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T H E


CENTENNIAL HISTORY
OF THE
UNITED STATES.
FRO1M


THE DISCOVERY
OF THE
AMERICAN CONTINENT
TO THIE


CLOSE OF THE FIRST CENTURY
OF
HMERICAN INDEPENDENCE.
BY
JAMES D MCCABE,
AUTHOR OF "A MANUAL OF GENERAL HISTORY," "PATHWAYS OF THE HOLT LAND," "HISTORY OF THE WAR
BETWEEN GERMANY AND FRANCE," "THE GREAT REPUBLIC," ETC., ETC.
EMBELLISHED WITH 442 FINE HISTORICAL ENGRAVINGS AND PORTRAITS.
Issued by subscription only, and not for sale in the book stores. Residents of any State desiring a copy should
addrers the Publishers, and an Agent will call upon them. See page 1Y2.
PUBLISHED BY
THE NATIONAL PUBLISHING COMPANY,
PIIILADELPIIA, PA., CHICAGO, ILL., ST; LOUIS, IMo., AND COLUMBUS, OHIO(.




Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by
J. R. JONES,
In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.




PREFACE.
WHERE is nothing more worthy of a man's study than the
history of his country  In our own land, however, the
-     means of pursuing such a study are limited. Our great
cities contain large and valuable public libraries, and
the collections of our historical societies are rich and very complete; but these are accessible only to the communities in which
they are located, and arie practically useless to the majority of
the American people.   The great works of Bancroft and
Hildreth cover but a portion of our history, and are removed
from the reach of the masses by reason of their costliness.
Besides these, the larger number of the works treating of American history are compendiums, or outlines intended for the use
of schools, and are therefore unsatisfactory to the adult reader
The demand for a popular History of the United States which
shall fill a place between these greater and smaller works has
led the author to the preparation of this volume. He has
endeavored to popularize the story of the nation, and at the
same time to neglect nothing that could in the least contribute
to a clear and comprehensive understanding of the subject. IHe
has sought to trace the history of the Republic from the dllscovery of the American continent to the present day, and llas
endeavored especially to fix the attention of the reader upon
the various influences which have aided in moulding our
national character, and have produced those distinctive political
a;id moral national traits which we call "American Institu3




PREFA CE.


tions."  IIe has endeavored to write from a broad national
standpoint, and to cultivate in the minds of his readers that
feeling of national patriotism which must ever be the safeguard
of our country
It is a fitting time to consider the story of the past, to learn
the lessons which it teaches, and to ponder the warnings which
it conveys for the future. On tie 4th of July, 1876, the
United States of America will complete the first century of
their national existence  The people of this country can look
back upon this period with pride, and in this feeling may justly
embrace the whole course of our history   Less than four
hundred years ago America was an unknown wilderness. Less
than three centuries ago it passed into the hands of England,
and was thus secured for the language and the free influences
of the all-conquering Anglo-Saxon race. It was a precious
heritage which was thus secured for liberty, a land stretching
from the frozen regions of the north to the sunny skies of the
tropics, from the stormiy Atlantic to the calm Pacific; a land
enbracing every variety of climate, and a soil capable of
producing almost every product of the earth, from the stunted
herbage of the frozen regions to the luxuriant fruits of the
tropics.  The earth is rich in mineral deposits, from  the
homely, but invaluable, veins of coal, to beds of the most
brilliant and precious minerals. It pours out in streams, oil for
burnin, gas that may be used fresh from the natural springs,
salt that requires but the hent of the sun for its perfection, and
beds of pure soda that cover the earth like the dust in the
higlnhways. In short, all that is needed for the preservation
and comfort of animal and human life exists in this favored
land in the greatest profusion.
Such is the land designed by God for the home of liberty
The people to whom He has intrusted it have not abused His




PRE'ACE


goodness. In the short space of two centuries, the American
people have grown from a small handful of hardy adventurers
to a "mighty continental nation," increasing with a rapidity
that is almost marvellous. They have built up their country
on a scale of magnificence of which they are justly proud.
They have covered it with powerful and free States, and splendid cities, connected by a network of railways, telegraphs,
navigable rivers, and canals, which bind all the scattered parts
into one solid whole. They have made a commerce and a
system of manufactures before which the fabled wealth of Tyre
sinks into insignificance.  They have created a literature
which commands the respect of the world; they have illustrated their history with deeds of arms not less splendid than
their more peaceful achievements, and have given to the world
names in every walk of life that will never die. They have
shown that liberty and power can go hand in hand; they have
made themselves a nation in which God is feared, and of which
Christianity is the basis, in which ignorance and vice are
despised, and in which the great lesson that liberty is possible
only to an educated and virtuous people is being practically
demonstrated.
This is a grand history-a record of the highest achievements
of humanity-the noblest, most thrilling, and glorious story
ever penned on earth. Yet the fact remains that the great
mass of the American people are but imperfectly acquainted
with it. There is a real need that we should know better than
we do what we have done. It is only by a thoughtful study of
our past that we can safely provide for the perils of the future.
We have triumphed over adversity, and we are now called
upon to bear the test of success. He can be no good citizen
who is ignorant of his country's history
In the preparation of this volume no authority of importance




PREFA CE


has been overlooked; the author has carefully searched every
source of information open to him; and has availed himself of
every fact that could throw new light upon, or impart additional interest to, the subject under consideration.
In the narration of military events, he has preferred to give
each campaign as a whole rather than to mingle several by
presenting the events in chronological order  At the same
time he has sought to preserve the inter-relation of events in
one field of operations to those in the others.
An honest effort has been made to do justice to both sections
in the relation of the events of the civil war, and it is believed
that each will admit the fairness and accuracy of the narrative.
The author has made no attempt to intrude his own political
views upon the reader, and has constantly kept in mind the
purpose which has guided his labors-to write a national history
free from sectional or partisan bias, which shall be acceptable
to the whole country
The book is offered to the public in the sincere hope that it
may induce its readers to take to heart the lessons which our
history teaches, and to set a higher value upon the precious
heritage of constitutional liberty which our fathers won for us
with their blood, and handed down to us in trust for our
children's children.
October 19th, 1875.




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CONTENTS.
CHAPTER /.
PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS.
Earliest Inhabitants of the United States-The Mound Builder —Remarkable Works
constructed by them-Evidences of a Primitive Civilization-Indications of the Antiquity of this Period-The American Indians-Divisions of the Country among
the Tribes-Names and Location of the various Tribes-Organization and Government of the Indians-Their Dress, Manners, and Customs-Villages-Indian Inventions-The War Dance-Legends of the Norsemen respecting the Discovery of
America.................................................................................................. 3.
CHAPTER //
THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.
Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century-Theories respecting the Earth's
Surface-Christopher Columbus-His early Life-His Theory of a Western Passage to India-His Struggles to obtain the means of making a Voyage-Is aided
by Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain-His first Voyage-Discovery of AmericaReception in Spain-His second Voyage-Settlement of Hayti-Third Voyage of
Columbus-He reaches the Mainland-Discovery of Gold in Hayti-Troubles in
the Colony-Columbus sent to Spain in Irons-Indignation of the Queen-Last
Voyage of Columbus-His Shipwreck-Returns to Spain-Refusal of Ferdinand to
comply with his Promises-Death of Columbus-Amerigo Vespucci-Origin of the
name  AMERICA..........................................................................  45
CHAPTER III.
ENGLISH    AND FRENCH      DISCOVERIES.
Discovery of the North American Continent by John Cabot-Voyages of Sebastian
Cabot-The English fail to follow up these Discoveries-Efforts of the French to
explore America-Voyage and Discoveries of Verrazzani-Cartier explores the St.
Lawrence-Reaches Montreal-Efforts to found a Colony on the St. LawrenceFailure —Roberval's Colony-Trading Voyages-Explorations of ChamplainColonization of Nova Scotia-Founding of Quebec —Discovery of Lake Champlain
-Arrival of the Jesuits in Canada-Death of Champlain.........................   57




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER IV.
THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.
Settlement of the West Indies-Discovery of the Pacific Ocean-Voyage of Magellan
-Discovery of Florida-Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain "of YouthVasquez de Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of Indians-Effort of Pamphilo de Narvaez to
Conquer Florida-A Terrible March-The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico-Fate
of the Fleet-Escape of Cabeza de Vaca and his Comrades-Discovery of New
Mexico-Ferdinand de Soto-Obtains leave to Conquer Florida —Sails from Spain
-Arrival in Cuba-Departure for Florida-Landing at Tampa Bay-Events of the
first Year-De Soto enters Georgia-Descends the Alabama-Battle of MavillaDestruction of Chickasaw-Sufferings of the Spaniards-Discovery of the Mississippi
-The Spaniards Cross the Great River-De Soto in Arkansas-Reaches the Mississippi again-Sickness and Death of De Soto-His Burial-Escape of his Followers
to Mexico-The Huguenot Colony in Carolina-Its Failure-The French Settle in
Florida-Wrath of Philip II.-Melendez ordered to Exterminate the HuguenotsFoundation of St. Augustine-Massacre of the French at Fort Carolina-The Vengeance of De Gourges................................................................................. 68
CHAPTER V.
THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY
The English Claim to America-Voyages of Frobisher-Exploits of Sir Francis
Drake-Sir Humphrey Gilbert-Intends to found a Colony in America-Is lost
at Sea-Sir Walter Raleigh obtains a. Patent of Colonization-Discoveries of
Amidas and Barlow-Raleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia-Settlement on
Roanoke Island-Its Failure-Arrival of Grenville-Second Eflbrt of Raleigh to
Colonize Virginia-Roanoke Island again Settled-The "City of Raleigh "-Virginia Dare-Fate of the Colony-Death of Raleigh-Other Voyages of the English.. 86
CHAPTER VI.
THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.
Formation of the London Company-Conditions of its Charter-Departure of the
first Colony-Quarrels during the Voyage-Arrival in the Chesapeake-Settlement
of Jamestown-Formation of the Government-Character of Captain John SmithExploration of the James River-Newport and Smith visit Powhatan-Smith
Admitted to the Government-Explores the Chickahominy-Is Captured and Sentenced to Death —Is Saved by Pocahontas-Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for
the Colony-Returns to Jamestown-His Decisive Measures-Return of NewportSmith Explores the Chesapeake Bay-The new Emigrants-Smith compels them
to Labor-Smith is Wounded and compelled to return to England-Disasters to
the Cglony-Arrival of Sir Thomas Gates-Jamestown Abandoned-Arrival of
Lord Delaware-The Return to Jamestown-A      Change for the Better-New
Settlements-Sir Thomas Gates arrives with Reinforcements-Capture of Pocahontas by Captain Argall-She is Baptized-Marries John Rolfe-Sir Thomas
Dale's Administration-Yeardley Governor-The first Legislative AssemblyRepresentative Government established in America-The Colonists obtain WivesChanges in the Governmcnt................................................................ 94




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER VII.
PROGRESS OF THE VIPGINIA COLONY
Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia-Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict
Slavery-The Indians Attempt the Destruction of the Colony-Terrible Sufifrings
of the Whitus-Aid fiom England-The Indian War Begun-King James Revokes
the Charter of the London Company-Charles I. Desires a Monopoly of the
Tobacco Trade-Action of the Assembly-Sir William Berkeley's First Administration-Severe Measures against Dissenters-Close of the Indian War-Deatl of
Opechancanough-Emigration of Royalists to Virginia-Virginia and the Commonwealth-Treaty with England-Tlie Assembly Asserts its Independence of the
Governor-The Restoration-Berkeley Chosen Governor by the Assembly-His
H ypocrisy................................................................................................  113
CHAPTER VI/I.
VIRGINIA    AFTER THE RESTORATION.
Characteristics of the Virginians-Causes of the Success of the Royalists-Growth of
the Aristocratic Class-Berkeley decides against the People-The Aristocratic
Assembly Claims the Right to sit Perpetually-Deprives the Common People of
their Liberties-Revival of the Navigation Act by Charles II.-The King bestows
Virginia as a Gift upon his Favorites-Protests of the Assembly-Growing Hostility
of the Virginians to the Colonial Government-The Indian War-The Governor
Refises to allow the Colonists to Defend themselves-Nathaniel Bacon-He
Marches against the Indians-Rebellion of the People against Berkeley and the
Assembly-The Convention-Repeal of the Obnoxious Laws-Berkeley's Duplicity
-The People take up Arms-Flight of Berkeley-Destruction of JamestownDeath of Bacon-Causes of the Failure of the Rebellion-Berkeley's TriumphExecution of the Patriot Leaders-Berkeley's Course Condemned by the KingDeath of Berkeley-The Unjust Laws Re-enacted-Lord Culpepper Governor-His
Extortions-James II. and Virginia-Effects upon Virginia of the Revolution of
1C38-William and Mary College Founded.................................  11
CHAPTER IX.
THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND.
Extent of the Territory of Virginia-Clayborne's Trading-Posts established-Sir
George Calvert, Lord Baltimore-Becomes interested in American ColonizationObtains a Grant of Maryland-Terms of the Charter-A Colony sent out-Arrival
in the Chesapeake-St. Mary's Founded-Character of the Colony-Friendly Relations established with the Indians-First Legislature of Maryland-Trouble with
Clayborne-Rapid Growth of the Colony-Progress of Popular Liberty-Policy
respecting the Treatment of the Indians-Clayborne's Rebellion-Law granting
Religious Toleration enacted-Condition of Maryland under the CommonwealthThe People declared Supreme-Lord Baltimore recovers his Proprietary RightsCharacteristics of the Colony-Rapid Increase in Population-Charles Calvert,
Governor-Death of the second Lord Baltimore-Roman Catholics disfranchisedMaryland becomes a Royal Province-Triumph of the Protestants-Annapolis
made the Seat of Government-Restoration of the Proprietary Government-Continnpri Prnanpr;tv ntf MT'rvlanr.l




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER X.
THE PILGRIM     FATHERS.
'ise of the Puritans-Their Increase in England-They are Persecuted by the
English Church and Government-Conduct of James I.-His Hatred of Puritanism-Puritans take Refuge in Holland-The Congregation of John Robinson-They
Escape to Holland-Tle Pilgrims-Their Sojourn at Leyden-They wish to Emigrate to Virginia-Failure of their Negotiations with the London Company-They
form a Partnership in England-A Hard Bargain-Departure of the Pilgrims from
Holland-Voyage of the "Mayflower "-Arrival in New England-The Agreement
on board the " Mayflower "-Carver chosen Governor-Settlement of PlymouthTile first Winter in New England-Sufferings of the Pilgrims-Arrival of new
Emigrants-Continued Suffering-Assignment of Lands-Friendly Intercourse
with Indians-Samoset and Squanto-Visit of Massasoit-A Threat of WarBradford's Defiance-Weston's Men-A Narrow Escape-The Colonists Purchase
the Interests of their English Partners-Lands Assigned in Fee Simple-The
Colony Benefited by the Change-Government of Plylnouth-Steady Growth of the
Colony...................................................................................................  147
CHAPTER XI
SETTLEMENT OF MIASSACHU-SETTS AND           RHODE ISLAND.
Settlement of New Hampshire-The English Puritans determine to form a new
Colony in America-The Plymouth Council-A Colony sent out to Salem under
Endicott-Colonization of Massachusetts Bay begun-A Charter obtained-Concessions of the King-Progress of the Salem Colony-The Charter and Government
of the Colony removed to New England-Arrival of Governor Winthrop-Settlement of Boston-Sufferings of the Colonists-Roger Williams-His Opinions give
offence to the Authorities-The Success of the Bay Colony established-Growth ol
Popular Liberty-The Ballot Box-Banishment of Roger Williars-He goes into
the Wilderness-Founds Providence-Growth of Williams's Colony-Continued
growth of Massaclusetts-Arrival of Sir Henry Vane-Is elected Governor-Mrs,
Anne Hutclinson-The Antinomian Controversy-Mrs. Hutchinson banishedSettlement of Rhode Island-Murder of Mrs. Hutchinson.................................  C
CHAPTER XII
COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT.
The Dutch Claim the Connecticut Valley-They build a Fort at Hartford —(, eretflr
Winslow makes a Lodgment in Connecticut for the English-Withdrawal or the
Dutch-Tle First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut-Emigration of
Hooker and his Congregation-They Settle at Hartford-Winthrop builas a Fort
at Saybrooke-Hostility of the Indians-Visit of Roger Williams to Miantonolmoh
-A Brave Deed-Thie Pequod War-Capture of the Indian Fort-Dlestruction of
the Pequod Tribe-Effect of this War upon the other Tribes-Con:e,.ticut Adopts a
Constitution-Its Peculiar Features-Settlement of New Haven......................... 1S




C'~ThNE'TAS.S.


11


CHAPTER XIII
THE UNION OF THE NEW          ENGLAND COLONIES.
Feeling of the Colonies towards England-Hostility of the English Government to
New England-Efforts to Introduce Episcopacy-Ma1ssachusetts Threatens IPc.i-tance-Tle Revolution in England-Establishment of Free Schools in New England-Harvard College-The Printing Press-The Long Parliament Friendly to
New England-The United Colonies of New England-Rhode Island obtains;a
Charter —Maine Annexed to MIassachusetts-The Quakers are Persecuted-Efforts
to Christianize the Indians-John Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians..................... 1
CHAPTER XIV
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.
Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II.-The Regicides in New England
-Tley are Protected-Revival of the Navigation Acts-Effect of this measure upon
the New England Colonies-Massachusetts delays the Proclamation of the KingConnecticut obtains a Charter-Union of New Haven with the Connecticut Colony
-Rhode Island given a new Charter-Massachusetts settles her difficulties with
the Crown-Changes in the Government-High-handed acts of the Royal Commissioners-Troubles with the Indians-Injustice of the Whites-King Philip's War
-A Forest Hero-An Incident in the Attack upon Hadley-Sufferings of the Colonies-Destruction of the Narragansetts-Death of Philip-Close of the WAar-England asserts her right to Tax the Colonies-Massachusetts buys Gorges' claims to
Maine-New Hampshire made a separate Province-James II. revokes the Charter
of Massachusetts-Dudley and Randolph in New England-Andros appointed
Governor-General-His Tyranny-He demands the Charter of Connecticut-It is
carried away and Hidden-The Charter Oak-Fall of James II.-The people of
Massachusetts take up Arms-Andros arrested-Effects of the Revolution upon
New England...................................................................................... 198
CHAPTER XV.
WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS.
Results of the Failure of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter-The New CharterLoss of the Liberties of the Colony-Union of Plymouth with Massachusetts BayBelief in Witchcraft-The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetts-The Case of
the Goodwin Children-Cotton Mather espouses the Cause of the WitchesSamuel Parris-He Originates the Salem Delusion-A Strange History-A Special
Court Appointed for the Trial of the Witches-The Victims-Execution of the Rev,
George Burroughs-Cotton Mather's Part in the Tragedies-The General Court
takes Action in behalf of the People-End of the Persecution-Failure of Cotton
Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit............................................................... 216




1 2                              CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XVI
THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW          YORK.
Voyages of Henry Hliudson-He is Employed by the Dutch-Discovery of tile Iludson River-Early Dutch Voyv'ages-Adrian Block-Fate of Hudson-The Dutch
build a Fort on Manhattan Island —Settlement of New Amsterdam-The Province
named New Net!herlands-Fort Nass:u —Peter Minuits Governor-The Dutch Settlement of Delaware-Wouter Van Twiller-Kieft Governor-His Unjust Treatment of the Indians-Massacre of the Indians at Iloboken-The Indian War-Stuyvesant Appointed (Governor-Disputes with the English in Connecticut-The Swedes
Settle Delaware-Stuyvesant Captures the Swedish Forts-Growth of New Amsterdam-Disputes between the People and Governor-Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty-Tihe People Appeal to the States General-Capture of New Netherlands by
the English-The Name of the Province changed to New York-Results of the
English Conquest-Progress of New Jersev —:Andros Governor of New York-He
Fails to Establish his Authority over Connecticut-New York allowed an Assembly-Discontents of the People-Leisler's Rebellion-Execution cf Leisler and
Milbourne-Fletcher Governor-His Attempt to obtain Command of the Connecticut Militia-Episcopacy Established in New York-The Freedom of the Press
Sustained-New Jersey a Royal Province...................................................... 22
CHAPTER XVII
COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA.
The Quakers-Their Origin and Doctrines-William Penn-Becomes a Quaker-Is
Persecuted for his Religious Opinions-Becomes Interested in American Colonization-Purchases West Jersey from the Proprietor-Conceives the Idea of Founding
a Free State in America-Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II.-Conditions of
his Charter-Sends out a Colony-Arrival of Penn in America-Philadelphia
Founded-Penn's Treaty with the Indians-Religious Toleration GuaranteedPenn's Relations with his Colonists-Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Population and Prosperity-William Penn and James II.-Renewal of Penn's Troubles
-William III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province-Penn is Vindicated and
Restored to his Proprietary Rights-His Return to Pennsylvania-Character of
the Settlers of the Province-Penn Goes Back to England-Efforts to deprive him
of his Possessions-His Death...................................................................... 255
CHAPTER XVIII.
SETTLEMENT OF 'THE CAROLINAS.
Gradual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia-Charles II. grants Carolina
to Clarendon and others-The "Grand Model "-An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed
for Carolina-The Authority of the Proprietaries Established in North CarolinaContinued Settlement of that Region-Characteristics of the Early Settlers of
North Carolina-The People Reject the Grand Model-Hostility of England to the
Colonial Commerce-Insurrection in North Carolina-Slothel Governor-Settlement of South Carolina-Charleston Founded-Thle Proprietary Constitutions
Rejected by South Carolina-Rapid Growth of the Colony-Introduction of Slavery
-Characteristics of the Early Settlers of South Carolina-Efforts to Enforce the




CON'TE. NT;S.


13


Navigation Acts-Resistance of the People-The Proprietaries Aba\ndon their Constitutions-Archdale's  Reforms-Religious  Intolerance-Establishment of the
Chllrch of England in South Carolina-Action of the Crown-Continued Prosperity of South Carolina-(;overnor Moore Attacks St. Augustinle-Failure of tlhe
Efirt-The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture ('larleston —Indian
War in North Carolina-The Tuscaroras Driven Northward-Wlar with the Yte.massees-Destruction of their Power-Separation of the Carolinas............................270
CHAPTER XIX.
SETTLEMENT O)F GEORGIA.
General James Edward Oglethorpe-His Eflbrts to Reform Prison Discipline of England-Proposes to Found a Colony in America for the Poor and for Prisoners for
Debt-A Charter Obtained from the King-Colonization of Georgia-Salvarnah
Settled-First Years of the Colony-Labors of Oglethorpe-Arrival of New Enligrants-Augusta Founded —The Moravian Settlements-The \'eslcyvs in AimericaGeorge \Whitefield —War between England and Spain-Ogle'horpe Invaldes Fllorida
-Failure of the Attack upon St. Augustine-Tle Spaniards Invade (;,,rgia —)glethorpe's Stratagem-Its Success-Battle of " Bloody Marslh "-('lose of tlhe WarCharges against Oglethorpe-Hii s Vindication-His Leturn to IEurole-Chlan;es in
the Colonial Government-Introduction of Slavery into G;eorgia-Prosperity,f tlle
Colony..................................................................  2
CHAPTER XX
THE FRENC'H IN THE VALLEY            OF THE MISSISSIPPIx   I.
Origin of the Hostility of the Iroquois to the French-Settlement of Canada-Plans
of the French respecting tile Indians-The Jesuits-Thleir Work in AmericaSuccess of their Missions-The Early Missionariecs-Folindation of a ( oichle  at
Quebec-Efforts of the Jesuits to ('onvert the Iroquois-Father Joguces —DI)e tlh of
Ahasistari-Father Alloiiez-The Missions on tlie Upper Lakes-Father Marquette
-His Exploration of the Upper Mi.ssissippi-Deatli of Marquette-La SalleEfforts of France to Seculre the Valley of the Mississippi-La Salle l)escends tlie
Mississippi to its Mouth-His Effort to Colonize the Lower Mississippi-Tlhe First
Colony in Texas-Its Failure —1),ath of La Sllle-Lemoine( d'Ibberville-Settlement of Louisiana-Colony of Biloxi-Settlement of Mobilt-Crozat's Monopoly
-Foundiin o)t New (Orleans-Detroit Founded-Slow GCrowtll of the French ( olonics-Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the Frencl-Wars with the Indians-Extermination of the Natchez Tribe-War with the Chickasaws.......................   29
CHAPTER XXI
THE ENGLISI      AND FRENCH       CO)ME IN C(')NFLICT.
Relations between the English and the Five Nations-The Iostility of the Latter to
the French-King William's War-Destruction of Dover-The Jesuit Missionaries
incite the Indians to attack the English-Expedition against Quebec-Attack on
Dustin's Farm-Peace of Ryswick-Hostilitv of the English to Roman CatliolicsQueen Anne's War-Burning of Decrfield-Eunice Williams-Crueltics of the
French-Effort of New England to Conquer Acadia-Capture of Port Royal



CONTENTS.


Failllre of the Expedition against Quebec-King Gcorge's War-Ex(pedition
against Louisburg-Its Composition-Arrival of the Fleet at (ape Bretoll-Good
Conduct of the Provincials-Capture of Louisburg-Treaty of Aix-la-ClapelleUnjtist 'reatmenlt of the Colonics by England-Sentiment of the Americans
towards England.................................. 31
CHAPTER XXII
THE FIZENCIH AND INDIAN         WAR.
England Claims the Valley of the Ohio-Organization of the Ohio Company-The
Frenci extendt tlieir Posts into thle Ohio Country-NWashington's Mission to the
French at Fort Duqulesic -IIis Journey-Reception by tile Frencli-His Journey
IHmne-A Perilous Undertaking-Organization of tile Virginia Forces-Washington made Second in Command-Tlic French Drive the Englisll from tile Head
of tlhe Ohio-Fort Duquesne Built by them-Washington Crosses tile Mountains
-Tlie Fight at Great Meadows-Beginning of tile French and Indian War-Surrender of Fort Necessity to the I'rench-Unjist Treatment of tlhe Colonial Officers
-Congress of the Colonies at New York-Franklin's Plan of a Union of the Colonics-Its Failure-Reasons of tile British Government for Rejecting it-England
assumes tile Direction of thec War-Arrival of General Braddock-Plan of Campaign-Obstinacy of Braddock —le Passes tle Mountains-Defeat of BraddockHeroism of Washington-Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Mountains-Vigorous
action of Pennsylvania-Armstrong defeats tile Indians and burns tle town of
Kittanning..............................................................................
CHAPTER XXIII
THE FRENCH      AND    INDIAN WVAR-CONTINUED.
Expedition against Acadia-Brutal Treatment of the Acadians-They are Expelled
fron tleir Country-A Sad Stor —Fate of tile Acadians-Johnson at Lake George
-MIarch of Dieskau-Battle of Lake George-Failure of Shirley's ExpeditionArrival of tile Earl of Loudon-Mlontcalm in Canada-Capture of Oswego by the
French —Outrages of the Earl of London upon New York and Philadelphia —Expedition against Louisburg-How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French-Capture of
Fort William Henry by Montcalm-Massacre of the Prisoners by the IndiansEfforts of Montcalm to save them-The 'Lval Officrs attempt to cover their Failures by outraging the Colonies......................................... 356
CHAPTER XXIV
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR-CONCLUDED.
A Change for tile Better-William Pitt Prime Minister-Vigorous Measures Adopted
-1-tec;ll of the Earl of Loudon-Capture of Louisburg-Abercrombie on Lake
George-Advances against Ticonderoga-Death of Lord Howe-Failure of the
Engli.li attack upon Ticonderoga-Disgracefil conduct of Abercrombie-His lRetreat
-Caplture of Fort Frontenac-.Advance of General Forbes-Grant's Defeat-The
Vih ginians again save the Regulars-Capture of Fort Duqulesne-Washington retires
from the Army-Ticonderoga and Crown Point (occulpied by tile English-Capture
of Fort Niagara-The Expedition against Quebec-Failure of the first Opera



CONTEN TS.


15


tions-Despondency of Wolfe-He Discovers a Landing-place-The Army scales
the IHeights of Abrahamn-Montcalm's Surprise-Battle of the Plains of Abraham
-Death of Wolfe-Defeat of the French-Deatl of Montcalm         Surrender of
Quebec-Capture of Montreal-Treaty of Paris-Canada ceded to England-France
loses all her American Possessions-The Cherokee War-Hostility of tle Indians
to the English-Pontiac's War-Death of Pontiac-Bouquet relieves Fort Duquesne
-Rcsults of the War................................................................ 36
CHAPTER XXV
CAUSES OF TIHE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
Injustice of Great Britain towards her Colonies-Tlhe Navigation Acts-Effects of
these Laws upon the Colonics-(;reat Britain seeks to (lestroy the IManufactures of
America-Writs of Assistance-They arc Opposed —IHome Manufactures Encouraged by the Americans-Ignorance of Englishmen concerning Amenrica-Great
Britain claims the Right to Tax America-Resistance of the ( oloni.ts-Samnuel
Adams-Thle Parsons' Ca use-Patrick Henry-England persists in her Determination to Tax Amlerica-Passage of the Stamp Act-Resistance of the ('olonies-Meeting of the First Colonial Congress-Its Aciion-William Pitt-Repeal of the Stamp
Act-Franklin before the House of Commons-New Taxes ilmp, sel upon America
-Increased Resistance of the Colonies-Troops quartered in Boston-The " Massacre "-The Non-Importation Associations —; rowth of Hostility to EnglandBurning of the "Gaspe "-Thec Tax on Tea retained by the King-Destruction of
Tea at Boston-Wrath of the British Government-Boston Harbor Clsced-Troops
Quartered in Boston-The Colonies come to the Assistance of Boston-Action of
the Virginia As:cmbly-(General Gage in Boston-Thle Rcgulating Act-Its Failure
-Gage seizes tile Massachusetts Powder-Ulrising of the (Colony —Meeting of the
Continental Congress-Its Action-Addresses to the King and People of EnglandThe Earl of Chathaml's Indorsemlent of Congress-Thle King remains Stubborn...... 390
CHAPTER XXVI
THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.
Gage fortifies Boston Neck-He summons the General Court-Recalls his Proclamation-The Provincial Congress of Massachusetts-It takels [casures for DefenceThe Militia Organized-'The Minute Men-Friends of America in England-Gage
resolves to seize the Stores at Concord-lMidnight March of tlhe Britislh Troops-Tlle
Alarm given-Skirmishes at Lexington and C'oncord-R-etreat of the British-A
terrible March-Uprising of New England-Boston Invested-Dunmore seizes the
Virginia Powder-Is made to pay for it-Utprising of tile Middle and Soutlhcrn
Colonies-TIhe Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence-Capture of Ticonderoga
and Crown Point-Meeting of the Second Continental Congress-Congress resolves
to sustain Massachusetts-Renewed Efforts for Peace-Congress assumes the (e;ncral
Government of the Colonies-A Federal Union Organized-Its Claracter-A Continental Army formed-George VWashington appointed Commander-in-chief-General Officers appointed-Condition of the Army before Boston-Inaction of GageBattle of Breed's Hill-A glorious Defence- The Battle equivalent to a Victory in
its effects upon the Country-Arrival of Washington at Cambridge-He takes C(ommnand of the Army-Ie reorganizes the Army-Difficulties of the lndecrtakingThe Invasion of Canada resolved upon-March of Montgomery and Arnold-Rapid




CON TENTS.


Successes of Montgomery-He captures Montreal-March of Arnold through the
Wilderness-Arrival before Quebec-Forms a Junction with Montgomery-The
Siege of Quebec-The Ice Forts-Failure of the Attack-Death of MontgomeryRetreat of the Americans from   Canada-Lord Dunmore's War in VirginiaDestruction of Norfolk-The Thirteen United Colonies-Burning of FalmouthNaval Matters-Action of Great Britain-The War to be carried on-The Hessians. 421
CHAPTER XXVII
THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.
The Siege of Boston-Difficulties of the American Army-Activity of the Privateers
-Clinton's Expedition-Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with CannonSeizure of Dorchester Heights by Washington-The British Evacuate BostonRoyalist Plots in New York-Paper Money Issued by Congress-Gates sent to the
North-The British Attack Charleston-Battle of Fort Moultrie-The Howes in
New York Bay-Change in the Character of the War-Growing Sentiment in Favor
of Independence-Virginia Proposes that the Colonies Assert their IndependenceAction of Congress-The Declaration of Independence-Articles of Confederation
Adopted by Congress-Lord Howe's Efforts at Conciliation-Addresses a Letter to
W'ashington-Battle of Long Island-Defeat of the Americans-Retreat from Long
Island —Evacuation of New York by the Americans-Loss of Fort WashingtonWashington Retreats through New Jersey-He Crosses the Delaware-Darkest
Period of the War-Washington's Determination to Continue the War-Lord
Howe ' Proclamation-Its Effect-Congress at Baltimore-Carleton Invades New
York-Defeats Arnold on Lake Cham plain-Carleton Retires into Canada-Battle
of Trenton-Happy Effects of the Victory-Congress confers Dictatorial Powers
upon Washington-Commissioners sent to France............................................. 450
CHAPTER          XXVIII.
THE YEAR 1777
Howe attempts to Crush Washington-Battle of Princeton-The British Confined to
the Secaboard-Recovery of New Jersey-The American Army in Winter Quarters
at'Morristown-Effects of the American Successes-Difficulty of Procuring Troops
-Waslington Refuses to Exchange Prisoners-His Course Approved by Congress
-Measures of CLongress-Naval Affairs-Tryon Burns Danbury — Gallantry of Arnold
-Troubles in the Northern Department-Congress Adopts a National Flag-t" The
Stars and Stripes"-Course of France towards the United States-France decides to
Assist the Americans-Lafayette-His arrival in America-Capture of the British
General Prescott-Howe threatens Philadelphia-Washington moves SouthwardBattle of the Brandywine-Washington Retreats to the Schuylkill-W-ayne's Defeat
at Paoli-Philadelphia Evacluated by the Americans-It is Occupied by the British
-Battle of Germantown-The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware-They
are Abandoned by the Americans-Burgoyne's Army in Canada-Advance of Burgoyne into New York-Investment of Ticonderoga-It is Abandoned by the Americans-The Retreat to Fort Edward-Burgoyne reaches the Hudson-Murder of
Miss McCrea-Siege of Fort Schuyler-Battle of Bennington-Critical Situation of
Burgoyne-Gates in Command of the American Army-Battles of Behmus' Heights
and Stillwater-Surrender of Burgoyne's Army-Clinton in the Highlands............ 43




CO   ''TEI' 81'S.


17


CHAPTER XXIX
AID FROM, ABROAD.
Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge-Appeals of Washington to Congress-Tlhe
British in Philadelphia-The Conway Cabal-Its Disgraceful Failure-Efibrts to
Improve the Army-Worthlessness of Continental Bills-General Lee Exchanged
-lEffect of Burgoyne's Surrender upon England-The King is Forced to Agree to
Measures of Conciliation-Action of France-Louis XVI. Recognizes the Independence of the United States-Alliance Between the United States and I'ranceFailure of the British Measures of Conciliation-Clinton Evacuates Philadelphi:aBattle of Monmouth-General Lee Dismissed from the Arnv-Attack upon _Newport-Its Failure —Withdrawal of the French Fleet to the West Indies-Outrages
of the British on Long Island Sound-Massacre of Wyoming-The Winter of
1779-SO-The Army in Winter Quarters-Robert Morris-Condition of Congre-sGeorgia Subdued by the British-Prevost Attempts to take Charleston-Siege of
Savannah-Its Failure-Capture of Stony Point-Capture of Paulus IHook-The
Indians Punished-Naval Affairs-Exploits of John Paul Jones-Evacuation of
Newport-Settlement of Kentucky-Conquest of the Illinois Country by George
Rogers Clarke-Settlement of Tennessee......................................................... 513
CHAP TER XXX
THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.
Severity af the Winter of 1779-80-Sufferings of the American Army-Clinton Sails
for the Carolinas-Colonel Tarleton-Capture of Charleston-Conquest of South
Carolina-Gates in Command of the Southern Army-Battle of Camden-Exploits
of Marion and Sumter-Advance of Cornwallis-Battle of King's Mlountain-Gates
Succeeded by General Greene-Knyphausen's Expeditions into New JerseyArrival of the French Fleet and Army-Arnold's Treason-The Plot for the Betrayal of West Point-Arrest of Major Andre-Flight of Arnold-Execution of
Andre-Mutiny of the Pennsylvania and New Jersey Troops-Measures of Congress-Arnold Captures Richmond, Virginia-Battle of the Cowpens-Masterly Retreat of General Greene-Cornwallis Baffled-Battle of Guilford Court HouseCornwallis at Wilmington-Battle of Hobkirk's Hill-Siege of Ninety-Six-Execu'tion of Colonel Hayne-Battle of Eutaw Springs-Washington Decides to Attack
New York-The French Army on the Hudson-Financial Affairs-Resumption of
Specie Payments-Message from the Count De Grasse-Cornwallis at YorktownThe American Army Moves Southward-Siege of Yorktown-Surrender of Cornwallis-Effect of the News in England-Indian Troubles-Efforts in England for
Peace-Negotiations Opened-Treaty of Paris-End of the War-The Army Disbanded-Washington Resigns his Commission................................................. 536
CHAPTER XXXI.
THE ADOPTION OF THE CONSTITUTION-WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION.
Unsettled Condition of the Country-Failure of the Articles of Confederation-Desire
for Reform-Meeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia-The Constitution
of the United States-Adoption of a Decimal Currency-The Northwest Territory




CONTEN~TS.


-Washlington Elected President —His Journey to New York- Estallishment of tle
New (;overnlnnt-The First Cabinet-Financial Measures-Removal of the Capital agreed upon —Tlhe Government at Philadelphia-The First Census-Tlie Indians of the Northwest ('onquered —Re-election of Washington-Division of Partics-Tlie French Revolution-Tlic l'nitel States Neutral-Citizen C'nect-Etfforts
to Commit the United States to the French Alliance-Genet's Recall DemandedThe " Whiskey Insurrection "-Jay's Treaty with England-Opposition to it-Negotiations with Algiers-Political I)isputes-Hostility to Washington-His Farcwell Alddress-Its Effect upon the Country-Election of John Adams to the Presidency-A lmission of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee-Retirement of Washington-Results of his Administration............................................................ 570
CHAPTER XXXII
TILE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN           ADAMS AND THOMAS JEFFER'SON.
Inaluuration of John Adams-Aggressions of France upon the United States-The.American Commissionelrs Insulted by the Frencl Government-Thle Alien and Scdition Laws-Thle United States Prepare for War with France-France Signifies
her Willingness to Treat-New Commissioners appointed-Settlement of the Dispute-Hostilities at Sea —Capture of the ''Insurgente" and " Vengeance"-Deatli of
Washington-Removal of the Capital to Washington City-Tlle Second CensusInauguration of Thomas Jefferson-The President's Message-His First Measures
— Admission of Ohio-Louisiana Purchased by the United States-War with the
Barbary Powers-Burning of the " Philadelphia"-Re-election of Mr. JeffersonAaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel-Burr's Subsequent CareerFulton's Steamboat-Ou(trages of England and France upon American Commerce
-American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by EnglandEfforts to Settle tlese Questions-Afliair of the "Chesapeake" and "Leopard "The Embargo,-PiL silts of this Measure-Losscs of the Eastern States-Election
of James Madison to tle Presilency-Repeal of the Embargo-Retirement of Mr.
Jefferson............................................................................ 58.CHAPTER XXXIII.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON-THE SECOND WAR WITH
ENGLAND.
Inauguration of Mr. Madison-Negotiations with Mr. Erskine-Their Failure-Seizure of American Vessels in France-Sufferings of American Ship-Owners-Great
Britain Stations her Ships of War off American Ports-Affair of the "President"
and "Little Belt"-Trouble with the Northwestern Indians-Tecumseh-Battle of
Tippecanoe-Meeting of the Twelfth Congress-Measures for Defence-Admission
of Louisiana into the Union-Death of George Clinton-The British UltimatumWar Declared against Great Britain-Opposition to the War-The British Offer
of Settlement Rejected-The War for "Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights"-Mr.
Madison Re-elected-Campaign of 1812-Preparations for the Invasion of Canada
-General H,11l Surrenders Detroit to the British-Loss of the Northwestern Frontier-Failure of the Attack on Queenstown-Exploits of the Navy-Capture of the
" Guerriere" by tlhe " Constitution "-The Privateers-Russia offers to Mediate
between the United States and Flnig land-Financial Atfairs-Harrison's Campaign
-Massacre at the River Raisin-Defence of Forts Meigs and Stephenson-Perry's




CONTENTVYS.


19


Victory on Lake Erie-Battle of the Thames-Death of Tecumrnsch-Recovery
of the Northwest-Calpture of York-British Attack on Sackett's Hlarbor Relplsed
-Removal of General Dearborn-Failure of tile (ampaign on tlle Lower Lakes
-Tle Creek War-Jackson's Victories-Naval Affliirs-The British Outrages in
Chesapeake Bay-Negotiations for Peace-Capture of Fort Erie-Battles of Chippewa and Lundv's Lane-Siege of Fort Erie-Successes of the Americans-Adlvance
of Prevost-Battle of Plattsburgh-Macdonough's Victory on Lake ChamplainBattle of Bladensburg- 'apture of Washington-Destruction of thle Public Buildings by the Britisl-Attack on Baltimore-Death of General Ross-" The StarSpangled Banner "-The British Attack on the New England (Coast-Opposition
of New England to the War-The Iartford Convention-The British in Florida
-General Jackson expels them —Jackson at New Orleans-Arrival of the British
Expedition off the Coast-Vigorous Measures of Jackson-Battle of New Orleans
-Defeat of the Britisl —Naval Affairs-The Treaty of Peace-Tle Barbary Powers
IIIumbled-The Tariff —The Bank of tle United States-Admission of IndianaJames Monroc elected President........................................... 600
CHAPTER XXXIV
ADMINISTRATI(ONS OF JAMES MONROE AN-I) JOhIN QUINCY ADAM.,-.
Inauguration of Mr. Monroe-Iis Tour through the Eastern States-Admis.ion of
Mississippi into the Union-Troubles with the Indians-General Jackson s Vigorous
Measure; against the Spaniards in Florida-Purchase of Florida by the Uiited
States-Illinois becomes a Statc —The First Steamship-Maine admitted into the
Union-Tlhe Slavery Question-The Missouri Compromise-Admission of Missouri
as a State-The Fourth Census —Re-election of Mr. Monroe-The Tariff-Protective Policy of the Government-Rtecognition of the Spanish Republics-The Monroe Doctrine-Visit of Lafayette to the United States-Retirement of Mr. M\onroe
-John Quincy Adams elected President —  is Inauguration-Rapid Improvement
of the Country-Increase of Wealth and Prosperity-Internal Imllprovements-The
Creek Lands in Georgia ceded to the United States-Death of Thomas Jefferson
and John Adams-The Anti-Masons-The Tariff of 1828-Andrew Jackson elected
President of  the  U nited   States.....................................................................  646
CHAPTER XXX V.
ADM3INISTRATIONS OF ANDREW JACKSON AND MARTI. V'N BUREN.
Character of Andrew Jackson-Indian Policy of this Administration-The President
Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Charter of tle United States Bank-Debate between
Hayne and Web.,-ter-Jackson's Quarrel with Callloun-Death of ex-President MIonroe-The Cholera-Black Hawk's War-Re-election of President Jackson-The
Tariff-Action of South Carolina-The Nullification Ordinance-Firmness of the
President-The Matter settled by Compromisc-Patriotism of Henry Clay-The
Removal of the Deposits-The Seminole WYar begun-Great Fire in New York
-Settlement of the French Claims-A*rkansas admitted into the Union —Tie
National Debt Paid-Death of ex-President Madison-Martin Van Buren elected
President —Michigan admitted into the Union-The Panic of 1837-Causes of itSuspension of Specie Payments-Great Distress throughout the Union-The SubTreasury-Repudiation of State Debts-The Canadian Rebellion-The President's




20


CONTENTS.


Course-The Seminole War ended-The Anti-Slavery Party-Resolutions of Congress respecting Slavery-William Henry Harrison elected President-The Sixth
Census..................................................................................................... 660
CHAPTER XXXVI
ADMINISTRATIONS OF WILLIAM IENRY HARRISON AND JOHN TYLER.
An Extra Session of Congress Summoned-Death of President Harrison-John Tyler
becomes President of the United States-Meeting of Congress-The Bankrupt Law
-President Tyler Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States Bank-His Quarrel with his Party-The " Tyler Whigs "-The Tariff of 1842-The Treaty of Washington-The United States will not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search
-Dorr's Rebellion-The Mormons-Invention of the Electric Telegraph-Explosion on the " Princeton "-Efforts to Secure the Annexation of Texas-Early History
of Texas-The Texan War of Independence-Battle of San Jacinto-Texan Independence Established-Texas Applies for Admission into the Union-Opposition to
the Measure-Significance of the Vote at the Presidential Election-James K. Polk
Elected President-Texas admitted into the Union-Iowa and Florida become States. 681
CHAPTER XXXVII.
ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK-THE WAR WITH                   MEXICO.
The Oregon Question-Position of President Polk respecting it-The Question Settled
-Treaty for Settlement of Claims against Mexico-Mexico Resents the Annexation of Texas-General Taylor Ordered to Texas-He Advances to the Rio Grande
-Battles of Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma-The War with Mexico BegunInvasion of Mexico-Occupation of Matamoras-Action of the United States Government-Taylor Advances into the Interior-The Storming and Capture of Monterey
-The Armistice-Return of Santa Anna to Mexico-President Polk Duped-Santa
Anna Seizes the Mexican Government-General Wool Joins General TaylorTroops Taken from Taylor's Army-Advance of the Mexicans-Battle of Buena Vista
-Conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton-Occupation of Santa F —New
Mexico Conquered-Doniphan's March-Occupation of Chihuahua-Sailing of
Scott's Expedition-Reduction of Vera Cruz-Santa Anna Collects a New ArmyBattle of Cerro Gordo-Occupation of Puebla by Scott-Trouble with Mr. TristVigorous Measures of Santa Anna-Scott Advances upon the City of Mexico-El
Pefion Turned-Battles of Contreras and Churubusco-Capture of Molino del Rey
-Storming of Chapultepec-Capture of the City of Mexico-Siege of Puebla
Raised-Flight of Santa Anna-Treaty of Peace Negotiated-Close of the WarAcquisition of California and New Mexico-Discovery of Gold in CaliforniaRapid Emigration to the Pacific-Death of John Quincy Adams-The Wilmot
Proviso-Revival of the Slavery Question-General Taylor elected President........ 695
CHAPTER XXXVIII.
ADMINISTRATIONS OF ZACHARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE.
Character of General Taylor-Department of the Interior-Death of ex-President
Polk-The Slavery Agitation-Views of Clay and Webster-California asks admission into the Union-Message of President Taylor-The Omnibus Bill-Efforts of
Henry Clay-A Memorable Debate-Webster's "Great Union Speech"-Death of




CONTENTS.


21


John C. Calhoun-Death of President Taylor-Millard Fillmore becomes President
-Passage of the Coaipromise Measures of 1850-Death of Henry Clay-Dissatisfaction with the Compromise-The Fugitive Slave Law Nullified, by the Northern
States-The Nashville Convention-Organization of Utah Territory-The Seventh
Census-The Expedition of Lopez against Cuba-The Search for Sir John Franklin
-The Grinnell Expedition-Dr. Kane's Voyages-Inauguration of Cheap PostageLaying the Corner-stone of the new Capitol-Death of Daniel Webster-Arrival of
Kossuth-The President Rejects the Tripartite Treaty-Franklin Pierce elected
President-Death of William R. King........................................................... 736
CHAPTER XXXIX
THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE.
Dispute with Mexico-The Gadsden Purchase-Surveys for a Pacific Railway-The
Japan Expedition-Treaty with Japan-The Koszta Affair-The " Black Warrior"
seized by the Cuban Officials-The "Ostend Conference"-Dismissal of the British
Minister-The Kansas-Nebraska Bill-History of the Bill-Its Passage by Congress
-History oft the Struggle in Kansas-Conflict between the Pro-Slavery and Free
Soil Settlers-Lawrence Sacked-Civil War-The Presidential Campaign of 1856
-James Buchanan elected President of the United States-Rapid increase of the
Republican Party...................................................................................... 749
CHAPTER XL.
THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.
Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan-The Mormon Rebellion-The Financial Crisis of 1857
-Laying of the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable-Minnesota admitted into the UnionThe San Juan Affair-Admission of Oregon into the Union-The Kansas question
-The Lecompton Constitution-Its defeat-Thle Wyandotte Constitution-Admission of Kansas into the Union-The John Brown Raid-Prompt action of the Government-Brown and his Companions surrendered to the State of Virginia-Their
Trial and Execution-Presidential Campaign of 1860-Rupture of the Democratic
party-Abraham Lincoln elected President of the United States-Secession of South
Carolina-Reasons for this Act-Secession of the other Cotton States-Major Anderson occupies Fort Sumter-Trying position of the General Government-Course
of Mr. Buchanan-The "Star of the West" fired upon by the South Carolina Batteries-Organization of the Confederate States of America-Jefferson Davis elected
President of the Southern Republic-The Peace Congress-Its Failure................. 761
CHAPTER XLI
THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM             LINCOLN-THE CIVIL WAR.
Inauguration of President Lincoln-His History-The Confederate Commissioners
at Washington-Attack upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates-The President calls
for Troops —Response of the North and West-Secession of the Border StatesOpening Events of the War in Virginia-W-Tithdrawal of West Virginia-Admitted
into the Union as a separnate State-Meeting of Congress-The West Virginia Ca.mpaign-Battle of Bull Run-The War in Aissouri-Kentucky Occupied-The
Blockade-Capture of Port Royal-Thle "Trent" Affaiir-Insurrection in East Ten



22


CONTENTS.


nessee-State of Affairs at the Opening of the Year 1862-Edwin M. Stanton made
Secretary of War-Capture of Forts Henry and Donelson-The Confederates fall
back from Kentucky-Battle of Shilohl-Capture of Island No. 10-Evacuation
of Corinth-Capture of Memphis-Bragg's Kentucky Campaign-His Retreat into
Tennessee-Battles of Iuka and Corinth-Battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone RiverGrant's Campaign against Vicksburg-Its Failure-The War beyond the Mississippi-Battle of Pea Ridge-Capture of Roanoke Island-Capture of New Orleans
-Surrender of Fort Pulaski-The War in Virginia-Johnston's Retreat from Centreville-Battle between the " Monitor" and " Virginia"-The Move to the Peninsula
-Johnston Retreats to the Chickahominy-Battle of Seven Pines-Jackson's Successes in the Valley of Virginia-The Seven Days' Battles before Richmond-Battle
of Cedar Mountain -Defeat of General Pope's Army-Lee Invades Maryland
-Capture of Harper's Ferry-Battles of South Mountain and Antietam-Retreat
of Lee into Virginia-MIcClellan Removed-Battle of Fredericksburg................. 77
CHAPTER XLII.
TIHE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRA-HAM LINCOLN-THE CIVIL WARCONCLUDED.
Tile Emancipation Proclamation-Battle of Chancellorsville-Death of Stonewall
Jackson-Invasion of the North by Lee's Army-Battle of Gettysburg-Retreat of
Lee into Virginia-Grant's Army crosses tlie Mississippi-Ba tie of Champion Iills
-Investment of V icksburg-Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson-Battle
of Chickamauga-Rosecrans shut up in Chattanooga-Grant in command of the
Western Armies-Battles of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge-Defeat of
Bragg's Army-Tihe Campaign in East Tennessee-Retreat of Longstreet-Capture
of Galveston-Attack on Charleston-Capture of Fort Wagner- Charleston Bombarded-State of Affair. in the Spring of 1864-The Red River Expedition-Grant
made Lieutenant-General-Advance of the Army of the Potomac-Battles of the
Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor-Sheridan's Raid-Death of General
J E. B. Stuart-Battle of New Market-Early sent into the Valley of VirginiaButler's Army at Bermuda IIundreds-Grant crosses the James River-The Siege
of Petersburg begun-Early's Raid upon Washington-Sheridan defeats Early at
Winchester and Fisher's Hill-Battle of Cedar Creek-The final Defeat of Early's
Army-Sherman's Advance to Atlanta-Johnston removed-Defeat of Hood before
Atlanta-Evacuation of Atlanta-Hood's Invasion of Tennessee-Battle of Franklin
-Sieae of Nashville-Hood defeated    at Nashville-His Retreat-Sherman's
"March to the Sea"-Capture of Savannah-Battle of Mobile Bay-Attack on
Fort Fisher-The Confederate Cruisers-Sinking of the "Alabama" by the "  earsarge"-Re-election of President Lincoln-Admission of Nevada into the UnionThe Hampton Roads Peace Conference-Capture of Fort Fisher —Occupation of
Wilminton-Sherman advances through South Carolina-Evacuation of Charleston-Battles of Averasboro' and Bentonville-Sherman at Goldsboro'-Critical
situation of Lee's Army-Attack on Fort Steadman-Sheridan joins GrantAdvance of Grant's Army-Battle of Five Forks-Attack on Petersburg-Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg-Retreat of Lee's Army-Richmond occupiedSURRENDE:R of General Lee's Army-Rejoicings in the North-Assassination of
President Lincoln-Death of Boothl-Execution of the Conspirators-Johnston Surrenders-Surrender of the other Confederate Forces-Capture of Jefferson DavisClose  of  the  W ar.....................................  - -.....................................  825




CONTE ',NTS.


CHAPTER XLIII.
TIE ADMINISTRATION         OF ANDREW      JOHNSON.
The New President-Return of the Army to Civil Life-The Public Debt —The
Reconstruction Question-Action of the President-He declares the Southern States
Readmitted into the Union-The Fifteenth Amendment-Meeting of CongressThe President's Acts Annulled-Reconstruction Policy of Congress-Tle Fourteenth Amendment-The Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills-The Tenure
of Office Act-Admission of Nebraska into tlhe Union-The Southern States Organized as Military Districts-Admission of Southern States into the Union-The
Fourteenth Amendment Ratified-President Johnson's Quarrel witl Secretary
Stanton-Impeachment of the President-I-is Acquittal-Release of Jcefler-on Davis
-Indian War-The French in Mexico-Fall of the Mexican Empire-Laying of
the Atlantic Telegrapll-Purchase of Alaska-Naturalization Treaty with Germany
-Treaty with China-Death of General Scott-Death of ex-President BuchananGeneral Grant Elected President-The Fifteenth Amendmlent........................... 8-;5
CHAPTER XLIV
THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT.
Early Life of President Grant-Completion of the Pacific Railway-Death of ex-President Pierce-The Fifteenth Amendment Ratified-Prosperity of tlhe Country-The
Eliforcement Act-The Test-oatlh Abolished-The Constitutionality of the LegalTender Act Affirmed-Death of Admliral Farragut-Deatl of (leneral Lee-The
Income Tax Repealed-Thle Alabama Claims-Treaty of Washington-The Geneva
Conference —Award in favor of the United States-The San Juan Boundary QuCestion settled-Efforts to annex St. Domingo-Burning of Chicago-Forest FiresThe Civil Disabilities removed from the Southern People-Re-election of (rencral
Grant-Death of Horace Greeley-Great Fire at Boston —The iMoloc War-Murder of General Canby and the Peace Commissioners-Execution of tlhe Modoc
Cliefs-The Cuban Revolution-Capture of the "Virginius"-Execution of the
Prisoners-Action of the Federal Government-The Panic of 1873-Bill for tie
Resumption of Specie PaymIents-Preparations for tlhe Centennial Exhibitionl........ 87.
CHAPTER XLV.
CONCLUSION....................................................................
APPENDIX
THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION....................................................  907




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
1. Steel Portrait of George Washington.                           Frontispiece
2. Steel Portrait of Abrahamn Lincoln                                 "
3. Front View of the (':pitol at Washington, D. C
4. Signatures of the Sigicrsl of the Declaration of Independence.
5. Memorial Hall or Art Gallery-International Centennial Exhibition
6. Main Building of the International Exhibition
7 The United States Treasury, Washington, D. C.                       "
8. The new Department of State, Washington, D. C.
9. Signing the Declaration of Independence by the Continental Congress,
July 4th, 1776.                       "
10. Birdseye View of New York city                                     "
11. Indian Village in Winter                                               35
12. Navajo Bo,                                                            36
13. Pueblo Indian at Prayer                                               38
14. Converted Indian WAoman..                                              39
15. A Dead Town of the Moquis Indians.                                    40
16. Indian of the Plains.                                                 41
17 G(roup of Indians of New Mexico                                         43
S1. Lowcr Falls of the Yellowstone, Wyoming (350 feet in height,..        44
19. Christopher Columbus.                                                  46
20. Bronze Door commemor.iting the Deeds of Christopher Columbus.          49
21. Tihe Landing of Columbus.                                              51
22. General View of the Yosemnite Valley, California.                      58
23. Bridal Veil Fall, Yosemite Valley                                      59
24. Sentinel Rock, Yosemite Valley                                        61
25. First Winter of the French in Canada.                                  64
26. Rock Pinnacles above Tower Falls, Yellowstone River.                   66
27 Scene on the St. Lawrence.                                              67
28. The Coatst of Florida.                                                 69
29. Spaniards enslaving the Indians..                                      73
30. Spanish Exploring Party Discovering New Mexico.                        73
31. The Spaniards exploring the Valley of the Colorado.                    74
32. Ferdinand de Soto.                                                     75
33. Natchez in 1875                                                        79
34. The Spaniards descending the Mississippi after the Death of De Soto.   80
35. Sir Walter R:Pleigh..                                                  S7
36. The Co',ast of North Carolina.                                         89
37 Coat of Arms of Virginia..                                            95
38. Captain John Smith.                                                    9S
24




Z9
I


FR~ONT VIEW OF THE CAPITOL.








LIST   OF ILLUSTRATIONS.                            25
89. Pocahontas rescuing Captain Smith..............................   100
40. Pocahontas.................................... 102
41. Building of Jamestown................................................... 104
42. Wife of a Chief...............................................107
43. Destruction of the Virginia Settlements by the Indians....................  123
44. Ruined Church Tower on the Site of Jamestown............................. 130
45. Coat of Arms of Maryland....................................... 137
46. Lord Baltimore..............................................138
47. Missionary Preaching to the Indians..................                   139
48. A Converted Indian...............................................    141
49. The "Mayflower" in Plymouth Harbor................................      154
50. Landing of the Pilgrims.......................................  158
51. The first Church in New England.................................... 160
52. A New England Homestead....................................... 165
53. Coat of Arms of Massachusetts............................................. 167
54. A primitive New England Village.......................................  168
55. Roger Williams............................................           172
56. Coat of Arms of Rhode Island............................................ 175
57. Landing of Roger Williams at Providence............................ 176
58. Coat of Arms of Connecticut...................181
59. Yale  College........................................................... 185
60. Valley of the Connecticut........................................      187
61. Harvard College.................................................       190
62. An American Free School........................................    191
63. Newport, R. I......................................... 197
64. King Philip.....................................................    204
65. Attack upon Brookfield by the Indians..............................207
66. Coat of Arms of New Hampshire................... 210
67. Wadsworth hiding the Charter.........................21 212
68. The Charter Oak................................................... 213
69. Coat of Arms of New York.........................................      229
70. First Settlement cf New York......................................      232
71. Coat of Arms of Delaware................................................. 233
72. The Battery and Castle Garden, New York, in 1875....................... 242
73. The City Hall Park, New York, in 1875.................................... 243
74. Coat of Arms of New Jersey......................................... 244
75. Broadway, New York, in 1875..................................... 246
76. Nassau Street, New York, in 1875.................................. 251
77. The Post Office, New York, in 1875..................................   253
78. Coat of Arms of Pennsylvania............................     256
79. William Penn.......................................            258
80. Penn's Treaty with the Indians............................................  261
81. Penn laying out the Plan of Philadelphia.............................   262
82. Settlement of Philadelphia.........................................  263
83. Penn's Treaty Monument........................................ 264
84. Chestnut Street, Philadelphia, in 1875................................  265
85. U:iversity of Pennsylvania.....................................   266
86. Masonic Temple, Philadelphia, in 1875..............................     268
87. Coat of Arms of North Carolina...................................271
88. A Settler's Cabin..2.25................. 275
89. Coat of Arms of South Carolina.......................................... 276
90. Attack of the Spaniards on Charleston in 1706.................. 282




26                       LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS.
91. Torture of Lawson by the Tuscaroras......................................  283
92. Coat of Arms of Georgia...................................287
93. Oglethorpe............................................. 288
94. A Southern Plantation.................................... 289
95. Gathering Sugar-cane.....................................       293
96. The Great Canon and Lower Falls of the Yellowstone....................... 299
97. Duluth, at the head of Lake Superior.................................. 302
98. Dubuque, Iowa....................................................        304
99. Alton, Illinois........................................        310
100. Falls of St. Anthony................................................  312
101. Itumboldt Palisades, Pacific Railway..    3..............................315
102. Burning of Dover..................................................  319
103. Burning of Deerfield, Massachusetts..................................    323
104. Return of the Daughter of Eunice Williams to the Indians................. 325
105. The Bronze Door in the National Capitol commemorating the Events of the Life
of George Washington....................................  334
106. The Washington Statue in Union Square, New York...................... 337
107. Washington's Journey to the Ohio...............................          338
108. The Half King......................................................... 340
109. Washington and Gist crossing the Alleghany............................... 341
110. Benjamin Franklin.........................................        345
111. Wills' Creek Narrows, Maryland...................................... 348
112. Braddock's Defeat................................................ 351
113. Retreat of Braddock's Army......................................... 352
114. Burning of Kittanning by General Armstrong...........................    354
115. Scene on the Colorado.............................................  360
116. Site of Fort William Henry on Lake George.........................       365
117. Wolfe's Attack on Louisburg.................... 371
118. Abercrombie's Expedition on Lake George............................ 372
119. Attack on Ticonderoga.......................................    373
120. Investment of Fort Frontenac................................           374
121. Birdseye View of Pittsburgh.....................................        377
122. Ruins of Fort Ticonderoga..............................   379
123. General James Wolfe.........................................     381
124. Death of General Wolfe before Quebec................................     383
125. Pontiac...............................................                   387
126. Samuel Adams.............................................. 394
127. Patrick Henry......................................      396
128. George the Third....................................................... 399
129. Stamp Act Official-beaten by the People............... 402
130. Faneuil Hall in 1775.........................................    406
131. The Boston Massacre........................................        407
132. Destruction of Tea in Boston Harbor.............................. 412
133. John Hancock...................................    414
131. Carpenter's Hall, Philadelphia.....................................     417
135. IIarbor of New York in 1875.....................................    419
136. The Minute Man..................................................   422
137. The Battle of Lexington, April 19, 1775............................. 424
138. British Troops on Concord Common...................................      425
139. The Fight at Concord Bridge........................................     427
140. Retreat of the Britislh from Lexington............................  428
141. Capture of Ticonderoga by Allen...............................  429




L IS T OF IL LUS TR ATI ONS.      2 7
142. Independence Hall in 1776.......................431
143. Washington.....................................434
144. General Israel Putnam.........................485
143. Bunker Hill onmt.......................437
146. Battle of Bukrhl........................441
147. Arnold's Mad oQee......................445
148. General Richard Motoey....................446
149. GnrlHnyKo........................451
150. Siege of Boston............................4521
151. Washington watching the British evacuate Boston...............4,58
152. Mledal struck by Congress in 11onor of the Recapture of Boston............... 4-55
1,53. Attack on Fort Moultrie........................457
154. Sergeant Jasper at Fort Moultrie.....................458
155. Independence Hall, Philadelphia, in 18S75..................460
156. Interior of Independence Hall......................461
1,57. View in the Grand Canon of the Colorado rive................463
158. Old Bell of Independence Hall.....................464
159. Declaration of Inudepenidence proclaimed in Philadelphia...........465
160. General John Sulvn.......................470
161. The Retreat fromt Long Island.....................471
1 621. Retreat of Washington across New Jersey..................47.5
163. General Charles Lee..........................476
164. Washington Crossing the Delaware....................480
165. Battle of Tetn.........................481
166. Ctllege of New Jersey, at Princeton.....................44
167. Battle of Princeton.............................45
168. United States Navy Yard, Bokn..................488
169. Geea hlpShve.......................491
170. Lfiet.............................49: 3)
171. Lafayette offering his. Services to Dr. Franklin...............494
172. S-cene on thre Wi,-sahickon.........................495
1 73. BattlIe of the Bra nd vwinte..........................496,
174. The Scbuvlkill, at, Philadelphia......................49-7
1 7 5. The Battle of Germantown-Chew's Hse...............499
176). Attack on Red( BRink..........................500
177. Albany, 'New York, in 1875.......................501
178. Siege of Fort Scehovler...................503
179. Buirgoyne's, Encaimpment, on the Hudson....................04
180. GTeneral.John St.ark..........................50
181. Battle of Bennington..........................0
182. Greneral Horatio Gates.........................0
183. Burgo vn e's Re treat............................10
184. Suirrender of Biircovne..........................1
1 85-. Stifflirings, of the Troops, at Valley Forge...................514
186. Si er lno..........................520
187. Surrender of S,-avannah..........................2
188. General Ben jamin Lincoln........................526
189. General Anthony Wavne........................528
190. Storming of Stony Point........................52)9
191. Lieutenant-Colonel fhenry Lee......................530
192. John Paul Jones.;............................531
193. Coat of Arms of Kentucky........................531




28               iIST OF ILLUVSTRA TIONS.
194. Daniel Boone.........................532
195. General George Rogers Clarke.....................33
196. Frankfort, Kentucky.......................534
197. Coat of Armns of Tennessee.....................535
193. Charleston, South Carolina, in 1875..................537
199. General Francis Marion......................541
200. Battle of King's Mountain...,.....................542
201. General Nathaniel Greene.....................544
202. Arnold............................546
203. Andrd............................547
204. Capture of Major Andrd......................548
203. West Point in 1875.........................549
206. Battle of the Cowpens........................552
207. General Daniel Morgan......................553
203. Battle of Eutaw Srns....................5.56
209. Continental Bills.........................559
210. Scene in the Highilands of the Hudson................560
211. Burning, of N~ew London, Connecticut, by Arnold.............562
212. Lafayette storming the Redoubt at Yorktown...............563
213. Surrender of orval.....................564
214. The Bowery, New York, in 17.................567
215. Washington resigning his Comsin...............568
216. Great Seal of the United States...................572
217. Washington receiving the Intelligence of his Election............573
218. President Washington............................  74
219. Battle of the Maumee........................576
2290. Coat of Arms of Vemn.....................        0s
221. Mount Vernon..........................531
2922. John Aas........................584
22-3. Boston in 1875.........................586
22-4. The SLusquehanna above Harrisburg, Pennsylvania.............588
225. Thomas Jefferson.........................589
22.)d6. The White House, Washington City..................590
227. Coat of Arms of Ohio........................59 2
2208. Lafayette Square, New Orleans....................593
229. A New Jersey Fruit Farm......................597
230. James Madison.........................601
231. Falls of the G'enesee, at Rochester, New York..............602
232. Superior Street, Cleveland, Ohio...................603
233. Oswego, New York, in 1875.....................606
234. Coat of Arms of Louisiana-.....................607
235. Canon of the Lodore and Greene Rivers, Wyoming Territory.........608
236. Woodward Avenue, Detroit, Michigan.................611
237. Commodore Hull........................ 614
233. Commodore Bainbridge.......................615
239. Defence of Fort Meigs......................617
240. Defence of Fort Stephenson......................618
241. Death of Teeuimseh........................619
242. Death of General Pike.......................620
243. Attack upon Sackett's Harbor....................621
244. Niagara Falls.........................625
24-5. General Winfield Scott in 1814..............626




LIST   OF ILL USTRATIONS.,                29
246. Battle of Lundy's Lane...........................6...... 627
247. Siege of Fort Erie...........................................628
248. Scene of the Battle of Lake Champlain............................ 629
249. Macdonough's Victory on Lake Champlain................................ 630
260. View on the Greene River at the Crossing of the Union Pacific Railroad....... 632
251. The General Post-office, Washington City.................................. 634
252. Battle Monument, Baltimore, erected in Memory of those who fell at North Point. 635
253. Jackkson Square, New Orleans......................................    637
254. The Plain of Chalmette-Scene of the Battle of New Orleans............... 639
255. Battle of New Orleans..................................................  640
256. The "Hornet" and the "Penguin"..................................       642
257. Commodore Decatur...........................................  6-13
258. Coat of Arms of Indiana........................................ 645
259. James Monroe.................................               646
260. Coat of Arms of Mississippi......................   647
261. Coat of Arms of Illinois.................................................. 648
262. Coat of Arms of Alabama.......................................... 64 -263. Coat of Arms of Maine........................................... 649
264. Cotton Plantation.................................................... 650
265. Coat of Arms of Missouri..................................      654
266. John Quincy Adams................................................  656
267. Daniel W ebster...............................................      659
268. Andrew Jackson......................................................  661
269. State House at Raleigh, North Carolina................................. 662
270. State House, Concord, New Hampshire...........................  663
271. Scene in the Mammoth Cave, Kentucky.......................        664
272. General Atkinson's Defeat of Black Hawk.................................. 665
273. John C. Calhoun.....................................................  667
274. Henry Clay..................................................668
275. Great Fire in  ew York.................................................. 670
276. Coat of Arms of Arkansas.............................................. 671
277. Coat of Arms of Michigan................................  672
278. Martin Van Buren............................................ 672
279. Milwaukee, Wisconsin, in 1875............................673
280. Easton, Pennsylvania.................................................... 675
281. Rafting Lumber in Maine...........................             677
282. Battle of Okeechobee.............................................. 678
283. William Henry Harrison..............................     681
284. John Tyler.............................................   682
285. Davenport, Iowa........................................... 683
286. Evansville, Indiana...............................................      685
287. Madison, Wisconsin............................................   687
288. Old Fort Benton, Montana.................................       689
289. Fort Alamo-San Antonio, Texas..................................... 691
290. Coat of Arms of Texas.................................................. 693
291. Coat of Arms of Iowa..........................................694
292. Coat of Arms of Florida.................................694
293. James K. Polk............................................. 696
294. Portland, Oregon, in 1875-From east side of Willamette..............  697
295. Street in Olympia, Washington Territory........'....................... 698
296. Battle of Palo Alto.......................................... 701
297. Death of Major Ringgold..............................................702




30                      LIST   OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
298. St Joseph, Missouri......................................... 705
299. Defeat of the Mexican Righl  Wing at Buena Vista....................... 712
300. General Taylor thanking Captain Bragg at Buena Vista....................  713
301. Fremont..........................................       714
302. Point Arena Lighthouse-Coast of California...........................  715
303. Southwest from Santa F............................................ 717
304. East Side of Plaza-Santa Fe........................................ 718
305. Doniphan making a Treaty with the Navajoes.............................. 719
306. "The Journey of Death "-Crossed by Doniphan's Command................. 721
307. Sacramento, California, in 1875.................................... 722
308. General Vinfield Scott.........................7..........    723
309. Battle of Cerro Gordo.............................................. 724
310. American Army entering Puebla................................ 725
311. Storming of Chapultepec....................................... 729
312. Capture of the Belen Gate............................................... 731
313. IHydraulic Mining................................................. 732.
314. The Emigrants' Camp on the Plains en route to California................  733
315. Coat of Arms of Wisconsin.......................................... 734
316. Zachary Taylor.....................................................    737
317. Shoshonee Falls, Idaho..........                                       739
318. Birdseye View of San Francisco..............................       742
319. Millard Fillmore.............................................743
320. Coat of Arms of California...............................   744
321. Brigham Young.............................................             745
322. Franklin Pierce.............................................         749
323. First Hotel in Lawrence............................................ 756
324. The People of Lawrence determined to resist........................... 757
325. James Buchanan............................................. 762
326. Mormon Tabernacle: Endowment House in the Distance................    763
327. Salt Lake City (from the north)...................................764
328. Brigham Young's Residences, Salt Lake City.........................  7765
329. Coat of Arms of Minnesota.......................................    766
330. Coat of Arms of Oregon.......................                          767
331. Coat of Arms of Kansas...............................'........... 768
332. Capitol at Montgomery, Alabama, Place of Meetingof thefirstConfederateCongress 776
333. Jefferson Davis.................................................. 777
334. Alexander I. Stephens.............................................. 778
335. Abraham Lincoln...........................................    780
336. Arrival of President Lincoln at the Capitol............................. 781
337. State House, Springfield, Illinois.................... 7..   82
338. Fort Sumter..........................................                  783
339. Harper's Ferry...........................................      785
340. Coat of Arms of West Virginia....................................... 786
341. State House, Columbus, Ohio..................................... 788
342. General P. G. T. Beauregard...................................... 790
343. St. Louis, 1875............................................          792
344. General Sterling Price.......................................... 793
345. Major-General F. Sigel.....                                            793
346. Major-General N. Lyon........................................          794
347. State House, Indianapolis, Indiana................................ 795
348. Lieutenant-General Polk..................................          796
349. James M. Mason................................................    796




LIST OF' ILLUSTRATIONS.
2050. John Sldl.........................797
3351. Admiral Fot........................800
3,32. Nashville, Tennessee........................801
3353. General Albert SJontn...................802,
3354. Major-General D.C ul.....................80
333. Memphis, Tennessee.............................803
336. Major-General H. W. Halleck....................804
3 5 7. General B. Bag.......................u
00S. Cninti185......................805
339. Landing at Louisville, Kentucky....................806
360. Major-General W. Rosecrans....................807
361. Little Rock, Arkansas..........................808
3 62. Adm iral Fa rragut........................810
363. View in S.CalsSreNwrea...............811
364. Major-General BF.Bte...................8 12
365. Major-General George B. MA'Clellan.................................... 813
366. Lieuitenant-General T. J. Jackson...................816
367. Major-General N. P. Banks....................816
368. Brigadier-General James Shields....................817
369. Richmond, Virginia........................818I
37-0. Major General E.Vunr..................8 19
371. General RE.Le......................8211
3721. Major-General PhlKany..................821
373. Major-General John A. Dix...............82,2
3714. Major-General A. E. Burnside....................823
375. Ma~jor-General Josephi Hooker....................826
3 76. M.Najor-General J. Sedgwick.....................82 7
37-7. Lieutenant-General. R. S. Ewell....................28
137S8. Major-General George G. Meade...................828S
379. Battle of Gettysburg........................829
380. Major-General J. F. Reynolds....................830
381. Vicksburg, Mississippi........................8391
382. Major-General J. A. Logan.......................83
383. Jackson, Mississippi.......................8330 -384. Capture of Lookout Mountain....................836
385. Lieutenant-General J.Lnsre.................837J
386. Admiral Dupont.........................8307
387. Galveston, Texas..........................838
388. Brigadier-General Q. A. Gilmore...................839
389. Major-General E. Canby.....................839
390. Battle of Spottsylvania Court-house..................842
391. Major-General W. S. Hacc..................843
3 921. Major-General Beknig...................844
393. Major-General Hunter.........................44
394. Major-General Lew Wallace.....................84;3
395. Major-General Phil Sheridan.....................846
396. General W.T. Semn....................846
397. General Joseph E. Johinston.....................847
398. Major-General M'Pherson......................847
399. General John B. Hood......................848
400. Major-General George H. Thms................848
401. Savannah, Georgia.........................849




32                     LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS..
402. Major-General 0. 0. Howard.....................................   850
403. Admiral Porter............................                  850
404. The Landing at Mobile, Alabama.........................................  851
405. Admiral Winslow................................................ 852
406. Brigadier-General A. Terry.................................  853
407. Brigadier-General Schofield................................      854
408. Lieutenant-General W. Hardee....................................854
409. Major-General H. G. Wright.....................................  855
410. Major-General Warren.......................................... 855
411. Lieutenant-General A. P. Hill..........................           856
412. Major-General E. 0. Ord........................................ 857
413. Surrender of General Lee........................................  859
414. Monument to Abraham Lincoln in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia............. 861
415. Hon. W. H. Seward............................................ 82
416. Lieutenant-General E. Kirby Smith....................................... 862
417. Interview between Generals Sherman and Johnston......................... 863
418. Judah P. Benjamin............................................ 864
419. Andrew Johnson.............................................. 866
420. City Hall, Portland, Maine....................................... 867
421. Chestnut Street Bridge over the Schuylkill, Philadelphia..................... 870
422. The Patent Office, Washington City....................................... 872
423. Lake Street, Chicago....................................................  873
424. Major-General George W. Custer......................................... 875
425. Ulysses S. Grant........................................................ 880
426. President Grant leaving the White House to be inaugurated.................. 881
427. Cheyennes reconnoitring the first Train on the Pacific Railroad............... 882
428. The Bureau of Agriculture, Washington, D. C.............................. 884
429. The Burning of Chicago................................................. 887
430. Horace Greeley......................................................... 888
431. President Grant passing through the Rotunda to take the Oath of Office........ 891
432. The Lava Beds......................................................... 893
433. Scene in the New York Stock Exchange during the Panic of 1873............. 895
434. New York Stock Exchange............................................... 896
435. Coat of Arms of Colorado................................................ 897
436. Scene on the Hudson River in 1875........................................ 900
437. St. Paul, Minnesota..................................................... 901
438. View on the Colorado River.............................................. 903
439. Birdseye View of the Centennial Buildings, Fairmount Park, Philadelphia..... 908
440. Centennial Medal-Obverse.............................................. 914
441. Centennial Medal-Reverse..............................................  914
442. Agricultural Building-International Exhibition........................... 917
443. Horticultural Hall-International Exhibition.............................. 920
444. Machinery Hall-International Exhibition................................. 923




- -
- -
^ - -


-----


MAIN BUILDING OF THE INTERNATIONAL CENTENNIAL EXHTIBTION. PHILADELPHIA, 1876
1880 feet in length and 4C4 feet ihli widti,.




a
I
I




THE


CENTENNIAL HISTORY
OF THE
UNITED STATES.
CHAPTER I.
PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS.
Earliest Inhabitants of the United States-The Mound Builders-Remarkable Works
constructed by them-Evidences of a Primitive Civilization-Indications of the Antiquity of this Period-Tihe American Indians-Divisions of the Country among the
Tribes-Names and Location of the various Tribes-Organization and Government of
the Indians-Their Dress, Manners, and Customs-Villages-Indian Inventions-The
War Dance-Legends of the Norsemen respecting the Discovery of America.
E do not know who were the inhabitants, or what was the history
llll    of North America previous to its discovery and settlement by
the Europeans. That it was at some remote period occupied by
a more civilized and powerful race than the Indians found by
the first explorers, is very certain; but who they were, what was
theii history, or what the cause of their extinction, are among the
profoundest mysteries of the past.  Traces as distinct as those which
mark the various physical changes which the continent has undergone,
exist to show that these primitive inhabitants were both numerous and
far advanced in civilization; but this is all that we know concerning
them.
In various parts of the country, and especially in the valley of the
Mississippi, large mounds and other structures of earth and stone, but
chiefly of earth, remain to show the magnitude of the works constructed
by these people, to whom the name "Mound Builders" is generally
applied. Some of these earth-works embrace as much as fifteen or sixteen
miles of-embankment. As no domestic animals existed in this country
3                                                  33




34


H1 IST'ORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


at this perio(l, these works must have been constructed by bringing the
earth used for them by hand; a fact which shows that the primitive
population was a large one. The construction of the works proves that
they had considerable engineering skill.  The square, the circle, the
ellipse, and the octagon are all used in these structures; being all
combined in a single system of works in some places. The proportions
are always perfect. The sq(uare is always a true square, and the circle a
true circle. Many implements and ornaments of copper, silver, and
precious stones-such as axes, chisels, knives, bracelets, bead(s, and pieces
of thread and of cloth, and well-shaped vases of pottery-have been
found in these mounds, and show the extent of the civilization of the
"Mound Builders."    In the region of Lake Superior are found old
copper mines worked by these ancient people. In one of these mines
there was discovered an immense block of copper weighing nearly six
tons. It lhad been left in the process of removal to the top of the mine,
nearly thirty feet above, and was supported on logs of wood which were
partly petrified. The stone and copper tools used by the miners were
discovered lying about as they had been left by their owners ages before.
At the mouth of this mine are piles of earth thrown out in digging it,
and out of these embankments trees are growing which are nearly four
hundred years old. At Marietta, Ohio, there is a mound bearing trees
eight hundred years old. The age of the mounds is necessarily equal
to that of the trees. How much older they are is unknown.
This mysterious race had perished long before the discovery of the
continent by Columbus.   Whether the "Mound Builders" were the
ancestors of the American Indians is uncertain; but it is not likely that
they were. The two races were unlike in habits, and the Indians neither
constructed such works as the mounds, nor gave any evidence of the skill
or industry necessary to their construction. The Indians themselves had
no recollection of any previous race in this country, although they
preserved their traditions with care.  Various conjectures have been
made as to the origin and character of the " Mound Builders," but it is
useless to give them here. We have no means of arriving at a definite
or satisfactory conclusion concerning this lost race. We only know that
they existed and erected the great works which alone attest their presence
in this country, perhaps more than a thousand years ago.
At the time of its discovery by the whites the Indians were the sole
human occupants of the continent, which was covered with vast woods
and plains abounding with game of every description, the pursuit of
which formed the principal occupation of the natives, and furnished them
with food and clothing.




INDIAN     VI 1Iii A(,E  I N  \V INTF I




36


HIST1'ORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Though nominally divided into tribes and " nations," the Indians were
really one great family in physical appearance, manners, customs, religion,
and in the observance of their social and political systems. The division
into tribes was the result of their difference in language. Each tribe had
a dialect peculiar to itself and distinct from those of the others. The
tribes were for the most part hostile to, and were constantly engaged in
war with, each other. They were generally divided into eight nations,
speaking eight radically distinct languages. These were:
I. The Algonquins, who inhabited the territory now comprised in the
six New England States, the eastern part of New York and Pennsylvania,New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina
as far south as Cape.
Fear, a large part of
Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
MIichigan, Wisconsin,
and Minnesota. This.
nation was subdivided ia                  od
Piankeshaws, Pota- a
watonies, Kickapoos,            v.er            r
Powhatans, C o r e e s,
Nanticokes, Lenni-Lenapes or Delawares, Mohegans, Narragansetts,
Pequods and Abenakis.
II. The Iroquois, who occupied almost all of that part of Canada
south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes Ontario, Erie, and Huron, the
greater part of New York, and the country lying along the south shore
of Lake Erie, now included in the States of Ohio and Pennsylvania.
This territory, it will be seen, was completely surrounded by the domains
of their powerful and bitter enemies, the Algonquins. The nation was
subdivided into the following tribes: the Senecas, Cayugas, Onondagas,
Oneidas, and Mohawks.. These five were afterwards called by the
English the "Five Nations."  In 1722, they admitted the Tuscaroras




2- __ - "FA
owF __ 11
t  -  ---
A I


MEMORIAL BUILDING OR ART GALLERY-INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.




