —--- at Rome, 218. Climate of Germany, 19. Counts of Germany, 82 -------- - death of, 218. Closterseven, convention of, 388. Courage of Napoleon, 446. 478 INDEX. Cranach the painter, 298. Devotion of the emperor Otho, 125. Elba, Napoleon at, 472. Craon, battle of, 469. Diet of Augsburg-1518, 242, 255. Eleanor of Portugal, 234. Crecy, -battle of, 243. -- of Augsburg-1530, 267. Election of emperor, the, 157. Crefeld, battle of, 393. - of Augsburg-1548, 293. Elector of Bavaria, 335, 366. Crepi, the peace of, 276. - of Augsburg-1554, 300. Elector of Brandenburg, 312, 355. Crequi, the duke of, 361 - of Cologne, 240. Elector of Cologne, 312. Cross, the, vice the Sceptre, 206. -- of Ingelheim, 95. Elector of Mentz, the, Bertold, 238. Crown Prince of Sweden, the, 450. -- of Mentz, 242. Elector of Saxony, the, captured by Crown, imperial, inscription on the, 151. - of Ratisbon-1757, 396. Charles V., 288. Cruelties of the French in Germany by - of Worms-1521, 258. outrages on, 294. order of Louis XIV., 361. Dieterich of Berne, 79. release of, 298. Cruelty, success of at Magdeburg, 331. Dieterich, archbishop of Cologne, 230. Elector of Saxony, the, Frederic the Crusade of Frederick, 169. Dieterich the Goth, 73. Wise, 248. Crusade, the first, 156. Diether of Mentz, 229. Elector of Saxony, the, Maurice, 295 Crusaders, the assembly of at Clermont, Dio Cassius, 17. Electoral alliance, the first, 215. 155. Disasters of Frederic the Great, 401. Electress of Saxony, the, 290. Cuma, battle of, 80. Discontent of the people, 261. Eleonora of Spain, 266. Cunigunde of Isenberg, 209. Discovery of gunpowder, 243. Elephant, the, Abulabaz, 101. Custine, General, 419. —-- of Mexico, 250. Elevation of German princes, 362. Customs of the Germans, 23. Dismemberment of Poland, 414. Elizabeth of Aragon, 214. ----- changes in, 82. - of the empire, 345. Elizabeth of Russia, 383. Czaslau, battle of, 379. Dispute on the Investiture, 154. Elizabeth the Bohemian, 212. Czernitchef, the Russian, 406. --- with the popes, 172. Elizabeth the Holy, 180. Dissensions in Germany, 262. Eloquence of Gustavus Adolphus, 337. DAOOBERT the Frank, 87. Distribution of the circles in Germany, Elster, the battle of, 151. Dalmatia, 63. 240. Elster-gate of Wittemberg, 256. Dalmatians, the, 118. Distribution of the Germanic tribes, 76. Elster-Miihlengraben, the bridge of, 464, Damasus 11I., Pope, 140. Division among the chiefs in the league Elysi, the, 38. Dampidre, General, 419. against Charles V., 283. Emmaus, in Palestine, 156. Danes, the, 124. Doctrine of popish indulgences, 254. Emmeran the missionary, 85. ----- subjection of, 120. Doctrines of the Gospel, perversion of, Emperor and Pope, the, at Canossa, 150. Dantzic, the city of, 436. by the papal priesthood, 252. Emperor and Wallenstein, 334. Danube, the, 18. Doctrines of the Reformation, rapid Emperor Charles V. and the Pope, rupDaun, Marshal, 387. propagation of, 256. ture between the, 293. Davoust, Marshal, 435. Doernberg, General, 445. Emperor Francis I., 381. ---- capture of Hamburg by, 449. Dominic the Monk and Inquisitor, 195. Emperor triumphant, 240. Death of Albert the Margrave, 299. Dominicans, the, 195, 254. Emperors and Popes, 127. --- of Conrad, 115. Domitian, the Roman emperor, 63. ------------ rivalry of, 151. --- of Gessler, 211. Domitius AEnobarbus, 53. Empire, dismemberment of the, 345. --- of Henry, 136. Dorneck, battle of, 236. — of Charlemagne, 98. --- of Luther, 279. Doublet of Rudolphus, 207. — state of the, in the year 800, --- of Maurice of Saxony, 299. Dreadful visitations, 217. 99. --- of Moreau, 454. Dresden, battle of, 453. — in the year 1500, 247. --- of Otho, 135. ---- evacuation of, by the Prus —- in the year 1630, 350. - of Rudolphus, 151. sians, 400. --- the Western renewed, 126. * of Wallenstein, 340. — peace of, 381. End of the Hohenstaufens, 179. Debate at Leipsic, between Carlstadt -- the allies before, 453. Engelbert the Frank, 103. and Eck, 255. Drusus the Roman, 51. Engerians, the, 66. Decanus the German, 198. —- apparition to, 52. England, 91. Declaration of Charles V., 269. Drusus Vaart, the, 51. — and allies against France, 419. Declaration of war by Gustavus Adol- Dschinges Khan, the Mongolian, 176. and France, peace between, phus, 328. Duke of Alba, 307. 429. Decline of chivalry, 235. Dukedoms hereditary, 112. — and Prussia, alliance between, Decrease of freemen in Germany, 113. -- of Germany, 179. 382. Defeat of Frederic, 388. Dulgibini, the, 33. —-- and Russia, 427. --- of Murat at Guldengossa, 459. Dumourier, General, 419. — conquests of, 407. --- of Otho, 131. Durer, Albert, the painter, 350. —-- war declared by, against --- of the Anabaptists, 272. France, 419, 430. -- of the Prussians near Landshut, EARLIEST history of Germany, 15. war of, with France in the 401. "Earth," a deity among the ancient year 1742, 379. --- of the Saxons, 145. Germans, 30. Eniva the Goth, 66. --- of the Turks, 271. Earthquake, the great, 217. Entrance of the allies into Leipsic, 464. Degeneracy of the monks, 196. East Germany, 176. Enzius of Sicily, 174. Degradation of Germany by the Thirty East Indies, the, 246. Epke von Repgow, the first compiler of Years' War, 351. East Roman empire, 90. German law, 199. Demands for reformation, 252. Eastern Goths, 66. Erasmus, 302. D'Enghien, duke, 431. Eastphalians, the, 66. Erfurt, diet of, 168. Denmark and Germany, peace between, Ebbo, archbishop of Rheims, 107. Eric of Calenberg, 239. 325. Eberhard of Wiirtemberg, 208. Ernest Augustus of Hanover, 362. Dennewitz, battle of, 455. Eberhard, the Frehch duke, 111. Ernest of Brunswick, 288. Deposition of Napoleon, 471. Eccard of Meissen, 180. Ernest of Mansfeld, 317. ------- -- of three popes by the Coun- Ecclesiastical reservation, the, 300. Ernest of Swabia, 138. cil of Constance, 223. Echte Ding, the court of session, 198, -- death of, 139. -- --- of Wenceslas, 221. 201. -- legends concerning, 139. Description of the battle of Vienna- Eck, the papist disputant, 255. Esslingen, the battle of, 439. 1683, by John Sobieski, 359. Eckbert the Saxon, 114. Etoges, the battle of, 467. Desertion of Charles V. by Maurice, Eckmuhl, the battle of, 438. Etzel, the Hun, 72. 2M6. Economy of Frederic the Great, 409. Eucharist, the, division of opinion con Desiderhis the Longobard, 91. Edgitha, the Saxon princess, 120. cerning, 280. Despotic father of Frederic the Great, Education of Frederic the Great, 411. Eudocia, the empress, 75. 411. Education, zeal of Frederic II. for, 175. Eudosi, the, 36. Despotic government of Frederic of Edward I. of England, 209. Eugene III., Pope, 136, 158. Prussia, 412. Eginhard, the historian, 98. Eugene IV., Pope, 226. Despotism of Bonaparte, 435. Egypt, Bonaparte in, 425. Eugene de Beauharnois, 431. Dessaix, General, 428. -- the sultan of, 172. Eugene of Savoy, 359, 364. Dessau, the league of, 267. Einhart the Frank, 103. Eugene of Wiirtemberg, 459. Destruction of the French fleet at Abou- Eisleben, the battle of, 154. Europe, changes in, 234. kir, 425. —-- the birth-place of Martin Lu —-- northern, 91. Detmold, battle of, 95. ther, 254. "Evangelical Union" of Bohemia, the, Devil's Bridge, the, 427. Ejection of Martinitz from Prague, 315. 309. Devil's Wall, the, in Germany, 41. -- of Slavata from Prague, 315. Excitement, religious, 307. INDEX. 479 Exclusion of Hildebrand from the pope- Francis II., alliance of with Prussia, 418. Freistuhls, the, 200. dom, by Henry IV. the emperor, 148. Francis of Assisi, the monk, 195. French, the, arrogance of, 353. Excommunication of Henry, 149. Franconia, 85, 137. —--- at Malta, 425. Excommunication of Martin Luther,266. — dukes of, 181. —--- Directory of, 424. Execution of Palm, 440. Franconian house, the, 137. —--- in Germany, 301. Exile of Henry the emperor, in Eng- Frankenhausen, the battle of, 263. influence of, 351. land, 168. Frankfort, capture of by Gustavus Adol- ----- outrages of, 361. Expeditions in Germany, 320. phus, 329. —--- in Italy, 426. Extraordinary character of Wallenstein, — conferences at, 357. ----- literature in Prussia, 413. 