I




PRIMITIVE INHABITANT S.


37


into their confederation, and were afterwards called the ' Six Nations."
The nation called itself collectively the Konoskioni, or " Cabin Builders."
The Algonquins termed them Mingoes; the French, Iroquois; and the
English, Mohawks, or Mingoes.
III. The Catawbas, who dwelt along the banks of the Yadkin and
Catawba rivers, iear tlie line which at present separates the States of
North and South Carolina.
IV The Cherokees, whose lands were bounded on the east by the
Broad river of the Carolinas, including all of northern Georgia.
V   The Uchees, who dwelt south of the Cherokees, along the Savannah,
the Oconee, and the head-waters of the Ogeechee and Chattahoochee.
They spoke a harsh and singular language, and are believed to have
been the remnant of a once powerful nation.
VI. The   iobilian Nation, who inhabited all of Georgia and South
Carolina not mentioned in the above statements, a part of Kentucky and
Tennessee, and all of Florida, Alabama and Mississippi. Their territory
was next in extent to that of the Algonquins, and extended along the
Gulf of Mexico from the Atlantic ocean to the Mississippi river.  The
nation was divided into three great confederations-the Creeks or Muscogees, the Choctaws, and the Chickasaws-and was subdivided into a
number of smaller tribes, the principal of which were the Seminoles and
Yemassees, who were members of the Creek Confederation.
VII. The Natchcz, who dwelt in a small territory east of the Mississippi, and along the banks of the Pearl river. They were surrounded on
all sides by the tribes of the Mobilian language, yet remained until their
extinction a separate nation, speaking a distinct language peculiar to
themselves, and worshipping the sun as their God. They are believed
to have been the most civilized of all the savage tribes of North America.
VIII. The Dacotahs or Sioux, whose territory was bounded on the
north by Lake Winnipeg, on the south by the Arkansas river, on the
east by the Mississippi, and on the west by the Rocky mountains. The
nation was divided into the following branches: the Winnebagoes, living
between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi; the Assiniboins, living in the
extreme north; the Southern Sioux, living between the Arkansas and the
Platte; and the Mintarees, Mandans, and Crows, who lived west of the
Assiniboins.
The great plains, the Rocky mountains, and the Pacific coast were
held by the powerful tribes of the Pawnees, Comanches, Apaches, Utahs,
Black Feet, Snakes, Nezperces, Flatheads, and California Indians.
Each tribe was divided into classes or clans, which were distinguished
by a mark tattooed on the breast. This mark was called the totem, and




HISTORY OFI THE UNITED STA TES.


was generally the representation of an animal or bird. The Indians
believed that all animals had protecting spirits, and each class was
supposed to be protected by the spirit of the animal it chose for its totem.
Over each class was a chief, and the head of the tribe was a chief or
sachem, who was usually a man, but sometimes a woman. The Indians
hiad no written laws, but thle customs and traditions of the tribe took the
place of these. The religious belief of the Indians was simple. They
adored a Great Spirit-some tribes had many gods-and believed in a
future state. The brave were admitted to the happy hunting-grounds
of the spirit world, but cowards were excluded from them. The weapons
of a warrior were buried with him that he might use them in his spirit
home. Their heaven lay far beyond
the mountains of the setting sun. It
was a land rich in game, and abound__c-_  ingn in fertile meadows and sparkling
streams. There the warrior, released
from the cares and hardships of life,
7=,    T   1 passed the a(res of eternity in the chase;
hand there parting from friends, suffer|-g__ ll                     ing, fatigue, hunger, and thirst were un' l            - K        '   Iknown. The Indian heard voices of
t    t                 (        d spirits in the wind, and   saw them in
'the stars. The shades of his ancestors
were constantly hovering over him,
ablak       stimulating him to brave deeds, and
keeping fresh in his mind the duty of
avenging them upon the enemies they
'           The dress of the savages consisted
j'\!!' I^                  of the skins of animals, which were
PUEBLO INDIAN AT PRAYER.   prepared by smoking them. After the
settlement of the colonies they added
a blanket to this dress. Their garments were (lecorated with skins and
feathers, and on special occasions they painted their faces with various
bright colors. In the warm weather they wore scarcely any clothing.
Their houses or wigwams were formed of poles set firmly in the ground
and bent toward each other at the top.    These were covered with
chestnut or birch bark. Some of the tribes had large houses, often thirty
feet high and over two hundred feet long, which accommodated a number
of families. Some of the Indian villages were laid off regularly and were
permanent; others were broken up with each migration of the tribe.




9 -+4' rX


g.,,, 0-.
t 11
L-.


Ar


~17., -
I        -:!W.,.           % -,
't -  -,::   I,,      I.-    '4   '11 -i t             i K               F


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4


PENN 'S, TPIFATY WITIh THE INDIANS.




a
A
a
I
I




PRIJMITIVE INHABITANTS.


39


All the Indians, however, pursued a roving life, passing from point to
point in search of game and the means of subsistence. Some of the tribes
lived by hunting only; others added to this pursuit the cultivation of
maize or Indian corn, beans, tobacco, hemp, and pumpkins. The food
of the Indians was coarser and less nourishing than that of the Europeans,
and they were consequently inferior to the latter in bodily strength.
They surpassed them in endurance, however, and could bear tests which
the whites could not. They were swift runners, and could accomplish
long distances in this way  It was a common thing for a good runner
to run seventy or eighty miles in a single day  They were thoroughly
proficient in the craft of the woodsman. Sounds and sights which had
no meaning to the white man were eloquent to them; and they surpassed
the latter in keenness of hearing
and of vision. They communicated with each other by signs or,
marks on rocks and trees. For
money they used wampum beads; -    -i
and belts made of this wampum
were used to record treaties and
other important events. They had         '
no intoxicating drinks before the
arrival of the whites; but used              ".
tobacco, which they smoked in                           ' |
pipes made of clay. They were
expert marksmen with the bow           /^ i
until thev learned the use of firearms from the whites, when they
lost much of their ancient skill
with this weapon.                  CONVERTED INDIAN WOMAN.
"The most ingenious inventions
of the Indians," says Colonel Higginson, "were the snow-shoe and the
birch canoe. The snow-shoe was made of a maple-wood frame, three or
four feet long, curved and tapering, and filled in with a network of deer's
hide. This network was fastened to the foot by thongs, only a light,
elastic moccasin being worn. Thus the foot was supported on the surface
of the snow; and an Indian could travel forty miles a day upon snowshoes, and could easily overtake the deer and moose, whose pointed hoofs
cut through the crust. The peculiar pattern varied withl almost every
tribe, as did also that of the birch canoe. This was made of the bark of
the white birch, stretched over a very light frame of white cedar. The
whole bark of a birch tree was stripped off and put round the frame




A-=Z


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All, "-I P-lr f I


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t'I/,        —.,      , -, #V- w- - -,   -,
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A DEAD TOWN OF THE MOQUIS INDIAN&.


40




PRIMITIVE INHABITANTS.


41


without being torn. The edges were sewed with thongs cut from the
roots of the cedar, and were then covered with pitch made from the gum
of trees.  If torn, the canoe could be mended with pieecs of bark,
fastened in the same way. The largest of these canoes was thirty feet
long, and would carry ten or twelve Indians. They were very light, and
could be paddled with ease. They were often very gracefully shaped,
and drew very little water,
"The Indians had great courage, self-control, and patience. They
were grave and dignified in their manners on important occasions; in
their councils they were courteous to one another, and discussed all important questions at great length. They were often kind and generous, and
sometimes even forgiving; but they generally held sternness to be a virtue,
and forgiveness a weakness.  They were especially cruel to captives,
putting them to death with all manner of tortures, in which women took
an active part. It was the custom among them for women to do most of
the hard work, in order that the
bodies of the men might be kept
supple and active for the pursuits of the chase and war.
When employed on these pur-; "                    / \
suits, the Indian men seemed
incapable of fatigue; but in the \/. ~,-':,/~
camp or in travelling the women At i'i/.;n~.
carried the burdens; and when;"
a hunter had carried a slain deer  'I~   /
on his shoulders for a long dis-              )?
tance, he would throw it down           \    \
within sight of the village,that his  INDIAN OF THE PLAINS.
squaw might go and bring it in.
" Most of the Indian tribes lived in a state of constant warfare with
one another. When there was a quarrel between tribes, and war seemed
ready to break out, strange ceremonies were used. Some leading chief
would paint his body black from head to foot, and would hide himself in
the woods or in a cavern. There he would fast and pray, and call upon
the Great Spirit; and would observe his dreams to see if they promised
good or evil. If he could dream of a great war-eagle hovering before
him it would be a sign of triumph. After a time he would come forth
from the woods and return among his people. Then he would address
them, summon them to war, and assure them that the Great Spirit was
on their side. Then he would bid the warriors to a feast at his wigwam.
There they would find him no longer painted in black, but in bright and
I




42


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


gaudy colors, called ' war paint.' The guests would also be dressed in
paint and feathers, and would scat themselves in a circle. Then wooden
trenchers, containing the flesh of dogs, would be placed before them,
while the chief would sit smoking his pipe, and would not yet break his
long and exhausting fast.
"After the feast, the war-dance would follow, perhaps at night, amid
the blaze of fires and lighted pine knots. A painted post would he
driven into the ground, and the crowd would form a wide circle round
it.  The war chief would leap into the open space, brandishing his
hatchet, and would chant his own deeds and those of his fathers, acting
out all that he described and striking at the post as if it were an enemy
Warrior after warrior would follow, till at last the whole band would be
dancing, shouting, and brandishing their weapons, striking and stabbing
at the air, and filling the forest with their yells.
" Much oft' the night would pass in this way. In the morning the
warriors would leave the camp in single file, still decorated with paint
and feathers and ornaments; and, as they entered the woods, the chief
would fi're his gun, and each in turn would do the same. Then they
would halt near the village, would take off their ornaments and their
finery, and would give all these to the women, who had followed themi
for this purpose. Then the warriors would go silently and stealthily
through the forest to the appointed place of attack. Much of their skill
consisted in these silent approaches, and in surprises and stratagems, and
long and patient watchings. They attached no shame to killing an
unarmed enemy, or to private deceit and treachery, though to their
public treaties they were always faithful. They were desperately brave,
and yet they saw no disgrace in running away when there was no chance
of success."
At the time of the discovery of America the Indians were rapidly
disappearing.  Their relentless wars and frequent pestilences were
sweeping them away    Contact with the white race has hastened the
work of destruction. Many of the tribes exist now but in name, and
those which remain are growing smaller in numbers with each generation;
and it would seem that the time is not far distant when the last trace left
of the red man in America will be his memory.
Whether any white men ever trod the shores of America previous to
the coming of Columbus is a disputed question. It would seem,
however, that, several centuries previous to his discovery, a Norwegian
vessel from Iceland to Greenland was driven out of her course by storms
to the coast of Labrador or Newfoundland. The national pride of the
Icelanders and the Danes has led them to accept as literal history the




I -   _ _   -      - _ _ _ _            - - _ _ _ _ _


Uj*RUUF i)F INDIANS UF NL,,%% A~LX1LQ.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


traditions of their race concerning this voyage, and they have given it a
definite date. According to them this voyage took place in A. D. 986,
and was followed in 1001 by a voyage of Lief Erickson, an Icelandic
navigator, who is said to have discovered America, reaching Labrador
first, and then sailing southward to Newport and New York harbors.
This voyage is said to hlave led the way to the further exploration of the


LOW'ER FALLS OF THE YELLOWSTONE, WYOMING,
(350 FEET IN HEIGHT.)


coast as far south as the capes of Virginia, and to the planting of colonies,
which soon perished, in Newfoundland and Nova Scotia. That some
Icelandic voyagers visited the American continent previous to the expedition of Columbus is most likely; but we cannot accept the definite and
explicit statements of the writers in question; at least in the present state
of our knowledge upon this subject.




-4&_j                     _  __w —


~VOMYS A V II-ON -INTERNATIONAL CENTENNIAL EXiIIBITION,




r
i.01
4
If
I
i




CHAPTER II


THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.
Maritime Enterprise in the Fifteenth Century-Theories respecting the Earth's SurfaceChristopher Columbus-His early Life-His Theory of a Western Passage to IndioaHis Struggles to obtain the means of making a Voyage-Is aided by Ferdinand:;Id
Isabella of Spain-His first Voyage-Discovery of America-Reception in Spain-His
second Voyage-Settlement of Hayti-Third Voyage of Columbus-He reaches the
Mainland-Discovery of Gold in Hayti-Troubles in the Colony-Columbus sent to
Spain in Irons-Indignation of the Queen-Last Voyage of Columbus-His Shipwreck
-Returns to Spain-Refusal of Ferdinand to comply with his Promises-Death of
Columbus-Amerigo Vespucci-Origin of the name AMERICA.
-HE fifteenth century witnessed a remarkable awakening of human
thought and enterprise, one of the most important features of
_f which was the activity in maritime undertakings which led to
cA   the discovery of lands until then unknown to the civilized world.
The invention, and the application to navigation, of the mariner's
compass, had enabled the seamen of Europe to undertake long and distant
voyages. The Portuguese took the lead in the maritime enterprises of
this period, the chief object of which was to find a route by water from
Europe to the Indies. The equator had been passed; Bartholomew Diaz
had even doubled the Cape of Storms, and had established the course of
the eastern coast of Africa; and it was hoped by some of the most daring
thinkers that the distant ports of India could be reached by sailing
around this cape. Others, still bolder, believed that although the.earth
was really a sphere, it was much smaller than it is, and that the central
portion of its surface was occupied by a vast ocean which washed the
shores of what they regarded as its solitary continent, on either side, and
that by sailing due west from   Europe, the shores of India, China, or
Ja)an would be reached.
Among those who held this opinion was Christopher Columbus.      He
was a native of Genoa, in Italy, was born about the year 1435, and was
the son of a weaver of cloth. His ancestors had been sailors, for which
calling he at an early age evinced a preference. He received a commonschool education, and afterwards went to the University of Pavia, where
he studied geometry, astronomy, geography, and navigation. He stayed
45




HIST'ORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


iat Paviab but a short time; only long enough to gain a decided relish for
the inmathellaticall studies in which he afterwards excelled. At the age of
fourteen he went to sea with a relative, and followed the calling of a
sailor until he had completed his thirtieth year. During this period he
had married, and bly this lnarriage he had blecome possessed of the papers
of the f;oriner hllusand of his wife, who had been a distinguished Portuguese navigator  ie llad learned but little at school, but he had been a
close student all his life, and had stored his mind with a valuable fund
of information. This habit of study he never abandoned, and his
extensive  knowledge,
a(lded to his years of
p r a c t i c a 1 experience,
C  Cmade him one of the
most learned navigators of his day
In 1470, being then
about thirty years old,
Columbus took up his
thaT diLresidence in Portugal,
which was then th   e
n           e        scentre of maritime en-ll
e  of  p terprise in Europe.  e
dietin       Ti                           continued to make vof  i
life. Sailorges to the then known
parts of the world and. while on shore engaged
in the work of making
"_~   _... and selling maps and
CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.           ('harts.  The  papers
given him by his wife
were now of the greatest service to him. He entered eagerly into the
speculations of the day concerning the shortest passage to the Indies, and
his studies, fortified bv his experience, induced him to believe that there
was land beyond the wvestern seas, which could be reached by sailing in
that direction. This land he believed to be the eastern shores of Asia.
He was confirmed in his belief by his correspondence with the learned
Italian Toscanelli, who sent him a map of his own projection, in which
the eastern coast of Asia was laid down opposite the western coast of'
Europe, with only the broad Atlantic between them. Other things also
confirmed him in what had now become the profoundest conviction of his
life. Sailors who had been to the Canary islands told him they had seen




THE VOYAGES OF COLUMBUS.


land far to the westward of those islands. A piece of wood strangely
carved had been thrown by the waves upon the Portuguese coast after a
long westerly gale, and had been seen by the brother-in-law of Columbus.
An old pilot related to him the finding of a carved paddle at sea, a
thousand miles to the westward of Europe. Pine trees had been east
ashore at Madeira, and at the Azores he learned that the bodies of two
men, whose features and dress showed that they belonged to no nation of
Europe, had been thrown on the land by the waves.
Having settled it in his own mind that there was land to the westward,
Columbus was eager to go in search of it. He was not posscssed of sufficient means to accomplish this at his own expense, and began his efforts
to interest some European state in the enterprise. His first application
was addressed to his native country, the Republic of Genoa. He met
with a refusal, and then turned to Venice, with a like result. His next
effort was to enlist the Portuguese king, John II., in his scheme. Here
he was subjected to delays and vexations innumerable, and once the
Portuguese sovereign attempted to make a dishonorable use of the
information given by Columbus in support of his theory   Disgusted
with the conduct of this sovereign, Columbus, after years of waiting,
abandoned the hope of obtaining his assistance, and applied to Henry
VII. of England, from whom he received a decided refusal.
Quitting Lisbon in 1484, Columbus went to Spain, intending to lay
his plans before Ferdinand and Isabella, the sovereigns of that country
He could scarcely have chosen a more unpropitious time. The Spanish
nation was engaged in the Moorish war, which had exhausted the
treasury, and which absorbed the attention of the sovereigns to the
exclusion of every other matter. He spent seven years in endeavoring
to interest the government in his plans. "During this time Columbus
appears to have remained in attendance on the court, bearing arms
occasionally in the campaigns, and experiencing from the sovereigns an
unusual degree of deference and personal attention." At last, wearied
with the long delay to which he had been subjected, he pressed the court
for an answer, and was told by the sovereigns that, " although they were
too much occupied at present to embark in his undertaking, yet, at the
conclusion of the war, they should find both time and inclination to treat
with him."  He accepted this answer as a final refusal, and prepared to
go to France to ask the assistance of the king of that country, from
whom he had received a friendly letter.
Travelling on foot, he stopped at the monastery of Santa Maria de
Rabida, near Palos, to visit the Prior Juan Perez de Marchena, who had
befriended him when lie first came to Spain. The prior, learning his




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


intention to quit Spain, persuaded him to remain until one more effort
could be made to enlist the government in his plans. Leaving Columbus
at the convent, Juan Perez, who had formerly been the queen's confessor,
mounted his mule and set off for the Spanish camp before Granada. He
was readily granted an interview by Queen Isabella, and he urged the
suit of Columbus with all the force of eloquence and reasoning of which
he was master. His appeal was supported by several eminent persons
whom Columbus, during his residence at the court, had interested in his
project, and these represented to the queen the impolicy of allowing
Columbus to secure the aid of a foreign power which would reap the
benefits of his discoveries, if he were successful. The result was that the
sovereigns consented to reopen the negotiation, and Columbus was invited
to return to the court, and was furnished with a sum of money to enable
him to do so.
Columbus promptly complied with the royal mandate, and reached the
camp in time to witness the surrender of Granada. Amidst the rejoicings
which attended this event, he was admitted to an audience with the king
and queen, and submitted to them the arguments upon which he based
his theory Isabella was favorably disposed.toward the undertaking, but
Ferdinand looked coldly upon it. Columbus demanded, as the reward
of his success, the title and authority of admiral and viceroy over all
lands discovered by him, with one-tenth of the profits, and that this dignity should be hereditary in his family. The archbishop of Granada
advised the king to reject the demands of Columbus, which he said
" savored of the highest degree of arrogance, and would be unbecoming
in their highnesses to grant to a needy foreign adventurer."  Columbus
firmly refused to abate his pretensions, and abruptly left the court,
a"resolved rather to forego his splendid anticipations of discovery, at the
very moment when the career so long sought was thrown open to him,
than surrender one of the honorable distinctions due to his services." His
friends, however, remonstrated with the queen, and reminded her that if
his claims were high, they were at least contingent on success.  By
representing to her the certainty of his being employed by some other
potentate, and his peculiar qualifications for success, and by reminding
her of her past generous support of great and daring enterprises, they
roused her to listen to the impulses of her own noble heart. "I will
assume the undertaking," she exclaimed, "for my own crown of Castile,
and am ready to pawn my jewels to defray the expenses of it, if the funds
in the treasury shall be found inadequate." Louis de St. Angel, the
receiver who had been chiefly instrumental in bringing about this decision of the queen, offered to advance the necessary funds from  the




Ulm
J~ilill
IIIfilm
THE BRONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL, COMMENEMORATING THE EVENTS
O.F THE LIFE OF CHRISTOPHER COLUMBUS.


4


49




IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA T'ES.


reven)ues of Aragon. That kingdom, however, was indemnified against.
loss, and all the charges and profits of the expedition were reserved exclusively for Castile.
A messenger was despatched in haste after Columbus. He overtook
him a few leagues from Granada, and delivered the royal order to return,
On the 17th of April, 1492, a formal agreement was signed between
Columbus and the Spanish sovereigns.    Ferdinand and Isabella, "as
lords of the ocean-seas, constituted Christopher Columbus their admiral,
viceroy, and governor-general of all such islands and continents as he
should discover in the Western ocean, with the privilege of nominating
three candidates, for the selection of one by the crown, for the government of each of these territories. He was to be vested with the exclusive
right of jurisdiction over all commercial transactions within his admiralty
He was to be entitled to one-tenth of all the products and profits within
the limits of his discoveries, and an additional eighth, provided he should
contribute one-eighth part of the expense. By a subsequent ordinance,
the official dignities above enumerated were settled on him and his heirs
forever, with the privilege of prefixing the title of Don to their names,
which had not then degenerated into an appellation of mere courtesy "
A fleet of three vessels was assembled in the little harbor of Palos in
Andalusia. Two of these were furnished by the government, and one by
Columbus, aided by his friend, the Prior of La Rabida, and the Pinzons,
"t a family in Palos, long distinguished for its enterprise among the mariners of that active community"   The admiral had some difficulty in
equipping his vessels, for his voyage was regarded by the sailors of the
country as rash and perilous in the extreme. At length, however, a
sufficient crew was obtained. One hundred and twenty persons were enlisted in the expedition. The three vessels were all small. The " Santa
Maria," the largest, was ninety feet long, was decked all over, had four
masts, and carried a crew of sixty-six seamen. The " Pinta " and
"Nina" were smaller, and were without decks. All the vessels were
provisioned for a year The admiral was instructed to keep clear of the
African coast, and other maritime possessions of Portugal.
At length all things were in readiness, and, Columbus and his whole
crew having confessed themselves and received the sacrament, the fleet
sailed from Palos on the morning of Friday, the 3d of August, 1492.
A month later the Canary islands were reached. A brief delay was
made there to refit, and then the vessels turned their prows to the westward, and sailed out into the unknown seas. As the night came on, the
sailors, imagining they had seen the land for the last time, gave way to
tears. Columbus soothed their fears, and held his course. At length he




THE VOYAGES OF COL UMB US.


I,1


fell in with the trade winds, which wafted him steadily toward the west.
The sailors were greatly alarmed at this, and declared that if the wind
did not change it would be impossible for them  to reach home again.
The variation of the compass also alarmed them, and their murmurs increased to almost open mutiny. It required all the firmness of the
admiral to restrain them, and to keep them from abandoning the enterprise and returning to Europe.
Ten weeks of anxiety and disappointment had passed since the departure of the fleet from Palos; but still no land was seen. There were unmistakable signs that land was near, such as the flight of land birds


THE LANDING OF COLUMBUS.
around the ship, the finding of a bush floating on the waters with fresh
berries upon it, and the frequent discovery of land weeds upon the waves.
Often the lookout would startle the fleet by the cry of land, but as often
the supposed shore would prove to be only a bank of clouds low down
upon the western horizon. Still the ships held their westward course,
and at length the sailors broke into open mutiny, and demanded that the
fleet should return home. They were even ready to throw the admiral
overboard if he refused to grant their demands.
Columbus alone had been calm and hopeful throughout the voyage.
He was resolved to succeed or perish in the attempt to find the land.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED SITA TES.


The success of the mutiny would have destroyed all his hopes, and as the
events of each succeeding day strengthened. him in his conviction that.
they were rapidly approaching land, he condescended to plead with his
men, and obtained from them a promise to obey him for a few days
longer  The next night the land breeze, laden with the rich perfumes
of tropical flowers, convincedl the weary crews that the admiral was right,
and that the long wished-for shore was indeed near. The ships were
ordered to lie to i'or the night lest they should go ashore in the darkness.
No one slept on board that nigrlt. About ten o'clock, Columbus saw a
light moving aloi.r the shore, as if it were a torch carried in a man's
hand. Hie called Martin Alonzo Pinzon, one of his captains, and pointed
it out to him. Pinzon confirmed the admiral's opinion, and all waited in
the most intense eagerness for the approach of the morning.
With the first light, on the morning of Friday, the 12th of October,
1492, a gun from one of the vessels announced that land was indeed in
sight, and the rising sun revealed to the delighted seamen a large island,
luxuriant in foliage and of very beautiful appearance, lying about six
miles away, with crowds of natives running along the beach. As the
great admiral stood with folded arms, and heaving breast, gazing upon
the world which his genius had discovered, the penitent sailors crowded
about him, and, kissing his garments, implored his pardon for their rebellious conduct during the voyage.
The fleet stood in and anchored near the shore. The boats were
manned, and the admiral, clad in rich scarlet, and bearing the royal
banner of Spain, and accompanied by his captains, each of whom bore a
green banner inscribed with a cross, went ashore. As he set foot on the
land, Columbus knelt reverently and kissed the ground, and then rising
and drawing his sword, took possession of the island in the name of
Ferdinand and Isabella, King and Queen of Spain. The island was one
of the Bahama group, and was called by the natives Guanahani. Columbus named it San Salvador. He explored the island, and then sailing on
discovered Cuba, Hayti, and other West India islands. He believed
these islands to lie off the coast of Asia and to form a part of the Indies.
For this reason he called the natives Indians, a name which they have
since borne.
Having built and garrisoned a small fort called La Navidad, in Hayti,
Columbus took on board seven of the natives, and laid in a stock of
fruits, plants, and a number of animals, as proofs of his success and
specimens of the products of the country, and then set sail on his return
to Spain. A storm compelled him to seek refuge in the Tagus. He
was received with distinguished courtesy by John II., who was now not




4,0//7 - /D ^
gh-mosozaL e


SIGNATURES OF THE SIGNERS OF THE DECLARATION OF INDEL- -NDENCE.




It




THE' VO YA GES 01F' CJOLUUMIB rS.


ai little mortified at having thrown away so glorious an opportunity in
r(jecting the application of the admliral years before. Leaving Lisbon,
Columbus sailed to Palos, where he arrived on the 15th of March, 1493,
seven months and eleven days after his departure from tlhat port. His
arrival was greeted with enthusiasm. From Palos he set out for the
court at Barcelona.
Every step of the journey to Barcelona was a triumphal progress.
Multitudes thronged the way, eager to gaze upon him. He was received
with the most distinguished honors by the sovereigns, and the whole
court joined in a Te Deutm of thankfulness for the succe.ss of his voyage.
The king and queen confirmed his applointmlnent,of viceroy or governorgeneral of all the countries he had discvered, or should discover, and
conferred titles of nobility upon his family, with permission to use a coat
of arms. These honors, though conferred with a lavish hand, hadl all
been fairly won; but they aroused the jealousy of the Spanish nolilitv,
and made for Columbus enemies who filled the remainder of his life with
sorrow and care.
A second expedition, consisting of seventeen ships and fifteen hundred
men, was now fitted out, and sailed from Cadiz, under the command of
Columbus, on the 25th of September, 1493. On this voyage he discovered Jamaica and many 'of the Caribbee islands. He found that his colony
in Havti had been destroyed by the savages in revenge for their outrages;
but, undismayed by this, he planted a new town, which lie called Isabella,
in honor of the queen. From this time the permanent settlement of the
island continued without interruption.
In 1498 Columbus made a third voyage, and in this expedition discovered the mainland of the American continent near the mouth of Orinoco,
and explored the coast of the provinces since called Para and Cumana.
He was not aware of the true nature of his discovery, however, but supposed that the South American coast was a part of a large island belonging to Cathay or Farther India.
In the meantime gold had been discovered in Hayti, which island the
Spaniards had named Hispaniola, or Little Spain. The colonists neglecting all the more useful avocations, applied themselves to the search for
gold, and crowds of worthless adventurers were drawn over from Spain
by the hope of acquiring sudden wealth. They inflicted the greatest
hardships upon the natives, and when Columbus arrived at Hispaniola
from the South American coast, he found the affairs of the colony in the
most deplorable state. The whole settlement rebelled against him, and
the rebels, not content with refusing to acknowledge his authority, sent
numerous complaints to Spain, charging him with tyranny and misgov



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ernminent. The sovereigns at length sent over a commissioner named
Bobadilla, to investigate the affairs of the colony  He was a narrowminded and incompetent man, and instead of investigating the charges
against the admiral, arrested him, and sent him back to Spain in irons.
When the officers of the ship which bore him back home wished to remove his fetters, he refused to allow them to do so, saying, " I will wear
them as a memento of the gratitude of princes."  The news of this outrage filled the people of Spain with honest indignation. "All seemed to
feel it as a national dishonor," says Prescott, " that such indignities should
be heaped upon the man, who, whatever might be his indiscretions, had
done so much for Spain, and for the whole civilized world."  Queen Isabella at once ordered his fetters to be struck off, and he was summoned to
court, reinstated in all his honors, and treated with the highest consideration. Isabella Lained from the king a promise to aid her in doing justice
to the admiral, and in punishing his enemies; but Ferdinand, who could
never bear to do a generous or noble act, evaded his promise, and the
admiral failed to receive the recompense he was justly entitled to.
In 1504 Columbus sailed on his fourth voyage; his object this time
being to find a passage from the Atlantic to the Pacific ocean, by which
he might reach India. He explored the Gulf of Honduras, and saw the
continent of North America, but was compelled by a mutiny of his crew
and )yv severe storms to abandon his attempt and return to the northward.
He was shipwrecked on the coast of Jamaica, where he remained more
than a year, Returning to Spain in November, 1505, he found his best
friend, Queen Isabella, on her death-bed. The enemies whom his great
success had raised up for him were numerous and powerful, while he was
now old and broken in health. He vainly sought from Ferdinand a faithful execution of the original compact between them; but though he re —
ceived fair words and promises in abundance from the king, Ferdinand
steadily refused to comply with the just demands of the admiral. At
last, worn out with care and disappointments, Columbus died at Valladolid,
on the 20th of May, 1506, being about seventy years old. He was buried
with great pomp in the convent of St. Francis, at Valladolid. In 1513
his remains were removed to the monastery of Las Cuevas, at Seville, and
Ferdinand caused this inscription, which cost him nothing and expressed
his excuse for his conduct towards the dead man, to be placed upon his
tomb: "To Castile and Leon Columbus gave a New World!"  In 1536
the body of the great admiral was conveyed with appropriate honors to
St. Domingo. Upon the cession of that island to France in 1795, the
body was removed to Cuba, and buried in the cathedral of Havana.
Not yet have the ashes of the Discoverer of America found their true rest



I -4!~aIIIson
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THE VO YAGES OF COL UMB US.


55


ing place. That place is under the great dome of the Capitol of the
Republic, for whose existence he prepared the way
Though Columbus reached the continent of South America on his third
voyage, he was not the first European who beheld the mainland of the
western world. In the winter of 1497-98, Amerigo Vespucci, or Americus Vespucius, a Florentine navigator, made a voyage to the West Indies
and the South American coast, thus reaching the mainland of the continent nearly a year before Columbus. Returning to Europe he published
an account of his discoveries. This was the first account of the new
world published in Europe, and some years later a German geographer
gave to the continent the name of "Americi Terra," or the land discovered
by Americus.     From   this time the name AMERICA was applied to the
western continent.*
* In the Atlantic Monthly for March, 1875, Mr. Jules Marcou gives some very striking
reasons for regarding the name America as derived from an indigenous word originally
applied to a range of mountains in Central America. "Americ, Amerrique, or Amerique,"
he says, " is the name in Nicaragua for the highland or mountain range that lies between
Juigalpa and Libertad, in the province of Chontales, and which reaches on the one side
into the country of the Carcas Indians, and on the other into that of the Ramas Indians.
The names of places in the Indian dialects of Central America often terminate in ique, or
ic, which seems to mean ' great,' 'elevated,' 'prominent,' and is always applied to dividing
ridges, or to elevated mountainous countries, but not to volcanic regions.
"The question to be decided is, whether the word Americ or Amerrique, designating a
part of the terra firma discovered by Cristoforo Colombo, on his fourth and last voyage to
the new world, was known to the great navigator, and consequently could have been
repeated by him or by the companions of his voyage. There is no certainty of this; for the
word is not found in the very brief account he has left us. But as the origin of the word
Americ has been until now an enigma, in spite of the different interpretations of it that
have been given, and as Vespuchy had nothing to do with this name, entirely unknown to
him-the inventor of the word Americi or America being a printer and bookseller in a
small town in the Vosges mountains-it is perhaps well to review the facts, and to
show where lies the greatest probability for a true solution of the origin of this word
America.
" There is the strongest evidence that this word, denoting the range and the rocks of
Amerrique, Amerique, or Americ, is an indigenous word, the terminal ique or ic being common for the names of locality, in the language of the Lenca Indians of Central America, a
part of- Mexico; and that this name has been perpetuated without alteration since the discovery of the new world, by the complete isolation of the Indians who live in this part of
the continent, who call their mountains by the same word to-day as they did in 1502, when
Colombo visited them, Amerrique, Amerique, or Americ. These mountains are auriferous;
at their-foot lie the gold mines of Libertad and Santo Domingo, and further, the gold of
the alluvium or the placers is entirely exhausted, which can only be explained by a previous washing by the Indians themselves; at present the gold is to be found only in the veins
of the quartz rock.
"Colombo says the Indians named several localities rich in gold, but he does not give
the names in his very curtailed account, contenting himself with citing the name of the
province of Ciamba; but it is highly probable that this name Americ or Amerrique was




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


often pronounced by the Indians in answer to the pressing demands of the Europeans of the
expedition. The eagerness for gold was such among the first navigators that it formed their
chief preoccupation everywhere; and it is almost certain that to their continual questions
as to the place where the gold was found that the Indians wore as ornaments, the reply
would be from Americ, this word signifying the most elevated and conspicuous part of the
interior, the upper country, the distinguishing feature of the province of Ciamba.
" We may suppose that Colombo and his companions on their return to Europe, when relating their adventures, would boast of the rich gold mines they had discovered through the
Indians of Nicaragua, and say they lay in the direction of Americ. This would make
popular the word Americ, as the common designation of that part of the Indies in which
the richest mines of gold in the new world were situated.
"Tlhe word Americ, a synonym for this golden country, would become known in the
seaports of the West Indies and then in those of Europe, and would gradually penetrate into
the interior of the continent, so that a printer and bookseller in St. Did, at the foot of the,Vo,(>, would have heard the word Americ without understanding its true meaning as an
indigenous Indian word, but would become acquainted with it in conversations about these
fanlmous discoveries, as designating a country in the New Indies very rich in mines of gold.
IIvlaconmylus of St. Die, ignorant of any printed account of these voyages but those of
Albericis Vespucius-published in Latin in 1505, and in German in 150X6)-thought he saw
in the (lChristian name Albericus the origin of this, for him, altered and corrupted word,
Anmeric or Amerique, and renewing the fable of the monkey and the dolphin who took the
Pineus for a man, called this country by the only name among those of the navigators that
had reached him, and which resembled the word Aineric or Amerique.
"In order to accomplish this it was necessary to change considerably the Christian name
of Vespucins, and from Albericus, Alberico, Amerigo, and IMorigo-which are the different ways of spelling the first name of Vespuzio, or Vespuchy, or Vespucci-he made.mericus! thus, according to my view, it is owing to a grave mistake of Hylacomylus that
the aboriginal name of the new world, Americ or Amerique, has been Europeanized and
connected with the son of Anastasio Vespuzio."
The reader is referred to the article in question for the arguments by which the writer
sustains his very ingenious theory, which we have given in substance in his own words in
tlhe above extract.,~ -I,




DIRD'SEYE VIEW OF NEW YORK CITY, SHOWING THIF BRIDGE CONNECTING iT WITH BROOKLYN




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CHAPTER III


ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES.
Discovery of the North American Continent by John ('a}ot-Voyages of Sebastian ~'abot
-The English fail to follow up these Discoveries-Efforts of the French to explore
America-Voyage and Discoveries of Verrazzani-Cartier explores the St. LawrenceReaches Montreal-Efforts to found a Colony on the St. Lawrence-Failure-Roberval's
Colony-Trading Voyages-Explorations of Champlain-Colonization of Nova Scotia
-Founding of Quebec-Discovery of Lake Champlain-Arrival of the Jesuits in
Canada-Death of Champlain.
N the meantime the success of the first voyage of Columbus had
s1 stimulated other nations to similar exertions.  The Englisll coturt
J   had experienced a feeling of keen regret that the petition of
Pi:    Columbus had been refused, and when John Cabot, a native of
Venice, then residing at Bristol, applied for leave to undler-:ake a voyage of exploration his request was readily granted.  On the
5th of March, 1496, a patent or commission was granted to him and his
three sons by Henry VII., authorizing either of them, their heirs or their
agents, to undertake with a fleet of five ships, at their own expense, a
voyage of discovery in the eastern, western, or northern seas. Though
they were to make the attempt at their own cost, they were to take possession of the countries they should discover for the king of England.
They were to have the exclusive privilege of trading to these countries,
but were bound to return to the port of Bristol, and to pay to the king
one-fifth of the profits of their trade.
Early in 1497 Cabot sailed from     Bristol, accompanied by his son,
Sebastian.  The objeet of his voyage was not only the discovery of new
lands, but the finding of a northwest passage to Asia. He sailed due
west, and on the 24th of June, 1497, reached the coast of Labrador. He
thus discovered the mainland of the North American continent, fully
fourteen months before Columbus reached the coast of South America,
and nearly a year before Amerigo Vespucci made his discovery       He
explored the coast to the southward for over a thousand miles, made
frequent landings, and took possession of the country in the name of the
English king. Returning home, he was received with many marks of
honor by Henry VII., and was called the "Great Admiral" by the people.
57




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ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCOVERIES.


59


Towards the close of the year 1497, the Cabots undertook a new voyage, and the king, pleased with the success of the first venture, became
a partner in the enterprise, and assumed a portion of the expense. The
object of this voyage was to trade with the natives, and to ascertain if the
country was suited to colonization. The expedition sailed from Bristol
in May, 1498, and was commanded by Sebastian Cabot, who rea:lhed the
Labrador coast about four hundred miles north of the point discovered
by his father. He found the country cold and barren, though it was but
the beginning of the summer, and sailed southward. "The coast to
which he was now borne was unobstructed by frost. He saw there stags
larger than those of England, and bears that plunged into the water to
take fish with their claws. The fish swarmed innumerably in such
shoals they seemed to affect even the speed of his vessels, so that he gave
to the country the name of Bacallaos, which still linger, on the east side
of Newfoundland, and has passed into the language of the Germans and
the Italians, as well as the Portuguese and Spanish, to designate the cod.
Continuing his voyage, according to the line of the shore, he found the
natives of those regions clad in skins of beasts, but they were not without
the faculty of reason, and in many places were acquainted with the ucs
of copper. In the early part of his voyage he had been so far to the
north that in the month of July the light of day was almst continuous;
before he turned homewards, in the late autumn, he believed he had
attained the latitude of the Straits of Gibraltar and the longitude of
Cuba."*  On his homeward voyage he noticed the Gulf Stream.
This was the last voyage from England made by Sebastian Cabot. On
the death of Henry VII., he took service with Ferdinand of Spain, and
under him and his grandson, Charles V., he made many voyages, and
was for nearly sixty years the foremost man in Europe in maritime
enterprises. He explored the eastern coast of South America, and in his
efforts to find the northwest passage sailed within twenty degrees of the
North Pole, and explored the eastern coast of North America from Hudson's straits to Albemarle sound. He was in many things one of the
most remarkable men of his day, and besides his own discoveries contributed generously by his advice and encouragement to those of others.
' He gave England a continent, and no one knows his burial place."
The English made no effort to take advantage of the discoveries of the
Cabots. They sent a few vessels every year to fish on the banks of
Newfoundland, but pursued even this industry without vigor   The
other nations were more energetic and showed a keener appreciation of
the value of the new lands. The French were especially active in this
* Bancroft.




THE NEW DEPARTMENT OF STATE, WASHTNGTON, D. C.




ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCO VERIES.                   61
respect. Their vessels engaged in the fisheries far outnumbered those
of the English, and many planIs were proposed in France for the colonization of these regions. In 1523, Francis I. employed a Florentine
named John Verrazzani, an experienced navigator, to und(lertake the discovery of a northwest passage to India. Verrazzani sailed (n the 17th
of January, 1524, and, after a stormy voyage of fifty dalys, reached the
American coast in the latitude of Wilmington, North Carolina. Failing
to find a good harbor, he sailed southward for 150 miles, and then turned
northward, examining the coast as he proceeded. Verrazzani was surprised and delighted by the appearance of the new country and its
inhabitants. The latter welcomed with hospitality the strangers whom
they Ihad not yet learned to fear, and the Europeans, on their part, retarded with wonder the "russet"-colored natives in their dress of skins
ornamented with feathers. Jud'ingl from   the accounts which they
carried to Europe, the voyagers regarded the country as a sort of terristrial paradise. "Their imagination could not conceive of more delightful
fields and forests; the groves spreading perfumes far from the shore,
gave promise of the spices of the East; and the color of the earth argued
an abundance of gold."  The harbors of New York and Newport were
carefully explored, and in the latter the vova(rers remained fifteen days.


SENTINEL ROCK, YOSEMITE VALLEY.
They then proceeded along the New England coast to Nova Scotia, and
still farther to the north. They found the natives here less friendly
than those farther south. A Portuguese commander, Gaspar Cortereal,
had visited their coast a few years before, and had carried away some of
their number and sold them into slavery




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Returning to France, Verrazzani published an account of his voyage.
This narrative forms the earliest original description now in existence of
the American coast, and added very much to the knowledge of the Europeans concerning this country  France at a subsequent period based
upon Verrazzani's discoveries her claim to the whole coast of America
from Newfoundland to South Carolina.
The struggle in which Francis I. was engaged with the Emperor
Charles V prevented him from taking advantage of these discoveries,
and nothing was done with regard to them by the French until ten years
later, when Chabot, Admiral of France, induced King Francis to make
another effort to explore and colonize America. An expedition was
fitted out, placed under the command of James Cartier, a mariner of St.
Malo, and despatched in April, 1534, for the purpose of exploring the
American coast with a view to colonizing it. A quick voyage of twenty
ldays carried Cartier to Newfoundland. Having passed through the
Straits of Belleisle, he crossed the gulf and entered a bay which he named
Des Chaleurs, from the extreme heats he experienced there. He proceeded along the coast as far as the small inlet called Gaspe, where he
landed and took formal possession of the country in the name of the king
of France. Leaving Gasp6 bay, Cartier discovered the great river of
Canada, and sailed up the stream until he could see the land on either
side. His explorations consumed the months of May, June and July.
Being unprepared tc pass the winter in America, the fleet sailed for
Europe early in August, and reached St. Malo in safety in about
thirty days.
The reports of Cartier concerning America aroused the deepest interest
in France, and it was determined by the government to proceed at once
to the founding of a colony in the new world. A fleet of three wellequipped ships was fitted out, and volunteers from some of the noblest
families in France were not lacking. The whole company repaired to
the cathedral, where they received the bishop's blessing, and on the 19th
of May, 1535, the expedition sailed from St. Malo. The voyage was
long and stormy, but Newfoundland was reached at length. Passing
through the Straits of Belleisle, they entered the gulf lying west of Newfoundland on the 10th of August, the festival of St. Lawrence the
Martyr, and gave to the gulf the name of that saint, which was subsequently applied to the great river emptying into it. The voyagers
ascended the stream to the island since called Orleans. There the fleet
anchored, while Cartier proceeded farther up the river to the chief Indian
settlement on the island of Hochelega. It was the delightful season of
September, and the country was beautiful and inviting. Cartier ascended




ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCO'ERIE',6.


6i3


a hill at the foot of which the Indian settlement lay, and gazed witlh
admiration at the magnificent region which spread out before him. IIH
named the hill Mont Real, or Royal mount, a name which is now
borne by the island and by the great city which marks the site of Indian
village.
The balminess of the autumn induced Cartier to hope that the climate
would prove as mild as that of France; but a rigorous winter, which
was rendered horrible by the prevalence of scurvy among the ships'
crews, disheartened the whole expedition. The winter was spent at the
Isle of Orleans, and in the early spring Cartier erected a cross on the
shore, to which was affixed a shield inscribed with the arms of France
and a legend declaring Francis I. the true and rightful king of the
country. The fleet then sailed for France, and arrived at St. Malo on the
*6th of July, 1536. Cartier published a truthful account of his voyage,
setting forth the severity of the Canadian climate and the absence of
mines of precious metals. His report checked for the time the enthusiasm with which the French had regarded America, and for four years
the plan of colonizing the new country was laid aside.
Some ardent spirits, however, still believed in the possibility of planting successful colonies in the new world and bringing that vast region
under the dominion of France. Among these was Francis de la Roquc,
lord of Roberval, a nobleman of Picardy  He was appointed, by King
Francis, Viceroy of the territories on or near the gulf and river of St.
Lawrence, to which the high-sounding name of Norimbega was given,
and was empowered to colonize it. The assistance of Cartier was necessary to such an undertaking, and he had the additional advantage of
possessing the entire confidence of the king. Roberval was forced to
employ him, and Cartier was given authority by the king to search the
prisons and take from them such persons as he needed for the expedition.
Roberval and Cartier, however, failed to agree, and their dissensions
defeated the object of the undertaking. Cartier sailed from St. Malo in
May, 1541, and ascended the St. Lawrence to a point near the pre sent
city of Quebec, where he built a fort. The winter was passed in idleness
and discord, and in the spring of 1542 Cartier abandoned the attempt,
and sailed away for France with his ships just as Roberval arrived with
a large reinforcement.
Roberval was unable to accomplish more than Cartier    His new
subjects had been largely drawn from the prisons, and they gave him
considerable trouble, if we may judge from the efforts resorted to to keep
them quiet. One of them was hanged for theft during the winter, several
were put in irons, and a number of men and womenl were whipped.




I


FIRST WINTER OF THE FRENCH IN CANADA.




ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCO VERIES.


65


After remaining in Canada for a year, Roberval became disheartened,
and re-embarked his subjects and returned to France.
Nearly thirty years passed away, during which the French made no
effort to secure to themselves the region of the St. Lawrence. Their
fishermen, however, continued to frequent the American waters. By the
3lose of the sixteenth century one hundred and fifty vessels were engaged
in the fisheries of Newfoundland, and voyages for the purpose of trading
with the Indians had become common. In 1598, the Marquis de la
Roche, a nobleman of Brittany, attempted to plant a colony on the Isle
of Sable. The colonists consisted of criminals from the prisons of France,
and the effort proved a failure.
In 1600, Chauvin obtained a patent from the crown, conferring upon
him a monopoly of the fur trade, and Pontgrav6, a merchant of St. Malo,
became his partner in the enterprise. Two successful voyages were made
to Canada, and Chauvin' intended founding a colony there. His death,
in 1602, prevented the execution of this plan.
In 1603, a company of merchants of PRuen was organized, and Samuel
Champlain, an able and experienced officer of the French navy, was
placed in charge of an expedition, and sent to Canada to explore the
country. He was in every way qualified for the task committed to him,
and after making a thorough and systematic examination of the region
of the St. Lawrence, and fixing upon Quebec as the proper site for a fort,
returned to France and laid before his employers his report, which is still
valuable for its accurate description of the country and the manners of
the natives.
Soon after Champlain's return to France a patent was issued to Des
Monts, conferring upon him the sole right to colonize the vast region
lying between the fortieth and forty-sixth parallels of latitude. As this
territory embraced the St. Lawrence region, the Rouen company were
unable for the present to accomplish anything. Des Monts proceeded
with his preparations, and in March, 1604, an expedition consisting of
two ships was sent out to Acadie or Nova Scotia. The summer was
passed in trading with the Indians and exploring the coast, and in the
autumn the colonists made a settlement on the island of St. Croix, at the
mouth of the river of the same name. In the spring of 1605, they
abandoned this settlement and removed to Port Royal, now known as
Annapolis. Efforts were made to find a more southern location in the
latter part of 1605 and 1606, but the expeditions sent out for this purpose
were driven back by storms or wrecked among the shoals of Cape Cod,
and the colonists decided to remain at Port Royal. Thus the permanency of the colony was established. Some years later a number of Jesuit
5




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ENGLISH AND FRENCH DISCO VERlll LS


67


missionaries were sent out to Port Royal. These labored diligently
among the tribes between the Penobscot and the Kennebec, and not only
spread the Christian faith among them, but won for the French the
constant affection of the savages. During all her contests with the
English in America, these tribes remained the faithful and unwavering
allies of France. In 1613, a French colony was planted on the eastern
shore of Mount Desert. The settlement was named St. Sauveur, and became another centre of missionary enterprise among the savages of Maine.
In the meantime the French merchants had succeeded in obtaining a
revocation of the impolitic monopoly of Des Monts. A company of
merchants of St. Malo and Dieppe waxs formed, and an expedition was
0
SCENE ON THE ST. LAWRENCE.
sent out to Canada under Champlain, who " aimed not at the profits of
trade, but at the glory of founding a state." On the 3d of July, 1608,
the city of Quebec was begun by the erection of one or two cottages. In
1609, Champlain, with but two Europeans, joined a party of Hurons
from Montreal, and Algonquins from Quebec, in an expedition against
the Five Nations. He ascended the Sorel, explored the lake which is
now called by his name, and examined a considerable part of northern
New York. The religious disputes of France spread to the colony, and
Champlain was obliged to use all his energy and authority to overcome
the evils which these inflicted upon the infant settlement. He succeeded
in overcoming them, and by his energy and perseverance the fortunes of
Quebec were placed beyond the reach of failure. Champlain died in
1635, and was buried in "New France," of which he is justly called
u the father."
t




CHAPTER IV.


THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.
Settlement of the West Indies-Discovery of the Pacific Ocean-Voyage of MagellanDiscovery of Florida-Ponce de Leon's Search for the Fountain of Youth-Vasquez de
Ayllon Kidnaps a Cargo of Indians-Effort of Pamphilo de Narvaez to Conquer Florida
-A Terrible March-The Voyage on the Gulf of Mexico-Fate of the Fleet-Escape
of Cabeza de Vaca and his Comrades-Discovery of New Mexico-Ferdinand de SotoObtains leave to Conquer Florida-Sails from Spain-Arrival in Cuba-Departure for
Florida-Landing at Tampa Bay-Events of the first Year-De Soto enters GeorgiaDescends the Alabama-Battle of Mavilla-Destruction of Chickasaw-Sufferings of the
Spaniards-Discovery of the Mississippi-The Spaniards Cross the Great River-De
Soto in Arkansas-Reaches the Mississippi again —Sickness and Death of De Soto-His
Burial-Escape of his Followers to Mexico-The Huguenot Colony in Carolina-Its
Failure-The French Settle in Florida-Wrath of Philip II.-Melendez ordered to
Exterminate the Huguenots-Foundation of St. Augustine-Massacre of the French at
Fort Carolina-The Vengeance of De Gourges.
0- 6)
6     HILE the French were seeking to obtain a footing in the north,
6l11    the Spaniards were busy in the south.   In the first years of the
-1     sixteenth century the more important of the West India islands
were subdued and colonized, and from      these expeditions were
from time to time sent out to explore the shores of the Gulf of
Mexico.   The southern part of the peninsula of Yucatan was explored,
and a colony was established on the Isthmus of Darien.       One of the
governors of this colony was Vasco Nunez de Balboa.      In 1513, while
searching the isthmus for gold, he discovered the Pacific ocean, and took
possession of it in the name of the king of Spain. In 1520, a Portuguese navigator named Magellan, employed by the king of Spain,
passed through the straits south of Cape Horn, which bear his name, and
entered the Western ocean, which he named the Pacific because it was so
Pal ii and free from storms.  He died on the voyage, but his ship reached
the coast of Asia, and returned thence to Spain by the Cape of Good
Hope, thus making the first voyage around the world, and establishing
its spherical form beyond dispute.
In 1513, Juan Ponce de Leon, who had been a companion of Columbus
on his second voyage, and had been governor of Porto Rico, fitted out
three ships at his own expense to make a voyage of discovery    He had
68




THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


f(9


heard the. reports which were then commonly believed by his countrymen, that somewhere in the new world was a fountain flowing in the
midst of a country sparkling with gold and gems, whose waters would
give perpetual youth to the man who should drink of and bathe in them.
Ponce de Leon was an old man, and he longed to taste again the pleasures
and the dreams of youth. He gave a willing ear to the stories of this
wonderful fountain, and in March, 151.3, set sail from Porto Rico in
search of it. He sailed among the Bahamas, but failed to find it, and on
Easter Sunday, which the Spaniards call Pascua Florida, land was discovered. It was supposed to be an island, but was in reality the long


THE COAST OF FLORIDA.


southern peninsula of the United States. De Leon gave it the name of
Florida-which it has since borne-partly in honor of the day, and
partly because of the beautv of its flowers and foliage. The weather was
very bad, and it was some days before he could go ashore. He landed
near the site of St. Augustine, and took possession of the country for
Spain on the 8th of April, 1513. He remained many weeks on the
coast, exploring it, and sailing southward, doubled Cape Florida aad
cruised among the Tortugas. He failed to find the fountain of youth,




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and returned in despair to Porto Rico. The king of Spain rewarded his
discovery by appointing him governor of Florida, on condition that he
should colonize the country. A few years later he attempted to plant a
colony in Florida, but was attacked by the Indians, who were very
hostile, aid driven to his ships with the loss of a number of his men.
Ponce de Leon himself received a painful wound, and returned to Cuba
to die. He had staked his life upon the search for perpetual youth; he
found only a grave.
Between the years 1518 and 1521, the expeditions of Hernando Cortez
against Mexico, and of Frances(eo Pizarro against Peru, were despatched
from Cuba. They resulted in the conquest of those countries and their
colonization by Spain. These expeditions, however, form no part of this
narrative, and we cannot dwell upon them.
The native population of the West Indies died out rapidly under the
cruel rule of the Spaniards, and it soon became necessary to look elsewhere for a supply of laborers for the plantations and the mines. In
1520, Lucas Vasquez de Ayllon, at the head of a company of seven
Spaniards, fitted out a fleet' of two slave-ships from St. Domingo or Hispaniola, for the deliberate purpose of seizing the natives of the mainland
and solling them as slaves. The vessels went first to the Bahamas, from
which they sailed to the North American coast, reaching it at or near St.
Helena sound, in the present State of South Carolina. The Indians had
not vet learned to fear the whites, and were utterly unsuspicious of the
fate which a\waited them. They were timid at first, but this feeling was
soon overcome by the distribution of presents among them. Their confidence being won, they received the Spaniards with kindness, and at their
request visited the ships in great numbers. When the decks of the vessels were covered with the unsuspecting natives Vasquez made sail, and
standing out to sea steered for the West Indies, regardless of the entreaties
of the natives who were thus torn from their friends and relatives on the
shore. A retributive justice speedily avenged this crime.  A violent
storm arose and one of the shils foundered with all on board. A pestilence broke out in the remaining vessel, and swept away many of the
captives. Returning to Spain, Vasquez boasted of his infamous deed,
and even claimed a reward for it at the hands of the Emperor Charles
V., who acknowledged his claim, and appointed him governor of Chicora,
as Suth Carolina was called, with authority to conquer that country.
Vasquez spent his entire fortune in fitting out an expedition, and reached
the coast of Chicora in 1525. There he met with nothing but misfortune.
His largest ship was stranded in the Combahee river, then called by the
whites the River Jordan, and so many of his men were killed by the




THE SPAN7I RDS IN AMERICA.


*1


Indians that he was obliged to abandon the undertaking. He returned to
Europe to (lie of grief and mortification for his failure. " It may be,"
says Bancroft, "that ships sailing under his authority made the discovery
of the Chesapeake and named it the Bay of St. MaI:ry; and perhapsll even
entered the Bay of Delaware, which in Spanish geography w:as cal]ld
Saint Christopher's."
In 1526, Pamphilo de Narvaez obtained from the Emperor Charles
V authority to explore and conquer all the country between the Atlantic
and the River of Palms. He was very wealthy, and spent his entire
estate in preparations for the expedition. There was no lack of volunteers, and many younger sons of nobles joined him, hoping to find fame
and fortune in the new world. Amiong the adventurers was Cabeza de
Vaca, the historian of the expedition, who held the second place in it as
treasurer. Narvaez sailed from the Guadallquivir in June, 1527, touched
at St. Domingo, and passed the winter in Cuba. In the spring of 15-28,
he was driven by a strong south wind to the American coast, anid on the
14th of April his fleet cast anchor in Tampa bay  A week later, he landed
and took possession of the peninsula of Florida in the name of Spain.
The natives showed unmistakable signs of hostility, but they exhibited
to the governor samples of gold, which he believed, from their signs,
came from the north. In spite of the earnest advice of Cabeza de Vaca,
he determined to go in search of the precious metal. He directed his
ships to meet him at a harbor with which his pilot pretended to be acquainted, and then, at the head of three hundred men, forty of whom
were mounted, set off into the interior of the country  No one knew
whither he was going, but all believed that each step led them nearer to
the land of gold. The beauty of the forest, the richness of its vegetation,
and the size of its gigantic live-oaks, filled them with wonder and admiration, and the variety and abundance of the birds and wild beasts of the
country excited their surprise; but they found neither the gold nor the
splendid cities they had fondly believed they were about to discover
The forest grew denser and more intricate at every step, and the rivers
were broad and deep, with swift currents, and could be crossed only bv
means of rafts, which were constructed with great difficulty  The march
lay through swamps, in which the Indian warriors harassed the strangers
painfully, and, their provisions becoming exhausted, they began to suffelr
with hunger. Late in June they reached Appalachee, which they had
supposed was a large and wealthy city They found it only a hamlet
of some forty poor wigwams; but remained there twenty-five days, searching the neighboring country for gold and silver, and finding none; suffering all the while from hunger, and the attacks of the Indians.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


It was plain now even to the governor that there was no gold to be
found in this region, and every nerve was strained to hasten the march
to the harbor where they had appointed to meet the ships. There was
but one impulse now in the whole expedition-to escape from the terrible
country which was proving so fatal to them. After a painful march
they reached a bay which they called the Baia de Caballos, now the harbor of St. Marks. The ships could not be seen, and it was resolved at
once to build boats and attempt to reach some of the Spanish possessions
by sea.  The horses were slain to furnish food, and several hundred
bushels of corn were seized from the Indians. Subsisting upon these
supplies, the Spaniards beat their spurs, stirrups, cross-bows, and other
implements into saws and axes and nails, and in sixteen days built five
boats, each more than thirty feet long.  Pitch for the calking of the
boats was made from the pine trees, and the fibre of the palmetto served
as oakum. Ropes were made of twisted horse-hair and palmetto fibres,
and the shirts of the men were pieced together for sails. Fifty men had
been lost,on the march, and on the 22d of September the survivors, two
hundred and fifty in number, began their perilous voyage. They followed
the shore, encountering r any dangers, and suffering greatly from hunger
and thirst. On the 30th of October they discovered one of the mouths
of the Mississippi, and on the 5th of November a storm scattered the little fleet. Cabeza de Vaca's boat was wrecked upon an island which is
believed to be that of Galveston.  Castillo's boat was driven ashore
farther to the east, but lie and his crew were saved alive. Of the fate of
the other boats nothing is known with certainty  Of those who were
cast ashore, all but Cabeza de Vaca, Dorantes, Castillo, and Estevanico,
a negro, died of exposure and hardship. These four were detained captives among the Indians for nearly six years.
At the end of this period, Cabeza induced his companions to join him
in an attempt to escape. In September, 1534, they set out, naked, ignorant of the way, and without any means of sustaining life. In this condition these men accomplished the wonderful feat of traversing the continent. The journey occupied upwards of twenty months, and extended
from the coast of Texas to the Canadian river, and thence into New
Mexico, from which they continued their way to the village of San
Miguel, in Sonora, near the Pacific ocean. They reached this village in
May, 1536, and found themselves again among their countrymen. They
were escorted to Compostella by Spanish soldiers, and from that placewere forwarded to the City of Mexico by the authorities.
The reports of Cabeza and his companions made the viceroy Mendoza
unxious to send out an expedition to explore New Mexico, which was




SI'ANIA1I.DS ENSLAVING THE INDIANS.


~ I'ANISI1 EXPLOIIN(_ PARTY I)ISC'VII5It  NEW MEXICO.




74


HIS'TOIRY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


believea co
____              be richer in
M..      wealth and
s Crndfoself. A Fran-, —
-      ~j ciscan friar
eciboastesd that
<Xl                            he had visited a regicon in the interior
1,               nanmed Cibola, the Land
tof Buffaloes, in.which wdere
/ <9 -e   splendid cities.  He deh dared that the land was rich in
silver and gold, anh d that his Ini\    A                 dilan guides had described to him a
'I  7'regrion still wealthier. The friar's
Kst' drN was religiously believed, and
an expedition set out in 1539, under command of Francisco Yasquez.7  Coronado, the governor of New Galicia. The expedition explored the
4  region of the Colorado, examined
the country now known as New
V                      Mexico, and penetrated as far east
as the present State of Kansas.
Coronado found neither gold nor
precious stones, and the only cities
he discovered were the towns of the
Zuni Indians of New Mexico. He
reported to the viceroy on his return.:,to Mexico that the region was not
fit to be colonized, and his descripr tion of the country through which
he marched is so accurate as to chalTHE SPNIARDS EXPLORING THE VALLEY lenge the admiration of every sacOF THE COLORADO.
ceeding traveller.
Still the Spaniards refused to abandon the belief that fabulous wealth
was to be found in the interior of the continent; and even those who
had borne a part in the conquest of Mexico and Peru gave credit to the




THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


75


wild stories that were told concerning the undiscovered regions. Among
those who gave such implicit faith to these stories was Ferdinand de
Soto, of Xeres, a veteran soldier, who had served with distinction with
Pizarro in the conquest of Peru, and had amassed a considerable fortune
from the spoils of that province. The fame and wealth acquired by him
in this expedition opened the way to other successes in Europe. He wvas
honored with the favor of the Emperor Charles V., and received tle
hand of a noble lady in marriage. Eager to distinguish himself still
further, he determined to attempt the conquest of Florida. Hle demanded and received from the emperor permission to undertake this at
his own cost, and was also made governor of Cuba and of all the territories he should conquer. As soon as he made known his intentions
applications for leave to serve in the expedition poured in upon him.
Many of the volunteers were of noble birth, afid
sold their lands and other property to equip
themselves for the undertaking. De Soto selected  j
six hundred we!l-equipped men from the number   -
who had volunteered, and in 1538 sailed from  i
Spain to Cuba, where he was welcomed with great  A  <x
rejoicings. A vessel was despatched from Cuba    Si    Lt
to find a harbor in Florida suitable for the land-;
ing of the expedition. On its return it brought
two Indian captives, who perceiving what vwas  f
wanted of them, told by signs such stories of the  /,,;u
wealth of the country as greatly delighted the  FERDINAND DE SOTO.
governor and his companions. Volunteers in
Cuba swelled the ranks of the expedition to nearly one thousand men,
of whom three hundred were horsemen.
In May, 1539, leaving his wife to govern the island, De Soto sailed
with his fleet for Florida, and a fortnight later landed at Espiritu Santo,
now Tampa bay    Everything had been provided which the foresight of
an experienced commander deemed necessary, and De Soto, in order to
remove any temptation to retreat, sent his ships back to Cuba. He never
dreamed of failure, for he believed that at the most the task before
him would not be more difficult than those which had been accomplished by Cortez and Pizarro. After a brief halt at Tampa bay the
march into the interior was begun. It was long and tedious, and
was full of danger. The Indians were hostile, and the guides constantly led the Spaniards astray, and plunged them into difficult
swamps. The guides were instantly given to the bloodhounds, and
torn in pieces by the ferocious animals; but not even this dreadful pun



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ishment was sufficient to prevent a renewal of such acts. Before the
close of the first season the whole company, save the governor, had
become convinced that their hope of finding gold was vain, and they
besought De Soto to return to Cuba. He sternly refused to abandon the
effort, and pushed on to the country of the Appalachians, east of the
Flint river, and not far from the Bay of Appalachee. The winter was
passed in this region, and a scouting party during this season discovered
Pensacola.
In the spring of 1540 the march was resumed. An Indian guide
promised to conduct the Spaniards to a country abounding in gold and
governed by a woman, and he described the process of refining gold so
accurately that De Soto believed his story. It is possible that the Indian
may have referred to the gold region of North Carolina. One of the
guides told the governor plainly that he knew of ioo such country as his
c0mlpanion had described, and De Soto had him burned for what he supposed was his falsehood. The Indians, terrified by his fate, from this
time invented all manner of fabulous stories to excite the cupidity of the
Spaniards. De Soto, with a singular perversity, held to his belief that
he would yet realize his hopes, and continued to push on long after his
men had become disheartened; and so great was his influence over them
that in their deepest despondency he managed to inspire them with something of his own courage and hopefulness.
Instead of conciliating the Indians, the Spaniards seized their provisions, and provoked their hostility in numberless ways. They treated
their captives with the greatest cruelty  They cut off the hands of the
poor Indians, burned them at the stake, or turned them over to the bloodhounds, who tore them in pieces. They were chained together by the
neck, and forced to carry the baggage and provisions of the troops. The
march was now into the interior of Georgia, as far as the headwaters of
the Chattahoochee, from which the Spaniards passed to the headwaters of
the Coosa. Here they turned to the southwest, and marched through
Alabama to the junction of the Alabama and Tombigbee rivers. At this
point there was a large and strongly fortified town called Mavilla, or
[lobile, a name which has since been given to the river and bav  The
town consisted of "eighty handsome houses, each sufficiently capacious
to contain a thousand men. They were encompassed by a high wall,
made of immense trunks of trees, set deep in the ground and close
together, strengthened with cross-timbers and interwoven with large
vines."  It was the middle of October when Mavilla was reached, and
the Spaniards, tired of living in the open country so long, wished to
occupy the town. The Indians resisted them, and a desperate battle




THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


77


ensued, which was won by the Spanish cavalry. The victory cost the
whites dear, however, for the town was burned during the battle, and
with it all the baggage of the Spaniards was consumed. The Indians
fought with a desperate bravery, and numbers of them were slain and
burned to death in the town. The Spaniards had 18 killed and 150
wounded; 12 horses were killed, and 72 wounded.
Ships had arrived in the meantime, according to appointment, at
Pensacola, and by them De Soto received letters from his wife. He
would send no news home, however. He had not yet realized the objects
of the expedition, and he determined to send no news of himself to his
countrymen until he had found or conquered some rich country. Turning his back resolutely upon the ships, the governor resumed his march
to the northwest. By the middle of December he reached the northwestern part of the State of Mississippi, and finding a deserted village in
the country of the Chickasaws, occupied it as the winter quarters of the
expedition. December, 1540, the winter was severe, and the ground was
covered with snow, but the corn was still standing in the fields, and this
furnished the Spaniards with food. Their force was now reduced to five
hundred men, and it was evident to all, except the governor, that they
would never find the cities or the wealth they had set out to seek.
With the opening of the spring of 1541 a new disaster befell the
Spaniards. De Soto, as had been his custom with the other tribes,
demanded of the Chickasaw chief two hundred men to carry the baggage
of the troops. The demand was refused, and that night the Indians,
deceiving the sentinels, set fire to the village. The bewildered Spaniards
were aroused from their slumbers to meet a fierce attack of the savages.
The latter were repulsed after a hard fight, but the whites were left in an
almost helpless condition. The little they had saved from the flames at
Mavilla was destroyed in the burning village. Armor and weapons were
rendered worthless, and scarcely any clothing was saved. The troops
were forced to resort to dresses of skins and of the long moss of the
country woven into mats. In this condition, they suffered greatly from
the cold. To supply the weapons destroyed forges were erected, and the
swords were retempered, and new lances made.
Renewing their march the Spaniards pushed on still farther west, and
about the 2d of May reached the banks of the Mississippi, at a point a
short distance below the present city of Memphis. They were the first
white men to gaze upon the mighty flood of this noble river, but De Soto
had no admiration to express for it. It was only an obstacle in his westward march, and would require greater efforts for its passage than any
stream he had yet encountered. A month was passed on the banks of




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STAT'ES.


the river in constructing barges large enough to hold three horsemen
each. At length they were completed, and the Spaniards were transported in safety to the opposite shore. The natives received them kindly,
and presented them with food, and regarding them as the children of
their god, the sun, brought to them their sick to be healed, and their
blind to be restored to sight. The blunt soldier, cruel as he had been to
the savages, shrank from claiming the power of heaven. "Pray only to
God, who is in heaven, for whatsoever ye need," he answered.
De Soto remained forty days on the western bank of the Mississippi,
and during this time an exploring party \vas sent to examine the country
to the north. They reported that t'lii region -.vas thinly inhabited by
hunters, who lived by chasing th bison, which abounded in this region.
The   oveirnor then turned to the west and northwest, and advanced 200
miles farther into the interior of tli.' Continent, probably to the highlands of
the White river  Then turning southward, he passed through a succession
of Indian tribes wlio lived by cultivating the soil, and who enjoyed a
civilization superior to that of their nomadic brethren. The winter was
passed near the Hot Springs of Arkansas. The Indians west of the
Miississi)ppi were treated with the same cruelties that had marked the
('odli,'t of the Splaniards towards the savages east of that stream. "Any
triflin r (o Xnsid(Lration of safety would induce the governor to set fire to a
hamlet. He (lid not delight in cruelty, but the happiness, the life, and
the riglhts of the Indians were held of no account."
In the spring of 1542, De Soto determined to descend the Washita to
its mouth, and endeavor to reach the sea. At last, after a most arduous
march, in which he frequently lost his way amid the swamps and bayous
of the region, he reached the Mississippi. The chieftain of this region
could not tell him the distance to the sea, but informed him that the
country along the lower river was a vast and uninhabited swamp. An
exploring party was sent to descend the banks of the river, and returned,
after penetrating about thirty miles in eight days, to confirm the Indian's
report. Reaching the vicinity of Natchez, the governor found the
Indians prepared to contest his occupation of that town. He attempted
to overawe them by claiming to be the child of the sun, their chief deity
The chieftain answered him scornfully: "You say you are the child of
the sun. Dry up the river, and I will believe you. Do you desire to
see me? Visit the town where I dwell. If you come in peace, I will
receive you with special good will; if in war, I will not shrink one foot
back." The savages were becoming more dangerous every day, and the
Spaniards less able to resist their assaults.
De Soto was now conquered. It was at last as plain to him as it had




THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


79


been all along to his followers that the expedition was a failure. He
had spent three years in roaming over the continent, and he had found
neither the cities nor the wealth he had hoped for. His magnificent
anticipations had disappeared; his little army was reduced to a mere
handful of the splendid force that had left Cuba; and he was in the
midst of a region from which he could see no escape. A deep melancholy
took the place of the stern pride that had hitherto marked his demeanor,
and his heart was torn by a conflict of emotions. His health gave way
rapidly, and he was seized with a violent fever. When informed by his
medical attendant that his end was at hand, he expressed his resignation
to the will of God, and at the request of his men appointed Louis de
Mocoso his'successor, and advised him to continue the expedition. He
An- =X-                      -  — _
A- X 3- =
/.
NATCHEZ IN 1875.
died on the 5th of June, 1542. In order to conceal his death from the
savages, who had come to regard him as immortal, his body was wrapped
in a mantle, and in the silence of midnight was rowed out into the
* middle of the Mississippi. There, amid the darkness and the wailing
requiems of the priests, the mortal remains of Ferdinand de Soto were
committed to the great river he had discovered.
The Spaniards at once prepared to disregard the advice of their dead
leader, and resolved to set out across the country for Mexico, believing it
less dangerous to go by land than by sea. They roused the whole
country against them by their barbarous treatment of the people, and,
having proceeded upwards of 300 miles west of the Mississippi, were
driven back to that stream by the savages. It now became necessary to
build vessels and descen(l the river. Seven of these were constrected




I  ill'           fill I
ii F                             I71f  I   I  I,
ft        ' f                                 III
80




THE SPANLIARDS IN AMERICA.


with great difficulty, and amidst tlhe constant hostility of tlhe Indians.
They were frail barks, without decks, and in order to construct them tlhe
Spaniards were olbliged to beat their weapons, and even their stirrups,
spurs and bridles into saws, axes and nails. During this period tlh(y
suffered greatly from the lack of clothing, for it was the winter season.
They obtained provisions by plundering the granaries of the neighboring
tribes, and thus dooming many of the savages to death by starvation.
On the 1st of July, 1543, they embarked in their vessels, their number
being now reduced to about 250, and began the descent of the river.
Their progress was harassed at every mile )by the Indians, who covered
the stream with their canoes and kept up an almost constant assault upon
the fleet. On the 18th of July, the vessels entered the Gulf of Mexico,
and by the 10th of September the Mexican coast was reacled. The
vessels succeeded in gaining the Spani sh settlement of Panuco, where the
survivors were hospitably received by thexr countrymen.
The failure of Narvaez and De Soto prevented tlhe Spaniards from
making any further attempt for many )years to colonize the Florida coa.st.
The next effort to found a settlement in that region was by the French.
The religious wars which had distracted France for so many years made
the great Huguenot leader, Coligny, Admiral of France, anxious to
provide in the new world a refuge to which his persecuted brethren of
the faith might fly in times of danger, and be free to worship God after
the dictates of their own conscience. He succeeded in obtaining authority
for this undertaking from Charles IX., and in 1562 an expedition was
despatched to America under the command of Jean Ribault, a Protestant.
Ribault was instructed to avoid the more rigorous climate of Canada,
and to select a southern location for the colony  Land was made in
Mlay, 1562, in the vicinity of St. Augustine, Florida, and the fleet proceeded along the coast and anchored in what is now Port Royal harbor,
in the State of South Carolina. Ribault was delighted with the noble
harbor, which he believed to be the outlet of a large river, and with the
beauty and richness of the country  A fort was built on an island in
the harbor, and called Carolina, which name was also applied to the
country, in honor of Charles IX. of France. A force of twenty-five
men was left to garrison the fort, and Ribault returned to France to
report his success and bring out reinforcements for the colony  lie
reached France in the midst of the civil war, which prevented any attention being paid to the colony. The garrison of Fort Carolina waited in
vain for the promised reinforcements and supplies, and at last, becoming
dishbartened, built a brigantine and set sail for their own country. Their
provisions soon gave out, and they began to suffer the horrors of famine.
6




HISTOR Y OF TIE UNITED STA TES.


When they were nearly exhausted, they were rescued by an English
vessel, which set the most feeble upon the coast of France, but carried
the remainder to England. In both countries the colonists spread their
accounts of thle beauty and fertility of Carolina.
In 1564, thlere was a lull in the struggle between the contending
parties in France, and Coligny took advantage of it to renew his efforts
to colonize America. Three ships were ifurnished by the king, and were
placed in command of Laudonniere, who had accompanied Ribault in the
first expedition. Emigrants volunteered  readily, and the required
number was soon completed. In order to obtain reliable information
c:m)ncrning the country, C oligny sent out with the expedition a skilful
paint(r, James le Movyne, called Des Morgues, with orders to make
accurate colored sketchle. of the region. The fleet sailed on the 22d of
April, 1564. tind on the 22d of June reached the coast of Florida.
Avoiding Port Royal, the site of the first colony, the colonists chose a
location in Florida, on the banks of the St. John's, then called the
River May    A fort was built, and called, like the first, Carolina.
The colony was begun with prayers and songs of thanksgiving, but
the bulkl of the colonists were by no means religious men. Their true
character soon began to appear   They wasted the supplies they lhad
broughlt with them, as well as tlhose they succeeded in extorting from
the Indians, whonm they alienated by their cruelties. Mutinies were
frequent. The majority of the men had joined the enterprise in the hope
of acquiring sudden wealth, and, finding their hopes vain, resolved to
abandon the colony    They compelled Laudonniere to sign an order
allowing them to embark for New Spain, under the pretext of wishing
to avoid a fimine, and at once equipped two vessels and began a career
of piracy against the Spaniards. Their vessels were soon captured, and
the pirates were sold as slaves. A few escaped in a boat and took refuge
at Fort Carolina. Laudonniere caused them to be hanged; but their
outrages had already drawn upon the colony the bitter hostility of the
Spaniards.
Famine now began to be felt by the little settlement, and as month
after month passed by the sufferings of tlhe colonists increased. The
natives, who were at first friendly, had been rendered hostile by the
cruel treatment they had received from the French, and no provisions
could be obtained from  them. On the 3d of August, 1565, Sir John
Hawkins, an English commander, arrived with several ships from the
West Indies, where he had just sold a cargo of negro slaves whom he
had kidnapped in their native Africa. He is said to have been the first
Englishman who engaged in tllis infamous traffic. He proved himself a




'THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


83


generous friend to the suffering colonists, however, and supplied them
with provisions and gave them one of his own ships. They had sullfired
too much to be content with this, and were resolved to abandon the
settlement. They were on the point of embarking in the ship furnished
them by Sir John, when a fleet of several vessels was discovered standillnr
into the river. It was the squadron of Ribault, with reinforcements and
all the supplies necessary for founding a permanent settlement. The
despair of the colonists was changed to rejoicing, and all were now willing
to remain in the colony
\When the news of the planting of the French colony in Florida
reached Philip II. of Spain, he was greatly incensed. Florida was a
part of his dominions, and he rot only resented the intrusion of the
French, but could not tolerate the idea of allowing a Protestant colony
to enjoy its settlement in l)eace. He determined at once to exterminate
the heretics, and for this purpose employed Pedro Melendez de Avilcs,
an officer who had rendered himself notorious for his cruelty when engaged against the pirates and in the wars of Spanish America. His son
and heir having been shipwrecked among the Bermudas, Melendez
desired to return to America to search for him. Philip, wl]lo knew his
desperate character, suggested to him the conquest of Florida, and an
agreement was entered into bletween the king and Mlelendcz, by which
the latter was to invade and conquer Florida within three years, and
estallish in that region a colony of not less than 500 persons, of whom
100 should be married men, twelve priests of the Catholic Church and four
mmcnbers of the order of the Jesuits. MIelcndez also agreed to transport
to Florida all kinds of domestic animals, and 500 negro slaves. All this
was to be done by Melendez at his own cost, and he was secured by the
king in the government of the province for life with the privilege of
naming his successor, and was granted large estates in the province and a
comfortable salary  Though the destruction of the French colony was
not named in the agreement, Philip and Melcndez understood each other
on that point. The cry was at once raised in Spain that the heretics
must be exterminated, and Melendez had no trouble in obtaining recruits.
Twenty-five hundred  persons gathered under his orders, "soldiers,
sailors, priests, Jesuits, married men with their families, laborers and
mechanics, and, with the exception of 300 soldiers, all at the cost of
Melendez."
The expedition sailed in June, 1565, but the vessels were parted by a
storm, and Melendez reached Porto Rico in August with but a third of
his force. Unwilling to lose time, however, he sailed at once to the
mainland, and arrived off the coast of Florida on the 28th of August.




84


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


On the 2d of September lie discovered a fine harbor and river, and
selected this place as the site of his colony. He namled thle river and
bay in honor of St. Augustine, on whose festival he had arrived off the
Florida coast. Ascertaining from  the Indians the position of the
French, he sailed to the northward, and on the 4th of September arrived
off Fort Carolina, where a portion of Ribault's fleet lay anchored in the
roadstcad. The French commander demanded his name and the object
of his visit. IHe was answered: "I am Melendez of Spain, sent with
strict orders from my king to gibbet and behead all the Protestants in
these regions. The Frenchman who is a Catholic I will spare; every
heretic shall die."  The French fleet being unprepared for battle, cut its
cables and stood out to sea. Melendez gave chase, but failed to overtake
it. Returning to the harbor of St. Augustine, he went on shore on the
8th of September, and took possession of the country in the name of
Philip II. of Spain, who was proclaimed monarch of all North America.
A  solemni mass was said, and the foundations of the town of St.. Auurstine were laid. Thus was established the first permanent town
within the limits of the United( States. This task accomplished, Melendez
prepared to attack Fort Carolina by land.
Ribault had returned with his ships to Fort Carolina after escaping
from the Spaniards. A council of war was hleld, and it was debated.
among the French whether they -;hould strengthen tlheir works and- awaif
the approach of the enemy, or proceed to St. Augustine and attack them
with the fleet. Ribault supposed that Melendez would attack the fort by
sea, and favored the latter plan, but his officers opposed his design. Disregarding their advice Ribault put to sea, but had scarcely cleared the
harbor when a violent storm wreoked his entire fleet on the Florida coast.
Nearly all the men reached the shore unharmed, about one hundred and
fifty miles south of Fort Carolina.
The wreck of the-French fleet was known to Melendez, and he resolved
to strike a blow, at onec at the fort, which he knew to be in a defenceless
state. Leading his men through the forests and swamps which lay
between tie- two settlements, he surprised and captured the fort on the
21st of Soptember. Every soul within the walls, including the aged, the
women and ehildren, was put to death. A few escaped to the woods
before the capture of the fort, amcng whom were Laudonniere, Challus,
and Le Moyne. Their condition was pitiable. They could expect no
mercy from the Spaniards, and death awaited them in the forest. A few
gave themselves up to the Spaniards, and were at once murdered; the
remainder succeeded in gaining the sea-shore, where they were rescued by
two French vessels which bad remained in the harbor, and escaped the
tormn. Tlhese immediately sailed for France.




THE SPANIARDS IN AMERICA.