322. —--- diet of, 208, 217. -- republic, dangers from, 424 Eylau, batt!e of, 436. Franks, the, 65, 77. Fridigern the Goth, 69. --- fine-money of, 84. Friedland, the battle of, 436. FABRICIUS, chaplain of Gustavus Adol- --- kingdom of, 86. —-- the dukedom of, 322. phus, 335. --- laws of, 81. Frilingi, the, 25. Fall of Henry of Brunswick, 167. Franz of Selbitz, 241. Frisi, the, and the Frisians, 35, 96. Famars, the battle of, 419. Franz of Sickingen, 241, 257. Fronboten, the, 200. Fanatics, the, in Germany, 262, 272. Frederick I. Barbarossa, the emperor, Fugitive, a, Henry IV. 149. Father, the, of Frederick the Great, 411. 159. Fugger, the Austrian historiographer. Faust, John, the printer, 245. --- and Pope Adrian IV., 161. 243. Faust-Recht, the, 112, 196, 306. ---- and Pope Alexander, 166. Fulda, the abbey, 85. Fehde-Recht, the, 197. ----- death of, 169. writers employed at, 105. Felix V., Pope, 226. grand crusade of, 169. Funerals, ancient, 30. Female decorations of the ancient Ger- -- -- qualities of, 160, 169. Fiirst of Attinghausen. 211. mans, 24. —--- siege of Alexandria by, 165. Fiirst, the German,'b. Female occupations of the ancient Ger- --- successes of, 169. Futi, the, 72. mans, 31. Frederic I.' of Prussia, 363. Femgericht, the, 200. Frederic II., emperor, 171. GALLICIA, a domain of the Goths, 88. Feods, the, 83. —--- death of, 174. Gallus, the emperor, 66. Ferbellin, the battle of, 355. —--- erudition of, 175. Gallus, the priest, 85. Ferdinand I., Emperor, 302. excommunication of, 173. Gambling among the ancient Germans, ------- death of, 305. ----- genius of, 174. 25. erdinand II., deposition of in Bohemia, — marriage of, 172. Gattinava the Spaniard, 265. 318. —--- talents of, 174. Gau, the, 27. death of, 342. —--- zeal of, for education and Gaul, ancient, 48,. Ferdinand III., Emperor, 343. science, 175. Gauls, the, 43. -------- death of, 352. Frederic III. a fugitive, 232. Gauna, the pretended prophetess, 30. Ferdinand, king of Rome, 341. ---- besieged in Vienna, 229. Gefolge, the, 28. Ferdinand, king of the Romans, 270. ----- conference of, with Charles Geisa of Hungary, 160. Ferdinand of Bohemia, 313. of Burgundy, 230. Gelasius II., Pope, 153. devotedness of to popery, 314. return of, 232. Gelimer the Vandal made captive, 72. Ferdinand of Brunswick, 386. Frederic IV., the elector, 308. Gemeinde, the, 26. ----- defeat of the French by, 393. Frederic V. of Bohemia, 318. Genoa, the city of, 266. Ferdinand the Catholic, 236. Frederic and Lewis, 212. Genserich the Vandal, 72. Fermer, the Russian General, 394. Frederic, archbishop of Mentz, 125. George I. of England, 363. Festivals of the ancient Germans, 25. Frederic of Austria, 212, 227. George II. of England, 378. Feudal system, the, 83. Frederic of Baden, 178. George Lewis of Hanover, 362. Feudatories, the, 83. Frederic of Hohenzollern, 206. George of Freundsburg, 264. Fifth Period, the, 204. Frederic of Liegnitz, 375. George of Saxony, 262. Final adjustment of religious questions, Frederic of Swabia, 157. George William of Lineburg, 362 346. Frederic the Great of Prussia, 376. Gepidi, the, 39. Fire, the worship of, 29. — age of, 408. Gerbert the Monk, 132. First Consul of France, Bonaparte, 427. -- and the allied princes, 416. German Achilles, the. 232. First Electoral alliance, 215. —-- anecdotes of, 396,404, 408,410, German army at Antioch destroyed by First German New Testament, 261. 412, 417. disease, 169. First grand Crusade, 156. —-- armies against, 385. German character, 214. First king of Prussia, 363. —-- camp of, at Bunzelwitz, 404. German diets, 228. First Period, the, 43. combination of powers against, German electoral princes at Reuse, 215. First printed Bible in Latin, 245. 383. German grammar, the, 104. First Silesian war, 377. — conversaziones of, 410. German Hitte, the, 190. Flacius Illyricus, 295. death of, 417. German league at Dessau, the, 267. Fleet of Bonaparte destroyed at Abon- defeat of, 388. German migrations and settlements, in kir, 425. — despotic father of, 411. the year 1200, 176. Fleurus, the battle of, 420. — despotic government of, 412. German New Testament, 261. Fleury, Cardinal, 378. —-- disasters of, 401. German, origin of the word and name, Flevum Ostium, the, 51. — economy of, 409. 20. Flight of Charles V., 297. — education of, 411. German prelates of the year 1150, 161. Forces of the allies against France, 451. -- improvement of the kingdom German princes, elevation of, 362. Forsheim, diet of, 150. by, 409. --- -- reconciliation of, 160. Fosi, the, 34. — industry of, 410. —------- the, inimical to Henry Foundation of the cities, 122, 185. -- march of into Silesia, 377. IV., 150. Fourth Period, the, 115. ---- nmusical performances of, 410. Germanicus the Roman, 57-61. Framen, the, German arms, 28. --- perseverance of, 410. Germans, the, at the Council of ConFrance, 76, 130, 275. ---- promptitude of, 410. stance in favor of a Reformation, alliance against, 419. ---- recreations of, 410. 224. ---- and England, position of —1802, -- reunions of, 410. Germans, the, in Italy, a pestilence 430. — youth of, 411. among, 164. ---- and Germany, war between, Frederic the Warlike, 226. GERMANY, the Achilles, of, 232. 354, 360. Frederic the Wise of Saxony, 248. ------ ancient, 15. ---- and Prussia, peace between,421. -- and the Protestant princes, 258. —---- archbishoprics of, 182. --- -and Russia, conference between Frederic William of Brandenburg, 354. architecture of, 189. the emperors of, on the river Frederic William of Prussia, 418, 443. -- -- arms of, 27. Niemen, 436. —----- war declared by, against ----- army of the confederation -- - Austria at war with, 438. France, 444. of, 474. --- invasion of by the allies, 465. Free cities, the imperial, 28. -- arts of, 189. war between, and Charles V., Freedom of Silesia, 402. — at war with France-1674, 266. Freemen, decrease of, 113. 354. Francis I., Emperor, 381. —--- privileges of, 25. in the year 1792, 419. Francis I., of France, 237, 248. Freiburg, the battle of, 406. -- - in the year 1805, 431. a prisoner, 265. Freigerichte, the, 201. — calamities of, 217. ------ liberation of, 265. Freigraf, the, 200. —---- changes in, 110. Francis II., Emperor, 418. Freischoffen, the, 200. —-- Christianity in, 85. 480 INDEX. GERMANY, circles of, 240. Glengen, the battle of, 229. Hanseatic league, 350. ------ cities of, 187. Godefroy of Bouillon, 151. Hapsburg, house of, 205. civil institutions of, 25. - conquest of Jerusalem by, 156. Haradin Barbarossa of Algiers, 272. civil war of, 262. Godegiesel, "God's scourge," or " the Harold of Denmark, 130. climate of, 19. scourge of God," the favorite title Haroun al Raschid of Bagdad, 101. - code of laws of, 199. of Attila the Hun, 73. Harudi, the, 49. ------ commerce of, 31. Gogerichte, the, 200. Harz, the generic word, 18. confederations of, 64, 187. Golden Bull, the, 217. Hascen of Tunis, 273. constitution of, 82. Gothic confederation, the, 75. Hasenburg, the baron of, 200. country of, 18. Gothic translation of the Bible, 67 Hastenbeck, the battle of, 387 counts of, 82. Goths, the, 38, 66. Hatto of Mentz, 114. -------- crusade in, 228.- conquest of Rome by, 71. Heerbann, the, 27. customs of, 23. Gothini, the, 37. Heidelberg, the library of, 320. diets of, 228. Gotz of Berlichingen, 244. Heldenbuch, the, 191. disasters of, 216. Graf, the, 26, 200. Helveconi, the, 38. ------ --- disputes in, 125, 151, 164, Granvalla, the chancellor of Charles V., Helvetia, 41. 174,177, 205, 228. 290, 294. Hengist the Saxon, 72. - distribution of the tribes of, Gratian the emperor, 68. Henry I. of Saxony, emperor, 114, 115. 76. Great migration, the, in the year 373, - death of, 121. ---- dress of the inhabitants of, 68. institutions of, 122. 24. Grecian dominion in Italy, 91. ---- tranquillity effected by, 117. dukes of, 182. Grecian princess, marriage of a, to Otho, Henry II., emperor, 135. early history of, 15. 129.- coronation of, 136. earthquake in, 217. Greece, 70.- death of, 136. ----- ecclesiastical reservation" Greek army, the, in the year 970, 129.- superstition of, 135. of, 300. Greek authors respecting Germany, 16. Henry II. of England, 168. electors of, 182. Greek empire, the, 90. Henry II. of France, 299. -- " Evangelical Union" of, 309. Greek school, the, at Osnaburg, 104. Henry 1[. of Liegnitz, 176. famine in, 217. Greeks and Arabs, the, 131. Henry III., emperor, 139..- -- festivals of, 25. Greeks, the, in Lower Italy, 136. -- courage of, 141. food of, 24. Greeks, treaty of the, 169.- death of, 141. - forces of the allies in, 451. Gregory IV., Pope, 140. Henry III. of England, 178. - forests of, 18. Gregory V., Pope, 133. Henry IV., emperor, 142. Gogerichte, the, of, 200. Gregory VI., Pope, 140, 146. - a fugitive, 149. --- great events in, during the Gregory VII., Pope, 140, 146. --- and Pope Gregory VII. at year 1796, 423.- - arrogance of, by asserting Canossa, 150. Heerbann, the, of, 27. the universal supremacy - death of, 152. - " Holy Alliance," the, of, of the Roman pontiff,148. - denunciation of Hildebrand 473.- - at Canossa with Matilda by, 148. -- "Holy War," the, of, 282. of Tuscany, 150. ---- excommunication of,by Pope Hitte, the, of, 190. - - claims of the power of in- Gregory VII., 148. ---- judicial system of, 197. vestiture, 147. - - injustice of, 144. I language of, 82, 113.- denunciation of by the -- revenge of, on the Saxons, laws of, 84. Emperor Henry IV., 148. 145. manners of, 23.- laws of, 147. ---- revolt of the sons of, 152. manufactures of, 30. priestly celibacy enforced Henry IV. of France, 310. march of Napoleon to, in the by, 147. Henry V., emperor, 152. year 1813, 444.- rejoicing of at the misery at Rome, 153. middle ages, the, of, 182. of Germany, 148. - death of, 154. - military expeditions in, 320. Gregory VIII., Pope, 169. — dispute of, with the popes re- music of, 112. Gregory IX., Pope, 172. specting the investiture, natives, the, of, 19. Gregory X., Pope, 208. 154. " nobility," the, of, 257, 351. Gregory XII., Pope, 223. Henry VI., emperor, 170. organs of, 113. Gregory XV., Pope, 321. death of, 171. ------ pa ntings of, 191. Greuthungi, the, 39, 66. — tomb of, 171. p — pal bull for, 282. Gross-beeren, the battle of, 451. Henry VII. of Luxembourg, 212 - - passion of, for war, 221. Gross-jiigendorf, the battle of, 389. Henry VII[. of England, 263. -- -- pastimes of, 85. Guelfof Altorf, 158. Henry of Altenburg, 276. peace of, with Denmark, 325. — the pilgrimage of to Palestine, 168. Henry of Bavaria and Saxony, 158. -- peasantry of, 189. Guelf of Swabia, 141. Henry of Breslau, 176. pi gu, the, in, 217. Guelf the Italian. 144. Henry of Brunswick, 262. poems of, 191. Guelfs, the, and Ghibelins, 158. Henry of Hesse, 180. poly.archy of, 111. Gugerni, the, 41. Henry of Meissen, 180. races of, 20. Guiscard of Normandy, 151. Henry of Schwarzburg, 244. religion of, 29. Guldengossa, the battle of, 459. Henry of Thuringia, 111. -- religious afftirs of, 276. Gundikar the Burgundian, 72. Hnry the Lion, 160, 166. religious excitement of, 307. Gunther of Schwarzburg, 216. -- exile of, to England, 167, 168. religious parties of, 300. Guodan the German, 30. -- peace by, with the emperor, 170 religious peace of, 400. Gustavus III. of Sweden, 413. Henry the Turbulent, 132. repose of, 299. Gustavus Adolphus of Sweden, 327. Hercynian forest, the, 18. ------ rivers of, 18. and Tilly, 331. Hereditary dukedoms, 112. sacrifices of, 429. ------ death of, 336. Herisson, the, 245. sciences of, 189. - declaration of war by against Hermann Bilburg of Saxony, 126. - state of affairs in the year Germany, 328. Hermann of Cologne, 276. 1730, 474. ---- landing of in Germany, 328. Herman Salza, Grand Master of the state of in the year 1650,350. - monument of, 338. Teutonic order, 176. -- states of, 473. - - portraiture of, 337. Hermann Gessler of Bruneck, 210. ---- - superstitions of, 30. ---- the daughter of, Christina,'Hermann the German, 55-61. -- the French in, 361. 338. Hermanrich the Goth, 66. ---- the Thirty Years' War of, -- victory of at Leipsic, 332. lIermionian tribes, 20. 316. Gustavus Horn, the Swede, 338. Hermunduri, the, 37. - trade, the, of, 31. Guttenburg, John, the printer, 245. Heroism of Arnold of Winkelried, 220 - tribes, the, of, 32. Heruli, the, and Herulians, 39, 75. ---- -- troubadours, the, of, 191. HAMBURG, the city of, 36, 107. Herzog, the, 27. ---- war regulations of, 27. --- capture of by Davoust, 449. Hesse Cassel, 437. -- writers of in the year 800, Hanau, the battle of, 464. Hessia, 111. 103. Hannibal of Carthage, 62, 337. Hessians, the, 35. Ghent, revolt of the city of, 274. Hanno of Cologne, 142. Hildebrand, Pope, 146. Ghibelins, the, and Guelfs, 158. Hanover, 66, 362, 366. Hispania, 51. Giselbert of Lorraine, 118. — the French in, 430. HISTORIANS OF GERMANYGiselbrecht of Lorraine, 124. Hanse Towns, the, 187. Acerbus Morena, 116. INDEX. 481 HISTORIANS OF GERMANY- HISTORIANS OF GERMANY- HISTORIANS OF GERMIANYAdam of Bremen, 116. Tohn Vitododuranus, 204. Scharnhorst. 349. Adelbold, 116. Jordanis, 77. Schirtlin, 247. Adelung, 348. Joseph I., Life of, 348. Schedel, 204. Adriani, Gianbattista, 246. Jovius, 246. Schilter, 117. AEneas Sylvius, Pope Pius II., Kaiserrecht, 117. Schilling, 205. works of, 204. Khevenhiiller, 247. Schirachs, 349 Albert von Stade, 116 Kliiber, 349. Schlizer, 349. Alcuin, 89. Korner, 204. Schmidt, 349. Alphonso de Ultoa, 246. Kranz, 204. Schwabenspiegel, 117 Andreas, 204. Kriele, 349. Seckendorf, 246. Annales Bertiani, 89. Lambert of Aschaffenburg, 116. Sigbert, 116. Annales Qued linbargensis, 116. Lamberty, 348. Sleidanus, 246. Antonius ide Vera, 246. Larnormain, 247. Spalatin, 246. Archduke of Austria, 349. Leopold I., History of, 348. St. Simon, 348. Archenholz, 348, 349. Leti, Gregorius, 246. Stein, Baron, 349. Arnold, 116. Letters, Collection of, 116. Sylloge publicorum negotiorum, Aster, 349. Leucht, Faber, and Kilnig, 348. 348. Austerlitz, battle of, 349. Leibnitz, 117. Theatrum Luropaxum, 247. Balurius, Capitularia of, 89. Ligurinus, 116. Theganus, 89. Bellus, 247. Limpurgian Chronicle, 205. Thuanus, 246. Bertholdy, 349. Lloyd, History by, 348. Treizsauerwein, 205. Biographies of Emperors, 204. Luden, 349. Ulric of Hutten, 246. Biographies, the, 116. LiUders, 349. Ulrich of B:rrmberg, 116. Bongars, 116. Luitprand, 115. Urstisius, collections by, 204. Bothe, 205. Luther, Martin, 246. Vincenz of Pr;gue, 116. Bredow, 349. Machiavelli, 187. Vita Hludo, 89. Bruno of Corvey, 116. Maimbourg, 247. Von Bilow, 349. Burgus, 247. Manso, 349. Von Eggers, 34!). Biisching, 349. Marianus, Scotus, 116. Von Haller, 349. Calvin, John, 246. Matilda, Life of, 116. Von Hormayr, 349. Camnerarius, 247. Matthias, 204. Von Meyer, 349. Caroli IV., Commentarius, 204. Manvillon, 349. Von Plotho, 349. Cassiodorns, 77. Melanchthon, Philip, 246. Von Rheden, 349. Charles VI., Life of, 348. Menkea, 246. Von Valentini, 349. Cheinnitz, 247. Menzel, 349. Voss, 349. Chitraus, 247. Mercure I-listorique et Politique, Wallenstein, Letters and Life of Chronicles, 204. 348. 247. Codex Carolinus, 89. Meyer, 349. War-office, Reports of, 348. Ccelestin, 247. Monachus Sangallensis, 89. Wassenberg, 247. Collections of History, 117. Monumenta Germaniae Historica, Widukind, 115. Contarinss, 348. 