85


The number of persons massacred by the Spaniards at Fort Carolina
amounted to nearly two hundred. When the victims w\ere:all dead, mnas,
was said, a cross raised, and a site selected for a church. Then Mclendez
set out to find the survivors of the silipwreckled fleet. They were discovered in a helpless condition, worn out with fiatigue, hlun  r, and tilirst.
Melendez promised to treat them with kindness if they would surrender
to him, and trusting to his plighted word, they placed themselves in his
hands. They were at once seized and hound, and marched towards St.
Augustine. As they approa'ched the settlement a signal was given, and
the Spaniards fell upon them and massacred all but a few Catholics. and
some mechanics, lwho were reserved as slaves.  French writers place the
number of those who perished in the two- mass.acres at nine hundred.
The Spaniards give a smaller number. ()On the scene of lis barbaritv
Melendez set up this inscriltion: "I (o not tlis as unto Frcnclhmen, buf
as unto Lutherans."
In 1566 Melendez attempted to plant a clonv on the shores of the
Chesapeake bay, but the vessel despatclhec for this purpose met suclh contrary winds that the crew abandoned tlh eflort to reach the bay, and
sailed for Spain. Melendez the next y(,ar returned to Spain, having
spent his fortune in establishing the colony of St. Augustine, from which
he had derived no benefit.
Tlae massacre of tlhe French and the destruction of the colony at Fort
Carolina excited not even a remonstrance frill tlhe French court, which
was blinded to its true interests by its religious bigotlry  The HuOlllenots
and the better part of the nation felt keenly tile \wrong tle c, untry had
suffered, and Dominic de Gourges, a gallant gentleman of (G;,as'eolv,
determined to avenge it. Selling his ancestral estate, he equipped three
vessels, and with one hundred and fifty mnen sailed for Florida, in
August, 1567   He surprised and captured a Spanish fort near the site
of Fort Carolina, and took the garrison prisoners.  He spent tile winter
here, and finding himself too weak to maintain lis position sailed for
France in May, 1568. Before doing so, however, he lhanged his prioners, and set up over them the inscription: " I do not this as unto
Spaniards or mariners, but as unto traitors, robbers, and murderers."
'His expedition was disavowed by the Frelnch government, and he was
obliged to conceal himself to escape arrest after his return to France.
France now abandoned her efforts to colonize the southern part of
North America, and relinquished her pretensions to Florida. Spain, on
the other hand, gave more attention to this region, and emigrants from her
dominions were encouraged to settle, and new colonies were formed within
its limits. In the West Indies, and in Miexico, Central and 1 South America,
Spain during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries was supreme.




CHAPTER V.


TIlE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY
The English Claim to Amnerica-Voyages of Frobisher-Exploits of Sir Francis DrakeSir Humphrey Gilber:-Intends to found a Colony in America-Is lost at Sea-Sir
Walter Raleigh obtains a Patent of Colonization-Discoveries of Amidas and BarlowRaleigh sends out a Colony to Virginia-Settlement (,n Roanoke Island-Its FailureArrival of Grenville-Sccond Elbrt of Raleigh to Colonize Virginia-Roanoke Island
again Settled-The " City of Raleigh "-Virginia Dare-Fate of the Colony-Death
of Ralt-ig!.-Other Voyages of the English.. /  - HOO  GH  England had made no effort to colonize America during
jj j   the loni period we have been considering, she never abandoned
fK.?  her claims to that region, claims which were based upon the dis\-'   covecries and explorations of John and Sebastian Cabot. The
voyages of her fishermen to Newfoundland kept the country
fresh in the minds of the seafaring Englishmen, and from time to time
voyages were made to tlhe American coast for the purpose of trading with
the savagrs. Under Elizabeth, who pursued the wise policy of fostering
her navy, a race of hardy and daring sailors grew up in England, and
carried the flag of their country into every sea. In this reign Martin
Frobisher with two small ships made a voyage to the frozen regions of
Labrador in search of the northwest passage. He failed to find it, but
penetrated farther north than any European had yet gone, A. D. 1576.
His second voyage was made the next year, and was undertaken in the
lhope of finding gold, as one of the stones he had brought home on his
first cruise had been pronounced by the refiners of London to contain the
precious metal. The fleet did not advance as far north as Frobisher had
done on his first attempt, as a large mass of vellow earth was found
which was believed to contain gold. The ships were loaded with this,
and all sail was made for home, only to find on reaching England that
their cargo was but a heap of worthless dirt. A    third voyage with
fifteen ships was attempted in 1578, but no gold was found, and the
extreme northern latitudes were ascertained to be too bleak for colonization.
Between the years 1577 to 1580 Sir Francis Drake sailed to the
Pacific, and by levying exactions upon the Spanish settlements on the
86




THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY


87


western coast of America acquired an immense treasure. As Bancroft
well observes, this part of Drake's career " was but a splendid piracy
against a nation with which his sovereign and his country professed to
be at peace."  Having acquired this enormous wvcalth Drake applied
himself to the more useful task of discovery  Crossing thle equator he
sailed northward, as far as the southern part of Oregon, in the hope of
finding a northern passage betwveen. the oceans. The cold seemed very
great to voyagers just from the tropics, and lie abandoned his attempt
and returned southward to a harbor on the coast of Mexico. Here he
refitted his ship, and then returned to England throughll the seas of Asia,
having circumnavigated the globe, a feat which had been accomplished
only by the ship of Magellan.
It was not the splendid but demoralizing achievements of Drake
which led the way to the establislhmnLnt of the English power in America.
That was the work of the humble fishermen who sailed on their yearly
voyages to the banks of Newfoundland. The
progress of this valuable industry was closely?
watched by Sir Humphrey Gilbert, who believed
that a lucrative trade might be opened with the     S
new world by the planting of a colony within its  '.    4
limits. He obtained authority from Queen Elizabeth to establish such a colony in the vicinity of  -.
the fisheries. In 1578 he sailed to America on
a voyage of discovery, and in August of that         S j
year landed at St. Johns, Newfoundland, and
took formal possession of the country for Eng-       j ll.*
land. He then sailed to the southward, explor-  SIR WALTER RALEIGH.
ing the coast, but lost his largest ship with all on
board. This made it necessary for him to return home, as the two
vessels which remained to him were too small to attempt a protralted
voyage. One of them, called the "Squirrel," was a mere boat of tPn
tons. Unwilling to expose his men to a danger which he would not
face, Sir Humphrey took passage in the "Squirrel" instead of in the larger
and safer vessel. On the homeward voyage the ships encountered a terrific storm. In the midst of the gale the p1eople on the " Hind," the
larger ship, saw Sir Humphrey sitting at the stern of his little ve-sel,
which was laboring painfully in the heavy seas. He was calmly reading
a book, perhlaps that sublimest of books, from which he had drawn the
pure principles which guided his whole life. As the "Hind" passed
him he called out to those on board of her, " We are as near to heaven
by sea as by land."  That nigllt tlle lights of the "Squirrel" suddenly




88


HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


disappeared, and the good Sir Humphrey was seen no more.      The
"Hind" continued ler voyage, and reached Falmouth in safety.
Sir Walter Raleigl, Gilbert's half brotler, had been interested in this
expedition, but its ill success li(l not dishearten hinl. lie was one of the
noblest spirits of his age, and has laid the world unler heavy obligations
to him by llis many noble services in the cause of humanity  He had
servedl in the army of the Huguenots of France under Coligni, and had
heard from the voyagers sent out by that leader of the richness and beauty
of' Carolina. Undaunted by tle sad fate of Sir Humphrey Gilbert,
Raleigh determined to plant a colony in the region from which the Huguenots had been driven. He liad no difficulty in obtaining from the
queen a patent as liberal as tlat which had been granted Sir Humphrey
(Gillwrt. Ile was given ample powers over the region he proposed to colonize, as its feudal lord, and was bound to Imaintain the authority of the
queen and church of England in his possessions. He fitted out two ve.ssels
commanded respectively by Philip Aimidas iand Arthur Barlow, and sent
them to explore the region granted to him, and to obtain accurate information concerning it. They reached the coast of North Carolina at
Ocracock inlet, and took formal possession of the country  They partially explored Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, together with the neighboring coast and islands. It was tlhe month of July, and the climate was
deli ghtful, the sea was calm, the atnlmosphere clear, and the heat was temperedl 1, the delicious sea-breeze. The woods abounded with birds and
echoed with their carols, and wild grapes were found in the greatest profusion. The explorers were enchanted with this delightful region, and
returning to England, published oglowing accounts of it. They took w-ith
them two Indians, named Wanchese and Manteo, the latter of whom
afterwards did good service to the colonists as an interpreter. Queen
Elizaleth deemed her reign honored by the discoveries of Amidas and
Barlow, and gave to the new region the name of Virginia in honor of
England's virgin queen.
Raleigh r.t once set to work to organize a colony  Emigrants volunteered readily, and in a short time a fleet of seven vessels, containing one
hundred and eihlt persons, apart from the crews, was in readiness. Sir
Richard Grenville, a friend of Raleigh, and a man of tried skill and
bravery, was given the command of the fleet, and Ralph Lane, who was
also a man of considerable distinction, was made governor of the colony.
The fleet sailed from Plymouth on the 9th of April, 1585, and after a
long and trying voyage reached Ocracock inlet in June. Passing through
the inlet, a settlement was established on Roanoke island, lying between
Albemarle and Pamlico sounds. Expeditions were seit out to explore the




THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONYV


89


surrounding country, and in one of these a silver cup was stolen by an
Indian, and its restoration was delayed. With thoughtless cruelty Grenville punished this fault by the destruction of the village to which the
culprit belonged, and also of all the standing corn. This inconsiderate
revenge made the Indians the enemies of the whites, and brought great
future suffering upon the colony. A little later, having seen the colonists
successfully established on Roanoke island, Grenville returned to England with the fleet, capturing a rich Spanish prize on the voyage home.
Left to themselves the colonists began to explore the country, and to


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--
- —
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- -
- i
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-— -,
— --. — -
-- ~


THE COAST OF NORTH CAROLINA.


observe the productions of the soil, and the character of the inhabitants.
Many of the plants were strange to them. Am6ng these were the Indian
corn, tobacco, and the sweet potato. Hariot, "the inventor of the system
of notation in modern algebra, the historian of the expedition," observed these plants and their culture with great minuteness, and became a
firm believer in the healing virtues of tobacco. He has left an interesting account of the natives of the country and their manners and customs.
The Indians, alarmed by the superiority of the whites, began to plot
their destruction, as they believed their entire country would be overrun




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


by the new-comers. Lane on his part became suspicious of the savages,
and this feeling of' mutual distrust had the most unhappy -consequences.
Being informed by tle savages tllatthere was a splendid city, whose walls
glittered with gold and pearls, on the upper waters of the Roanoke,
Governor Lane made a boat voyage up that stream, but failed to find
an tli ng. He returned to the colony just in time to disconcert the plan
of the savages for attacking the whites during the absence of the exploring partv. Lane now determined to outrival the savages in perfidy  He
visite(ld ingina, one of the most active of the neighboring chiefs, and,
profcesing to come as a friend, was received with confidence by the Indians.
At a given signal from the governor tlhe whites fell upon the chief and
his warriors, and put them to death. Lane 1)rove(l himself utterly unfit
to govern such a colony, and his people soon lost confidence in him.
Their discontent was increased by the failure of their provisions, and they
began to entertain the idea of abandoningr the colony and returning home.
On the 8th of June, 1586, Sir Francis Drake, with a fleet of twentythree ships, anchored in the roadstead off Roanoke island. He had been
cruising in the West Indies, and had called on his homeward vova(re to
visit the plantation of his friend Raleigh. He at once set to work to
remedy the wants of the colony, and supplied the settlers with such things
as they needed. They were thoroughly (lisheartened, however, with their
year's experience, and begged Drake so earnestly to take them back to
England that he received thenl on board his ships and put to sea. Thus
the first effort of the English to settle America resulted in fai!lure.
Drake's fleet had scarcely disappeared when a ship loaded w.thl supplies,
which hlad been despatched by Raleigh, reached the island. Finding the
place deserted, the commander returned to England. A fortnight later,
Grenville arrived with three ships. Finding the colonists had gone, he
too returned to England, leaving fifteen men to hold the island.
Raleigh was greatly disappointed by the failure of his colony, but he
did not despair of success; for, notwithstanding the gloomy stories of
Lane and his followers, the conclusive testimony of Hariot convinced hinm
that the counti N coulld be made to yield a rich return for the trouble and
expense of its settlement; and he set to work to form another colony
With the hope of giving the settlers a permanent interest in the plantation, he selected emigrants witll wives and families, who should regard
the new world as their future home, and endeavor to found a permanent
state in that region. Everything was provided which could contribute to
the success of the colony, and agricultural implements were furnished for
the proper cultivation of the soil. All the expense of the undertaking
was borne by Raleigh, for though Queen Elizabeth greatly favored tlhe




THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY


venture, she declined to contribute anything toward it. John White was
appointed governor of the colony   A fleet of transport vessels was
equipped, also at Raleigh's expense, and on the 26th of April, 1587, the
expedition sailed from  Enlgland. The coast of North Carolina was
reached in July.
Tlhe approach to Roanoke island was both difficult and dangerous, and
Raleigh ordered the new settlers to select a site for their colony on the
shores of the Chesapeake bay  Thle expedition proceeded first, however,
to Roanoke island to search for the men left there by Grenville. They
coulJ not be found. The island was deserted, the fort was in ruins, and(
the human bones which lav scattered over the field told plainly tlhat the
unfortunate garrison left by (Grenville lhad been murdered by the Indians.
Governor White was now anxious to sail to the Chesapeakle, but Fernando,
the commander of the fleet, refused to proceed any farther, as he wished
to go to the West Indies; f;r purposes of trade. The instructions of
Raleigh were thus disregarded, and the colonists were bornompelled, to go
ashore on Roanoke island. The old settlement of Governor Lane was
rebuilt, and another effort was made to establish the " city of Raleiogh."
The Indians were bitterly hostile to the settlers, and a friendly tribe was
offended by an u:ifortunate attack upon them, made upon the supposition
that they were hostile Inldians. Tlhe settlers becoming alarmed, implored
the governor to return to England and exert himself to hasten the sending out of reinforcements and supplies to them. He was unwilling to do
this, as he deemed it his duty to remain amongr them, but at length yielded
to their unanimous appeal. Just before his delparture llis daughter, Mrs.
Dare, the wife of one of his lieutenants, gave birtlh to a daughter, tlhe first
child born of English parents within the limits of the United States, and
the little one was named Virginia from the place of its birth.
Whlite sailed for England in August, 1587   He found the mother
country greatly excited over the threatened invasion of the Spaniards.
Raleigh, who was energetically engaged in the efforts for the defence of
the country, did not neglect his colony  He fitted out two ships with the
needed supplies, and despatched them under White's orders in April, 1588.
The commanders, instead of proceeding direct to the colony, undertook to
make prizes. At last one of them   fell in with a man-of-war from
Rochelle, and after a sharp fight was plundered of her stores. Both shii;s
were obliged to return to England, to the anger and disgust of Raleigh.
The approach of the Invincible Armada and the exertiotns demanded of
the nation for its defeat, made it impossible for anything more to be done
for the colonists at Roanoke until after the Spanish fleet had been
destroyed. Even then Raleiglh, wlho had spent over forty thousand




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


pounds without return, was unable to send aid at once to the colony, and
a year elapsed before a vessel could be sent out under White. In 1590,
the gove rnor re1a(lled Roanoke, but.no trace of the colony could be found.
The settlers had cither died, or been massacred, or had been taken prisoners
and carriecl by the Indians into the interior of the continent. "The conjecturc hlas been hazarded," says Bancroft, "that the deserted colony,
neglected by their o\wn count!rymen, were hospitably adopted into the
trib, of Hatteras Indians, and became amalgamated with the sons of the
forest. This was the tradition of the natives at a later day, and was
thought to be con.firmedl by the 1pysieal character of the tribe, in which
the English;:nd tile Indian race seemed to have been blended."  The generous heart of Raleigh could not bear to leave his countrymen unaided
while a silnle hope of finding them remained, and he is said to have sent
to America as many as five cxpeditions at his own cost, to search for them.
With the failure of the settlement at Roanoke Raleigh relinquished
his hope of colonizing Virginia. He had expended nearly his entire
fortune in the undertaking, and the remainder of his life was passed
under the cloud of undeserved misfortune. His career as a statesman
was honorable to himself and to his country, and lie proved himself in
all' his acts a loyal subject and a devoted patriot. His zeal in behalf of
knownledge made him a generous friend of the learned, and lie merits the
gratitudc of the American people, not only for his efforts to colonize our
shores with his countrymen, but for the liberality with which he spread
a knowledge of Amnrica throughout England by his publication of the
reports of Hariot and Hakluyt.  He opened the way for the dominion
of the English in the new world, and his memory is preserved in the
name of the capital city of the great State which lie sought to make the
seat of an English empire.
Upon the accession of James I., Raleigh, broken in health and fortune,
but still the most illustrious Englishman of his day, was arraigned on a
charge of high treason, of which not even his enemies believed him
guilty, and was sentenced to the Tower, as the Icing did not vet dare to
order his execution. During this period Sir Walter beguiled the weariness of his imprisonment by composing his "History of the World."
He remained a prisoner for thirteen years, and was then released on
condition of making a voyage to Guiana in search of gold. His failure
to accomplish the object of the voyage sealed his doom, and on his return
to England he was beheaded, not upon any fresh charge, but on his old
sentence. His real fault was that he was too true an Englishman to
sustain the sacrifice of the national honor by King James to The demands
of Spain, and he was generally regarded by the nation as the victim of




THE FIRST ENGLISH COLONY


93


the king's cowardice. He met his fate with the calm bravery which had
marked his whole life.
Until now the voyage from England to America had been made by
way of the Canary islands and the West Indies. In 1602, Bartholomew
Gosnold conceived tile idea of proceeding direct from England to Virginia, as the whole region north of Florida was called by the English.
Sailing directly across the Atlantic, he reached Cape Elizabeth, on the
coast of Maine, after a voyage of seven weeks. Proceeding southward
along the coast he reached Cape Cod, to whic.h he gave the name on the
15th of May, and went ashore there. HIc was thus the first Englishman
to set foot in New England. He continued his voyage along the coast
and entered Buzzard's bay  To the westernmost of the islands of this
stately sound he gave the name of Elizabeth-a name which has since
been applied to the entire group. Loading his ship with sassafras root,
which was then highly esteemed for its medicinal virtues, Gosnold sailed
for England, and arrived home safely after a voyage of less than four
weeks. He gave the most favorable accounts of the region he had visited,
and other adventurers were induced by his reports to undertake voyages
for the purpose of trading with the natives. Among these was George
Waymouth, who reached and explored the coast of Maine in 1605. On
his return voyage Waymouth l:idnapped five Indians and carried them
to England, "to bL instructed in Enllglish, and to serve as guides to some
future expedition."
The voyages of Gosnold and Wavmouth to the coast of New England
were followed by those of numerous other English adventurers. In
1614, Captain John Smith, who had already distinguished himself by
his services in Virginia, made a voyage to America with two ships,
furnished at the expense of himself and four merchants of London. The
voyage was for the purpose of trading with the natives, and was very
successful.  Smith took advantage of the opportunity to explore the
coast from the Penobscot to Cape Cod. He prepared a map of the coast,
and named the country New England-a title which was confirmed by
the Prince of Wales, afterwards Charles I. After Smith's return to
England, Hunt, the commander of the other vessel, succeeded in inducing
twenty of the natives, with thlir chief Sqnanto, to visit his ship, and as
soon as they were on board put to sea. He sold the savages as slaves in
Spain. A few of them, Squanto among the number, were purchased by
some kind-hearted monks, who instructed them in the Christian faith in
order to send them back to their own people as missionaries of the cross.
Squanto escaped to England in 1619, and there learned the language,
and was afterward an interpreter between the English settlers and his
peoplle.




CHAPTER VI.
THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.
)  Formation of the London Company-Conditions of its Charter-Departure of the fir.t
Colony-Quarrels during the Voyage-Arrival in the Chesapeake-Settlement of
Jamestown-Formation of the Government-Character of Captain John Smith-Exploration of tlhe Jamcs River-Newport and Smith visit Powliatan-Smith Admitted to the
Government-Explores the Clhickahominy-Is Captured and Sentenced to Death-s.'
Saved by Pocahontas-Gains the Friendship of Powhatan for the Colony-Returns to
Jamestown-Iliis Decisive Measures-Return of Newport-Smith Explores the Chesapeake Bay-Tlie new Emigrants-Smith compels them to Labor-Smith is Wounded
and compelled to return to England-Disasters to the Colony-Arrival of Sir Thomas
Gates-Jamestown Abandoned-Arrival of Lord Delaware-The Return to Jamestown
-A Change for the Better-New Settlements-Sir Tliomas Gates arrives with Reinforcements-Capture of Pocaliontas by Captain Argall-She is Baptized-Marries John
Rolfc-Sir Tliomas Dale's Administration-Yeardley Governor-The first Ltgislative
Assembly-Representative (G vernment established in America-The Colonists obtain
Wives-Changes in the Government.:      HE  favorable reports which had been brought back to England
by the voyagers to the new world had prevented the interest
of Englishmen in America from       entirely dying out, and some
CQ^    ardent spirits still believed it possible to make that continent the
seat of a prosperous dominion dependent upon England.        The
former assistants of Raleigh, in particular, held to the convictions which
their chief had entertained to the day of his death.      The selfish and
timid policy of King James having made it impossible for men to acquire
distinction by naval exploits, as in the days of Elizabeth, the more adventurous classes lent a willing ear to the plans for colonizing America,
which were discussed in various parts of the kingdom.       Bartholomew
Gosnold, who had explored the New England coast, was especially active
in seeking to induce capitalists to send out a colony to it.  Sir Ferdinand
Gorges, a wealthy gentleman and Governor of Plymouth, had been
greatly interested in America by the accounts of Waymouth, who had
given him   two of the Indians he had brought to England.           These
succeeded in interesting others in their plans, and the result was, that
early in the reign of King James two companies were formed in England
for the colonization of America.      One of these was the "London
94




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


Company," composed chiefly of noblemen and merchants residing in
London.   The other was the "Plymouth Company," composed of
"knights, gentlemen, and merchants," residing in tile west of England.
King James divided Virginia into two parts. To the London Company
he granted "South Virginia," extending from Cape Fear, in North
Carolina, to the Potomac. To the Plymouth Company he gave " North
Virginia," stretching from the Hudson to Newfoundland. The region
between the Potomac and the Hudson he left as a broad belt of neutral
land to keep the companies from encroaching upon each other's domains.
Either was at liberty to form settlements in this region within fifty miles
of its own border.
The London Company was the first to settle the country assigned it.
A liberal charter was granted the company: the lands in the new world
were to be held by it on the simple conditions of homage and the payment
to the crown of one-fifth of the gold and silver and one-fifteenth of the
copper that should be discovered.  A  general council, residing in
England, was to have authority
over the whole province, and the    3( _/
members of this council were to be                             q '"_
appointed and remove(l by the kingl
at his good pleasure. Each separate   j
colony was to he under the control:
of a colonial council residing within
its own limits, and the king retained  COT O    O
the right to direct the appointment or removal of the members of these
councils at his pleasure. The king also reserved the supreme legislative
authority over the colonies, and framed for their government a code of
laws —"an exercise of royal legislat:on which has been pronounced in
itself illegal."  The colonists were placed by this code under the rule of
thl superior and local councils we have named, in the choice of which
they had no voice. The religion of the Church of England was established as that of the colony, and conformity to it was secured by severe penalties. Death was the punishment for murder, manslaughter, adultery,
dangerous seditions and tumults. In all cases not affecting life and limb
offenders might be tried by a magistrate, but for capital offences trial by
jury was secured. In the former cases the punishment of the offender
was at the discretion of the president and council. The Indians were tbe treated with kindness, and efforts were to be made for their conversion
to Christianity. For five years at least the affairs of the colonists were
to be conducted in a joint stock. The right to impose future legislation
upon the province was reserved by the king. Such was the form of




IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


government first prescribed for Virginia by England, in which, as
Blancrof't truly says, there was " not an element of popular liberty." " To
the emigralts tlhemselves it conceded not one elective franchise, not one
of tie riglits of self-governmlent.  They were to be subjected to the
ordinances of a colmmercial corporation, of which they could not be
nlembers; to the dominioll of a domestic council, in appointing wlich
they had no voice; to the control of a superior council in England, which
lhad no sv\llathy with their rights; and finally, to the arbitrary legislation of the sovereign."
Under this charter the London Company prepared to send out a colony
to Virginia. It was to be a commercial settlement, and the emigrants
were composed altogether of men. One hundred and five persons,
exclusive of the crews of tllc vessels, joined the expedition. Of these not
twenty were farmers or mechanics. The remainder were "gentlemen,"
or men who had ruined themselves at home by idleness and dissipation.
A fleet of three small ships, under command of Captain Newport, was
assembled, and on the 19th of December, 1606, sailed for America.
The emigrants sailed without having perfected any organization. The
king had foolishly placed the names of those who were to constitute the
government in a sealed box, which the adventurers were ordered not to
open until they had selected a site for their settlement and were readx to
form a government. This was most unfortunate, for during the long
voyage dissensions arose, and there was no one in the expedit.on who
possessed the authority requisite for controlling the unruly spirits. These
quarrels grew more intense with the lapse of time, and when the shores
of Virginia were reached the seeds of many of the evils from which the
colony afterwards suffered severely had been thoroughly sown. There
were among the number several who were well qualified to direct the
affairs of the expedition, but they were without the proper authority to
do so, and there was no such thing as voluntary submission to be seen
among the adventurers. The merits of the deserving merely excited the
jealous- of their companions, and the great master spirit of the enterprise
found from the first his disinterested efforts for the good of the expedition met by a jealous and determined opposition.
Newport was not acquainted with the direct route, and made the old
passage by way of the Canaries and the West Indics. IHe thus consumed
the whole of the winter, and while searching for the island of Roanoke,
the scene of Raleigh's colony, his fleet was driven northward by a severe
storm, and forced to take refuge in the Chesapeake bay on the 26th of
April, 1607   He named the headlands of this bay Cape Henry and
Cape Charles, in honor of thle two sols of James I., and because of the




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


comfortable anchorage which he obtained in the splendid roadstead which
enters the bay opposite its mouth, lie gave to the northern point the name
of Point Comfort, which it has since borne. Passing this, a noble river
was discovered coming from the westward, and was nlamed the James, in
honor of the English king. The country was explored with energy, and
though one small tribe of Indians was found to be hostile, a treaty of
peace and friendship was made with another at Hampton. The fleet
ascended the river, and explored it for fifty miles. A pleasant peninsula,
on the left bank of the stream, was selected as the site of the colony, and
on the 13th of May, 1607, the settlement was definitely begun, and was
named Jamestown, in honor of the king.
The leading spirit of the enterprise was John Smith, one of the truest
heroes of history, who has been deservedly called "the father of Virginia." He was still a young man, being but thirty years of age, but he
was old in experience and knightly deeds. While yet a youth he had
served in Holland in the ranks of the army of freedom, and had travelled
through France, Egypt, and Italy  Burning to distinguish himself, he
had repaired to Hungary, and had won a brilliant reputation by his exploits in the ranks of the Christian army engaged in the defence of that
country against the Mohammedans. He repeatedly defeated the chosen
champions of the Turks in single combat, but being at length captured
was sent to Constantinople and sold as a slave. The wife of his master,
pitying his misfortunes, sent him to a relative in the Crimea, with a request to treat him with kindness, but contrary to her wishes he was subjected to the greatest harshness. Rendered desperate by this experience,
he rose against his task-master, slew him, and seizing his horse, escaped
to the border of the Russian territory, where he was kindly received.
He wandered across the country to Transylvania, and rejoined his old
companions in arms. Then filled with a longing to see his " own sweet
country'" once more, he returned to England. He arrived just as the
plans for the colonization of Virginia were being matured. He readily
engaged in the expedition organized by the London Company, and exerted
himself in a marked degree to make it a success. He was in all respects
the most capable man in the whole colony, for his natural abilities were
fully equal to his experience.  He had studied human nature under
many forms in many lands, and in adversity and danger had learned
patience and fortitude. His calm, cool courage, his resolute will, and his
intuitive perception of the necessities of a new settlement, were destined
to make him the main stay of the colony of Virginia, but as yet these
high qualities had only excited the malicious envy of his associates, and
7




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the efforts he had made to heal the dissensions which had broken out
during the voyage had made him many enemies.
When the box containing the names of those who were to constitute
the colonial government was opened, it was found that the king had appointed John Smith one of the council. Smith was at this time in confinement, having been arrested on the voyage upon the frivolous charges
of sedition and treason against the crown, and his enemies, notwithstanding the royal appointment, excluded him from the council. Edward
Wingfield, "a grovelling merchant of the west of England," was chosen
president of t h e
council and governor of the colony
ii; kAThe                  services  of
^     " -f iSmith could not be
Ar>              -'..B           dispensed with,
however, and   he
was released from
sent with Newport
":and twenty others
then dwto explore  the river.
miles belohey asce nd ed the
remonstraJames                     to the falls,
where the city  of
Richmond     now
tion of  or eight thousstands,             and         visited
P                                                a'town.
Their presencipe there wasal chief of
~'                      the Indian nation
\;holding the country
into which they had
CAPTAIN JOHN SMITH.
come.   He   was
then dwelling at his favorite seat on the left bank of the river, a few
miles below the falls. Powhatan received them kindly, and silenced the
remonstrances of his people by saying: "They hurt you not; they only
want a little land." The chief was a man of powerful stature, "tall, sour
and athletic." He was sixty years of age, and had under him a population of six or eight thousand souls, two thousand being warriors. Having carefully observed the river, Smith and Newport returned to Jamestown.
Their presence there was needed, for Wingfield had proved himself




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


utterly unfit to govern the colony  He would not allow the colonists to
build either houses for themselves or a fortification for the common defence against the savages. While they were in this helpless condition,
they were suddenly attacked by a force of four hundred Indians, and
were saved from destruction only by the fire of the shipping, which filled
the savages with terror and put them to flight. It is believed that the
cause of Wingfield's singular conduct was his jealousy of Smith, whose
talents he feared would attract the support of the settlers. The fort was
now built without delay, cannon were mounted, and the men trained in
the exercise of arms. When the ships were in readiness to sail to England, it was intimated to Smith that he would consult his own interests
by returning in them, but he refused to do so, and boldly demanded a
trial upon the charges which had been preferred against him. The council did not dare to refise him this trial, and the result was his triumphant
acquittal. More than this, he succeeded so well in exposing the malice
of his enemies that the president, as the originator of the charges against
him, was compelled to pay him two hundred pounds damages, which sum
Smith generously applied to the needs of the colony  His seat in the
council could no longer be denied him, and he took his place at the board
to the great gain of the colony
Newport sailed for England about the middle of June, leaving the
settlement in a most pitiable condition. The provisions sent out from
England had been spoiled on the voyage, and the colonists were too
indolent to cultivate the land, or to seek to obtain supplies from the
Indians. Sickness broke out among them, owing to the malarious
character of their location, and by the beginning of the winter more than
half their number had died. Among these was Bartholomew Gosnold,
the originator of the London Company, who had come out to Virginia to
risk his life in the effort to settle the country. He was a man of rare
merits, and, together with Mr. Hunt, " the preacher," who was also one
of the projectors of the company, had contributed successfully to the
preservation of harmony in the colony  In the midst of these sufferings
it was found that Wingfield was preparing to load the pinnace with the
remainder of the stores and escape to the West Indies. He was deposed
by the council, who appointed John Ratcliffe in his place.
The new president was not much better than his predecessor.  He
was incapable of discharging the duties of his office, and was perfectly
satisfied that Smith should direct the affairs of the settlement for him.
From this time Smith was the actual head of the government. Food
was the prime necessity of the colony, and as it was now too late to raise
it, Smith exerted himself to obtain it from the Indians. He purchased a




100


HIiSTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES.


supply, and towards the close of the autumn the wild fowl which frequent
the region furnished an additional means of subsistence.
The danger of a famine thus removed, Smith proceeded to explore the
country. In one of these expeditions he ascended the Chickahominy as
far as he could penetrate in his boat, and then leaving it in charge of two
men, struck into the interior with an Indian guide. His men disobeyed
his instructions, and were surprised and put to death by the Indians.
Smith himself was taken prisoner, and deeply impressed his captors by
his cool courage and self-possession. Instead of begging for his life, he
set to work to convince them of his superiority over them, and succeeded


POCAHONTAS RESCUING CAPTAIN SMITH.


so well that they regarded him with a sort of awe. He astonished them
by showing them his pocket compass and explaining to them its uses, and
excited their admiration by writing a letter to his friends at Jamestown
informing them of his situation, and of the danger to which they were
exposed from a contemplated attack of the Indians. One of the savages
bore the letter to its destination.
Smith had been captured by Opechancanough, a powerful chieftain of
the Panmunkey Indians; but as the curiosity of the neighboring tribes
was greatly aroused by his presence, he was led in triumph from the
Chickahominy to the villages on the Rappahannock and the Potomac,




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


101


and then taken through other towns to the residence of Opechancanough,
on the Pamtnkey    Here the medicine men of the tribe held a three
days' incantation over him to ascertain his character and design. All
this while his demeanor was calm and fearless, as if he entertained no
apprehension for his safety  He was regarded by the savages as a
superior being, and was treated with kindness, though kept a close
prisoner. His fate was referred to Powhatan for decision, as the other
tribes feared to bring the blood of such an extraordinary being upon
their heads. Powhatan was then residinl at Werowocomoco, which lay
on the north sile of Fork river, in what is now Gloucester county,
Virginia. He received the captive in great state, surrounded by his
warriors. "He wore," says Smith, "such a grave and majestical countenance as drove me into admiration to see." Brought into the presence
of Powhatan, Smith was received with a shout from 'the assembled
warriors. A handsome young sqluaw brought him water to wash his
hands, and another gave him a bunch of feathers to dry them. Food
was then set before him, and while he applied himself to the repast a
consultation was held by the savages as to his fate. Smith watched the
proceedings closely, and was aware from the gestures of the council that
his death had been determined upon.  Two great stones were then
brought into the assembly and laid before the king. The captive was
seized and dragged to the stones, forced down, and his head laid upon
them. Two brawny savages stood by to beat out his brains with their
clubs. During these proceedings, Pocahontas, a child of ten or twelve
years, "dearly loved daughter" of Powhatan, touched with pity for the
unfortunate stranger, had been earnestly pleading with her father to
spare his life. Failing in this, she sprang forward at the moment the
executioners were about to despatch their victim, and throwing herself
by his side, clasped her arms about his neck and laid her head upon
his to protect him from the impending stroke. This remarkable action
in a child so young moved the savages with profound astonishment.
They regarded it as a manifestation of the will of heaven in favor
of the captive, and it was determined to spare his life and seek his
friendship.
Smith was released from his bonds, and was given to Pocahontas to
make beads and bells for her, and to weave for her ornaments of copper.
The friendship which the innocent child of the forest conceived for him
grew stronger every day, and ceased only with her life. Powhatan took
him into his favor, and endeavored to induce him to abandon the English
and cast his lot with him. He even sought to obtain his aid in an attack
apon the colony. Smith -declined these offers, and by his decision of




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


character succeeded in averting the hostility of the savages from his
friends at Jamestown, and in winning their good-will for the English.
In a short while the Indians allowed him to return to Jamestown, upon
his promise to send to King Powhatan two cannon and a grindstone.
Upon arriving at Jamestown lie showed the Indians who had accompanied him two of the largest cannon, and asked them to lift them. This
was impossible; nor could they succeed any better with the grindstone.
Smith then discharged the cannon in their presence, which so frightened
them that they refused to have anything to do with them. Having
evaded his promise in this manner, Smith bestowed more suitable presents
upon his guides, and sent them home with gifts for Powhatan and
Pocahontas. The savage king was. -=.           doubtless well satisfied to let the
great guns" alone after hearing the
report of his messengers concerning
them, and was greatly pleased with,-= __                         the gifts sent him.
_     %    ~         Smith found the colony at James-: 1-      " town reduced to forty men and affairs
i      _    _s  -  in great confusion. His companions
=-...._              ihad believed that he had fallen a
a= _ 1 -  I ^ i -_  victim to the hostility of the Indians,,,   -_  ^           and he was greeted with delight, as
the need of his firm hand had been, -/-~          t    ote1. sadly felt. He found that a party of
/ a —t                       malcontents were preparing to run
away from the colony with the pinnace, and he at once rallied his sup65                           porters and trained the guns of the
PO( AHONTAS.         fort upon the little vessel, and avowed
his determination to fire upon the
mutineers if they sought to depart. His firmness put an end to this
danger, and the friendly relations which he had managed to establish
with the Indians now enabled him to buy from the savages the food
necessary to sustain the colonists through the winter. In many ways his
captivity proved a great blessing to the settlement. He had not only
explored the country between the James and Potomac, and gained considerable knowledge of the language and customs of the natives, but had
disposed the Indian tribes subject to Powhatan to regard the colony with
friendship at the most critical period of its existence. Had the savages
been hostile during this winter the Jamestown colony must have perished




TIHE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


of starvation; but now, every few days throughout this season, Pocahontas came to the fort accompanied bly a nllluber of hltr countrymen
be-lring baskets of corn for the whites.
In the spring of 1608, Newport arrived from England, bringing with
him a reinforcement of one hundred and twenty emigrants. The newcomers were joyfully welcomed by the colonists, but they proved of no
real advantage to the settlement. They were either idlers or goldsmiths
who had come out to America in the hope of finding gold. The refiners
of the party believed they had found the precious metal in a heap of
glittering earth, of which there was an abundance near Jamestown, and
in spite of the remonstrances of Smith, would do nothing but dig gold.
Newport, who shared the delusion, loaded his ships witl the worthless
earth, and sailed for England after a sojourn in the colony of fourteen
weeks.
While these fruitless labors were in progre-s, S.nith, thoroughly
disgusted with the folly of the emigrants, undertook the exploration of
the Chesapeake bay  He spent the summer of 1608 in visiting the shores
of the bay and ascending its tributaries in an open boat, accompanied by
a few men. He explored the Chesapeake to the Susquehanna, ascended
the Potomac to the falls, and explored the Patapsco.  This voyage
embraced a total distance of nearly three thousand miles, and resulted not
only in the gaining of accurate information respecting the country bordering the Chesapeake, but also in establishing friendly relations with the
tribes along its shores, and preparing the way for future friendly intercourse with them.  The energetic explorer prepared a map of the
Chesapeake and its tributaries, and sent it to his employers in England,
by whom it was published. It is yet in existence, and its accuracy and
minuteness have often elicited the praise of subsequent topographers.
Smith returned to Jamestown on the 7th of September, and three days
later was made president of the council. The good effects of his administration were soon felt. In the autumn, however, another reinforcement
of idle and useless men arrived.  Smith, indignant at the continual
arrival of such worthless persons, wrote to the company: "When you
send again, I entreat you rather send but thirty carpenters, husbandmen,
gardeners, fishermen, blacksmiths, masons, and diggers up of trees' roots,
well provided, than a thousand of such as we have."  Upon the return
of the fleet to England the governor exerted his authority to compel the
idlers to go to work. It was ordered that six hours in each day should
be spent in useful labor by each person, and that "he who would not
work might not eat."  In a short while the settlement began to assume
the appearance of a regular habitation; but still so little land had been




104


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


cultivated-only about thirty or forty acres in all-that during the
winter of 1608-'9, the settlers were compelled to depend upon the Indians
for food. Yet the prudent management of Smith kept the colony in
good health, and during the winter not more than seven men died out of
two hundred.
In the spring of 1609, great changes were made in the London
BUILDING OF JAMESTOWN.
Company, and a more earnest interest was manifested in the colony by all
classes of the English people. Subscriptions were made to the stock of
the company by many noblemen as well as merchants, and a new charter
was obtained. By this charter the stockholders had the power to appoint
the supreme council in England, and to this council were confided the
powers of legislation and government, which were relinquished by the




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


10.;


king. The council appointed the governor of the colony, who was to
rule the settlement with absolute authority according to the instructions
of the council. He xvas made master of the lives and liberties of the
settlers by being authorized to declare martial law whenever in his
judgment the necessity for that measure should arise, and was made the
sole executive officer in its administration. Thus the emigrants were
deprived of every civil right, and were placed at the mercy of a governor
appointed by a corporation whose only object was to make money  The
company, however, defeated this object by the manner in which it selected
emigrants. Instead of sending out honest and industrious laborers who
were capable of building up a state, they sent only idlers and vagabonds,
men who were neither willing nor fit to work. The common stock
feature was maintained, and thus the greatest obstacle to industry that
could be devised was placed in the way of the success of the colony
Still there were many who were willing to seek the new world even
tinder these condlitions, and many others whose friends desired to get
them out of the country. The company was soon able to equip a fleet of
nine vessels containing more than five hundred emigrants, and a stok of
domestic animals and fowls was included in the outfit of the expedition.
Lord Delaware, a nobleman whose character commanded the confidence
of his countrymen, was made governor of the colony for life. As he wiis
not able to sail with the expedition, he delegated his authority during his
absence to Newport, who was admiral of the fleet, Sir Thomas Gates, and
Sir George Somers, who were to govern the colony until his arrival.
The fleet sailed in the spring of 1609, but when off the American coast
was overtaken by a severe storm, and two vessels-on one of which the
admiral and the commissioners had sailed-were wrecked on one of the
Bermuda islands.
Seven ships reached Virginia, and brought the worst lot of emigrants
that had yet been sent out to the colony  Smith was still acting president, and as the commissioners had not arrived, was determined to hold
his position until relieved by his lawful successors. The new emigrants
at first refused to recognize his authority, but he compelled them to submit, and in order to lessen the evil of their presence, divided them into
bodies sufficiently numerous for safety, and sent them to make settlements
in other parts of Virginia. These settlements proved so many failures,
and, unfortunately for the colony, Smith was so severely wounded by an
accidental explosion of gunpowder, in the autumn of 1609, that he w:s
obliged to relinquish the government and return to England for surgical
treatment. He delegated his authority to George Percy, and sailed for
England, never to return to Virginia again. It was to him alone that




HISTORY OF THIE UNITED STATES.


the company owed the success of the colony, but he received in return
nothing but ingratitude.
The departure of Smith was followed by the most disastrous consequences. There was no longer an acknowledged government in Virginia,
and the settlers gave themselves up to the most reckless idleness. Their
provisions were quickly consumed, and the Indians refused to furnish
them with any more. The friendship of the savages had been due to
their personal regard for Smith, who had compelled the colonists to respect
their rights and to refrain from maltreating them. Now that Smith was
no longer at the head of affairs, the Indians regarded the settlers with
the contempt they filly merited, and hostilities soon began. Stragglers
from the town were cut off, and parties who went out to seek food among
the savages were deliberately murdered. On one occasion a plan was
laid to surprise the town and massacre the colonists. The danger was
averted by Pocahontas, who stole from her father's camp, through night
and storm, to give warning to the settlers. Failing in this effort the
Indians resolved to starve the colony, and soon the whites began to
experience the sufferings of a famine. Thirty of them seized one of the
ships, escaped to sea, and began a course of piracy  In six months the
four hundred and ninety persons left by Smith in the colon- at his departure had dwindled down to sixty.; and this wretched remnant would have
perished speedily had not aid reached them.
On the 24tlh of May, 1610, Sir Thomas Gates and the members of the
expedition who had been wrecked on the Bermudas reached Jamestown
after a stay of nine months on those islands, during which time they had
built two vessels from the wreck of their ship and the wood found on the
island. In these they managed to reach Virginia, expecting to find the
colony in a prosperous condition. They found instead the sixty men
already mentioned, so feeble and full of despair as to be helpless. In the
general despondency it was determined to abandon the colony, sail to
Newfoundlanl, and join the fishing vessels which came annually from
England to that island. Some of the emigrants wished to burn the town,
but this was prevented by the resolute conduct of Sir Thomas Gates. On
the 7th of June the settlers embarked, and that night dropped down the
James with the tide. The next morning they were astonished to meet a
fleet of vessels entering the river. It was Lord Delaware, who had
arrived with fresh emigrants and supplies. The fugitives hailed the
arrival of the governor with delight, and put about and ascended the
stream with him. A fair wind enabled them to reach Jamestown the
same night.
On the 10th of June, 1610, the foundations of the colony were solemnly




THE SETTLEIMEYT OF VIRGINVlIA.


107


relaid with prayer and supplication to Almighty God for success in the
effort to establish a state. The authority of Lord Delaware silenced all
dissensions, and his equitable but firm administration soon placed the
settlement on a more successful basis than it had yet occupied. The
labors of each day were opened with prayer in the little church, after
which, from six in the morning till ten, and from two in the afternoon
until four, all engaged in the tasks demanded of them. The good effects
of the new system were soon manifest in the increased comfort and prosperity of the colony  In about a year the health of Lord Delaware gave
way, and he delegated his authority to George Percy, whom Smith had
chosen as his successor, and returned to England.
Fortunately for the colony, the company, before the arrival of Lord
Delaware in England, had sent out Sir Thomas Dale with supplies. He
reached Jamestown in May, 1611, and finding Lord Delaware gone,
assumed the government.     He
brought with hlim a code of laws,
prepared and sent out by Sir Thomas
Smith, the treasurer of the company, - l
without the order or sanction of the
council, and which established martial law as the rule of the colony
Though he ruled with such a stern  --
hand, Dale rendered good service to
Virginia by recommending to the
company to maintain the settlement       - b
at all hazards as certain of yielding   B
them a rich reward in the end. This
energetic appeal so greatly encour-      WIFE OF A CHIEF
aged the council, which had been
considerably disheartened by Lord Delaware's return, that in the summer
of 1611 Sir Thomas Gates was sent out to Virginia with six ships and
three hundred emigrants. He carried also a stock of cattle and abundant
supplies. The emigrants sent out with him were of a better character
and more industrious than any that had yet left England for Virginia.
Gates assumed the government, and matters began to prosper again. The
colony now numbered seven hundred persons, and was deemed so prosperous that Dale, with the approval of the governor, led a number of the
men to the vicinity of the falls of the James, and there established another
settlement, which was called Henrico in honor of the Prince of Wales.
Among the changes for the better was the assignment to each settler of a
few acres of land for his own cultivation. This "incipient establishment




108


HIISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


of private property" produced the happiest results, and from this time
there was no scarcity of provisions in the colony, which became so powerful and prosperous as to be no longer exposed to the mercy of the savag(e-.
The Indians themselves were quick to notice this change, and some of
the neighboring tribes by formal treaty acknowledged themselves subjects
of King James.
The whites, however, did not always respect the rights of the Indians.
Late in 1613, Pocalhontas was betrayed into the hands of a foraging party
under Captain Argall. Argall kept her a prisoner, and demanded of
Powhatan a ransom. For three months Powhatan did not deign to reply
to this demand, but prepared for war, In the meantime Pocahontas was
instructed in the faith of the Christians, and at length openly embraced
it, and was baptized. Her conversion was hastened by a powerful sentiment, which had taken possession of her heart. She had always regarded
the English as superior to her own race, and now her affections were won
by a young Englishman of good character, named John Rolfe. Rolfe,
with the approval of the governor, asked her hand of her father in
marriage. Powhatan consented to the union, but refused to be present at
the marriage, as he was too shrewd to place his person in the hands of the
English. He sent his brother Opachiseo and two of his sons to witness
the marriage, which was solemnized in the little church at Jamestown,
in the presence of Sir Thonmis Dale, the acting governor. The marriage
conciliated Powhatan and his tribe, who continued their peaceful relations with the colony  King James, however, was greatly displeased at
what he deemed the presumption of a subject in wedding a princess.
Pocahontas was soon after taken to England by her husband, and was
received there with great attention and kindness. She remained in England for a little more than a year, and then prepared to return to her
own country   As she was about to sail, she died, at the age of twentytwo, A. D. 1616. She left a son, who subsequently became a man of
distinction in Virginia, and the ancestor of some of the proudest families
of the Old Dominion.
In the meantime the settlements of the French on the coast of NMaine
had attracted the attention and excited the jealousy of the English. In
1613, Captain Samuel Argall, who was cruising on the banks of Newfoundland to protect the English fishermen, discovered the French
settlement of Saint Sauveur on the island of Mount Desert, and captured
it. He treated the colonists with inexcusable harshness, and compelled
them to leave the country. In the same year he destroyed the fortifications which Des Monts had erected on the isle of St. Croix and burned
the deserted settlement of Port Royal.




THE SETTLEMENT OF VIRGINIA.


109


At Jamestown and the other settlements that had been formed in
Virginia private industry was fast placing the colony on an assured basis
of success. "The condition of private property in lands, among the
colonists, depended, in some measure, on the circumstances under which
they had emigrated. Some had been sent and maintained at the exclusive cost of the company, and were its servants. One month of their
time and three acres of land were set apart for them, besides a small
allowance of two bushels of corn from the public store; the rest of their
labor belonged to their employers. This number had gradually decreased; and in 1617 there were of them all, men, women and children,
but fifty-four. Others, especially the favorite settlement near the mouth
of the Appomattox, were tenants, paying two and a lalf bushels of corn
as a yearly tribute to the store, and giving to the public service one
month's labor, which was to be required neither at seed time nor harvest.
He who came himself, or hal sent others at his own expense, had been
entitled to a hundred acres of land for each person: now that the colony
was well established, the bounty on emigration was fixed at fifty acres,
of which the actual occupation and culture gave a further right to as
many more, to be assigned at leisure. Besides this, lands were granted
as rewards of merit; yet not more than two thousand acres could be so
appropriated to one person. A payment to the company's treasury of
twelve pounds and ten shillings likewise obtained a title to any hundred
acres of land not yet granted or possessed, with a reserved claim to as
much more. Such were the earliest land laws of Virginia: though imperfect and unequal, they gave the cultivator the means of becoming a
proprietor of the soil. These valuable changes were established by Sir
Thomas Dale." *
The survivors of Raleigh's colony at Roanoke had introduced into
England the use of tobacco which they had learned from the Indians,
and there was now a steady demand for that article from  the mother
country. Encouraged by this demand, and stimulated by the acquisition
of property of their own, the Virginia colonists devoted themselves with
ardor to the culture of tobacco, and soon all the available land about the
settlements, and even the streets and public squares of Jamestown, were
planted with it. Tobacco soon became the currency of the colony, and
so much attention was given to it, to the exclusion of other agricultural
interests, that there was danger that not enough corn would be raised to
supply the needs of the settlers.
In 1616, Sir Thomas Dale, who had been governor of the colony for
two years, delegated his authority to George Yeardley, and sailed for
* History of the United States. By George Bancroft, vol. i, p. 150.




HISTORY OF TIHE UNITED STA TES.


England. Under Yeardley's admirable administration the colony continued to increase in prosperity. A faction of the settlers, however,
succeeded in removing him from his position, and replaced him with
Argall, who was a selfish and brutal tyrant. He held office for two
years, and governed according to the most rigid forms of martial law
He swindled the company, and extorted their hard earnings from the
settlers, who were driven to desperation by his brutalities. In their
distress they appealed to the company for redress, and, as Argall had
robbed the corporation also, their prayer was heard. Argall was removed from office, and the bloody code of Sir Thomas Smith was
abolished. Sir George Yeardley was appointed governor, Lord Delaware
having died, and reached Jamestown in April, 1619. He was greatly
beloved by the Virginians, and his arrival was looked upon as the beginning of new life for the province, as indeed it was.
Among the changes which Yeardley was empowered by the company
to inaugurate was one which exercised the greatest influence upon the
subsequent history of Virginia. After years of blundering and arbitrary
rule, the London Company had become convinced that the best way to
promote the welfare of Virginia was to give the settlers a share in the
management of their own affairs. "That the planters might have a
hande in the governing of themselves, yt was graunted that a generall
assemblie shoulde be helde yearly once, whereat were to be present the
governor and consell with two burgesses from each plantation, freely to
be elected by the inhabitantes thereof, this assemblie to have power to
make and ordaine whatsoever lawes and orders shoulde by them   be
thought good and profitable for their subsistence." In accordance with
this authorization, Governor Yeardley issued his writs for the election of
representatives from the various colonies, and on the 10th day of July,
1619, two delegates from each of the eleven settlements of the colony
met at Jamestown, and organized the House of Burgesses of the Colony
of Virginia, the first representative assembly ever convened in America.
In this assembly the governor and council sat with the burgesses,
and engaged in the debates and motions.    John Pory, a member
of the council and the secretary of the colony, was chosen speaker,
although he was not a member of the house.      Sensible of their
dependence upon the Supreme Ruler of the world, the burgesses opened
their deliberations with prayer, and thus established the practice. "The
assembly exercised fully the right of judging of the proper election of
its members; and they would not suffer any patent, conceding manorial
jurisdiction, to bar the obligation of obedience to their decisions." Laws
were enacted against idleness and vice, and for the encouragement of in



THE SETTLEMENT OF VTIRGIIA4.


Ill


dustry and order, He who refused to labor was to be " sold to a master
for wages till he shewe apparent signs of amendment."  The playing of
dice and cards, and drunkenness and profane swearing were prohibited
under severe penalties. Inducements were held out to increase the
planting of corn, mulberry trees, hemp and the vine. The price of
tobacco was fixed by law at three shillings a pound for the best grade
and half that price for the inferior grade. Provision was also made for
"the erecting of a university and college" for the proper education of
the children who should be born to the planters. It was designed to
extend to the Indians the benefit of these institutions, and it was ordered
that the "most towardly (Indian) boys in wit and graces of nature should
be brought up in the first elements of literature, and sent from college to
the work of converting the natives to Christianity."
The measures of the assembly were put in force without waiting the
approval of the London Company, and the good effects of them were
quickly visible in the colony  The principles of free government having
been planted in the community, the settlers, who had been thereby transformed from the mere creatures of the governor into free-born Englishmen once more, began to regard Virginia as their permanent home, and
set to work with a will to build houses and plant fields. One thing only
was lacking to give the settlers homes in the truest sense of the word;
and to supply that need Sir Edwin Sandys induced ninety young and
virtuous women to emigrate to America, that the colonists might be able
to marry and form domestic ties which alone could permanently attach
them to America. The young women were sent over to the colony in
1619, at the expense of the company, and were married to the tenants
of the corporation or to men who were well enough to do to support
them. The next year sixty more were sent over, and quickly found
husbands. In all cases the husbands were required to repay to the
company the cost of the passage of their wives from England. This was
paid in tobacco, and was regarded as a debt of honor, to be discharged at
any sacrifice. In order to aid the husbands in these payments, as well
as in their general matters, the company, in employing labor, gave the
preference to the married men. The colony now increased in a marked
degree, emigrants coming out so rapidly from England that by 1621
there were 4000 persons in Virginia. It having become understood that
the colony had passed the stage at which failure was possible, and had
become a permanent state, the new emigrants were largely men of family,
who brought their households with them.
In July, 1621, the London Company, which was now controlled by
the patriot party in England, granted to Virginia a written constitution,




HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


which gave to the colony a form of government similar to that of Eng.
land herself. A governor and permanent council were to be appointed
by the company    The house of burgesses was to have the power of
enacting such laws as should be needed for the general good, but no law
so enacted was to be valid unless approved by the company   On the
other hand, no orders of the court in London were to be binding in
Virginia unless ratified by the house of burgesses. Courts of justice
were established and ordered to be administered according to the laws
and forms of trial in use in England. Thus the common law of England
was firmly established in Virginia, and under its beneficent protection
the colony advanced steadily in prosperity  The colonists were to be no
longer merely the subjects of a commercial corporation, and as such to
lhold their liberties and proprty at the pleasure of their masters; but
were definitely accorded the right to govern themselves, and to take
such measures for their safety and prosperity as in their judgment should
steem best. "On this ordinance," says Bancroft, "Virginia erected the
superstructure of her liberties. Its influences were wide and enduring,
and can be traced through all her history  It constituted the plantatior,
in its infancy, a nursery of freemen; and succeeding generations learned
to cherish institutions which were as old as the first period of the prosperity of their fathers. The privileges then conceded could never be
wrested from the Virginians; and as new colonies arose at the South
their proprietaries could hope to win emigrants only by bestowing
franchises as large as those enjoyed by their elder rival. The London
Company merits the praise of having auspicated liberty in America.
It may be doubted whether any public act during the reign of King
James was of more permanent or pervading influence; and it reflects
glory on Sir Edwin Sandys, the Earl of Southampton, and the patriot
party of England, that, though they were unable to establish guarantees
of a liberal administration at home, they were careful to connect popular
freedom inseparably with the life, prosperity and state of society in
Virginia."




CHAPTER VII.


PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA       CO)LONY
Introduction of Negro Slavery into Virginia-Efforts of the Assembly to Restrict Slavery
-The Indians Attempt the Destruction of the Colony-Terrible Sufferings of the
Whites-Aid from England-The Indian War Begun-King James Revokes the
Charter of the London Company-Charles I. Desires a Monopoly of the Tobacco Trade
-Action of the Assembly-Sir William  Berkeley's First Administralion-Severe
Measures against Dissenters-Close of the Indian War-Death of OpechancanoughEmigration of.Royalists to Virginia-Virginia and the Commonwealth-Treaty with
England-The Assembly Asserts its Independence of the Governor-The RestorationBerkeley Chosen Governor by the Assembly-His Hypocrisy.
N August, 1619, a few months after the meeting of the first colonial
legislature, there occurred an event which was destined to influence the history of Virginia and of America for remote generations, perhaps forever. A    Dutch   vessel of war entered the
James river and offered twenty negroes for sale as slaves.  These were
purchased by the planters, and negro slavery was thus established in
Virginia.  Laborers were in demand, and the necessity for them blinded
the planters to the evil they were fastening upon the colony   The first
importation was followed by others, the infamous business being principally in the hands of the Dutch at this period. Still the blacks increased
very slowly. The legislature from the first discouraged the traffic by a
heavy tax upon female slaves.
Sir Francis Wyatt, the first governor appointed under the new constitution, reached Virginia in 1621, and the new laws were soon in successful operation. Soon after his arrival a terrible misfortune befell the
colony, and almost caused its destruction.  For some time there had been
bad blood between the whites and the Indians. Powhatan, the friend
of the English, was dead, and Opechancanough, the veteran chief, who,
since the death of Powhatan, had become the leader of the nation, was
bitterly hostile to the English, and not without reason.   The savages
originally held the best lands in the colony, but the whites, when these
lands were wanted, took possession of them without regard to the rights
of their dusky owners. The Indians, unable to contend with the whites
in open conflict, saw themselves driven steadily away from  their accus8                                                    113




IlSTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


tomed homes, and menaced with total destruction by the superior race.
Opechancanough, though outwardly friendly to the colonists, now secretly
resolved upon their destruction, and sought to accomplish this by
treachery. There were about five thousand Indians, of whom fifteen
hundred were warriors, within sixty miles of Jamestown, and the whites
in the same region numbered in all about four thousand. These were
scatteredl in fancied safety along both sides of the James and for some
distance into the interior. A plot was organized by the Indian leader for
the extermination of every settler in the colony  At noon on a designated
(lay every settlement was to be surprised and all the inhabitants murdered. The savages in the meantime kept up their pretence of friendship.
Opechancanough declared with fervor, "Sooner shall the sky fall than
my friendship for the English should cease."  So unsuspicious were the
English that to the very last moment they received thle savages amongst
them without fear of harm, and in many places the latter were at the
instant of the massacre in the houses of the people they meant to destroy.
On the 22d of March, 1622, a general attack was made by the savages
upon all the settlements of the colony  On the previous night the plot
had been revealed to a converted Indian, naned Chauco, who at once
hastened to Jamestown and gave warning of the danger, The alarm
spread rapidly to the nearest settlements, but those at a distance could not
be reached in time to avert their fate. Those settlements which had been
warned were able to offer a successful resistance to their assailants, and
some of those which were surprised beat off the Indians; but the number of victims, men, women, and children, who fell this day amounted to
three hundred and forty-seven. All these were slain within an hour,
and their fate would have been shared by the whole colony but for the
warning of the friendly Indian.
The effect upon the colony was appalling. The distant plantations had
been destroyed by the savages, and out of eighty settlements eight alone
survived. These, and especially Jamestown, were crowded beyond their
capacity with fugitives who had fled to them for shelter. Sickness soon
began to prevail, the public works were discontinued, and private industry was greatly diminished. A gloom rested over the entire colony, and
the population fell off: At the end of two years after the massacre, the
nu:nber of inhabitants had been reduced to two thousand. Much sympathy was manifested for the suffering colonists by the people of England.
The city of London sent them liberal assistance, and private individuals
subscribed to their need. King James was aroused into an affectation of
generous sympathy, and sent over to the colony a supply of muskets
which had been condemned as worthless in England.




PROGRESS OF TIHE VIRGINIA COLONY I


115


The whites recovered from their gloom, and on their part began to
form plans for the exterminatio. of their foes. During the next ten
years expeditions were sent against the Indians at frequent intervals. The
object kept sternly in view was to either destroy the savages altogether,
or force them back from the seaboard into the interior. As late as 1630
it was ordered by the general assembly that no peace should be made
with the Indians.
An important changc now occurred in the fortunes of the colony  The
London Company was bankrupt, and its stockholders having abandoned
all hope of gain from the colony, held on to their shares merely as a
means of exercising political power. The company was divided between
two parties. One of these favored the direct rule of the colony by the
sovereign, the other maintained the independent government of the
province by its own legislature under the constitution granted to it.
The debates between these factions greatly annoyed the king, who could
never tolerate the expression of an independent opinion by any of his
subjects. He endeavored in various ways to silence these disputes, and
to regain the powers he had relinquished to the company, but the latter
firmly refused to surrender their charter, and the colonists, who feared
that the king might seek to impose his own arbitrary will upon them in
the place of their constitution and the laws of England, sustained the
company in its refusal. In spite of this opposition, however, James
carried his point. The charter of the company was revoked, and Virginia was made a royal province. The company appealed to the courts,
but these being under the influence of the crown sustained the kinog.
Their decision was rendered in June, 1624. James did not interfere with
any of the liberties or privileges of Virginia, however. Sir Francis
Wyatt was retained in his office of governor, and the colony wals left
under the laws and in possession of the privileges secured to it in 1621.
James announced his intention to prepare a code of laws for the government of Virginia, but fortunately for that province he died before he
could execute his design.
Charles I. succeeded his father on the English throne on the 27th of
March, 1625. He was favorably disposed toward the colony, for he did
not suppose the principles of civil liberty had taken so deep a root in it,
and, moreover, he wished to secure for the crown the monopoly of the
tobacco trade. He carried his condescension to the extent of recognizing
the house of burgesses as a legislative body and requesting it to pass a
bill restricting the sales of tobacco to the crown. The house answered
him respectfully, but firmly, that to grant his majesty's request would be
to injure the trade of the colony  Defeated in this effort to secure this




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


monopoly the king continued throughout his reign to seek to get tlhe
tobacco trade into his hands.  ie declared London to be the sole market
for the sale of tobacco, and endeavored in many ways, and in vain, to
regulate the trade.
In the meantim3 Sir Francis Wyatt retired from the government of
the colony, and Sir George Yeardlley was appointed his successor, in
1626. The latter died the next year, and Francis West was elected
governor by the council until tile pleasure of the king should be known.
Upon the receipt in England of the news of Yeardley's death, Charles
appointed Sir John Harvey governor of Virginia. At the same time he
granted to the council in Virginia authority to fill all vacancies occurring
in their body  Previous to the arrival of Harvey, West was succeeded
by another governor, named Pott, elected by the council.
Harvey reached Virginia late in the autumn of 1629, and remained in
office until 1639. He was greatly disliked, and his failure to enforce the
claims of Virginia against the colony of Maryland, which was planted
in 1634 upon territory embraced within the original grant to Virginia,
made him still more unpopular, In 1636 he was removed from office
by the council, and an appeal was made to the king by both Harvey and
the council. Harvey returned to England to manage his case, and John
West was appointed governor until the decision of the case by the king.
Harvey succeeded in defeating his opponents, who were not even allowed
a hearing in England, and returned to Virginia in January, 1636, and
resumed his place as governor. The complaints against him were so
numerous, that in 1639 he was removed by the king, who appointed Sir
Francis Wyatt his successor. In 1641 Wyatt was succeeded by Sir
William Berkeley, who reached Jamestown in 1642. In the spring of
this year, an effort was made to revive the London Company, but Virginia, which was now a royal province, opposed the measure, and urged
the king to allow her to remain in the exercise of the self-government
which had contributed in so marked a degree to her prosperity  The
king, impressed with the force of the arguments by which this appeal
was sustained, declared his intention to make no change in the colonial
government.
Berkeley, during his first administration, proved in the main a good
governor, and the colony continued to improve. The courts of justice
were brought as near as possible to the English standard, and the titles
to lands were arranged upon a more satisfactory basis than had hitherto
been found possible. Taxes were assessed according to the wealth of the
settlers, and a treaty was arranged with Maryland by which the vexed
questions between the two colonies were satisfactorily adjusted. The Vir



P.OaRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLONY


117


ginians, accustomed to freedom, were in all things, save their acknowledgment of the king's supremacy, a practically independent nation, so
little were they interfered with by the sovereign. The colony was devoted to the established church of England, and even at this early (lay there
were severe laws for the enforcement of conformity to its rules, and for
the punishment of dissenters. When Puritan ministers came from New
England into the colony in 1643, they were banished by the colonial
government, notwithstandiug they had been invited into Virginia by the
Puritan settlements in that province. The majority of the Virginians,
with the governor at their head, were royalists and staunch friends of the
ling. The Puritans living in the colony were regarded with suspicion,
and when they refused to conform to the established church, it was ordered
that they should be banished. Many of them passed over into Maryland
and settled there. With the exception of this harmless bigotry, the
colony took no share in the great quarrel which was rending the mother
country in twain. It was rather a gainer by it, as the troubles which
encompassed Charles I. compelled him to cease his efforts to interfere with
the trade of the planters.
The chief trouble of this period was with the Indians. There had
been no peace with them since the massacre of 1622, but frequent expeditions had been sent against them. In 1644, the savages, led by their
veteran chieftain Opechancanough, resolved to make one more effort to
exterminate the whites, forgetting that in the twenty years that elapsed
their enemies had grown stronger, while they had grown weaker. On
the 18th of April the frontier settlements were attacked, and three
hundred of the settlers were put to death. The whites at once inaugurated vigorous measures for their defence, and a sharp warfare was waged
upon the savages until October, 1646. It was brought to a close by the
capture of Opechancanough, who was so decrepit that he was unable to
walk, and was carried about in the arms of his people. His flesh was
emaciated, the sinews so relaxed, and his eyelids so heavy that whenever
he desired to see they were lifted by his attendants. Yet still the vigor
of his intellect remained to him, and he was to the last both feared by
his enemies and loved by his people. Berkeley, having taken him prisoner,
exposed him to the rude gaze of the colonists, an indignity which stung
the proud monarch of the forest to the heart. On one occasion, hearing
that the governor was approaching, he caused his eyelids to be raised, and
fixing upon his captor a look of stern rebuke, said to him, " If Sir William
Berkeley had become my prisoner, I should not thus meanly have exposed
him as a show to my people."  A few days later, Opechancanough was
basely assassinated by one of the colonists charged with the duty of guard



IISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


ing him. Thus perished one of the greatest of the native chieftains of
America. In )ctober, 1646, Necotowance, the successor of Opechancanough entere(l into a treaty with the colony, by which he and his people
relinquished to the English the lands that had been the heritage of their
fathers, and withdrew into tile interior  Their power was completely
broken, and submission was all that was left to them.
Virginia was now on the high road to prosperity  The population at
the close of the year 1648 nunbered twenty thousand, and was increasing
rapidly. A fair trade had been built up with other countries, and at
lChristmas of this year "there were trading in Virginia ten ships from
London, two from Bristol, twelve Hollanders, and seven from  New
England."  The quarrels of the mother country had not affected the
colony, though a thrill of horror and indignation ran through all Virginia
when the news was received of the execution of Charles I. Upon the
fall of that monarch a large number of the royalist party in England,
unwilling to submit to or make any compromise with the Parliament, fled
to Virrinia, and were received there witl sympathizing hospitality by the
government an(l people. Many of them made the colony their permanent home, and thus began the pleasant relations between Virginia and
Engltand, which have in numerous cases remained unbroken. The Virginians regarded Charles II., then an exile at Breda, as their rightful
sovereign, and it was seriously proposed to him to come over to America
and be king of Virginia. Charles' interests obliged him to remain in
Europe, but he continued to regard himself as king of Virginia. From
this circumstance Virginia came to be called " The Old Dominion."
The Parliament, however, did not long suffer the colony to maintain
this attitude. Having triumphed over all its enemies in Europe it
prepared to enforce its authority in America. In 1650 an ordinance was
passed forbidding all intercourse with the colonies that had adhered to
the Stuarts, except by the especial permission of Parliament or the Council
of State. In the spring of 1652) more energetic measures were put in
force, and a fleet was despatched to America to compel the submission of
the colonies.  The fleet arrived off Jamestown.  No resistance was
attempted, for the commissioners appointed by the commonwealth were
instructed to grant terms honorable to both parties. The Virginians were
prepared to resist any attempt to force them into submission, but they
were disarmed by the liberal spirit with which the commonwealth met
them, and a treaty was concluded between England and Virginia, as equal
treating with equal. It wrs stipulated:
"First. That this should be considered a voluntary act, not forced or
constrained by a conquest upon the country; and that the colony should




PROGRESS OF THE VIRGINIA COLO.NY'


119


have and enjoy such freedoms and privileges as belong to tle freeborn
people of England.
"Secondly. That the grand assembly, as formerly, should convene
and transact the affairs of Virginia, doing nothing contrary to the government of the commonwealth or laws of England.
"Thirdly. That there should be a full and total remission of all acts,
words, or writings against tle Parliament.
"Fourthly. That Virginia should have her ancient bounds and limits,
granted by the charters of the former kings, and that a new charter was
to be sought from Parliament to that effect, against such as had trespassed
against their ancient rights.
"Fifthly That all patents of land under the seal of the colony, granted
by the governor, should remain in full force.
"Sixthly. That the privilege of fifty acres of land for every person
emigrating to the colony should remain in full force.
"Seventhly That the people of Virginia have free trade, as the people
of England enjoy, witl all places and nations, according to the laws of
the commonwealth; and that Virginia should enjoy equal privileges, in
every respect, with any other colony in America.
"Eighthly That Virginia should be free fiom all taxes, customs, and
impositions whatsoever; and that none should be imposed upon them
without the consent of their grand assembly; and no forts or castles be
erected, or garrison maintained, without their consent.
"Ninthly. That no charge should be required from the country on
account of the expense incurred in the present fleet.
"Tenthly That this agreement should be tendered to all persons, and
that such as should refuse to subscribe to it should have a year's time to
remove themselves and effects from Virginia, and in the meantime enjoy
equal justice."
"These terms," says Bancroft, "so favorable to liberty, and almost
conceding independence, were faithfully observed until the restoration.
Historians have, indeed, drawn gloomy pictures of the discontent whllich
pervaded the colony, and have represented the discontent as heightened
by commercial oppression. The statement is a fiction. The colony of
Virginia enjoyed liberties as large as the favored New England; displayed
an equal degree of fondness for popular sovcrcignty, and fearlessly
exercised political independence."
Richard Bennett, one of the commissioners, was closen governor in the
place of Berkeley. Until now it had been customary for the governor
and council to sit in the assembly, and take part in the debates. Objection was now made to their presence, and the matter was compromised by
obliging them to take the oath required of the burgesses. During the




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


protectorate Cromwell wisely let the colony alone. He appointed none
of the governors, and never interfered with the management of its affairs.
In 1658, Samuel Mathews being governor, the assembly, on the 1st of
April, passed a law excluding the governor and council from their sessions,
and thus secured to themselves a free and uninterrupted discussion of their
measures. The governor and council in return declared the assembly
dissolved, but that body vindicated its authority and independence by
removing the governor and council, and compelled them to submit. They
were then reelected to their respective positions. Thus did the spirit
of popular liberty establish all its claims.
Upon the death of Cromwell, the house of burgesses met in secret
session and decided to recognize Richard Cromwell as protector. "It
was a more interesting question whether the change of protector in England would endanger liberty in Virginia. The letter from the council
had left the government to be administered according to former usage.
The assembly declared itself satisfied with the language. But that there
mitght be no reason to question the existing usage, the governor was
summoned to come to the house, where he appeared in person, deliberately
acknowledgedt the supreme power of electing officers to be, by the present
law.-/, resitlent in the assembly, and pledged himself to join in addressing
the new protector for special confirmation of all existing privileges. The
reason for this extraordinary proceeding is assigned, 'that what was their
privilege now, might be the privilege of their posterity'  The frame of
the Virginia government was deemed worthy of being transmitted to
remote generations." *
Governor Mathews died in March, 1660, about the time of the resignation of Richard Cromwell in England. Both the mother country and the
colony were thus left without a government. In this emergency the
general assembly of Virginia resolved "that the supreme government of
this country shall be resident in the assembly, and all writs shall issue in
its name, until there shall arrive from England a commission, which the
assembly itself shall adjudge to be lawful."  The assembly had no thought
of asserting its independence of England, but as it cherished the earnest
hope that the king would be restored to his rights, it proceeded to fill the
vacancy occasioned by the death of Governor Mathews by electing Sir
William Berkeley, the devoted partisan of the Stuarts, governor of Virginia. Berkeley accepted the office, acknowledged the validity of the
acts of the assembly, and expressed his conviction that he could in no
event dissolve that body  "I am," said he, "but the servant of the
assembly "  We shall see in the course of this narrative how he regarded
i tlis promise in the light of subsequent events.
* History of the United Staites. By Geo. Bancroft, vol. i., p. 228.




CHAPTER VIII.


VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION
Characteristics of the Virginians-Causes of the Success of the Royalists-Growth of the
Aristocratic Class-Berkeley decides against the People-The Aristocratic Assembly
Claims the Right to sit Perpetually-Deprives the Common People of their LibertiesRevival of the Navigation Act by Charles II.-The King bestows Virginia as a Gift
upon his Favorites-Protests of the Assembly-Growing Hostility of the Virginians to
the Colonial Government-The Indian War-The Governor Refuses to allow the
Colonists to Defend themselves-Nathaniel Bacon-He Marches against the IndiansRebellion of the People against Berkeley and the Assembly-The Convention-Repeal
of the Obnoxious Laws-Berkeley's Duplicity-The People take up Arms-Flight of
Berkeley-Destruction of Jamestown-Death of Bacon-Causes of the Failure of the
Rebellion-Berkeley's Triumph-Execution of the Patriot Leaders-Berkeley's Course
Condemned by the King-Death of Berkeley-The Unjust Laws Re-enacted-Lord
Culpepper Governor-His Extortions-James II. and Virginia-Effects upon Virginia
of the Revolution of 1688-William and Mary College Founded.
)    N  the 8th of May, 1660, Charles II. was proclaimed king in
England, and on the 29th made his entry into London.           The
rebellion and the commonwealth had produced but little effect
upon Virginia.     The restoration was productive of the most
momentous consequences in the colony       During the long period
of the commonwealth Virginia had been practically independent. The
people had acquired     political rights, and had exercised them       with
prudence. The colony had prospered in a marked degree under the
blessings of popular government, and the rights of the people were
jealously guarded by their legislators.   " No trace of established privilege appeared in its code or its government: in its forms and in its
legislation Virginia was a representative democracy; so jealous of a
landed aristocracy that it insisted on universality of suffrage; so hostile
to the influence of commercial wealth, that it would not tolerate the
'mercenary' ministers of the law; so considerate for religious freedomn,
that each parish was left to take care of itself.       Every officer was,
directly or indirectly, chosen by the people." *    The restoration was to
change all this.
* Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 188.
121




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATL'S.


The society of Virginia was peculiar. The colony had been settled
by adventurers under circumstances which compelled equality among all
classes of its people. Thus there had grown up a strong population born
to the enjoyment of this equality, and devoted to its maintenance. They
constituted the bulk of the inhabitants. By degrees there had sprung
up a colonial aristocracy composed of the large landholders. These were
persons of culture, many of whom had been men of position and education in England. The laws favored the accumulation of large estates,
and the possession of them awakened feelings of family pride. The
large emigration of men of rank and culture at the overthrow of Charles
I. greatly increased this class. The existence of an established church
gave it another element of strength, since the interests of the state church
and the aristocracy are always identical. Education was almost entirely
confined to the landholding class, and with this never-failing weapon in
their grasp they soon obtained the direction of the affairs of the colony,
and retained it. Unfortunately for Virginia, the mass of the people had
no means of acquiring knowledge. There were no common schools in
the colony    In 1671, Sir William  Berkeley wrote: "Every man
instructs his children according to his ability"  He added: "I thank
God there are no free schools nor printing, and I hope we shall not have
these hundred years; for learning has brought disobedience and heresy
and sects into the w+,rld, and printing has divulged them and libels
against the best government. God keep us from bothli!"  Thus were the
common people doomdc to hopeless ignorance, and left helpless and at
the mercy of the smaller but e(lucated class. There was no printing press
in Virginia, and the colony remained without one until nearly a century
after tNew England had enjoyed its benefits. Bitterly did the people of
Virginia atone for their neglect of their best interests. They had shown
at the first the power of creating free institutions; but these institutions
cannot be preserved among an ignorant people. Freedom and intelligence go hand in hand. The institution of negro slavery was another
element of weakness and degradation. Labor was debased in the eyes
of tlhe whites by being made the task of a slave, when it should have
been the glory of a freeman. The institution served to confirm the
power of the landed aristocracy, while it sank the common people deeper
into ignorance.
Thus when Sir William Berkeley entered upon his second term of
office, at the period of the restoration, there were two elements, by nature
hostile to each other, contending for the control of the colony-a people
eager for the enjoyment of popular liberty, but sinking deeper into
ignorance and helplessness, and a rising aristocracy, composed of men of




VIRGINIA AFTER THIE RESTORATION.


wealth and education, and united by a common interest.  Unhappily for
the people, the governor was a natural aristocrat.  In spite of hlis professions of loyalty to the assembly, he regarded the people with contempt,
and could never tolerate the exercise of the least of tlheir rights.
In the midst of the rejoicings in Virginia which hailed the return of
Charles II. to the throne of his fathers, Berkeley took a decisive stand,
and boldly declared that he was governor of Virginia, not by the election
of tlhe assembly, but by virtue of his commission from the king. At the


DESTRUCTION OF THE VIRGINIA SETTLEMENTS BY THE INDIANS.


same time he issued writs for the election of a new assembly in the name
of King Charles. Popular sovereignty was struck dead in Virginia.
The new assembly met in March, 1661. It was composed exclusively of
landholders. Until now the assembly had been elected for but a single
year, and its menbers were chosen by the people. This first aristocratic
assembly, true to its instincts, at a blow deprived the people of the right
of choosing their representatives, by assuming to itself the power to sit
perpetually  Sustained by the governor, the burgesses were enabled to




HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


continue their usurpation for fourteen years, and only yielded to an
insurrection.  The salaries of the members were paid by their respective
counties, and the house, in 1662, passed a law regulating the pay and
allowances of its members. The compensation was fixed at two hundred
and fifty pounds of tobacco per day, or about nine dollars-a rate deemed
enormous in these days jcf abundant wealth, and utterly unsuited to the
period of poverty and struggle we are considering.  In order to perpetuate its power, tle assembly repealed the laws giving the right of suffrage
to every citizen, and confined it to freeholders and housekeepers.
Nor did the assembly neglect to provide for the church. Conformity
was required by severe laws. Every inhabitant of the colony was compelled to attend its services and to contribute a fixed sum to its support.
The assessment of parish taxes was intrusted to twelve vestrymen in
each parish, who had power to fill all vacancies in their number. They
thus became practically a close corporation, responsible to no one for
their acts. Rigorous laws were directed against the Quakers. They
were forbidden to hold their own religious assemblies, and their absence
fiom church was punished by a heavy fine. In September, 1663, the
house expelled one of its members " because he was well affected to the
Quakers."
" The organization of the judiciary placed that department of the
government almost beyond the control of the people. The governor and
council were the highest ordinary tribunal, and these were all appointed,
directly or indirectly, by the crown. Besides this, there were in each
county eight unpaid justices of the peace, commissioned by the governor
during his pleasure.   These justices held  monthly courts in their
respective counties. Th-.s the administration of justice in the counties
was in the hands of persons holding their offices at the good will of the
governor; while the governor himself and his executive council constituted the general court, and had cognizance of all sorts of causes. Was
an appeal made to chancery, it was but for another hearing before the
same men; and it was only for a few years longer that appeals were
permitted from the general court to the assembly  The place of sheriff
in each county was conferred on one of the justices for that county, and
so devolved to every commissioner in course...      But the county
courts, thus independent of the people, possessed and exercised the arbitrary power of levying county taxes, which, in their amount, usually
exceeded the public levy  This system proceeded so far that the commissioners, of themselves, levied taxes to meet their own expenses. In
like manner, the self-perpetuating vestries made out their lists of tithables, and assessed taxes without regard to the consent of the parish.




VIRGINIA AFTER TIE RESTORATION.


125


These private levies were unequal and oppressive, were seldom-it is
said, never-brought to audit, and were, in some cases at least, managed
by men who combined to defraud the public." *
These were the effects upon Virginia of the restoration of Charles II.
-to the throne of England. The guarantee which a frequent renewal of
the assembly secured to the rights of the people was removed by the
perpetuation of that body. The right of suffrage-the sole protection of
the liberties of a free people-was taken from a majority of the inhabitants of the province. Religious liberty, which it was fondly believed
had been established, was struck down at a single blow. A system of
arbitrary taxation by irresponsible magistrates was set up in the place of
the carefully-scrutinized levies of the representatives of the people.
Education was discouraged and the press regarded withl hostility. Ignorance, with all its accompanying evils, was fastened upon the colony  Ten
years sufficed to accomplish these changes; but it took more than a century
for the people of Virginia to recover their lost rights.
Charles II. remembered the loyalty of Virginia only in his adversity.
One of his first acts was to revive in a more odious form the navigation
act, which had originated in the Long Parliament as a measure for compelling the submission of the colonies to the authority of the commonvealth. In 1660, a new and enlarged navigation act was passed by
Parliament. It forbade foreign vessels to trade with the colonies, and
required colonists to ship certain "enumerated articles, such as sugar,
tobacco, cotton, wool, ginger, or dyewoods" produced in the colony to
England alone. This act bore very hard upon Virginia, as it gave to
the English merchants the monopoly of her tobacco trade. The merchants were thus enabled to regulate the price of the commodity, and to
supply the wants of the colonists in return upon their own terms,
Efforts were made to evade this iniquitous law, but it remained fastened
upon the colonies, and was the first of a long series of outrages by which
Great Britain broke the ties which bound the people of America to her,
Charles was not satisfied with crippling the industry of the colony that
had remained faithful to him in his adversity. In order to please his
worthless favorites at home he consented to plunder the Virginians of
their property  In 1649, a patent was granted to a company of cavaliers
for the region lying between the Rappahannock and the Potomac, and
known in Virginia as the Northern Neck. It was intended to make this
region a refuge for their partisans, but the design was never carried out.
Other settlers located themselves there, and in 1669 it contained a
number of thriving plantations. In the latter year Lord Culpepper, one
* History of the United Staites. By George Bancroft, vol. ii., pp. 204-205.




126


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of the most avaricious men in England, obtained from the king a patent
for the Northern Neck, having previously acquired all the shares of the
company to whom the grant of 1649 had been made. This patent was
in direct violation of the rights of the actual settlers, and bore very hard
upon them. But it was as nothing compared with the next gift of the
king. In 1673, lhe bestowed, as a free gift, upon Lord Culpepper and
the Earl of Arlington, "all the dominion of land and water, called Virginia," for a term of thirty-one years.
Even the aristocratic assembly was startled by this summary disposal
of the colony and commissioners were sent to England to remonstrate with
the king. "We are unwilling," the assembly declared, " and conceive
that we ought not to submit to those to whom his majesty, upon misinformation, hath granted the dominion over us, who do most contentedly
pay to his majesty more than we have ourselves for our labor. Whilst
wve labor for the advantage of the crown, and do wish we could be more
advantageous to the king and nation, we humbly request not to be subjected to our fellow-subjects, but, for the future, to be secured from our
fears of being enslaved." The commissioners were granted no satisfaction in England, and the efforts of the colony to obtain justice at the
hands of the king failed.
Virginia at this time was a sparsely settled province. Jamestown was
the only town deserving the name within the limits of the colony. The
inhabitants were scattered over the country, separated from each other.
They dwelt on their farms and plantations, coming together rarely except
an Sundays, on court-days, and at elections. This solitary life taught
them independence and self-reliance. They were proud of their personal
liberty, and so long as this was not taken from them they were willing to
submit to almost any formn of government that might be imposed upon
them. The truth is that until the restoration the Virginians were not
accustomed to being governed much. The measures of the royalist governor and assembly greatly curtailed the freedom which the people had
enjoyed under their former governments, and the imposition of new burdens upon them aroused a general discontent. Men began to come
together to discuss their wrongs, and the hostility to the aristocratic party
and the governor increased rapidly, so rapidly, indeed, that the people
were ripe for insurrection in 1674, and would have risen in revolt had
not some of the cooler heads induced them to try more peaceful measures
of redress. Still the taxes were continued at such a rate that the colonists were driven to desperation. They complained, with justice, that
they were deprived of all the fruits of their labors by the iniquitous
levies madle upon them, and their complaints, instead of producing a




VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORABTIOM.


12')7


change for the better, merely brought an increase of their burdens. At
length their patience was exhausted, and they only lacked an excuse for
taking up arms.  The opportunity soon came. In the meantime the
governor and the assembly, with characteristic contempt for tile commons.,
went on extorting money from the people by unjust taxes principally i'r
their own benefit, and put in successive operation the measures we have
already described for strengthening their own power, and reducing the
people to subjection to them.
The people of Maryland had become involved in a war with tlle Susquehannah Indians and their confederates, and the struggle was so serious
that the savages extended their depredations to the Potomac, and even to
the limits of Virginia. To guard against this danger the border militia
were set to watch the line of the river, and in 1675 a body of them, under
Colonel John Washington, crossed over into Maryland to help the people
of that colony. This John Washington had emigrated from the north
of England about eighteen years before, and had settled in Westmoreland county  He became the great-grandfather of George Washington.
The war was conducted with great fury on both sides. Six of the chiefs
of the Susquehannah tribe at length came into the camp of the Virginians to treat for peace, and were treacherously murdered. This barbarous act aroused the indignation of Governor Berkeley  "If thev had
killed my father and my mother, and all my friends," said he, "yet if
they had come to treat of peace, they ought to have gone in peace." The
massacre was bloodily avenged by the Indians. The Susquehannahs immediately crossed the Potomac and waged a relentless warfare along the
borders of Virginia until they had slain ten whites for each one of their
chiefs, a sacrifice required of them by the customs of their tribe, in
order that the spirits of their braves might rest in peace. The people
appealed to the governor for protection, but Berkeley refused to grant
them aid. It is said that he was too deeply interested in the fur trade to
be willing to offend the Indians by aiding his people. The colonists then
demanded permission to defend themselves, to invade the Indian country,
and drive the savages farther into the interior. This was also refused,
and duri;.g all this time the frontier was suffering fearfully from the
outrages of Berkeley's Indian friends.
At last the patience of the people was exhausted. A leader was at
hand in the person of Nathaniel Bacon. He was a young planter of the
county of Henrico, a native of England, and a lawyer by profession. He
was ardent in temper, eloquent and persuasive in speech, winning in
manner, a true patriot, and possessed of the firmness and decision necessary in a leader of a popular movement. He had been reared in Eng



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


land amid the struggles which ushered in the establishment of the
commonwealth, and had learned tihe lesson of freedom too well to forget
it in a home where every incident of his daily life required the exercise
of the best qualities of his nature. His love of republicanism  had
gained him the dislike of Governor Berkeley, who hated any man that
dared to criticise his tyranny  The same principles which made him
obnoxious to the governor won him the affectionate confidence of the
people of Virginia, who were quick to recognize their true friend. When
volunteers began to offer themselves for the war against the Indians they
petitioned the governor to commission Bacon their commander-in-chief.
This Berkeley refused, declaring that he would not countenance such presumption on the part of the "common people."   In the meantime the
murders continued, and Bacon, who shared the indignafion of the people,
determined that if another man was slain he would march the militia
against the Indians without a commission. Almost immediately several
of his own men were murdered on his own plantation near the falls of
the James. He at once gave the signal. Five hundred men were soon
under arms, and Bacon was made their leader. About the 20th of April,
1676, he set out on his march against the savages, whom he chastised and
drove back into the interior.
The people were in arms, and they were not disposed to lay down their
weapons until their grievances were redressed. The quarrel was not with
the Indians, but with the government. As soon as Bacon had begun his
march into the Indian country, Berkeley denounced him as a traitor, and
his followers as rebels, and ordered them to disperse. He was obeyed by
some who feared the loss of their property, but the populous counties bordering the bay answered him by joining the insurrection. The people of
the colony with one voice demanded the dissolution of the assembly, which
had unlawfully maintained its existence for fourteen years. Opposed
by the entire people the governor was compelled to yield. The assembly
had fairly earned the universal hatred with which it was regarded by its
selfishness and its hostility to popular liberty. It was dissolved, and
writs were issued for a new election. Among the new members elected
was Bacon, who was returned from the county of Henrico.
The new assembly was naturally favorable to the rights of the people,
and it at once proceeded to rectify many of the abuses which had produced the insurrection. Taxes were adjusted more equitably; the right
of suffrage was restored to the people; the monopoly of the Indian trade,
in which it was believed the governor was deeply interested, was suspended; many of the evils connected with the expenditure of the public
funds were corrected; the power of the parish vestries was broken by




VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION.


129


limiting their term of office to three years, and giving the election of
these officials to the freemen of the parish; a general amnesty was proclaimed for all past offences; and Bacon, amid the rejoicings of the
people, was elected commander of the army destined to act against the
Indians.
These measures were utterly distasteful to the haughty old governor.
He refused to give them his sanction, or to sign the commission ordered
for Bacon by the assembly  Fearful of treachery Bacon withdrew from
the capital. The people quickly rallied to his support, and in a few days
lie entered Jamestown at the head of five hundred men. Berkeley, who
was as courageous as he was obstinate, met him, and baring his breast
said, haughtily, "A fair mark; shoot!" Bacon answered him calmly,
" I will not hurt a hair of your head, or of any man's; we are come for
the commission to save our lives from the Indians." The governor was
at length obliged to yield. The commission was issued, the acts of the
assembly were ratified, and Berkeley joined the assembly and council in
sending to England an indorsement of the loyalty, patriotism, and energy
of Bacon. This consent was given on the 24th of June, or, according to
the new style of calculation, at present in use, on the 4th of July, 1676,
just one hundred years before the Declaration of Independence.
Bacon at once marched against the Indians, and in a brilliant and successful campaign broke their power, and gave peace and security to the
frontier. In the midst of these honorable labors he was again assailed
by Berkeley, who had only consented to the reconciliation to gain time.
The governor withdrew from Jamestown to Gloucester, which was the
most populous and the most loyal county of Virginia. He summoned a
conyention of the inhabitants, and renewed his efforts against Bacon.
The people of Gloucester, justly regarding Bacon as the defender of the
colony, opposed the governor's proposals, but he persisted in spite of their
advice, and again proclaimed Bacon a traitor.
This inexcusable pursuit of a man who had rendered nothing but good
service to the colony aroused the indignation of the troops. " It vexes
me to the heart," said Bacon, "that while I am hunting the wolves and
tigers that destroy our lambs I should myself be pursued as a savage.
Shall persons wholly devoted to their king and country-men hazarding
their lives against the public enemy-deserve the appellation of rebels
and traitors? The whole country is witness to our peaceable behavior.
But those in authority, how have they obtained their estates? Have the)y
not devoured the common treasury? What arts, what sciences, what
schools of learning, have they promoted?  I appeal to the king and
Parliament, where the cause of the people will be heard impartially."
9




HISTORY OF 'HE UNITED STA TES.


Bacon appealed to the people of Virginia to unite for the defence of
their liberties against the tyranny of the governor. They responded to
tlis call with enthusiasm, and a convention of tlie most eminent men in
the co'lo!ny a1,-(Ill)ed at Middle Plantations, now Williamsburg, on the
13d of August, 1676. It wvas rsc)lved by the convention to sustain Bacon
with the lwhole power of the colony in the campaign against the Indians.
If the governor persisted in his attempt to hunt him as a traitor, the
members of the convention pledged themselves to defend Bacon with
arns, even against the royal troops, until an appeal could be made to the


RUINED CHURCH TOWER ON THE SITE OF JAMESTOWN.


king in person. The people of Virginia were fully resolved to protect
themselves against the tyranny of Berkeley, and Bacon, strengthened by
their indorsement of his course, finished his campaign against the Indians. Governor Berkeley withdrew across the bay to the eastern shore,
and there collected a force of sailors belonging to some English vessels
and a band of worthless Indians. With this force, "men of a base and
cowardly disposition, allured by the passion for plunder," he prepared to
return to Jamestown.
The people decided to regard the retreat of the governor as an abdi



VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION.


cation on his part of his office. The ten years for which he had been
appointed had expired, and the colonial records aff'orded a precedent for
his removal. Bacon and four others, who had been members of the
council, issued vrits for the election of a representative convention to
which the management of the affairs of the colony was to be committed.
With the exception of a few royalists the whole people of Virginia
indorsed the movement; the women were enthusiastic, and urged their
husbands to risk everything, even life, in defence of their liberties.
Early in September Sir William Berkeley reached Jamestown with the
rabble which he called his army  He took possession of the town without resistance, and was joined by a number of royalists. He offered
freedom to the slaves of the Virginians who were opposed to him on the
condition of their joining his ranks. Bacon and his party were again
proclaimed traitors and rebels.
The people at once flew to arms, and Bacon soon found himself at the
head of the little army that had been so successful against the Indians.
Without delay they marched to Jamestown. The resistance attempted
by Berkeley's cowardly followers was feeble, and the whole force, including their leader, retreated to their ships, and dropped down the river by
night. The next morning the army of the people entered Jamestown.
It was rumored that a party of royalists was marching from the northern
counties to the support of Berkeley, and a council was held to decide
upon the fate of the capital. It was agreed that it should be burned to
prevent it from being used as a stronghold for their enemies. Tile torch
was applied; Drummond and Lawrence, leaders of the popular party, set
fire to their dwellings with their own hands; and in a few hours only a
heap of smouldering ruins marked the site of the first capital of Virginia.
Its destruction left the colony without a single town within its limits.
From the ruins of Jamestown Bacon marched promptly to meet the
royalist force advancing from the Rappahannock region. The latter in a
body joined the army of the people, and even the county of Gloucester,
the stronghold of royalty, gave its adhesion to the patriotic movement.
With the exception of the eastern shore the entire colony was united in
support of the cause of popular liberty  Unhappily, at this critical juncture, Bacon was seized with a fata, fever, of which he (lied on the 1st of
October, 1676. His followers grieved for him with passionate sorrow,
and with good cause. It has been the good fortune of Virginia to give
many great names to the cause of liberty, but in all the immortal roll
there are none who surpassed Nathaniel Bacon in pure and disinterested
patriotism. Others were permitted to accomplish more, but none cherished
loftier aims or desired more earnestly the good of their fellow-citizens.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED ST'ATES.


The death of Bacon left the popular party without a head; and now
began to be seen for the first time in Virginia the evils which the neglect
of education must produce in a community  The Virginians were not
lacking in courage, determination, or devotion to their liberties, and their
cause was one calculated to succeed without leaders. In an educated
community there would have been no lack of union or perseverance
because of the death of one man, and the people would have found thq,
means to continue their struggle until successful. In the uneducated
Virginian community of 1676 the presence of a bold, capable, and resolute leader was a necessity, and his suddllen removal left the popular party
helpless. The grand struggle degenerated in:o a series of petty insurrections; the royalists took heart, and Robert Beverley, their most
competent leader, was able to destroy in detail the resistance of the
patriots and to restore the supremacy of Berkeley
The governor now proceeded to take a summary vengeance upon the
patriots, and more than twenty of the best men of the colony gave their
lives on the scaffold for the liberties of their country. The first of these
martyrs for freedom-the first American to die for the right of the
people to govern themselves-was Thomas Hansford, a Virginian born,
and a noble specimen of the chivalrous sons of the Old Dominion. The
wife of Edmund Cheesman, upon the capture of her husband, flung herself at the governor's feet, and declaring that her exhortations had
induced her husband to join Bacon, begged to be allowed to die in his
place. The brutal Berkeley repelled the heroic woman with a gross
insult. When Drummond was taken and brought before him the governor received him with mock courtesy  " I am more glad to see you,"
lie said, "than any man in Virginia; you shall be hanged in half an
holur"  The royalist assembly, horrified at the cruelty of the governor,
appealed to him to "spill no more blood."  The property of the victims
was confiscated, and their helpless families were turned out upon the
charities of the people for whom the martyrs had died. Not content
with these cruelties Berkeley attempted to silence the people, and prevent
them from either censuring him or vindicating the memory of their dead
heroes. Whoever should speak ill of Berkeley or his friends was to be
whipped.
At last the end came, and Berkeley returned to England. His departure was celebrated with rejoicings throughout the colony; bells were
rung, guns were fired, and bonfires blazed. Berkeley hoped to be able to
justify his conduct in England, but upon his arrival in that country he
found his course sternly condemned by the voice of public opinion.
Even Charles II. censured him with all the energy that soulless monarch




VIRGINIA AFTER THE RESTORATION.


13.3


was master of. "The old fool," said the king, "has taken away more
lives in that naked land than I for the murder of my father,"  His disappointment and mortification were too mluch for the proud man, and he
died soon after his arrival in England.
The failure of Bacon's rebellion brought many serious misfortunes to
Virginia. The insurrection wa3s made the excuse by the king for refusing
a liberal charter, and the colony was made dependent for its rights and
privileges entirely upon the royal will. The assembly was composed
almost exclusively of royalists, and at once proceeded to undo the work
of the popular party. All the laws of Bacon's assembly were repealed;
the right of suffrage was restricted to freeholders, and the iniquitous
taxes were reimposed. All the abuses that had led to the rebellion were
revived.
In 1677 Lord Culpepper, one of the favorites to whom Charles II.
had granted Virginia, was appointed governor of the colony for life.
The new governor regarded his office as a sinecure, and while receiving
its emoluments desired to remain in England to enjoy them. In 1680,
however, the king compelled him to repair to his government in person.
He brought with him authority from the sovereign to settle all past
grievances, but he used this power for his own profit. lie extorted
money from all parties, and when he had acquired a considerable suni
returned to England, having spent less than a year in Virginia. He left
the colony in the greatest distress. The Virginians, robbed of the profits
of their labors for the enrichment of their rulers, were reduced to despair
Riots took place in various places, and the whole colony was on the verge
of insurrection.
Rumors of these disturbances having reached England the king
ordered Culpepper to return and reduce the colony to obedience. He did
so, and caused several influential men to be hanged as traitors, and used
the power intrusted to him to wrest from the council the last remnant of
its authority to control his outrages upon the people. This accomplished
he proceeded to force the settlers of the Northern Neck to surrender their
plantations to him, or pay him the sums lie demanded for the privilege of
retaining them. He found his residence among a people he had come to
plunder very disagreeable, and in the course of a few months returned to
England amid the bitter curses of the Virginians. The council reported
the distress of the province to the king, and appealed to him to recall the
grant to Culpepper and Arlington. Arlington surrendered his rights to
Culpepper, whose patent was rendered void by a process of law, and in
July, 1684, Virginia became once more a royal province. Lord Howard,
of Effingham, was appointed to succeed Culpepper, but he was a poorer




134


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES. '


and more grasping man than his predecessor, and the change afforded no
relief to Virginia.
In 1685 James II. came to the throne of England, and in the same
year occurred the insurrection in England known as Monmouth's rebellion. A number of prisoners were taken in this struggle by the royal
forces, and many of these were sent out to the colonies of Virginia and
Maryland to be sold as servants for a ternl of ten years. Many of them
were men of education and family   Thle general assembly of Virginia
refused to sanction this infamous measure, and, in spite of the prohibition
of King James, passed a law declaring all such persons free. Indeed at
this time the practice of selling wlhte servants in America had become
so profitable that quite a thriving business was carried on between the
west of England and Virginia and Maryland. Not only persons condemned for crime, but innocent people were kidnapped and sold in the
colonies for a term of years for money  "At Bristol," says Bancroft,
" the mayor and justices would intimidate small rogues and pilferers, who,
tnder the terror of being hanged, prayed for transportation as the only
avenue to safety, and were then divided among the members of the court.
The trade was exceedingly profitable-far more so than the slave-tradeand had been conducted for years."
One of the last acts of Charles II. with reference to Virginia was to
forbidt the setting up of a printing press within the limits of the colony
James II. continued this prohibition. Effingham  endeavored to take
{i-,lm the colony the few privileges left to it. The result was that the
party of freedom increased rapidly. Many of the aristocratic party seeing that the king and the governor menaced every right and privilege
they possessed went over to the popular side. The assembly began to
assert the popular demand for self-government, and became so unmanageable that in November, 1686, it was dissolved by royal proclamation.
A new assembly was convened, which met in April, 1688, a few months
before the British revolution. The governor and council found this body
more indisposed to submit to the aggressions of the crown than its predecessor had been.  The people sustained their delegates, and a new
insurrection was threatened. Effinghamn was in the midst of a hostile
population, without troops to enforce his will, and was obliged to conduct
himself with moderation. The roval authority was never stronger in
Virginia than during this reign, but it was found impossible to establish
it upon the ruins of the liberties of the colony  The result of all the
long years of oppression we have been considering was simply to confirm
the Virginians in their attachment to their liberties, and in their deterrmination to maintain them at any cost. Virginia remained to the end an
aristocratic colony, but it was none the less " a land of liberty."




VIRGINIA AFTER THi, RESTORATION.


135


The revolution of 1688 in England did not change affairs in 'Virginia
materially as regarded tlhe forms of tlhe colonial government. The liberties of the colony were established by law too securely to be any longer
at the mercy of an individual, but the power of the governor was still
very great.  Every department of tie colonial administration, the
finances. and even the inanagemlent of the cllurcl, was made sulject to
his control. He ha(l the power to dissolve thle assembly at pleasure, and
was sure to exercise it if that body manifested too great a slirit of independence. He also appointed the clerk of the assembly, wllo.was for
this reason a check upon its freedom of debate.  The only means of
resistance to the measuxes of the government which the assc.nbly retained
was to refuse to vote supplies in excess of the permanent revenue. Tl..s
right was sometimes exercised, and the governor was prevented fiolo
carrying out unpopular measures by the lack of the necessary funds.
Soon after the accessicon of William and Marv to thel throne an effort
was made to establish a college in Virginia, althoul, gh the printing press
was still forbidden. Donations were made l,) a nur.mer of l1pers,1ns in
England, and thle king bestowed several liberal grants upon the proposdlA
institution. The measure was carried through to success lv the cn(er.v
of the Rev James Blair, who was sent out byv the 1Biillop of London as
commissary, "to supply the office and jurisdiction of' the bishop) in the
outplaces of the dio,.cse."  The college \was established in 1391,:::.  was
named William and Mary, in honor of the king and queen.   Si Blair
was its first president, and held that office for fifty years.
The ministry did not approve the a.tion of the king in granting even
the very mo(lerate endow\ments whlich he bestowed upon tile college.
They regarded Virginia merely as a llace in which to raise tolacco for
the Englislh market, and cared nothing for the interests of tle people.
They treated the colony with injustice and neglect in everything. The
planters could sell their tobacco only to an English purchaser, who regulated the price to suit hinself, and supplied the planters in return with
the wares they needed at his own prices.




CHAPTER IX.


THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND.
Extent of the Territory of Virginia-Clayborne's Trading Posts established-Sir George
Calvert, Lord Baltimore-Becomes interested in American Colonization-Obtains a
(irant of Maryland-Terms of the Charter-A Colony sent.out-Arrival in the Chesapeake-St. Mary's Founded-Character of the Colony-Friendly Relations established
with the Indians-First Legislature of Maryland-Trouble with Clayborne-Rapid
Growth of the Colonv-Progress of Popular Liberty-Policy respecting the Treatment
of the Indians-( 'layborne's Rebellion-Law granting Religious Toleration enactedCondition of Maryland under the Commonwealth-The People declared SupremeLord Baltimore recovers his Proprietary Rights-Characteristics of the Colony-Rapid
Increase in Population-Charles Calvert, Governor-Death of the second Lord Baltimore-Roman Catholics disfranchised-Maryland becomes a Royal Province-Triumph
of the Protestants-Annapolis made the Seat of Government-Restoration of the Proprietary Govternmlent-Continued Prosperity of Maryland.
LHE  second charter of Virginia granted to that province the
(1     )country north of the Potomac as far as the headwaters of the
(      ( Chliesapeake bay  This grant included the territory of the present State of Maryland.    The discoveries of Captain John Smith
had brought the region along the head of the bay into notice, and
other explorers had confirmed his statements as to its value. A very profitable trade was established with the Indians of this section, and, in order
to develop its advantages, William Clayborne, a man of great resolution
and of no nean abilities, a surveyor by profession, was employed by the
Governor of Virginia to explore the region of the upper Chesapeake.
His report was so favorable that a company was formed in England for
the purpose of trading with the Indians. Under authority from this
company, Clayborne obtained a license from the colonial government of
Virginia, and established two trading stations on the bay; one on Kent
island, opposite the present city of Annapolis, and one at the mouth of
the Susquehanna. These posts were established in the spring of 1631.
In the meantime efforts were being made in England to secure the
settlement of the same region. Sir George Calvert, a man of noble character, liberal education and great political experience, had become at an
early day deeply interested in the question of colonizing America.
Having embraced the Roman Catholic faith, he relinquished his office of
136




THE COLONIZATION OF MAR YLAND.


137


Secretary of State, and made a public acknowledgment of his conversion.
His noble character commanded the confidence of King James, and he
was retained as a member of the Privy Council, and was made Lord
Baltimore in the Irish peerage. He was anxious to found a colony in
America, which -might serve as a place of refuge for persons of the
Catholic faith, and obtained a patent for the southern part of Newfoundland. That region was too bleak and rugged to admit of the success
of the enterprise, and the attempt to settle it was soon abandoned.
Lord Baltimore next contemplated a settlement in some portion of
Virginia, and in October, 1629, visited that colony with a view to
making arrangements for his plantation. The laws of Virginia against
Roman Catholics were very severe, and immediately upon the arrival of
so distinguished a Catholic the assembly ordered the oaths of allegiance
and supremacy to be tendered him. Lord Baltimore proposed a form
which he was willing to subscribe, but the colonial government insisted upon
that which had been ordered by the English Parliament, and which was
of such a character that no Catholic could accept it. There was          /    Gr   \
nothing left for Calvert but to    -
withdraw from Virginia, and his   -
reception there convinced him that
that province was not tile p)!l(e
for the plantation he wished to    /-       4-AH      -      -
establish.                            COAT OF ARMS OF MARYLAND.
establish.
The region north of the Potomac was still uninhabited, and seemed to
promise advantages equal to Virginia. Calvert applied to Charles I. for
a patent for this region, and was given a territory corresponding very
nearly to the present State of Maryland in extent. The king granted
him a liberal charter, which, while it provided for his interests as proprietor, secured the liberties of the colonists. In this it was simply the
expression of the wishes of Lord Baltimore, who desired to establish a
settlenent of freemen. The country embraced in the grant was given to
Lord Baltimore, his heirs and assigns, in absolute possession. They
were required to pay an annual tributerto the crown of two Indian
arrows and one-fifth of all the gold and silver which might be found.
The colonists were to have a voice in making their own laws, and they
were to be entitled to all the rights and privileges of Englishmen. No
taxes were to be imposed upon them without their consent, nor was the
authority of the proprietor to extend to their lives or property. It was
enjoined that the exercise of the faith and worship of the established
Church of England should be protected in the colony, but no uniform




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


standard of faith or worship was imposed by tlhe charter. The new
province was carefully separated from Virginia and made independent
of it. The colony was left free from the supervision of the crown, and
the proprietor was not obliged to obtain the royal assent to the appointments or legislation of his province. The king also renounced for
himself, his heirs aid his successors, the right to tax the colony, thus
leaving it entirely free from English taxation.
These were vast powers to intrust to one man; but they were placed
in safe hands. The first Lord Baltimore was a man who hated tyranny
of all kinds, and who had carefully observed the effects of intolerance
and arbitrary rule upon the efforts that hlad already been made to establish successful coloniies in America.  lie designed his colony as an
asylum in which men of all creeds could meet upon a common basis of a
faith in Jesus Christ, and his conviction that religious freedom is necessarv to the succe(ss of a state confirmed in him his attachment to the
i principles of civil liberty.  He invited both
Protestants and Catholics to join him in his
enterprise, and adopted a form of government,
P'X\':J K           based upon popular representation, well calcu7S   \' <            lated to secure them in the possession of all
I,!    /, I          thleir privileges.  In honor of the queen of
/                    ^I~~,~  Charles I., he named the region granted to him
A!4 Marrvland. Before the patent was issued, Lord
Baltimore died, on the 15th of April, 1632,
)    ~,^ /:?       l(,avincg hl:s son, Cecil, heir to his designs as
LORD BALTIMORE.    well as to his title. The charter granted to his
father was issued to him, and he proceeded at once to collect a colony for
the settlement of Maryland.
Lord Baltimore delegated the task of conducting the emigrants to
Maryland to his brother, Leonard Calvert. On Friday, November 22d,
1632, a company of 200, chiefly Roman Catholics of good birth, with
their families and servants, sailed from England in the "Ark" and the
"Dove," the former a ship of large burthen, the latter a small pinnace.
The voyage was made by way of the West Indies, and the Chesapeake
was not reached until the 24th of February, 1634. The ships anchored
off Old Point Comfort, and were visited by Sir John Harvey, Governor
of Virginia, who had been commanded by the king to welcome the new
colony with kindness.
Resting in Hampton roads for a few days, the emigrants ascended the
bay and entered the stately Potomac. Deeming it unsafe to plant his
first settlement high up the river, Calvert chose a site on a small




THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND.


139


tributary of the Potomac, not far from its mouth. This stream, now
known as the St. Mary's, he named the St; George's. An Indian
village, called Yoacomoco, was selected as the site of the colony  Tlhe
place was being deserted by the natives, who had suffered severely firom
the superior power of the Susquehannahs, and were removing farther into
the interior for greater security  They readily sold their town and the
surrounding lands to the English, and made with them a treaty of peace
and friendship; and on the 27th of March, 1634, the colonists -landed
and laid the foundations of the town of St. Mary's.
A few days later, Sir John Harvey arrived from Virginia on a friendly
visit. His orders from the king were to treat the settlers with friendMISSIONARY PREACHING TO THE INDIANS.
ship, and to aid them as far as lay in his power  About the same tinme
the native chiefs came in to visit the colony, and were so well received
that they established friendly relations with the settlers. The Indian
women taught their English sisters how to make bread from the meal of
the Indian corn, and the warriors instructed the Englishmen in their
simple arts of the chase. The colonists obtained  )rovisions and cattle
for a while from Virginia; but, as they went to work at once and with
energy to cultivate their land, the first year's harvest gave them an
abundance of supplies. The proprietor sent out from  England such
things as were necessary to the success and comfort of the colony, treating
the new settlement with a wise liberality. Thus were the foundations




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA:'TES.


of Maryland laid amid peace and prosperity. The colony was successful
from the first. Roman Catholic settlers followed the first emigrants in
considerable numbers, and even Protestants sought the shores of Maryland, which the liberality of Lord Baltimore had made a refuge to them
from the persecutions of' their own brethren. New settlements were
formed, and within six months the colony "had advanced more than
Virginia had (one in as many years."
In February, 1635, the first legislative assembly of Maryland met.
Legislation had become necessary by this time. Clayborne, who had
established trading posts in tile upper Chesapeake, had met the first
settlers under Leonard Calvert at their anchorage at Old Point Comfort,
and had endeavored to dissuade them from settling along the bay by
exaggerating the dangers to be apprehended from the hostility of the
Indians. Failing in this effort, he became the evil genius of Maryland,
as the grant to Lord Baltimore made void his license to trade with the
Indians along the bay  He refused to acknowledge the authority of tlhe
proprietor of Maryland, and attempted to retain his trading posts by
force of arms. Within a year or two after the settlement of the colony,
a bloody skirmish occurred in one of the rivers of the eastern shore, in
which Clavborne's men were defeated. In 1638, Leonard Calvert took
forcible possession of Kent island, and hanged one or two of Clayborne's
people on a charge of piracy and murder. Clayborne was in England at
the time prosecuting his claims before the king. Governor Harvey of
Virginia had given the weight of his influence in this contest to the
cause of Lord Baltimore, but the people of Virginia, who resented the
grant of Maryland as an invasion of their rights, sympathized with
Clayborne, and caused Harvey to be impeached and sent to England for
trial. The English courts decided that Clayborne's license was not valid
against the charter granted to Lord Baltimore, and Harvey was sent back
to Virginia as governor, in April, 1639.
In the meantime the colony continued to grow and prosper. The
assembly, while acknowledging the allegiance of the people of Maryland
to the king, and making ample provision for the rights of Lord Baltimore as proprietor, took care to secure the liberties of the people, and
claimed for itself the exercise in the province of all the powers belonging
to the British House of Commons. Representative government was
definitely established, and the colonists were secured in all the liberties
granted to the people of England by the common law of that countryTobacco became, as in Virginia, the staple of the colony  In 1642, in
gratitude for the great expense which Lord Baltimore had voluntarily
incurred for them. the people of Maryland granted him " such a subsidy




TIlE COLONIZATION OF MAR YLAND.
*


1-11


as the young and poor estate of the colony could bear."  As far as the
people themselves were concerned, the condition of Maryland was one of'
marked happiness and contentment. Harmony prevailed between all
classes of the people and the government; the settlers were blessed with
complete toleration in religion; emigration was rapidly increasing, and
the commerce of the colony was growing in extent and value.
Maryland had its troubles, however. The Indians, alarmed by its
rapid growth, began in 1642 a series of aggressions which led to a
frontier war. This struggle continued for some time, but was productive
of no decisive results, and
in 1644 peace was restored.
The Indians promised sub ao../.
mission, and the whites, on    =              T   D_:\
their part, agreed to treat s  a      A   i
them  with friendship and                                of:ary
justice. Laws were enacted             adde __ to
compelling the settlers to re-                           ci     -
frain from  injustice toward  ~-' - -l
the savages, and humanity-to  _   _     _         /            -
the red man was made the -:     e....
policy of the colony.  The
kidnapping of an Indian was
punishable with death, and                         e
the sale of arms to the sayages was constituted a felony             i
Efforts were also made to
convert the natives to Christianity. Four missions were
established among them  by     _-_-__......=
the priests of the Catholic
Church, and the effects of            A CONYEITED INDIAN.
their-devoted labors were soon manifest. A chief, named Tavae, and his
wife were baptized, he taking the name of Charles and she that of Mary
About 130 other converts were afterwvards added to the Christian fold
among the Indians, and many of these sent their children to receive instruction at the hands of the priests. Though the effort to Christianize
the savages failed, as it has ever done, the good effects of these endeavors
were not lost, as the friendship for the whites aroused by them continued
to influence these tribes in their l)olicy toward the colony
Clayborne, who had certainly cause for thinking himself wronged in
being deprived of his property without just compensation, returned to




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.
*


Maryland to revenge himself upon the colonists. The civil war in
England furnished him with an admirable opportunity for his attempt.
lie was able to secure a ntumber of followers in Maryland, and in 1644
began an insurrection. The next year the governor was driven out of
the colony and obliged to take refuge in Virginia, and Clayborne was
triumphant.  For more than a year the rebels held possession of the
government, and this whole time was a period of disorder and misrule,
during which the greater part of the colonial records were lost or stolen.
At the end of this time, the better classes of the people of Maryland
drove out the rebels, and recalled the proprietary government.  A
general amnesty was proclaimed to all offenders, and peace was restored
to the colony
The year 1649 was marked in England by the execution of Charles I.,
and the complete establishment of the authority of the Parliament. It
seemed to the people of Maryland that this triumph of the popular party
was to usher in a new war upon the Roman Catholic faith, which was professed by a large majority of the colonists. Dreading a war of religion as
the greatest of evils, they determined to secure the colony from it, by placing the freedom of conscience within their limits upon as secure a basis
as possible. On the 21st of April, 1649, the assembly of Maryland
adopted the following act: "And whereas the enforcing of conscience in
matters of religion hath frequently fallen out to be of dangerous consequence in those commonwealths where it has been practised, and for the
more quiet and peaceable government of this province, and the better to
preserve mutual love and amity among the inhabitants, no person within
this province, professing to believe in Jesus Christ, shall be anyways
troubled, molested, or discountenanced for his or her religion, or in the
free exercise thereof, or be compelled to the belief or practice of any!
other religion against their consent."
This statute, noble as it was, applied only to Christians. It was provided that " Whatsoever person shall blaspheme God, or shall deny or
reproach the Holy Trinity, or any of the three persons thereof, shall be
punished with death."?Maryland had taken a great stride in advance in
making her soil a sanctuary for Christians of all beliefs, but she had not
yet accorded to her people a-toleration equal to that of Rhode Island,
which colony, in 1647, granted liberty to all opinions, infidel as well as
Christian.
During the existence of the commonwealth, the colony was troubled
with an unsettled government. It submitted to the authority of Cromwell, and the Puritans, regardless of the example of their brethren of the
Catholic faith, attempted by an act of assembly, in 1654, to disfranchise




THE COLONIZATION OF MARYLAND.


the whole Roman Catholic population on tie ground of their religious
belief. Cromwell disapproved this action, and bluntly ordered his (commissioners " not to busy themselves about religion, but to settle the civil
government."  In 1660, without waiting to hear the issue of matters in
England, the assembly repudiated the authlority of both the conlilonwealth and the proprietor, and asserted the sovereignty of the people as
the supreme authority in Maryland.
Upon the restoration of Charles II., Lord Baltimore niade his peace
with the king for having yielded to the power of Cromwell, and received
back all the rights he had enjoyed in Maryland.  Ile at once proceeded
to re-establish his authority in the province, but bein' a man of humanity
and of liberal views, he made a generous use of his power. A general
pardon was granted to all offenders against him, his rule was once more
submitted to, and for thirty years the colony was at peace.
"Like Virginia, Maryland was a colony of planters; its staple was
tobacco, and its prosperity was equally checked by the pressure of the
navigation acts. Like Virginia, it possessed no considerable village; its
inhabitants were scattered among the woods and along the rivers; each
plantation was a little world within itself, and legislation vainly attempted
the creation of towns by statute. Like Virginia, its laborers were in
part indentured servants, whose term of service was limited by persevering legislation; in part negro slaves, who were employed in the colony
from an early period, and whose importation was favored both by English
cupidity and provincial statutes. As in Virginia, the appointing power
to nearly every office in the counties as well as in the province was not
with the people; and the judiciary was placed beyond their control. As
in Virginia, the party of' the proprietary, which possessed the government, was animated by a jealous regard for prerogative, and by the
royalist principles, which derive the sanction of authority from the will
of heaven. As in Virginia, the taxes levied by the county officers were
not conceded by the direct vote of the people, and were, therefore, burdensome alike from their excessive amount and the manner of their levy
But though the administration of Maryland did not favor the increasing
spirit of popular liberty, it was marked by conciliation and humanity
To foster industry, to promote union, to cherish religious peace,.
these were the honest purposes of Lord Baltimore during his long supremacy."*
Yet the colony continued to prosper   Emigrants came to it from
almost every country of western Europe, and even from Sweden and Fin* History of the United States. By George Bancroft, vol. ii., p. 235.




144


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


land. The only persons who had cause for complaint in Maryland were
the Quakers, who were treated with considerable harshness for their
refusal to perform military duty; but no effort was made to interfere with
the exercise of their religion.
In 1662, Charles Calvert, the son and heir of Lord Baltimore, came
to reside in the colony  Money was coined at a colonial mint, a tonnage
duty was imposed upon all vessels trading with the colony, and a state
house was built in 1674, at a cost of forty thousand pounds of tobacco,
or about five thousand dollars. By numerous acts of compromise between
Lord Baltimore and the assembly the question of taxation was adjusted
upon a satisfactory basis. The people assumed the expense of the provincial government, and agreed to the imposition of an export duty of
two shillings per hogshead upon all the tobacco sent out of the colony
One-half of this duty was appropriated to the support of the government,
and the remainder was assigned unconditionally to the uses of Lord
Baltimore, as i "an act of gratitude " for his care of the colony
On the 30th of November, 1675, Cecil Calvert, second Lord Baltimore, died. He had been for fourteen years the earnest and devoted
friend, as well as the generous lord of the province, and had lived long
enough to enjoy the gratitude with which the colony sought to repay his
judicious care. His memory is perpetuated by the chief city of Maryland, which bears his name, and which is already the largest city on the
Atlantic coast, south of the Susquehanna, and the fifth in population in
the United States. Charles Calvert, who had been for fourteen years
governor of Maryland, succeeded to his father's titles and possessions,
and in 1676 returned to England. Previous to his departure from
Maryland he gave his sanction to the colonial code of laws, which had
been thoroughly revised. One of these laws prohibited the "importation
of convicted persons" into the colony without regard to the will of the
king or Parliament of England.
Notwithstanding the mild and equitable government of the third Lord
Baltimore, the spirit of popular liberty was becoming too strong in the
colony for the rule of the proprietor to be cheerfully acquiesced in much
longer. The rebellion of Bacon in Virginia affected the Maryland colony
profoundly, and when Lord Baltimore returned to the province in 1681,
lie found a large part of the people hostile to him. An attempt at insurrection was suppressed, but the seeds of trouble were too deeply sown not
to spring up again.
The increase of the population had left the Roman Catholics in a small
minority, so that Maryland was now to all intents and purposes a
Protestant colony  During the latter part of the reign of Charles II.




THE CGLONIZATION OF MARYLAND.


145


the Protestants, regardless of the wise policy of toleration which had
hitherto marked the history of the province, endeavored to secure the
establishment by law of the Church of England in Maryland. Lord
Baltimore steadfastly resisted this unwise course, and maintained the
freedom of conscience as tlhe right of the people. He thus added to the
existing opposition to his proprietary rule the hostility of tlie Protestant
bigots. A little later, the English ministry struck the first blow at his
proprietary rights and at the religious freedom of Marylan(l by ordering
that all the offices of the colonial government should 1)c bestowled upl)o
Protestants alone. " Roman Catholics were disfranchised in the province
which they had planted."
Lord Baltimore hoped that the succession of James II., a Catholic
sovereign, would restore him the rights of which he had been deprived in
his province; but he was soon undeceived, for tlhe king, wlJ,) intended to
bring all the American colonies directly under tlhe control of the crown,.
would make no exception in favor of Maryland, and measures were put
in force for the abolition of tlhe proprietary government. The revolution
which placed William and Mary on the throne prevented the execution.
of these plans.
The troubles of Lord Baltimore were increased by the failure of the
deputy-governor, whom he had left in Maryland, to acknowledge William
and Mary promptly   In August, 1689, occurred an insurrection led by
"The association in arms for the defence of the Protestant religion." The
deputy-governor was driven from office, the proprietary government was
overturned, and William and Mary were proclaimed sovereigns of Alaryland. The party in power appealed to the king to annul the proprietary
charter, and governed the colony by means of a convention until the
royal pleasure should be known. Lord Baltimore endeavored to defend
his rights, but in spite of his struggles, William III., in June, 1691,
annulled the charter of Maryland, and by the exercise of his own power
constituted that colony a royal province. In 1692, the king appointed
Sir Lionel Copley governor of Maryland. Upon his arrival in the
colony lihe dissolved the convention and assumed the government. He at
once summoned an assembly, which, recognizing William and Mary as
the lawful sovereigns of Maryland, established the Church of England
is the religion of the colony, and imposed taxes for its support. The
capital was removed from St. Mary's to Annapolis, both because the old
seat of government had b)ecome inconvenient and because it was desired
to remove the government to the centre of Ptotestant influence. The
disfranchisement of the Catholics advanced step by step. At first the
dissenters from the established church were granted toleration and pro10




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATE&


tection, but in 1704 the triumph of bigotry was complete. All the
dissenting bodies were tolerated, but Roman Catholics were forbidden the
exercise of their faith. Mass was not allowed to be said in public, nor was
any bishop or clergyman of the Roman Catholic Church to be pernlitted to
scek to make converts for his faith. Other severe measures were enacted,
and in the land which Catlolics had settled, the members of that comlnunion alone were denied the rights which in the day of their power
they had offered to others. Nor did the royalist assembly manifest any
care for the true interests of the province. Education was neglected;
the establishment of printing was prohibited; and the domestic manufactures which the necessities of the colony had brought into existence
were discouraged. In 1710 the population numbered over 30,000, free
and slave.
In 1715 Benedict Charles Calvert, the fourth Lord Baltimore, succeeded in lotaining the restoration of his rights in Maryland, and the
province passcl into his hands. The people had been so disgusted with
the rule of the royal governors that no opposition was mad3 to this
change. The new Lord Baltimore, unlike the rest of his family, was a
Protestant, which was the cause of his restoration to his hereditary rights.
After his restoration the colony increased with still greater rapidity
The establishment of a post route, in 1695, between the Potomac and
Philadelphia, had brought it into communication with the Northern.colonies. In 1729 the town of Baltimore was founded. Frederick City
was settled in 17 45, and in 1751 was followed by Georgetown, now in
the District of Columbia. In 1756 the population of the colony had
increased to 154,188 souls, of whom over 40,000 were negroes. The
increase in material prosperity was equally marked. By the last-mentioned year tlh annual export of tobacco was 30,000 hogsheads, and, in
spite of the efforts of thle home government to prevent it, there were
eight furnaces and nine forges for smelting copper in operation in.the province.




CHAPTER X.


THE PILGRIM FATHERS.
Rise of the Puritans-Their Increase in England-They are Persecuted by the English
Church and Government-Conduct of James I.-His Hatred of Puritanism-Puritans
take Refuge in Holland-The Congregation of John Robinson-They Escape to Holland
-The Pilgrims-Their Sojourn at Leyden-They wish to Emigrate to VirginiaFailure of their Negotiations with the London Company-They form a Partnerlhip in
England-A Hard Bargain-Departure of the Pilgrims from Holland-\Voyage of the
"Mavflower"-Arrival in New England-The Agreement on board the " Mayflower"
-Carver chosen Governor-Settlement of Plymouth-The first Winter in New England
-Sufferings of the Pilgrims-Arrival of new Emigrants-Continued Suffering-Assignment of Lands-Friendly Intercourse with Indians-Sarmoset and Squanto-Visit of
MIassasoit-A Threat of War-Bradford's Defiance-Weston's Men-A Narrow Escape
-The Colonists Purchase the Interests of their English Partners-Lands Assigne(l in
Fee Simple-The Colony Benefited by the Change-Government of Plymouth-Steady
Growth of the Colony(-; HE persecutions with which Queen Mary afflicted the reformers
e     i of England in her bloody effort to restore the Roman Catholic
~JX;  faith in that country caused many of the most eminent men of
'CLv   the English Church to seek safety on the continent of Europe.
Upon the accession of Elizabeth the Church of England became
once more the religion of the state, and the reformers were free to return
to their own country   They came back with broa(ler and more liberal
views than they had carried away with them, and there sprang up in the
English Church a party which demanded a purer and more spiritual
form of worship than that of the church.   These persons were called in
derision Puritans.  They adopted the name without hesitation, and so,,,n
made it an honorable distinction.  The queen, however, was determined
to compel her subjects to conform    to the established church, and was
especially resolved to make them   acknowledge her supremacy over tlhe
church.   To the Puritan the worship of the Church of England was
only less sinful than that of Rome, and to acknowledge the queen as the
head of the church was to commit blasphemy. IHe claimed that the
queen had no control over him in matters of religion, and that it was
his right to worship God in his own way, without interference.       The
Puritans gradually came to embrace in their number some of the best
147




HISTOR Y OF' THE UNITED STATES.


men in the English Church. These sincerely deprecated a separation
from the church, and earnestly desired to carry the reformation to the
extent of remedying the abuses of which they complained, and to remain
in communion with the church. One of the reforms which they wished
to inaugurate was the abolition of Episcopacy. Failing in their efforts,
they desired to be let alone to form their own organizations and to
worship God according to their own ideas, without the pale of the Church
of England.
The queen and the bishops were not content to allow them this
freedom. England had not yet learned the lesson of toleration, and
severe measures were inaugurated to compel the dissenters to conform to
the established church. All persons in the kingdom were required to
coiIorIn to the ceremonies of the church. A refusal to do so was punished with banishment. Should any person so banished return to the
kingdom without permission he was to be put to death. Accused persons
were obliged to answer upon oath all questions concerning themselves and
their acquaintance, respecting their attendance upon public worship.
Ministers refusing to conform to the established usage were deprived of
their parishes; and if they persisted in preaching to their congregations,
or if the congregations were detected in li.tening to their deposed pastors,
the offenders vwere fined or subjected to some severer punishment.
Absence from the scrvices of the church for a certain length of time was
also punished. The persecution thus inaugurated drove many of the
nonconformists, as they were termed, into exile from England. They
fled to Holland and Switzerland, where alone they found "freedom to
worship God."  In spite of the severe measures and determined efforts
of Elizabeth, the Puritans increased steadily in numbers and importance
in England.
They were hopeful that James I. would prove a more lenient sovereign
to them than Elizabeth had been, and they had good ground for this
hope. The real character of James was unknown in England, and while
King of Scotland he had slhown great favor to the Presbyterians of that
kingdom, whom it was his interest to conciliate. He had once publicly
thanked God "that he was king of such a kirk-the purest kirk in all
the world. As for the Kirk of England," he added, " its service is an
evil-said mass."  This most contemptible of monarch   had scarcely
become King of England when he uttered the famous maxim, "No
bishop, no king!" which pithily states the policy of his reign. Interest
had made him the foe of episcopacy in Scotland; the same motive made
him its champion in England. Upon his entrance into his new kingdom,
the Puritans met him with an humble petition for a redre-w of their




THE PILGRIM FA THERS.


149


grievances. James quickly saw that the majority of the English people
favored a support of the church as it was, and had no sympathy witl the
Puritans, and he at once constituted himself the enemy of the petitioners.
Still, in order to cover his desertion of the party to whlich he hlad
belonged in Scotland, he appointed a conference at Hampton Court.
The conference was held in January, 1604, and the king, silencing all
real debate, made the meeting merely the occasion of displaying what lhe
regarded as his talents for theological controversy, and f'or announcing
the decision-he had resolved upon from the first. Ie demanded entire
obedience to the church in matters of faith and worship. "I will have
none of that liberty as to cerenonies," he declared. " I will have one
doctrine, one discipline, one religion in substance and in ceremony
Never speak more to that point, how far you are blound to obey "  Tlhe
Puritans then demanded permission to iold occasional ceremonies of their
own, with the right of free discussions in them; but James, who could
never tolerate the expression of any opinion adverse to his own, replied:
"You are aiming at a Scot's presbytery, which agrees with monarchy as
well as God and the devil. Then Jack and Tom and Will and Dick
shall meet, and at their pleasure censure me and my council and all our
proceedings. Then Will shall stand up and say, It must be thus. Then
Dick shall reply and say, Nay, marry, but we will have it thus. And
therefore here I must once more reiterate my former speech, and say, The
king forbids."  Then turning to the bishops, he added: " I will make
them conform, or I will harry them out of the land, or else worse; only
hang them; that's all."  The king kept his word.  The severe laws
against the nonconformists were enforced that year with such energy that
three hundred Puritan ministers are said to have been silenced, imprisoned, or exiled. The church party proceeded in the next few years to
still more rigorous measures, and were willing even to place the liberties
of the nation at the mercy of the crown in order to compel the submnission of the Puritans. The introduction of foreign publications into the
kingdom was greatly restricted, and the press was placed under a severe
censorship. The Puritans were thus forced to become the champions of
popular liberty against the tyranny of the crown and the ecclesiastical
party, and the issue which was to be fought out by the next generation
was distinctly joined.
There was a congregation of Puritans in the north of England, com)posed of people of Lincolnshire and Nottinghamshire, with some from
Yorkshire. The pastor was John Robinson, "a man not easily to be
paralleled," who possessed in an unusual degree the love and confidence
Of his people. They were greatly harassed by the agents of the king and




IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


the bishops, and were subjected to such serious annoyances that it was
with difficulty that they could hold their meetings. Finding it impossible to live in peace at home without doing violence to their consciences,
they determined to leave England and seek refuge from persecution in
Holland. That country was friendly to the English, and the Dutch had
learned from their own sufferings to respect the rights of conscience in
others. It was not an easy matter to leave England, however, for it was
held by the government to be almost a crime to attempt to escape from
persecution. A vessel was hired to convey the refugees to Holland; but
the royal officers were informed of the intended voyage, and seized the
whole company as they were about to embark. Their persons were
searched, their small possessions seized, and the whole church-men,
womenl, and children-thrown into prison. In a short while all but seven
wrere released. These were brought to trial, but it was found impossible
to prove any crime against them, and they also were discharged.
This action of the government, so far from intimidating the sufferers,
but increased their resolve to leave England, and in the spring of 1608
the effort was renewed. A Dutch captain consented to convey them to
Holland, and it was agreed that the refugees should assemble upon a
lonely heath in Lincolnshire, near the mouth of the Humber, and be
taken on board by the Dutch skipper. The men of the party went to
the rendezvous by land, and got safely on board the ship; but the boat
conveying the women and children was stranded and captured by a party
of horsemen sent in pursuit. The Dutch skipper, fearful of becoming
involved in trouble with the English authorities, at once put to sea, and
the exiles were separated from  their families, who were left helpless in
the hands of their oppressors. The women and children were treated
with great harshness by their captors, and were taken before the magistrates, who found it impossible to punish them for an attempt to follow
the fortunes of their husbands and fathers. They were at a loss to know
what to do with the prisoners, who no longer had homes in England, and
at last released them unconditionally, and permitted them to rejoin their
natural protectors in Holland.
The exiles reached Amsterdam in the spring of 1608. They were well
pleased to be safe in this peaceful refuge, but they did not deceive themselves with the hope that it could ever be a home to them. "They
knew they were PILGRIMS, and looked not much on those things, but
lifted up their eyes to heaven, their dearest country, and quieted their
spirits." They found it hard to earn a support in Amsterdam, and in
1609 removed to Leyden, where, by their industry and frugality, they
managed to live in comparative comfort. Their piety and exemplary




THE PILGRIM FA THERS.


151


conduct won for them the respect of the Dutch, who would have openly
shown themn marked favor but for their fear of offending the King of
Elngland. The magistrates of Leyden bore ready witness to their purity
of life.  "Never," said they, "did we have any suit or accusation
against any of them."
In the course of time the Pilgrims were joined by a number of their
brethren from England. They were nearly all accustomed to agricultural pursuits, and in Holland they were obliged to earn their bread by
mechanical labors. It was with difficulty that they could do this, and
they never formed any attachment to the place of their exile. They
preserved, through all their trials, their affection for their native land,
and cherished the hope that they might continue Englishmen to the close
of their lives. They viewed with alarm the prospect of raising their
children in Holland, where they would necessarily be thrown in constant
contact with, and be influenced by, the manners and customs of the
country  Above all they dreaded the effect upon their children of the
dissolute example of the disbanded soldiers and sailors who filled the
country  These and other things made them unwilling to look upon
Holland as their permanent home. But whither should they go in case
of their departure from  Holland?  Their own country was closed
against them, and the nations of continental Europe could offer them no
asylum. As their conviction, that it was their duty to seek some other
home, deepened, their thoughts became more irresistibly directed
towards the new world. In the vast solitudes of the American continent,
and there alone, they could establish a home in which they could worship
God without fear or molestation, and rear their children in the ways that
seemed to them good. Thither would they go.
They were anxious to make their venture under the protection of
England, and declined the offers made them by the Dutch, who wished
them to establish their colony as a dependency of Holland. They had
heard of the excellent climate and fertile soil of Virginia, and it seemed
best to them to choose that promising region as the scene of their experiment. It was necessary to obtain the consent of the London Company
to their settlement, as Virginia had been granted to that body by the
King of England; and in 1617 two of the leading members of the congregation-John Carver and Robert Cushman-went to England to lay
their application before the company. They were kindly received by
Sir Edwin Sandys, the secretary of the company. They laid before the
directors the request for permission to form a settlement in Virginia,
with which they had been charged by their brethren. The application
'7as signed by the greater part of the congregation, and contained a state



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ment of their principles, and their reasons for desiring to emigrate to
America. "We verily believe that God is with us," said the petitioners,
"and will prosper us in our endeavors; we are weaned from our mother
country, and have learned patience in a hard and strange land. We are
industrious and frugal; we are bound together by a sacred bond of the
Lord, whereof we make great conscience, holding ourselves to each other's
good. We do not wish ourselves home again; we have nothing to hope
from England or Holland; we are men who will not be easily disco uraged."
The appeal of the Pilgrims was received with such favor by the
London Company that Carver and Cushman ventured to petition the
king to grant them liberty to exercise their religion unmolested in the
wilds of' America. The most that James would consent to grant them,
hlowever, was a half promise to pay no attention to them in their new
home. The London Company agreed to grant them permission to settle
in V\irginia, but the dissensions of that body prevented anything from
being done in their behalf.
The Pilgrims were too poor to defray the cost of their emigration, and
they set to work to find persons of means willing to assist them. At
length they were successful, and a company was formed consisting of
themselves and several merchants of London.    The latter were to
advance the funds necessary for the enterprise, while the former were to
contribute their entire services for a period of seven years, as their share
of the stock of the company. At the end of seven years the profits of
the enterprise were to be divided according to the amount of each one's
investment; and it was agreed that a contribution of ten pounds in money
by a merchant should be entitled to as great a share of the profits as seven
years of labor on the part of the emigrant. These were hard terms for
the Pilgrims, but they were the best they could obtain, and they were
accepted, as the exiles were willing to suffer any sacrifice in order to be
able to found a community of their own in which they could bring up
their children in the fear of God. The main thing with them was to reach
the shores of America. Once there these men who had learned the
lessons of self-denial and endurance did not doubt their ability to succeed
(even in the face of the heavy disadvantages they were obliged to assume.
With the funds thus obtained the Pilgrims began to prepare for their,departure. A ship of sixty tons, called the " Speedwell," was purchased,
and another, of one hundred and eighty tons, called the "Mayflower,"
was okartered. These, however, could transport but a part of the congregation, and it was resolved to send out at first only "such of the youngest
and strongest as freely offered themselves."  The pastor, Robinson, and




THE PILGRIM FA THIIEPS.


15 -3


the aged and infirm were to remain at Leyden until their brethren collld
send for them, and the colony was placed under the guidance of William
Brewster, the governing elder, who was an able teacher and much respected and beloved for his noble character.
When all was in readiness, a day of fasting and prayer was held, il
order that at the very beginning of their enterprise the Pilgrims might
invoke the guidance and protection of God. "Let us seek of God," they
said, "a right way for us, and for our little ones, and for all our substance." The venerable pastor made this solemn season the occasion of
delivering a tender farewell to the members of his charge who were about
to depart, and of appealing to them to be true to the principles of their
religion in their new home. "I charge you before God and his blessed
angels," lie said, in tones of deep emotion, "that you follow me no further
than you have seen me follow the Lord Jesus Christ. If God reveal
anything to you, be ready to receive it; for I am verily persuaded that
the Lord has more truth yet to break out of his holy word. I beseech
you, remember that it is an article of your church covenant, that you be
ready to receive whatever truth shall be made known to you from the
written word of God. Take heed what ye receive as truth; examine it,
consider it, and compare it with other scriptures of truth before you
receive it; the Christian world has not yet come to the perfection of
knowledge."
From Leyden a number of the brethren accompanied the emigrants to
Delft Haven, from which port they were to sail. The night before their
departure, they all assembled in prayer and religious exercises, which
were continued until the dawn, when they prepared to go on board the
ship. Arrived at the shore, they knelt again, and the pastor, Robinson,
led them in prayer-the emigrants listening to his voice for the last time
on earth. "And so," says Edward Winslow, "lifting up our hands to
each other, and our hearts to the Lord our God, we departed."
Southampton was soon reached, and the voyagers were transferred to
the "Mavflower" and the " Speedwell."  On the 5th of August, 1620,
those vessels sailed from Southampton for America. Soon after getting
to sea, it was discovered that the " Speedwell" was in need of repairs,
and that they must return to England. They put about and reached
the port of Dartmouth, where the smaller vessel was repaired. Eight
days were consumed in this undertaking, and the voyage was resumed.
They were scarcely out of sight of land when the commander of the
"Speedwell," alarmed by the dangers of the voyage, declared that his
ship was not strong enough to cross the ocean. The vessels at once put
back to Plymouth, where the smaller ship was discharged. At the same




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


tine those who had grown fainthearted were permitted to withdraw from
the expedition. The remainder of the company, to the number of one
hundred and one, sailed from Plymouth in the " Mayflower," on the 6th
of September, 1620. Some of these were women well advanced in pregnancy, and some were children. Their little vessel was but a frail barque
compared with the ships that now navigate the sea; but a band of braver


THE i"MAXAYFLOWEER" IN PLYMOUTH HARBOR.


and more resolute souls never trusted themselves to the mercies of the
stormy Atlantic.
The leading man in the little band of Pilgrims was the ruling elder,
William Brewster, who was to be their preacher until the arrival of a
regularly chosen pastor. HLie was a man of fine education, refined and




THE PILGRIM FATHERS.


scllolarly tastes, and of pure and lofty Christian character  "He laid
his hand," says Elliott, "to the daily tasks of life, as well as spent his
soul in trying to benefit his fellows-so bringing himself as near as
possible to the early Christian practices; he was worthy of being the
first minister of New England."  He was well advanced in life, and was
looked up to with affectionate regard by his associates.
Another was John Carver, also a man of years and ripe experience,
who had sacrificed his fortune to the cause, and whose dignified and
benevolent character won him the honor of being chosen the first chief
magistrate of the colony
Prominent among the leaders was William    Bradford. He was only
thirty-two, but was a man of earnest and resolute character, firm and
true, "a man of nerve and public spirit."   He had begun life as a
farmer's boy in England, and in Holland had supported himself by
practising the art of dyeing; but, in spite of his constant labors, he had
educated himself and had managed to accumulate books of his own. He
systematically devoted a large part of his time to study, and thus carefully trained his natural abilities, which were very great.
Edward Winslow, a man of sweet and amiable disposition, was
twenty-six years old. He was a gentleman by birth, and had been wvell
educated, and had acquired considerable information and experience by
travel.
Miles Standish had attained the mature age of thirty-six, and was a
veteran soldier  He had seen service in the wars of the continent of
Europe, and had gained an honorable distinction in them. He was not
a member of the church, but was strongly attached to its institutions.
" With the people of God he had chosen to suffer affliction,
In return for his zeal, they  made him Captain of Plymouth;
He was a man of honor, of noble and generous nature;
Though lie was rough, he was kindly
Somewhat hasty and hot  and headstrong,
Stern as a soldier might be, but hearty and placable always,
Not to be laughed at and scorned, because he was little of stature;
For he was great of heart, magnanimous, courtly, courageous."
The voyage of the " Mayflower " was long and stormy   The Pilgrims
had selected the country near the mouth of the Hudson as the best region
for their settlement, but a severe storm drove them northward to the
coast of New England. Sixty-three days were consumed in the passage,
during which one of their number had died, and at length land was
made, and on the 9th of November, two days later, the "Mayflower"
cast anchor in the harbor of Cape Cod.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The Pilgrims had come to America at their own risk and without the
sanction of, or a charter from, the king or any lawful organization in
England. Tlley'were thrown upon their own resources, and could look
to no quarter for protection or support. Appreciating the necessity of an
organized government, their first acts after anchoring in Cape Cod bay
were to organize themselves into a body politic and to form a government. The following compact was drawn up in the cabin of the " Mayflower," and was signed by all the men of the colony, to the number of
forty-one: "In the name of God, amen; we whose names are underwritten, the loyal subjects of -our dread sovereign King James, having
undertaken, for tile glory of God and advancement of the Christian
faith, and honor of our king and country, a voyage to plant the first
colony in the northern parts of Virginia, do, by these presents, solemnly
and mutually, in the presence of God and of one another, covenant and
combine ourselves together, into a civil body politic, for our better ordering and preservation, and furtherance of the ends aforesaid; and by
virtue hereof, to enact, constitute and frame such just and equal laws,
ordinances, acts, constitutions and offices, from time to time, as shall be
thought most convenient for the general good of the colony, unto which
we promise all due submission and obedience."
This was the first constitution of New England, democratic in form,
and resting upon the consent of the governed. It at once established the
new commonwealth upon the basis of constitutional liberty, and secured
to the people "just and equal laws" for the "general good."  In virtue
of the compact, John Carver was chosen governor of the colony for the
ensuing year.
The prospect which presented itself to the Pilgrims upon their arrival
at Cape Cod might well have daunted even their resolute souls. It was
the opening of the winter, and they had come to a barren and rugged
coast. The climate was severe, and' the land was a wilderness'. The
English colony in Virginia was five hundred miles distant, and to the
north of them  the nearest white settlement was the French colony at
Port Royal. The "Mayflower" was only chartered to convey them to
America, and must return to England as soon as they had chosen a site
and established a settlement. Yet no one faltered. The new land was
reached, the difficulties and dangers were such as could be overcome by
patience and fortitude, and the Pilgrims without hesitation addressed
themselves to the task before them.
The first thing to be done was to explore the coast and choose a site
for the colony, for it was important to begin their settlement before the
severity of the winter should render such an effort impossible. The




THE PILGRIM FATHERS.


157


shallop was gotten out, but unfortunately it was found to need repairs.
The ship's carpenter worked so slowly that nearly three weeks were spent
in this task. This delay was a great misfortune at this advanced season
of the year, and, some of the party becoming impatient, it was resolved
to go ashore in the ship's boat and explore the country by land. iA party
of sixteen men was detailed for this purpose, and placed under the command of Captain Miles Standish. William Bradford, Stephell   Hopkins
and Edward Tilly were included in the party as a council of war  The
explorers were given numerous instructions, and were rather permitted
than ordered to go upon their journey, which was regarded as perilous,
and the time of their absence was limited to two days.
Upon reaching the shore they followed it for about a mile, when they
discovered several Indians watching them from a distance. The savages
fled as soon as they saw they were observed, and the whites followed in
pursuit. They struck the trail of the retreating Indians, and followed it
until nightfall, but being encumbered by the weight of their armor and
impeded by the tangled thickets through which they had to pass, they
were unable to overtake the Indians. The explorers bivouacked that
night by a clear spring, whose waters refreshed them after their fatiguing
march. They made few discoveries, but the expedition was not entirely
unprofitable. In one place they found a deer-trap, made by bending a
young tree to the earth, with a noose under-ground covered with acorns.
Mr, Bradford was caught by the foot in this snare, which occasioned
much merriment. An Indian graveyard was discovered in another place,
and in one of the graves there was an earthen pot, a mortar, a bow and
some arrows, and other rude implements. These were carefully replaced
by the whites, who respected the resting-place of the dead. The most
important discovery was the finding of a cellar or pit carefully lined with
bark, and covered over with a heap of sand, and containing about four
bushels of seed corn in ears. As much of this as the men could carry
was secured, and it was determined to pay the owners of the corn for it
as soon as they could be found. On the third day the explorers returned
to the ship, and delivered their corn, which was kept for seed.
The shallop being finished at length, a party, consisting of Carver,
Bradford, Winslow, Standish and others, with eight or ten seamen, was
sent out on a second expedition on the 6th of December. The weather
was very cold, and their clothing, drenched with spray, froze as stiff as
iron armor. They reached the bottom of Cape Cod bay that day, and
landed, instructing the people in the shallop to follow them along the
shore. The next day they divided, and searched the neighborhood.
They found a number of Indian graves, and some deserted v;-igwams, but




IIISTOR Y 0F' THE UNITED STATES.


saw no signs of the inhabitants of the country. That night they encamped near Namtasket, or Great Meadow Creek. On the morning of
the 8th of December, just as they had finished their prayers, the explorers
were startled by a war-whoop and a flight of arrows. The Indians, who
were of the tribe of the Nausites, were put to flight by the discharge of
a few guns. Some of their people had been kidnapped by the English a
few ye(ars before, and hence they regarded the new-comers as bent on the
same errand. The day
was spent in searching
for a safe harbor for the
ship, and at nightfall a,~l~k~'pres~violent st              orm of               rain and
thesnow drove them through
explored, and chosen as  the  brsite ofkers int o a   smnall
cove sheltered from  the
adgale by a saill. Tedey
that they landed at once,
and, regardless of the,.danger of drawing the
savages upon them, built
a fire with great difficulty, in order to keep
__                   from perishing with the
cold. When the morning dawned, they found
that they were on an
island at the entrance to
a harbor. The day was
spent in rest and preparations. The next day,
December 10th, was the
LAN.lING OF T l D  mILGRIMS.     Sabbath, and notwithstanding the need of
prompt action, they spent it in rest and religious exercises. The next
day, December 11th, 1620, old style, or December 22d, according to our
present system, the exploring party of the Pilgrims landed at the head of
the harbor they had discovered. The rock upon which their footsteps
were first planted is still preserved by their descendants. The place was
explored, and chosen as the site of the settlement, and was named
Plymouth, in memory of the last English town from which the Pilgrims
had sailed.




TIlE PILGRIM FATHERS.


159


The adventurers hastened back to the ship, which stood across the
bay, and four days later cast anchor in Plymouth lharbor. No time was
to be lost; the "Mayflower " must soon return to England, and the
emigrants must have some shelter over their heads before her departure.
To save time each man was allowed to build his own house. This was a
niost arduous task. Many of the men were almost broken down by their
exposure to the cold, and some had already contracted the fatal diseases
which were to carry them to the grave before the close of the winter.
Still they persevered, working bravely when the absence of rain and
snow would permit them to do so. As the winter deepened, the sickness
and mortality of the colony increased. At one time there were but seven
well men in the company. More than forty of the settlers died during
the winter. John Carver, the good governor of the colony, buried his
son, and himself soon succumbed to the hardships from which he had
never shrunk, though never able to endure them. He was followed bv
his heart-broken widow  The wives of Bradford and Winslow, and
Rose Standish, the sweet young bride of "the Captain of Plymouthll
were also among the victims. They were all buried on the shore near
the rock on which they had landed, and lest their graves should tell the
Indians of the sufferings and weakness of the settlement, their restingplace was levelled and sown with grass. William Bradford was chosen
governor in the place of Carver, and the work went on with firmness and
without repining.
At last the long winter drew to a close, and the balmv spring came to
cheer the settlers with its bright skies and warm breezes. The sick began
to recover, and the building of the settlement was completed. In course
of time a large shed was erected for the public stores, and a small hospital for the sick. A church was also built. It was made stronger that
the other buildings, as it was to serve as a fortress as well as a place of
worship, and four cannon were mounted on top of it for defence against
the savages. Here they assembled on the Sabbath for religious worship,
and to hear the word of God from the lips of their pastor, the good
Elder Brewster. In the spring the ground was prepared for cultivation,
but until the harvest was grown the colonists lived by fishing and
hunting.
In March, 1621, the "MAayflower"' sailed for England. Not one of
the Pilgrims wished to return in her. They had their trials, and these
were sore and heavy, but they had also made a home and a government
for themselves, where they could enjoy the benefits and protection of
their own laws, and worship God in safety and in peace. They did not
doubt that they would some day triumph over their difficulties, and that




HISTOI RY OF THE UNITED STA'ES.


God would in His own good time crown their labors and their patience
with succss.
In tihe autuminn of 1621,:a reinforcement of new emigrants arrived.
They br(oughlt no provisions, and were dependent upon the scanty stock
of the colony, and the increased demand upon this soon brought the
settlers face to face with the danger of famine. For six months no one
received more than half allowance, and this was frequently reduced. "I
have seen men," says Winslow, " stagger by reason of faintness for want
of food."  On one occasion the whole company would have perished but
for the kindness of some fishermen, who relieved their wants. This


-::~~^-  -^ --  -S  -  - - - 5-:s*
i-            - TTH     AceS r,C H I,  -E G
THE FIRST CHURCH IN NEW ENGLAND.


scarcity of provisions continued for several years, and it was not until
the end of the fourth year of the settlement that the colonists had anvthing like a proper supply of food. In that year neat cattle were introduced into Plymouth. None of the colonies were called upon to endure
such privations as were suffered by the Pilgrims. Yet they bore, them
with unshaken fortitude, still trusting that God would give them a
pleasanter lot in the end.
The conditions of the contract with the English merchants had required
the labor of the colonists to be thrown into the common stock. This was
found to be an unprofitable arrangement, and in 1623 it was agreed that




THE PILGRIM FA T'HIERS.


each settler should plant for himself, and each family was assignled a
parcel of land in proportion to its numbers, to cultivate, but " not f)r an
inheritance."  This arrangement gave gr eat satisfiction and the colonists
went to work with such a will that after this season there was no scarcity
of food. In the spring of 1624 each colonist was griven a little land ill
fee. Tlhe very existence of the colony demanded tlhis departure from the
hard bargain with the English merchants, and the result justified the
measure.  kbuntlant harvests rew.arded the labors of the settlers, and
corn soon became so plentifuil that the colonists were able to sulpply the
savag'es with it. These, preferring the chlase to. the labor of the field,
brougTlt in game and skins to Plymouth and received corn in return.
InI the meantime a friendly intercourse liad sprung up between tlhe
settlers and the Indians. In the first year of the settlement the red men
were seen hovering upon the outskirts of thle villag',, lbut thicy fled upon,
the approach of the whites. Distant columns of smoke, rising beyond
the wools, told that the savages were close at hand, and it was deemed.
best to or,,anize the settlers into a military company, the comnmand of
which was given to Miles Standish. One day, in March, 1621, the whole
village was startled by the appearance of an Indian, who boldly entered
the settlement, and greeted the whites with the friendly words, "Welcome,
Englishmen! Welcome, Englishmen!" li was kindly received, and
it was found that he was Samoset, aixl had 1earned a little English of the
fishermen at Penlobscot. He belonged t i the Wampan ags, a trile, occupyin(r the country north of Narragansett bay and between the rivers of
Providence and Taunton. He told them that they might posse(,ss the
lands they hlad taken in peace, as the tribe to which they had 1)elonge(
had been swept away by a pestilence the year lbefore the arrival of the
Pilgrims. He remained one night with the settlers, who,gave him a
knife, a ring, and a bracelet, and then went back to his people, promising
to return soon and bring other Indians to trade with them. In a few
days he came back, bringing with him Sqnanto, the Indian who had been
kidnapped by Hunt and sold in Spain. From that countrv Squanto had
escaped to England, where he had learned the language  He had managed to returnl to his own country, and now appeared to act as interpreter
to the English in their intercourse with his people. They announced that
Massasoit, the sachem of the Wampanoags, desired to visit the colony
The chieftain was received with all the ceremony the little settlement
could tfford. Squanto acted as interpreter, and a treaty of friendship
was arranged between Massasoit on behalf of his people and the English.
The parties to the agreement promised to treat each other with kindness
and justice, to deliver up offenders, and to assist each other when attacked
11




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


by tllir enemies. This treaty was faithfully observed by both parties
for fifty years. The Pilgrims expressed their willingness to pay for the
baskets of corn that had been taken by their first exploring party, and
this they did six months later, when the rightful owners presented themselves. A trade with the Indians was established, and furs were brought
into Plymouth I)Nb them and sold for articles of European manufacture.
Squanto was the faithful friend of the colony to the end of his life,
and was regarded by the Pilgrims as "a special instrument sent of God
for their good beyond their expectation."  He taught them the Indian
method of planting corn and putting fish with it to fertilize the ground,
and where to find and how to catch fish and game. He shllowed them
his friendslhip in many ways, and was during his lifetime the interpreter
of the colony  The Pilgrims on their part were not ungrateful to him.
On one occasion it was rumored in Plymouth that Squanto had been
seized 1y the Narragansetts, and had been put to death. A party of ten
men at once marched into the forest, and surprised the hut where the
chief of the Narragansetts was. Although the tribe could bring five
thousand warriors into the field, the chief was overawed by the determined action of the English, whose firearms gave them a great superiority, and Squanto was released unharmed. On his death-bed Squanto,
who had been carefullly nursed by his white friends, asked the governor
to pray that he might go to "the Englishman's God in heaven."  His
death was regarded as a serious misfortune to the colony
Massasoit, vwho.se tribe had been greatly reduced by pestilence, desired
the alliance of tle English as a protection against the Narragansetts, who
had escaped the scourge, and whose chief, Canonicus, was hostile to him.
The Narragansetts lived upon the shores of the beautiful bay to which
they have given their name, and were a powerful and warlike race.
Canonicus regarded the English with hostility, and in 1622 sent them as, defiance a bundle of arrows wrapped in the skin of a rattlesnake.
Governor Bradford received the challenge from the hands of the chieftain's messenolu(r, and stuffing the skin with powder and ball returned it
co him, and sternly bade him bear it back to his master. The Indians
regardcd the myst_ rious contents of the skin with terror and dread, and
)assed it from tribe to tribe. None dared either keep or destroy it, as it
was regarded as possessed of some mysterious but powerful influence for
harm.   It was finally returned to the colony, and in a short while
Canonicus, who had been cowed by the spirited answer of Bradford,
offered to make a treaty of peace and alliance with the colony.
The Pilgrims endeavored to treat the Indians with justice. Severe
penalties were denounced against those who should deprive the savages




TIHE PILGRIM FATIIHEIRS.


163


of their property without paying for it, or should treat them with violence. Yet the colonists were to have trouble with the red men, and
that through no fault of their own.
Among the merchants of London who had invested money in fthe
planting of the Plymouth colony was Thomas Weston. Envious of the
advance made by the colony in the fur-trade, lie desired to secure all the
profits of that traffic by establishing a t ra(lding-post of his own.  tie
obtained a patent for a small tract on Boston harbor, near Wevmouth,
and settled there a colony of sixty men, the greater number of whom
were indentured servants. These men, disregarding the warnings of the
people of Plymouth, gave themselves up to a dissolute life, and drew
upon themselves the wrath of the Indians by maltreating them, and
stealing their corn. The Indians, unable to distinguish between the
guilty and the innocent, resolvedl to avenge the misconduct of Weston's
men by a massacre of every white settler in the country
Before the plot could be put in execution Massasoit fell sick. Winslow visited him, and found his lodge full of medicine-men and jugglers,
who were killing him with the noise they made to drive away tile disease.
The kind-hearted Englishman turned the Indian doctors out of the lodgre,
and by giving Massasoit rest, and administering such remedies as his
case required, restored him to health. The grateful chief revealed the
plot of his people for the extermination of the English. The Plymouth
settlers were greatly alarmed, and measures were promptly taken to avert
the danger, Standish, with eight armed men, was sent to the assistance
of the settlement at Weymouth. They arrived in time to prevent the
attack. The Indians, who had begun to collect for the massacre, were
surprised and defeated in a brief engagement, and the chief, who was the
leader of the conspiracy, was slain, with a number of his men. This
gallant exploit established the supremacy of the English in New England, and many of the native tribes sought their friendship and alliance.
The Weymniouth men were unwilling to continue their colony after their
narrow escape. Some went to Plymouth, where they became a source of
trouble, and others returned to England. The spring of 1623 saw the
last of this settlement.
In the autumn of 1623 the best harvest was gathered in that had yet
blessed the labors of the Pilgrims. It was an abundant yield, and put
an end to all fears of a renewal of the danger of famine. When tihe
labors of the harvest were over Governor Bradford sent out men to
collect game, in order that the people might enjoy a thanksgiving feast.
On the appointed day the people " met together and thanked God with
all their hearts for the good world and the good things in it." Thus was




HISTOR Y OF TIHE UNITED STA l'ES.


established the custom of an annual thanksgiving to God for the blessings of the year, which though at first a celebration peculiar to New
England has at length become a national festival.
Tlhe colonists tllhmsclves were satisfied with the progress they had
m-ade, but tleir merchant partners in England were greatly displeased
with tile smallness of the plrofits tlhey lhad received from their investnients, and( in many ways m1)ade the colony feel their dissatisfaction.
Robinson and l1is congregation at Leyden were anxious to join their
friendls in Aimerica,, but the merchant partners refused to send them across
the Atlantic, and not co(ntent with this endeavored to force upon the
Plymouth p1eole (a pastor friendly to tlle Church of England. They
sooH l got rid ot tllis indivi(lual, Ilowever, whose conduct qulickly enabled
them to expel himi from Plymouth as an evil liver, Tile merchants also
sent a vessel to SNew England to opposc the colonists in the ftur-trade;
and deman(led exorbitant prices for the goods they sold the settlers,
charging them the enornlmous profit of seventy per cent.
It was not,possible, Ilowever, to destroy the results of the industry
and self-denial of tlhe Pilgrims. Seeing that their association with their
Englisll partners would (continue to operate merely as a drag upon the
advance of the (c,lony, they managed in 1627, at considerable sacrifice, to
l)ulrclase tie entire interest of their partners. The stock and the land of
tlhe colonv were then (livided equitably among the settlers, and the share
of each man becamle his own private property. Each settler was thius
made the owner,f a piece of land which it was to his interest to improve
to the highest degrcee possible. Freed from the burdens under which it
liad labored for so long, the colony began to increase in prosperity and in
population.
The government of the Pilgrims was simple, but effective. They had
no charter, and were from tlhe first driven upon their own resources.
They had a governor who was cho]sen by the votes of all the settlers. In
1624 a council of five was given him, and in 1633 this number was increased to seven. The council assisted tlle governor in the exercise of his
duties, and imposed a cheek upon his authority, as in its meetings he had
merely a double vote. The whole number of male settlers for eighteen
years constituted the legislative body. They met at stated times, and
enacted such laws as were neces.sarv for tle welfare of tlle colony. The
people were frequently convened by tle governor, in the earlier years of
the settlement, to aid him with their advice upon difficult questions
brought before them. When the colony increased in population, and a
number of towns were included within its limits, each town sent representatives to a general court at Plymouth.




TIE PILGEIlf FATHERS.


165


If the colony grew slowly, it grew steadily, and at length the Pilgrims
had their rwvard in seeing their little settlement expand into a flourishing
I province, in which the principles of civil freedom were cherished, religion
honored, and industry and economy made the basis of the growing wealth
of the little state. They had "been instruments to break the ice for
others;" and "the honor shall be theirs to the world's end."  Adversity
could not daunt them, and prosperity had no power to move them from
the sure foundation upon which they had anchored their hopes. From
the first they had cherished the design of founding a state, which in the


A NEW ENGLAND HOMESTEAD.


hands of their children and their children's children would grow great,
and even at this early day they began to see the realization of this hope.
"Out of small beginnings," wrote Governor Bradford, the historian of
the colony, almost in the spirit of prophecy, "great things have been
produced by His hand that made all things out of nothing; and as one
small candle will light a thousand, so the light here kindled hath shown
to many, yea, to our whole nation.", I




CHAPTER XI.


SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND.
Settlement of New Hampshire-The English Puritans determine to form a new Colony in
America-The Plymouth Council-A Colony sent out to Salem under EndicottColonization of Massachlusetts Bay begun-A Charter obtained-Concessions of the
King-Progress of the Salem Colony-The Charter and Government of the Colony
removed to New England-Arrival of Governor Winthrop-Settlement of BostonSufferings of the Colonists —Roer Williams-His Opinions give offence to the
Authorities-The Success of the Bay Colony established-Growth of Popular LibertyThe Ballot Box-Banishment of Roger Williams-He goes into the WildernessFounds Providence-Growth of Williams's Colony-Continued growth of Massachusetts-Arrival of Sir Henry Vane-Is elected Governor-Mrs. Anne Hutchinson-The
Antinomian Controversy-Mrs. Hutchinson banished-Settlement of Rhode IslandMurder of Mrs. Hutchinson.
HE success of the Pilgrims in establishing the Plymouth colony
aroused a feeling of deep interest in England, and some of those
who had watched the effort were encouraged to attempt ventures
of their own. Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who had taken a deep
interest in the schemes to settle the new world, and John Mason,
the secretary of the council of Plymouth, obtained a patent for the region
called Laconia, which comprised the whole country between the sea, the
St. Lawrence, the Merrimac and the Kennebec, and now embraced partly
in Maine and partly in New Hampshire.      A company of English nierchants was formed, and in 1623 permanent colonies were established at
Portsmouth, Dover and one or two other places near the mouth of the
Piscataqua.   These were small, feeble settlements, and were more
trading-posts than towns.    For many years their growth was slow,
and it was not until other parts of New England were well peopled and
advanced far beyond their early trials that they began to show signs of
prosperity   In 1653, thirty years after its settlement, Portsmouth contained only "between fifty and sixty families."    The settlers of these
towns were not all Puritans, and their colonies had not the religious
character of those of the rest of New England. In 1641, they were
annexed at their own request to the province of Massachusetts, the
general court having agreed not to require the freemen and deputies to
be church members.
166




SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS A.ND RHODE ISLAND. 167


In the meantime the news of the successful planting of Plymouth was
producing other and more important results in England. The persecutions of the Non-conformists, which marked the entire reign of James I.,
were continued through that of his son and su:cessor, Charles I. The
Puritans, sorely distressed by the tyranny to which they were subjected,
listened with eagerness to the accounts of America which were sent over
by the members of the Plymouth colony, and published from  time to
time in England. The descriptions of the Pilgrims were not exaggerated.
They did not promise either fame or sudden wealth to settlers in their
province, but clearly set forth the cares and labors which were to be the
price of success in America. They dwelt with especial eml)llasis, however, upon that which was in their eyes the chief reward of all their toil
and suffering-the ability to exercise their religion without restraint.
Their brethren in England heard their accounts with a longing to be
with them to enjoy the freedom with which they were blessed, and it was
not long before a number of English Non-conformists began to concert
measures for making New England a place of refuge for the            -.
persecuted members of their faith.
The leading spirit in these enter-       ~t'prises was the Rev MAr. White, a  3      ' S J *S
minister of Dorsetshire, a Puritan,              S
but not a Separatist. Regarding       CT F AI.S, MCH.,..
COAT OF AK 31S 1 F DIASSACH  XLTTS.
the vicinity of the present town
of Salem as the most suitable place for colonization, he exerted himself
with energy to secure it for his brethren.
In the meantime the Plymouth Company had ceased to exist, and its
place had been taken by the council ot Plymouth. That body cared for
New England only as a'source of profit, and sold the territory of that
region to a number of purchasers, assigning the same district to different
people, and thus paving the way for vexatious litigation. In 1628, it
sold to a company of gentlemen of Dorchester, which White's energy had
succeeded in bringing into existence, a district extending from three miles
south of Massachusetts bay to three miles north of the Merrimac river
As was usual in all grants of the day, the Pacific wyas made the western
boundary of this region. This company at once prepared to send out a
colony, and in the early summer of that year one hundred persons under
John Endicott, as governor, were despatched to New England. Endicott took his family with him, and in September, 1628, reached New
England, and established the settlement of Salem, the site of which was
already occupied by a few men whom White had placed there to hold it.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Ti
I,.#.I


Endicott, who was a man of undaunted courage and acknowledged
integrity of character, soon established his authority over the few settlements that had sprung up along the shores of the bay. At this time the;
site of Charlestown was occupied by an Englishman named Thomas
Walford, a blacksmith, who had fortified his cabin with a palisade. The
only dweller on the trimountain peninsula of Shawwmut was the Rev.
William Blackstone, a clergyman of the Church of England; the island,
now known as East Boston was occupied by Samuel Maverick. At
Nantasket and a few places farther south some Englishmen had located
themselves, and lived by fishing and trading in skins; and on the site.
A PRIMITIVE NEW ENGLAND VILLAGE.
of Quincy was the wreck of a colony which had nearly perished in consequence of its evil ways. These, with the settlement at Salem, constituted the colony of Massachusetts Bay.
Soon after the departure of Endiott's colony from England, the
company, acting upon the advice of their counsel, obtained from the king:a confirmation of their grant. In March, 1629, the king granted to the
colony of Massachusetts Bay a charter under which it conducted its:affairs for more than fifty years. By the terms of this charter the
governor was to be elected by the freemen for the term of one year, provision was made for the assembling at stated times of a general court,
which was to have the power to make all the needed laws for the colony,
and it was not necessary that these laws should receive the royal




SETTLEMENT OF MASSA CHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND.             169
signature in order to be valid. This was conceding.practical independence to the colony
In the sprinlg of 1629, a second company of emigrants sailed from
England for Massachusetts. They were, like the first, all Puritans, and
took with them, as their minister, the Rev Francis Iligginson, formnrlv
of Jesus College, Cambridge, a man of learning and deep piety   The
colonists were instructed to do no violence to the Indians. " If any of
the salvages," so read the company's orders, " pretend riglit of inheritance
to all or any part of the lands granted in our patent, endleavor to purchase their tytle, that we may avoid the least scruple of intrusion."  Six
shipwrilits were sent over for the use of the colonv, an expe)rienced
engineer to lay out a fortified town, and a master g(unner, who was to
teach the men of the colony the use of arms and military exercises.
Cattle and horses and goats were sent out also.
The voyage was p1r)osperous, and the new s(ttlers reached Salem about
the last of June. They found the settlemenllt in a feeble conlitionl, and
greatly in need of their assistalnce. The 01(d and tlhe new (1colonists nunmbered about three hundred. The majority of tlhese remained at Salem,
and the rest were selt by Eiilicott to estblish at colony at ('harlestown,
in order to secure tlhat place froml occupation 1wv thle partisais of Sir
Ferdinand Gorgres, who claimed    the reion.   The em igrants were
scrupulous to acquire from  the Indizans the rig'ht to the lands they occupied. The 12th of July was obscrved as a day of fasting an1  prayer
"for the choice of a pastor and teacher at Salem."  No o:le alvaneed
any claim founded on his ordination in Egland; personal fitness was
the only qualification recognized by the Puritans. Samuel Skelton was
chosen pastor, and Francis Hig'ginson tcacher  Three or four of the
gravest members of the church laid their hands tupon the hleads of these
men, with prayer, and solemnly appointed them    to their respective
offices. " Thus the church, like that of Plymouth, was self-constituted,
on the principle of the indclpendence of each religious com(munity  It
did not ask the assent of the king, or recognize him as its hlead; its
officers were set apart and ordained among themselves; it used no
liturgy; it rejected unnece_;sary ceremonies, and reduced the simplicity
of Calvin to a still plainer standard. The motives which controlled its
decisions were so deeply seated that its practices were repeated spontaneously by Puritan New England."   An opposition to the organization
of the church was attempted by a party led by John and Samuel Browne,
men of ability; but this was treated as a mutiny and put down, and the
Brownes were sent back to England.
The charter of Massachusetts, though it made liberal concessions to the




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


colony, contained no provision for the rights of the people, who were left
at the mercy of the company. For the proper government of the colony,
it was necessary to remove the charter to Massachusetts, and such a removal was advisable on another ground. The charter contained no
guarantee for the religious freedom of the colony, and the king might at
any moment seek to interfere with this, the most precious right of the
Puritans. The only way to escape the evils which the company had
reason to dread was for the governing council to change its place of
meeting from  England to Massachusetts, which the charter gave it
authority to do. On the 26th of August, 1629, John Winthrop, Isaac
Johnson, Thomas Dudley, Richard Saltonstall and eight others, men of
fortune and education, met at Cambridge and bound themselves by a
solemn agreement to settle in New England if the whole government of
the colony, together with the patent, should be legally transferred to that
region before the end of September, On the 29th of the month, the
court took the decisive step and ordered that "the government and
patent should be settled in New England."  This was a bold step, but
its legalitNy was not contested by any one, and it made the government
of the colony independent of control by any power in England.
The officers of the colony were to be a governor and eighteen assistants. On the 20th of October, a meeting of the court was held to choose
them, and Joln Wintlrop was elected governor for one year. It was a
fortunate selection, for Winthrop proved himself for many years the
very mainstay of the colony, sustaining his companions by his calm
courage, and setting them a noble example in his patience, his quiet
heroism and his devotion to the welfare of others. He seemed to find
his greatest pleasure in doing good, and his liberality acted as a check
upon the bigotry of his associates and kept them in paths of greater
moderation.
Efforts were made to send over new settlers to Massachusetts, and
about a thousand emigrants, with cattle, horses and goats, were transported thither in the season of 1630. Early in April, Governor Winthrop and about seven hundred emigrants sailed from England in a fleet
of eleven ships. Many of them were "men of high endowments and
large fortune; scholars, well versed in the learning of the times; clergymen who ranked among the best educated and most pious in the realm."
They reached Salem on the 12th of June, after a voyage of sixty-one
days, and were gladly welcomed by the settlers, whom they found in
great distress from sickness and a scarcity of provisions. A bout eighty
had died during the winter, and many were sick. There was scarcely
a fortnight's supply of food in the settlement, and it was necessary




SETTLEME.NT OF MfASSACIHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 171
to send one of the ships back to England at once for a supply of
provisions.
Salem did not please the new-comers, and settlements were made at
Lynn, Charlestown, Newtown, Dorchester, Roxbnry, Malden, and Watertown. The governor and a large part of the emigrants settled first at
Charlestown, but at length, in order to obtain better water, crossed over
and occupied the little tri-mountain peninsula of Shawmut.  To this
settlement was given the name of Boston, in honor of the town in Lincolnshire in England, which had been the home of the Rev John Wilson,
who became the pastor of the first church of Boston. The location was
central to the whole province, and Boston became the seat of government.
When the year for which the first colonial officers had been chosen expired a new election was held, and Governor Winthrop and all the old
officials were reelected.
The colonists now began to feel the effects of their new life. The
change of climate was very trying to them, and many of them fell
victims to its rigors, arni to the hardships of their position. A large
number of them had been brought up in ease and refinement, and were
unaccustomed to privation or exposure. They sank beneath the severe
trials to which they were subjected. By Decembelr, 1630, at least two
hundred had died. Among these were the Lady Arle]a Johnson and her
husband, among the most liberal and devoted supporters of the colony,
and a son of Governor Winthrop, who left a widow ald children in
England. Others became disheartened, and more than a hundred returned to England, where they endeavored to excuse their desertion of
their companions by grossly exaggerated accounts of the hardships of
the colony. Yet among the colonists themselves there was no repining.
They exhibited in their deep distress a fortitude and heroism worthy of
their lofty character, "Honor is due," says Bancroft, " not less to those
who perished than to those who survived; to the martyrs the hour of
death was the hour of triumph; such as is never witnessed in more
tranquil seasons.       Even children caught the spirit of the place;
awaited the impending change in the tranquil confidence of faith, and
went to the grave full of immortality  The survivors bore all things
meekly, 'remembering the end of their coming hither"'    Winthrop
wrote to his wife, who had been detained in England by sickness: " We
enjoy here God and Jesus Christ, and is not this enough? I thank God
I like so well to be here, as I do not repent my coming. I would not
have altered my course though I had foreseen all these afflictions. I
never had more content of mind."
Another danger which threatened the colony arose from the scarcity of




172


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


)rovisions, but this was removed on the 5th of February, 1631, by the
timely arrival of' the "Lyon" from  England, laden with provisions.
This reli(f was greeted with public thanksgivings in all the settlements.
The " Lon," however, brought only twenty passengers, and in 1631 only
ninety persons came out from England. The number of arrivals in 1632
was only two hundred and fifty   Thus the colony grew very slowlyBy thle close of the latter year the total population of Massachusetts was
only a little ove(r one thousandl souls.
Among the passengers of the " Lyon" was a young minister, described
in the old records as " lovely in his carriage, godly an(l zealousI, having
precious gifts," Roger Williams by name. He had be1en a favorite pupil
of the great Sir Edward Coke, and had learned from him preciouls lessons
of libertv and toleration. He had been carefilly educated at Pembroke
College, in the University of Cambridge, and had entered the ministryHis opposition to the laws requiring conformity
to the established church had drawn upon him
the wrath of Archbishop Laud, and he had
)beeln driven out of England. The great doc|    trine w!hich he had embraced as the result of
his studies and experience was the freedom of
~-j^        l   "      conscience from  secular control. "The civil
magistrate should restrain crime, but never
control opinion; should punish guilt, but never
/;-   /Z'   1          violate inward freedom."  He would place all
li/ forms of religion upon an equality, and would
ROGER aWILLIAMS.   refuise to the government the power to compel
conformity to, or attendance upon, any of them,
leaving such matters to the onscienece of the individual. He also favored
the abolition of tithes, and the enforced contribution to the stupport of
the church. Such views were far in advance of the age, and when Williams landed in Boston, he found himself unable to join the church in
that place because of its adoption of principles the opposite of his own.
Upon his arrival tlle church had intended engaging him to fill Mr, Wilson's place, while that minister returned to England to bring over his
wife, but ul)pon learning his views the idea was abandoned. A little later
the church in Salem, which had been deprived of its teacher by the death
of tlhe Rev Francis Higginson, called Williams to be his successor.
Williams accepted the call; but Governor Winthrop and the assistants
warned the people of Salem to beware how they placed in so important a
position a man already at such variance with the established order of
things. The warning had the desired effect upon the people of Salem,




SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 173
who withdrew their invitation. Williams then went to Plymouth, where
he lived for two years in peace.
But though unwilling to accord to Williams the liberty lie desired, the
colonial government was careful to take every p'rec(autioni against the
anticipated efforts of the Church of England to extend its autllority over
Massachusetts. A general court held in May, 1631, orderedl an oath of
fidelity to be tendered to the freemen of the colony, which bound them
"to be obedient and conformable to the laws and constitutions of this
commonwealth, to advance its peace, and not to sufft;r any attempt at
making any change or alteration of the government contrary to its laws."
The same general court took a still more decided stand lI the adoption
of a law, which limited the citizenship of the colony to "s;uch as are
members of some of the churches within the limits of the same."  This
was practically making the st:te a theocracy
Yet the people were not prepared to suriender their political rights,
even when alarmed,y the danger which seemed to threaten their
religious establishment. Until nowt the assistants could holdl office for
life, and they also possc sscd the lpow(er of electing the governor. They
were thus independent of the pcple.  The right of the freemen to
choose their magistrates was now distinctly asserted, and in May, 1632,
wa-s conceded. The governor and assistants were to b( elected annually,
anld b1 tlie vote(s of tihe fi'-e:ncn; none but church-menlbers being entitled
to the privileges of frelleen. Another imlportant clanl:,ce was brought
about at tlhe same timle I-; the hostility of the people to levyinr of taxes
by the board of assistants. Each town was ordered to send two of its
best men to represent it at a general court " to concert a 1)lan for a public
treasury"  This was the foundation of representative government in
Massachusetts.
The colonists had faithfully obeyed their instructions to treat the
Indians with fairness, and to seek to cultivate their friendship. Many of
the native tribes sought their alliance, and tlhe sachemn of the Mohegans
came from the banks of the Connecticut to make a treaty with the colony,
and to urge the English to settle in his country, whichl lh dlc,:(ril)ed:is
exceedingly fertile and inviting. In the autumn of 1632 a pleasant intercourse was opened with the Plymouth colony; and in the salle year a
trade in corn was begun with Virginia, and commercial relations were
established witl the Dutch, who had settled along the Hudson river.
The colony of Massachusetts Bay was slowly emerging from its early
trials, and entering upon a more prosperous period.
Emigrants now began to come over in greater numbers, and among
them were John Haynes, "the acute and subtile Cotton," and Thomas




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Hooker, who has been called the "Light of the Western Churches."
The freemen by the middle of tlhe year 1634 numbered between thrbe
and four hundred, and these were bent upon establishing their political
power in tile state. Great advances were made in the direction of representative government, and the ballot-box was introduced in elections
which had been formerly conducted by an erection of lands. As a guard
against arbitrary taxation by magistrates it was enacted that none but
the properly chosen representatives of the people might dispose of lands,
or raise money. In the spring of 1635 the people went a step further,
and demanded a written constitution for thle purpose of still more perfectl! securing their liberties. This demand opened a controversy which
continued for ten years. The general court was composed of assistants
and deputies. The first were elected by the people of the whole colony;
the latter by the towns. The two bodies acted together in meetings of
the assembly, but the assistants claimed the exclusive privilege of meeting and exercising a separate negative upon the proceedings of the court.
This claim was energetically denied by the deputies, who were sustained
by the body of the people; while the magistrates and the ministers upheld the pretensions of the assistants. In 1644 the matter was compromised )y- the division of the general court into two branches, each of
which was given a neogative upon the proceedings of the other. All
parties were agreed, however, in the worl of connecting the religion and
the government of the colony so closely that they should mutually sustain
each other against the attacks of the Church of England.
While these measures were in course of adjustment otler matters were
engaging the attention of the colony  After Roger Williams had been a
little more than two years in Plymouth, he was called again to Salcm,
and accepted the invitation. This gave offence to many persons, and in
January, 1634, complaints were made against Williams because of a
paper he had written while at Plymouth, denying that the king had any
power to grant lands in America to his subjects, since the lands were the
property of the Indians. In this Williams was wrong, as the settlers in
New England had been careful to obtain the consent of the natives to
their occupation of the lands they had possessed. He made a proper
explanation of his paper, when he understood the true state of the case,
and consented that it should be burned.
Still the jealousy and dislike of the Puritans was aroused by the radical
opposition of Williams to their system, although he conducted himself
with a forbearance and amiableness that should have won him the love
of those with whom he was thrown. Williams strongly condemned the
law enforcing the attendance of the people upon religious services, de



SETTLEMENT OF MIASSACITUSETTS AND RHODE ISLA ND  175


daring that a man had a right to stay away if he wished to do so. He
also censured the practice of selecting the colonial officials exclusively
from the members of the church, and said that a physician or a pilot
might with equal propriety be chosen because of his piety, his skill in
theology, or his standing in the church. These and other similar views
were drawn from him in a series of controversies, held with him by a
committee of ministers, for the purpose of inducing him to retract his
radical sentiments. He remained firm in them, however, and his opponents declared that his principles were calculated not only to destroy
religion, but also to subvert all forms of civil government. It was
resolved to banish him from the colony, and as the people of Salem
warmly SUpl)orted Williams, they were admonished by the court, and a
tract of land, which was rightfully theirs, was withheld from them as a
punishment. Williams and the church at Salem appealed to the people
against the injustice of the magistrates, and asked the other churches of
the colony to "admonish the magistrates of their injustice."  This was
regarded as treason by the colonial
government, and at the next gen-            -     9    X1
eral court Salem was disfranchised:ffuntil the town should make ample  L.
aplology for its offence. Williams  a  iI,:."
was summoned before the general  _"'Z. —^.<         t~'~ G-=court in October, 1635, and maintained his opinions with firnmness,            OF RHODE ISLAND.
though with moderation. IIce was sentenced to banishment from the
colony, not, as it was declared, because of his religious views, but because
the magistrates averred his principles, if carried out, would destroy all
civil government.
The season was so far advanced that it would have been barbarous to
drive any one out of the colony at that time, and Williams obtained
leave to remain in the province until the spring, when he intended forming a settlement on Narragansett bay  The affection of his people at
Salem, which had seemed to grow cold when the town began to feel the
weight of the punishment inflicted by the general court, now revived,
and they thronged to his house in great numbers to hear him, and his
opinions spread rapidly. The magistrates were alarmed; and it was
resolved to send hirm at once to England in a ship that was just about to
sail from Boston. He was ordered to come to Boston and embark there,
but refused to obey the summons. A boat's crew was then sent to arrest
him and bring him to Boston by force; but when the officers reached
Salem he had disappeared.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Three days before their arrival Roger, Williams had left Salem, a wanderer for conscience sake. It was the depth of winter, the snow lay
thickly over the country, and the weather was cold and inclement. For
fourteen weeks, he says, he " was sorely tost in a bitter season, not knowing what bread or bed did mean."  Banished from the settlements of his
own race the exile went out into the wilderness, and sought the country
of the Indians, whose friendship he had won during his stay in the
colony. He had acquired their language during his residence at Plymouth, and could speak it fluently. He went from lodge to lodge, kindly
LANDING OF ROGER WILLIAMS AT PROVIDENCE.
welcomed by the savages, and lodging sometimes in a hollow tree, until
he reached Mount Hope, the residence of Massasoit, who was his friend.
Canonicus, the great chieftain of the Narragansetts, loved him with a
strong affection, which ceased only with his life; and in the country of
these friendly chiefs Williams passed the winter in peace and safety. He
never ceased to be grateful for their aid in his distress, and during his
whole life he was the especial friend and champion of the Indians in New
England.
It was the intention of Williams to settle at Seekonk, on the Pawtucket river; but that place was found to be within the limits of the
Plymouth colony. Governor Winslow wrote to Williams advising him
to remove to the region of Narragansett bay, which was beyond the jurisdiction of the English, and would render any misunderataniing between




SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 177
the Plymouth and Bay colonies on his account impossible. "1 took his
prudent motion," says Williams, "as a voice from God."  Being joined
by five companions, Williams embarked in a canoe in June, 1635, and
passing o\ c to the west arm of Narragansett bay, landed at an attractive
spot, where lie found a spring of pure water. He chose the place as the
site of a new settlement, and in gratitude for his deliverance from the
many ldangers through which he had passed, named it PROVIDENCE.
He sought to purchase enough land for a settlement, but Canonicus
refused to sell the land, and gave it to his friend "to enjoy forever"
This grant was made to Williams alone, and constituted him absolute
owner of the lands included in it. He might have sold them to settlers
on terms advantageous to himself; but lie declined to do so. In the next
two years he was joined by a number of his old followers from Massachusetts, and by others who fled to his asylum. He gave a share of land
to all who came to settle, and admitted them to an equality with himself
in the political administration of the colony. The government was
administered by the whole people, The voice of the majority decided all
public measures; but in matters of conscience every man was left answerable to God alone. All forms of religious belief were tolerated and
protected. Even infidelity was safe here from punishment by the civil
or ecclesiastical power. Williams was anxious to establish friendly relations with the Massachusetts colony; for though he felt keenly xtle
injustice of his persecutors, he cherished no bitterness or resentment
towards them. He condemned only what he considered the delusions of
the magistrates of Massachusetts, but never attacked his persecutors. "I
did ever from my soul," he wrote with simple magnanimity, " honor and
love them, even when their judgment led them to afflict me."  Winslow,
touched with his true Christian forbearance, came from Plymouth to
visit him, and left with his wife some money for their support; and some
of the leaders of the Bay colony began to bear tardy witness to his virtues.
The settlement at Providence continued to grow slowly, and was blessed
with peace and an increasing prosperity
Massachusetts in the meantime continued to receive numerous additions to her population by emigration from England. In the autumn of
1635, twelve families left Boston, and journeying into the interior,
founded the town of Concord. They had a hard struggle to establish
their little settlement, but persevered, and at length their labors were
crowned with success. Three thousand people came over to Massachusetts this year. Among them were Hugh Peters, a man of great eloquence
and ability and a devoted republican, who had been pastor to a church
of exiles at Rotterdam, and Henry Vane the younger, "a man of the
12




178


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


purest mind; a statesman of spotless integrity; whose name the progres
of intelligence and liberty will erase from the rubric of fanatics and
traitors, and insert high among the aspirants after truth and the martyrs
for liberty." *
In the following spring (1636) Vane was elected governor of the
colony   The people were dazzled by his high birth and pleasing qualities, and committed an error in choosing him, for neither his age nor his
experience fitted him for the distinguished position conferred upon him.
The arrival of Vane seemed to promise an emigration of a number of the
English nobility, and an effort was made by several of them in England
to procure the division of the general court into two branches, and the
establishment of an hereditary nobility in the colony which should
possess a right to seats in the upper branch of the court. The inagistrates of thel colony were anxious to conciliate these valuable friends, but
they firmly refused to establish hereditary nobility in their new state.
Religious distcussions formed a large part of the life of the colony
Meetings were held by the men, and passages of Scripture were discussed,
and the sermons of the ministers made the subject of searching criticism.
The women might attend these meetings, but were not allowed 'to take
part in the discussions. Mrs. Anne Hutchinson, a woman of talent and
elo -lence, claimed for her sex the right to participate equally with the
men in these meetings; but as this was not possible, she began to hold
meetings for the benefit of the women at her own house. At these
religious doctrines were discussed and advocated which were at variance
with the principles of the magistrates.  Mrs. Hutchinson and her
followers held that the authority of private judgment was superior to
that of the church, and condemned the efforts of the colony to enforce.conformity to the established system as violative of the inherent rights of
Christians. She was encouraged by John Wheelwright, a silenced minister,
who had married her sister, and by Governor Vane, and her opinions
were adopted by a large number of the people, and by members of the
general,court and some of the magistrates.
The ministers saw their authority menaced by the new belief, and
made common cause against Mrs. Hutchinson and her protector, Governor
Yane. The colony was divided into two parties, and the religious question became a matter of great political importance. Under the established
system,he ministers formed almost a distinct estate of the government,
and political privileges were entirely dependent upon theological conformity  The;success of Mrs. Hutchinson's views would revolutionize
the government and destroy the power of the church to control secular
* Bancroft.




SETTLEMENT OF MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 179
affairs. Such a change was not yet to be attempted. Governor Vane
was too far in advance of the age, and Mrs. Hutchinson was denounced
as " weakening the hands and hearts of the people towards the ministers,"
and as being as bad "as Roger Williams, or worse."  Some went so far
as to hint that she was a witch. Feeling sure that they would not
receive justice at the hands of their opponents, the friends of Mrs.
Hutchinson declared their intention to appeal to the king. This aroused
a storm of indignation in the colony, and ".it was accounted perjury and
treason to speak of appeals to the king." This threat changed the whole
character of the question, and was fatal to the party which made it. The
Puritans had come to Massachusetts to escape the interference of the
crown with their religious belief, and to appeal to the king in this case
would be simply to place the liberties of the colony at his mercy  When
the elections were held, in the spring of 1637, Governor Winthrop and
the old magistrates were chosen by a large majority  Vane soon after
returned to England.
The church party being now in power resolved to silence Mrs. Hutchinson. She was admonished to cease her teachings, and upon her refusal
to obey this order, she and her followers were exiled from the colony
Wheelwright and a number of his friends went to New Hampshire, and
founded the town.of Exeter, at the head of tide-water on the Piseataqua.
Mrs. Hutchinson and the majority of her followers removed, in the
spring of 1638, to the southward, intending to settle on Long Island or
on the Delaware.  Roger Williams induced them to remain near his
plantation, and obtained for them from Miantonomoh, the chief of the
Narragansett tribe, the gift of the beautiful island in the lower lpart of
Narragansett bay, which they called the island of Rhodes, or Rlhode
Island. The number of settlers was scarcely more than twenty, but they
proceeded to form a government upon a plan agreeable to the principles
they professed. It was a pure democracy, founded upon the universal
consent of the people, who signed a social compact pledging themselves
to obey the laws made by the majority, and to respect the rights of conscience. William Coddington, who had been a magistrate in the Bay
colony, was elected judge or ruler, and three elders were chosen as his
assistants. The settlement grew rapidly, and by 1641 the population
had become so numerous as to require a written constitution.
Mrs. Hutchinson remained in Rhode Island for several years; but
fearing that the hostility of the magistrates of Massachusetts would reach
her even there, removed beyond New Haven into the territory of the
Dutch, where, in 1643, she and all her family who were with her, except
one child, who was taken prisoner, were murdered by the Indians.




CHAPTER XII.


COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT.
The Dutch Claim the Connecticut Valley-They build a Fort at Hartford-Governor
Winslow makes a Lodgment in Connecticut for the English-Withdrawal of the Dutch
-The First Efforts of the English to Settle Connecticut-Emigration of Hooker and his
Congregation-They Settle at Hartford-Winthrop builds a Fort at Saybrooke-Hos.
tility of the Indians-Visit of Roger Williams to Miantonomoh-A Brave Deed-The
Pequod War-Capture of the Indian Fort-Destruction of the Pequod Tribe-Effect of
this War upon the other Tribes-Connecticut Adopts a Constitution-Its Peculiar
Features-Settlement of New Haven.
jFHE fertile region of the Connecticut had attracted the attention of
the English at an early day; but before they could make any
f  effort to occupy it the Dutch sent an exploring party from Manc )   hattan island, in 1614, and examined the river and the country
through which it flowed. They built and fortified a tradingpost on the site of the present city of Hartford, but soon excited the illwill of the Indians by their cruel treatment of them. The Dutch found
themselves unable to occupy the country, and being unwilling to lose it,
endeavored, but without success, to induce the Pilgrims to remove from
Plymouth to the Connecticut, and settle in that region under their protection.
In 1630, the council of Plymouth granted the Connecticut region to
the Earl of Warwick, who, in 1631, assigned his claim to Lords Say and
Brooke, John Hampden, and others. As soon as this grant wvas known
to the Dutch they sent a party to the site of Hartford and re-established
their trading-post, and began a profitable trade with the Indians. They
mounted two cannon on their fort for the purpose of preventing the
English from ascending the river. Towards the latter part of the year
1633, Governor Winslow, of Plymouth, in order to secure a foothold for
the English in this valuable region, sent Captain William Holmes to the
Connecticut with a sloop and a number of men to make a settlement.
Upon ascending the river to the site of Hartford, Holmes found his
progress barred by the Dutch fort, the commander of which threatened
to fire upon him if he attempted to continue his voyage. Undaunted by
this threat, Holmes passed by the fort without harm, and ascended the
180




COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT.                 181
stream to Windsor, where he erected a fortified post. In 1634, the
Dutch made an unsuccessful attempt to drive him away. Failing in
this, and seeing that it was the deliberate purpose of the English to
occupy the Connecticut valley, the Dutch relinquished all claim to that
region, and a boundary line was arranged between their possessions and
those of the English, corresponding very nearly to that between the
States of Connecticut and New York.
In 1635, the Pilgrims determined to make settlements in this inviting
region, and late in the fall of that year a company of sixty persons, men,
women, and children, set out from Plymouth by land, sending a sloop
laden with provisions and their household goods around by sea, with
orders to join them  upon the Connecticut river. They began their
journey too late in the season, and their sufferings were very great in
consequence. Upon reaching the river they found the ground covered
with snow, and their sloop was delayed by storms and ice. Their cattle
died from cold and exposure, and but for a little corn which they
obtained from the Indians, and
such acorns as they could gather,.
the whole company must have          G    o   e: G
starved to death. Many of them                 L
abandoned their new home and
returned by land to the settlements  '
on the coast.
COAT OF ARMS OF CONNECTICUT.
The Puritans were resolved to
continue the effort to settle Connecticut, and in the spring of 1636 several
companies emigrated to that region. The principal party set out in
June, led by the Rev Thomas Hooker. It comprised about one hundred persons, and consisted principally of Hooker's congregation, who
followed their pastor with enthusiasm. They drove before them a
considerable number of cattle, which furnished them with milk on the
march. The emigrants were largely made up of persons of refinement
and culture, and comprised many of the oldest and most valued citizens
of the Bay colony. They were attracted to the valley of the Connecticut
by the superior advantages which it offered for the prosecution of the fur
trade, and by the great fertility of its soil. They had no guide but a
compass, and their route lay through an unbroken wilderness.  The
journey was long and fatiguing. The emigrants accomplished scarcely
more than ten miles a day, carrying their sick on litters, and making the
forests ring with their holy hymns. At length the site of Hartford, where
it was proposed to establish the settlement, was reached by the 1st of
July. The greater number remained there; some went higher up the




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


river and founded Springfield, and the rest went to Wethersfield, where
there was already a small settlement.
In the same year the younger John Winthrop arrived from England,
with orders from Lords Say and Brooke to establish a fort at the mouth
'of the Connecticut river. This he accomplished, naming the new settlement Saybrooke in honor of the proprietors. The settlements in Connecticut grew rapidly, the excellent soil and pleasant climate attracting
many emigrants to them.
The existence of these settlements was precarious, however. The
region in which they had been planted was the country of the Pequods,
who inhabited it in large numbers. They were the most powerful and
warlike tribe in New Enllgland, and could bring nearly two thousand
warriors into the field. They occupied the southeastern part of Connecticut, and their territory extended almost to the Hudson on the west,
where it joined that of the Mohegans. On the east their territory
bordered that of the Narragansetts.  Both of these tribes were the
enemies of the Pequods and the friends of the English. This friendship
was resented by the Pequods, who were already jealous of the English
because of their occupation of the lands along the Connecticut. The
tribe bore a bad name, and had already manifested their hostility by
murdering, a few years before, a Virginia trader named Stone, together
with the crew of his vessel, who were engaged in a trading expedition on
the Connecticut river. Somewhat later Captain Oldham and his crew,
while exploring the river, were also murdered by Indians living on Block
island. The Pequods justified the murder of Stone by alleging that he
had attacked them. Wishing to make a treaty with the English, they
sent their chiefs to Boston for that purpose, and promised-as the magistrates understood them-to deliver up the two men who had killed Stone.
Captain John Endicott was sent with a vessel, in 1636, to punish the
Block Island Indians for the murder of Oldham, and was ordered to call
on his return at the Pequod town, and demand the surrender of the
murderers of Stone. The Pequods declined to surrender these men, but
offered to ransom them. This was in accordance with their customs.
But Endicott refused to accept any compensation for the crime that had
been committed, and to punish the Indians destroyed their corn and
burned two of their villages. This made open hostilities inevitable. The
Pequods began to hang around the Connecticut settlements and cut off
stragglers from them. By the close of the winter more than thirty
persons had fallen victims to their vengeance.
The settlements in the Connecticut valley were now greatly alarmed.
They could not muster over two hundred fighting men, and the Indians




COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICU1T


183


in their immediate vicinity could bring into the field at least seven hundred warriors. War was certain, and it was not known at what moment
the savages would attack the settlements in overwhelming force. Connecticut (cllled upon Massachusetts for aid, but only twenty men, under
Captain Underhill, were sent to their aid. The energies and attention
of the Bay colony were engrossed by the Hutchinson quarrel.
The Pequods, notwithstanding their immense numerical superiority,
were unwilling to make war upon the English without the su!pport of
another tribe. They accordingly sent envoys to Miantonomoh, the chief
of the Narragansetts, to endeavor to engage that tribe in the effort
against the whites.  Such a union would have menaced all New
England, and as soon as the news of the negotiation reached Boston the
government of the Bay colony prepared to prevent the alliance. Governor
Vane at once wrote to Roger Williams, the friend of Miantonomoh,
urging him to seek that chieftain and prevent him from joining the
Pequods. It was a dangerous mission, and certainly a great service for
the magistrates of Massachusetts to ask of the man whom they had
driven into exile. They did not ask in vain, however  All of Williams'
generous nature was aroused by the danger which threatened his brethren,
and lie embarked in a frail canoe, and braving the danger of a severe
gale, sought the quarters of Miantonomoh. He found the Pequod chiefs
already there, and the Narragansetts wavering. Knowing the errand on
which he had come, the hostile chieftains were ready at any moment to
despatch him, and had Miantonomoh shown the least favor to the project,
Williams would have paid for his boldness with his life. He spent three
days and nights in the company of the savages, and succeeded in inducing
Miantonomoh not only to refuse to join the war against the English, but
to promise the colonists his assistance against the Pequods. In the
meantime he sent a messenger to Boston to inform the governor of the
designs of the Indians.
The Pequods, left to continue the struggle alone, flattered themselves
that their superiority in numbers would give them the victory, and continued their aggressions upon the Connecticut settlements to such an
extent that in May, 1637, the general court of that province resolved to.
begin the war at once. A force of eighty men, including those sent
from Massachusetts, was assembled at Hartford, and the command was
conferred by Hooker upon Captain John Mason. The night previous to
their departure was spent in prayer, and on the 20th of May the little
force embarked in boats and descelded the river to the sound, and
passed around to Narragansett bay, intending to approach the Pequod
town from that quarter. As the boats sailed by the mouth of the




184


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


Thames, the savages supposed the English were abandoning the Con.
necticut valley.
The day after the arrival of the English in Narragansett bay was the
Sabbath, and was scrupulously observed. On the following day they
repaired to the quarters of Canonicus, the old chief and principal ruler
of the Narragansett tribe, and asked his assistance against the Pequods.
Miantonomoh, the nephew and prospective successor of Canonicus, hesitated to join in the doubtful enterprise, but two hundred warriors agreed
to accompany the English, who could not, however, count upon the
fidelity of these reinforcements. Seventy Mohegans, under Uncas, their
chief, also joined Mason. With this force the English commander
marched across the country toward the Pequod towns on the Thames,
and halted on the night of the 25th of May, within hearing of them.
In the meantime the Pequods, convinced that the English had fled
fiom the Connecticut region, and never dreading an attack in their fort,
which they considered impregnable, had given themselves up to rejoicing.
The night, passed by the English in waiting the signal for the attack,
was spent by the Pequods in revelry and songs, which could be plainly
heard in the English camp. Two hours before dawn, on the morning
of the 26th of May, the order was given to the little band under Mason
to advance. They knew they would have to decide the battle by their
own efforts, and were by no means certain that their Indian allies would
not turn against them. The Pequods were posted in two strong forts
made of palisades driven into the ground and strengthened with rushwork, an excellent defence against a foe of their own race, but worthless
when assailed by Europeans. The principal fort stood on the summit
of a considerable hill, and was regarded by Sassacus, the Pequod chief,
as impregnable. The tramp of the advancing force aroused a dog, whose
fierce bark awoke the Indian sentinel. The keen eye of tle savage
detected the enemy in the gloom of the morning, and he rushed into the
fort, shouting, "The English! the English!"  The next moment the
English were through the palisades. On all sides they beheld the
Indians pouring out of their lodges to take part in the hand-to-hand
fight. The odds were too great. " We must burn them," cried Mason,
and, suiting the action to the word, he applied a torch to a wigwam constructed of dry reeds. The flames sprang up instantly and spread with
the rapidity of lightning. The Indians vainly endeavored to extinguish
the fire, and the English, withdrawing to a greater distance, began to
pick off the savages, who were doubly exposed by the light of the blazing
fort. Wherever a Pequod appeared, he was shot down. The Narragan-.setts and Mohegans now joined in the conflict, and the victory was




COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT.


185


complete. More than six hundred Pequods, men, women and children,
perished, the majority of them in the flames. The English lost only two
men; and the battle was over in an hour
As the sun rose, a body of three hundred Pequod warriors were seen
advancing from their second fort. They came expecting to rejoice witlh
their comrades in the destruction of the English. When they beheld
the ruined fort and the remains of its defenders, they screamed, stamped
on the ground and tore their hair with rage and despair. Mason held


YALE COLLEGE.


them in check with twenty men, while the rest of the English embarked
in their boats, which had come round from Narragansett bay, and
hastened home to protect the settlements against a sudden attack.
Mason, with the party mentioned, marched across the country to the fort
at Saybrooke, where he was received with the honors due to his successful exploit.
In a few days a body of one hundred men arrived from Mlassachusetts,
under Captain Stoughton, and the campaign against the Pequods was




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


resumed. Their pride was crushed, and they made but a feeble resistance. They fled to the west, closely pursued by the English, who
destroyed their corn-fields, burned their villages and put their women
and children to death without mercy  They made a last desperate effort
at resistance in the fiastnesses of a swamp, but were defeated with great
slaughter, Sassacus, their chief, with a few of his men took refuge with
the Mohawks, where he was soon after put to death by one of his own
people. The remainder of the tribe, about two hundred in number,
surrendered to the English, and were reduced to slavery  Some were
given to their enemies, the Narragansetts and Mohegans; others were
sent to the West Indies and sold as slaves. The Pequod nation was
utterly destroyed.
The thoroughness and remorselessness of the work struck terror to the
neighboring tribes. If the Pequods, the most powerful of all their race,
had been exterminated by a mere handful of Englishmen, what could
they expect in a contest with them but a similar fate? For forty years
tlhe horror of this fearful deed remained fresh in the savage mind, and
protected the young settlements more effectually than the most vigilant
watchfulness on the part of the whites could have done.
Relieved from the fear of the Indians, the people of Connecticut prepared to establish a civil government for the colony, and in January,
1639, a constitution was adopted. It was more liberal, and therefore
more lasting, than that framed by any of the other colonies. It provided for the government of the colony by a governor, a legislature and
the usual magistrates of an English province, who were to be chosen
annually by ballot. Every settler who should take the oath of allegiance
to the commonwealth was to have the right of suffrage. The members
of the legislature were apportioned among the towns according to the
population. The colony was held to be supreme within its own limits,
and no recognition was made of the sovereignty of the king or Parliament. When Connecticut took her place among the States of the
American Union, at the opening of the war of the Revolution, her constitution needed no change to adapt her to her new position. It remained
in force for one hundred and fifty years.
In the year of the Pequod war (1637), John Davenport, a celebrated
clergyman of London, and Theophilus Eaton, a merchant of wealth, and
a number of their associates, who had been exiled from England for
their religious opinions, reached Boston. They were warmly welcomed,
and were urged to stay in the Bay colony, but the theological disputes
were so high there that they preferred to go into the wilderness and
found a settlement where they could be at peace. Eaton with a few men




COLONIZATION OF CONNECTICUT.


187


was sent to explore the region west of the Connecticut, which had been
discovered by the pursuers of the Pequods. He examined the coast of
Ltong Island sound, and spent the winter at a place which hle selected as
a settlement. In April, 1638, Davenport and the rest of the company
sailed from Boston and established a settlement on the spot chosen by
Eaton. The settlers obtained a title to their lands from the natives, and
agreed in return to protect them against the Mohawks. They named
their settlement New Haven. In 1639, a form of government was
adopted, and Eaton was elected governor. He wNas annually chosen to


VALLEY OF THE CONNECTICUT.


this position until his death, twenty years later. The colonists pledged
themselves " to be governed in all things by the rules which the Scriptures held forth to them."  The right of suffrage was restricted to
church members. "Thus New Haven made the Bible its statute book,
and the elect its freemen." In the next ten years settlements spread
along the sound and extended to the opposite shores of Long island.
The colony was distinct from and independent of the Connecticut colony,
with which friendly relations were soon established.




CHAPTER XIII.


THE UNION OF TIIE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.
Feting of the Colonies towards England-Hostility of the English Government to New
England-Effbrts to Introduce Episcopacy-Massachusetts Threatens Resistance-The
Revolution in England-Establishment of Free Schools in New England-Harvard
College-The Printing Press-The Long Parliament Friendly to New England-The
United Colonies of New England-Rhode Island Obtains a Charter-Maine Annexed
to Massachusetts-The Quakers are Persecuted-Efforts to Christianize the IndiansJohn Eliot, the Apostle to the Indians.
/ HE sentiments with which the people of the New England colonies
regarded the mother country may be briefly stated. They were
proud of the name of Englishmen, and took a deep interest in
the welfare of their old home. They regarded the British constitution as the supreme law of their new states, and claimed to
be true and loyal subjects of the King of England. Nevertheless, they
looked upon the success of their colonies as their own work, accomplished
by their own patience and heroism, and they were fully aware that they
owed nothing to the mother country  They had been driven forth from
her shores by persecution, and left in neglect to struggle up to the successful position they now occupied. They owed nothing to England; in
their deepest distress they had never asked aid of'her, and they were
willing to undergo any hardship rather than do so. They had made laws
and established institutions under which they had surmounted their early
trials, and they regarded their paramount allegiance as due to their
respective provinces. They acknowledged the right of no power beyond
the Atlantic to interfere with or change their work. They would
acknowledge their allegiance to the king as long as he respected the
system they had built up at such great cost, and without assistance from
him, but would resist any effort from him, or any one else, to interfere
with it. They had made New England what she was, and they meant to
retain the possession and control of their new home at any cost. They
had made themselves a free people, and they meant to preserve their
liberties as a precious heritage for their children.
This was the general sentiment of New England. There were some
discontented persons, however, in the midst of these determined people.
188




THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.


189


They had found the stern discipline of the Massachusetts colony too
oppressive, and some had been severely punished by the fiery Endicott.
Upon returning to England they endeavored to induce the king to exert
his power and remedy what they termed the distraction and disorder of
the province of Massachusetts.  Their complaints were echoed by a
strong party in England.  Burdett wrote to Archbishop Laud that
"The colonists aimed not at a new discipline, but at sovereignty; that it
was accounted treason in their general court to speak of appeals to the
king;" in which assertion he was right. The English archbishop began
to regard the departure of so many "faithful and free-born Englishmen
and good Christians" to join a new communion as a serious matter, and
impediments were thrown in the way of emigration. In February, 1634,
a requisition was addressed to the colony of Massachusetts ordering the
colonial officials to produce the patent of the company in England. The
colony took no notice of this demand. A little later the king appointed
the Archbishop of Canterbury and some others a special commission, with
full power over the American colonies. They were authorized to make
such changes in church and state as they deemed necessary; to enforce
them with heavy penalties; and even to revoke all charters that contained
privileges inconsistent with the royal prerogative.
The news of the appointment of this commission reached Boston in
September, 1634, and it was also rumored that a governor-general for the
colonies had been appointed, and had sailed from England. All Massachusetts burned with indignation, and the colony resolved to resist the attempt
upon its liberties. It was very poor, but in a short space of time the large
sum of six hundred pounds was raised for the public defence, and fortifications were begun and pushed forward with energy. In January, 1635,
the ministers were assembled at Boston and their opinion was asked upon
the question whether the colony should receive a governor-general. They
answered boldly: "We ought to defend our lawful possessions if we are
able; if not, to avoid and protract."
In April, 1638, the privy council demanded the surrender of the
charter of Massachusetts, threatening in case of refusal that the king
would take the management of the colony into his own hands. The
colonial authorities were firmly resolved to give the king no pretext for
interference with their affairs, and instead of complying with the order of
the privy council, they addressed a remonstrance to that body against the
surrender required of them, thus seeking to gain time. They were fully
determined not to give up their charter; but before their remonstrance
could reach England the troubles which encompassed Charles at home
made it impossible for him to carry out his designs against Massachusetts.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The breaking out of the civil war in England put a stop to the emigration to New England. At the opening of the year 1640 the population of New England numbered 20,000. Some fifty towns and between
thirty and forty churches had been built, and the most desponding could
no longer doubt the ultimate success and prosperity of the country. The
wretched cabins of the first settlers were rapidly giving way to fair and
comfortable houses, and the colonists were beginning to gather about
them many of the comforts and much of the refinement they had been
accustomed to in England.
Nor were the Puritans mindful of material success only  Many of


HARVARD COLLEGE.


them were persons of education, and they were anxious that their children
should have the opportunity of enjoying the blessings of knowledge in
their new homes. In 1636 the general court made provision for the
establishment at Newtown of a high school. The name of the town was
changed to Cambridge as a token that the people meant that it should
yet be the seat of a university  In 1637 the school was formally opened.
The next year the Rev John Harvard, of Charlestown, bequeathed to the
infant institution his library and the half of his fortune, and in gratitude
for this assistance the school took the name of Harvard Colleye. In 1647




THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.


the general court ordered that in every town or district of fifty families
there should be a common school; and that in every town or district of
one hundred families there should be a grammar school, conducted by
teachers competent to prepare young men for college. This systeni
rapidly found its way into the other New England colonies, with the
exception of Rhode Island.
Thus was founded the American system of common schools. Until
now education had been the task of the church, or had been confided to
private individuals; but now, for the first time in the history of the
AN AMERICAN FREE SCHOOL.
world, the state took the task of educating its young citizens into its own
hands, and established the schools in which it was to be conducted.
Henceforth knowledge was to be restricted to no favored class; education
was made free to every child, and every parent being taxed for the support of the public schools was made to feel interested in their proper conduct. From the little beginning thus made a vast and noble system has
been developed, the beneficial results of which must be felt to the latest
period of our national existence. Had the fathers of New England done
nothing more for posterity than this, they would still deserve to be held
in grateful remembrance as the founders of our public schools. Genera



IISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TE'S.


tions yet unborn shall rise up to call them blessed, and to acknowledge
the truth of their conviction that ignorant men cannot make good citizens.
In 1639 a printing press, presented to the colony by some friends in
Holland, was set up in Massachusetts. Stephen Dayc was the printer,
and in that year printed an almanac (alculated for New England, and in
1640 a metrical version of the Psalms, made "by Thomas Welde and
John Eliot, ministers of Roxbury, assisted by Richard Mather, minister
of Dorchester."  It was the first book printed in the English language
in America, and continued to be used for a long time in the worship of
the New England churches.
Many of the settlers went back to England at the outset of the civil
war to take part in the struggle, among whom were Governor Henry
Vane and Hugh Peters, and very few emigrants arrived in New England
during the existence of the commonwealth. Yet the colonies continued
to prosper. Ship-building, which had been introduced by the first settlers
of Salem, was carried on with activity, and vessels of four hundred tons
were constructed. A little later the manufacture of woollen and linen
cloth was begun by order of the general court in consequence of the difficulty of obtaining supplies from England.
The colonial churches were invited to send their representatives to the
assembly of divines at Westminster, but they wisely neglected to do so,
judging it better to remain in their obscurity than to give the English
people a pretext for future interference by joining in their affairs.
The Long Parliament was friendly to New England, and granted to
the colonies an exemption from all duties upon their commerce "until
the House of Commons should take order to the contrary "  Massachusetts took advantage of the security afforded by the friendship of the
Long Parliament to establish a written constitution, or " body of liberties," which placed the rights and privileges of her people upon a more
stable basis. It contained some of the severest laws of the Mosaic code,
such as those against witchcraft, blasphemy, and sins against nature, but
secured. the freedom of the citizen, the right of representative government, and the independence of the state and the municipality. The
rights of property, the freedom of inheritance, and the independence of
each church from control by the others were also placed beyond dispute.
"This constitution," says Bancroft, "for its liberality and comprehensiveness may vie with any similar record from the days of Magna Charta."
In April, 1642, the towns on the Piscataqua, now embraced within
the limits of the State of New Hampshire, were annexed at their own
request to Massachusetts. As the people of this region were not Puritans, and many of them were attached to the forms and faith of the




THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.


Church of England, the general court in September adopted a measure
providing that neither the freemen nor the deputies of New Hampshire
should be required to be church members. This act of justice removed
all danger of political discord. In the same year Massachusetts made a
less creditable and an unsuccessful effort to annex Rhode Island to her
dominions.
Though relieved of the interference of the mother country, the dangers
of New England were not yet at an end. The Indians were still
powerful upon their narrow border, the French were beginning to
threaten them from the direction of Canada, and the Dutch from the
Hudson. The colonies had so many interests in common that it was of
vital importance that they should act in concert for their defence.
After several ineffectun l attempts, a leaglue was formed in 1643 between
the colonies of Massachusetts, PIlymouth, Connecticut, and New Haven,
under the title of "The U[liti'l:( Colonies of Ne\w England."  Each colony
was to retain its freedom in the management of its own affairs; the
authority of the union, which was intrusted to a commission of two
members from each province, being limited to objects which concerned
the general welfare of the colonies. Provision was made for the preservation of the purity of the gospel, the commissioners were required to l)e
church members, and tlhe expenses of the confederacy were to be assessed
upon the colonies according to population. This union lasted for forty
years.
The colony of Rhode Island desired to be admitted into the union, but
its petition was refused, as it would not acknowledge the jurisdiction of
Plymouth. The people of the two settlements on Narragansett bay,
dreading an attempt to absorb them into some of the other colonies, now
determined to apply to Parliament for an indlependent charter  Roger
Williams was despatched to England for that purpose in 1643, and
reached that country soon after the death of Hampden.  The fame of his
labors among the Indianl3 had preceded him, and secured for him a
cordial welcome in his native land. Assisted by Sir Henry Vane, a
charter was obtained in March, 1644, organizing the settlements on
Narragansett bay as an independent colony under the name of' "The
Providence Plantations," ' with full power and authority to rule themselves."  The execltive council of state in England, in 1651, made some
grants to Coddington which would have dismembered the little state,
and Williams was obliged to make a second voyage to England to lhave
these grants vacated. He succeeded in his efforts and the charter was
confirmed. He received in this, as in his former mission, the cordial
co-operation of Sir Henry Vane, whose name should be ever dear to the
13




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


people of Rhode Island, since but for him her territory would have been
divided among the neighboring colonies. In the interval between his
first and second voyages Roger Williams became a convert to the Baptist
faith, and founded the first church of that denomination in America.
The country between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec was assigned
to Sir Ferdinand Gorges, who, in 1639, was confirmed in his possession
by a formal charter from Charles I., who called the territory the
Province of Maine. In 1640, Gorges sent Iis son Thomas to Maine as
his representative. Thomas Gorges took up his residence at the settlement of Agamenticus, now the town of York, and in 1642 changed the
name of the place to Gorgeana.
Since the settlement of the colony the French had claimed the region
between the St. Croix and the Penobscot, which they had settled under
the name of Acadia, as has been stated elsewhere. After the death of
Sir Ferdinand Gorges Maine was divided among his heirs. These cut it
up into four weak communities, whose helplessness laid them open to the
encroachments of the French in Canada. Apprehensive of the results of
this, Massachusetts, to whom many of the inhabitants of the province
had appealed to take such a course, in 1651 claimed the province of
Maine as a part of the territory which had been granted to the colony by
the original charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent to
establish the authority of the Bay colony over the province, but the
magistrates of Maine resisted them, and appealed to the English governieant for protection. The people of Maine were the adherents of the
king and the established church, and England was now ruled by the
Puritans; consequently Massachusetts won her cause, and Maine was
declared a part of that province. Massachusetts made a generous use of
her power, and allowed the towns of Maine very much the same government and privileges they now enjoy, and in religious matters treated
them with the same leniency she had shown to New Hampshire.
In 1646, a dispute in the Bay colony induced one of the parties to it to
appeal to Parliament to sustain his claims, and an order was sent out to
Boston in his behalf "couched in terms which involved the right of
Parliament to reverse the decisions and control the government of
Massachusetts." In plainer terms, Parliament claimed the right to
revoke the charter of the colony, as the king had done at the outset of
the civil war. The danger was great, and Massachusetts met it with
firmness. The general court met on the 4th of November, and sat with
closed doors to discuss the claim of the English government. It was
resolved "tlhat Massachusetts owed to England the same allegiance as
the free Hanse towns had rendered to the empire; as Normandy, when




THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.


its dukes were kings of England, paid - to the monarchs of France."
The court also refused to accept a new charter from Parliament, as that
action might imply a surrender of the original instrument, or to allow
Parliament to control in any way the independence of the colony  Great
as this claim was it was admitted by the English Parliament, in which
the rights of the colony were stoutly maintained by Sir Henry Vane and
others; and in reply to a respectful address of the general court setting
forth the views of that body, a committee of Parliament declared: " We
encourage no appeals from your justice. We leave you with all the freedom and latitude that may, in any respect, be duly claimed by you."
Later on, upon the establishment of the commonwealth, Parliament
invited the people of Massachusetts to receive a new patent from that
body; but the colonial authorities wvisely declined to do this, or to allow
the home government any hold upon the administration of the affairs of
the province.
In 1651, Cromwell, who had subdued Ireland, offered that island to
the Puritans of New England as a new home; but they declined to leave
America. Cromwell proved himself in many ways a judicious friend of
New England, and the people of that country treasured his memory with
the gratitude and respect it so richly deserved.
Though so successful in asserting her own liberties, Massachusetts had
not yet learned the lesson of religious tolerance. When the Baptists
began to appear in the colony severe measures were inaugurated to crush
them, and one of their number-Holmnes-a resident of Lynn, was
whipped unmercifully  Still greater were the severities practised towards
the Quakers. This sect had grown out of the Protestant Reformation,
and constituted at this day the most advanced thinkers upon religious
matters to be found in England. They claimed a perfect freedom in
matters of faith and worship, and regarded all laws for enforcing religious
systems as works of the devil. They were persons of pure lives, and
even their most inveterate enemies could not charge them with wrongdoing.  Previous to their appearance in Massachusetts exaggerated
reports reached the colony concerning them. They were represented as
making war upon all forms of religion and government.
The first of this creed who came to New England were Mary Fisher
and Ann Austin, who reached Boston in July, 1656. In the absence of
a special law against Quakers, they were arrested under the provisions of
the general statute against heresy; their trunks were searched and their
books burned by the hangman.     Their persons were examined for
marks of witchcraft, but nothing could be found against them, and after
being kept close prisoners for five weeks, they were sent back to England.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


During the year eight others were also sent back to England. Laws
whiclh were a disgrace to an enlightened community were now passed
prohibiting the Quakers from entering the colony  Such as came were
imprisoned, cruelly whipped, and sent away. In 1657, a woman was
whipped with twenty stripes for this offence. In 1658, a law was
enacted that if any Qu.aker should return after being banished, his or her
offence should be punished with death. It was hoped that this barbarous
measure would rid the colony of their presence; but they came in still
greater numbers, to reprove the magistrates for their persecuting spirit,
and to call them to repentance.  In 1659, Marmaduke Stephenson,
William Robinson, Mary Dyar, and William Leddro were hanged on
Boston Common for returning to the colony after being banished.
These cruelties were regarded with great discontent by the people of
the colony, whose humanity was shocked by the barbarity of the magistrates. Their opposition grew stronger every day, and at last it became
evident to the magistrates themselves that their sevcrities were of no
avail. When William Leddro was being sentenced to death the magistrates were startled by the entrance into the court room of Wenlock
Christison, a Quaker who had been banished and forbidden to return on
pain of (eath. Christison was arrested, but the complaints of the people
became so loud that the magistrates were obliged to pause in their bloody
work.   Christison and twenty-seven of his companins were released
fromn custody, the persecution of the Quakers was discontinued, and the
general court, in obedience to the will of the people, repealed the barbarous laws against that sect.
In pleasing contrast with these severities were the efforts of the Puritans to spread a knowledge of the gospel among the savages. Chief
among those engaged in the good work was John Eliot, the minister of
Roxbury, Whose labors won him the name of " the apostle Eliot."  He
went among the red men in the forests, and acquired a knowledge of
their language that lie mirht preach to them in their own tongue. When
lie had become sufficiently proficient in it, he translated the Bible into
the Indian langua(e. This translation was printed at Cambridge, and a
part of the type was set by an Indian compositor. He spent many years
in the preparation of his Bible, and made a good use of it during his
life; but it is now valuable only as a literary curiosity and as the evidence of the devotion of the translator to his noble work. The destruction
of the race for which it was intended has made it a sealed book. Eliot
gathered his savage converts into a settlement at Natick, and taught the
men the art of agriculture and the women to spin and to weave clotlh.
He had to encounter the opposition of thle chiefs and medicine men or




THE UNION OF THE NEW ENGLAND COLONIES.


197


priests, who resented his efforts to win their people from the worship and
habits of their ancestors, but he persevered. He was greatly beloved by
his disciples, and continued his labors among them far into old age, and
to a limited extent to the day of his death, which took place when he
had attained the ripe age of eighty-six years. " My memory, my utterance fails me," he said near the close of his life; " but I thank God my
charity holds out still." When Walton, a brother minister, visited him
on his death-bed, he greeted him with the words: "Brother, you are


NEWPORT, R. I.
f welcome; but retire to your study and pray that I may be gone."  His
last words on earth were the triumphal shout with which he entered upon
his reward: "Welcome joy!"
Many of the Quakers, after the persecutio: against them was over,
joined Eliot in his labors. He had other fellow-workers.  The two
Mayhevs, father and son, Cotton, and Brainerd' thought it a privilege to
labor for the souls of the poor sayages. Native preachers were ordained,
and at last there were thirty churches of "praying Indians" under such: preachers.


/




CHAPTER XIV.
NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION
Arrival of the News of the Restoration of Charles II.-The Regicides in New England-..
They are Protected-Revival of' the Navigation Acts-Effect of this measure uponl the
New England Colonies-Massaclhusetts delays the Proclamation of the King-Connecticut obtains a Charter-Union of Newv Haven with the Connecticut Colony-Rhode
Island given a new Charter-Massachusetts settles her difficulties with the CrownChanges in the Government-'i-gh-handed acts of the Royal Commis-sioners-Troubles
with the Indians-Injustice of the Whites-King Philip's War-A Forest Ilero-An
Incident in the Attack upon H-adley-Sufferings of the Colonies-Destruction of thle
Narragansetts-Death of Philip-Clo.-e of the WVar-England asserts her right to Tax
the Colonies-Mlassachusetts, buys Gorges' claims to Maine-New Hampshire made a
separate Province-James, II. revokes the Charter of Massachusetti-Dudle'y and Randolph in New England-Andros appointed Governor-Genervd-His Tyranny-He demands the Charter of Connecticut-It is carried away and Hidden-The Charter Oak~Fall of James II.-The people of Massachusetts take up Arms-Andros arrestedEffects of the Revolution upon New England.
HEiewvs of the restoration of Charles II. to the English throne
wa        rudtt       otoHyEwrEhleyadWlimGfe
two of the judges of Charles I. They came to seek refuige
-    fromt the vengeance of the king, having offended him      beyond
forgiveness by their sharc in the (leath of his father. They renmai ned about a year in Mlassachusett-s, protected by the people, and
preaching to themi. A fewv mouths after their arrival, warrants for their
arrest and transportation to Engl~and for trial arrived fromt the king, and
to escape this dangrer they took refuge in New Haven. The royal
officers instituted a diligent search for them, and they were obliged to
change their lplace of concealment frequently        Great rewards were
offered for their betrayal, and even the Indians were urged to search the
woods for their hiding-places. The people whom they trusted 1)rotected
them, and aided them to escape the royal officers until the vigor of th~e
search was exhausted. They then conducted them to a secure refuge in
the vicinity of Hadley, where they remained in seclusion and peace until
the close of' their lives.
News was constantly arriving in the colonies of the execution of the
men who had been the friends of America in the Parliament, and a
198




NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


199


general sadness was cast over the settlements by the tidings of the death
of Hugh Peters and the noble Sir Henry Vane. From the first the
people of New England saw plainly that they had little reason to expect
justice at the hands of the royal government, and there was little rejoicing in that region at the return of the king to " his own again."
One of Charles's first acts was to revive in a more odious form the
navigation act of the Long Parliament. We have spoken of the effect
of this measure upon the colonies of Virginia and Maryland. This act
closed the harbors of America against the vessels of every European
nation save England, and forbade the exportation of certain American
productions to any country but England or her possessions. This was a
very serious blow to New England, and was intended as such. The
colonies of that region had already built up a growing commerce, and
this, together with their activity in ship-building, excited the envy and
the hostility of the British merchants, who hoped, by inducing the king
to place these restrictions upon the colonies, to c(ompel the Americans to
depend upon them for the supply of all their wants. Later on, America
was forbidden not only to manufacture any articles which might compete
with English manufactures in foreign markets, but to supply her own
wants with her own manufactures. At the same time Parliament endeavored to destroy the trade that had grown up between New England
and the southern colonies by imposing upon the articles exported from
one colony to another a duty equal to that imposed upon the consumption
of these articles in England.
Thus did Great Britain lay the foundation of that system of commercial injustice toward her colonies which eventually deprived her of
them, and which her greatest writer on political economy declared to be
"a manifest violation of the rights of mankind."  The policy thus
established in the reign of Charles II. was never departed from. Each
succeeding administration remained true to the principles of the navigation act, and consistently declined to admit the claim of the colonies to
just and honorable treatment at the hands of the mother country.
Charles II. was promptly proclaimed in the colonies of Plymouth,
Connecticut, New Haven and Rhode Island, and those provinces were
administered in his name. Massachusetts, distrusting his purposes
towards her, held back, and waited until he should show his intentions
more plainly.
Connecticut had purchased the claims of the assigns of the Earl of
Warwick to the region occupied by her, and had bought the territory
of the Mohegans from    Uncas, their sachem. The colony sent the
younger Winthrop to England in 1661 to obtain a charter from the




200


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


king. The noble character of Governor Winthrop was well known in
England, and impressed even the profligate Charles. His reception was
cordial and his mission entirely successful. In 1662, the king granted
to the colony a charter incorporating Hartford and New Haven in one
province under tlhe name of Connecticut, and extending its limits from
Long Island sound westward to the Pacific ocean, thus bestowing upon
the colony tllose rich western lands which were subsequently made the
basis of the magnificent school fund of Connecticut. The charter was
substantially the same in its provisions as the constitution adopted by
the Hartford colony   By it the king conferred upon the colonists the
righIt to elect their own officers and to make and administer their own
laws without interference from England in any event whatever. Connecticut was made independent in all but name, and the charter continued
in force as the constitution of the State after the period of independence
until 1818.
Tle colony of New Haven was much opposed to the union with Connecticut, and it required all Governor Winthrop's efforts to induce the
people of that colony to accept it. The matter was adjusted in 1665,
when the union was finally accomplished.   The labors of Governor
Winthrop were rewarded by his annual election as governor of Connecticut for fourteen years.  Connecticut was a fortunate colony. Its
government was ably and honestly administered; no persecutions marred'
its peace, and its course was uiniformly prosperous and happy  It was
always one of the most peaceful acnd orderly colonies of Newv England,
and for a century its population doubled once in twenty years, notwithstanding frequent emigrations of its people to other parts of the country.
The colony at an early (lay made a liberal provision for education, and
in 1700 Yale College was founded. It was originally located at Saybrooke, but in 1718 was removed to New Haven.
Rhode Island was equally fortunate. Through its resident agent at Londlon, John Clarke, it made application to the king for a new charter, and
after some delay, caused by the difficulty of arranging satisfactorily the
limits of the province, a charter was granted in 1663, formally establishing the colony of "Rhode Island and Providence Plantations."  This
charter continued to be the sole constitution of Rhode Island until the
year 1842. By its provisions the government of the colony was to consist of a governor, deputy-governor, ten assistants, and representatives
from the towns. The laws were to be agreeable to those of England, but
no oath of allegiance was required of the colony, and in matters of
religion the charter declared that "no person within the said colony, at
any time hereafter, shall be anywise molested, punished, disquieted, or




NEWT ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


called in question for any difference in opinion in matters of religion;
every person may at all times freely and fully enjoy his own judgmient
and conscience in matters of religious concernments."  Freedomn of conscience was not restricted to Christians; it was extended by the charter
to infidels and pagans as well. This charter made the little colony secure
against the attempts of Massachusetts to absorb her, and its reception by
the people was joyful and enthusiastic.
At this period the population of Rhode Island was about twenty-five
hundred. It increascd rapidly and steadily; the excellent harbors of the
province encouraged commerce, and the little state soon began to rival
her larger associates in prosperity
Massachusetts was from the first regarded with disfavor by the royal
government. It delayed its acknowledgment of' C11arles II. for over a
ye ar, and the king was not proclaimed at Boston until the 7th of August,
1661. Even then the general court forbade all manifestations of joy.
Tlie.-c signs of the independent spirit of the people had been observed in
Enbgland, and the colony had been watched by the government with anything but favor. The enemies of the young state hurried their complaints before the king, and Massachusetts at length found it to her
interest to send commissioners to London, as, indeed, the express orders
of the king required her to do. Among the agents sent over were John
Norton and Simon Bradstreet, men of ability and moderation, who commanded the confidence of all classes of the colonists. Their instructions
were to assure the king of the loyalty of Massachusetts, to engage his
favor for the colony; but to agree to " nothing prejudicial to their present
standing according to their patent, and to endeavor the establishment of
the rights and privileges then enjoyed."
The commissioners reached London in January, 1662, and were graciously received by the king, who confirmed the charter, and granted a
co:lnplte amnesty for all past offences against his majesty  He required,
however, that all laws derogatory to his authority should be repealed;
that the colonists should take the oath of allegiance to him; that justice
should be administered in his name; that the right of suffrage should be
thrown open to all freeholders of competent estates; and that all who
wished to do so slould be free to use "the book of common prayer, and
perform their devotion in the manner established in England."
These were better terms than the commissioners had reason to expect,
and were not in themselves objectionable, as Massachusetts was growing
beyond its early prejudices; but the acceptance of them would have implied an acknowledgment by the colony of the king's right to change its
fundamental law, and to interfere with its affairs at pleasure. Massa



202


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


chusetts was at once divided into two parties, the larger of which maintained the independence of the colony of royal control; the smaller party
supported the claims of the king. Under other circumstances no opposition would have been made to the toleration of the practices of the
Church of England in the colony; but now that it seemed that episcopacy was to be introduced as the ally of the royal power, the people of
Massachusetts resolved to prevent it from obtaining a foothold in their
midst. The general court resolved to maintain their political independence, and their religious establishment as well. As a measure of precaution the charter was secretly intrusted for safe-keeping to a committee
of four appointed by the general court; and it was ordered that only
small bodies of officers and men should be allowed to land from ships,
and should be required to yield a strict obedience to the laws of thl
province while on shore.
These last measures were adopted because of the appointment by the
king of commissioners to regulate the affairs of New England. The
commissioners reached Boston in July, 1664, escorted by the fleet sent
out from England for the reduction of New Amsterdam. They were
ordered to investigate the manner in which the charters of the New England colonies had been exercised, and had "full authority to provide for
the peace of the country, according to the royal instructions, and their
own discretion "-a power which Massachusetts was justified in regarding
as dangerous to her liberties.
The commissioners cared very little for the prejudices of the people of
Massacllusetts, and from the first proceeded to outrage their feelings.
They introduced the services of the Church of England into Boston to
the great disgust of the people. The Puritans had always observed the
old Jewish custom of beginning their Sabbath at sunset. The commissioners contemptuously disregarded this custom, and spent Saturday
evening in merry-making. They soon gave cause for more serious alarm
by exercising the powers with which they had been intrusted, and proceeding to redress the grievances of the people. All persons who had
complaints against Massachusetts were called ul)on to lay them before the
commissioners, and Rhode Island and the Narragansett chiefs promptly
availed themselves of the invitation. The general court now cut the
matter short by a decisive step, and sternly ordered the commissioners to
discontinue their proceedings, as contrary to the charter. The commissioners obeyed the order, and though the firmness of the colony aroused
the indignation of the king, he was not able to shake the determination
of a free people.
Nor was this the only opposition shown oy New England to the in



NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


203


justice of the mother country   The navigation acts were generally
disregarded; they could not be enforced; and Boston and the other
New England ports continued to enjoy their growing commerce as freely
as before the passage of these infamous acts. Vessels from all the other
colonies, and from France, Spain, Holland, and Italy, as well as from
England, were to be seen at all seasons in the port of Boston. Massachusetts owned the greater number of vessels built and operated in
America, and was the principal carrier for the other colonies. Its ships
sailed to the most distant lands beyond the sea, and the commerce of the
colony was rapidly becoming a source of great wealth. So marked
indeed was the prosperity of New England, that upon the receipt of the
news of the great fire in London, the colonists were able to send large
sums to the assistance of the sufferers. The people of New England
were industrious and frugal. Villages multiplied rapidly, and wherever
a village sprang up a common school accompanied it. The villages beganl
to assume a more tasteful and pleasing appearance, and men gave more
care to the adornment and beautifying of their homes.
The population of New England in 1675 has been estimated at about
55,000 souls; divided among the colonies as follows: Plymouth, about
7000; Connecticut, about 14,000; Massachusetts, about 22,000; Maine,
about 4000; New Hampshire, about 4000; Rhode Island, about 4000.
The settlements lay principally along the coast, from New Haven to the
northeastern border of Maine. Little progress had been made towards
penetrating the interior, Haverhill, Deerfield, Northfield, and Westfield
were towns on the remote frontier   This rapid growth alarmed the
Indians, who llad already begun to regard the whites as enemies bent on
their destruction. Though there had been peace for forty years in New
England, the savages saw that the policy pursued by the settlers was
meant to force them back from the lands of their fathers. The whites
had gradually absorbed the best lands in New England, and the red mein
had been as gradually crowded down upon the narrow necks and bays of
the southern shores of the Plymouth and Rhode Island colonies. This
had been done in pursuance of a settled policy, as the savages could be
more carefully watched, and more easily managed in these localities than
if left to roam at will over the country. The Indians on their part sullenly resented the course of the whites, and they had cause for complaint.
They were ignorant of the art of cultivating the soil, and unwilling to
practice it, and in their restricted limits it was difficult for them to obtain
the menns of supporting life. The game had been alniost entirely driven
from thle forests, and the savages were forced to depend upon fish for
their food; and tlhese were obtained ill scanty and uncertain quantities.




204


HIISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


Thus thec very success of New England was about to bring upon it the
most serious misfortulnes it had yet sustained.
Massasoit, who had been tlc early friend of the English, left two
sons at his death, Wamlsutta and(l Metacom, wllo lhad long been reckoned
among tlhec friends of the Plymouth colony  They wCere frequent visitors
at Plymouth, and had receive(1 from tlhe English the names of Alexander
and Philip. At thc death of Massasoit, Wamsutta or Alexander became
chief of the Wampanoags. Ie and (llis l)rother Philip were men of
more than ordinary abilities, and felt deeply tlhe wrongs which were beginning to fall thickly upon their race. Uncas, tlhe chief of the Mohegans,
tlc determinedl enemy of Wamisutta, exerted himself, with slccess, to fill
tlhe minds of the English with susS                  picions of tlhec intentions of the Warmpanoag chieftain, and it was resolved:-.:: i '.-  ^to arrest him and bring him to Ply— m.' —.    n outh.  Winslow was sent at the:,.:~~he lcad of an armed force, and succeeded
in surprising the chief in his hunting-:-@      2                    lodge, togetlher with eighty of his folI: J^^       lowers. The proud spirit of Warnf                          /, )  sutta chafed with such fury at the
- jI     ^     indignity thus pu-it upon him that he
k  /W  was seize(l with a (langerous fever,
~^W'. '.,    >;    and the English were obliged to permit him. to return home. " He died on
l                    his wvay," says Elliott. "He was carKING PHILIP,          ricd l]home on the shoulders of men, and
borne to his silent grave near Mount
Hope, in the evening of the day, and in the prime of his life, between lines
of sad, quick-minded Indians, who well believed hlim the victim of injustice
and ingratitude; for his father had lbeen the ally, not the subject of England, and(l so was lie, a(nd the like indignity hadl not before l)een put upon
any sachem."
By tlec death of his brother, Metacom, or Philip, became chief of the
Wampanoags. He kept his own council, but the whites soon had cause
to believe that he meditated a desperate vengeance upon them for the
death of Wamsutta and the wrongs of his race. To make the sense of
injury deeper in his mind the Plymouthl authorities treated him with
great harshness, and compelled him to give up his arms. A " praying
Indian" who lived among his people informed the colonists that the
chief meditated harm against them, and his dead body was soon after




NEW ENGLAND AFTER THEIE IDESTORA TION.