349. Windeck, 205. Contributions to HIistory, 348. Muffling, 349. Wippo, 116. Coxe's Life of Marlborough, 348. Miiller, 205, 247. Zwingli, Ulric, 246. Cyprian, 247. Miinch von Bellinghausen, 349. History of Ancient Germany, 15. Damiani, 247 Muratori, Collection of, 117. Hoche, General, 420. Davila, 247. Mussatus, 204. Hochkirk, the battle of, 395. Diarium Europaum, 348. Nauklrus, 204. Hochst, the battle of, 421. Dieterich Engelhusen, 204. Nicolas de Jamsilla, 117. Hochstadt, the battle of, 367. Ditmar, 116. Nithard, 89. Hoffmann, Christopher, 294. Dohm, 349 Norbert, 116. Hohenburg, the battle of, 145. Dolce, 24g Odeleben, 349. Hohenfriedburg, the battle of, 381. Duchesne, Collection of, 117. Otho, 116. Hohenlinden, the battle of, 428. Eginhardt, 77. Ottocar of Hornegk, 205. Hohenstaufen, house of, 158. Eichhorn, 349. Pallavicini, 247. —------- end of the, 179. Einhard, 89. Paris, Matthieu, 117. Holbein the painter, 350. Ekkehardus, 116, 117. Paul Diaconus, 77. Holland, Austria, and Britain, alliance Enhard, 81). Pertz, Collection of Letters by, of, 365. Erasmus, 246. 117. — a republic, 420. Ermoldlus Nigellus, 89. Pertz, Scripta, 205. "Holy Alliance," the, 473. Eugene of Stvoy, 348. Pfanner, 247. Holy Lance, the, 120. European Fa'me, 348. Piccolomini, 204. Holy Land, the, pilgrimages to, 154 Flodoard, 115. Pirkheimer, 20)5. Holy War, the, 282. Firster, 349. Poeta Saxo, 119. Holzhausen, the conflict at, 462. Franks, Sebastian, 205. Posselt, 349. Honorins IIt., Pope, 172. Fredegar, 77. Procopius, 77. HIonorius, the Emperor, 69-71. Frederick It., Life of, 349. Puffendorf, 247, 348. Horn, General, 460. Frederick the Great, Works of, Punzing, 205. Horn, Gust:avus, the Swede, 338. 348. Raul of Milan, 116. Horst the Saxon, 73. Galeazzo Gualdi, 247. Records, the imperial, 348. Hospital, knights of the, 184. Genesius de Sepulveda, 246. Regino, 89, 115. IHospitality of the Germans, 25. Gerhard, 116. Rehberg, 349. Hostility of the Saxons, 143. Girtanner, 349. Reisneri, 247. House of Austria, the, 373. Gobeliiius, 2104. Retzow, 348. Iouse of Franconia, the, 137. Gotfiried von Viterbo, 116. Review of the Prussian mon- Hiouse of Hohenstaufin, the, 158, 179. G6tz of Berlichingen, 247. archy, 349. Hugo of Constance, 2; 1. Gregory of Tours, 77. Ricci, 247. Humiliation of Ottocal, 207. Glnther, 116. Richard de Saint Germane, 117. Hungarians, the, 111, 118, 125. Hartleder, 247. Richer, 115. --- - defeat of, 120. Heinrich, 349. Rimbert, 89. --- under Enrioeric, 357 Helmnold, 116. Rolswink, 204. Hungary, 75, 228, 308, 357. Henricus Sterv, 204. Romuald, 116. --- and Bohemia united, 238,270 Hermnannus Contractus, 116. Rothe, 205. Hunns, the. 68. Hersberg, 349. Rudolph I., letters of, 204. Huss, John, 224. History of the War of Succes- Rudolphus, 89. ---- martyrdom of, 225. sion, 348. Saalfeld, 349. Hussites, the, 226. Hofer, Andreas, 349. Sachsenspiegel, 117. Horoswitha, 115. Salazar. 246. IBRAHIM Pasha, 271. Isidor, 77. Sandoval, 246. Idistavius, the battle of, 60. Jacob of Kiinigshoven, 205. Sarpi, Paul,'247. Ignatius Loyola, the Jesuit, 303. John of Trittenheim, 204. Schard, 246, 247.. Ignorance of the popish priesthood, 251:. 61 482 INDEX, Ignorance of writing among the ancient John Huss the Bohemian martyr, 224, Landenberg the Vogt, 211. Germans, 30. 225. Landfriede, the, 199, 232, 238. Illuminated letters, 192. John of Bohemia, 216. Landshut, battles at, 284, 438. Illyria, 54. John of Denmark, 241. Landwehr, the, of Prussia, 443. Illyricus Flacins, 295. John of Dallberg, 253. of Silesia, 456. Immense armies against Frederick the John of Heydeck, 296. Langensalza, the battle of, 145. Great, 385. John of Jerusalem, 172. Langeron, the Russian general, 462. Imperial army, the, in Italy, 164. John of Kestren, 281. Language, the German, neglect of, 113. Imperial camp, the, 284. John of Leyden, the Anabaptist, 272. ------ compared with the Greel I[mperial Chamber, the, 238. John of Placentia, 134. and Latin tongues, 113 Imperial Council, the, 269. John Ulric of Pfirt, 219. Lanzknechte, the, 244. imperial free cities, the, 285, 286. John the Steadfiast of Saxony, 262. Laon, the battle of, 271. Imperialists, the, army of, 418. John Reuchlin, 253. Latin language, the, 8'2. Itnprovement of Prussia by Frederick, John Sobieski of Poland, 358-360. study of the, 104 409. John St., the knights of, 169. Latin psalmody, 112. Industry of Frederick the Great, 410. John William of Juliers, 310. Latinorum Chronica, 43. Ingavonians, tile, 20. John Wycliffe, the English Confessor, Laudohn, General, 402. Ingelheim, the diet of, 95. 224. Laufftn, the battle of, 271. Inguiomar the German, 61. Jordan, the friend of Frederick the Laws of the ancient Germans, 84. Injustice of Henry IV., 144. Great, 410. League of Cambray, 237. Innocent II., Pope, 161. Joseph I., Emperor, 368. League of Schmalkald, 280. Innocent III., Pope, 171. --- death of, 372. League of the Protestant princes, 267 Innocent IV., Pope, 173, 195. Joseph IL, Emperor, 413, 415. League, the poor Conrad, 242. Innovations by Joseph II., 416. ----- death of, 417. League, the Rhenish, 353. Inspruch, Charles V. at, 297. --- - innovations by, 416. League, the Shoe, 242. Institutions, civil, the, 25. Joseph Bonaparte, 433. League, the Swabian, 233. Institutions of Henry I., 122. Joseph, the king of Rome, 366. Lechfeld, the battle of, 125. " Interim," the, 293, 294. Joubert, General, 426. Lefrore, General, 441. Internal anarchy, 248. Jourdan, General, 420, 426. Legends of chivalry, 191. Internal peace, 138. Judgment, form of among the ancient Lehen, the, 83. Internal regulations of the German ci- Germans, 84. Leipsic, 1631, the battle of, 332. ties, 186. "Judgment of God," the, among the -- 1642, the battle of, 332 Internal revolts, 125. Germans, 85. -- - 1813, the batt'ie of,; 458. Internal tranquillity, 117, 208. Judith, the Empress, 72. Leipsic, the alliance of, 329. Interregnum, the, 198, 205. Julian, the Cardinal, 225. Leipsic, the shoe-blacks of; 230. Introduction, the, 15. Julius II., Pope, 251. Lemovi, the, 39. Invasion of France by the allies, 465. Julius III., Pope, 295. Lenzen, the battle and siege of, 119. Invasion of the Tyrol, 366. Julius Ctesar, 48. Leo I., Pope, 74. Invention of printing, 245. death of, 50. Leo III., Pope, 97. Investitures, the, disputes concerning -- in Gaul, 48. Leo IV., Pope, 146. the power of, 147, 154. —---- on the Rhine, 49. Leo VIlI., Pope, 1]28. Irminsul, the statue of Irmin, 93. Jurischtisch the Hungarian, 271. Leo IX., Pope, 140. Istavonians, the, 20. Jurisprudence, 197, 198. Leo X., Pope, 251, 254. Italians, the, 134. Justinian, the emperor, 72. Leopold I. of Austria, emperor, 353. Italicus the Ronimn, 26. Jutland, 124. -- death of, 367. Itily, 75, 91, 124, 133, 235. Leopold II., emperor, 417. Bourbon's army in, 266 KAISERRECHT, the, 200. Leopold, archbishop of Passau, 310. saved by Stilicho, 70. Kaiserslantern, the battle of, 421. Leopold of Austria, 154, 170, 219. --- the French in, 426. Kaiserwiese, the, 216. Lessing the poet, 413. Kaja, the village, destruction of, 446. Leudes, the, 83. JAGOW of Brandenburg, 277. Kalknuth, General, 436. Leute, the, 113. James I. of Britain, 318. Kammergericht, the, 238. Leuthen, the battle of, 391. James II. of Britain, 365. Kamptier, the, 44. Lewis II. of Hungary, 270. Jankau, the ibittle of, 344. Kara Mustapha the Turk, 337. Lewis XII. of France, 236. Jazygi, the, 64. Kast-vogt, the, 196. —--- death of, 237. Jealousy of the Spaniards, 249. Katti, the, 35. Lewis of Bavaria, 212. Jetmappes, the battle of,; 419. Katualda the Goth, 61. — deposition of, 216. Jena, the battle of; 435. Katzbach, the b:tttle of, 452. Lewis of D)armstadt, 318 Jerome Bonapirte, 437. Kaunitz the Austrian, 382. Lewis of Prussia, 4:35. Jerome of Prigue, martyrdom of, 225. Kay, the battle of, 398. Leyva, commandant at Pavia, 264. Jerusalem, cil ture of in the year 1099, Kebehart of Lorraine, 112. Liberation of Francis I. of France, 266 156. Kepler the astronomer, 309. Liberation of John Frederic of Saxony, ~ —--- Conrid in, 159. Kesseldorf, the battle of, 381. 298. -------- pilrim'iges to, 155. Keza the historian, 126. Lidi, the, 113. ~ —--- siite of, 169. Kilidish Arslan, the Turkish sultan, Liegnitz, the battle of, 402. Jesuits, the, 279, 304, 313, 316, 357. 