20.5


found. Three of Philip's men were suspected of tile murder. They
were arrested, tried at Plymouth, and found guilty by a jury composed
of whites and Indians, and were put to death. This was early in 1(;75.
The execution of these nlen awoke a wild thirst for revenge among the
tribe to which they belonged, and the young warriors clamored loudly
for war against the English. Philip, whose vigorous mind enabled himn
to judge more clearly of the issue of such a struggle, entered into the
contest with reluctance, for he saw that it must end in the destruction of
his race. He was powerless to resist the universal sentiment of Ihis
people, and like a true hero resolved to make the best of the situation in
which he was placed, and to share the fate of his nation. The Indians
were tolerably well provided with fire-arms, for, in spite of the severe
punishments denounced against the sale of weapons to the savages, the
colonists had not been proof against the temptations of gain held out to
then  by this traffic. Their chief dependence, however, was upon their
primitive weapons. The English, on the other hand, were well armed,
and were provided with forts and towns which furnished them with
secure places of refige. They might have averted the war by conciliating the savages, but they persisted in their unjust treatment of them,
regarding them as " bloody heathen," w-hom it was their duty to drive
back into the wilderness.
Philip was able to bring seven hundred desperate warriors into the
field. They had no hope of success; and they fought only for vengeance.
They knew every nook and hiding-place of the forest, and in these
natural defences could hope to continue the struggle as long as the leaves
remained on the trees to conceal their lurking-places from the white
man's search. Immediately after the execution of the three Indians at
Plymouth, Philip's men had begun to rob exposed houses and carry off
cattle, but the war did not actually begin until the 24th of June, 1675,
the day of fastingr and prayer appointed by the government as a preparation for the struzrle. On that day the people of Swanzey, in Plymouth
colony, while returnilng home from church, were attacked by the Wampanoags, and eight or nine were killed. Philip burst into tears when
the news of this attack was brought to him, but he threw himself with
energy into the hopeless struggle, now that it had come.
Reinforcements were sent from  Massachusetts to the aid of the
Plymouth colony, and on the 29th of June the united forces made an
attack upon the Wampanoags, killed six or seven of their men and drove
them to a swamp in which they took refuge. The English surrounded
this swamp, determined to starve the Indians into submission, but Philip
and his warriors escaped and took refuge among the Nipmucks, a small




IISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


tribe occupying what is now Worcester county, Massachusetts. The
English then marched into the territory of tile Narragansetts and compelled them to agree to remain neutral, and to deliver up the fugitive
Indians who should take refuge among them. This accomplished, the
colonists hoped they had put an end to the war.
Philip succeeded in inducing the Nipmucks to join him in the
struggle, and his warriors began to hang around the English settlements.
The whites were murdered wherever they ventured to expose themselves,
and a feeling of general terror spread through the colonies. No one
knew the extent of the hostility of the savage tribes, or how many allies
Philip had gained; nor was it certain when or where the next great
blow of the savages would be struck. Some of the colonists began to
give way to suplrstitious fears. It was asserted that an Indian bow, a
sign of impending evil, had been seen clearly defined against the heavens,
and that at the eclipse which occurred at this time the moon bore the
figure of an Indian scalp on its face. The northern heavens glowed with
auroral lights of unusual brilliancy; troops of phantom horsemen were
heard to dash through the air; the sighing of the night wind was like
the sound of whistling bullets; and tile howling of the wolves was fiercer
and more constant than usual. These things, the superstitious declared,
were warnings that the colonies were about to be severely punished for
their sins, among which they named profane swearing, the neglect of
bringing up their children in more rigid observances, the licensing of ale
houses, and the wearing of long hair by the men and of gay apparel by
the women. The more extreme even declared that they were about to be
"judged " for not exterminating the Quakers.
In the meantime Philip, with a party of Xipmucks and his own
people, carried the war into the valley of the Connecticut, and spread
death along the line of settlements from Springfield to Northfield, then
the most remote inland town. With the hope of withdrawing the Nipmucks, who could muster fifteen hundred warriors, from the confederacy,
Captain Hutchinson, with twenty men, was sent to treat with them.
His party was ambushed and murdered at Brookfield early in August.
The Indians then attacked Brookfield, and burned the village with the
exception of one strong house to which the colonists retreated. After a
siege of two days, during which they kept up a constant fire upon the
building, they attempted to burn the house, but were prevented by a
shower of rain which extinguished the flames. At the same moment a
reinforcement of fifty men arrived to the aid of the whites, and the
savages were driven off with the loss of several of their number. Philip
succeeded in drawing to his support nearly all the tribes of New Eng



NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


207


land, and it was resolved by the savages to make a general effort for the
destruction of the whites. A concerted attack was to be made upon a
large number of settlements at the same day and hour, and the Sabbath
was chosen as the day most favorable for the movement.
Deerfield in Massachusetts and Hadley in Connecticut were among the
places attacked. The former was burned. Hadley was assailed while
the congregation were worshipping in the church, and the whites were
bard pressed byv their antagonists. Suddenly in the midst of the battle


ATTACK UPON BROOKFIELD BY THE INDIANS.


there appeared a tall and venerable man with a flowing beard, and clad
in a strange dress. With sword in hand he rallied the settlers, and led
them to a new effort in which the savages were beaten back and put to
flight. When the battle,was over, the stranger could not be found, and
the wondering people declared that he was an angel sent by God for
their deliverance. It was Goffe, the regicide, who had suddenly left his
place of concealment to aid his countrymen in their struggle with the
savages. He had been lying in concealment at the house of Russell,




HISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


the minister of Hadley, and returned to his place of refuge when the
danger was over.
On tlhe whole the Indians, though they succeeded in causing great.
suffering to the colonies, were unsuccessful in their efforts during the
su.lmmer and autumn of 1675. In October, Philip returned to his old
home, but, finding Mount Hope in ruins, took shelter among the Narragansetts, who protected him notwithstanding their promise to deliver up
all fugitives to the English. The colonial authorities seeing that the
tribe had no intention of fulfilling their promise, and being fearful that
Philip would succeed in winning them over to his side, resolved to anticipate the danger and treat them as enemies.
A f;ir(e was collected and sent into the Narragansett country in
DIbenmber, 1675. This tribe, numbering about three thousand souls, had
(rected a strong fort of palisades in the midst of a swamp near the present town of Kingston, Rhode Island. It was almost inaccessible, and
had but a single entrance, defended by a morass, which could be passed
only by means cf a fallen tree. The English were led to the fort by an
Indian traitor, and attacked it on the 19th of December. After a severe
fi.Ilt of two hours tlhev succeeded in forcing an entrance into the fort.
The wigwams were then fired, and the whole place was soon in flanies.
The defeat of the savages was complete, but it was purchased by the loss
of six captains and two hundred and fifty men killed and wounded on
the part of the English. About one thousand of the Narragansetts were
slain, tlheir provisions were de.troyed and numbers were made prisoners.
Those wlho escaped wandered through the frozen woods without shelter,
and for food were compelled to dig for nuts and acorns under the snow.
Man di(ied during the winter   Canonchet, the Narragansett chief, was
among tlhe survivors. " We will fight to the last man rather than
become servants to the English," said the undaunted chieftain. He was
taken prisoner in Ap\ril, 1676, near Blackstone, and was offered his life
if he would induce the Indians to make peace. He refused the offer
with scorn, and, when senteneed to death, answered proudly: "I like it
well. I shall die before I sneak anything unworthy of myself."
In the spring of 1676, Philip, who had been to the west to endeavor
to induce the Mohawks to join the war against the English, returned to
place himself at the head of his countrymen in New England. The
work of murdering and burning was resumed witlh renewed fury   The
Indians seemed to be everywhere and innumerable, and the whites could
find safety only in their forts. The surviving Narragansetts scourged.
the Rhode Island and Plynlouth colonies with fire and axe, and even the
aged Roger Williams was obliged to take up:.rms for the defence of his




NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


209


home. Lancaster, Medford, Weymouth, Groton, Springfield, Sudbury
and Marlborough, in Massachusetts, and Providence and Warwick, in
Rhode Island, were destroyed either wholly or in part, and numerous
other settlements were attacked and made to suffer more or less
severely.
As the season advanced the cause of the Indians became more hopeless,
ind they began to quarrel among themselves. In June the NiplLmucks
submitted, and the tribes on the Connecticut refused to shelter Phlilip any
longer. He then appealed to the Mohawks to take up the hatchet, but
seeing that his cause was hopeless, they refused to join him. In proud
despair Philip went back to Mount Hope to die. One of his people
urged him to make peace witlk the whites, and was struck (lead by the
hand of the chief for daring to mention such a humiliation. It became
known that Philip had returned to hsi old home, and Captain Church
marched against him, dispersed his followers, and took the chief's wife
and little son prisoners. PIhilip, who had borne the reverses and the
reproaches of his nation with the firmness of a hero, was conquered by
this misfortune. "My heart breaks," lie cried, despairingly, "I am ready
to die."  He was soon attacked by Church in his place of concealment,
and in attempting to escape was shot by an Indian who was serving in
the ranks of his enemies. Philip',s little son was sold as a slave in Bermuda, and the grandson of Massasoit, who had welcomed and befriended
the English, was condemned to pass his days in bondage in a foreign
(l ime.
The death of Philip was soon followed by the close of hostilities.
The power of the Indians was completely broken. Of the Narragansetts
scarcely one hundred men were left alive, and the other tribes had
suffered severely. The Mohegans had remained faithful to the English,
and Connecticut had been happily spared the sufferings experienced by
thl other colonies, which were very severe. Twelve or thirteen towns were
destroyed, and many others were seriously crippled. Six hundred houses
were burned, and the pecuniary losses amounted to the then enormous sum
of half a million of dollars. Over six hundred men, chiefixy young men,
fell in the war, and there was scarcely a family which did not mourn
some loved one who had given his life for the country
In all their distress the colonies received no aid from England. The
mother country left them to fight out their struggle of life and death
alone. The English people and government were indifferent to their fate.
One generous Non-conformist church in Dublin sent a contribution of
five hundred pounds to the sufferers. This relief was gratefully acknowledged; but to the credit of New England it should be remembered that
14




IISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


her colonies never asked assistance from England. The king was very
careful, however, to exact every penny he could wring from the colonies,
and towards the close of the Indian war established a royal custom-house
at Boston for the collection of duties. Duties were imposed upon the
commerce of the colonies, and the royal government endeavored to enforce
their payment by threatening to refuise the New England ships the protection which enabled them to escape the outrages of the African pirates
of the Mediterranean.
The province of Maine had been restored by Charles II. to the heirs
of Sir Ferdinand Gorges, and in 1677 Massachusetts purchased their
claims for the sum of twelve hundred and fifty pounds, and thus confirrmed her possession of the region between the Piscataqua and the Kennebec. The region between the Kennebec and the Penobscot was held by
the Duke of York, and that from the Penobscot to the St. Croix was
occuplied by the French.
In July, 1679, King Charles detached New Hampshire from Massachusetts, and organized it as a
4r    iroyal province; the first ever
~L~ '                          province at once asserted its rights,
'' and a controversy was begun with,^ —=                             the crown, which was continued
-RMS -~ N'E H A          'PSHIE -  for several years. The people reCSQAT OF ARMS OF NEW HAMPSHIRE.,
sisted the effort to force upon them
the observances of the English Church, and the collection of taxes
assessed by the royal officials, and Cranfield, the royal governor, finding
it impossible to continue his arbitrary rule, wrote to the British government, " I shall esteem it the greatest happiness in the world to remove
from these unreasonable people. They cavil at the royal commission, and
not at my person. No one will be accepted by them who puts the king's
commands in execution."
In the last years of his reign Charles II. made a determined effort to
(de(strov the charter of Massachusetts. Commissioners were sent by the
colony to England to endeavor to defend its rights, but the royal government was resolved upon its course, and the people of Massachusetts were
equally determined not to consent to the surrender of their liberties. At
length, in 1684, the general court having in the name of the people
distinctly refused to make a surrender of the charter to the king, the
English courts declared the charter forfeited. A copy of the judgment
tvas sent to Boston, and was received there on the 2d of July, 1685.
The colony was full of apprehension. The charter under which it had




NFVW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


grown and prospered, and which secured its liberties to it without the
interference of the crown, had been stricken down by the subservient
courts of the mother country, and there was now no defence between the
liberties of Massachusetts and the arbitrary will of the king, who had
given the colony good cause to fear his hostility.
James II. came to the English throne in 1685. He was even more
hostile to New England than his brother Charles. He was a bigoted
Roman Catholic, and was resolved to introduce that faith, not only into
England, but also into the colonies. He attempted to Iacclomplish this
by proclaiming an indulgence or toleration of all creeds. As he dared
not proceed openly to violate his coronation oath he hoped by this underhanded scheme to place his own religion upon such a footing in England
that he would soon be in a position to compel its adoption by his subjects. He had greatly mistaken the temper of both England and
America.
Joseph Dudley, who had been sent to England as one of the agents of
Massachusetts in the last controversy between the colony and King
Charles, now found it to his interest to become as ardent a defender, as
he had formerly been an opponent, of the royal prerogative, and James
finding him a willing abetter of his designs, appointed him president of
Massachusetts until a royal governor should arrive, for the king was
resolved to take away the charters of all the colonies and make them
royal provinces. At the same time, being determined to curtail the
liberty of the press, the king appointed Edward Randolph its censor.
Dudley was regarded by the people as the betrayer of the liberties of his
country, and both he and Randolph were cordially despised by them.
The king in appointing Dudley made no provision for an assembly or
general court, as he meant to govern the colonies without reference to the
people. He regarded the American provinces as so many possessions of
the crown, possessed of no rights, and entitled to no privileges save what
he chose to allow them.
In pursuance of this plan, Sir Edmund Andros, whom the king had
appointed governor of New York, was made governor-general of all New
England. He reached Boston in December, 1686. Dudley was made
chief justice, and Randolph, colonial secretary  The governor-geleral
was empowered by the king to appoint his own council, impose such
taxes as he should think fit, command the militia of the colonies, enforce
the navigation acts, prohibit printing, and establish episcopacy in New
England; and in order to enable him to enforce his will two companies
of soldiers were sent over with him, and quartered in Boston. Thus
were the liberties of New England placed at the mercy of a tyrant, and




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


thus was inaugurated a despotism the most galling that was ever imposed
upon men of English descent.
Andros promptly put in force a series of the most arbitrary measures.
The public schools, which had been fostered with such care by the
colonial governments, were allowed to fall into decay  The support
which had been granted to the churches was withdrawn. The people
were forbidden to assemble for the discussion of any public matter,
though they were allowed the poor privilege of electing their town officers. Tile form of oath in use in New England was an appeal to heaven
with uplifted handl. The governor now ordered the substitution of a
form which required the person to place his hand on the Bible. This was
particutlarly repugnant to the Puritans, who regarded it as " Popish practice."  Probate fees were increased twenty-fold. The holders of lands
were told that tllir titles were invalid because obtained under a charter
\which had been de-      lared forfeited.  No
cld,                  - iO pWerso                 allowed to
t yV pece T, was~ i E po  eleave the colony withregard to ib                 t  to
L pe \out a pass signed by
ic,  'the governor. The
P '          rPuritan  magistrates
andI ministers were refused autthority to unite
pof tersens ine           marriage.
Tl!e clergyman of the
uder te      hurch of England,
stationed at Boston,
WADSWOlTIITL IIIDING THE CHARTER.   was the only person in
New England who
could perform a legal marriage. Episcopacy was formally established,
and the people were require( to build a church for its uses. At the
command of the king a tax of a penny in the pound, and a poll-tax of
twenty pence, was imposed upon every person in the colony without
regard to hlis means, rich and poor being taxed alike. Some of the towns
had the boldness to refuse to pay this tax, and John Wise, the minister
of Ipswich, advised his fellow-townsmen to resist it. He and a number
of others were arrested and fined. When they pleaded their privileges
under the laws of England, they were told by one of the council: "You
have no privilege left you but not to be sold as slaves."  "Do you
think," asked one of the judges, "that the laws of England follow you
to the ends of the earth?"  The iniquitous exactions of Andros and his




NEW ENGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


213


associates threatened the country with ruin. When the magistrates mentioned this, they were told, "It is not for his majesty's interest yoV
should thrive."  "The governor invaded liberty and property after such
a manner," wrote Increase Mather, "as no man could say anything was
his own."
The other colonies came in for their share of bad treatment. Soon
after lie reached Boston, Andros demanded of the authorities of Rhode
Island the surrender of their charter. Governor Clarke declined to
comply with this demand, and Andros went to Providence, broke the seal
of the colony, and declared its government dissolved. He appointed a
comlmission irresponsible to the people for the government of Rhode
Island, and then liad the effrontery to declare that the people of tllat
colony were satisfied with what he had done.
In October Andros wvent to Connecticut with an armed guard to take
possession of the government of           " -
that colony  He reached Hart-.
ford on the 31st of the montl,
and found the legislature in seJssion, and demanded of that bod y
the surrender of the charter.
The discussion was prolonged
until evening, and then candles
were brouglt, and the charter
was placed on thle table. Sud-  I
denly the lights  v were extinguished, and when they were
THE CHARTER OAK.
re-lighted the charter could not       THE C     R
be found. It had been secured by Joseph Wadsworth of Hartford, aln
carried to the southern part of the city, where it was concealed in a hollow oak tree, which was afterwards known as the "'Cllarter Oak."
Andros, furious at the disaplpearance of the charter, was not to be balked
in hlis purpose of seizing the colonial government, and taking the recor(i
book of the assembly, he wrote the word "Finis" at. the end of the last
day's proceedings. He then declared the colonial government at an end,
and proceeded to admillister the affairs of the province in the spirit in
which he had governed Massachusetts and Rhode Island.
The people of New England had borne these outrages %with a patience
which no one had expected of them. They were a law-abiding people,
and wished to exhaust all legal means of redress before proceeding to,
extreme measures for their protection; but the party in favor of driving
Alldros and his fellow-plunderers out of the country was rapidly growing




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


stronger, and it was not certain how much longer the policy of forbearance
would be continued. Increase Mather was alppointed to go to England and
endeavor to procure a redress of the grievances of the colonies. It was a
dangerous mission, for the king was in full sympathy with the men whom
he had placed over the liberties of New England. It was also difficult
to leave America without the knowledge of Andros and his colleagues,
but Mather succeeded in escaping their vigilance, and was on his way to
tile old world when relief arrived from a most unexpected quarter.
The efforts of James to bring about the re-establishment of the Ronian
Catholic religion in England roused the whole Englishl nation against'
him, and in 1689 the nation invited William, Prince of Orange, the husband of James' eldest daughter, Mary, to come over to England and
assume the throne. James, left without any adherents, fled to France,
and William and Mary were securely seated upon thle throne.
The news of the landing of William in England and the flight of
King James reached Boston on the 4th of April, 1689. The messenger
was at once imprisoned by Andros, but his tidings soon became known
to the citizens. On the morning of the 18th the people of Boston took
up arms, and having secured the person of the commander of the royal
frigate in the harbor, seized the royalist sheriff. The militia were asseinbled, and Andros and his companions were obliged to take refuge in the
fort. Simon Bradstreet, tlhe governor who had held office at the time of
the abrogation of the charter, was called upon by the people to resume
his post, and the old magistrates were reinstated and organized as a
council of safety  Andros and his creatures attempted to escape to the
frigate, but were prevented and were compelled to surrender. The next
day reinforcements came pouring into Boston from the other settlements,
and the fort was taken and the frigate mastered. Town meetings were
now held throughout the colony, and it was voted to resume the former
charter. The people were almost unanimous in favor of this course, but
the counsels of a more timid minority prevailed, and the council, which
had al)pointed itself to the control of affairs, decided to solicit a new
charter from William and Mary    A general court was convened on the
22d of May. The people of the colony were anxious that Andros,
Dudley, and Randolph should receive prompt punishment for their
offences, but the authorities wisely determined to send them to England
for trial.
Plymouth, upon the receipt of the news from Boston, seized the agent
of Andros, imprisoned him, and re-established the government which
Andros had overthrown, under the constitution signed on board the
"Mayflower."   There were none of the old Pilgrim fathers living to




NEW ENVGLAND AFTER THE RESTORATION.


215


witness this event, but their children were none the less dtr-rnine.d1 to
maintain unimpaired the liberties they had inherited from them.
Rhode Island promptly resumed her charter and reinstated the officers
wbhomi Andros had displaced. Connecticut, upon hearing of the downfall
of the governor-general, brought out her charter from its hiding-place,
and restored the (ld officers to tlheir positions.
Thus the work of James II. was overthrows, n'.t the destinies of Newv
England were once ipore in the hands of her. vaN people. The generation that had settled New England had ner-)y all been gatlhered to their
rest, and their children wvere in some respects different from tlhe fathers.
They had learned lessons of toleration, and had acquired many of the
refining graces that the elder Puritans regarded as mhere va:,ity  They
retained, however, the earnest anid lofty virtues whiclh haId made tlIe first
generation superior to hardbh.ps and trials of all  and which had
enabled them in the face of every discouragement to iay the foundations
of the great commonwealths:which to-day cherish their memories as their
most precious legacies. The fathers of New England richly merited the
honor which succeeding generations have delighted to bestow upon their
memories. However they may have erred, they were men who earnestly
sought to do right in all things, and who did their dutN fearlessly according to tle light before them.
In the first generation we have noticed an extraordinary degree of
influence exerted by the ministers. This was due to no desire of the
Puritans to connect church and state, but was owing to the fact that the
ministers represented the best educated and most intellectual class of
that day, and the people regarded them as the best qualified guides in
the community. As New England advanced in prosperity her schools
and colleges were able to turn out numbers of educated men, who
embraced the other learned professions, and divided the influence with
the ministers. New England always chose its leaders from among its
most intelligent men, and its people always yielded a willing homage to
the claims of intellect.
At the downfall of Andros there were about two hundred thousand
white inhabitants in the English colonies of North America. Of these,
Massachusetts, including Plymouth and Maine, had about forty-four
thousand; New Hampshire and Rhode Island about six thousand each;
Connecticut about twenty thousand; making the total population of New
England about seventy-six thousand.




CHAPTER XV


WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS.
Results of the Failuire of Massachusetts to Resume her Charter-The New Charter-Loss
of tile Liberties of tile Colony-Union of Plymouth with Massachusetts Bay-Belief ill
Witchcraft-The History of Witchcraft in Massachusetts-The Case of the Goodwill
Clildren-Cotton Mathier espouses the Cautse of thle Witches-Samuel Parris-He
Originates tlhe Salem Delusion-A Strange History-A Special Court Appointed for the
Trial of the Witches-The Victimis-Execution of the Rev. George Burroughs-Cotton
Mather's Part in the Tragedieds-Tlie General Court takes Action in behalf of the
People-End of the Persecution-Failure of Cotton Mather's Attempt to Save his Credit.
lHE decision of the magistrates of Massachusetts to disregard the
wishes of a majority of thle people of the colony, who desired an
immelnciate restoration of the government under the old charter,
and to wait for a new charter from   William and Mary, gave
great offence to the popular party  Had the wish of this party
been promptly complied with, Massachusetts might have recovered every
liberty and privilege of which she had been deprived by King James.
Increase Mather distinctly declares that " had they at that time entered
upon the full exercise of their charter government, as their undoubted
right, wise nmen in England were of opinion that they might have gone
on witlhout disturbance."   The self-constituted government hesitated,
however, and the opportunity was lost.
When the convention of the people met, in May, 1689, they refused to
acknowledge the council that had taken charge of affairs upon the downfall of Andros, and demanded that the governor, deputy governor, and
assistants elected in 1686 should be restored to office. The council
refused to comply with this demand, and the matter was referred to the
people, who sustained their representatives. A compromise was effected,
and the council agreed to permit the officers of 1686 to resume their
places until instructions could be received from England. Agents were
sent to England to solicit a restoration of the charter, and their appeal
was supported by the English Presbyterians with great unanimity.
Even the Archbishop of Canterbury urged tlle king "not to take away
from the people of New England any of the privileges which Charles I.
had granted them."
216




WITCIICR. 1iFT IJ N MASSAS CIIUSETTS.


Ill spite of the pressure exerted upon lini ill bhlalf of tile colony,
King William granted to Massachusetts a charter whichl placed the
liberties of the province so entirely at the  e1(rcy of the crown that tih
colonial agent refused to accept it. There was no hell for it, however,
and the charter became the findamental law of Massachusetts. Under
the old charter the governor of Massachusetts had been elected annual!v
by the vots of the freemen; he was now to be appointed by the king
and to serve during the royal pleasure. He was given power to sunmonll
the general court, and: to adjourn or dissolve that body  The election of
magistrates of all kinds, which had been confided to the peolple by tlhe
old charter, was taken from them, and henceforth these officials were to
be appointed by the governor -with tle consent of the council. The o!l
charter had made the decision of tile colonial courts final; the new permitted appeals from these tribunals to the privy council in England.
The old charter had given to the general court full powers of legislation,
the new conferred upon the governor the right to veto any of its measures,
and reserved to the crown the power of cancelling any act of colonial
legislation within three years after its rpassag.c Thl council was at first
appointed by the king, but was subsequently elected by the joint ballot
of the two branches of the general court.
To compensate the people for the loss of their political power the king
greatly enlarged the limits of the colony  Massachusetts and Plymouth
were united in one province, the name of the former being given to tlhe
whole. The Elizabeth islands were also added to the province, and its
northern boundary was extended to tlec St. Lawrence. Toleration was
granted to every religious sect except the Roman Catholics.   New
Hampshire was separated from the jurisdiction of Massachusetts and
made a separate province; but Maine and the vast wilderness beyond it
were confirmed to the Bay colony  The charter bore the date of October
7th, 1691.   Upon the nomination of Increase Mather, one of the
colonial agents, Sir William  Phipps, a native of New England, a wellmeaning but incompetent man, who w-:s in religious matters strongly
inclined to superstition, was appointed governor of Massacllusetts.
William Stoughton, "a man of cold affections, proud, self-willed, and
covetous of distinction "-a man universally hated by the people-was
appointed deputy governor to please Cotton Mather,  The members of
the council were chosen entirely for their devotion " to the interests of the
churches."
While these matters were in progress of settlement, there occurred in
Massachusetts one of the most singular delusions recorded in history, and
which was in some respects the last expiring effort of ecclesiastical am



218


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


bition to control the political affairs of the colony. The clergy had
always sought in New England, as in other lands, to fight their political
enemies with spiritual weapons. They now carried this to an extreme
which taught tlhe people of New England a lesson that was not soon
forgotten.
The belief in witchcraft has not been confined to any single nation,
and at tills time was common to America and Europe. " Tlhe people did
not rally to the error; they accepted the superstition only because it had
not vet been disengaged from    religion."  It was believed that as
Christians were united with God by a solemn covenant, so were witches
leagued with the devil by a tie which, once formed, tlhcy could not dissolve. Those who thus placed themselves in the archfiend's power were
used bN him as instruments to torment their fellow-men. They were
given power to annoy them by pinching them, thrusting invisible pins
into them, pulling their hlair, afflicting them with disease, killing tlheir
cattle and chickens with mysterious ailments, upsetting their wagons and
carts; and Iv practising upon them many other puerile and ludicrous
tricks. The witches generally exerted tlheir arts upon those whom they
hated, but it was a matter of doubt how many persons were included in
their dislikes. One of the most popular superstitions was that of the
" Witches' sacrament," a gathering at which the devil, in the form of
"a small black matn," preside(d, and required his followers to renounce
their Christian baptism and to sign their names in his book. They
were then re-baptized by the devil, and the meeting was closed with
horrid rites which varied in different narratives according to the imagination of the relators.
The belief in the existence of witchcraft was held by some of the
leading minds of this period. Sir Matthew Hale, Lord Chief Justice of
England, was firmly convinced of thle truth of the doctrine, and it was
advocated by many of the clergy in England. In New England the
clergy held it to be heresy to deny the existence of witches, which they
claimed was clearly taught in the Scriptures. It was evidently to their
interest to maintain this belief, as it made them the chief authorities in
such cases, and furnished them with a powerful weapon against their
adversaries.
By the early settlers of New England the Indians were supposed to
be worshippers of the devil, and their medicine-men to be wizards.
Governor Hutchinson, in his " History of Massachusetts," thus sums up
the cases of supposed witchcraft that had occurred in the colony previous
to the time of which we are now writing:
"The first suspicion of witchcraft among the English was about the




WITCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS.


210


year 1645, at Springfield, upon Connecticut river; several persons wert
supposed to be under an evil hand, and among the rest two of the
minister's children. Great pains were token to prove the facts upon
several of the persons clargcd with the crime, but either the nature of
the evidence was not satisfactory, or the fraud was suspected, and so no
person was convicted until the year 1650, when a poor wretch, Mary
Oliver, probably weary of her life from the general reputation of being
a witch, after long examination, was brought to confession of her guilt,
but I do not find that she was executed. Whilst this inquiry was
uaking, Margaret Jones was executed at Charlestown; and Mr, Hale
mentions a woman at Dorchester, and another at Calilbridge about the
same time, who all at their death asserted their innocence. Soon after,
Hugh Parsons was tried at Springfield, an(l escaped death. In 1655
Mrs. Hibbins, the assistant's widow, was hanged at Boston. In 16G2, at
Hartford in Connecticut, one Ann Cole, a young woman who lived next
door to a Dutch family, and no doubt had learned something of the
language, was supposed to be possessed with demons, who sometimes
spoke Dutch and sometimes English, and sometimes a language which
nobody understood, and who held a conference with one another.
Several ministers who were present took down the conference in writing
and the names of several persons, mentioned in the course of the conference, as actors or bearing parts in it; particularly a woman, then in
prison upon suspicion of witchcraft, one Greensmith, who upon examination confessed and appeared to be surprised at the discovery  She
owned that she and tle otllhers named had been familiar with a demon,
who had carnal knowledge of her, and although she had not made a
formal covenant, yet she had promised to be ready at his call, and was to
have had a high frolic at Christmas, when the agreement was to have
been signed. Upon this confession she was executed, and two more of
the company were condemned at the same time. In 1669 Susanna
Martin, of Salisbury, was bound over to the court upon suspicion of
witchcraft, but escaped at that time.
"In 1671 Elizabeth Knap, another ventriloqua, alarmed the people of
Groton in much the same manner as Ann Cole had done those of Hartford; but her demon was not so cunning, for, instead of confining himself
to old wonen, he railed at the good minister of the town and other
people of good character, and the people could not then be prevailed on
to believe him, but believed the girl when she confessed that she had
been deluded, and that the devil had tormented her in the shape of
good persons; so she escaped the punishment due to her fraud and
imposture.




220


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


" In 1673 Eunice Cole of Hampton was tried, and the jury found her
not legally guilty, but that there were strong grounds to suspect her of
familiarity with the devil.
"In 1679 William Morse's house, at Newbury, was troubled with the
throwing of bricks, stones, etc., and a boy of the family was supposed to
be bewitched, who accused one of the neighbors; and in 1682 the house
of George Walton, a Quaker, at Portsmouth, and another house at
Salmon Falls (both in New Hampshire), were attacked after the same
tmannr.
I In 1683 the demons removed to Connecticut river again, where one
DI)cborough's house was molested by an invisible hand, and a fire
kindled, nobody knew how, which burnt up a great part of his estate;
and in 1684 Philip Smith, a judge of the court, a military officer and a
rclrepsentative of the town of Hadlev, upon the same river (a hypochondriac l)ersonl), fancied  lilmself under an evil hand, and suspected a
womanlll, one f his neigllbors, and languished and pined away, and was
generally supposed to be bewitched to death. While he lay ill, a number
of brisk lad1s tried an experiment upon the old woman. Having draggoed
h11(r out of her house, they hung her up until she was near dead, let her
do,1wn', roIlled her some time in the snov, and at last buried her in it:and left her there, but it hapl)pened that she survived and the melancholy
man dli(l."
Th(ee cases, which were not generally regarded in the enlightened
spirit of tlhc writer we have quoted, served to confirm the common belief
in witchcraft. Increase Mather published a work in 1684 containing an
account of the cases which hla( already occurred in the colony, and giving
detailed descriptions of the manner in which the afflicted persons had
exhibited their "deviltry "  The publication of this work seemed to
revive the trouble and in a more aggravated form, for it is a singular fact
that the general discussion of delusions of this kind rarely fails to produce an increase of the evil.
In 1688 a case occurred which excited general interest, and was the
beginning of one of the saddest periods in the history of New England.
The daughter of John Goodwin, a child of thirteen years, accused the
daughter of an Irish laundress of stealing some linen. The mother
of the laundress, a friendless emigrant, succeeded in disproving the
charge, and abused the girl soundly for making a false accusation.
Soon after this, the accuser was seized with a fit, and pretended to be
bewitched in order to be revenged upon the poor Irish woman. Her
younger sister and two of her brothers followed her example. They
pretended to be dumb, then deaf, then blind, and then all three at once.




WITCHCRAFT IN MASSA CII USETTS.


22)1


"They were struck dead at the sight of the 'Assembly's Catechism,'"
says Governor Hutchinson, dryly, "' Cotton's Milk for Babes' and some
other good books, but could read in Oxford jests, popish and Quaker
books, and the common prayer without any difficulty"  Nevertheless
their appetite was good, and they slept soundly at night. The youngest
of these little impostors was less than five years old. It was at once
given out that the Goodwin children were bewitched, and no one suspected or hinted at the fraud. They would bark like dogs and mew
like cats, and a physician who was called in to treat them solemnly
declared that they were possessed by devils, as he discovered many of
the symptoms laid down in Increase Mather's book. A conference
of the four ministers of Boston, and one from Charlestown, was held at
Goodwin's house, where they observed a day of fasting and prayer,
As a result of their efforts, the youngest child, a boy of less than five
years, was delivered of his evil spirit. The ministers now had no doubt
that the children had been bewvitched, and as tle little ones accused the
Irish woman of their misfortune, she was arrested, tried for witchcraft,
convicted and hanged, notwithstanding that many persons thought the
poor creature a lunatic.
Among the ministers who had investigated this case and had procured
the execution of the woman was Cotton Mather, the son of Increase
Mather, then president of Harvard college. Ile was a young man who
had but recently entered the ministry, and was regarded as one of the
most learned and gifted preachers in the colony  He was withal a man
of overweening vanity, and full of ambition. He could not bear contradiction, and was devoted to tlhe maintenance of the political power
of the clergy  He was superstitious by nature, and was firmly convinced of the reality of witchcraft. Ile had become deeply interested
in the case of the Goodwin children, and in order to study it more
deeply took the eldest girl to his house, where lie could observe and
experiment upon her devil at his leisure. She was a cunning creature, and
soon found that it was to her interest to humor the young pastor in his
views, and she played upon his weakness with a shrewdness and skill
which were remarkable in one so young, and exhibit the credulity of the
investigator in a most pitiable light.
Mather carried on his experiments with a diligence which would have
seemed ludicrous had its object been less baneful to the community  He
read the Bible, and prayed aloud in the presence of the girl, who would
pretend to be thrown into a fit by the pious exercise. At the same time
she read the Book of Common Prayer, or Quaker or Popish treatises,
without any interruption from her familiar spirits. The minister then




HIlSTORY OF THE UNITED ST4 TES.


tested the proficiency of the devil in languages, by reading aloud passages of the Bible in Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, which the girl professed
to understand. When he tried her with an Indian dialect, however, she
could not comprehend him. By other experiments, (lesigned to ascertain
if the spirits could read the thoughts of others, Mather came to the
(sage conclusion that "all devils are not alike sagacious."  The girl flattered his vanity, and lulled his suspicion of fraud by telling him that his
own person was especially protected against the evil spirits by the power
of God, and that the devils did not dare to enter his study.
The vanity of Cotton Mather was elated to the highest pitch by what he
deemed his successfil experiments, and he wrote a book upon witchcraft,
in which he endeavored to prove the truth of his theories, and declared
that he should esteem it a personal insult if any one should hereafter venture to deny the existence of witchcraft.  His book was reprinted in
London, with a preface by Richard Baxter, the well-known author of
"The Saints' Rest," warmly indorsing it. It was very generally read in
New England, and had a most pernicious effect upon the people by inducing them to give credit to the stories of the writer rather than to
listen to the promptings of their own good sense. Still there were some
in Boston who had the boldness to differ with Mather, and these the
indignant divine denounced as "sadducees." Mather supported his views
by his sermons. "There are multitudes of sadducees in our day," he
declared. "A devil in the apprehension of these mighty acute philosopliers is no more than a quality or a distemper.. Men counted it wisdon to credit nothing but what they say and feel.  They never saw
any witches; therefore there are none."  The ministers of Boston and
Charlestown gave their young colleague their hearty support, and declared that those who doubted the existence of witchcraft were guilty of
atheism, and indorsed Mather's book as proving clearly that "there is
both a God and a devil, and witchcraft."  Thus did the clergy of Massachusetts set themselves to the task of forcing their own narrow views
upon the people. It was a needed lesson. New England had passed the
time when clerical rule in political affairs could be productive of good,
and was now to be taught the danger of permitting it to extend beyond
this period.
At this juncture Mather's power was greatly strengthened by the
appointment of his friend and parishioner, Sir William Phipps, as governor of the province, and the nomination of his father-in-law and many
of his intimate friends to the council. The ambitious Stoughton, the
deputy governor, was also subject to his influence. Here was a fine
opportunity to endeavor to establish the power of the clergy upon the




WI'TCHCRAFT IN MASSACHUSETTS.


223


old foundations which were being destroyed by the growing intelligence
and independence of the people. Many of the ministers, under the lead
of Cotton Mather, had committed themselves to the doctrine of wit(hcraft,
and the people must accept it upon their simple assertion. No inquiry
must be allowed into the matter, the opinions of the ministers must be
adopted by the laity  AI.nd so Mather and his followers resorted to the
usual weapons of superstition to accomplish the success of their plains.
In 1692 a new case of witchcraft occurred in Salem village, now the
town of Danvers.    The minister of this place was Samuel Parris,
between whom   and a number of his people there had for some time
existed dissensions of such a bitter nature that the attention of the general court had been directed to them. In February, 1692, the daughliter
and niece of Parris, the former a cllild of nine years, and the latter of
less than twelve, gave signs of being bewitched. Parris at once recognized the opportunity which was thus offered him for vengeance upon his
enemies, and deliberately availed himself of it.  He demanded of the
children the names of the persons who had bewitched them, and then
proceeded to accuse those whom  he succeeded in inducing the girls to
denounce. The first victim was Rebecca Nurse. She was known in the
community as a woman of exemplary Christian character; bult she was
one of the most resolute opponents of Parris. Upon his accusation she
was arrested and imprisoned. The next Sunday Parris preached a sermon from the text, "Have I not chosen you twelve, and one of you is a
devil."  As it was evident that his remarks were to be directed agailst
Mistress Nurse, Sarah Cloyce, a sister of the accused, at once left the
church. This in itself was a serious offence in those days, and Parris
took advantage of it to accuse the offender of witchcraft, and she was
sent to join her sister in prison. Mather, who deemed his credit at stake,
lent his active aid to the persecution of these unfortunate people, and had
the vanity to declare that he regarded the efforts of " the evil angels uj)on
the country as a particular defiance tunto himself."  Parris scattered his
accusations right and left, becoming botlh informer and witness against
those whom he meant to destroy for their opposition to him. In a few
weeks nearly one hundred persons were in prison upon the charge of
witchcraft. Abigail Williams, Parris's niece, aided her uncle with her
tales, which the least examination would have shown to be absurd.
George Burroughs, one of the ministers of Salem, had long been regarded by Parris as a rival, and he now openly expressed his disbelief in
witchcraft, and his disapproval of the measures against those charged
with that offence.  This boldness sealed his doom. He was accused by
Parris, and committed to prison "with the rest of the witches."  " The




22 -

HIl STORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


gallows was to be set up, not for those who professed themselves witches,
but for those who rebuked the delusion."
Governor Bradstreet, wlo had been chosen by tlhe people, was unwilling to proceed to extreme measures against tlhe accused, as he had no
fiitit in the evidence against them. The arrival of the royal governor
and the new charter in Boston in May, 1692, placed Cotton Mather and
his fellow-persecutors in a position to carry out their bloody designs.
The general court alone had authority to appoint special courts, but Governor Phipps did not hesitate to apploint one himself for the trial of the
accused persons at Salem, and this illegal tribunal, with Stoughton as its
chief judge, met at Salem on the 2d of June. In this court Parris acted
as prosecutor, keeping back solle witnesses, and pushing others forward
as best suited his plans.
The first victim of the court was Bridget Bishop, "a poor, friendless
old woman."  Parris, who had examined her at the time of her commitment, was the principal witness against her, Deliverance Hobbs being
also accused, a natural infirmity of her body was taken as a proof of her
guilt, and she was hanged, protesting her innocence.  Rebecca Nurse
wa;s at first acquitted of the clarges against her, but the court refused to
receive tfle verdict of the jury, and Parris was determined that the
woman against whom lie had preached and prayed should not escape him,
and the jury were induced to convict her, and she was hanred. John
Willard, who had been compelled by his duty,as a constable to arrest.the
accused, now refused to serve in this capacity any longer, as he had
become convinced of the hypocrisy of the instigators of the persecution.
He was immediately denounced, tried, and hanged.
When George Burroughs, the minister, ivas placed on trial the witnesses producedl against him pretended to ble dumb. " Who hinders these
witnesses from giving tleir testimonies"" asked Stoughton, the chief
judge.   "I suppose the devil," replied Burroughs, contemptuously
t IHow comes the devil," cried Stoughton, exultingly, "so loath to have
any testimony borne against you?"   The words of the prisoner were
regarded as a confession, and his remarkable bodily strength was made
an evidence of his guilt. He was convicted, and sentenced to be hanged.
He was executed on the 19th of August with four others. As he ascended
the scaffold Burroughs made an appeal to the people assembled to witness
the execution, and effectually vindicated himself from the absurd cllarges
against him, and repeated the Lord's prayer, which was regarded as a
test of innocence. The spectators were powerfully affected, and seemed
about to interfere in favor of the victim. Cotton Matlher, who was present on horseback, now exerted himself to colplete t!h judicial murder




WITCIHCRA FT IN MASSACHUSETTS.


225


He harangued the people, insisted on the guilt of Burroughls, reminding
them that the devil could sometimes assume the form of an anel of
light, and even descended to the falsehood of declaring that Burroughs
was no true minister, as his ordination was not valid. His appeal was
successful, and the execution was completed.
Giles Cory, an old man over eighty years of age, seeing that no denial
of guilt availed anything, refused to plead, and was pressed to death, in
accordance with an old English law, long obsolete, which was revived to
meet his case. Samuel Wardwell confessed his guilt, and escaped the
gallows. Overcome with shame for his cowardice, lie retracted his confession, and was hanged for denying witchcraft. A reign of terror prevailed in Salem; the prisons were full; and no one could feel sure how
long he would escape accusation and arrest. Many persons confcssed
their guilt to save their lives. Children accused their parents, parents
their children, and husbands and wives each other of the most impossible
offences, in the hope of escaping the persecution themselves. Hale, the
minister of Beverley, was s zealous advocate of the persecution until the
bitter cup was presented to nis own lips by the accusation of his wife.
Many persons were obliged to fly the colony, and the magistrates, conscious that they were already exceeding their powers, were careful not to
demand their surrender.
We have mentioned only some of the principal cases to show tlhe character of the persecution, as our limits forbid the relation of all. The
total number hanged was twenty; fifty-five were tortured or terrified into
confessions of guilt. The accusations were at first lodged against persons
of humble station, but at length reached the higher classes. Governor
Phipps' wife and two sons of Governor Bradford are said to have been
among the accused. "Insanity," says Judge Story, " could hardly devise
more refinements in barbarity, or profligacy execute them with more malignant coolness."  Every principle of English justice was violated to secure
the condemnation of the accused, and people were encouraged by the magistrates to accuse others as a means of securing the favor of the authorities.
These terrible deeds were not the work of the people of Massachusetts,
and under a popular government would have been impossible; for
though the belief in witchcraft was general, the sentiment of the people
was against the barbarity of the court. The Salem tragedi s were the
work of a few men, not one of whom was responsible in any way to the
people. "Of the magistrates at that time, not one held office by tlhe
suffrage of the people; the tribunal, essentially despotic in its origin, as
in its character, had no sanction but an extraordinary and an illegal commission; and Stoughton, the chief judge, a partisan of Andros, had been
15




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


rejected by the people of Massachusetts. The responsibility of the
tragedy, far from attaching to the people of the colony, rests with the
very few, hardly five or six, in whose hands the transition state of the
government left for a season unlimited influence. Into the interior of
the colony the delusion did not spread at all." *
Stoughton's court, having hanged twenty of its victims, adjourned:about the last of Septcmber, 1692, until November, and on the 18th of
October the general court met. The indignation of the people had been
gathering force, and men were determined to put a stop to the judicial
murders and tortures which had disgraced them so long. Remonstrances
were at once presented to the assembly against " the doings of the witch
tribunals," the people of Andover leading the way in this effort. The
assembly abolished the special court, and established a tribunal by public
law   It was ordered that this court should not meet until the following
January   The governor attempted to undo the work of the assembly
by appointing Stoughton chief judge of the new court. When that
tribunal met at Salem in January, 1693, it was evident that the public
mind had undergone a marked change. The influence of the leaders of
the delusion was at an end. The grand jury rejected the majority of the
l)resentments offered to it, and when those who were indicted were put on
trial, the jury brought in verdicts of acquittal in all but three cases. The
governor, now alive to the force of public sentiment, reprieved all who
were under sentence to the great disgust of Stoughton, who left the bench
in a rage when informed of this action. The persecutors, anxious to
cover their defeat by the execution of one more victim, employed all their
arts to procure the conviction of a woman of Charlestown, who was commonly believed to be a witch. They supported their charge by more
important evidence than had been presented in any case at Salem, but the
jury at once returned a verdict of " not guiltv "
Cotton Mather was intensely mortified by the failure of his efforts to
force the people into a general acceptance of his views. He got up a
case of witchcraft in Boston, but was careful to caution his possessed
people to refrain from accusing any one of bewitching them. Robert
(alef, an unlettered man, but one whose common sense could not be led
astray by Mather, promptly exposed the imposture in a pamphlet, which
effectually destroyed Mather's influence for harm. Mather, unable to
reply to him, denounced him as an enemy of religion, and complained
that Calef's book was "a libel upon the whole government and ministry
of the land," forgetting that only seven or eight ministers, and no magistrate commanding the confidence of the people, had any share in the
* Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. iii., p. 88.




TVITCHI-CRAFT IN MASSA CHUSETTlS.


227


tragedies. Calef continued his writings, however, undismayed by the
indignation of his adversary, and his book was finally published in England, where it attracted considerable attention.
The danger was now over. It was no longer possible to procure a
conviction for witchcraft. The indignant people of Salem village at once
drove the wretched Parris and his family from the place. Noyes, the
minister of Salem, who had been active in the persecutions, was conmpelled to ask the forgiveness of the people, after a public confession of his
error. The devotion of the rest of his life to works of (harity won him
the pardon he sought. Sewall, one of the judges, struck witll horror at
the part he had played in the persecution, made an open and frank confession of his error, and implored the forgiveness of his fellow-citizens.
His sincerity was so evident that he soon regained the favor he had lost.
Stoughton passed the remainder of his life in proud and haughty disregard of the opinion of his fellow-men, scorning to make any acknowledgment of error, and evincing no remorse for his cruelties.
As for the prime mover of the delusion, the Rev Cotton Mather,
nothing could induce him to admit that he could by any possibility lhave
been in error; not even the recollection of the sorrow he had brought
upon some of the best people in the colony could shake his impenetrable
self-conceit, or humble him. When it was plain to him that he was the
object of the indignation of all good men in New England, he had the
hardihood to endeavor to persuade them that after all he had not been
specially active in the sad affair,  "Was Cotton Mather honestly credulous?" asks Bancroft. "Ever ready to dupe himself, he limited his
credulity only by the probable credulity of others. He changes, or omits
lo repeat, his statements, without acknowleding error, and with a clear
intention of conveying false impressions. IIe is an example how far
relfishness, under the form of vanity and ambition, can blind the higher
faculties, stupefy the judgment, and dupe consciousness itself. His selfrighteousness was complete till he was resisted."
And yet this man was not to die without rendering to the country a
genuine service. In 1721, having become satisfied that inoculation was
t sure preventive of small-pox, he advocated the introduction of it into
the colony  lie was opposed by the whole body of the clergy, who declared that it was an attempt to defeat the plans of the Almighty, who
" sent the small-pox as a punishment for sins, and whose vengeance would
thus be only provoked the more."  The people of the colony were also
bitterly opposed to inoculation, and threatened to hang Mather if he did
not cease his advocacy of it. His life was at one time in serious danger, but
he persevered, and at length had the satisfaction of seeing the practice of
inoculation generally adopted by the people who had so hotly opposed it.




CHAPTER XVI


THE SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.
Voyages of Henry Hudson-He is Employed by the Dutch-Discovery of the Hudson
River-Early Dutch Voyages-Adrian Block-Fate of Hudson-The Dutch build a
Fort on Manhattan Island-Settlement of New Amsterdam-The Province named New
Netherlands-Fort Nassau-Peter Minuits Governor-The Dutch Settlement of Delaware-Wouter Van Twiller-Kieft Governor-His Unjust Treatment of the IndiansMassacre of the Indians at Hoboken-The Indian WVar-Stuyvesant Appointed Governor
-Disputes with the English in Connecticut-The Swedes Settle Delaware-Stuyvesant
Captures the Swedish Forts-Growth of New Amsterdam-Disputes between the People
and Governor-Growing Spirit of Popular Liberty-The People Appeal to the States
General-Capture of New Netherlands by the English-The Name of the Province
changed to New York-Results of the English Conquest-Progress of New JerseyAndros Governor of New York-lie Fails to Establish his Authority over Connecticut
-New York allowed an Assembly-Discontents of the People-Leisler's RebellionExecution of Leisler and Milbourne-Fletcher Governor-His Attempt to obtain
Command of the Connecticut Militia-Episcopacy Established in New York-The
Freedom of the Press Sustained-New Jersey a Royal Province.
^tHEN the hope of finding a northwest passage to India began to
11       die out, a company of " certain worshipful merchants " of London
employed Henry Hudson, an Englishman and an experienced
s^, navigator, to go in search of a northeast passage to India, around
the Arctic shores of Europe, between Lapland and Nova Zembla
and frozen Spitzbergen. These worthy gentlemen were convinced that
since the effort to find a northwest passage had failed, nothing remained
but to search for a northeast passage, and they were sure that if human
skill or energy could find it, Hudson would succeed in his mission.
They were not mistaken in their man, for in two successive voyages he
did all that mortal could do to penetrate the ice-fields beyond the North
Cape, but without success. An impassable barrier of ice held him back,
and he was forced to return to London to confess his failure. With
unconquerable hope, he suggested new means of overcoming the difficulties; but while his employers praised his zeal and skill, they declined to
go to further expense in an undertaking which promised so little, and the
"bold Englishman, the expert pilot, and the famous navigator" found
himself out of employment.       Every effort to secure aid in England?93




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


229


failed him, and, thoroughly disheartened, he passed over to Holland,
whither his fame had preceded him.
The Dutch, who were more enterprising and more hopeful than his
own countrymen, lent a ready car to his statement of his plans, and the
Dutch East India Company at once employed him, and placed him in
command of a yacht of ninety tons, called the " Half Moon," manned by
a picked crew  On the 25th of March, 1609, Hudson set sail in this
vessel from Amsterdam, and steered directly for the coast of Nova
Zembla. He succeeded in reaching the meridian of Spitzbergen; but
here the ice, the fogs, and the fierce tempests of the north drove him
back, and turning to the westward, he sailed past the capes of Greenland,
and on the 2d of July was on the banks of Newfoundland. He passed
down the coast as far as Charleston harbor, vainly hoping to find the
northwest passage, and then in despair turned to the northward, discovering Delaware bay on his voyage. On the 3d of September he arrived
off a large bay to the north of the Delaware, and passing into it, dropped
anchor "at two cables' length
from the shore," within Sandy
Hook. Devoting some days to       -.;
rest, and to the exploration of the  --
bay, he passed through The Nar- t
rows on the 11th of Sep)tember,._     1     rc
and then the broad and beautiful
COAT OF ARMS OF NEW YORK.
"inner bay" burst upon him in
all its splendor, and from the deck of his ship he watched the swift current of the mighty river rolling from the north to the sea. He was full
of hope now, and the next day continued his progress up the river, and
at nightfall cast anchor at Yonkers. During the night the current of the
river turned his ship around, placing her head down stream; and this
fact, couplled with the assurances of the natives who came out to the
" Half Moon " in their canoes, that the river came from far bevond the
mountains, convinced him that the stream flowed from ocean to ocean,
and that by sailing on he would at length reach India-the golden land
of his dreams.
Thus encouraged, he pursued his way up the river, gazing with wondering delight upon its glorious scenery, and listening with gradually
fading hope to the stories of the natives who flocked to the water to greet
him. The stream narrowed, and the water grew fresh, and long before
he anchored below Albany, Hudson had abandoned the belief that he was
in the northwest passage. From the anchorage a boat's crew continued
the voyage to the mouth of the Mohawk. Hudson was satisfied that he




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


had made a great discovery-one that was worth fully as much as finding
the new route to India. He was in a region upon which the white man's
eve had never rested before, and which offered the richest returns to
commercial ventures. He hastened back to New York bay, took possession of the country in the name of Holland, and then set sail for
Europe. He put into Dartmouth, in England, on his way back, where
he told the story of his discovery. King James I. prevented his continuing his voyage, hoping to deprive the Dutch of its fruits; but Hudson
took care to send his log-book and all the ship's papers over to Holland,
and thus placed his employers in full possession of the knowledge he had
gained. The English at length released the "Half Moon," and she
continued her voyage to the Texel, but without her commander.
The discovery of Hudson was particularly acceptable to the Dutch, for
the new country was rich in fir-bearing animals, and Russia otfered a
ready market for all the furs that could be sent there. The East India
Company, therefore, refitted the " Half Moon" after her return to
Holland, and despatcled her to the region discovered by Hudson on a
fur trading expedition, which was highly successful. Private persons
also embarked in similar enterprises, and within two years a prosperous
and important fur trade was established between Holland and the country
along the Mauritius, as the great river discovered by Hudson had been
named, in honor of the Stadtholdcr of Holland. No government took
any notice of the trade for a while, and all persons were free to engage
in it.
Among the adventurers employed in this trade was one Adrian Block,
noted as one of the boldest navigators of his time. He made a voyage to
Manhattan island in 1614, then the site of a Dutch trading-post, and
secured a cargo of skins, with which he was about to return to Holland,
when a fire consumed both his vessel and her cargo, and olliged him to
pass the winter with his crew on the island. They built them log huts
on the site of tlhe present Beaver street-the first houses erected on the
island-and during the winter constructed a yacht of sixteen tons, which
Block called the " Onrust"-the " Restless."  In this yacht Block made
several voyages of discovery, and explored the coasts of Long Island
sound, and gave his name to the small island near the eastern end of the
sound. He soon after went back to Europe.
In the meantime Hudson had not been permitted by the English king
to take service again with the Dutch, and after apprising his employers
in Holland of his discoveries, he was engaged by an English company to
make further explorations in their belalf. He sailed to the north of his
former route, reached tie coast of Labrador, and passing tlrough the




SETTLEMENT OF NE W YOLIK.


straits, entered the bay which bears his name. He spent the remainder
of the season in exploring its coasts, and resolved to winter there, hoping
to push his discoveries still fartller northward in the spring. In the
spring of 1611 he found it impossible to continue his voyage, as his
provisions had begun to run low, and with tears turned his vessel's prow
lhonieward. His men now broke out into mutiny, and seizing Hudson
and his son and four others, wllo were sick, they placed them in the
shallop and set them adrift. And so the great navigator, whose memory
is perpetuated by one of the noblest of the rivers of America, and whose
genius gave the region through which it flows to civilization, perished
amid the northern seas. "The gloomy waste of wat.ers which bears his
name is his tomb and his monument."
In 1614 the Dutch built a fort on the lower end of Manhattan island,
and in the next few years established forts or trading houses along the
river as far as Fort Orange, on the site of Albany  These were merely
trading-posts, no effort being yet made to occupy the ciultry with a
permanent colony  In 1621 the Dutch West India Company was organized for the purpose of trading with America, and took possession of the
country along the Hudson, intending to hold it merely as temporary
occupants. The States General of Holland granted them the monopoly
of trade fiom Cape May to Nova Scotia, and named the whole region
New Netherland. The Dutch thus extended their claims into regions
already claimed by the English and French, and prepared the way for
future quarrels and complications.
The English, now awake to the importarce of Hudson's discoveries,
warned the Dutch government to refrain fronm mlaking further settlements on "Hudson's river," as they called tlhe Mauritius; but the latter,
relying upon the justice of their claim, paid no at;ention to these warnings,
and in the spring of 1623 the Dutch West llndia Company sent over
thirty families of Walloons, or one hundl(d and ten persons in all, tP,
found a permanent colony  These Walloons were Protestants from the
frontier between France and Flanders, and had fled to Amsterdam to
escape religious persecution in their own country  They were sound,
healtly, vigorous, and pious people, and could be relied upon to make
homes in the new world. The majority of them settled around the fort
on the lower end of Manhattan island, and the colony was named New
Amsterdam.   The remainder established themselves on Long island,
about where the Brooklyn navy yard now stands, and there Sarah de
Rapelje, the first white clild born in the province of New Netherlands,
saw tle light. Eighteen families ascended tlme river and settled around
Fort Orange.




liISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


In the slame year (1623) a party under command of Cornelis Jacobsen
May, who gave his name to the southern cape of New Jersey, ascended
the Delaware, then called the South river, and built Fort Nassau, on the
east side of the river a few miles below the present city of Camden.
This was done in order to establish the claim of the Dutch to this region.
In 162G the West India Company sent out to New Amsterdam the


FIRST SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


first regular governor of the province, Peter Minuits by name. He
brought with him a ko)pman, or general commissary, who was also the
secretary of the province, and a sehout, or sheriff, to assist him in his
government. The only laws prescribed for the colony were the instruotions of the West India Company   The colonists, on their part, were to




SE7ITLEMENT' OF 'EW YORK.I


233


regard thle orders of the governor as their law- He was authorized to
punish minor offences at his discretion; but cases requiring severe or
capital punishment were to be sent to Holland for trial. Minuits set to
work with great vigor to lay the foundations of tlle colony  He called a
council of the Indian chiefs, and purchased the island of Manhattan from
them  for presents valued at about twenty-four dollars in American
money   -le thus secured an equitable title to the island and won the
friendship of tlhe Indians.  To encourage emigration   the company
granted to each emigrant as much land as he could properly cultivate,
and it was ordered that any member of the compl)any who in four years
slhould induce fifty persons to settle anywhere within the limits of New
Netherland, the island of Manhattan alone excepted, should be termed
"Patroon," or ' Lord of the Manor," and should be entitled to purchase
a tract of laud sixteen miles in length by eight in width for the support
of this dignity  A number of persons availed themselves of this privilege, and secured from the Indians by purchase the best lands and the
most valuable trading places in the province. Those who were inferior
to them in wealth were of necessity compelled to become the ten-                   t
ants of the patroons, and thus a                                --
check w-as placed upon the irm-,'.
provement of the colony      In   '.
order to compel the colonists to -
purchase their supplies from Hol-,,,,            COAT OF ~ RMS OF DELAWARE.
land, the company forbade them
to manufacture even the simplest fabrics for clothing, on pain of banishment. The patroons were enjoined to provide a minister and a schoolmaster for their tenants, but no provision was made for them by the
company, which was careful, however, to offer to furnish the patroons
with African slaves if their use should be found desirable.
In 1629 Samuel Godyn and Samuel Blolnmaert purchased from the
Indians the region between Cape Henlopen and the mouth of the Delaware river, and in 1631 a colony of thirty souls was planted on Lewes
creek, in the present State of Delaware. "That Delaware exists as a.separate commonwealth is due to this colony  According to English
rule, occupancy was necessary to complete a title to the wilderness, and
the Dutch now occupied Delaware."   Less than a year later De Vries
came over from Holland with a reinforcement, and found only the ruins
of the settlement, the people of which had been massacred by the Indians.
Under the vigorous administration of Minuits New Netherland prospered; houses were built, farms laid off; the population was largely




234


HIISTOR Y OF THE UNi 2 ED STATES.


increased by new arrivals from   Europe.   During this period New
Amsterdam fairly entered upon its career as one of the most important
places in America. It was a happy settlement as well; the rights of the
people were respected, and they were practically as free a.s they had been
in Holland. Troubles with the Indians marked the close of Minuit's
administration. The latter were provoked by the murder of some of
their number by the whites, and by the aid rendered by the commander
at Fort Orange to the Mohegans in one of their forays upon the Mohawks.
Alarmed by the hostility of the savages, many of the families at Fort
Orange, and from the region between the Hudson and the Delaware,
abandoned their settlements and came to New Amsterdam for safety,
thus adding to the population of that town. Minuits was recalled in
1632, and left the province in a prosperous condition. During the last
year of his government New Amsterdam sent over $60,000 worth of furs
to Holland.
Minuits was succeeded by Wouter Van Twiller, a clerk in the companv's warehouse at Amsterdam, who owed his appointment to his being
the husband of the niece of Killian Van Rensselaer, the patroon of
Albany    Irving has thus sketehed this redoubtable governor: "He was
exactly five feet six inches in height, and six feet five inches in circumference.  His head was a perfect sphere, and of such stupendous
dimensions that dame Nature, with all her sex's ingenuity, would have
been puzzled to construct a neck capable of supporting it; wherefore she
wisely declined the attempt, and settled it firmly on the top of his back
bone just between the shoulders. His body was oblong and particularly
capacious at bottom, which was wisely ordered by Providence, seeing
that lie was a man of sedentary habits and very averse to the idle labor
of walking.  His legs were very short, but sturdy in proportion to the
weight they had to sustain; so that, when erect, he had not a little the
appearance of a beer barrel on skids. His face-that infallible index of
the mind-presented a vast expanse, unfurrowed by any of those lines
and angles which disfigure the human countenance with what is termed
expression. Two small gray eyes twinkled feebly in the midst, like two
stars of lesser magnitude in a hazy firmament; and his full-fed cheeks,
which seemed to have taken toll of everything that went into his mouth,
were curiously mottled and streaked with dusky red, like a Spitzenbcrg
apple. His habits were as regular as his person. He daily took his
four stated meals, appropriating exactly an hour to each;l he smoked and
doubted eight hours, and he slept the remaining twelve of the four-andtwenty "
Van Twiller ruled the province seven years, and, in spite of his




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


2'35


stupidity, it prospered. In 1633 Adam Roelantsen, the first schoolmaster, arrived-for the fruitful Walloons had opelled the way by this
time for his labors-and in the same year a wooden church was built in
the present Bridge street, and placed in charge of the famous Dominie
Everardus Bogardus. In 1635 the fort, which marked the site of tle
present Bowling Green, and which had been begun in 1614, was finished,
and in the same year the first English settlers at New Amsterdam came
into the town. The English il New England also began to give the
Dutch trouble during this adlninistration, and even sent a ship into
" Hudson's river" to trade with the Indians. Influenced by De Vries,
the commander of the fort, the governor sent an expedition up the river
after the audacious English vessel, seized her, brought her back to New
York, and sent her to sea with a warning not to repeat her attempt.
The disputes between the English and the Dutch about the Connecticut
settlements also began to make trouble for New Amsterdam. Vail
Twiller possessed no influence in the colony, was laughed at and snubbed
on every side, and was at length recalled by the company in 1638. The
only memorial of Van Twiller left to us is the Isle of Nuts, which lies in
the bay between New York and Brooklyn, and which he purchased as
his private domain. It is still called the " Governor's Island."
Van Twiller was succeeded by William Kieft, a man of greater abilities, but unscrupulous and avaricious. He had become a bankrupt in
Holland, and hoped to find in America the means of restoring his fortunes. His administration of the province was full of troubles, the
greater part of which were due to his recklessness and rapacity
The colonists were forbidden to sell fire-arms to the Indians, but some
of the traders along the Hudson had violated this order, and it was estimated that the Mohawks had at least four hundred warriors armed with
muskets. They were willing to pay large prices for the guns, as these
weapons enabled them to meet on equal terms their enemies, the Canada
Indians, who had been armed by the French. During Van Twiller's
administration the colony had been on good terms with the ]Mohegans
and other tribes of the Algonquin race, who were generally known as
the river Indians. Kieft, soon after his arrival, demanded of them the
payment of a tribute, which he pretended he had been ordered by the
company to levy upon them. They refused his demand with contempt,
and from this time the friendship which they had entertained for the
Dutch began to disappear,
A year or two later the Raritans, a tribe living on the river of that
name, were accused of stealing some hogs from the colony. The animals
had been taken by some Dutch traders; but Kieft, instead of investi



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


gating the matter, sent a party of soldiers among the Raritans and
destroyed their corn and killed several of their number. The savages
determined upon revenge, and withi their usual unreasoning fury attacked
the settlement which De Vries-who was always a friend of the Indians
-had founded on Staten island, and killed four men. The people of
the colony now urged the governor to conciliate the savages by kind
treatment, but he refused to do so. Another cause of trouble soon arose.
Twenty years before a Dutch trader had killed an Indian chief in the
presence of a little nephew of the warrior, That child, now grown to
manhood, came into the colony in 1641, and avenged his uncle by killing
an innocent settler. Kieft ordered the Indians to surrender the young
an tllhat lie mihlit be punished for his crime; but the savages refused to
give him up, but offered to ransom him. Kieft refused their proposition, and the matter remained an open source of trouble.
With the hope of finding a remedy for thle Indian difficulty, the people
obtained from the governor, in 1642, permission to hold a meeting of the
heads of families at *New Amsterdam. These appointed twelve of their
number to investigate the affairs of the colony  This was the first representative assembly of Neew Netherland, and its career was short.
V\enturing to pass beyond the Indian question, and to criticise the
administration of the governor in other matters, it was dissolved.
Near tlhe end of the year 1642 the Mohawks sent a band of warriors
armed with muskets to demand tribute of the river tribes. These, too
weak to contend with their enemies, fled to the Dutch for protection.
Kieft was at this time angry with the Indians for refusing to surrender
to him one of their number who had killed a Dutchman who had made
him drunk and then ill-treated him, and he resolved to take a signal
vengeance upon them, and exterminate them. De Vries, to whom he
communicated his plan, remonstrated with him in thle hope of inducing
him to abandon it. " If you murder these poor creatures who have put
themselves under your protection, you will involve the whole colony in
ruin, and their blood, and the blood of your own people, will be required
at your hlands," said De Vries.  Nothing, however, could move the
governor from his purpose.
The Indians who had sought the protection of the D.itch were
encamped with the Hackensack tribe just above Hoboken. On the night
of the 25th of February thle garrison of the fort at New Amsterdam,
reinforced by the crews of some Dutch privateers in the river, crossed
the Hudson and attacked the unsuspecting savages. Nearly a hundred
were killed, and when the morning came many of the poor wretches were
seen crowding along tlie shore of the river in the vain attempt to croas




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


237


over to their supposed friends at New Amsterdam. They were forced
into the stream and drowned. A company of Indians, trusting to the
friendship of the Dutch, had encamped on Manhattan island, near the
fort. They were put to death almost to a man.
The massacre was regarded by the colonists with horror and detestation, and they took no part in the joy with which the governor greeted
the troops on their return from their bloody work. He was not allowed
to rejoice long, however. When it became known among the Algonquins that their brethren had been murdered, not by the Mohawks, but
by the Dutch, every tribe took up the hatchet to avenge them, and a
general warfare began along the entire line of the Dutch settlements.
Several villages were destroyed, and a number of settlers were murdered
or carried into captivity. The colony was threatened with ruin, and
Kieft was obliged to open negotiations for peace. It was in this war
that Mrs. Anne Hutchinson and her family, who had taken refuge in the
territory of the Dutch, were murdered by the savages.
On the 5th of March, 1643, a conference was held at Rockaway
between sixteen Indian chiefs and De Vries and two other envoys from
the colony. One of the principal sachems arose, holding in his hands a
bundle of small sticks. " When you first arrived on our shores," said
the Indian, addressing the whites, "you were destitute of food. We
gave you our beans and our corn; we fed you with oysters and fish; and
now, for our recompense, you murder our people."  He then laid down
one of the little sticks and proceeded: "The traders whom your first
ships left on our shores to traffic till their return, were cherished by us
as the apple of our eye. We gave them our daughters for their wives.
Among those whom you have murdered were children of your own
blood."  "I know all," said De Vries, interrupting his recital of wrongs.
He then invited the chiefs to go with him to the fort. They accompanied him to New Amsterdam, where presents were exchanged and a
treaty of peace negotiated.  The younger warriors were not satisfied.
Kieft's presents were niggardly.  They were not regarded by the
savages as a sufficient compensation for the wrongs they had suffered,
and the war was renewed.
The leader of the Dutch in this campaign was Captain John Underhill, who had served in the Pequod war in New England, and had
removed to New Amsterdam in consequence of laving been made to do
penance in public at Boston in 1640. The war continued for two years,
and though the colony suffered severely, the Dutch were able to inflict
such heavy losses upon the savages that the latter were at length as
anxious for peace as the whites. Sixteen hundred of the Indians had




HISTOR Y OF TIE' UNITED STA TES.


fallen, but thle colony had been brought to thle verge of ruin, and th\
population of New Amsterdam was reduced to one hundred souls. On
tlhe 30th of August, 1645, the chiefs of the Algonquins and a deputation
from their old enemies, the Mohawks, who came as mediators, met the
whites on the spot now known as the Battery, and concluded a peace.
The close of the war was hailed with rejoicings throughout the colony.
Kieft was regarded with universal hatred as the author of the terrible
sufferings of the struggle, and his barbarous conduct was censured and
disavowed by the company, and he was recalled. Hated throughout the
colony he at length determined to return to Europe. Freighting a vessel with his ill-gotten gains he sailed from Manhattan in 1647. As he
neared the shores of the old world his ship was wrecked on the coast of
Wales, and all on board perished.
Kieft, in the vain hope of conciliating the people, appointed, immediately after the close of the war, a new municipal council of eight
members.   The first act of this council was to demand of the States
General of Holland the removal of Kieft. Their demand was complied
with, as we have seen, and in 1647 Peter Stuyvesant was made governor
of New Netherlands, and reached New Amsterdam in the same year.
Stuyvesant was essentially a strong man. A soldier by education anud
of long experience, he was accustomed to regard rigid discipline as the
one thing needful in every relation of life, and he was not slow to introduce that system into his government of New Amsterdam. He had
served gallantly in the wars against the Portuguese, and had lost a leg in
one of his numerous encounters with them. He was as vain as a peacock, as fond of display as a child, and thoroughly imbued with the most
aristocratic ideas-qualities not exactly the best for a governor of New
Amsterdam. Yet he was, with all his faults, an honest man, he had
deeply at heart the interests of the colony, and his administration was
mainly a prosperous one.
He energetically opposed from the first all manifestations in favor of
popular government. His will was to be the law of the province. " If
any one," said he, "during my administration shall appeal, I will make
him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to Holland, and let him appeal in
that way." He went to work with vigor to reform matters in the colony,
extending his efforts to even the morals and domestic affairs of the people.
He soon brought about a reign of material prosperity greater than had
ever been known before, and exerted himself to check the encroachments
Df the English on the east, and the Swedes on tlhe south. He inaugurated a policy of kindness and justice toward the Indians, and soon
changed their enmlity to sincere friendship. One thing, however, he




SETTLEMENT7' O'F NE RW YOrIK.


239


dared not do-lie could not levy taxes up)On tlle people without their consent, for fear of offending the States General of Holland.  Tlis forced
him to appoint a council of nine prominent citizens, and, altllough he
endeavored to lcedge round their powers by numerous conditions, the nine
ever afterwards served as a salutary check upon the action of tlhe
governor,
The English in Connecticut made great efforts to extend their territories westward at the expense of New Netherland, and gave Stu yvesant
no little annoyance by their aggressions.  During his administration the
colony received large accessions of English emigrants from New England,
who came to New Netherland " to enjoy that liberty denied to them by
their own countrymen."  They settled in New Amsterdam, on Long
island, and in Westchester county  Being admitted to an equality with
the Dutch settlers they exercised considerable influence in the affairs of
the colony, and towards the close of his administration gave the governor
considerable trouble by their opposition to his despotic acts. Stuyvesant
entered into an arrangemlent with Connecticut for the proper adjustment
of the boundaries of the two colonies, and left the English in possession
of half of Long island.
Upon his rem.oval from his place as governor of New Amsterdam
Peter Minuits offered his services to Gustavus Adolplhus, king of Sweden,
who was anxious to found in America a colony which might prove a
place of refulge for the persecuted Protestants of Europe. The offer was
accepted by the king, and the shores of the Delaware were chosen as the
site of the new settlement. Near the close of 1637 a little company of
Swedes and Fins embarked in two vessels under the direction of Minuits,
and sailed for America. The Delaware was reached early in 1638, and
the new-comers purchased from the natives the country on the west side
of the river from Cape Henlopen to Trenton. A fort was built within
the limits of the present State of Delaware, on the site of the present
city of Wilmington, and named Fort Christiana, in honor of the youthfill queen of Sweden, the daughter of Gustavus.
Kieft, the Dutch governor of New Netherland, protested against this
occupation of the country by the Swedes, as Holland claimed the region
along the Delaware. Sweden was too formidable a power for her colony
to be attacked, however, and Kieft contented himself with his protest.
Fresh emigrants came out from  Scandinavia, and New Sweden grew
rapidly. The Dutch fort Nassau was renewed, but the Swedes succeeded
in maintaining their ascendency along the Delaware in spite of it. Their
plantations were extended along the river, and the smallest of the American commonwealths was permanently settled by Europeans.




HISTOR Y OF TIE UNITED STATES.


When Stuyvesant was made governor of New Netherland the Dutch
West India Company resolved to enforce their claim to Delaware, and
in 1651 built Fort Casirir on the site of Newcastle. The Swedes
regarded this as an encroachment upon their domain, and in 1654 captured the fort.  Upon the receipt of this news the Dutch Company indignantly ordered Stuyvesant "to drive the Swedes from the river, or
compel their submission." In September, 1655, Stuyvesant, with a force
of six hundred men, sailed from Manhattan into the Delaware. The
Swedish forts were compelled to surrender one after another, and the
colonists were forced to submit to the establishment of the rule of the
Dutch. They were allowed to retain their possessions, and on the whole
were treated well. Many of thenm, however, were dissatisfied with their
new rulers, and in the next few years emigrated to Maryland and
Virginia.
The territory now included in the State of New Jersey was also
claimed by the Dutch. They built Fort Nassau on the Delaware to
establish this claim, but the Swedes were the first to settle the country.
Soon after, establishing themselves in Delaware, they crossed over to the
eastern side of the river, and built a line of trading-posts extending from
Cape Mayv to Burlington.
New Amsterdam continued to prosper, and was even at this early day
rapidly becomning an important commercial town. Stuyvesant's arbitrary
temper was held in check to a considerable extent by the more liberal
policy of the company, who sincerely desired the prosperity of the colony
"Let every peaceful citizen," wrote the directors, " enjoy freedom of conscience; this maxim has made our city the asylum for fugitives from
every land; tread in its steps, and you shall be blessed." The infant
metropolis from the first acquired a cosmopolitan character. It contained
settlers from every nation of Europe, and even from Africa; for the
Dutch at an early day introduced negro slavery into the colony
The people of New Netherland had no political rights, and the West
India Company, with every disposition to treat the colony with fairness,
did not mean to allow the settlers to have any voice in governing themselves. Town meetings were positively forbidden, and every care was
taken to discourage any manifestation of public spirit. Nevertheless the
colonists were beginning to feel the promptings of the spirit of democracy,
and the English settlers who had come into the province were by no
means content to remain without the privileges of freemen. A series of
disputes at once arose with the fiery old governor, who entertained the
most profound contempt for the people, and laughed in scorn at the assertion of their ability to govern themselves.




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


The discontents went on increasing, however, and at length the people
appointed a convention of two delegates from each settlement for the
purpose of deliberating on the affairs of the colony. Stuyvesant was
bitterly opposed to this assembly, but deemed it best not to seek to prevent its meeting, as such a step would have brought about a collision with
the people. The convention addressed the governor as follows: "The
States General of the United Provinces are our liege lords; we submit to
the laws of the United Provinces; and our rights and privileges ought
to be in harmony with those of the fatherland, for we are a member of
the state, and not a subjugated people. We, who have come together
from various parts of the world, and are a blended community of various
lineage; we, who have, at our own expense, exchanged our native lands
for the protection of the United Provinces; we, who have transformed
the wilderness into fruitful farms, demand that no new laws shall be
enacted but with the consent of the people; that none shall be appointed
to office but with the approbation of the people; that obscure and obsolete laws shall never be revived."  This was too much for the governor.
He attempted to reason with the deputies, who had the temerity to demand the right of self-government, and finding them firm dissolved the
convention with the haughty declaration: " We derive our authority
from God and the West India Company, not from the pleasure of a few
ignorant subjects."  The West India Company entirely approved the
course of the governor  "We approve the taxes you propose," they
wrote to Stuyvesant; " have no regard to the consent of the people. Let
them indulge no longer the visionary dream that taxes can be imposed
only with their consent."
Neither the company nor the governor could understand that this persistent disregard of the rights of the people was alienating all classes of
the colonists, and making them long for the conquest of New Netherland
by the English as the only means of obtaining the privileges of the freemen of the English colonies.
Nor was this an idle hope. For a long time past the English government had seriously entertained the idea of driving out the Dutch, an(l
adding New Netherland to its American possessions. The English claim
extended to the entire Atlantic coast as far south as Florida, and the
Dutch were regarded as intruders. Cromwell and his son had each contemplated making such an effort, and at the return of Charles II. to the
throne the plan was more seriously discussed, and at length put in operation. Charles, although at peace with Holland, and in spite of the
charter which he had granted to Connecticut, bestowed upon his brother,
the Duke of York, afterwards James II., the entire region between the
16




THE BATTERY AND (-As'rLE GARDEN, NE~W YORK, iw 1875.




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


243


Connecticut and Delaware rivers. This was in February, 1664. A
squadron was at once fitted out for the purpose of seizing the Dutch
colony, and was placed in command of Richard Nicolls, an officer of the
Duke of York's household. The fleet touched at Boston to land the
commissioners sent out by Charles to the New England colonies, and to
receive reinforcements. Governor Winthrop, of Connecticut, also embarked on board of it.
The first intimation Stuyvesant had of the intended robbery was the
appearance of the fleet within the Narrows on the 28th of August, 1664.


THE CITY HALL PARK, NEW YORK, IN 1875.


The next day Nicolls demanded the surrender of the town and fort of
New Amsterdam. Stuyvesant, who had made preparations for defending the place, endeavored to resist the demand, but the citizens refused to
sustain him, and he was obliged to submit. On the 8th of September he
embarked his troops for Holland, and put to sea. The English at once
took possession of the fort and town, and their vessels ascending the
Hudson, received the submission of the other Dutch forts and settlements
along the river. A few weeks later the Dutch and the Swedes along the
Delaware submitted to the English, and the entire province was in their




244


HIISTORY OF' THE UNITED STATES.


hands. The name of New Amsterdam was changed to New York, wlich
name was also bestowed upon the province, and Fort Orange was called
Albany, all in honor of the new proprietor  Nicolls was appointed
governor
The English set themselves to work to conciliate the Dutch residents,
a task not very difficult, as the English settlers in the province had
already prepared the way for the change, and the treatment the colony
had received from the West India Company had prevented the formation
of any decided attachment to the rule of Holland. The English system
of government was introduced, the towns were allowed to elect their own
magistrates, and the desires of the people for representative government
scm1n0d about to be gratified.
The Mohawks had been the friends of the Dutch, and they now readily
entered into an alliance with the English as their successors. This alliance remained unbroken all through the colonial period, and during the
war of the Revolution; and in the first-named period proved of the
greatest advantage to the colonies,.~ ^S             as the Mohawks, whose hatred of
''          the French was deep and unreT.7             lenting, proved a formidable ob-. A ~              S   stacle in the way of invading parties from Canada.
T A            Immediately   upon  becoming
CO'AT OF ARMS OF NEW JERSEY.
master of the province the Duke
of York proceeded to divide it. He sold to Lord Berkerey and Sir
George Cartaret, both of whom were already proprietaries of Carolina,
the country between the Hudson and the, Delaware. This purchase was
named New Jersey, in honor of the island of Jersey, of which Cartaret
was governor, and corresponded in size very nearly to the present State
of that name. The new proprietors made liberal offers to induce emigrants to settle in their territory, and among other things offered them
lands free of rent for five years. They granted to the province a political establishment consisting of a governor, a council, and assembly of
representatives of the people, who were given the power to make the
laws necessary for their government. The proprietors reserved the right
to appoint the governor and judicial officers, and to veto the proceedings
of the assembly  Negro slavery was also introduced. These offers drew
a large number of settlers to New Jersey, and many families came over
from Long island to the new province. The principal settlement was
named Elizabethtown, in honor of Cartaret's wife. The colony prospered; no trouble was experienced from the neighboring Indians, whose




SE1TTLEMENT OF INEW YORIK.


2-15


power had been thoroughly broken by the Dutch, and everything went
on happily until the year 1670, when the proprietaries demanded the
rents due for the lands held by the settlers. The demand was refised.
Many of the colonists had lived in the province under the rule of the
Duteh, and had bought their lands from the Indians, and they claimed
that the grant of the province to Cartaret could not invalidate these purchases, as the king had no claim to the lands which he so lavishly
bestowed upon his favorites.  Others refused to pay rent because
they had  made their plantations without any assistance from  the
proprietaries, and did not acknowledge any debt to them. The
representative of the proprietaries was obliged to fly from New Jersey
for safety, and went to England to obtain assistance in enforcing his
demands.,
The Duke of York heard the complaints of the proprietaries, but the
only attention he paid to them was to appoint Sir Edmund Andros, who
subsequently became infamous for his tyranny in New England, governor of New Jersey   This was a flagrant violation of the rights of
Cartaret and Berkeley, and an act thoroughly characteristic of the last
of the Stuarts. Berkeley in disgust sold his half of the province, known
as West Jersey, to an English Quaker named Edward Byllinge, who
subsequently made over his claim to William  Penn, who made an
arrangement with Cartaret to divide the Jerseys. Cartaret retained East
Jersey, and the line of division was drawn from the northwest corner of
the province to the sea at Little Egg harbor. This purchase became the
cause of considerable litigation in after years, and West Jersey was
claimed by Pennsylvania until the next century, when, as we shall see,
the dispute was settled.
New Jersey received a considerable accession to her population in consequence of the re-establishment of episcopacy in Scotland. The Cameronians or Covenanters refused to submit to the authority of the church,
and thus became the objects of a cruel persecution. As so many of their
faith had done before them, they sought refuge from their persecutors in
America, and in 1683 and the following years large numbers of them
came over and settled in East Jersey  This portion of the State was
the cradle, as it is now one of the strongholds, of Presbyterianism in
America.
In the meantime matters in New York had not been conducted to the
satisfaction of the people. The promises made to the colonists by the
English authorities were not kept. The province was treated as the
absolute property of the Duke of York, and the governor and his council
were constituted the highest authority for both the making and exe9




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


cution of the laws. Representative government was denied them,
arbitrary taxes were imposed by Governor Nicolls, and the titles to the
lands held by the settlers, not even excepting the Dutch patents, were declared invalid, in order that by issuing new title-deeds Nicolls might gain
enormous fees. Lovelace, the successor of Nicolls, carried his tyranny to


BROADWAY, NEW YORK, IN 1875.
a still greater extent. His system of government is thus summed up:
"The method for keeping the people in order is severity, and laying such
taxes as may give them  liberty for no thought but how to discharge
them." When the people of a number of the towns ventured to remonstrate with the governor, he ordered their petition for the redress of their




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


247


grievances to be publicly burned before the town house in New York.
The settlements in Delaware were treated with equal injustice.
In 1673, war having broken out between Holland and England, a
Dutch squadron entered the harbor of New York. The people, thoroughly cured of their partiality for English rule by the injustice they
had suffered, made no resistance and surrendered the town. Its name
was changed to New Orange, and the authority of the Dutch was again
extended over the province, and also over Long island, New Jersey and
Delaware. The Mohawks sent a deputation of their chiefs to congratulate the Dutch upon the recovery of their colony  The next year, however, peace was made between England and Holland, and the Dutch
surrendered their conquests in America. New York passed once more
into the hands of the Duke of York, and East Jersey into those of
Cartaret.
In the same year the Duke of York appointed Sir Edmund Andros
governror of New York. The eastern settlements of Long island were
anxious to adhere to Connecticut, but the governor compelled them on
pain of being declared rebels to acknowledge themselves a part of New
York. The claim of the duke extended within the limits of Connecticut
as far as the river of that name, and in the summer of 1675 Andros
sailed with several armed sloops for that colony to establish his authority
as far as the river. The government of Connecticut, warned of his
purpose, determined to resist him, and Captain Bull, the commander of
the fort at Saybrooke, was ordered to pay no attention to his claim.
Andros, arriving off Saybrooke, hoisted the royal standard and demanded
the surrender of the fort. Bull instantly ran up the English colors, and
refused to comply with the demand. Andros, who was a coward at
heart, quailed before the firmness of the Connecticut captain, and abandoned his undertaking and sailed for Long island.  Thus ended the
attempt of the Duke of York to dismember Connecticut. Andros returned to New York to disgust the people of that province with his
tyranny
When James II. became king he compelled the proprietaries of New
Jersey to surrender their claim to the jurisdiction of that province to
him, and annexed it to New York. In 1683 the grievances of the people
of New York had become so unendurable that James, then Duke of
York, deemed it best to conciliate them, and allowed the freeholders to
send representatives to an assembly  This assembly met in October,
1683, and its first act was to demand the rights of Englishmen. " Supreme legislative power," they declared, "shall forever be and reside in
the governor, council, and people, met in general assembly. Every free



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


holder and freeman shall vote for representation without restraint. No
freeman shall suffer but by the judgment of his peers; and all trials shall
be by a jury of twelve men. No tax shall be assessed, on any pretence
whatever, but by the consent of the assembly  No seaman or soldier
shall be quartered on the inhabitants against their will. No martial law
shall exist. No person professing faith in God by Jesus Christ shall at
any time be any ways disquieted or questioned for any difference of
opinion." These privileges were conceded by the Duke of York, who
solemnly promised not to change them except for the advantage of the
colony; but he had scarcely become king when he overturned the liberties
he had conceded and made New York a royal province, dependent entirely upon his unrestrained will for its privileges.
The people of New York were Protestants, many of whom had had
cause to dread the restoration of the Roman Catholic religion in England.
When James gave evidence of his intention to compel the acceptance of
that faith by all his subjects, the colonies included, they were greatly discontented. Their fears were increased by the appointment by the king
of a Roman Catholic as collector of customs at New York. Nicholson,
the royal governor, was also exceedingly unpopular. As soon as the news
of the overthrow of James II. in England reached New York, Jacob
Leisler, the senior captain of the military companies, was requested by his
men to take possession of the fort and assume the management of affairs
until the government should be settled by the orders of King William.
Leisler was a prominent merchant and was very popular with the common
people, but he was opposed by the great land-holders, who were prinCipally Dutch, and by the party devoted to the Church of England. He
found himself at the head of about five hundred armed men, and taking
possession of the fort avowed his intention to hold it until the will of
King William should be known. He was sustained by a large majority
of the people of New York, but the aristocratic party, and the churchmen, who hated him, as he was a Presbyterian, denounced him as a rebel,
and sustained the council of Nicholson, the last governor appointed by
King James, which withdrew to Albany in August, 1689.
Leisler appointed his son-in-law, Milbourne, his secretary. Later in
the year the people of Albany, being in danger of an attack from the
French from Canada, asked aid from New York. Leisler sent Milbourne with a body of troops to their assistance, but the old council
refused to acknowledge his authority, or to allow him to assume the
command of the fort, and he went back with his men to New York,
leaving the people of Albany to depend upon their own exertions for the
defeat of the French. In their necessity they asked for and received aid
from Connecticut.




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


249


In December letters from the English government were received,
addressed to Nicholson, or, in his absence, to " such as, for the time being,
take care for preserving the peace and administerilg the law" in New
York. A commission for Nicholson accompanied these documents; but
he was on his way to England, and Leisler, who was temporarily in
authority in New York, regarded his position as confirmed by the letters
from England, and caused himself to be proclaimed governor.   He
ordered the members of the old council at Albany to be arrested, and
summoned an assembly to provide for the wants of the colony
Upon first taking charge of affairs Leisler had addressed a letter to King
William setting forth his reasons for his action, and asking the king to
make known his royal pleasure concerning the colony  No answer was
sent by the king to this communication, but on the 30th of January, 1691,
a ship suddenly arrived in the harbor having on board a company of
English soldiers, commanded by a Captain Ingoldsby, who had been sent
by Colonel Henry Sloughter, whom    King William   had appointed
governor of New York. The aristocratic party at once rallied around
Ingoldsby as their leader, and that officer demanded of Leisler the surrender of the fort. Leisler insisted that he should produce his authority
for such a demand, and, as none could be shown, refused to give up the
fort, but offered Ingoldsby every assistance for himself and his men, and
avowed his intention to submit to Sloughter upon his arrival. In the
time which elapsed between the arrivals of Ingoldsby and the new governor party spirit ran so high that a collision occurred between the soldiers
and the people, in which one man was wounded.
Sloughter reached New York on the 19th of March, 1691. Leisler at
once sent messengers to receive his orders, but the messengers were
detained. The next morning Leisler addressed a letter to Sloughter,
asking to whom he should deliver up the fort. Sloughter returned no
answer to this letter, but ordered Ingoldsby to " arrest Leisler and the
persons called his council."
Leisler, Milbourne, and six others were arrested and immediately
arraigned before a tribunal composed of their inveterate enemies, on a
charge of treason. This was a frivolous pretence, for it was well known
that Leisler, who was an enthusiastic admirer of King William, had
never dreamed of denying his authority; but it was as good a charge as
any other, as the fate of the prisoners was decided from the first. The
prisoners denied the authority of the court, and refusing to plead before
it, appealed to the king. The presiding officer of the court was the
chief justice of New York, the infamous Joseph Dudley, who had been
driven out of New England by the peo4le whose liberties he had out



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


raged. The prisoners, in spite of their appeal, were condemned to
death.
Sloughter was unwilling to disregard their appeal as entirely as the
court had done, and wished to leave the matter to the king; but the
enemies of Leisler were resolved upon his death. Taking advantage of
the known weakness of the governor, they made him drunk at a dinner
party, and in this state induced him to sign the death warrant of the
prisoners. The next morning at daybreak (May 16th) Leisler and Mil.
bourne were hurried from their weeping families to the gallows. In
spite of a pouring rain, the people who had gotten news of the tragedy
crowded around the place of execution to cheer their martyrs in their
last moments. "Weep not for us, who are departing to our God," said
Leisler to the multitude. Milbourne saw standing among the crowd one
of the men who had been prominent in their condemnation, and cried out
to him: " Robert Livingston, I will implead thee for this at the bar of
God."  Then turning to the people, he said: "I die for the king and
queen, and for the Protestant religion, in which I was born and bred.
Father, into thy hands I commend my spirit." The judicial murder was
then completed, and New York's first martyrs laid down their lives in
behalf of the rights of the people.
The popular party was now more than ever embittered against the
aristocratic class, and the principles which Leisler and Milbourne upheld
were more than ever insisted upon. Their friends, "who were distinguished always by their zeal for popular power, for toleration, for opposition to the doctrine of legitimacy," continued the struggle, and at length
succeeded in making their principles the law of the colony.
The royalist assembly, while denying to the people an equality with
themselves in political matters, were yet indisposed to surrender to the
crown the independence of the colony, and, with their successors, insisted
upon the right of self-government, and the regulation of taxation by the
assembly, with such firmness that in 1705 Queen Anne yielded so far as
to permit the assembly to appoint "its own treasurer to take charge of
extraordinary supplies."
The memory of Leisler and Milbourne was vindicated after their
death. The son of the former made the appeal to the king which had
been denied his father, and Parliament at length reversed the attainder
under the charge of treason, and restored their estates to their families.
Dudley exerted all his arts to prevent this act of justice. As for Governor
Sloughter, who was at the best but a poor weak adventurer, he died of the
effects of his dissipation six months after the execution of his victims.
In 1692 Benjamin Fletcher was appointed to succeed Sloughter. He




SETTLEMENT OF NEW YORK.