169. Lignano, the battle of, 165. Jews, the, 122, 217. Kimber, the, 44. Ligny, the battle of, 472. Jezebel, an examtple, 316. King's Mountain, the, 81. Literature, French and German, 413. Joachim II. of Branidenburg, 276. Kingsky, the Count, 340. Livonian confederation, the, 188. Joachim II. of Silesia, 375. Kleist, General, the Prussian, 454. Livy the historian, 15. John VIII.. Pope, 113. Klesel, the Cardinal, 316. Lobkowitz, the treacherous Austrian, John XII., Pope, 126. Knights of the Hospital, 184. 354. John XIII., Pope, 129. Knights of the middle ages, 184. Lochau, the battle of, 288. John XIV., Pope, 131. Knipperdiolling tile Anesbaptist, 272. Lollius, the defeat of, 52. John XXII., Pope, 214. Kollin, the battle of, 387. Lombardian confederation, the, 163. John XXIII., Pope, 222. Kolloredo, the Austrian general, 456. ------ cities, 186. John Casimir, the Count Palatine, 308. Konigsbann, the, 199. Lombards, the, revolt of, 104. John Frederick of Saxony, 276. Korner, the poet, 450. Lomnlbardy, 161, 168, 173. capture of by Charles Korsakow the Russian, 427. Longobardi, the, 53. V., 288. Kraft of Toggenburg, 191. --- in Itnly, 81, 91. --------- condemnation of, 289. Krechting the Anabatptist, 272. Lorraine, the dominion of, 130, 181. -- - imprisonment of, 295. Kreuzpfennig, the, 202. Lorrainers, the, 114, 124. - outrages upon, 294. Kulm, the battle of, 454. Losses of Napoleon, 448. ___ —— _-___ - reception of by the Sax- Kunersdorf, the battle of, 399. Lothaire I. of Italy, 108. ons, 298. Lothaire II. of Italy, 108. -- - refusal by of the "In- LABRUYERE, the death of, 448. Lothaire the Burgundian, 124. terim," 294. Ladies, the, of Germany in the year Lothringians, the, 114, 124. __ —------ release of, 298. 900, 112. Louis XI. of France, 231... —---- Sibella the wife of, 290, Lance, the holy, 120. Louis XIV. of France, 352. 298. Landammann, the, 210. -- and Eugene of Savoy, 364. John George of Saxony, 318. Landau, the siege of, 366. ---- and the Stuarts, 365. INDEX. 485 Louis XIV. arrogance of, 362. Marcus Manlius, the Roman general, 44. Mesia, the seat of the Westro-Goths, at Strasburg, 357. Marengo, the battle of, 428. 69. _ — _ _- cruelty of, 361. Margrave, the, 111. Mohacz, the battle of, 270. death of, 373. Margraviates, the, 119. Moldavia, 66. _ —— _ —_ - denunciation of, by Wil- Maria Louisa of Austria, marriage of to -- - seized by Russia, 414. liam IIIl., 360. Napoleon, 442. Molwitz, the battle of, 377. ------- evils of the reign of, 374. Maria Theresa, Empress, 374. Momyllus, the last Roman emperor, 75. — ~ —- hhumiliation of, 371. - - death of, 415, 428. Mongolians, the, 92. -------- -ravages conmmanded by,361.- - in Hungary, 379. Mongols, the, 176. treachery of, 357. Marius the Roman, 44. Mons Cassius, the, 59. Louis XVIII. of France, 472. Marlborough, duke of, 365-371. Moral condition ofI the Germans:~fter Louis Bonaparte, 433. Marmont, General, 470. the great migration, 85. Louis, king of the Franks, 99. Marriage of Napoleon and Maria Lou- Moral worth of the ancient German.,,.'4. Louis of Germany, 109. isa, 442. Moravia, 109, 393. Louis the Child, 110, 114. Marriage, purity of among the ancient Moreau, General, t23, 428. Louis the Fat, 109. Germans, 24. —-- death of, 454. Louis the Pious, the emperor, 106, 108. Marsi, the, 32. Morgarten, the battle of, 213. Louvois, the perfidy of, at Strasburg, 357. Marsingi, the, 37. Mortier, General, 470. Love of nature by the Germans, 23. Martin V., Pope, 224. Moscow, the burning of, 443. Lowositz, the battle of, 384. Martinitz ejected from Prague, 315. Miihlbcrg, the battle of, 288. Liibeck, the city of, 166. Matilda of Tuscany with Pope Gregory Miihldort;, the battle of, 214. Lucerne, the lake of, 211. VII., 150. Minster, the Anabaptists of, 272. Lucian, the philosopher, 63. Matthias I., Emperor, 311. Mlinzer, the fanatic, 262. Ludolf, the son of Otho, 125. -- -- death of, 317. Murat, 433. Ludolphic race, the, 111. Matthias of Thurn, 315. -- at Guldengossa, 459. Luitburga, the wife of Tassilo of Ba- Mattiaci, the, 36. Murder, compensation for, 84. varia, 95. Maurice of Saxony, 281-291. Murten, the battle of;, 231. Luithold of Bavaria, 111. -- -- death of, 299. Music of the ancient Germans, 31, 113. Luitprand the historian, 119, 120. -- -- desertion of Charles V. by, 296. Luneville, the peace of, 429. -- pursuit by of Charles V., 297. NADASTI, General, 390. Lupicinus, the Roman general, 69. Maxen, conflict at, 400. Naharvali, the, 38. Lusatia, 318. Maximilian I., Emperor, 234. Nancy, the battle of, 231. Luther, Martin, 254. — campaign of against the Nangis, the battle of, 423. and Eckius, 255. Venetians, 240. Naples, 81, 170, 370. ---- and the peasantry, 262. -- character of, 234. ---- conquest of, 177. at Wartburg, 261. ------ death of, 242. --- university of, 175. at Worms, 259. ------- marriage of with Mary Napoleon Bonaparte, 422. burning of the pope's bull and of Burgundy, 231. -- -- abdication of, 472. canon law by, 256. Maximilian II., Emiperor, 305. -- -- against Schwartzenberg, 46r9 --- - controversy of, at Leipsic, 255. Maximilian of Bavaria, 318. -- -- armistice with refused by -he --- - death of, 279. May-field, the, 106. allies, 461. dispute of, respecting the Lord's Melanchthon, Philip, 268, 278. -- -- armistice with the allies by supper, 276. Meerveldt, General, 460. in May, 1813, 449. --- doctrine of, 256, 270. Melrichstadt, the battle of, 151. ---- army of in Italy, 422. examination of, in the diet of Mentz, diet of in the year 1235, 179. ----- arrival of at Dresden, 453 Worms, 259. Merits of the Austrian and Prussian ar- ------ at Elba, 472. excommunication of, 260. mies during " the Seven Years' —-- campaign of in Russia, 443. --- - fame and popularity of, 256. War," 408. ----- character of 422. ---- letters by, 268. Merovingians, the, 79. —-- consulship of, 411. -- the New Testament translated Merseberg, the battle of, 119. ---- - courage of, 446. into German by, 261. Mexico, discovery of, 250. ----- destruction of the fleet of' at ninety-five theses against in- Middle Ages, the, 182. Aboukir, 425. dulgences by, 254. -- --- administration of justice --- emperor, 431. ---- supp)orted by Frederic the Wise, of, 197. —--- first consul, 427. 258. ------ architecture of, 189. ---- flight of' from Moscow, 444. Lutherans, the, and Calvinists, 303, 309. -- ------ arts of, 189. —-- in Dresden, 447. Luttenbere. the battle of, 407. ------ chivalry of, 182. ----- in Egypt, 425. Litzen, 1632. the battle of, 336. -- -- cities, the, of, 185. -- - in St. lIelenti, 472. Liitzen, 1813, the battle of, 446. ------ convents, the, of, 194. ----- losses of, 41-8. Liitzow the Prussian, 449. --- ecclesiastical institutions --- -- march of into Germany, 444. Luxembourg, the house of, 222. of, 196. -- - marriages of, 422, 442. Lygi, the, 38. — Faust-recht, the, of, 197. ----- plot of discovered, 470. ---- -- jurisprudence of, 197. -- power of, 441. MAnSCHARI, the, 110. ------ knights of, 184. --- - retreat of, 4(i3, 470. Magdeburg, the battle of, 330. ---- mines of, 188. --- slumber of, 4t3. desolation of in the year monasteries of, 194. ---- successes of; 467. 1631, 331. -- - patricians, the, of, 186. Nariski, the, 37. Magnus of Saxony, 144. — -- peasantry, the, of, 189. Narsis, the Greek general, 80. Magyars, the, 109. --- priests, the, of, 193. National degradation, 351. Mahomtet II. of Turkey, 228. — - sciences of, 189-191. Native literature, the, 413. Mahomet, the Anrbian impostor, 87. -- -- secret tribunal of, 201. Natives, the, of Gerumiany, 19. Mallumn, or Mallerg, the place of judg- -- - troubadours of, 191. Neglect of the Germani language, 113. ment, 84. —----- arlike spirit f, 192. Negotiations for peace, 344. Malplaquet, the battle of, 371. Migrations from Germany, 177. Nemreti, the, 49. Manfred of Naples, 178. Migrations of the Germanic tribes, 71. Nerthus, a goddess of the ancient GtrManners of the ancient Germans, 23. Milan, the city of, 236. mans, 30. Manoeuvres of Bliicher, 456. — the battle of, 162. Netherland dialect, the. 291 Mansfeld the Bohenian, 320, 326. -- Carocium, the, of, 165. Netherlands, the, 307, 347. -- - death of, 323. -- razure of, 163. Neuss, the city, assaults of, 230 Manufactures of the ancient Germans, -- restoration of, 164. Neuwinden, the battle of, 419. 30. -- two pictures at, 74. New doctrines, the, in the year 151i9, Marbodius the Marcoman, 53. Milanese, the, revolt of, 162. 256. Marburg, the conference at, 276. -- subjection of, 162. New Testament, the, in German, 241. Marcellus, the Roman general, 45. Military expeditions in Germany, 320. Ney, Marshal, 446. March of Bliicher, 468. Minden, the battle of. 397. Nicephorus, the Greek emperor, 128. March of Napoleon into Germany, 444. Mines, the German, 188. Nicholas II., Pope, 140, 146. March of the allies, 466. Minnesingers, the, 192. Nicholas V., Pope, 227. Marchfeld, the battle of, 207. Missaticum, the, 106. Niebelungen, the, 191. Marcomanni, the 37. " Missi regii," the, 106. Night, the, after the battle of Leipsic in Marcomannic war, the, 63. Mittel-freien, the, 183. 1813, 463. Marcus Aureiius, the Emperor, 63. Moeckern, the battle of, 460. Nilus the monk, 134. 484 INDEX Nimwegen, the peasce of, 356. Paterculus Velleius, 16. Poor Conrad League, the, 242. Nobility, the, of Germany, 257, 351. Paul Ill.. Pope, 292. Pope, bull of the, burned, 256. N cble charicter of Rudotlphus 1., 205. Paul of Russia, 427. Pope, the, a prisoner, 266. Nobie qualities of Frederic I., emperor, Paulus Diaconu;, 105. Pope, the. and Charles V., rupture be 169. Paunsdorf, the battle of, 462. tween, 293. Noble.;, the, 241. Pavia, the battle of, 1004, 136. Pope, the, and emperor at Canossa, 15f X,:liendorit the battle of, 454, 456. --- the battle of, 1525, 264. POPESNondlui," the motto of Charles V., -- the council of, 149. Adrian, 93. 249. Peace between Austria and Prussia, Adrian IV., 161. Norbert of Xante, the monk, 195. 380. Adrian VI., 251. K:rdlingen, the battle of, 341. -- Denmark and Germany, 325. Alexander III., 161. Norq;it, the battle of, 44. --- France and Prussia, 421. Benedict VII., 136.,N',rtheaselcrn Germany, 176. ---- Prusia, Russia, and Swe- Benedict IX., 140. Novarre, the battli of, 237. den. 405. Benedict XIL., 215. nAovi, the battle of, 426. Peace, internal, 138. Benedict XIII., 223 Notrembcrg, city of. 229. Peace, negotiations for, 344. Calixtus 11., 153. -...... - iet of, 251. Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, 382. Calixtus II., 227. ~ —--- - ap:itricians of, 186. --- of Nimwegen, 356. Celestin tII., 176. ~ —---- population of, 187. --- of Amiens, 430. Clement II., 140. ------ rcligious peace of, in the --- of Campo Fonrnio, 424. Clement Ilt., 169, 173, 176. year 1532, 270. --- of Dresden, 381. Clement IV., 178. N-assdorf, attack on, 359. "Peace of God," the, 139. Clement VI., 216. Peace of f1ubertsburg, 408. Clement VII., 266. OqOTRITI, the, 92. --- of Prebuiirg, 433. Damasus II., 140. 0(io th.e monk, 195. —- of Ryswick, 361. Eugene III., 136, 158. OlIoacer the Scirian, 39, 75. —- of Utrecht, 32. Eugene IV., 226. Oinuitz, the Jesuits of, 321. —- of Westphalia, 346. Felix V., 226.;ppcein, Frederic the Great at, 377. --- the Religious, 300. Gelasius II., 153. Otrogoths, the, 66. -- signed at Paris, 472. Gregory IV., 140. in Hungary, 79. Peasantry, the, of the middle ages, 189, Gregory V., 133. 0-te;rann the Russian, 454. 291. Gregory VI., 140. Oltfiied of Wceissenburg, 113. ------ of the sixteenth century Gregory VII., 140, 146. Otih I., emperor, 123. 262. Gregory VIII., 169. - bolldness of, 123. Pepin. king of the Franks, 88. Gregory IX., 172, 175. energy of, 123. — death of, 89. Gregory X., 208. ---- nights of, 128. Pepin of Ilerital, 87. Gregory XII., 223. Otho II., emperor, 130. Pepin of Italy, 99. Gregory XV., 321. ----- ldefeat of, 131. Pepin of Pisa, 101. Honorius III., 172. ---- marriage of, with the Grecian Pepin of Landen, 86. Innocent II., 161. Theophania, 129. Pepin the Little, 88. Innocent III., 171. Otho III., emperor, 132. Period I., to the year 486, 43. Innocent IV., 173, 195 ----- coronation of, 133. -- II., from 486 to 768, 77. John VIII., 113. ---- -!irtriality of, for Italy, 134. -- III., from 768 to 919, 89. John XII., 126. ----- pilgrimage of, 133. -- IV., from 919 to 1273, 115. John XIII., 129.. —--- supererstion of, 133, 134. -- V., from 1273 to 1520, 204. John XIV., 131. Otho IV., emperor, 171. -- VI., from 1520 to 1648, 246. John XXII., 214. _ —-- desertion of, by the people, --- VII., from 1648 to 1815, 348. John XXIII., 222. 171. Persecution of the Protestants by the Julius II., 235, 251. ----- submission of, to the pope, Jesuits, 357. Julius III., 295. 171. Persians, the, 30, 101. Leo I., 74. Otho of Brandenburg, 191. Personal courage of the emperor Henry, Leo III., 97. Otho of Colonna, Pope, 224. 140. Leo IV., 146. Otho of Freisingen, 192. Perverted system of doctrine by the Leo VIII., 128. Oho of Meissen, 180. Romish priests, 252. Leo IX., 140. Otho of Nordheim, 144. Pescara, the Spaniard, 264. Leo X., 251, 254. Oth') of S'lxony, 111. Peter III. of Russia, 389, 405. Martin V., 224. Otho of Wittelsbach, 180. Peter of Hungary, 140. Nicholas II., 140. 0tho the Illustrious of Saxony, 114. Peter of Pavia, Pope, 131. Nicholas V., 227. Ottocar of liohemia, 177, 206. Peter of Pisa, 101. Pascal II., 152. ---- - humiliation of, 207. Peter the -lermit, 155. Pascal III., 163. Oudenarde, the battle of, 370. Petrarca the poet, 218. Paul III., 292. Oatliretk of the Reformation, 53 Petronius Maxitnus, emperor, 75. Piuns II., 188, 227. Overthrow of the Turks, 359. Petrus de Vincis, code of laws by, 175. Stephen, 88. Oxeantlern, the chancellor of Sweden, - treason of, 174. Stephen X., 140.?;38, 342. Peucinians, the, 20. Sylvester II., 133. Pfatfenhofbn, tile battle of, 438 Sylvester III., 140. PACHONIUS the monk, 193. Phfhlburger, tile, 189. Urban II., 152. Padthrborn, diet of, 94. P/ug of Naumberg, 293. Urban III., 169. ---- -- superstitions at, 98. Pilhl, the Swede, 343. Victor II., 140. Padr:-,brad the Bohemian, 228. Pharsalus, the battle of, 50. Victor I., 162. Patiting of the middle ages, 191. Philip II. of Sp:ain, 295. Zachary, 86. Palermo, tomb of Hlenry at, 171. Philip V. of Anjou aind Spain, 364. Popes, German, 146. Palestine, Conrad in, 159. Philip A'ugustus of France, 169. -- the, and emperors, 127, 171. ——.- ent of the war in, 172. Philip of Hesse, 270, 280. —- rivalry of, 151. ----- Frederick's crusade in, 172. -- a prisoner, 291. -- Three, deposed by the council of _ —-- pilgrimages to, 155. --- lieration of, 298. onstance, 223. P:lmn, execution of, 440. Piacenza, the crusaders at, 155 Portraiture of Charlemagne, 100-105. "Panic, Cimibrian," the, 44. Piccolomini, perfidy of, 339. --- of Gustavus Adolphus, 337. Panttaleonis the monk, 158. Pilgrimages to Palestine, 155. Power of Napoleon, 441. Papirius, Carbo, 43. Pillerent, the battle of, 230. Powers combined against France, 363 Pappenheim, General, 330, 332. Pirates, the Norman, 109. "Pragmatic sanction," the, 375. "Parade guard of Berlin," the, 391. Pisistratus, 104 Prague, the battle of, 386. Paris, city of, the, 130. Pitt, William, 408, 429. ---- the congress of, 450. -- capitulation of, 471. Pius II., Pope, 188, 227. —- the peace of, 225. the peace of, 472. Plague, the great, in the year 1348, 217. -- the university of, 224. the allies before, 471. Pliny, 17. Premontratensian Monks, the, 195. Partiality of Otho for Italy, 134. Plot of Napoleon, 470. Prep'irations for the battle of Leiplic, Pascal II., Pope, 152. Poetry of the middle ages, 191. 457. Pascal III., Pope, 163. Poland, 69. Presburg, the diet of, 379. Passau, treaty of, 299, 348. —-- dismemberment of, 414. ------ the peace of, 433. Pastimt s of the Germans, 85. Pomerania, 168, 324. Priests, the power of, 27. INDEX. 