251


was an officer of the royal army, and was as passionate and avaricious as
he was incompetent in other respects. He was a firm ally of the aristocratic party, and a bitter foe to popular liberty  In 1693, in order to
assist New York against the attacks of the French in Canada, all the
colonies were required to contribute their quota of troops to her defence.
An effort was also made to place the militia of New Jersey and Connecticut under the orders of the governor of New York. The authorities of


NASSAU STREET, NEW YORK, IN 1875.


IConnecticut, however, were resolved not to relinquish the control of their
militia, which would have been to sacrifice the rights secured to the
people-by the charter.   In order to enforce his authority, Governor
Fletcher repaired to Hartford, where the assembly of Connecticut was in
session. At the time of his arrival a company of militia was engaged in
training in the town. Governor Fletcher rode up to this force; but its




252


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


commander, Captain Wadsworth, paid no attention to him, and did not
cven acknowledge his presence.   Fletcher, who had boasted that he
would not stir from the colony until he was obeyed, ordered his secretary
to read his commission in the hearing of the troops. As the secretary
commenced to read, Wadsworth ordered the drums to be beaten, and tlhw
secretary's voice was drowned.  " Silence! " cried Fletcher; " begins
again with the commission."  "Music! music!" ordered Wadsworth,
the same man who had hid the charter from Governor Andros. The
drummers began again, and the governor, in a rage, ordered them to
ease their music.  Wadsworth sharply commanded the bewildered
musicians to go on with their drumming, and then turning upon Fletcher,
said to him fiercely: "If I am interrupted again I will make daylight
shine through you." The voice and manner of the man convinced the
governor that he was in earnest, and he went back to New York, satisfied
of the impossibility of bringing the Connecticut militia under his orders.
New York was the most northern colony in which the authority of the
Church of England was established. A number of its people were
members of that communion, and in the colonial government the influence of that church was predominant. The vast majority of the people,
however, were hostile to it, and it was not until 1695 that Governor
Fletcher was able to obtain for it anything like favor from the assemblyThe representatives of the people were fearful that if it obtained a firm
footing among them, the British government might bestow upon it a
power which would be dangerous to the other denominations. Naturally
it enjoyed the favor of the homne government, and engrossed all the provision made by England for religious matters in the colony   Lord
Cornbury, the royal governor, attempted in 1705 to silence a Presbyterian minister for preaching without a license from the governor; but
a jury, composed of Episcopalians, acquitted the prisoner. The same
governor connived at the seizure by the Episcopalians of a church in
Jamaica, which had been built by the whole town; but the colonial
court restored it to its rightful owners. The spirit of popular liberty
and toleration was growing rapidly in New York, and its colonial history
is the story of a constant struggle between the people and the royal
governors for the assertion and maintenance of their rights. Nearly all
the governors regarded their position as but a means of enriching themselves, and systematically defrauded both the king and the colony
By 1732 the population of New York city numbered a little less than
nine thousand souls. In that year a case of the deepest interest occurred
in that city  John Peter Zenger had established a newspaper called the
Weekly Journal, which ventured to censure the arbitrary action of the




iI




p.:=
2t —
u


-  -,N"     - — xiUL
THIE POST OFFICE, NEW YORK, IN 1873.




254


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


governor and assembly in levying illegal taxes upon the colony  This
was a bold step, for until now no newspaper had dared to criticise the
action of the government. Cosby, the governor of New York, resolving
to make an example of the offender, arrested Zenger on the charge of
libel, and caused his paper to be publicly burned. Zenger employed
two lawyers to defend him, and these increased the anger of the governn(ent by denying the competency of the court, inasmuch as the appointtuent of the chief justice, Delancy, had been made by Cosby without the
consent of the council, and was therefore illegal. The court at once
struck their names from its list of attorneys, and this arbitrary action so
intimidated the remaining members of the bar that Zenger found it impossible to procure counsel.
In thllis helpless condition he was put on trial, and the court had
actually begun its proceedings when a stranger, a venerable and noblelooking man, entered the room  and took his seat at the bar. He
announced his name to the court, and stated that he had come to act as
counsel for the prisoner, A murmur of admiration greeted the announcement of his name. He was Andrew Hamilton, speaker of the assembly
of Pennsylvania, the famous "Quaker lawyer" of Philadelphia. In the
trial which ensued, Hamilton offered to prove the truth of the alleged
libel, but was not allowed to do so; the chief justice quoting English
precedents in support of his decision. Hamilton then made an eloquent
appeal to the jury, declaring that they of their own knowledge knew the
statements of Zenger's paper to be true, and urged them to maintain the
great principles of the freedom of the press and liberty of speech throughout the colonies, which principles, and not John Peter Zenger, he
solemnly declared were on trial before them. In spite of the unfavorable
charge of the judge, the jury brought in a unanimous verdict of
acquittal, which was announced amid the cheers of the people. Thus
wshile the freedom of the press was still in doubt in England, and thirtyseven years before the famous trial for libel of the publisher of the
Letters Junius established it in the mother country, the people of New
York declared themselves its guardians, and struck down the effort
of the royal power to impose shackles upon their most vigilant defender.
In 1702 the proprietaries of New Jersey surrendered their rights
of jurisdiction to the crown, and Queen Anne united the two Jerseys in
one province, and placed it under the governor of New York. It was
given a separate assembly, but this concession of partial independence of
its neighbor did not suit the province, and after many protests it was
given its own governor in the person of Lewis Morris, in 1708. During
the rest of the colonial period it remained a royal province.




CHAPTER XVII.


COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA.
The Quakers-Their Origin and Doctrines-William Penn-Becomes a Quaker-Is Persecuted for. his Religious Opinions-Becomes Interested in American ColonizationPurchases West Jersey from the Proprietor-Conceives the Idea of Founding a Free
State in America-Purchases Pennsylvania from Charles II.-Conditions of his Charter
-Sends out a Colony-Arrival of Penn in America-Philadelphia Founded-Penn's
Treaty with the Indians-Religious Toleration Guaranteed-Penn's Relations with his
Colonists-Rapid Growth of Pennsylvania in Population and Prosperity-William
Penn and James II.-Renewal of Penn's Troubles-William III. Declares Pennsylvania a Royal Province-Penn is Vindicated and Restored to his Proprietary RightsHis Return to Pennsylvania-Character of the Settlers of the Province-Penn Goes
Back to England-Efforts to deprive him of his Possessions-His Death.
~   NE   of the most remarkable results of the English Reformation
was the rise and growth of the Society of Friends, or Quakers,
as they came to be called. Discarding what seemed to them
superfluous and unnecessary forms in religion, they confined
themselves to a simpler and more primitive expression of their
faith.  Believing that the only evil a Christian should resist is the evil
of his own heart, they opposed no resistance to persecution or to ill-treatment from their fellow-men; and as servants of the Prince of Peace were
unchangeably opposed to war and bloodshed.       They held the doctrine
of the Trinity; that we obtain salvation by the atoning blood of Christ;
that man was created a free and responsible agent, that he forfeited his
right to the blessings of the Creator by his fall, and will owne his restoration to his lost estate to the mercy of God and the blood of Christ; that
the Holy Scriptures are the work of inspiration, and a good rule of life
and faith.  With them the test of Christianity was not a man's standing
in the church, but the answer of a good conscience; the sense of true inward communion between the soul of the individual and God. They
conducted their worship in silence, and regarded all their members as
sent by God to preach His gospel; therefore, any one, even women, Was
free to speak in their meetings the message which came to him from the
Holy Spirit.   They denied that the right to preach was restricted to any
particular class, and refused to acknowledge the authority of the regular
clergy  Oaths were regarded as unlawful for Christian men, and temper255




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


anee and the utmost simplicity in all things were enjoined upon their
people. They refused to recognize the social distinctions which prevailed
in the world, though they admitted the power of the magistrates to enforce
the laws, and regarded all men as equals. Their dress was simple, and
in proportion to the means of the wearer, and their lives were blameless.
They admitted the right of all men to worship God in their own way,
and thus extended to all others the perfect toleration they claimed for
themselves.
The founder of this sect was the good George Fox, the son of a weaver
of Leicestershire, and "by his mother descended from the stock of the
martyrs." He began to teach his doctrines about the middle of the seventeenth century, and at first his converts were people of the humbler
classes of England. He was met with a determined opposition from
both the established church and the Presbyterians, and was imprisoned,
set in the stocks, cruelly beaten, and otherwise persecuted, and driven
from place to place. Yet he persevered, and his doctrines began to
spread. Distressed by the perseN                 lcutions to which his followers
t s                 were subjected, he visited America
t  s_                     after the restoration of Charles
II., in the hope of finding there a.        o    LI f   nd           place of refuge for his people, but
P-                 could find none. Puritan Nenw
COAT OF ARMS OF PENNSYLVANIA.
Eng lanmd was hostile to his doctrines, and the powe    r      o f te Church of England was strong enough in
the southern colonies to defeat his object.
Among Fox's converts wcre a few from the higher classes of English
society  One of these was destined to be, next to its founder, the greatest
benefactor of his faith, and one of the choice instruments of the Almighty
in the settlement and Christianization of America. This was hVilliam
Penn. He was the son and heir of Admiral Sir William Penn, one of
the most distinguished naval commanders of England. The admiral
desired for his son the advantages which his high position would readily
secure to him, but the young man at an early day, happening to converse
with a simple-minded Quaker, became so deeply impressed with his
principles that he adopted them as his own. This greatly annoyed tile
fhther, but supposing that it was a mere boyish notion which his son
would outgrow, Williamn was sent to study at tile University of Oxford,
and after leaving that institution was made to travel through Europe to
improve his mind and to remove his tendency to Quakerism.
William returned to England, after an absence of two years, greatly




COOLONIZATION 01" PENNSYLVANIA.


257


0
improved in mind, but still true to his religious convictions. In 1666,
while travelling in Ireland, Penn met his old friend Thomas Loe, and
heard him speak of the glorious triumph of the faith of a Christian over
the adversities of the world. His enthusiasm was once more awakened
to such an extent that he from that moment began to seek to draw others
into the communion which had given him so much happiness. His
course gave offence to the authorities, and he was imprisoned.  He
addressed a remonstrance to the viceroy of Ireland, in which lie declared:
" Religion is my crime and my innocence; it makes me a prisoner to
malice, but my own freeman."
Being liberated, he went back home, but only to meet with mockery
and persecution. He was ridiculed by his companions of his own rank
in life, and it was a common jest in society, says Pepys, that "William
Penn was a Quaker again, or some very melancholy thing."  His father,
disappointed and indignant at the failure of his hopes, turned him out of
his house without a penny; but his mother, truer to her nature, supplied
him with sufficient funds to relieve his most pressing wants.
Penn now began to defend his doctrines through the l)ress, and thus
brought them into greater prominence. This soon made him the victim,of the ecclesiastical authorities, and the Bishop of London threatened
him with imprisonment for life if he did not recant his doctrines. He
answered firmly: "Then my prison shall be my grave."  He was committed to the Tower on a charge of heresy, and kept in close confinement.
Charles II., naturally kind-hearted, was touched by his firmness, and
sent the learned Stillingfleet, himself a man of humanity, to reason with
him. "The Tower," said Penn, "is to me the worst argument in the
world." At the end of a year his father's friend, the Duke of York,
procured his release, for the consistency of the young man had won back
for him the affection and sympathy of the stern old admiral.
Every effort was now made to draw William Penn away from his
faith. A high rank in the royal navy, the favor of the king, and many
other inducements were held out to him; but he refused them all, and
remained true to his principles. In less than a vear after his release
from the Tower he was arrested for having spoken at a Quaker meeting.
He protested his right to do this, and declared that no power on earth
should prevent him from worshipping the God who made him. He was
placed on trial for his offence, and boldly demanded to know on what
law the indictment against him was founded. "On the common law,"
replied the recorder. "Where is that law?" asked Penn. "The law
which is not in being, far from being common, is no law at all."  He
conducted his own defence, and as he was pleading earnestly for his
17




258


2HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


rights as an Englishman, was hurried out of court. He appealed to the
jury to remember that they were his judges. The jury, in spite of an
unfavorable charge from the judge, brought in a verdict of acquittal.
The court ordered them back to their room, with the angry declaration:
"We will have a verdict, by the help of God, or you shall starve for it."
"You are Englishmen," cried Penn to the jurors, as they were retiring:
"Mind your privilege, give not away your right."  At last, after being
kept two days and nights without fi;(ld, the jury repeated their verdict of
"not guilty," and were fined by the cvourt for daring to assert their
independence. Penn was fined for contempt of court, and sent back to
prison. His fine was soon discharged by his father, who died shortly
afterwards. "Son William," said the dying admiral, to whom earthly
honors now appeared in their true light, "if you and your friends keep
to ybur plain way of preaching and living, you will make an end of the
priests."
Penn was now nearly twenty-six years old, and had inherited from
his father a handsome estate. He continued to
explain and defend his doctrines through the
press, and in 1671 was arrested and sentenced
to six months' imprisonment in Newgate. From
~  -     his prison he addressed a noble plea to Parlia-.s~  ''' ment and to the nation for toleration. Upon
1-~   t  hllis release front prison, Penn travelled in Hol-.~s^ ^ L      land and Germany, and upon his return to England, in 1673, married a woman of great beauty,
w hhose noble character rendered her a fitting comI          panlion to him. He took no part in public affairs
WILLIAM PENN.'
until the imprisonment of George Fox, upon his
return to England from America, called him once more to the defence of
his brethren. Fox being released, he and Penn and several others
travelled through Holland and a part of Germany, seeking to make
converts to their faith-an effort in which they were very successful
among the Dutch and German peasantry      Returning to England, lihe
once more appealed tno Parliament, but without success, to do justice to
the Quakers, and grant them the toleration to which they were entitled.
Despairing of success in England, Penn now directed the whole of his
energies to securing a home for his persecuted brethren in the new world.
A number of Quakers were already settled along the banks of the Delaware and in New Jersey, and in 1675 the embarrassments of Edward
Byllinge, who had purchased Lord Berkeley's interest in New Jersey,
obliged him to sell his share of that province. It was purchased by




COLONIZATION OF PENNSYL VANIA.


259


William Penn, Gawen Lourie, and Nicholas Lucas for the benefit of the
Quakers. This placed the Friends in possession of an asylum, but it left
them more at the mercy of the English government and church than
they desired to be, and New Jersey was divided into two equal parts;
Cartaret, Berkeley's former partner, retaining East Jersey, and West
Jersey becoming the property of the Quakers. This was accomplished
in 1676, and in March of the following year a government resting upon
the will of the people, and securing to the inhabitants protection and
equality in all their political and religious rights and privileges, was set
up in West Jersey. The English Quakers came over to the new province
in great numbers, with the good wishes of Charles II., and peaceful
relations were established with the Indians. Byllinge, who had retained
some interest in the province, now began to be troublesom)ne, and claimed
the right to nominate the deputy governor. The people denied his
claim, and, at the instigation of William Penn, amended their constitution so as to place the choice of all their officers in their own hands, and
then elected a governor.
Penn had now become deeply interested in the colonization of America,
and wished to secure for his faith a wider domain than West Jersey  He
had inherited from his father a claim against the Englislh government
amounting to ~16,000. He now proposed to exchange this claim for a
grant of territory in America. Charles II., who was alwavys in want of
money, and who never set much value upon the lands of the new world,
readily accepted his offer, as it was urged by Lords North, Halifax, and
Sunderland, and the Duke of York, who were firm friends of William
Penn. The king, in 1681, granted to Penn a district lying west of the
Delaware river, and corresponding very nearly to territory embraced in
the present State of Pennsylvania, which name the king bestowed upon
it in honor of the proprietor. The Duke of York claimed Delaware as
his own property, and Penn, who wished to have free access to the sea,
purchased it of him the next year. The territory was granted to Penn
as absolute proprietor; the people were secured in the right of selfgovernment; religious equality was guaranteed to all; the acts of the
colonial legislature were to be submitted to the king and council, who
had the power to annul them if contrary to the law of England; the
power of levying customs was reserved to Parlianment; and no taxes were
to be imposed upon the people save by the colonial legislature or by Parliament.
Penn then invited all persons who desired to do so to settle in Pennsylvania, and in a proclamation declared his intention to leave the settlers
free to make their own laws. "I propose," he said, "to leave myself




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STA TES.


and successors no power of doing mischief, that the will of no one man
llmay hinder the good of a whole country "  "God," he declared, "has
furnished me with a better resolution, and has given me his grace to
keep it."
His resolution was soon tested. Soon after he obtained his patent a
company of traders offered him six thousand pounds and an annual paymlent of a stipulated sum for the monopoly of the Indian traffic between
the Delaware and the Susquehanna. He had already straitened himself
very much by his expenditures for his colony, and his family had been
obliged to endure some deprivations in consequence. The offer was
tempting, but he declined it firmly. What was free to him should be
free to every inhabitant of Pennsylvania, and he would derive no advantage at the expense of his people.
A company was collected and sent out to Pennsylvania, under William
Markham, Penn's nephew, and the personal character of the proprietor
of the colony was deemed by all a sufficient guarantee for the protection
of their liberties. Penn intended following this company as soon as he
could, and in the meantime enjoined Markham to continue the establishment already existing along the Delaware, and to govern in accordance
with the laws of England. In 1682 he prepared to go out to America
to superintend the formal establishment of his colony. As he was about
to sail, he wrote to his wife, to whom he was devoted with all the ardor
of his youth: " Live low and sparingly till my debts be paid; I desire
not riches, but to owe nothing; be liberal to the poor, and kind to all."
With regard to their children, he wrote: " Let their learning be liberal;
spare no cost, for by such parsimony all is lost that is saved."
Penn took out with him one hundred emigrants, and reached Newcastle on the 27th of October, 1682, after a long and trying voyage. In
the presence of the Swedish, Dutch and English settlers, who welcomed
him with joy, he took formal possession of the province, which was surrendered to him by the agents of the Duke of York. He pledged
himself to the people to grant them liberty of conscience and all their
civil privileges. From Newcastle Penn went up the river to Chester,
where a settlement had been formed by emigrants from the north of
England, who had preceded him.                            6
Early in November, accompanied by a few friends, Penn ascended the
Delaware in an open boat to the mouth of the Schuylkill, and passing a
little distance beyond this landed on the beautiful site now occupied by
the city of Philadelphia. The place at which he landed was long known
as the " Blue Anchor Landing," from a tavern of that name which stood
there. A little later, under a spreading elm, Penn met the chiefs of the




COLONIZA TION OF PENNS YL VANIA.


neighboring Indian tribes, and entered into a treaty of peace and friendship with them. This treaty was confirmed by no oath, but it renlained
unbroken for fifty years, and as.neither side sought to evade its obligations, which were simply of peace and good will, the colony of
Pennsylvania escaped in its earlier years the horrors of a savage warfare
from which the other settlers suffered.  \'e will live," said the Indian
sachems, "in love with William Penn and his children as long as the
moon and the sun shall endure."  They kept their word. " Penn came
without arms; he declared his purpose to abstain from violence; he had
no message but peace; and..ot a drop of Quaker blood was ever shed by
an Indian."  The scene of the treaty was at Shackamaxon, now Kensington, in the city of Philadelphia.
-!!
PENN'S TREATY WITH THE INDIANS.
On the pleasant tract lying between the Delaware and the Sehuvlkill,
which was purchased from the Swedes, who had on their part purchased
it from the Indians, Penn in 1683 laid out the capital of his province,
which he named PHILADELPHIA, the city of Brotherly Love, in token
of the principles which he meant should constitute the common law of
his possessions. It was abundantly supplied with streams of pure water,
and was admirably situated for purposes of trade. He did not wish it to
be built after the manner of European cities, but designed it to be a
"greene country town, gardens round each house, that it might never be
burned, and always be wholesome." The streets were laid off b) marking their course through the primitive forest lby blazing the tree.s and the




262


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


building of dwellings was begun. In the first year of Penn's arrival in
the colony, twenty-three ships with emigrants arrived in Pennsylvania.
Illn three years after its foundation Philadelphia contained upwards of
six hundred houses, and the colony llad a population of ten thousand.
The Indians proved the firm    friends of the colonists, and supplied
them with wild fowl and venison in return for articles of European
mnanu1tict u re.
Penn friom the first refused to retain in his hands the exercise of the
vast powers with which the charter granted him by the king invested
him. As early as December, 16<s2, he convened a general convention of
the people, and gave themn a charter of liberties which Bancroft thus
sums up: " God was declared the only Lord of conscience; the first day
of the week was reserved as a day of leisure, for the ease of the creation.
The rule of equality was introduced into families by abrogating the
privileges of prilmogcniture. The word of an honest man was evidence
without  an   oath.
The  mad   spirit of
PEN' LAYING OUT THE PLAN OF PIILADELPHIA.   Suffrage; and, Withspout regard to sect,
but  hecked by a system
of strict accounta-; -                                     bility, applied  to
factors and  agents.
had sufEvery marong fro  ipriso ent the false accuser  liable to
-civil burdens posThere were neither poor-rates nor titLes. The Swedes, and Fins, and
Dutch.ere invested  it  the libertiesght of Englishmen. *  In March,
j.S-,, the first general assembly of Pennsylvaufia met at Philadelphia.
I am  regard to sectl
every Christiaourn was eligssible to office. No tax or custom could be levied
but by law   The Quaker is a spiritualist; the pleasures of the senses,
masks, revels and stage plays, not less than bull-baits and cock-fights,
were prohibited. Murder was the only crime punishable by death.
Marriage was 6steemed a civil contract; adultery a felony  The Quakers
had suffered wrong from  imprisonment; the false accuser was liable to
double damages. Every prison for convicts was made a workhouse.
There were neither poor-rates nor. tithes. The Swedes, and Finns, and
Dutch were invested with the liberties of Englishmen." *  In March,
1688, the first general assembly of Pennsylvania met at Philadelphia.
"I am ready,' said Penn to this body, "to settle such foundations as
may be for your happiness." Under the guidance of the founder of the


* Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. ii., p. 3S5.




COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA.


')63


colony, the assembly established a constitution which made Pennsylvania
emphatically a free state. A government was cstablished, consisting of a
governor, a legislative council and an assembly composed of representatives of the people. As the charter made the proprietor responsible to
the king for the legislation of the colony, no act of legislation was to 1b
valid until it had passed the great seal of' tlhe province.  With th'is
exception the entire power of the province was left in the hands of,he
people. "But for the hereditary office of propri(talr, Pennsylvania had
been a representative democracy  In  ilaryland, the c()uncil was named
by Lord Baltimore; in Pennsylvania, by the p)eople. In Maryland, the
power of appointing magistrates, and all, even the subordinate executive
officers, rested solely with the proprietary; in Pennsylvania, William
Penn could not appoint a justice or a constable; every executive officer,
except the highest,
was elected by the
people or their rc-_____ ________
presentatives; and
the governor          could
perfor  no publitical power in a  tle anals of ist      I  eire
act, but with the
co  en, to Pennsylvaia   The persoent  of the            Pen
council. Lord Baltihappy olony  Philadelphia esre had  a  reve-ady
nue derived from
the export               of to-ial A                    a. Scools
bacwre oerally enco, the stapleoates i
of Maryland; and
his  colony  was:ETTLEMENT OF PHILADELPHIA.
burdened with taxes: a similar revenue wAas offered to William Penn,
and declined, and tax-gatherers were unknown in his province."
Thus did the "Quaker king" complete one of the sublimest surrenders of political power in all the annals of history  "I desired,"
he said, in his grand simplicity, "to show men as free and happy as they
can be."
The colony improved rapidly   M[en were attracted from all parts of
Great Britain, from Ireland, the Low countries, from Germany and
Sweden, to Pennsylvania. The personal character of William Penn, not
less than the advantages afforded them, induced them to settle in the
happy colony   Philadelphia especially grew with rapidity, and already
gave promise of becoming the principal city of colonial America. Schools
were opened, and liberally encouraged, for ignorance had no advocates in




264


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


this thrifty community  The printing press was also set up, and put
to work.
In August, 1684, Penn, having successfully established his colony,
took an affectionate leave of his people, and returned to England to look
after his family  He reached England in October.
Lord Baltimore claimed Delaware as a part of the country granted to
him. Penn sustained his claim to that region by pleading the actual
settlement of the Dutch previous to the grant to Lord Baltimore, and his
purchase of the rights which the Duke of York had derived from the
Dutch. The English courts decided, in 1685, that Delaware did not
constitute a part of Maryland, and sustained Penn's claim to the
former colony  The boundaries of the two colonies were settled by a
compromise.
During Penn's absence in England the people of Delaware, who had
little sympathy with the Quakers, began to be restless. They presented to
the proprie-   _     _        tary a list of
grievances,
-~o________ -and Wiere
NPENS TREATYgranted by
I.     Penn a separate government.
— for t  -                                           The fall of
James II.,
___  ho continufriendshp                                      ed the friend
of W  illiam
PENN'S TREATY MONUMENT.             Penn though
so widely opposed to him in religion was the beginning of trouble
for the proprietor of Pennsylvania.  Penn did not relinquish his
friendship for the dethroned king, and his enemies made this constaincv,
which in no way interfered with his loyalty to William and Mary, the
means of injuring him in the estimation of the new king. William was
induced to believe the charges of disloyalty which were brought against
Penn, and deprived him of his patent and proprietorship of Pennsylvania. Penn was also imprisoned several times for disloyalty
During this period the colony was much annoyed by a disturbance led
by one George Keith, who pushed the Quaker doctrine of non-resistance
to the verge of absurdity  He argued that no Quaker could with consistency take part in public affairs as a magistrate or legislator. As the




COLONIZATION OF PENNSYL VANIA.


liberties of the colony were the work of Quakers the inference was plain.
If Keith was right, then Pennsylvania had no lawful government, and
must apply to the king for one. Keith produced such trouble in the
colony that even the tolerant Quakers were at length obliged to la)y hands
on him. He was
tried and fined for
using seditious lan-, -8
guage; but lest their              ___
action should seem
to be a punishment -..
of opinion the Qua-              — __              =-_
ker         magistratess resigned their offices upon his arrival
The members of the assembitted the fine. Hethey had made under the
subseqr grauented tly be to be valid, and refused to have new ones, or
came a            clergyman ofby King                   arles was,
the Eng      lish Church as one granted by King William, and they re
This disturbance     - -
gave the king a pre-  -  _____-_..
text for declaring  I::_-_"
Pennsylvania a
royal province, and
in April, 1693, Ben-  '-    __  1~
jamin Fletcher was  i
appointed by William and Mary gov-                               MS
ernor of Pennsyl-,$
vania, to which province Delaware was
reunited. The people, indignant at' this
invasion of their
rights, attempted no
resistance, but refused to recognize       CHESTNUT STREET, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1875.
the  royalist governor, Some of the magistrates resigned their offices upon his arrival
Upon the meeting of the assembly the hostility to Fletcher increased.
The members of the assembly declared the laws they had made under the
charter granted to Penn to be valid, and refused to have new ones, or
recognize any other authority  A charter granted by King Clharles was,
they maintained, as valid as one granted by King William, and they re



266


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


fused to re-enact their old laws, as such a course would be to brand them
as illegal. Fletcher demanded that the assembly should appropriate a
sum for the defence of New York against the Indians. His demand was
flatly refused. The assembly was willing, however, to make an appropriation for the relief of the people of New York who had suffered by this
war, but only upon condition that this sum should be disbursed by officers
of its own appointment. Fletcher refused to consent to this condition,
as he regarded it as an infringement of the king's prerogative, and the
assembly was dissolved, A. D. 1694.
In the meantime Penn had bben restored to his proprietary rights.
The king expressed himself satisfied of his innocence, which was estab —
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA.
lished before the council, and in August, 1694, the patent for his restoration was formally issued. Penn was anxious to return to Pennsylvania.
but was detained in England by his inability to raise the funds necessary
for the voyage. He had spent a large part of his fortune in planting the
colony, and the persecutions and annoyances to which he had been subjected in England had caused him great loss. Nor was this his only
trouble. His wife and eldest son had died during his trials, and some
whom he had imagined his friends in his prosperity had in his adversity,
shown themselves his enemies. He retained his serenity of mindf ho*/-::
ever, and persevered in the good work to which he had devoted his life.
Being unable to go to Pennsylvania he sent his nephew, Markham, as
Being unable to go to Pennsylvania he sent his snephew, Markham, as




COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA.


267


his deputy  Markham summoned an assembly, and this body, alarmed
at the recent changes in their charter, which had threatened to deprive
them of their political rights, endeavored to provide agtillst a recurrence
of the danger by assuming tlhe power of framing a c'oIstitutiion for themselves. The assembly of 1696 made still further changres, and placed tlh
control of the colonial government entirely in the hands of tle leople by
giving them the election of all the officials of the province.
Penn returned to Pennisylvania in November, 1699, and sanctioned the
action of the people. One of the members of the council proposed that
they should male a constitution that should be "firm and lastin, " to
them and to theii descendants. "Keep whr.lt _ good in the charter and
frame of government," said Penn; "and lay aside what is burdcen,,ome,
and add what may best suit the common good."   It was aglee(d 1) all
parties that it would be best to surrender the old charter and frame a
new constitution. This was attended with considerable difficulty, as
Delaware dreaded the loss of its independence. It was conciliated( by
being given its own legislature, but was under the ladministration of the
governor of Pennsylvania. The two colonies were never again united.
The constitution secured to the people all the political privileges they
claimed. Penn, whose sole desire was for the welfare of the colony, held
back nothing for himself.
Among the earliest emigrants to Pennsylvania were many (ermans,
who had been converted to the Quaker doctrines 1)b William Penn (ldring his missionary labors on the continent of Europe. They settlel at
Germantown, to which they gave its name. Towards the close of the
seventeenth century the severe wars in Europe drove out large numbers
of Germans from the Rhine valley  They sought refuge in England at
first, and from that country passed over to Pennsylvania. They were
chiefly Lutherans, and members of the German Reformed Church. They
settled chiefly in the southern part of Pennsylvania, and clung together
instead of separating, thus giving to this part of the Sttate the peculiar
characteristics which distinguish it to the present day  They held aloof
from the English, and allowed the German language alone to be taught
to their children. They attracted other settlers from their native country,
and the region occupied lv them was soon thickly settled, and was noted
as one of the best cultivated sections of the province.
About the beginning of the eighteenth century a large emigration from
the north of Ireland and from Scotland began to set in, and continued
for some years. These people were nearly all Presbyterians, and located
themselves chiefly in the eastern and central sections of tile province.
They were an energetic, industrious, and intelligent community, and set




IIIST'ORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


to work with a will to improve their new home. They advanced the
frontier of Pennsylvania steadily westward by their new plantations, and
proved themselves among the most desirable settlers that had yet come
into the province.
William Penn had come to Pennsylvania with the intention of passing
the remainder of his life there; but rumors now began to reach the
colony that it was the intention of the crown to deprive Pennsylvania of
its charter and make
it a royal province..... Tbhese reports made
it necessary for Penn
— ____        ~to return to England, a step to which
-- -ad  =d __                   nothing but the im-=-_-;;              _v-,             lportance of   being
d  f  is tr                                 near the home gov---—. h  --. Aernment to defend
-_o__.-.             the liberties of his
l_ -people could have
The..... -        -      -   -     oreed him. Hehad. o       s p.    rgts             don         e his work in
-pr-ov:i~,e, b  hAmerica well, and
could go back to his,3        gnative land with the
hadsatisfaction that lie
had successfully laid
the foundations of a
great and rapidly=_mI                                 growing state, and....... -                               had placed the liber-:. ties of its people
- -       upon such a secure
basis that they wsould
MASONIC TEMPLE, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1875.
endure for all time.
He had founded a democracy, and had proved by the most generous surrender of his truly regal powers that his chief aim in life was the good
of his fellow-men. After making such arrangements as he deemed best
for the welfare of his "young countrie," he went back to England in 1701.
There were not wanting efforts after his arrival in England to deprive
him of his proprietary rights and to convert Pennsylvania into a royal
province; but the deep reverence with which the English people had now




COLONIZATION OF PENNSYLVANIA.


269


conime to regard the virtues of William Penn prevented the consummation
of these designs, and saved the people of Pennsylvania from the rule of
royal governors, such as plundered the sister province of New York.
The crown could never be persuaded to rob the man whose pure life was
an honor to the nation. In his last years Penn was so poor that he was
for a while an inmate of a debtors' prison. He had bought the province
of Pennsylvania from Charles II., and had confirmed his claim by purchasing the lands from the Indians, so that he was absolute owner of the
unoccupied lands of the colony. He thus had it in his power to relieve
his distress by selling his claims, but in his deepest poverty he refused to
part with Pennsylvania, except upon terms which would secure to his
people the full and perfect enjoyment of the liberties he had guaranteed
them. He died in 1718, peacefully, and amid the sympathy of his countrymen in England, and the sorrow of those whom he had befriended in
his beloved Pennsylvania. By his pure life he won for the people of his
faith the respect of all candid men, and by his fidelity to the principles he
professed he became the benefactor of millions who will ever count it a
privilege to honor his name.
Penln left three sons, who were all minors at the time of his death.
They succeeded to his rights as proprietary of Pennsylvania, and the
government of the colony was administered for them by deputies until the
Revolution, when their claims were purchased by the State.




CHAPTER XVIII


SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.
(;rzadual Settlement of North Carolina from Virginia-Charles II. grants Carolina to
Clarendon and others-The "Grand Model"-An Ideal Aristocracy Proposed for
(Carolina-Tlihe Authority of the Proprietaries Established in North Carolina-Continued
Settlement of that Region-Characteristics of the Early Settlers of North CarolinaThe People Re.jeect the Grand Model-Hostility of England to the Colonial CommerceInsurrection in North Carolina-Slothel Governor-Settlement of South CarolinaCharlest(onl Founded-The Proprietary Constitutions Rejected by South Carolina-Rapid
Growth of the Colonv-Introduction of Slavery-Characteristics of the Early Settlers
of South Carolina-Efforts to Enforce the Navigation Acts-Resistance of the PeopleThe Proprietatries Abandon their Co)stitutions-Archdale's Reforms-Religious Intolerance-Establishment of the Church of England in South Carolina-Action of the
Crown-Continued Prosperity of South Carolina-Governor Moore Attacks St. Augustine-Failure of the Eflort-The Spaniards are Repulsed in an Attempt to Capture
Charleston-Indian War in North Carolina-The Tuscaroras Driven -Northward-War
with the Yeimmassees-Destruction of their Power-Separation of the Carolinas.
't   E  have related the efforts of the French to colonize the shores of
the beautiful region which they named Carolina, and the failure
19     of Raleigh's attempt to found a city upon Roanoke island. We
have now to consider the successful planting of this same region
with English settlements.
After the settlement of Virginia the attention of the English was frequently drawn to the fertile region south of the James, and as their plantations spread in that direction adventurous explorers went into this
region, and returned     with  reports of its great beauty and fertility
When the severe measures of the Virginia colony for enforcing conformity
to the established church were put in operation, many dissenters withdrew from the limits of the colony and settled in what are now the northeastern counties of North Carolina.      Among these were a company of
Presbyterians, who settled( upon the Chovan.     Others followed them, and
by the year 1663 these counties contained a prosperous and growing
community of English-speaking people.
In 1663 Charles II., who always displayed the most remarkable liberality in his gifts of American lands, granted to eight of his favorites the
vast region extending from the present southern boundary of Virginia to
the St. John's river in Florida, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
270




SETTLEIMEl'NT OF TIHE CAROLINAS.


271


Those upon whom this rich gift was bestowed were the Earl of Clarendon, the prime minister, Lord Ashley Cooper, who \w:s afterwards Earl
of Shafteslury, the Duke of Albenarle, Lord Craven, Sir John Colleton,
Lord John Berkeley, his brother, Sir William Berkeley, the g(overnor of
Virginia, and Sir George Cartaret. They were given labsolute power
over their territory, the king reserving only a claim upon their allegiance.
The country lad been called Carolina by the first French settlers in
honor of Charles IX. of France; the old name was retained in honor of
Charles II. of England.
The proprietors had but one object in view: to enrich themselves, but
they claimed to be influenced by a " pious zeal for the propagation of the
gospel."  They at once set to work to prepare a code of laws for the
government of their province. This task.was committed to Ashley
Cooper, Earl of Shaftesbury, and the great philosopher, John Locke, then
an almost unknown man. These produced a code knLwn as " The Grand
Model," or "Fundamental Constitutions."  This was a system which
might have been successful if the
people for whom  it was intended      -^             ' N
had been   some European   colmmunity of the Middle Ages, but iti
was utterly unsuited to a colony in:
the woods of America, composed of
men whose personal independence A      '
COAT OF ARMUS OF NORTII CAROLINA.
and sturdy love of freedom were
the indispensable conditions of the success of their enterprise. 1B the
terms of the " Grand Model " an order of nobility was created, into whose
hands the sole right to rule was committed. Earls, barons, and squires
were made the natural heads of the various classes of society, and the
common people were attached to the soil as tenants. A simple tenant
could never rise above his humble position, and was denied the riglt of
suffrage; only those who possessed fifty acres of land were allowed this
right, or were entitled to the name of freemen. The freemen were
allowed an assembly, but that body was placed entirely under the control
of the nobility  Religious freedom was promised to all persons, but the
constitution expressly declared that the only orthodox establishment was
the Church of England. Trial by jury was guaranteed, but with the
destructive provision that a majority should decide the verdict of the jury
It was very clear that this magnificent constitution would not suit the
settlers in the log cabins of North Carolina, but the proprietors, ignorant
of the people they had to deal with, proceeded to organize their government in England by electing the Duke of Albemarle to the rank of




JIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


Palatine, as the head of their system was termed. Sir William Berkeley,
then governor of Virginia, was ordered to establish the authority of the
proprietors over the settlers on Albemarle sound. This he did, and
appointed William Drummond, a Scotchman and one of the settlers,,overnor. This was the same Drumrnond who afterwards took part in
Bacon's rebellion in Virginia, and was hanged by Berkeley, as has been
related. A simple form of government was established, and the people
of North Carolina were left in peace until it should be time to collect
the quit-rents which the proprietors claimed as due for their occupation
of their landls.
In 1661, a few years previous to this action of Berkeley, a company
froml New England had made a settlement on the Cape Fear river. The
coflony did not prosper, however, though liberal inducements were held
out to it, and many of the emigrants returned home. In 1664 a colony
from the Barbadoes joined the settlers on the Cape Fear. The newcomers had been sent out by a company at the Barbadoes, who purchased
from the Indians a tract of land thirty-two miles square on the Cape
Fear, and asked of the proprietors of Carolina a confirmation of their
purchase and a separate charter of government. A liberal charter was
granted them, the country was named Clarendon, and Sir John Yeamans,
a resident of Barbadoes, was appointed governor, He was instructed to
"make things easy to the people of New England; from thence the
grreatest supplies are expected." In 1665 he led a company of emigrants
from Barbadoes, and formed a settlement on the Cape Fear. The effort
to found a town was unsuccessful, and the emigrants found great difficulty in contending against the natural barrenness and poverty of the
region in which they had located. They devoted themselves to the
cutting and export of lumber, and established a trade in boards, staves
and shingles to the West Indies, which is still carried on by their descendants.  This trade was found to be profitable, and emigration
increased. In 1666 the colony is said to have had a population of
eight hundred souls.
In the meantime the settlements on Albemarle sound and the Chowan
had prospered, and had increased steadily in population, under the simple
government established over them. This government consisted of a
council of six persons named by the proprietaries and six chosen by the
assembly, and an assembly consisting of the governor, the council and
twelve representatives chosen by the freeholders of the colony  The
proprietaries had confirmed the colonists in the possession of their lands,
and had solemnly promised them religious toleration and exemption
from taxation except by the colonial legislature. In 1669 the assembly,




SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.


273


feeling secure in these guarantees, enacted a series of laws for the government of the colony, which remained in force in North Carolina until
near the close of the next century. It was enacted that no emigrant
should be sued for a debt contracted before his settlement in the colony
until he had been a resident of the province for five years. Marriagr
was made a civil contract, and for its validity required simply the consent of the contracting parties before a magistrate in the presence of
witnesses. No emigrant could be taxed during his first year's residence
in the colony  New settlers were invited by the offer of large bounties
in lands, but no title to these lands could be obtained until after a two
years' residence in the colony. The governor's salary and the other
expenses of the province were secured by the imposition of a fee of thirty
pounds of tobacco in every law suit. The members of the assembly
served without compensation.
In 1670 the constitution of Shaftesbury and Locke was sent over by
the proprietaries, and the governor was ordered to establish it in the
colony  It met with a determined resistance from both legislature and
people, who could never be induced to submit to it.
The people upon whom the proprietaries endeavored to force their
"Grand Model " were in many respects the most singular community in
America. Many of them had fled from injustice and persecution in other
colonies, and in the solitude of the forests of North Carolina had become
possessed of an independence which scorned any control but that of the
government established by their own consent. Thle plantations were
chiefly along the rivers and the shores of Albemarle sound; there were
no roads but the paths marked through the forests by the blazing of the
trees; the inhabitants visited each other and travelled through the
country in their boats, scarcely any, even among the women and children,
being unacquainted with the use of the oar. The people were attached
to their beautiful "summer land," and to the freedom which they enjoyed
in it. They had little use for laws, for they were mainly a simplehearted and virtuous race, who, by pursuing the paths of right, gave no
cause for restraint. They had no court-house until 1722. Their first
church was not built until 1705, and the freedom of conscience which
they enjoyed was. perfect. Yet they were a God-fearing people, and
George Fox, who visited them in 1672, testifies to their readiness to hear
the word of God and to their homely virtues. They were cut off from
the world, careless of the struggles which rocked Europe to its foundations, and anxious only to live in the peaceful enjoyment of the good
things God had given them, and to rear their children in the ways which
they deemed conformable to his will. There were no towns in the colony,
18




IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


and in power and importance North Carolina could not compare with any
of her more northern sisters; but there were no communities in which
the people were happier or more contented than in this one. When the
cruelties of Berkeley drove many of the Virginians from their province,
they fled to North Carolina, and were kindly received by the people, who
treated Berkeley's demands to surrender the refugees for punishment with
contempt.  "Are there any who doubt man's capacity for self-government, let them study the early history of North Carolina; its inhabitants
were restless and turbulent in their imperfect submission to a government
imposed on them from abroad; the administration of the colony was firm,
humane and tranquil, when they were left to take care of themselves.
Any government but one of their own institution was oppressive." *
These were the people for whom the " Grand Model" was designed,
and who successfully resisted its imposition.  The proprietaries had
withdrawn the government they had first establihlcd, at the time when
the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke were offered to the colony,
and the refusal of these constitutions by the colonists left North Carolina
without any regularly established system of government. In this state
of affairs Stevens, the governor, continued to administer the old system
until a settlement of the matter in dispute could be had. He died in
1674, and the assembly elected Cartwright, their speaker, as his successor,
by whom the government was administered for two years. Eastchurch,
the new speaker, was sent to England to explain the grievances of the
colony to the proprietaries, and to endeavor to secure the withdrawal of
the obnoxious constitution. Without withdrawing their favorite system,
the prolprietarics, who were disposed to conciliate the colony, thought
best to leave matters in their present condition, and appointed Eastchurch governor, They did away with much of the good effect of this
measure by coupling this appointment with that of Miller as collector of
customs. He had been driven out of the colony by the people some
time before, and he was now sent to compel the payment of the revenues
claimed by the proprietaries, and to enforce the navigation acts in North
Carolina.
The enforcement of the navigation acts meant simply the certain
crippling and the probable ruin of the industry of North Carolina. The
commerce of the colony was small, and was already struggling against
natural difficulties. The whole province contained a little less than four
thousand inhabitants, and its exports consisted of about eight hundred
hogsheads of tobacco, a small quantity of Indian corn, and a few cattle.
These were shipped in a few small vessels which came for them from
* Bancroft's Iistory of the United States, vol. ii., p. 158.




SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.


275


New England, and brought in return the few articles of foreign manufacture which the planters could afford to purchase. Yet this humble
trade was made the object of the envy of the English merchants, and it
was resolved by a rigorous enforcement of the navigation acts to cut the
North Carolinians off from the use of the New England markets, and to
compel them to send their products to England for sale. Never was the
iniquitous policy of England toward her colonies more strikingly and
perfectly illustrated than in her treatment of North Carolina at this
period.
The effort to enforce the navigation act was met by a deliberately
planned and executed insurrection of the people, who
published to the world a declaration of the causes which -               _:-:
had impelled them   to this -
action, and which were chiefly
the loss of their liberties by
the changes in the govern-.;.:,        _   _ —:r
ment, the imposition of exccs- ':~'
sive taxes, and the interrup-  t      ll
tion of their commerce by the!
burdens laid upon it by the ":.   '          |
navigation acts. The leader  /~      ':
of the movement was John    f.
Culpepper. One of the members of the council joined the:: c
with Miller, who, in addition
to his office of collector, had
been acting as governor in the
absence of Eastchurch, were
When Eastchurch arrived, the
A SETTLER S CABIN.
colonists refused either to
acknowledge his authority or to allow him to enter the colony. In the
meantime they arranged matters upon the old popular system, and sent
Culpepper and another of their number to England to negotiate a settlement with the proprietaries.
Miller escaped from confinement and repaired to England to oppose
the efforts of Culpepper By cunningly making himself the champion of
the navigation acts, Miller succeeded in arousing a strong sentiment




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


against Culpepper, who was arrested on a charge of resisting the collection of the revenue and embezzling the public funds. In support of this
arbitrary act, the government pleaded an old statute of Henry VIII.,
by which a colonist could be arraigned in England for an offence committed in a colony  Culpepper dlemanded to be tried in North Carolina,
upon the scene of his alleged crime; but this was refused him, and he
was put on trial in England. The Earl of Shaftesbury, shrewdly perceiving that such a course was repugnant to the real sentiment of the
English people, and that it offered him an opportunity to increase his
popularity, undertook the defence of Culpepper, and procured his
acquittal.
The proprietaries now appointed as governor one of their number, Seth
Slothel, who had purchased the rights of Lord Clarendon. Slothel on
his voyage out was captured by the Algerine pirates, and during his
absence the government of North Carolina was administered by governors appointed by the insurgents, who seem to have acted with the
consent, or at least without the
opposition of the proprietaries, who
~ —~.'  r -:i            were much at a loss to know how
to enforce their authority in the
-W                                province. They instructed the col-,-            onists to "settle order among them-.,:lvcs,  and appear to have left
COAT OF ARMS OF SOUTH CAROLINA.
them very much to their own devices. The government was well and fairly administered and order was
mlaintained; an act of amnesty was published; and when Slothel reached
the colony, in 1683, after his release from his captivity, he found it
peaceful and orderly
The administration of Slothel was unfortunate for the province. He
could enforce neither the constitutions of the proprietaries nor the navigation acts, as he was expected to do; so he devoted his energies to the
task of enriching himself, which he accomplished by robbing the colonists and defrauding his proprietary associates in England.  In 1688
the colonists, greatly exasperated by his exactions, to which they had
submitted for about five years, drove him out of the province by condemning him to an exile of a year, and forever disqualifying him from
holding the office of governor. This was their boldest act yet, and was
an open defiance of the proprietaries.
In the meantime the southern portion of Carolina had been brought
under English rule. In 1670 a company of emigrants was sent out by
the proprietaries, under the direction of William Sayle and Joseph West,




SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.


277


the latter of whom was the commercial agent of the proprietaries. They
went by way of Barbadocs, and landed at Port Royal, where the ruins
of Fort Carolina, which had been erected by the French, were still to be
seen. After a short delay here, they removed to a more favorable location farther northward, between two rivers, which they named the
Ashley and Cooper, in honor of the Earl of Shaftesbury, one of the proprietaries. In 1680 this settlement was abandoned for a better situation
nearer the harbor. This last settlement was the foundation of the city
of Charleston. The first plantation on the Ashley river was afterwards
known as Old Charleston. At present not even a log cabin remains to
mark the site.
The emigrants to South Carolina had been furnished with a copy of
the constitutions of Shaftesbury and Locke; but they were as averse to
the acceptance of them as were the people of North Carolina, for they
perceived that such a system as that devised by the proprietaries could
not be put in operation in America. Immediately upon their arrival
they proceeded to establish a form of government suited to their needs.
It consisted of a governor, a council composed of five members appointed
by the proprietaries and five by the assembly, and an assembly of twenty
delegates chosen by the people. Thus was representative government
established as the basis of the political life of the province, and throughout all her subsequent history it was cherished by South Carolina as her
most precious possession.
The colony grew rapidly in population; the delightful climate, the
rich soil, and the liberal offers of lands by the proprietaries attracting
settlers in considerable numbers. In 1671 Sir John Yeamans brought
over African slaves from Barbadoes, thus introducing negro slavery into
the colony at the very outset of its existence. This species of labor being
found well suited to the necessities of the province was generally adopted
in the remaining years of the century, and became the basis of the
industry of South Carolina, which was from the first a purely agricultural State. The negroes multiplied rapidly by natural increase and by
fresh importations; "so rapidly," says Bancroft, "that in a few years, we
are told, the blacks were to the whites in the proportion of twenty-two to
twelve; a proportion that had no parallel north of the West Indies."
The white population also increased rapidly  The dissenters, as all
the Protestant sects who differed from the Church of England were
called, came over to the colony in large numbers, hoping to find there
the toleration they were denied at home. They consisted of Dutch and
German Protestants, and Presbyterians from the north of Ireland and
from Scotland. The last were generally people of culture, and gave to




278


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the colony many clergymen, physicians, lawyers, and schoolmasters.
Churchmen from England also emigrated in considerable numbers, as the
"Grand Model" established their church as the orthodox faith of the
province. Dutch emigrants came also from New York to escape the
outrages of the English governors of that province. Last of all were the
lluguenots, who were induced to settle in South Carolina by Charles II.,
who was sincerely anxious to give them a refuge from their persecutions
in Europe, and who wished them to establish in Carolina the culture of
the vine, the olive, and the silk-worm. The revocation of the Edict of
Nantes drove thousands of the Huguenots from France. Large numbers
of them joined their brethren in South Carolina. They were almost
invariably persons of education and refinement. In France they had
constituted the most useful and intelligent part of the population. They
had almost monopolized the mechanical skill and mercantile enterprise
of their native land, and their loss was severely felt by it for many generations. In South Carolina they soon became sufficiently numerous to
constitute an important part of the population, and their influence was
felt in a marked degree, and for the good of the colony  They brought
with them the virtues which had won them the respect and confidence
of the people of Europe, and the industry which could not fail to place
them among the most prosperous citizens of the new state. They mingled
freely and intermarried with the other classes of the people of the
province, and thus became the ancestors of a splendid race who did honor
to their country and upheld her cause with their valor in her hour of
trial in the next century.
The early years of South Carolina were marked by a constant struggle
between the colonists and the proprietaries. The latter vainly attempted
to introduce the "Grand Model" as the law of the province, and the
former steadily resisted it. A little later the proprietaries offered to make
some modifications in their constitutions, but these concessions were rejected also. The governor, Sir John Yeamans, regarded his office solely
as a means of repairing his fortunes at the expense of both proprietaries
and colonists, and was dismissed by his employers. West, who was a
man of ability and liberality, was appointed his successor, and under him
tlhe colony prospered, but, as he was too friendly to the people, he was
removed also.
In 1684 a small colony under Lord Cardross, a Presbyterian, settled
at Port Royal. These settlers had fled to America to escape persecution
in England, but their effort to find an abiding place in the new world
was not destined to be successful. Lord Cardross returned to Europe in
a year or two, and in 1686 the Spaniards from   St. Augustine, who




SETTLEMENT OF THE CAROLINAS.


279


claimed the region as a dependency of their own, invaded the little settleiient and lai(l it waste. Of the ten fLamilies wllich had constitutedl tlhe
colony, some returned to Scotland, while the remainder disappeared
among the colonists in the vicinity of tllc Cooper and Ashley riv\ers.
In 1685 the proprietaries ordered the colonial authorities to cnforce
the navigation acts in the ports of the province.  A rigid executtion of'
this order would have been as fatal to the feeble commerce of South
Carolina as to that of the settlements in the northern part of the prolvince, and it was resisted by the colonists als a violation of their natural
rights and of the promises made to them at the time of their emigration.
In order to establish their authority more firmly the plroplrietaries
appointed James Colleton governor, with tllc rank of landgrltave. He
was the brother of one of tlle proprietaries, and it was supposed tlhat this
fact and his aristocratic rank would give him a moral power which his
predecessors had not possessed. The new governor attempted to enforce
the constitutions, but was met with a determined resistance, and whel n he
undertook to collect the rents claimed by the proprietaries, and the taxes
he had been ordered to levy, the assembly seized the records of tlhe province, imprisoned the colonial secretary, and defied the governor to execute his orders. In 1690 they went still further, and having lproclaimnel
William and Mary, disfranchised Colleton, and banished himn from Soutl
Carolina.
Disputes now ran high in the colony, chiefly in regard to rents and
land tenulres. The "cavaliers and ill-livers," as the party devolte(l to
the interests of the proprietaries was termed, endeavored to compel the
remainder of the settlers-the Presbyterians, Quakers, and Hugruenots,
the last of whom had recently been admitted to all the privileges of citizenship-to submit to their high-handed measures.  They lhoped among
other things to secure the supremacy of the Church of England in the
colony, notwithstanding the fact that a majority of the people were dissenters. The troubles went on increasing, and at lengtlh the proprietors,
in the hope of putting an end to them, consented to abandon their effort
to force upon the Carolinas the legislation of Shaftesbury and Loclke.
In April, 1693, they abolished the fundamental constitutions by a formal
vote, and decided to allow the government of the province to be conducted according to the terms of the charter.
Thomas Smith was appointed governor, but in spite of his many virtues he was unacceptable to the people, and the proprietaries determlined
to send out to Carolina one of their own number with fill powers to
investigate and remedy the grievances of the colony. John Archdale,
"an honest member of the Society cf Friends," was chosen, and at once




280


IIUSHTOR' Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


repaired to Carolina. He was a man of great moderation, and was well
suited to tile task before him. He succeeded in harmonizing the hostile
factions which divided the province, and in the formation of the council
selc(ted two men of the moderate party to one high churchman, an
arrangement which fairly represented the actual state of parties, and gave
satisftction to the mass of the people. He remitted the quit-rents for
three and four years, and arranged the price of lands and tile system of
conveyances upo an equitable basis, and gave the colonists the privilege
of paying their dues to the proprietaries either in money or in produce.
He established peaceful relations with the Indians, and put an end to the
infamous practice of kidnapping them, which had prevailed since the
establishment of the colony  The savages in the Cape Fear region had
suffered especially from this, and now showed their gratitude by treating
with kindelss the sailors who were cast away on their coast. Friendly
relations were also begun with the Spaniards at St. Augustine. Several
Yemmlassee Indians, who had been converted by the missionaries, having
been captured and exposed for sale in Carolina, were ransomed by Archdale, who sent them to the governor of St. Augustine. The Spaniard
gratefully acknowledged this kindness, and returned it by forwarding to
South Carolina the crew of an English vessel which had gone ashore on
the coast of Florida. The colonial government was organized by Archdale on a plan similar to that of Maryland. The council was appointed
by the proprietaries, and the assembly elected by the people; and the
militia were charged with the defence of the colony. Archdale's administration was so satisfactory to all parties that upon his withdrawal from
the province the assembly declared that he had, " by his wisdom, patience,
and labor, laid a firm foundation for a most glorious superstructure."
Archdale went back to England in 1697, and the proprietaries, failing
to profit by the lesson of his success, attempted to introduce a measure
which would give the political power of the colony exclusively into the
hands of the landowners. This measure was resolutely rejected by the
colonial assembly  Tlhe majority of the people of the colony were, as
has been stated, dissenters, Presbvterians, Quakers, and Huguenots.
They had consented, in order to pacify the high church party, that one
minister of the Church of England should be maintained at the public
expense, but the churclmen were resolved to force their system upon
thenl. In 1704 the churchmen had a majority of one in the assembly;
the governor was favorable to them, and the council was no longer
arranged upon the just plan of Arclhdale. The assembly, in violation of
the plainest principles of justice, disfranchised the dissenters, and established the Church of England as the religion of the colony  This action




SETTLEMENT OF ITHE CAROLINAS.


281


was approved by the council and governor, and was sustained by the proprietaries in spite of the earnest opposition of Archdale. The disfranchiseld people appealed for justice to the queen and the House of Lords.
The committee of the lords declared that the proprietaries had forfeited
their charter, and advised its recall, and the house pronounced the intolerant acts null and void, which decision was proclaimed by the queen in
June, 1706. In November of the same year the colonial legislature repealed its acts, and restored to the dissenters their political rights, but
the laws establishing the Church of England as the religion of the
province remained unrepealed until the Revolution.
The disputes in the colony went on, but in spite of them South Carolina continued to prosper, and its population increasedl rapidly  During
Archdale's residence in the colony the captain of a ship from Madagascar
gave him some rice, which he distributed among the planters for the
purpose of ascertaining whether it could be cultivated in the maritime
regions of the province, which were unsuited to the culture of wheat.
The experiment was entirely successful, and the colony at once embarked
in the culture of rice, which has ever since been one of its principal
industries. Carolina rice soon took rank as the best grown in any
country  The fur trade was also carried on with great activity, and the
manufacture of tar and the export of lumber also became prominent
sources of wealth. It was believed that the colony could successfully
manufacture a large part of the woollen fabrics necessary to the supply
of its wants, and the attempt was made. It was struck down by the
British government in pursuance of its plan to compel the colonies to
depend upon England for all their supplies. Parliament forbade the
several colonies to export woollen goods to any other province or to any
foreign port. They were to ship their products to England alone, and to
receive their supplies from her only  English merchants were to be
privileged to set a price to suit their own interests upon the products of
the colonies, and also upon the articles of European manufacture sold
them in return. The effect of this iniquitous law upon Carolina was to
drive her back into agricultural pursuits, and thus to increase the
demand for slaves, which was promptly supplied by British traders.
In 1702 England was at war with France and Spain, and James
Moore was governor of Carolina. He was a needy adventurer, who
endeavored to fill his purse by kidnapping Indians and selling them as
slaves. This being too slow a process, he determined to plunder the
Spanish settlement of St. Augustine. He attacked that. place with a
force of whites and Indians. The town was readily taken, but he could
make no impression upon the citadel, and despatched a vessel to Jamaica




HISTOBY OF THE UNITED STATES.


for cannon to reduce the fort. The garrison in the meantime sent an
Indian runner to Mobile with news of their situation, and word was sent
from Mobile to Havana. In a short while two Spanish ships of war
arrived at St. Augustine to the relief of the garrison, and Moore was
obliged to raise the siege. He abandoned his stores and retreated overland to Charleston. The only result of his expedition was the accumulation of a debt which the colony was obliged to carry for many years.
Moore's next effort was directed against thle Appalachlee Indians of
Florida. These had been converted to the Roman Catholic faith by the
Spanish missionaries, and had begun to adopt habits of civilization; they
lived in villages, and supported themselves by cultivating the soil. They
were also very friendly to the French, who had settled Louisiana.
Moore professed to be very apprehensive of the effects of the Spanisll and
French influence upon the Appalachees, and declared his intention to
cripple them before they could do any harm to the English settlements.
His real motive was
|....        the hope of plunder.
(The only crime of
= Se m i n o l e war'iors,
the poor  savages was
a.nd:' ~,:~ ---   ~.~~ teonyfle pactheir adoption of the
b:arrier betwee: —~" —v'~~' ~ ' ' -:Roman       faiteir Englis friends and t  h   In
~In?:::: ~     ~-1705 with       a     force of
about fifty white men
-—:toM — and one thcusand
Seminole warriors,
ATTACK OF THE SPANIARDS ON CHARLESTON IN 170  Moore invaded the
settlackments of the Appalfleetacheas repdestroyed them, killed many of the
n       atives, and made prisoners of  largtse numbers, who  ere removed to the
region of the Altamaha. The churches were plundered and destroyed,
and th   e country of the Appalachees was gi ven to the   Seminoles a s a
reeard for their services. They at once occupied it, and thus became a
barrier between their English friends and the Spanish settlements.
In 1706 the Spaniards and French sent a combined fleet to Charleston
to avenge the attacks upon St. Augustine and the Appalachecs. The
attack of the fleet was repulsed by the people, who were led by William
Rhet and Sir Nathaniel Johnson, and the assailants were forced to withdraw with the loss of one ship belonging to the French and upwards of
three hundred men.
North Carolina continued to prosper. Her people were happy and
contented under their simple system of government, which was described
by Spotswood as " scarce any government at all."  In 1704 the proprie



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HISTOR}Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


taries attempted to establish the Church of England in this part of their
province, the people of wlhich were nearly all I'resbyterians, Quakers,
and Lutherans. It was ordered that all who refused to submit to the
laws for the establishment and support of the English church should be
disfranchised. The people opposed a general and determined resistance
to this measure, and at the end of a year there was but one clergyman of
the English church within the limits of the colony   The resistance
finally culminated in open rebellion. The colony was divided into two
parties, one of which sustained the authority of the proprietors, the other
the rights of the people. Each party had its governor and assembly, and
for six years the colony remained in a state of anarchy  The Quakers
were the leading spirits of the popular party, and maintained their rights
with a steadfastness characteristic of their race.
Thus far North Carolina had escaped a war with the Indians. The
Tuscaroras, who occupied the central and northwestern portions of the
present State, had emigrated at some remote period from the north, and
they now viewed with jealousy and distrust the encroachments of the
whites upon their lands. About 1711 the proprietaries assigned large
tracts in the country of this tribe to a company of Germans from the
region of the Neckar and the Rhine, who had fled to America to escape
religious persecution. A company of these exiles had come out under
the direction of De Graffenreid, and in September, 1711, De Graffenreid
accompanied Lawson, the surveyor-general of the province, in an expedition up the Neuse, for the purpose of locating these lands and of ascertaining how far the river was navigable. They were captured by a party
of sixty Indians and hurried to a distant village of the Tuscaroras.
Lawson was regarded with bitter hostility by the Indians, who looked
upon him as responsible above all others for the loss of their lands, as he
had been compelled by his duties to locate the grants of the proprietaries,
and he was put to death with cruel torments. De Graffenreid was also
condemned to die; but he told the savages'that he had been but a short
time in the country, and that he was the " chief of a different tribe from
the English," and promised that he would take no more of their land.
The Indians kept him a prisoner for five weeks, and then permitted him
to return to his friends. During this time the Tuscaroras and Corees,
whom they had drawn into an alliance with them, attacked the settlements of the whites on the Roanoke and Pamlico sound, and for three
days spread death and devastation all along the frontier of the colony.
A large number of the unoffending settlers were slain and many homesteads were destroyed.
The people of North Carolina appealed to Virginia and South Carolina




SETTLEMENT OF TYE CAROLINAS.


285


for assistance. South Carolina sent a small body of troops and a fbrce
of friendly Indians; and Governor Spotswood of' Virginia, unable to
send assistance, engaged one tribe of the Tuscaroras in a treaty of peace.
The people of North Carolina, divided by their internal dissensions, took
scarcely any part in the struggle. The South Carolina forces attacked
the Tuscaroras in their fort and compelled them to make peace. The
troops, however, on their return home, violated the treaty by seizing some
of the Indians for the purpose of selling themr as slaves. The war broke
out again, and was prosecuted with vigor for about a year, and resulted
in the expulsion of the Tuscaroras from North Carolina.
The Yemmassees had for some time been hostile to the Spaniards, as
they resented the efforts of the priests to convert them to C'lristianity
They had acted as the allies of the English in the war with the Tuscaroras, but after the close of that struggle the unscrulpulous traders, who
regarded them as " a tame and peaceable people," had treated them so
badly, and plundered them so systematically, that they were driven into
hostility to the English. They thereupon renewed their friendship with
the Spaniards, and induced the Catawbas, the Creeks, and Cherokees,
who had also been friendly to the English, to join them against their
former allies. In 1715 the savages, suddenly, and without warning,
attacked the settlements on the frontier  The alarm was sent to Port
Royal and Charleston, and the assailed people fled towards the settlements along the coast. The Indians continued their depredations, and
the colony prepared as rapidly as possible to resist them.  Aid was
sent from North Carolina, whose government had now been placed
on a more stable footing. Governor Craven took the field without delay,
with such troops as he could raise, and a long and bloody struggle ensued.
The power of the savages was broken, however. The Yemmassees were
compelled to take refuge in Florida, where they were provided for by the
Spaniards, and the other tribes were driven farther westward.
The contests between the proprietaries and the colonists now came to
an end. The proprietaries had made no effort to help the colonists during
their struggle with the Indians, and the latter determined to have no
more to do with their former lords. The dispute was carried before
Parliament, which body declared that the proprietaries had forfeited their
charter. In 1720 the king appointed Francis Nicholson provisional
governor of Carolina. In 1729 the controversy was ended by the purchase of the proprietaries' interests by the crown for the sum of $110,000.
Carolina thus became a royal province, and was divided by the king into
two separate states, known respectively as North and South Carolina, to
each of which a royal governor was appoiited.




CHAPTER XIX


SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.
General James Edward Oglethorpe-His Effbrts to Reform Prison Discipline of England
-Proposes to Found a Colony in America for the Poor and for Prisoners for Deblt —A
Charter Obtained from the King-Colonization of Georgia-Savannah Settled-First
Years of the Colony-Labors of Oglethorpe-Arrival of New Emigrants-Augusta
Founded-The Moravian Settlemeunts-The Wesleys in America-George WhitefieldWar between England and Spain-Oglethorpe Invades Florida-Failure of the Attack
upon St. Augustine-The Spaniards Invade Georgia-Oglethorpe's Stratagem-Its Success-Battle of" Bloody Marsh "-Close of the War-Charges against Oglethorpe-His
Vindication-His Return to Europe-Changes in the Colonial Government-Introduction of Slavery into Georgia-Prosperity of the Colony.
k IHE severe laws in force in England in the last century against
debtors aroused the opposition of many       philanthropists, who
(    strove to procure their abolition or amelioration. Among these
J  was General James Edward Oglethorpe, an officer of the English
army and a member of Parliament. He was a man of fortune,
and of generous nature, and devoted himself with energy to reform not
only the laws against debtors but the entire prison discipline of England.
There were at this time upwards of four thousand men in prison for
debt. Their condition was most pitiful. They had no hope of relief
save through the mercy of the creditors who had consigned them to their
prisons, and were treated with a severity due only to criminals.     It
seemed an outrage to the generous Oglethorpe to visit such heavy punishments upon persons whose only crimes were their misfortunes, and he
endeavored to have the laws authorizing imprisonment for debt repealed,
and failing in this conceived the plan of establishing in America a place
of refuge to which the poor and unfortunate might resort, and earn a
support by their own industry   He succeeded in interesting others in his
benevolent scheme, and in 1732 a petition, signed by a number of men
of rank and influence, was presented to George II., praying him to grant
to the petitioners a tract of unoccupied land in America for the purpose
of founding such an asylum as that proposed by Oglethorpe. The king
responded favorably to this appeal, and granted to Oglethorpe and
twenty other persons the region between the Savannah and the Altamaha
286




SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.


287


rivers. This region was to be lheld " in trust for the poor," for a period
of twenty-one years, by the trustees named in the charter, and was to
constitute a home for unfortunate debtors and Protestants from the continernt of Europe, who might wish to seek safety there from persecution.
The territory thus assigned formed a part of South Carolina, but was
formally separated from it and named Georgia in honor of the king.
The " free exercise of religion" was secured to all sects " except Papists."
No grant of land to any single settler was to exceed five hundred acres,
a condition which it was hoped would prevent the rich from securing the
best lands, and give to the poor an opportunity to become landowners.
It was believed that the climate and soil of the new province were specially adapted to the raising of silk-worms and the cultivation of the vine.
The scheme of Oglethorpe enlisted the sympathies of all classes of the
English people. Liberal donations were made in its behalf, and its
benevolent projector exerted himself with energy to secure a colony with
which to lay the foundations of the new state. It was determined to
take none but the poorest and most
helpless, and Oglethorpe himself                   Z' —?
decided to accompany them, and      ~.....
give his personal care to the plant-  ",, s
ing of the colony   One hundred.    \. c~-| -           ~.~
and fifty persons, comprising thirtyfive families, were embarked, and         -'        - -.
they sailed from England in November, 1732. They reached Charleston in fifty-seven days, and were
formally welcomed by the assembly of South Carolina and presented with
a supply of cattle and rice. From Charleston the company sailed to
Port Royal, while Oglethorpe hastened to explore the Savannah and
select a site for the settlement. He chose a location at Yamacraw
Bluff, on the right bank of the river, about twenty miles from its mouth.
He purchased the land from the Yamacraw Indians, and the foundations
of a town were laid. The place was named Savannah from the river on
which it stood. Oglethorpe hastened forward the clearing of the land
and the building of houses, but for nearly a year contented himself with
a tent which was erected under four wide-spreading pines. " The streets
were laid out with the greatest regularity; in each quarter a publi:
square was reserved; the houses were planned and constructed on one
model —each a frame of sawed timber, twenty-four feet by sixteen,
floored with rough deals, the sides with feather-edged boards, unplaned,
and the roof shingled." A garden was laid off by the river-side, to be
the nursery of European fruits and other productions.




) 38


IISTOR Y OF TIIE UNITED STATES.


Friendly relations were cultivated with the Indians. The chief of the
Yamacraws came in bringing a buffalo skin, on the inner side of which
was painted the head and feathers of an eagle. " Here is a little present,"
said Tomo-chichi, as the chief was named. "The feathers of the eagle
are soft, and signify love; the buffalo skin is warm, and is the emblem
of protection; therefore love and protect our little families." The Muscogees, Creeks, Cherokees, and Oconees also sent their chiefs to Savannah
to make an alliance with the English. The savages were well pleased
with the noble and commanding appearance of Oglethorpe and his frank
and kind manner of dealing with them, and trusted implicitly in the
promises he made them. The distant Choctaws also sent messengers to
open friendly relations with the new settlers, and a profitable trade was
established with the tribes as far west as the Mississippi.
Thus far the colony of Georgia was a success, and the friends of the
movement in England were not slow to make
public the accounts which came to them of its
delightful climate and fertile soil, and all who. i    were oppressed or in need were invited to seek
the protection and advantages which the new,~ a  land offered. The fame of the colony attracted
a-        B            the attention of a number of German Protestants in and around Salzburg, who were undergoing a severe persecution for the sake of their....<'"  religion. Their sufferings enlisted the sympa-,< t         f thy of the people of England, and the "Society
OGLETHORPE.      for the Propagation of the Gospel" invited
them to emigrate to Georgia, and secured for
them the means of doing so. The Germans readily accepted the offer,
and rejoiced greatly that they were thus afforded an opportunity of
spreading the gospel among the Indians. Nearly one hundred persons
set out from Salzburg, taking with them their wives and little, ones in
wagons, and& journeyed across the country to Frankfort-on-the-Main.
They carried with them their Bibles and books of devotion, and as they
journeyed lightened their fatigues with those grand old German hymnns
which they were to make as precious in the new world as they were to
the people of God in the old. From Frankfort they proceeded to the
Rhine and floated down that stream to Rotterdam, where being joined by
two clergymen-Bolzius and Gronau-they sailed to England. They
were warmly received by a committee of the trustees of the colony and
forwarded to Georgia.
A stormy passage of fifty-seven days brought them to Charleston, in




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HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


March, 1734, where they were met by Oglethorpe, who led them to their
destination. They were assigned a location on the Savannah, a short
distance above the town of Savannah, where they began without delay to
lay off a town which they name( Ebenezer, in gratitude to God for his
guidance of them into a land of plenty and of rest from persecution.
Others of their countrymen joined them from time to time, and their
settlement grew rapidly, and became noted as one of the most orderly,
thrifty, and moral communities in the new world.
In 1734 the town of Augusta was laid out at the head of boat navigation on the Savannah, and soon became an important trading-post.
Emigrants came over from England in large numbers, and Oglethorpe
had the satisfaction of seeing his colony fairly started upon the road to
prosperity  He was justly proud of the success of the colony, for it was
mainly due to his disinterested efforts. Governor Johnson of South
Carolina, who had watched the labors of Oglethorpe with the deepest
interest, wrote: "His undertaking will succeed, for he nobly devotes all
his powers to serve the poor and rescue them from their wretchedness."
The pastor of Ebenezer bore equally emphatic testimony to his devotion.
' He has taken care of us to the best of his ability," said the pastor.
': God has so blessed his presence and his regulations in the land, that
others would not in many years have accomplished what he has brought
about in one."
In April, 1734, Oglethorpe, whose presence was required in Europe,
sailed from Savannah, taking with him several Indians, and enough of
the raw silk which had been produced in the colony to make a dress for
the queen. Georgia was left to manage its own affairs during the absence
of the founder. As the colonists regarded the use of ardent spirits as the
sure cause of the debt and misery from which they had fled, they prohibited their introduction into the colony; but it was found impossible to
enforce this law. The importation of negro slaves was also forbidden.
The colony was a refuge for the distressed and oppressed of all nations,
and it seemed a violation of the spirit in which it was founded to hold
men in bondage. " Slavery," said Oglethorpe, " is against the gospel as
well as the fundamental law of England. We refused, as trustees, to
make a law permitting such a horrid crime."
The visit of Oglethorpe to England was productive of great benefit to
Georgia. Parliament was induced to grant it assistance, and the king
became deeply interested in the province which had been called by his
name. Emigrants from England continued to seek its hospitable shores,:and the trustees induced a band of Moravians, or United Brethren, to
emigrate to the colony  They came in 1735, with the intention of




SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.


291


becoming missionaries of the gospel among the savage tribes, and under
their leader Spangenberg, formed a new settlement on the Ogeechee, south
of the Savannah. They claimed and received a grant of fifty acres of
land for each of their number, in accordance with a law which had been
passed for the encouragement of emigration. In the same year a company of Scotch Highlanders, under their minister, John McLeod, arrived,
and founded the town of Darien, on the Altamaha. In 1736 Oglethorpe
himself returned, bringing with him three hundred emigrants.
Among the new-comers were two brothers, men of eminent piety, who
-were destined to exercise a powerful influence upon the world. They
were John and Charles Wesley, sons of a clergyman of the Church of
England, and themselves ministers of that communion. Charles Wesley
had been selected by Oglethorpe as his secretary, and John Wesley came
with the hope of becoming the means of converting the Indians to
Christianity  He did not succeed in realizing his noble ambition, but we
cannot doubt that his experience in America formed a very important
part of the training by which God was preparing him for the great work
he meant to intrust to him at a later day  The preaching of Wesley had
a marked effect upon the colony  Crowds flocked to hear him, neglecting
their usual amusements in their eagerness to listen to him. His austerity
of life, however, involved him in troubles with the people, and his popularity at length disappeared. His brother Charles was too tenderly
moulded for so rough a life as that of the infant colony, and his health
sank under it. The brothers remained in Georgia only two years, and
then went back to Europe, never to return to America.
Soon after the departure of the WVesleys came to the colony George
Whitefield, their friend and associate, the "golden-mouthed" preacher
of the century  In his own land he had begun to preach the message of
his Master when but a mere youth, and had proclaimed it to the inmates
of the prisons and to the poor in the fields, and now he had come to
bring the gospel to the people of the new world. He visited the
Lutherans at Ebenezer, and was deeply impressed with the care with
which they protected the orphan and helpless children of their community   He determined to establish an institution similar to the orphan
house at Halle in Germany, and by his personal exertions succeeded in
raising in England and America the funds necessary for the success of
his enterprise. He thereupon established near Savannah the first orphan
asylum in America. He watched it with unceasing care during his life,
but after his death it languished and was at length discontinued. Whitefield did not confine his labors to Georgia. He visited every colony in
America, and finally died and was buried in New England. The memory




HISTORY OF IT'E UNITED STATES.


of his wonderful eloquence is still retained in this country by the children
of those who listened to him.
Immediately upon his return to Georgia, Oglethorpe proceeded to visit
the Lutheran settlement at Ebenezer, to encourage the people and lay out
their town. The Germans repaid his care by their industry, and in a
few years their total annual product of raw silk amounted to ten thousand
pounds. The culture of indigo was also carried on by then with marked
success.
Oglethorpe, having visited the Scotch settlement at Darien, now
resolved to come to a definite understanding with the Spaniards at St.
Augustine respecting the southern border of Georgia, and to sustain the
pretensions of Great Britain to the country as far south as the St. John's.
Proceeding with a detachment of Highlanders to Cumberland island, he
marked out the location for a fort, to be called St. Andrew's, and on the
southern end of Amelia island, at the mouth of the St. John's, built Fort
St. George. The Spaniards on their part claimed the whole coast as far
north as St. Helena's sound, and Oglethorpe, a little later, decided to
abandon Fort St. George, but strengthened Fort St. Andrew, as it
defended the entrance to the St. Mary's, which stream was finally settled
upon as the boundary between Georgia and Florida. Oglethorpe was
commissioned a brigadier-general by the king, and was charged with the
defence of Georgia and South Carolina. He repaired to England and
raised a regiment of troops, with which he returned to Georgia in 1738.
Spain and England were rapidly drifting into war. The system of
restrictions by which the European governments sought to retain the
exclusive possession of the commerce of their respective colonies was
always a fruitful source of trouble. It now operated to bring England
and Spain to open hostilities. The Spanish colonies were forbidden by
law to trade with any port but that of Cadiz. The merchants of this
place, being given a monopoly of the colonial commerce, were enabled to
fix their prices without fear of competition, and thus earned large
fortunes. The trade of the Spanish-American colonies, however, was too
tempting not to produce rivals to the merchants of Cadiz. The English,
who had watched its growth with eager eyes, determined to gain a share
of it. Bv the terms of a treaty between the two nations, an English
vessel was allowed to visit Portobello, in the West Indies, once a year,
and dispose of its cargo. This vessel was followed by smaller ones,
which in the night replaced with their cargoes the bales of goods that
had been discharged during the day  An active smuggling trade sprang
up between the English and Spanish-American ports, and English vessels
repeatedly sought these ports, under the pretence of distress, and sold




SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.


293


their goods. These enterprises were carried to such an extent that the
Spanish merchants were unable to compete with the English smugglers
in the colonial markets, and the tonnage of the port of: Cadiz fell from
fifteen thousand to two thousand tons. Tile Spaniards visited with severe
punishments all who were detected in engaging in this illicit traffic.
Some of the offenders were imprisoned, and others were deprived of their


GATHERING SUGAR-CANE.


ears. The English people resented the punishment of these traders as
an infringement of the freedom of trade, and regarded the smugglers who
had suffered at the hands of Spanish justice as martyrs. The popular
sentiment was therefore in favor of a war with Spain, and the English
government, which had all along connived at this illicit trade, which was
rapidly crippling a rival power, shared the national feeling.
The English colonists, who had watched the growth of the trouble




HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


between the two European countries, had grievances of their own. South
Carolina was a sufferer by the loss of numerous runaway negro slaves,
who escaped to the Spaniards at St. Augustine. The return of these
fugitives was demanded, and was refused, not because the Spaniards were
opposed to slavery, but because they were always ready to injure the
English colonies by any means in their power. Moreover, the Spanish
authorities of Florida had ordered the English to withdraw from
Georgia, and it was not certain that they would refrain from seeking to
enforce this order  Oglethorpe lhad become convinced that war was inevitable, and in order to be prepared for it had visited Europe and raised
a regiment of six hundred men, as has been related.
War was declared against Spain by England in October, 1739.
Admiral Vernon was sent against Portobello with his fleet, and captured
that town and its fortifications, and gained some other successes over the
Spaniards in Central America. In 1740 the American colonies were
ordered by the British government to contribute each its quota to a grand
expedition argainst the Spanish possessions in the West Indies. Each
colony made its contribultioln promptly, and Pennsylvania, in the place
of troops, voted a sum of money  The expedition reached Jamaica in
January, 1741, but instead of proceeding at once to attack Havana,
which was only three days distant, and the conquest of which would
have made England supreme in the West Indies, the fleet was detained
for over a mnonth at Jamaica by the dissensions between Wentworth, the
incompetent commander of the land forces, and Vernon, the admiral of
the fleet. The expedition numbered over one hundred vessels, of which
twenty-nine were ships of the line, and was manned with fifteen thousand
sailors and twelve thousand troops, and supplied with every requisite for
a successful siege. Havana might have been taken, and England have
gained a hold upon the southern waters of America which could never
have been wrested from her. Instead of undertaking this important
measure, the expedition attacked Carthagena, the strongest fortress in
Spanish America. The Spaniards defended it with obstinacy and held
the English in check until the besieging force, decimated by the ravages
of the elimate, was compelled to withdraw  The war continued through
the next year, but England gained no advantage in the West Indies
which could at all compensate her for her losses in the struggle.
In the autumn of 1739, upon the breaking out of the war, Oglethorpe
was ordered to invade Florida and attack St. Augustine. He hastened
to Charleston and urged upon the authorities of South Carolina, which
formed a part of his military command, the necessity of acting with
promptness and decision. He was granted supplies and a force of four




SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.