485 Prince Eugene of Savoy, 365. Revolt of the Anabaptists, 272. Saracens, the, 124, 128, 173. Princes, German, elevation of, 362. Revolt of the Milanese, 162. Sardinians, the, 422. Princes of Germany allied with Freder- Revolt of the Sons of Henry IV., 152. Saxon Confederatior,, the, 65,188. ick, 416. Rhenish Confederation, the, of 1806, Saxon, meaning of the word, 22. Printing, invention of, 245. 434. Saxons, the, 22, 35, 93....... —- of the first Bible, 245. Rhenish League, the, in the year 1254, ---- join the allies, 462. ------ of the l'alhns in Latin, 245. 187. —-- overthrow of, 94. Priscus, the sophist, 73. 1668, 353. —- revenge on by Henry IV., 145. Probstheyda. battle of, 461. Rhinefeld, the battle of, 342. — subjection of, 94. Probus, the Emperor, 65. Richard I. of England, Coeur-de-Lion, -- union of with the Franks, 96. Processions of uipeorstitition, 217. 170. — victorious over Henry IV., 144 Procoplus, the Bohemian, 226. ------ arrest of at Vienna, 170. Saxony, 179, 385. Progress of civilization, 122. — -- death of. 205. —-- elector of, 294 ---- of the German Constitution, -- in Palestine, 170. ---- house of, 198. 180-18. ---- release of, 171. --- king of, 447. "Prophetic women," the, 49. Richard of Cornwall, 178. Scandinavia, 40. Protection of the Church, 128. Richard of Treves, 257. Scaurns the Roman, 44 Protestant cities, the. 21. lRichelieu, Cardinal, 341. Schartlin of Burtenbach, 282, 296. Protestant princes, the, 258. Richelieu, duke of, 388. Schill, Lieutenant, 437. h — esittation oft t join Gustavus Riesenberg, the battle of, 225. ------- -— death of, 444. Adolphus, 32). Ripurian Franks, the, 76. Schism in the Papacy, 250. league of at Torgau, 267. Rise of Henry the Lion, 167. Schmnilk;:ld, the league of, 280. -- - relply of to Charles V., 270. Rival Emperors, 171. Schnecburg, the mines of, 188. Protestants, the, b/anished from Bohe- Rival Emperors and Popes, 151. Scholffen, the 198. mia, 319. Rival Popes at Avignon and Rome, 218. Schtlfer, Peter, the printer, 245. _ —---- dissatisalction of with the Rivers of Germany, 18. Schon of Culmbaich, the painter, 192. treaty of Ryswick, 362. Robert Guiscard of Normandy, 151. Schwabenspiegel, the, or Swabian Mir Prussia, 176. Rodolph of Hapsburg, 199. ror, 199. ---- declaration of war by against Roland, Cardinal, and Pope 161. Schwartzenburg, General, 463. France, 1813, 433. Roland de la Marche, 94. Schweidnitz, the battle of; 405. --- - the first king of, 363. Rolland de Revaulx, 356. Sciences of the Middle Ages, 191, 192 -- the queen of, 445. Roman authors, 15-18. Scipio, the Roman consul, 44. the rich peasant of, 233. -- - colonies, 42. Scotch Highlands, the, 72. --—... under Poland, 2:33. --- Germanic empire, 353. "Scourge of God," the, 73. Prussian and Austrian armies, the, 396. --- law, the, 200. Scripture, application of, 173. Prussian monarchy, the founder of the, —-- republic, the, 424 Scythians, a painting of, 74. 355. — titheland, the, 41. Second Period, the, 77. Prussians, the Pagan, 134. Romans, the, in Germany, 54. Secret Tribunal, the, 201. Ptolemy, 35. ----- conflicts of with the ancient Sedjoucidians, the, 156. Germans, 44-64. Sedusi, the, 49. QUADI, the, 37. Rome, Emperor of, 98. Segestes, a traitor of the Cherusci, 55-58. QuakenbrUick, the, 34. -- the battle of-1111, 153. Seizure of Strasburg by Louis XIV., 357 Quedlinburg, the castle of, 118 1528, 266. Sejanus the Roman, 16. Queen, the, of Prussia, 445. Romuald the Monk, 195. Self-devotion of Arnold of Winkelried, Questenberg, the 3:ron, 326. Rora, the diet of, 132. 220. Quintilius Varus, 54. Rosenplut, a poem by, 330. Seventh Period, the, 348. Rossano, the battle of. 153. Selz, the peace of, 96. RACES, the Germanic, 20. Rossbach, the battle of, 390. Sempach, the battle of, 220. Rachiiburgi, the, 85. Rothiere, the battle of, 466. Seniper-Freien, the, 183. Radagaisus the German, 70. Riidger of Manesse, 192. Sennoni, the, 48. Ramillies, the battle of, 369. Rudegir of Stahrenberg, 358. Septs, the, 92. Rapid march of the allies, 466. Rudolphus I., Emperor, 205. Sequani, the, 49. Raspe of Thuringia, 173, 180. ---- and Ottocar of Bohemia, Servians, the, 15. Rastadt, peace of, 424. 206. Seven Years' War, the, 383, 398, 404; Ratisbonn, b:;ttle of. 438 ---- character of, 205. 407. -- - diets of, 271, 328. —- ---- coronation of, 206. Shoe-league, the, 242. Itaucour, the battle of, 381. — death of, 208. Sibella of Saxony, 290, 298. Rautian platin, the battle of, 47. gray doublet of, 207. Sicilian Vespers, the, 179 Raynold, Chancellor of the Emperor ---- uprightness of, 208. Sicily, 71. Frederick, 163. Rudolphus II., death of, 311. Siege of Stralsund, 324. Razure of Milan, 163. Rudolphus of Burgundy, 120. —--- Vienna, 358. Reconciliation between the Protestants death of, 151. Sigamibri, the, 32, 52. and Papists, vain attempts for, 277. the crown of sent by Si fried of Mentz, 145. Recreations of Frederick the Great, 416. the Pope, 151. Sigismnnd I. of Germany, 222 Refoirmation demanded, 252. Rudolphus Redin, the Swiss patriot, -- at Constance, 224 ------- outlrek of the, 253. 213. ---- death of, 226. Reginger, the knight, 144. Rufinius the Gaul, 70. Silesia, 31, 176. Reichlsfriede, the, 199. Rugi, the, 39, 79. Silesian W~ar, 377. Religion, the low state of, in the year tRupert of Bohemia, 222. Simon Mngus, 146. 1400, 010. Rupert of Cologne, 230. Sitoni, the, 40. Religious aliairs in Germany, 276. lRupert the Mhonk, 85. Sixth Period, the, 246. - -excitement, 307. IRupture between the Emperor and the Slavata ejected from Prague, 315. orders of knighthood in the Pope, 293. Slavery among the ancient Germans, 25, Middle Ages, 184. Russia and Britain, 4.27 Slvonians, the, 118. -.. —- peace, 300. Russia, camipaign of Napoleon in, 443. Slavonic tribes, the, 76, 92. ----- questions, final adjustment Russian and Austrian generals, jealousy Slumber of Napoleon, 463. of, 346. of the, 400. Sobieski, John, of Poland, 358-360. Remigius of Rheims, 78. Rysel, capture of, 376 Soil of Germiiny, 19. IRene of Lorraine, 231. Ryswick, peace of, 361. Soliman, the Turk, 271. Renewal of the Western Empire, 126. Soltau, the battle of, 248 Reply of the Protestant Princes to SAALFELD, the battle of, 435. Sorr, the battle of, 381. Charles V., 270. Sachsenspiegel, the, or Saxon Mirror, Soult, General, 427. Restoration of Milan, 164. 199. Southern Gaul, the battle of, 44. Retreats of Napoleon, 463, 470. Sacrifices of Germany, 429. Spain, 72, 88, 91, 370. Return of Frederick, 232. Saladin of Egypt, 169. —- two kings of, 364. Reuchlin, John, 253. Salt the German, 19. Spaniards, jealousy of the, 249. Reudingi, the, 36. Sansom the Monk, 254. Spanish succession, the, 363. Revenge of Henry IV. on the Saxons, Sanctity of marriage, 24. Spires, the diet of, 277. 145. Sangipan, the Alaman, 74. Springs, the mineral, of Germany, 19. Reverses of Frederick, 391. Sanguinary battle at Rome, 153. Sapurs, the battle of; 237. Revival of the Papacy, 146, 1 Sanscrit language, the, 15. Squillace, the battle of, 131. 48G INDEX. Stadien of Augsburg, 253. Tiberius, Emperor, 16. Vandamme, General, 454. Stahrenberg, Count, 371. Tigurini, the, 44. Vangioni, the, 40. State of affairs in Germany, 374. Tilly, Count, 330. Vannius of the Suevi, 27. Sta;e of the country, 240. --- burning and carnage of Varini, the, 36. State of the empire, 99, 247, 350. Magdeburg by, 330. Varus the Roman, 34, 54, 56, 59. States of Germany, 473. —---- death of, 333. Vassalage, 182. Stauffacher Werner, the Swiss patriot, -- -- -- defeat of, 332. Vehmgericht, the, 201. 211. Titheland, the Roman, 41. Veiblingers, the, 157. Stephen, Pope, 88. Toplitz, the battle of, 456. Veleda the prophetess, 30, 62. Stephen X., Pope, 140. Torgau, the battle of, 403. Velleius Paterculus, 16. Stewavrd-Grand, the, 87. --- league of, 267. Vendome, duke of, 332. Stilicho the Vandal, 70. —-- surrender of, 289. Venedi, the, 38, 111. Strabo, 35. ( Trstenson, General, 343. Venetians, the, 236. Str'lsund, the battle and siege of, 324. Totilas the Goth, 80. Venice, peace of, 167. Strasburg, the seizure of, 357. Toulon captured by the British, 419. -- subjection of, to Auotria, 424. Stranuch, the traitor, 287. Tournay, the battle of, 420. Verdungus, the astronomer, 321. Stu'rts, the, 365. Tours, the battle of, 88. Verfeite, the, 203. Stahlfreien, the, 201. -- the school of, 104. Verona, the battle of, 80. Ftuhlherr, the, 200. Trnde of the ancient Germans, 31. Versailles, the treaty of, 383. Stnrn of Fulda, 86. Tranquillity, internal, 117, 208. Versontio, the city of, 48. Suardoni, the, 36. Translation of the New Testament into Vespers, the Sicilian, imassacre at, 171. Suljection of the Danes, 120. German by Martin Lu- Vices of the Itmtnish priests, 251. ---- -- of the Milanese, 162. ther, 261. Victor I1., Pope, 140. ------ of the Saxons, 94 ----- into Gothic byUlphilas, 67. Victor III., Pope, 1(;2 Successes of Frederick, 169. Treaty of peace at Aix-la-Chapelle, 361. Vienna, the city of, 63. of Napoleon, 467. Treaty of Westphalia, 347. --- battle of, 78. -------- of the allies over France, 419. Trehia, the battles of, 426. -- - battle at, with the Turks, 1683, Suevi, the, 21. Trent, the Council of, 292, 304. 358. Suioni, the, 40. Tresians, the, 21. -- - battle near, 1809, 439. Surrender of the German cities 286. Treves, the writers of, 165. —- capture of, by Napoleon, 432, Suwaroff the Russian, 426. Treviri, the, 40, 50. 439. Swabia, 76, 111, 179, 181. Tribes, the confederations of the, 64-66. —- concordat of, 227. --- league of, 233. -- distribution of the, 76. ---- congress of, 472. --- peasantry of, 261. -- migrations of the, 71. --- peace of, 441. Swabians, the, 117. Tribocki, the, 49. —-- revolt of, 229. Sweden, 108, 327, 345. Triboni, the, 40. —-- siege of, by the Turks, 358. --- -- crown-prince of, 450. Tribunal, the Secret, 201. —- siege of Frederick in, 229. peace between and Prussia, Triumph of Charles V. in Africa, 273. --- university of, 222. 405. Triumph of German literature, 413. Villars, Marshal, 371. Swiss, the, 231. Triumph of the Swiss, 221. Villeroi, Marshal, 3(i9. -- confederation of, 211, 219, 347. Troubadours, the, 191, 192. Vincis, Petrus de, the traitor, 174. -- spoils obtained by, 231. Truchsess of Waldburg, 263. Vinilians, the, 20. -- triumph of, 221. " Trutz Kaiser," the, 229. Viridomar, the Gaul, 20. Switzerland, 76, 205, 210, 347, 430 "Trutz Pappenheim," the fort, 230. Vironne, the battle of, 78. Syagrius the Roman, 76, 78. TrLtz Tilly," the fort, 230. Visconti, the hou-e of, 236. Sylvester II., Pope, 133. Tubanti, the, J. Vispanius Agrippa, thl Rormn, 40. Sylvester IT., Pope, 140. Tungi, the, 20. Vitellius the Romnin, 59. Sylvius AEneas, Pope, 188. Tunis, the battle of, 273. Vittoria, the battle of, 455. Turcilingi, the, 39. Vogt, the, 196, 212. TABORITES, the, of Bohemia, 225. Turenne, General, 344, 355. Voltaire at Berlin, 412. Tacitus, the historian, 17. Turin, the battle of, 369. Vopiscus the historian, 65. Tagliacozzo, the battle of, 178. Turkey, war between and Russia, 414. Vulturnus, the bridge of, 175. Talents of Frederick the Emperor, 174. Turks, the, 155, 227. Tanfana, the idol, sanctuary of, 32. -- conquest of Constantinople by, WACHATT, the battle of, 458. Tann, the battle of, 438. 227. Wagratm, the battle of, 440. Tannerburg, the battle of. 233. -- defeat of, 271. WVahlstadt, the battle of, 172. Tassilo of Bavaria, 95. --- devastations of, 247. Walcheren, dtefeat of the British at, Taunua, the mountains of, 52. -- overthrow of, 228, 359. 440. Tell, William, 211. Tuscany, Matilda, countess of, and Wallachia, seized by Russia, 414. TempIlars, the kniehts, 184. Pope Gregory VII., 150. Wallenstein, 321. Temporal eta'tes of Germany, 182. ---- the prophets of, 70. and the emperor, 334. Tenchteri, the, 32, 49. Two kings of Spain, 364. — appointed generalissimo, Teschen, the peice of, 415. Tyrol, 297. 335. Testatmient, the New, in German, 261. -- invasion of, by Bavaria, 366. -- -- arumy of, 3.25, 3!26. ------------- in Gothic, 67. Tyrolese, the, 366. —-- chara:cter ofi 322. Tetzel the monk, 254. -- -- confiscition of the estate Teutobod, priiice of the Teutoni, 46. UBI, the, 40. of, 340. I'eutobur,!er fiorest, the, 18. TTlim, the b:,ttle of, 432. —- con,-piir:iy against, 339. battle of the, 56. Ulphilas, Gothic translation of the New ------ decl;r:ition of, 34t0. Teutonians, the, 15, 44-57. Tetainiment by, 67. -- di-siissail of, 5326, 339. Teutonic architecture, 190. Ulric of ftutten, 257. ------ duke cf Mecklenburg, 324. Teutonic order of knights, 176, 233. Ulric of Pfirt, 219. —---- itt Denmiark,:,323. Theodore of Bavaria plundered by Aus- Ulric of WViirtemnberg, 248, 280. ---- murder of, 340. tria, 414. Ulric Zwingli, 276. — -- retreat of, 336. Theodoric the Goth, 79, 80. Union of Bohemia and Hungary, 238. ---- siege of Stral:sund by, 324. Theodoric the Ostro-Goth, 97. Union of Wiirtemberg, 242. Wallia the Goti, 71. Theodosius II., Emperor, 73. Unions of Tribes, 26. War between France and Germany, Theoidosius. the Emperor, 69. Urban IT., Pope, 152, 155. 266, 354, 360. Theoiogy, debasemtent of, 250. Urban IIt., Pope, 169. War, declaration of, by Austria against Theophania, the Greek princess, 128- Usipeti, the, 32. France, 438. 133. War, declaration of, by France, 419. Thervingians, the, 69, 262. VAGRIA, in Holstein, 86. War-regulations of the ancient GerThird Period, the, 89. Vain attempts to reconcile the Protest- mans, 27. Thirty Years' War, 316-348. ants and Papists, 277. War, the Silesinn, 377. Three days' battle of Leipsic, 458. Valdez, the Spaniard, at the diet of Waisen, the, of Bohemia, 226. Three popes deposed at the Council of Worms, 260. Wartburg, Luther at, 261. Constance, 223. Valens, the emperor, 68. Wartenbturg, the battle of, 456 Thuringia, 111, 209. Valentinian III., emperor, 75. Waterloo, the battle of, 472. the forest of, 18. Valerius Maximus, 16. Weinsberg, the siege of, 158. Thuringians, the, 85. Van der Noot, of Brabant, 417. Weissenberg, the battle of, 319. Tiberiad, the battle of, 169. Vandals, the, 39, 72. Weisthiimer, the, 200. INDEX. 487 Wenceslas, the Bohemian, 201, 224. Wippo, the biographer and poet, 137, Wurmser, General, 423. deposition of, 221. 141. Wirtemberg, union of, 242. Wendish league, the, 188. Wittekind, the Saxon, 92. Wycliffe, John, the Reformer, 224. Wenzeslaus, the Bohemian, 118. Wittelsbach, the house of, 180. Wyd, the, 202. Werner of Kyburg, 138, 190. Wittenberg, Charles V. at, 290. Werner of Mentz, 205. - riots at, 261. XERES de la Frontera, the battle of, 8& Western empire, the renewal of, 126. the house of, 180. Westphalia, 32, 200.- university of, 256 YORK, the school of, 104. treaty of, 346, 347. Wittstock, the battle of, 342. Westphalian league, the, 188. Wladislas, Jagello, 233. ZACHARY, Pope, 186. Westphalians, the, 66. Wladislas of Bohemia, 160. Ziihringen, the house of, 181. Westro-Goths, the, 66, 72. Wladislas of Hungary, 228. Zeal of Frederick the emperor for edu Widukind, the historian, 117. Wodan, the German idol, 30. cation and science, 175. William III. of Britain, 360, 364. Wolfgang, William, 312. Zeithen, General, 387. ------ death of, 366. Wolfram of Eschenbach, 191. Zeitz, the battle of, 456. William of Ilolland, 177. Wolfram the knight, 136. Zend language, the, 15. William of Utrecht, 149. Worms, assembly of prelates at, 148. Zeno, the battle of, 79. William Tell, 211. desolation of, 361. Zorndorf, the battle of, 394. Willibrod, the monk, 85. diet of, 1495, 243. Zuider Zee, the, 51. Willigis of Mentz, 131. diet of, 1521, 259. Zulpich, the battle of, 78. WIinmpfen, the battle of, 320. diet of, 1545, 277. Zurich, the battle of, 427. Windiler, the, 20. --- edict of, 260. Zurichers, the, 44. WVinefred of Mentz, 86. - - Luther at, 259. Zwentibolt of Moravia,'109. VWinterfelt, General, 386, 390 Wrede of Bavaria, 464. Zwingli, Ulric, the Swiss Reformer, 276, T-rIE nnD,