295


hundred men, which, added to his own regiment, gave him a force of one
thousand white troops. He was also firnished with a body of Indian
warriors by the friendly tribes, and with his little army invaded Florida
in the spring of 1741, and laid siege to St. Augustine. I-e found the
garrison more numerous and the fortifications stronger than he had been
led to believe. The Indians soon became disheartened and began to
desert, and the troops from South Carolina, " enfeebled by the heat, dispirited by sickness and fatigued by fruitless efforts, marched away in
large bodies."  The small naval force also became dissatisfied, and Oglethorpe, left with only his own regiment, was obliged to withdraw into.
Georgia after a siege of five weeks. During this campaign Oglethorpe
made a few prisoners, whom he treated with kindness. He preventidl
the Indians from maltreating the Spanish settlers, and, throughout the
invasion, "endured more fatigues than any of his soldiers; and in spite
of ill health, consequent on exposure to perpetual damps, he was always
at the head in every important action."
The invasion of Florida was a misfortune for Georgia in every way
Not only were some of the inhabitants lost to the colony bv death, and
the industry of the province greatly interfered with by the calling off of
the troops from their ordinary avocations, but a serious misfortune was
sustained in the withdrawal of the Moravians from the province. Uncompromisingly opposed to war they withdrew from Georgia in a body,
and settled in Pennsylvania, where they founded the towns of Bethlehem
and Nazareth.
In the last year of the war, 1742, the Spaniards resolved to avenge the
attack upon Florida by driving the English out of Georgia. A strong
fleet with a considerable land force was sent from Cuba to St. Augustine,
from which it proceeded to the mouth of the St. Mary's. Oglethorpe
had constructed a strong work called Fort William, on the southern end
of Cumberland island, for the defence of this river. With no aid from
Carolina, and with less than a thousand men, Oglethorpe was left to defend this position as well as he could. He posted his main force at
Frederica, a small village on St. Simon's island. The Spanish fleet
attacked Fort Willian in June, and succeeded in passing it and entering
the harbor of St. Simon's. The troops were landed, and arrangements
were made for a combined attack upon Frederica.
Oglethorpe now resolved to anticipate the attack of the enemy by a
night assault upon their position, but as his forces were approaching the
Spanish camp, under cover of darkness, one of his soldiers, a Frenchman, betrayed the movement by firing his gun, and escaping into the
enemy's lines, where he gave the alarm. Oglethorpe by a happy strata



296


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


gem now induced the enemy to withdraw, and drew upon the deserter the
punishment he merited. He bribed a Spanish prisoner to carry a letter
to the deserter, in which he addressed the Frenchman as a spy of the
English, and urged him to use every effort to detain the Spaniards before
Frederica for several days longer, until a fleet of six English ships of
war, which had sailed from Charleston, could reach and destroy St.
Augustine. The letter was delivered by the released prisoner to the
Spanish commander, as Oglethorpe had known would be the case, and
the deserter was placed in confinement. Fortunately, at this moment,
some vessels from South Carolina, laden with supplies for Oglethorpe,
appeared in the offing. These the Spanish commander was confident
were the ships on their way to attack St. Augustine. He determined to
strike a vigorous blow at Frederica before sailing to the relief of his
countrymen in Florida. On his march towards the English position he
was ambuscaded and defeated, with great loss, at a place since called
"Bloody Marsh."   The next night he embarked his forces, and sailed
for St. Augustine to defend it from the attack which had no existence
save in the fertile brain of Oglethorpe, whose stratagem was thus entirely
successful. On their withdrawal the Spaniards renewed their attempt to
capture Fort William, but without success. The firmness and vigor of
Oglethorpe had saved Georgia and Carolina from the ruin which the
Spaniards, who had no intention of occupying the country, had designed
for them.
Yet the founder and brave defender of Georgia was not to escape the
experience of those who seek with disinterested zeal to serve their fellowmen. The disaffected settlers sent an agent to England to lodge complaints against him with the government. In July, 1743, leaving made
sure of the tranquillity and safety of the colony, Oglethorpe sailed for
England to meet his accuser, and upon arriving in his native country demanded an investigation of his conduct in the land for which he had
sacrificed so much. The result of the inquiry was the triumphant:acquittal of Oglethorpe, and the punishment of his accuser for making
false charges. Oglethorpe was promoted to the grade of major-general
in the English army. He did not return to Georgia again, but he had
the satisfaction of knowing that during his ten years of sacrifice and toil
in America he had successfully laid the foundations of a vigorous state,
and had placed it far beyond the possibility of failure, and that his name
was honored and loved by the people for whom he had given his best
efforts without any personal reward. He died at the age of ninety years.
After the departure of Oglethorpe many improvements were made in the
government of Georgia, which was changed from a military rule to a




SETTLEMENT OF GEORGIA.


297


civil establishment. The forms and customs of the English law were
introduced, and the usual magistrates appointed.
Slavery had been forbidden by the trustees, but the majority of the
people were dissatisfied with this prohibition. The Germans and the
Scotch were opposed to the introduction of slave labor, but the greater
number of the English, many of whom had been reduced to poverty by
their idleness and wastefulness, were of the opinion that the agricultural
wealth of the colony could not be properly developed by white labor
alone. "They were unwilling to labor, but were clamorous for privileges
to which they had no right."  They declared that the use of strong
liquors was rendered absolutely necessary by the climate, and demanded
the repeal of the laws against their introduction. Negro slaves were
hired from the Carolina planters at first for a few years, and finally for a
term of one hundred years, which was a practical establishment of slavery in the colony.  Within seven years after Oglethorpe's departure
slave-ships from Africa brought their cargoes direct to Savannah, and
sold them there. The scruples of the Germans were at length overcome,
and they were induced to believe that negroes might be led into the
Christian fold by their proper treatment by Christian masters, and that
in this way their change of country might result in benefit to them. '" If
you take slaves in faith," wrote their friends from Germany, "and with
the intent of conducting them to Christ, the action will not be a sin, but
may prove a benediction." Even the pious Whitefield took this view of
the subject, and urged the trustees to grant permission to the colonists to
hold slaves, as indispensable to the prosperity of Georgia.
The trustees were so strongly urged to this step by all classes of the
colony, and so overrun with complaints, that the twenty-one years of
their guardianship having expired, they were glad to surrender their
trust, which they did in 1752, and Georgia became a royal province.
Privileges similar to those granted the other colonies were allowed it.
The king appointed the governor and some of the other higher officials,
and the assembly discharged the duties, and enjoyed the rights appertain-, ing to similar bodies in the other provinces. Georgia was al ways a favored
colony  Among the most important privileges bestowed upon it was the
right to import and hold negro slaves, which was conferred upon it by
Parliament after a careful examination into the matter. After this the
colony grew rapidly, and cotton and rice were largely cultivated. In
1752, at the time of the relinquishment of the colony to the crown, Georgia contained a population less than 2500 whites, and about 400 negroes.
In 1775, at the outbreak of the Revolution, the population numbered
about 75,000 souls, and its exports were valued at over half a million of
dollars.




CHAPTER XX


TIlE FRENCH IN THE VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.
Origin of the Hostility of the Iroquois to the French-Settlement of Canada-Plans of
the French respecting the Indians-The Jesuits-Their Work in America-Success of
their Missions-The Early Missionaries-Foundation of a College at Quebec-Efforte
of the Jesuits to Convert the Iroquois-Father Jogues-Death of Ahasistari-Father
Alloiiez-The Missions on the Upper Lakes-Father Marquette-His Exploration of
the Upper Mississippi-Death of Marquette-La Salle-Efforts of France to secure the
Valley of the Mississippi-La Salle Descends the Mississippi to its Mouth-His Effort
to Colonize the Lower Mississippi-The First Colony in Texas-Its Failure-Death of
La Salle-Lemoine d'Ibberville-Settlement of Louisiana-Colony of Biloxi-Settlement of Mobile-Crozat's Monopoly-Founding of New Orleans-Detroit FoundedSlow Growth of the French Colonies-Occupation of the Ohio Valley by the FrenchWars with the Indians-Extermination of the Natchez Tribe-War with the Chickasaws.
C    l'E have already spoken of the explorations of Samuel Champlain
in Canada and in the northern part of New York.      It is necessarv now, in order to obtain a proper comprehension of the
C;   period at which we have arrived, to go back to the time of his
discoveries and trace the efforts of France to extend her dominion over the great valley of the Mississippi.   We have seen Champlain
in one of his last expeditions accompanying a war party of the Hurons
and Algonquins against their inveterate enemies, the Iroquois, or Five
Nations.   By his aid the former were enabled to defeat the Iroquois, and
that great confederacy thus became the bitter and uncompromising
enemies of the French nation.   They cherished this hostility to the latest
period of the dominion of France in Canada, and no effort of the French
governors was ever able to overcome it.
The efforts of Champlain established the settlement of Canada upon a
sure basis of success, and after his death settlers came over to Canada
from France in considerable numbers. Quebec became an important
place, and other settlements were founded. It was apparent from the
first that the French colonies must occupy a very different footing from
those of England. The soil and the climate were both unfavorable to
agriculture, and the French settlements were of necessity organized
chiefly as trading-posts. The trade in furs was immensely valuable, and
the French sought to secure the exclusive possession of it. To this end
298




-1 1",


THEll'EXFT (Ak]oN AkND 1L(%WER FALLS OF THlE YELLONV-'TONF



300


0I,'STOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


it was indispensable to secure the friendship of the Indians, especially of
those tribes inhabiting the country to the north and west of the great
lakes.
In 1634, three years before the death of Champlain, Louis XIII.
granted a charter to a company of French nobles and merchants, bestowing
upon them the entire region embraced in the valley of the St. Lawrence,
thce known as New France. Richelieu and Champlain, who were members of this company, were wise enough to understand that their countrymen were not suited to the task of colonization, and that if France was
to found an empire in the new world, it must be by civilizing and Christianizing the Indians, and bringing them under the rule of her king, and
not by seeking to people Canada with Frenchmen. From this time it
became the policy of France to bring the savages under her sway. The
efforts of the settlers in Canada were mainly devoted to trading with the
Indians, and no attempt was made to found an agricultural state.
Champlain had conceived a sincere desire for the conversion of the
savages to Christianity, and had employed several priests of the order of
St. Francis as his companions, and these had gained sufficient success
among the savages to give ground for the hope that the red men might
vet be brought into the fold of Christ. Father Le Caron, one of this
order, had penetrated far up the St. Lawrence, had explored the southern
coast of Lake Ontario, and had even entered Lake Huron. He brought
back tidings of thousands of the sons of the forest living in darkness and
superstition, ignorant of the gospel, and dying "in the bondage of their
sins."  In France a sudden enthusiasm was awakened in behalf of the
savages, and at court zeal for the conversion of the Indians became the
sure road to distinction. Much of this was the result of genuine disinterested regard for the welfare of the red men, but much also was due
to the conviction that by such a course the power of France would be
most surely established in Canada.
The missions were placed entirely in the hands of the Jesuits, an order
well suited to the task demanded of it. It had been established by its
founder for the express design of defeating the influences and the work
of the Reformation, and its members were chosen with especial regard to
their fitness for the duties required of them. They were to meet and
refute the arguments by which the Reformers justified their withdrawal
from the Roman Church, to beat back the advancing wave of Protestantism, and bring all Christendom once more in humble submission to
the feet of the Roman pontiff. The Reformers had made a most successful use of education in winning men from Rome; the Jesuits would take
their own weapons against the Protestants. They would no longer com



VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


301


mand absolute and unquestioning submission to their church; but would
educate the people to accept the faith of Rome as the result of study and
investigation; and in order that study and investigation should lead to
this desired result, the control of these processes should be placed exclusively in the hands of the members of the Jesuit order, who should direct
them as they deemed best. Such a task required a band of devoted men,
carefully trained for their special work; and such an order the Jesuits
became. Surrendering his conscience and will to the direction of his
superiors, and sinking his personality in that of his order, the Jesuit
became a mere intellectual machine in the hands of his superior  Bound
bv a most solemn oath to obey without inquiry or hesitation the commands of the Pope, or the superiors of the order, the Jesuit holds himself in readiness to execute instantly, and to the best of his ability, any
task imposed upon him. Neither fatigue, danger, hunger, nor suffering,
was to stand in his way of perfect and unhesitating obedience. No distance was to be considered an obstacle, and no lack of ordinary facilities
of travel was to prevent him from attempting to reach the fields in which
he was ordered to labor. The merit of obedience in his eyes atoned for
every other short-coming; devotion to the church, the glory of making
proselytes, made even suffering pleasure and death a triumph, if met in
the discharge of duty  Such an order was in every way qualified for the
work of Christianizing the savages, and America offered the noblest field
to which its energies had yet been invited. There, cut off from the ambitious schemes and corrupt influences which had enlisted their powers in
Europe, the Jesuits could achieve, and (lid achieve their noblest and most
useful triumphs. There, their influence was for good alone, and their
labors stand in striking contrast with those which won for the order the
universal execration of Europe. Not only did they win the honor of
gaining many converts to the Christian faith, but they were the means
of extending the dominion of their country far beyond the boundaries of
Canada, and of bringing the great valley of the Mississippi under the
authority of France.
By the year 1536 there were thirteen Jesuit missionaries in Canada
laboring among the Indians. Not content with remaining around the
posts, they pushed out beyond the frontier settlements into the boundless
forest, making new converts and important discoveries. Each convert
was regarded as a subject of France and the equal of the whites, and the
kindliest relations were established between the French and the natives.
Many of the traders took them Indian wives, and from these marriages
sprang the class of half-breeds afterwards so numerous in Canada.
The limits of Canada were too narrow for the ambition of the Jesuits;




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


they burned to carry Christianity to the tribes in the more distant regions
beyond the lakes. In the autumn of 1634 Fathers Brabeuf and Daniel
accompanied a party of Hurons, who had come to Quebec on a trading
expedition, to their home on the shores of the lake which bears their
name. It was a long and difficult journey of nine hundred miles, and it
taxed the endurance of the missionaries to the utmost, but they persevered, and finally gained a resting-place at the Huron villages on
Georgian bay and Lake Simcoe. There they erected a rude chapel in a
little grove, and celebrated the mysteries of their religion in the midst of
the wondering red men, who looked on with awe and not without
interest. Six missions were soon established among the Indian villages
in this part of the lake, and converts began to reward the labors of the
DULUTH, AT THE HEAD OF LAKE SUPERIOR.
devoted priests. Father Brabeuf had not an idle moment. The first
four hours of the day were passed in prayer and in the flagellation of his
body; he wore a shirt of hair, and his fasts were frequent and severe.
The remainder of the day was given to catechizing and teaching the
Indians. As he passed along the streets of the village he would ring his
little bell, and in this way summon the warriors to converse with him
upon the mysteries of the Christian faith. He spent fifteen years in his
labors among the Indians, and hundreds of converts were by means of
him gained to Christ among the dusky children of the forest.
The great Huron chief, Ahasistari, was among the converts of Father
Brabeuf. " Before you came to this country," he said to the missionary,
" when I have incurred the greatest perils and have alone escaped, I have




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPL


said to myself, 'Some powerful Spirit has the guardianship of my days."'
That Spirit he now declared was Jesus Christ, and as he had before
adored him in ignorance, he now became his acknowledged servant.
Being satisfied of his sincerity, Father Brabeuf baptized him, and the
chief, in the enthusiasm of his new belief, exclaimed, " Let us strive to
make the whole world embrace the faith in Jesus."
The report of the successful efforts of the missionaries gave great satisfaction in France, and the king and queen and the nobles made liberal
donations in support of the missions and for the assistance of the converts. A college for the education of missionaries was founded at
Quebec in 1635. This was the first institution of learning established in
America, and preceded the founding of Harvard College by two years.
Madame de la Peltrie, a wealthy young widow of Alenqon, with the aid
of three nuns, established in 1639 the Ursuline Convent for the education of Indian girls.  The three nuns came out from   France to
take charge of it, and were received with    enthusiasm, especially
by the Indians. Montreal being regarded as a more suitable place, the
institution was removed to that island and permanently established there.
The labors of the missionaries had thus far been confined to the Huron
and Algonquin tribes, whom they found very willing to listen to them,
and among whom they counted their converts by thousands. They had
encountered but little hostility from them, and the dangers of the enterprise were merely those inseparable from the unsettled condition of
the country. They were anxious to extend their efforts to the fiercer and
more powerful Iroquois, as the conversion of the tribes of this confederacy
would not only swell the number of their converts, but would extend the
influence of France to the very borders of the English settlements on the
Atlantic coast.
The Iroquois, or Five Nations, consisted, as has been said, of the
Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida and Mohawk tribes. They occupied
almost all that part of Canada south of the Ottawa, and between Lakes
Ontario, Erie and Huron, the greater part of New York and the country
lying along the south shore of Lake Erie, now included in the States
of Ohio and    Pennsylvania.  They were generally called by the
English the Mohawks. They were the most intelligent, as well as the
most powerful, of the tribes with whom the French missionaries came in
contact. Their traditions related that their confederacy had been formed
in accordance with the instructions of Hiawatha, the greatest and wisest
of their chiefs, who had been blessed by the Great Spirit with more than
human beauty and wisdom and courage. He had made his people great,
united and prosperous; had then taken a solemn leave of them, and had




304


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


sailed out into the distant sunset in a snow-white canoe amid the sweetest
music from the spirit land. They were regarded with dread by the surrounding tribes, many of which were tributary to them. Their influence
extended eastward as far as New England, and westward as far as the
countries of the Illinois and the Miamis. They regarded the Hurons as
their hereditary enemies, and the French, as the allies of the Hurons,
now shared this hostility. The savages long remembered, and never
forgave, the alliance of Champlain with the Hurons and Algonquins, to
which reference has been made.
The Jesuit missionaries vainly endeavored to add the tribes of the
Five Nations to their converts. The latter, regarding the French as
enemies, could never be made to look upon the missionaries of that race
as friends, and considered the efforts of the good fathers in their behalf
- ---------------— = --- —--- -- -   --:. - -
' '                 -—. —~....,
DUBUQUE, IOWA.
as a species of incantation designed for their destruction. They closed
the region south of Lake Ontario to the French traders and priests, and
kept a vigilant watch over the passes of the St. Lawrence for the purpose,
of breaking up the trade of the French at Montreal with the tribes on
the lakes. The only route by which the lakes could be reached in safety
was by the Ottawa and through the wilderness beyond. Yet occasionally
a trading party would slip through the blockade established by the
Iroquois, and, descending the lakes and the St. Lawrence, reach Montreal
and Quebec in safety  These expeditions constituted the only means by
which the Jesuit missionaries in the remote regions could communicate
with their principal establishment at Montreal.




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


305


In the summer of 1642 Father Jogucs, who had labored with great
success in the country now embraced in the State of Michigan, left the
Sault Sainte Marie under the escort of the great Huron war chief Ahasistari and a number of his braves, and, descending the Ottawa and the St.
Lawrence, reached Montreal and Quebec in safety. On the 1st of
August he set out on his return, accompanied by a larger fleet of Huron
canoes. Before the mouth of the Ottawa was reached the party was
attacked by a band of Molhawks, and the canoes were so much damaged
that the occupants were forced to make for the opposite shore. The
greater number escaped, but a few, among whom were Father Jogues
and Father Goupil, a fellow-priest, were taken prisoners.  Ahasistari
had succeeded in reaching a place of safety, and from his concealment
saw the missionaries prisoners in the hands of their enemies. He knew
the fate that awaited them, and resolved to share it with them. Father
Jogues might have escaped, but as there were among the prisoners several
converts who had not yet received baptism, he decided to remain with
them in the hope of being able to administer the sacred rite to them
before their execution. Ahasistari strode through the mnidst of the
astonished Mohawks to the side of the priest. " My brother," said the
chief, " I made oath to thee that I would share thy fortune, whether
death or life; here am I to keep my vow " He received absolution from
the hands of his teacher, and died at the stake with the firmness of a
Christian and a hero. Jogues and Goupil were carried to the Mohawk,
and in each village through which they were led were compelled to run
the gauntlet. On an ear of corn which was thrown to them for food a
few drops of the dew had remained, and with these Father Jogues baptized two of his converts. Goupil was not so fortunate. He was seen in
the act of making the sign of the cross over an Indian child, and was
struck dead by a blow from the tomahawk of the child's father, who
supposed he was working a spell for the little one's harm. Father J-ogues
had expected the same fate, but he was spared, and even allowed to erect
a large cross near the village at which he was detained, and to worship
before it at pleasure. He escaped at length and reached Albany, where
he was kindly received by the Dutch, who enabled him to return to
France, from which country he sailed again for Canada. He went boldly
into the Mohawk country and began again the efforts which he had made
during his captivity to convert his enemies to the true faith, but his
labors were soon cut short by his murder by a Mohawk warrior. Other
missionaries sought the country of these tribes, but only to meet torture
and death at their hands.
In 1645 the French, who desired to secure their possessions, made a
20




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


treaty of peace with the Five Nations. The latter professed to forget
and bury the wrongs of the p)ast, and agreed to be the true friends of the
French. The Algonquins joined in the peace, but neither tribe was
sincere in its professions of friendship.
The A benakis of Maine, who had heard of the good deeds of the
Jesuit fathers, sent messengers to Montreal asking that missionaries might
be sent to dwell among them. Their appeal was favorably considered,
and Father 1)reuilettcs made his way across the wilderness to the headl
of the Kennelec(, and descended that stream to a point within a few miles
of its mouth, wl1o rc he established his mission. Large numbers of the
savages canme to him for religious instruction, and he found them ready
to embrace the truths he taught them. He entered heartily into all the
modes of Indian life, hunting and fishing with them, and winning their
confidence and affection. After remaining with them about a year he
returneol to Quebec, escorted by a band of his converts. He gave such
favorable accounts of the disposition of the Maine Indians that a permanent mission was established among them.
Bv the close of the year 1646 the French liad established a line of
missions extending across the continent from Lake Superior to Nova
Scotia, and between sixty and seventy missionaries were actively engaged
in instructing and preaching to the savages. How far the labors of these
devoted men were actually successful will never be known, as their work
was of a character which cannot be submitted to any human test. They
dil not succeed, however, in changing either the character or the habits
of their converts. They were still wild men, who scorned to engage in
the labor of cultivating their lands, and lived by hunting and fishing.
They learned to engage in the religious services of the missionaries, to
chant matins and vespers, but they made no approach to civilization.
When in after Nears the zeal of the whites for their conversion became
less active, and the missionaries less numerous, they fell back into their
old wavs.
In 1618 the peace between the Mohawks and the Hurons was broken,
and the war blazed up again fiercer than over, Bands of Mohawk warriors invaded the territory of tlhe Hurons, and both the savage and the
mi;ssonary fell victims to their fury  On the morning of the 4th of July
the village of St. Joseph, on Lake Simcoe, was attacked by a war party
of the Mohawks. The Huron braves were absent on a hunting expedition, and only the old men and the women and children of the tribe
were left in the village. This was the village founded by the missionaries Brabeuf and Daniel, the latter of whom, now an old man, was
still dwelling with his converts. At the opening of tlhe attack the good




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIP'PL


307


priest hastened to baptize such as he could, and to give absolution to all
whom he could reach. Then, as the Mohawks forced the stockade which
protected the village, and swarmed in among the wigwams, he advanced
calmly from the clhapel to meet them, and fell pierced with numerous arrows.
During the next year the Jesuit missions in Upper Canada were
broken up. At the capture of the village Father Brabeuf and his companion Gabriel Lallemand were made prisoners, and were subsequently
put to death with the cruellest tortures. They bore their sufferings with
a firmness which astonished their persecutors. The Hurons were scattered, and their country was added to the dominion of tlhe Five Nations.
Many of the captive Hurons were adopted into the conquering tribes. A
large number of these had embraced Christianity-so many, indeed, thlat
the Jesuits, who had been in nowise discouraged by the terrible scenes
which had marked the war, began to cherish the hope that the presence
of these converts would induce the Iroquois to receive a missionary
among them. It was decided to make the attempt among the Onondagas,
and Oswego, which was their principal village, was chosen as the site of
the mission. The Iroquois made no effort to disturb the missionaries,
and priests were sent among the other tribes of the confederacy  Encouraged by this reception the French undertook to secure a firm footing
in this inviting region by establishing a colony at the mouth of the
Oswego, and fifty persons were despatched to that point to begin a settlement there. This aroused the alarm of the Indians, who compelled the
colonists to withdraw, and forced the missionaries to depart witli them.
This was the last effort of the French to obtain possession of New York.
The Five Nations were not to be reconciled with them on any terms, and
their hostility made it useless to attempt the colonization of that fertile
region.
Defeated in their hope of obtaining a footing in the country of the
Five Nations, the Jesuit fathers turned their attention more energetically
to the vast region beyond the lakes. In 1654 two young fur-traders had
penetrated into the country beyond Lake Superior, and after an absence
of two years had returned to Quebec, bringing with them accounts of the
powerful and numerous tribes occupying that region. They brought
with them a number of Indians, who urged the French to open commercial relations with and send missionaries among these tribes. Their
request was promptly granted, and missionaries were soon on the ground.
One of these, the aged Father Mesnard, while journeying through the
forests, wandered off from his attendants, and was never seen again. IHis
cassock and breviary were found by the Sioux and were long retained by
them as a protection against evil.




308


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


In 1665 Father Claude Alloiiez ascended the Ottawa, and crossed the
wilderness to the Sault Ste-Marie, on a mission to the tribes of the far
west. In October he reached the principal town of the Chippewas at the
head of Lake Superior, He found the tribe in great excitement; the
young warriors were eager to engage in a war against the formidable
Sioux, and the old men were seeking to restrain them. A grand council
was in progress, which was attended by the chiefs of ten or twelve of the
neighboring tribes for the purpose of preserving peace if possible.
Father Alloiicz was admitted to this assembly, and exhorted the warriors
to abandon their hostile intentions, and urged them to join the French in
an alliance against the Five Nations. His appeal was successful; the
war against the Sioux was abandoned, and the savages came in from all
parts of the surrounding country to listen to the words of the missionary.
A chapel was built on the shore of the lake, and the mission of the Holy
Spirit was founded. The fame of the missionary spread far to the west
and north, and the tribes dwelling north of Lake Superior, the Pottawatomies from Lake Michigan, who worshipped the sun, and the Sioux and
the Illinois from the distant prairies of the west, came to the mission to
hear the teachings of the missionary  They told him of their country,
an unbroken expanse of level land, without trees, but covered with long,
rich grass, upon which grazed innumerable herds of buffalo and deer; of
the rice which grew wild in their distant homes; of the rich yield of
maize which their fields produced; of the copper mines of which they
but dimly comprehended the value; and of the great river which flowed
through their country from the far north to the unknown regions of the
south, and which Alloiiez understood them to call the " Messipi." After
remaining at his mission for two years Alloiiez returned to Quebec to ask
for other laborers in the great field around him, and to urge the French to
establish permanent settlements of emigrants or traders in the Lake
Superior country He remained at Quebec two days, was given an assistant, and at once returned to his post, where he continued his labors for
many years. "During his long sojourn he lighted the torch of faith for
more than twenty different nations."
In 1668 the French West India Company, under whose auspices the
settlement of Canada had been conducted, relinquished their monopoly
of the fur-trade, and a great improvement in the condition and prospects
of Canada ensued. In the same year Fathers Claude Dablon and James
Marquette established the mission of Ste-Marie at the rapids through
which the waters of Lake Superior rush into those of Huron. "For
the succeeding years," says Bancroft, " the illustrious triumvirate, Alloiiez,
Dablon, and Marquette, were employed in confirming the influence of




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPL


309


France in the vast regions that extend from Green bay to the head of
Lake Superior, mingling happiness with suffering, and winning enduring
glory by their fearless perseverance."
In 1669 Father Alloiiez went to establish a mission at Green bay, and
Father Marquette took his place at the mission of the Holy Spirit. Marquette had heard so much of the Mississippi that lie resolved to undertake the discovery of the upper waters of that stream. He employed a
young Illinois warrior as his companion, and from him learned the dialect of that tribe. In 1673, accompanied by a fellow-priest named Joliet,
five French boatmen, and some Indian guides and interpreters, bearing
their canoes on their backs, Marquette set out from his mission, and
crossing the narrow portage which divides the Fox river from the A'isconsin, reached the headwaters of the latter streani. There the guides
left them, wondering at their rasllness in seeking to venture into a region
which the simple imagination of the savages filled with vague terrors.
The adventurers floated down the Wisconsin, and in seven days entered
the Mississippi, " with a joy that could not be expressed." Raising the
sails of their canoes they glided do- n the mighty father of waters, gazing with wonder upon the magnificent forests which lined its shores, and
which swarmed with game, and admiring the boundless prairies which
stretched away from either bank to the horizon.
One hundred and eighty miles below the mouth of the Wisconsin the
voyagers for the first time discovered signs of human beings. They
landed, and found an Indian village a few miles distant from the river.
They were kindly received by the inhabitants, who spoke the language
of the Indians who had come with Marquette, and a week was passed at
this hospitable village. The villagers told the travellers that the lower
river extended far to the south, where the heat was deadly, and that in
those latitudes the stream abounded with monsters which destroyed both
men and canoes. At the departure of the whites the chief of the tribe
hung around Marquette's neck the peace-pipe, and explained to him that
it would prove a safeguard to him among the tribes into whose territory
his journey would lead him.
Continuing their voyage the explorers reached the mouth of the Missouri, and noticed the strong, muddy stream which it poured into the
Mississippi. "When I return," said Marquette, "I will ascend that
river and pass beyond its headwaters, and proclaim the gospel."  One
hundred and twenty miles farther south they passed the mouth of the
Ohio, of which river they had heard from the Illinois at the village they
had visited. As they proceeded farther south the heat became more intense, for it was the month of July. They met with Indians, whose




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


hostility was disarmed by the peace-pipe which Marquette bore. Some
of these Indians were armed with axes of European manufacture, which
they had obtained either from the Spaniards in the far south, or from the
English in Virginia. The voyage was continued to the mouth of the
Arkansas. Marquette was now satisfied that the great river flowed into the
Gulf of Mexico, and as he was fearful of falling into the hands of the
Spaniards in that region he decided to bring his voyage to an end, and
return to the lakes. The task of ascending the river was accomplished
with great difficulty, and at length the mouth of the Illinois was reached.
As they supposed this stream would lead them to the lakes the voyagers
ALTON, ILL.
ascended it to its headwaters, and then crossed the country to the site of.
Chicago, from which they continued the voyage by way of Lake Michigan to Green bay.
Marquette despatched Joliet to Quebec to report the results of the
voyage, but himself remained at Green bay. It was his purpose to
preach the gospel among the Illinois, who had begged him during his
voyage to come back to them. He was detained at Green bay for some
time by feeble health, but in 1675 went back to the Illinois, and began
his labors among them. Feeling that his end was near he undertook to
return to the mission of St. Mary's, but fell ill on the way. He gave
absolution to all his companions, and retired to pray. An hour afterChicgofro  whch tey ontnue  thenoyge y wy ofLak  htchi




VALLLY' OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


3 1 1


wards, uneasy at his absence, his people went to seek him, and found him;
kneeling, but praying no longer, for his slirit lmad gone to rc'eive its reward. He was buried on the banks of the river that bears his namel,
and llis memory was long cherished with affection by the Indialns.
The work of exploration  llich Marquette had begun was taken up by
a bolder and firmer hand. Robert Cavalier de ]a Salle, a man of good
family, had been educated for the service of the Jesuits,, but L:ad:tlandoned his design of entering that order after completing his education. In 1667 he had emigrated to Canada to seek his fortune, and
had established himself as a fur-trader on Lake Ontario. Encouraged
by the governor of Canada lie had exp)lored Lake Ontario, and had
ascended to Lake Erie. When the French governor a few years later
built Fort Frontenac to guard the outlet of Lake Ontario, La Salle was
granted an extensive (lomain, including Fort Frontenac, now the town of
Kingston, on condition that he would maintain the fort.   He thus
obtaine(l the monopoly of the fur-trade with the Five Nations. Here he
was residing at the time of the death of Marquette.
The news of Marquette's discoveries filled him with the deepest interest,
and lie was eager to continue the exploration of the river at the point at
which Marquette had discontinued it, and to trace it to its mouth. lie
was already on the road to fortune, but the prospect of winning greater
fame was too tempting to be resisted, and leaving his possessions on Lake
Ontario, he sailed for France and laid before Colbert, the minister, the
schemes he had formed for the exploration and colonization of the xvalley
of the Mississippi. IHe obtained a grant of valuable privilvges and
received permission to attempt the task of adding that vast region to the
dominions of France.  He returned to Fort Frontenac in tlhe autumn of
1678, brining with him as his lieutenant an Italian veteran named
Tonti and a number of mechanics and seamen, together with the materials
for rigging a ship. Before the winter had set in he ascended Lake
Ontario to the Niagara river, where he built a trading-post.  Then
passing around the falls, he constructed a vessel of sixty tons at the foot
of Lake Erie. Tonti and Father Hennepin, a Franciscan, went amonin
the Senecas during the construction of the sllip and established friendll
relations with them, and La Salle exerted himself to procure furs withl
which to freight his vessel. The vessel completed, he ascended Lake
Eric, passed through the straits into Lakes Huron and Michigan, and
entered Green bay   Then loading his vessel with a cargo of valuable
furs, he sent her to the Niagara, with orders to return with supplies as
soon as possible. During her absence La Salle and his companions
ascended Lake Michigan in canoes as far as the mouth of the St. Joseph's,




HISTORY OF THE UNITED S'TA TES.


where they built a fort. Then crossing over to the valley of the Illinois,
lie built a fort on a bluff near the site of Peoria, and awaited the return
of the " Griffin." The vessel had been wrecked on the voyage to Niagara,
and when it became evident that she would not return, La Salle named
h is fort (ir'vecoeur (" Heartbreak ").
Supplies were necessary to the exploration of the Mississippi, and La
Salle being determined to obtain them, took with him three companions
and crossed the wilderniess to Fort Frontenac, which he reached in the
spring of 1680. During his absence Father Hennepin, by his orders,


FALLS OF ST. ANTHONY.


explored the upper Mississippi as fair as the falls, which he named in
honor of St. Anthony, the patron saint of the expedition. In the summer
of 1680 La Salle returned to the Illinois, but various causes intervening
to delay him, he was not able to undertake his exploration of the Mississippi until 1682. In that year he built a barge on the upper Illinois,
and embarking with his companions, floated down that stream to the
Mississippi, which he descended to the Gulf of Mexico. He named the
country along the banks of the river LOUISIANA, in honor of Louis XIV.,
King of France. Then ascending the Mississippi, lie returned by the




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


lakes to Quebec, and in 1683 sailed for France to enlist the government
and people in his project for colonizing the country along the lower
Mississippi.
His design was encouraged by the king, and emigrants were readily
found. In 1684 he sailed from France with four ships and two hundred
and eighty persons to plant a colony at the mouth of the Mississippi.
Unhappily the commander of the fleet was not in sympathy with La
Salle, and being jealous of his authority, manifested a degree of stubbornness which was fatal to the expedition. One hundred of the colonists
were soldiers; of the rest, somie were volunteers, some mechanics, some
women, and some priests. After a long voyage they entered the Gulf of
Mexico in January, 1685. They sailed past the mouth of the Mississippi,
and when La Salle perceived his error, Beaujeu, the commander of the
fleet, refused to return, but continued his western course until the bay of
MAatagorda was reached. There La Salle, weary of his disputes with
Beaujeu, resolved to land, hoping that he might yet find the mouth of
the Mississippi. A careless pilot, in attempting to get the store-ship into
the harbor, wrecked her, and all the supplies which Louis XIV  had
provided with a lavish hand were lost.
The colony, which was named Fort St. Louis, was from the first
doomed to misfortune, and in a little more than two years was reducled
by disease and suffering to thirty-six persons. In January, 1687, La
Salle, leaving twenty men at Fort St. Louis, set out with sixteen men to
march across the continent to Canada to obtain aid for the settlement.
His remarkable courage and determination would doubtless have accomplished this feat, but on the way he was murdered by two of his men,
who regarded him as the author of their sufferings. Of the rest of his
companions, five who kept together reached a small French post near the
mouth of the Arkansas, after a journey of six months. The twenty men
left at Fort St. Louis were never heard of again. The effort to colonize
Texas completely failed, and all that was accomplished by La Salle's
enterprise was the establishment of the claim of France to this region.
To La Salle is due the credit of having been the first to comprehend
the importance of securing to France the great region watered by the
Mississippi and its tributaries, and it was through his efforts that the
attention of France was seriously directed to its colonization. His
remarkable qualities must always command the admiration and his sad
fate elicit the sympathy of all generous hearts.
While La Salle was vainly striving to accomplish some good result
with the Texas colony, his friend and lieutenant Tonti, in obedience to
his instructions, started from the Illinois and descended the Mississippi




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


almost to its mouth, hoping to meet him. At length, despairing of seeing,
him, Tonti engraved a cross and tlle arms of France upon a tree on the
banks of the river, and returned to the Illinois.
In 1699, twelve years after the death of La Salle, another and this
tine a successful effort was made to secure Louisiana to France. Lemoine
d'Ibberville, a native of Canada and a man of ability and courage,
resolved to plant a colony near the mouth of the Mississippi. With four
vessels and two hundred elmigrants, some of whom were women and
childrn, lie sailed from Canada for the mouth of the Mississippi. He
landed att the mouth of the river Pascagoula, and with two barges
mannedl 1, forty-eirlt nmen searched the coast for the mouth of the
Mississiippi.  Ie found it and ascended as high as the mouth of the Red
river  IIcrc le was met 1,b the Indians, who, to his astonishment, gave
him a letter which had e(1 en pllac(, in their charge fourteen years before.
It was from Tonti, and was addressed to La Salle. He had given it to
the Indians, and had charged them to deliver it to the first Frenchman
th ey met. D'Ilbbrville returned to the gulf by way of Lakes Maurepas
and Pontchartrain, which he named after two of the ministers of Louis
XIV     Deeming the shores of the Mississippi too marshy for colonization, D'Ibberville formed a settlement at Biloxi, at the mouth of the
Pascagoula, witlin the limits of the present State of Mississippi, and soon
afterwards sailed for France to obtain reinforcements and supplies,
leaving one of his brothers, Sa:uville by name, as governor, and the other,
Bicnville, to explore the Mississippi and the country along its banks.
Early in 1700 D'Ibberville returned fro:; France, and about the same
time Tonti, La Salle's former lieutenant, now an aged man, arrived from
the country of the Illinois. Acting upon Tonti's advice, D'Ibberville
as.cended thle Mississippi for four hundred miles, and on the site of the
p)resent city of Natchcz built a fort which he named Rosalie, in honor of
the Duchess of Pontchartrain.   Neither the settlement at Biloxi nor
Rosalie prospered, however. The colonists were a shiftless set, and
instead of seeking to cultivate the soil and establish hlomes for themselves,
went farther west to seek for gold. In 1702 D'Ibberville removed the
colony from Biloxi to Mobile, which was founded in that year, and
became the capital of Louisiana and the centre of the French influence in
the south. This settlement languished, however, and in ten years only
two hundred emigrants were added to its population.  It was forced to
depend upon the French colonies in the West Indies for subsistence.
In 1714 tlhe French government, becoming convinced that it was
necessary to make a more vigorous effort to colonize Louisiana if it
mleant to hold that country, granted a monopoly of trade to Arthur




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


315


Crozat, who agreed to send over every year two ships laden with emigrants and supplies, and also a cargo of African slaves. The king, onll
his part, agreed to furnish the sum of ten thousand dollars annually for
the protection of the colony  In the same year a trading-house was
established at Natchitoches on the Red river, and another on the Alabama, near the present site of Montgomery  Fort Rosalie was made the
centre of an important trade, and matters began to wear a new aspect inl
Louisiana. In 1718 Bieuville, who had become satisfied of the propriety
of removing the seat of government from Mobile to the more productive
region of the lower Mississippi, put the convicts to work to clear up the
thicket of cane which covered the site on which he meant to locate his
-_  i_          \   I
HUMBOLDT PALISADES, PACIFIC RAILWAY.
new city, and upon the ground thus prepared erected a few huts, the
germ of the great city of New Orleans. It grew more rapidly than anv
of the settlements in Louisiana. In 1722 it contained about one hundred
log huts, and a population of seven hundred. In 1723 the scat of government was removed from Mobile to New Orleans; and in 1727 the
construction of the levee was begun.
While these efforts were in progress on the lower Mississippi the French
were even more active in the west. Detroit was founded in 1701, and
the villages of Kaskaskia and Cabokia were formed around the stations
ofty nuon the missionarieso the east bank of the Mississippi, above the mouth
of the Ohio.  The French population in America grew very slowly,
ernmen waIeoe    rmMbl       oN^rOlal;adil1)               h
_ostucio oftelse vsbgn




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


however. In 1690 the population of Canada was only twelve hundred;
that of Acadia, or Nova Scotia, less than one thousand; and that of
Louisiana less than five hundred.
France had formed a deliberate and magnificent plan with respect to
her American possessions. She meant to build up a mighty empire in
the valley of the Mississippi, extending from the great lakes to the Gulf
of Mexico, and touching Canada. Her efforts to accomplish this were
lavish and persistent, but the unhealthiness of the climate and the almost
constant wars with the Natchez and Chickasaw Indians disheartened the
settlers, and the French population grew so slowly that it could not
accomplish the destiny demanded of it by the government at home. As
late as 1740 Louisiana contained only about five thousand whites and less
than two thousand five hundred negroes. The slow increase of the population made it inecessary to hold the country by a series of military posts.
By the year 1750 more than sixty of thepe posts had been built between
Lake Ontario and the Gulf of Mexico, by way of Green bay, the Illinois,
the Wabash, and the AMaumee rivers, and along the Mississippi to New
Orleans. The most important of these forts were held by garrisons of
regular troops, who were relieved once in six years. They accomplished
this in the face of the constant hostility of their old enemies, the tribes
of the Five Nations, and the Natchez and Chickasaws. In 1748 the
French extended their claim to the country south of Lake Erie, as far
east as the mountains, which they explored, and took formal possession
of by burying at the most important points leaden plates engraved with
the arms of France. According to the ideas of the times their claim was
a valid one.
In the meantime the settlements of Louisiana had been obliged to
struggle against the constant hostility of the Natchez Indians, who occupied the country around the present city which bears their name. They
were not very numerous, but were more intelligent and civilized than the
tribes among whom they dwelt. They worshipped the sun, from which
deity their principal chief claimed to be descended. They watched the
growing power of the French with alarm, and at length resolved to put
a stop to the progress of the whites by a general massacre. On the 28th
of November, 1729, they fell upon the settlement at Fort Rosalie and
massacred the garrison and settlers, seven hundred in number. They
were not long permitted to exult over their success. When the news of
the massacre reached New Orleans Bienville resolved to retaliate severely
upon the aggressors. He applied to the Choctaws, the hereditary enemies
of the Natchez, for assistance, and was furnished by them with sixteen
hundred warriors. With these and his own troops Bienville besieged the




VALLEY OF THE MISSISSIPPI.


317


Natchez in their fort; but they escaped under the cover of the night and
fled west of the Mississippi. They were followed by the French and
forced to surrender; after which they were taken to New Orleans and
sent to St. Domingo, where they were sold as slaves. The Great Sun
was among the captives, and the tribe of the Natchez was completely
destroved.
It was well known to the French that the Chickasaws, a powerful
tribe dwelling between the territory of the Natchez and the Ohio on the
north, and as far as the country of the Cherokees on the east, had incited
the Natchez against them. Bienville therefore resolved to turn his arms
against them. They had also given great trouble to the French by
attacking and plundering their trading-boats descending the Mississippi
from the posts on the Illinois. Bienville concerted measures for a combined attack upon the Chickasaws with D'Artaguette, governor of the
Illinois country, and two expeditions were despatched against the Indians.
Bienville, with a strong force of French troops and twelve hundred
Choctaw warriors, sailed in boats from  New Orleans to Mobile and
ascended the Tombigbee five hundred miles, to the place now known as
Cotton Gin Point. He landed here and marched twenty-five miles overland to the principal fort of the Chickasaws, which he at once attacked.
He was repulsed with the loss of one hundred men, and was so discouraged that he returned to New    Orleans.  D'Artaguette entered the
Chickasaw country with fifty Frenchmen and one thousand Indians. He
was defeated and taken prisoner, and was burned at the stake in May,
1735. In 1740 another effort was made by the French to crush the
Chickasaws, but was equally unsuccessful.




CHAPTER XXI


THE ENGLISH AND FRENCH COME IN CONFLICT
Relatio:ns between the English and the Five Nations-The Hostility of the Latter to the
French-King William's War-Destruction of Dover-The Jesuit Missionaries incite
the Indians to attack the English-Expedition against Quebec-Attack on Dustin's
Farm-Peace of Ryswick-Hostility of the English to Ronman Catholics-Queen Anne's
War-Burning of Dcerficld-Eunice Williams-Cruelties of the French-Effort of
Neew England to (Colluer Acadia-Capture of Port Royal-Failure of the Expedition
against Quebec-King George's War-Expedition against Louisburg-Its Composition
-Arrival of the Fleet at Cape Breton-Good Conduct of the Provincials-Capture of
Louisburg-Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle-Unjust Treatment of the Colonies by England
-Sentiment of the Americans towards England.
' IHE    territory of the Five Nations lay between the English and
French colonies.   The friendship which these tribes had borne
'    to the Dutch was transferred to the English upon the conquest
lC9   of New Netherlands by the latter, and they remained the faithful and devoted allies of' Great Britain until after the Revolution.
Though they remained at peace with the French for some years after the
treaty which has been mentioned in the preceding chapter, they regarded
a renewal of hostilities with them as certain, and were on the whole
anxious to resume the struggle at the earliest moment. James II., eager
to establish the Roman Catholic religion in America, instructed the governor of New York to cultivate friendly relations with the French, and
to exert all his influence to induce the Five Nations to receive Jesuit
missionaries.  The governor, however, saw that the French were rapidly
monopolizing the fur-trade, and he encouraged the Five Nations to regard
them with suspicion and dislike.   The French by their own bad treatment of the Mohawks put an end to the hope of a lasting peace with them.
Upon the escape of James II. to France, Louis XIV warmly espoused
the cause of the dethroned king, which he declared was the cause of
legitimate monarchy as opposed to the right of the people to self-government; and the war which was thus begun in Europe spread to the possessions of the rival powers in America. The objects of the two parties
in America were very different.  That of the people of New England,
who were principally interested in the struggle, was to secure their northern frontier against invasion from Canada, and to get possession of the
318




ENGLISH AND FIRENCH IN C'ONFLICT.


319


fisheries. The French, on the other hand, wished to obtain entire control of
the valley of the Mississippi, which would make them sole masters of the
fur-trade, and to extend their )power over the valley of the St. Lawrence,
and thus obtain control of the fisheries also. To accomplish their first
object the friendship of the Indian tribes in the valley of the Mississippi
was indispensable, and they exerted every means of which they were possessed to gain it. They renewed their efforts to win over the Five
Nations, but without success. Thl3 war between thle,, tribes and the
French.vas soon renewed, as has been related, and on the 25th of August,
1689, a band of fifteen hundred Mohawk warriors surprised and captured
Montreal, and put two hundred of the inhabitants to death with horrible
cruelty. An equal number of whites were made prisoners.
BURNING OF DOVER.
In, the same year Count Frontenac was appointed governor of Canada
for thle second time.  le came resolved to break the power of the
English, and reached Canada just in time to hear of the capture of Montreal. He at once set to work to incite the Indians to a series of incursions against the English settlements which should thoroughly establish
his influence over the savage warriors, who would obey none but a
successful chief, and at the same time strike terror to the enemies of
France. The first blow was struck at Dover, in New Hampshire. The
commander of the garrison at this place was Major Richard Waldron.
Thirteen years before, during King Philip's war, two hundred Eastern
Indians came to Dover to treat of peace. Waldron treacherously seized
them and sent them to Boston, where some of them were hanged and the




320


HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


remainder sold into slavery.  The savages had neither forgotten nor
forgiven the wrongs of their brothers, and now they resolved to meet the
whites with their own weapons of deceit and treachery
On the evening of the 27th of June, 1689, two Indian squaws came to
Dover and asked for a night's lodging. Waldron, now an old man of
eighty, was unsuspicious of harm. Their request was granted, and the
squaws were lodged in his house. In the dead of the night the women
arose, unbarred the gates, and admitted the warriors who had lain in
ambush near the town. Wraldron's house was first entered; the first duty
of the savages being to discharge their debt of vengeance. The brave
old man seized his sword and defended himself until he was felled to the
floor by a blow which stunned him. He was then seated in a chair and
placed on a table, and the savages saluted him with jeers. " Who will
judge Indians now?" they asked. " Who.will hang our brothers? Will
the pale face Waldron give us life for life? "  As they spoke they gashed
him across the breast with their knives, inflicting wounds equal in number
to their friends whom he had betrayed. The old man bore his tortures
firmly until he died; the Indians then set fire to the house and burned
the rest of the settlement. Nearly half the inhabitants were murdered,
and the remainder were carried into captivity
The other frontier towns suffered severely from Maine to New York.
A band of French and Indians, in February, 1690, toiled across the
wilderness from  Montreal to central New York on show-shoes, and
surprised Schenectady The place was burned, the majority of the settlers
were killed, and many women and children were carried into captivity
A few escaped through the snow to Albany. Deerfield and Haverhill in
Massachusetts, Salmon Falls in New Hampshire, and Casco in Maine
met a similar fate. The French had resolved to make the war one of
extermination, and neither they nor their savage allies showed any mercy
to the English in their hour of triumph.
The savages were incited to their bloody task by the Jesuit missionaries. The first race of missionaries, whose good deeds we have chronicled in the last chapter, had died out, and their successors could conceive
of no higher standard of duty than the extermination of the English
heretics.  They roused the fury of their dusky converts against the
English as the enemies of the Roman religion, and then, confessing and
absolving the savage warriors, sent them forth to murder and destroy,
with the solemn assurance that such acts on their part would win them
the favor of their Father in heaven. When peace was made two Jesuit
priests, Thury and Bigot, induced the Eastern Indians to break the
treaty and renew the war, and even took pride in acknowledging them



ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLICT.;.lves the instigators of the atrocities of the savages. These things were
well understood among the English, and they came to regard the Jesuit
missionaries as the enemies of mankind. Menaced by the French and
Indians on the frontiers, the English Protestants may be excused for
regarding with suspicion the Roman Catholics of Maryland. So deep
was the horror which the work of the Jesuits aroused, that even in Rhode
Island, the home of perfect toleration, it was enacted that a Roman
Catholic should not become a freeman of the province.
In May, 1690, a congress of delegates from Massachusetts, Connecticut,
and New York was held at New York for the purpose of concerting a
plan for an invasion of Canada. It was resolved to send an army against
Montreal by way of Lake Champlain, while Massachusetts should
despatch a fleet to attack Quebec. The first expedition, composed of the
troops of New York and Connecticut, advanced to Lake Champlain,
attended by a strong force of Mohawk allies.  Frontenac promptly
assembled his French and Indians for the defence of Montreal, and
succeeded in inflicting a sharp defeat upon the Mohawks, under Colonel
Philip Schuyler, who led the advance of the English army.   The
Mohawks were unable to regain their lost ground, and the provincial
troops were delayed by the dissensions of their leaders until the provisions ran short and the small-pox broke out among the men. It then
became necessary to abandon the attempt.
In the meantime Massachusetts equipped a fleet of thirty-two vessels
and two thousand men, and despatched it to the St. Lawrence under the
command of the governor, Sir William Phipps, whose incompetency
produced the failure of the expedition. Frontenac was promptly informed
of the departure of the fleet by an Indian runner from the Piscataqua,
who reached Montreal in twelve days. Frontenac at once set out for
Quebec, and arrived there three days in advance of the English fleet,
which was obliged to feel its way cautiously up the St. Lawrence. When
the hostile vessels arrived off the city, Quebec was prepared to offer a
determined resistance. After a few harmless demonstrations, Sir William
Phipps withdrew and returned to Boston, to the great disappointment of
the colony. A large debt had been incurred in this enterprise and a
number of valuable lives had been lost, but nothing had been gained.
The Eastern Indians continued their aggressions, but were severely
punished by Captain Samuel Church, who had served with distinction in
King Philip's war. On one occasion he was so exasperated by the cruelties of the savages that he put a number of his prisoners, including some
women and children, to death. The savages mercilessly avenged the
murder of their friends, and carried death and desolation along the bor21




HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


ders of New England. Nearly every settlement in Maine was destroyed
by them or abandoned by the inhabitants, who fled to the other colonies
for protection. The Indians prowled around the frontier posts. They
had been well armed by the French, and shot down the men without
mercy. The women and children were generally spared and carried to
Canada, where they were sold to the French as slaves. In 1693 peace
was made with the Abenakis, or Eastern Indians; but within a year the
Jesuits had succeeded in inducing the savages to resume hostilities.
A party of Indians attacked the house of a farmer named Dustin,
residing near Haverhill. He was at work in the field when the shouts
of the savages warned him of the danger of his wife and children.
Throwing himself on his horse, he hastened to their rescue, and on the
way met his children flying for safety pursued by the savages. He threw
himself in front of the little ones, and by a few well-aimed shots kept the
pursuers back until the children reach2d a place of safety  Hannah
Dustin, her youngest child-only a few days old-her nurse, and a boy
from Worcester, unable to fly, were made prisoners by the Indians. The
little one was killed, and the two women and the boy were carried away
by the savages to their village, situated on an island in the Merrimac,
just above Concord. Hannah Dustin resolved to escape, and communicated her plan to her companions. Each secured a tomahawk, and at
night began the destruction of their captors, twelve in number. Ten
Indians were killed and one squaw was wounded. The twelfth, a child,
was purposely spared. Then collecting the gun and tomahawk of the
murderer of her infant, and a bag-full of scalps, the heroic woman
secured a canoe, and embarking in it with her companions, floated down
the Merrimac and soon reached Haverhill, where they were received with
astonishment and delight by their friends.
This struggle, which is known in American history as King William's
War, was brought to a close in September, 1697, by the Peace of Ryswick. It had lasted seven years, and had caused severe suffering to the
northern colonies, without yielding them any compensating advantages.
The Five Nations were also severe sufferers. Failing to win them
from their alliance with the English, Frontenac several times invaded
their country with an army of French troops and Indians, and ravaged
it with great cruelty  Frontenac led these expeditions in person, though
he was seventy-four years old.
The people of New York, regarding the Jesuits as the true authors of
the miseries endured by the English and their allies, enacted a law in
1700, that every Romish priest who voluntarily came into the province
should be hanged.




ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLIC'T


323


Five years after the Peace of Ryswick, the War of the Spanish SucOession, or, as it is known in American history, Queen Anne'.E War,
began in Europe. It soon extended to America, and embroiled the
English and French in this country  The English settlements on the
western frontier of New England were almost annihilated by the Indians,
and the French were unusually active.
The people of Deerfield were warne(d by the friendly Mohawks that


BURNING OF DEERFIELD, MASS.
the French and Indians were meditating an attack upon their settlement,
and through the winter of 1703-4 a vigilant watch was kept by night
and day. The winter was very severe; the snow lay four feet deep, and
the clear, cold atmosphere made it almost as hard as ice. Profiting by
this, a war party of about two hundred French and one hundred and
forty-two Indians, under the command of Hertel de Rouville, set out




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


from Canada, and by the aid of snow-shoes crossed the country on the
snow and reached the vicinity of Deerfield on the last night of February,
1704. Towards daybreak on the 1st of March the sentinels, supposing
that all was safe, left their posts at Deerfield, and the enemy at once
silently mounted on the snow-drifts to the top of the palisades and
entered the enclosure, which had an area of twenty acres. A general
massacre followed. The town was destroyed, forty persons were killed,
and one hundred and twelve were carried away into Canada.
Among the captives were the minister Williams, his wife Eunice, and
their five children. The suffirings of the prisoners on the march to
Canada were fearful. Two men starved to death. The infant whose
cries disturbed the captors was tossed out into the snow to die; and the
mother who faltered from fatigue or anguish was despatched by a blow
from the tomahawk. Eunice Williams had brought her Bible along
with her, and in the brief intervals afforded by the halts of the savages
for rest, drew from its sacred pages the consolations she so sorely needed.
Her strength soon failed, as she had but recently recovered from her
confinement. Her husband sought to cheer her by pointing her to "the
house not made with hands," and she assured him that she was satisfied
to endure any suffering, counting it gain for Christ's sake. Perceiving
that her end was near, she commended her children to God and to their
father's care, andl was immediately killed by the savages, as she could go
no farther. The Williams family were taken to Canada, and a few years
later were ransomed, with the exception of the youngest daughter, with
whom the savages refused to part. She was adopted into a village of
Christian Indians near Montreal, and became a convert to the Roman
Catholic faith, and subsequently married a Mohawk chief. Years afterwards she appeared at Deerfield clad in the dress of her tribe. She had
come to visit her relatives; but no entreaties could induce her to remain
with them, and she went back to her adopted people and to her children.
The war was conducted with brutal ferocity by the French. Hertel
de Rouville gained eternal infamy by his butcheries of helpless women
and children. Vaudreuil, the governor of Canada, urged on his forces
to deeds of fresh atrocity, but at length the savages became disgusted
with their bloody work and refused to murder any more English. The
French succeeded, however, in inducing some of them to continue their
assistance, and in 1708 Haverhill was surprised by the French' and
Indians under Rouville, and its inhabitants massacred with the most
fiendish cruelty  None of them escaped death or captivity- Filled with
horror and indignation, Colonel Peter Schuyler, of New York, wrote to
the Marquis de Vaudreuil: "I hold it my duty towards God and my




ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLICT.


325


ueighbor, to prevent, if possible, these barbarous and heathen cruelties.
My heart swells with indignation when I think that a war between
Christian princes, bound to the exaetest laws of honor and generosity,
which their noble ancestors have illustrated by brilliant examples, is
degenerating into a savage and boundless butchery   These are not the
methods for terminating the war."
"Such fruitless cruelties," says Bancroft, "inspired our fathers with a
deep hatred of the French missionaries, they copl)oelled the employment
of a large part of' the inhabitants as soldiers,.so that there was one year


RETURN OF THE DAUGHTER OF EUNICE WILLIAMS TO THE INDIANS.


during this war when even a fifth part of all who were capable of bearing
arms were in active service. They gave birth also to a willingness to
exterminate the natives. The Indians vanished when their homes were
invaded; they could not be reduced by usual methods of warfare; hence
a bounty was offered for every Indian scalp; to regular forces under pay
the grant was ten pounds-to volunteers in actual service, twice that
sum; but if men would, of themselves, without pay make up parties and
patrol the forests in search of Indians, as of old the woods were scoured
for wild beasts, the chase was invigorated by the promised 'encouragement of fifty pounds per scalp.'"




326


1 IS1'ORY OF THE UNITED STA'TES.


In 1707 Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Rhode Island made a
combined attempt to conquer Acadia. A fleet was despatched against
Port Royal, but without success. In 1710 a second expedition was sent
from Boston against Port Royal, aided this time by an English fleet.
Port Royal was taken, the French were driven out of the greater part
of Acadia, and that province was annexed to tle English dominions and
called Nova Scotia. The name of Port Royal was changed to Annapolis,
in honor of the Queen of England.
Encouraged by this success, the English government the next year
attempted tlhe conquest of Canada by two expeditions, one by land and
the other by sea. A powerful fleet and a strong army was despatched
from England to coi)perate with the colonists. The effort was unsuccessfil. The fleet, which was badly handled by the admiral in attempting to ascend the St. Lawrence, was wrecked with the loss of eight vessels
1and eight hundred and eighty-four men, and was obliged to return to
Boston. The failure of the fleet to accomplish anything compelled the
abandonment of the land expedition against Montreal. In 1713 the
war was brought to an end by the treaty of Utrecht, by which Acadia
was ceded permanently to Great Britain, and became a province of the
English crown.
After the close of Queen Anne's war the colonies remained at peace
for nearly thirty years, during which time they were molested by neither
French nor Indians. In 1744 the disputes in Europe concerning the
succession to the Austrian thr n. culminated in a war, which is known
in European history as the war of tile Austrian succession, and in
America as King George's war.   As usual, England and France were
arrayed on opposite sides, and their colonies in America soon became
involved in hostilities. The French were the first to receive information
from Europe of the existence of war, and began the struggle by attacking
and capturing the English fort at Canso and carrying the garrison prisoners to Louisburg.
Louisburg, the principal port of the island of Cape Breton, was at
this time the strongest fortress in America, and from its secure harbor
the French were constantly despatching privateers against the merchant
vessels and fishermen of New England. These depredations caused such
serious loss to the eastern colonies that at length Governor Shirley proposed to the general court of Massachusetts to undertake the capture of
Louisburg as the only means of putting a stop to them, and this measure
was laid by the general court before the other colonies. It was understood tllat no aid was to be expected from the mother country, which was
too busily enagaed in conducting the war in Europe, and that the colonies




ENGLISH AND FRENCH IN CONFLICT.


327


would be obliged to depend entirely upon their own resources for their
success. Nevertheless, the measure was popular, and the enthusiasm of
the colonists was aroused to the highest point. Nearly all the northern
colonies had suffered severely at the hands of the French and Indians,
and in every shipping port were to be found scores of men who had been
robbed and otherwise maltreated by the French privateers. Pennsylvania and New Jersey, under the influence of the Quaker dislike of war,
declined to send troops, but furnished a fair supply of money to defray
their share of the expenses of the expedition; New York made a contribution of money and of a number of pieces of artillery; Connecticut gave
five hundred men, and New Hampshire and Rhode Island each contributed a regiment. Massachusetts, being the most interested in the
success of the expedition by reason of being the largest owner of shipping,
undertook the principal part of the expense and agreed to furnish a
majority of the troops and the vessels. There was no difficulty in procuring volunteers, but those who offered themselves were civilians, ignorant of military discipline, and utterly unprepared to attempt the reduction of such a fortress as that against which the expedition was directed.
These disadvantages, however, were lost sight of in the enthusiasm
aroused by the hope of destroying the ability of the French to prey upon
the commerce of the colonies. Sir William Pepperell, a wealthy merchant
of Maine, was elected commander of the expedition, which rendezvoused
at Boston in the early spring of 1745. One hundred vessels and a force
of over three thousand men were assembled, and about the 1st of April
sailed for Canso, which was reached on the 7th. The ice was drifting in
such quantities that the fleet could not enter the harbor of Louisburg, and
was obliged to remain at Canso for more than two weeks. Admiral
Warren, commanding the West India squadron, had been invited to join
the expedition, but in the absence of instructions from England had
declined to do so. Almost immediately afterwards he received orders
from home to render Massachusetts every aid in his power, and at once
joined the New England fleet at Canso with four ships of war and a
detachment of regtular troops.
At length, the ice having moved southward, the New England fleet
entered the harbor of Louisburg on the 30th of April. The fortress was
built on a neck of land on the south side of the harbor, and its walls
were from twenty to thirty feet high and forty feet thick at the base, and
were surrounded with a ditch eighty feet in width. Outlying forts protected the main work, and there was not a foot of the walls that was not
swept by the fire of the artillery. Nearly two hundred and fifty cannon
of all sizes constituted the armament of the fortress, and the principal




328


HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


outwork, the "royal battery," was deemed capable of withstanding an
attack of five thousand men. The garrison numbered sixteen hundred
men. To attack this fortress the New England troops brought with
them eighteen cannon and three mortars.
As the fleet drew near the town the French marched down to the beach
to oppose the landing of the troops. Immediately the whale-boats of
the ships were lowered and manned, and at a signal from the flagship
darted for the shore with a speed which astonished and struck terror to
the French, who were quickly driven to the woods. The landing was
secured, and the next day a detachment of four hundred men marched
by the town, giving it three cheers as they passed, and took position near
the northeast harbor, completely cutting off the fortress from communication with the country in its rear. This completed the investment, as
the fleet closed the harbor, and prevented the approach of relief by sea.
That night the troops in the royal battery spiked the guns of that work,
abandoned it, and retreated into the town. It was immediately occupied
by the New Englanders, who drilled the spikes out of the vent-holes of
the guns, and turned them against the town. Batteries were erected by
the colonial troops, and their fire opened upon Louisburg. The volunteers proved admirable soldiers, exciting the surprise of the English
naval officers by the readiness and facility with which they discharged the
various duties required of them. Numbers of them were mechanics by
profession, and their skill was of the greatest service in this emergency.
A New Hampshire colonel, who was a carpenter, constructed sledges with
which to drag the artillery across a morass to the positions assigned the
batteries. The weather was mild and singularly dry, and the men were
healthy. "All day long the men, if not on duty, were busy with amusements-firing at marks, fishing, fowling, wrestling, racing, or running
after balls shot from the enemy's guns."
In the meantime the ships of Admiral Warren blockaded the harbor,
and not only prevented French vessels from entering the port, but succeeded in decoying into the midst of the English fleet the French frigate
"Vigilante" of sixty guns, which was captured after a sharp, engagement
of several hours. She was loaded with stores for the fortress, and these
fell into the hands of the victors.
The French commander, who had shown but little energy during the
siege, was now so thoroughly disheartened that on the 17th of June, just
seven weeks after the commencement of the investment, he surrendered
the town and fortifications. As the colonial troops entered the place to
take possession of it they were astonished at the strength of the works.
" God has gone out of the way of his common providence, in a remark



ENGLISH AND FRENCYH IN CONFLICT.


329


able and miraculous manner," they said, " to incline the hearts of the
French to give up, and deliver this strong city into our hands."  The
capture of Louisburg by the undisciplined volunteers of America was
the greatest success achieved by England during the war. The colonists
were justly proud of it. Bells were rung and bonfires lighted in all the
colonies, and the people rejoiced greatly at the success of their brethren
and friends. England with characteristic selfishness claimed the glory
exclusively for the squadron of Admiral Warren.
France was greatly alarmed at the capture of Louisburg, which seriously threatened her dominion in America, and measures were at once
begun for its recovery, and for the destruction of the English colonies.
In 1746 a large fleet was despatched to America under the Duke d'Anville, but many of the vessels were lost at sea, and the fleet was greatly
weakened by pestilence. In the midst of these misfortunes the Duke
d'Anville suddenly died, and his successor lost his mind, and committed
suicide. The expedition made no serious demonstration against the English, and resulted in total failure. In 1747 another fleet was sent out
from France olr the same purpose, but was captured after a severe fight
by an English fleet under Admirals Anson and Warren.
In spite of these successes, however, the frontiers of the northern
colonies suffered considerably, and the English government resolved to
attempt once more the conquest of Canada. All the colonies were required to furnish men or money to this enterprise, and eight thousand
men were enlisted. The British government delayed, however, and
finally abandoned the enterprise. On the 18th of October, 1748, the
treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle closed the war. The treaty required that all
places taken by either party during the war should be restored, and
Louisburg was delivered up to the French, to the great disgust of the
New England colonies, who saw all the results of their sacrifices thrown
away, and their commerce and fisheries once more placed at the mercy of
the French. England had never regarded the interests of her colonies
as worth considering, however, and it was not to be expected that she
should manifest any concern for them now
It was commonly believed in America, and with good reason, that the
king did not desire that New England should enjoy the security necessary
to her prosperity  His majesty was beginning to be jealous of his American subjects, who had, as Admiral Warren expressed it, "the highest
notion of the rights and liberties of an Englishman," and he was resolved
to keep them so weak that they should not forget their dependence upon
him. Peter Kalm, a Swedish traveller, who visited New York in 1748,
thus records the prevailing sentiment in America at this period: "The




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


English colonies in this part of the world have increased so much in
wealth and population that they will vie with European England. But
to maintain the commerce and the power of the metropolis they are forbid to establish new manufactures, which might compete with the English; they may dig for gold and silver only on condition of shipping
them immediately to England; they have, with the exception of a few
fixed places, no liberty to trade to any ports not belonging to the English
dominions, and foreigners are not allowed the least commerce with these
American colonies. And there fare many similar restrictions. These
oppressions have made the inhabitants of the English colonies less tender
to their mother land. This collness is increased by the many foreigners
who are settled among them; for Dutch, Germans, and French are here
blended with English, and have no special love for old England. Besides, sonicme people are always discontented, and love change; and exceeding freedom and prosperity nurse an untamable spirit. I have been told
not only by native Americans, but by English emigrants, publicly, that
witliin thirty or fifty years the English colonies in North America may
constitute a separate state entirely independent of England. But as this
whole country is towards the sea unguarded, and on the frontier is kept
uneasy by the French, these dangerous neighbors are the reason why the
love of these colonies for their metropolis does not utterly decline. The
English government has, therefore, reason to regard the French in North
America as the chief power that urges their colonies to submission."
The war not only served to confirm the hostility of the Americans to
France, but it also aided in opening the eyes of some of the most sceptical of the colonists as to the deliberate intention of the mother country
to persist in the injustice with which she had for so long treated her colonies. Great Britain was slowly but surely alienating her American
subjects, and was preparing them in the most certain manner for the great
effort they were shortly to make to rid themselves of her tyranny
During the last year of the war an incident occurred at Boston which
might Ihave opened the eyes of the ministry to the growing determination
of the Americans to resist any interference with their liberties. Desertions from the English ships-of-war in Boston harbor had become so frequent that Sir Charles Knowles, the commanding officer, sent his boats
up to Boston one morning and seized a number of seamen in the vessels
at the wharves, and a number of mechanics and laborers engaged in
work on shore. The people of Boston indignantly demanded of the
governor the release of the impressed men. As his excellency declined
to interfere in the matter the people seized the commanders and officers
of the ships who happened to be in the town, and kept thenm prisoners
until they agreed to release the mnen they had unlawfully seized.




CHAPTER XXII


THE FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.
England Claims the Valley of the Ohio-Organization of the Ohio Company-The French
extend their Posts into the Ohio Country-Washington's Mission to the French at Fort
Duiquesni:I-His Journey-Reception by the French-His Journey Home-A Perilous
Undertaking-Organization of the Virginia Forces-Washington made Second in Command-The French Drive the English from the Head of the Ohio-Fort Duquesne
Built by them-Washington Crosses the Mountains-The Fight at Great MeadowsBeginning of the French and Indian War-Surrender of Fort Necessity to the FrenchUnjust Treatment of the Colonial Officers-Congress of the Colonies at New YorkFranklin's Plan of a Union of the Colonies-Its Failure-Reasons of the British Government for Rejecting it-England assumes the Direction of the War-Arrival of General
Braddock-Plan of Campaign-Obstinacy of Braddock-IHe Passes the MountainsDefeat of Braddock-Heroisni of Washingto;n-Retreat of Dunbar beyond the Mountains-Vigorous action of Pennsylvania-Armstrong defeats the Indians and burns the
town of Kittanning.
HE three wars between the English and French in America which
we have just considered were but a prelude to the great struggle
which was to decide which of these powers should control the
destinies of the new world.  The English, as we have seen, were
growing stronger and more numerous along the Atlantic coast,
and were directing their new settlements farther into the interior with
each succeeding year. The French held Canada and the valley of the
Mississippi, but their tenure was that of a military occupation rather
than a colonization.
Between the possessions of these hostile nations lay the valley of the
Ohio, a beautiful and fertile region, claimed by both, but occupied as yet
by neither    The French had explored the country, and had caused
leaden plates engraved with the arms of France to be deposited at its
principal points to attest their claim; and had opened friendly relations
with the Indians.   The region had been frequently visited by the traders,
who brought back reports of its remarkable beauty and fertility and of
its excellent climate. The British government regarded this region as a
portion of Virginia, and one of the chief desires of the Earl of Halifax,
the prime minister of England, was to secure the Ohio valley by planting an English colony in it.  A company was organized in Virginia and
331




HISTOR Y OF THIE UNITED STATES.


Maryland for this purpose and for the purpose of trading with the Indians,
and was warmly supporte(l by the Earl of Halifax. It was named the
Ohio Company, and at length succeeded in obtaining a favorable charter
from the king, who, in March, 1749, ordered the governor of Virginia
to assign to the Olhio Company five hundred thousand acres of land lying
between the Monongahela and Kanawha rivers, and along the Olio.
The.company were required to despatch within seven years at least one
hundred families to the territory granted them, to locate without delay
at least two-fifths of the lands they desired to occupy, and to build and
garrison a fort at their own cost. They were granted an exemption from
quit rents and other dues Ior ten years, and this freedom from taxation
was extended by the company to all who would settle in their domailn.
A number of Indian traders had located themselves west of the Alleghanies, and in order to supply these with the articles needed for their
traffic with the Indians, the Ohio Company built a trading-post at Wills'
creek, within the limits of Maryland, on the site of the present city of
Cumberland. Here one of the easiest of the passes over the Alleghanies
began, and by means of it the traders could easily transport their goods
to the Indian country west of the mountains and return with the furs
their traffic enabled them to collect.
Being anxious to explore the country west of the mountains, the company employed Christopher Gist, one of the most experienced Indian
traders, and instructed him " to examine the 'western country as far as the
falls of the Ohio, to look for a large tract of good level land, to mark the
passes in the mountains, to trace the courses of the rivers, to count the
falls, to observe the strength and numbers of the Indian nations."
Gist set out on his perilous mission on the last day of Octolber, 1750,
and crossing the mountains reached the Delaware towns on the Alleghany
river, from which he passed down to Logstown, a short distance below
the head of the Ohio. "You are come to settle the Indians' lands; you
shall never go home safe," said the jealous people; but in spite of their
threats they suffered him to proceed without molestation. He traversed
the country to the Muskingum and the Scioto, and then crossing the
Ohio explored the Kentucky to its source, and returned to Wills' creek in
safety. He reported that the region he had traversed merited all the
praise that had been bestowed upon it; that it possessed a pleasant and
healthy climate, and was a land of great beauty  The soil was fertile
and the streams abundant and excellent. The land was covered with a
rich growth of the most valuable and beautiful trees, and abounded in
small level districts and meadows covered with long grass and white
clover, on which the elk, the deer, and the buffalo grazed in herds. Wild




FRENCH AND INDIA4N WAR.


333


turkeys and other game abounded, and the country offered every attraction to settlers who were willing to improve it. Gist also reported that
the agents of the French were actively engaged in seeking to induce the
western tribes to make war upon the English and prevent them from
obtaining a footing west of the mountains. The purposes of the English
were well known to the French, who viewed them witlh alarm, as the
successful occupation of the Ohio valley by the English would cut off the
communication established by the French between Canada and the Mississippi. This the French were resolved to prevent at any cost. The
Indians regarded both of the white nations as intruders in their country
They were willing to trade with both, but were averse to giving up their
lands to either. "If the French," said they, "take possession of the
north side of the Ohio, and the English of the south, where is the
Indian's land?"
The possession of the Ohio valley was thus of the highest importance
to the French. Their fortified post of Fort Frontenac gave them the
command of Lake Ontario, which they further secured by constructing
armed vessels for the navigation of the lake. They retained their hold
upon Lake Erie by strengthening Fort Niagara, which La Salle had built
at the foot of that lake. They entered into treaties with the Shawnees,
the Delawares, and other powerful tribes between the lake and the Ohio,
and steadily pushed their way eastward towards the mountains. They
began their advance into the valley of the Ohio by building a fort at
Presque Isle, now the city of Erie, in Pennsylvania, another on French
creek, on the site of the present town of Waterford, and a third on the
site of the present town of Franklin, at the confluence of French creek
with the Alleghany
These rapid advances eastward alarmed the English government, which
instrtlcted the governor of Virginia to address a remonstrance to the
French authorities and to warn them of the consequences which must
result from their intrusion into the territory of the English. To do this
it was necessary for the governor to despatch his communication to the
nearest French post by the hands of some messenger of sufficient resolution to overcome the natuitl dangers of such an undertaking, and of sufficient intelligence to gain information respecting the designs and strength
of the French; and Governor Dinwiddie was somewhat at a loss to find
such a person. Fortunately the man needed was at hand, and the attention of the governor being called to him, his excellency decided to intrust
him with the delicate and dangerous mission.
The person selected for this task was a young man in the twenty-second
year of his age, George Washington by name. He was a native of West



THE BRONZE DOOR IN THE NATIONAL CAPITOL COMMEMORATING TjE EVENTS OF THE
LIFE OF GEORGE WASHINGTON.
334




FRENCIH AND INDIAN WAR.


3.3


moreland county, Virginia, where lie was born on the 22(1 of February,
1732. He was a great-grandson of the Colonel John Washington whomn
we have noticed as the leader of an expedition against the Indians in the
time of Sir William Berkeley  His fatlher, Augustine Waslhington, was
a wealthy planter, but his death, when George was eleven years old,
deprived his son of his care and also of the means of acquiring an education. He soon acquired all the learning that it was possible to gain at a
country school, from which he passed to an academy of somewhat higher
grade, where he devoted himself principally to the study of mathematics.
His half brother, Lawrence, who was fourteen years older than himself,
had received a careful education and' directed the studies of his younger
brother, to whomn he was devotedly attached.
Though deprived of the care of his father at such an early age it was
the good fortune of George Washington to possess in his mother a guide
well qualified to fill the place of both parents to her fatherless children.
She was a woman of rare good sense, of great decision of character, and
one whose life was guided by the most earnest Christian principle. Her
tenderness and sweet womanly qualities won the devoted love of her
children, and her firmness enforced their obedience. From her George
inherited a quick and ardent temper, and from her he learned the lesson
of self-control which enabled him to govern it.
As a boy, Washington was noted for his truthfulness, his courage, and
his generosity  He was both liked and respected by his schoolmates, and
such was their confidence in his fairness and good judgment that he was
usually chosen the arbiter of their boyish disputes. He joined heartily
in their sports, and was noted for his skill in athletic exercises. He was
a fearless rider, and a good hunter, and by his fondness for manly sports
developed his naturally vigorous body to a high degree of strength. He
was cheerful and genial in temper, though reserved and grave in manner. He early acquired habits of industry and order, and there are still
existing many evidences of the careful and systematic manner in which
he discharged every duty assigned him at this early age.
At the age of fourteen it was decided that he should enter the navv,
and his brother Lawrence, who had served with credit in that branch of
the royal service, had no difficulty in obtaining for him a midshipman's
warrant. The ship he was to join lay in the Potomac, and his trunk
was sent on board; but at the last moment his mother, dreading the effect
of the temptations of a seaman's life upon a boy so young, appealed to
him by his affection for her to remain with her. Washington was sorely
disappointed, but he yielded cheerfully to his mother's wish.
The marriage of liis brother Lawrence gave to the young man a second




336


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


home at Mount Vernon, where he passed a large part of his time. Here
he was brougllt into constant contact with tHie most cultivated and refined
society of Virginia, an association which had a halppy influence upon the
formation of his character. There also he formed the acquaintance and
won the friendship of Lord Fairfax, the grandson of Lord Culpepper,
and the inheritor of Culpepper's vast estates in Virginia, which comprised about one-seventh of the area of the State of Virginia as it existed
prior to the separation of West Virginia in 1861. Lord Fairfax conceived a great fondness for the young man, and took a deep interest in
his future welfare. Washington, upon leaving school, had chosen the
profession of a surveyor as his future avocation, and soon after his first
meeting with Lord Fairfax was employed by that nobleman to survey
the lands belonging to him, many of which had been occupied by settlers
without right or title. It was an arduous and responsible task, and
Washliilgton, who was just entering his seventeenth year, seemed almost
too young for it; but " Lord Thomas " had satisfied himself of his young
friend's capability for it, and the result justified the opinion he had
formed. His work was done with care and accuracy, and his measurements were so exact that they are still relied upon.
His life as a surveyor was in many respects a hard one, but lie enjoyed
it. It gave new vigor to his naturally robust constitution and his
splendid figure, and while yet a youth lie acquired the appearance and
habits of mature manhood. He also learned forest life in all its various
phases, and by his constant intercourse with the hunters and Indians,
gained a knowledge of the character and habits of these wild men which
in after years was of infinite value to him.
During his surveying expeditions Washington was a frequent visitor
at Greenway Court, the seat of Lord Fairfax, where, in addition to the
other attractions, there was a well-selected library, of which the young
man regularly availed himself. His reading was of a serious and useful
nature; "Addison's Spectator" and the "History of England" were
among his favorite works.
Though the heir to a considerable estate, Washington supported hlimself during this period by his earnings as a surveyor. " His father had
bequeathed to the eldest son, Lawrence, the estate afterwards called
Mount Vernon. To Augustine, the second son, he had given the old
homestead in Westmoreland county   And George, at the age of twentyone years, was to inherit the house and lands in Suffolk county. As yet,
however, he derived no benefit from this landed property   But his
industry and diligence in his laborious occupation supplied him with
abundant pecuniary means. His habits of life were simple and economical; he indulged in no gay and expensive pleasures."




FRENCH AND INDIAN WtiiAi.


65 (


In 1751, in order to prepare for any emergency to which the hostility
of the French and Indians might give rise, the colony of Virginia was
divided into military districts, each of which was placed in charge of an
adjutant and inspector, with the rank of Major, whose duty it was to
keep the militia in readiness for instant service. Washington had at an
early day evinced a great fondness for military exercises, and as a boy
had often drilled his school-fellows in the simplest manoeuvres of the
troops.  As he advanced towards manhood, his brother Lawrence,


THE WASHINGTON STATUE IN UNION SQUARE, NEW YORK.


Adjutant Muse, of Westmoreland, and Jacob Vanbraam, a fencingmaster, and others, had given him numerous lessons in the art of war.
Though but nineteen years old, he was regarded by his acquaintance as
one of the best-informed persons upon military matters in the colony, and
at the general desire of those who knew him he was commissioned a
major in the colonial forces, and placed in command of one of the military
districts. He discharged his duties with ability and zeal, and gave such
satisfaction that when Governor Dinwiddie, in 1752, divided the province
into four military districts, Major Washington was placed in command
22




HISTORY OF T7HE UNITED S'rTATES.


of the northern district. " The counties comprehended in this division
lie promptly and statedly traversed, and he soon effected the thorough
discipline of their militia for warlike operations."  He was discharging
the duties of this position when selected by the governor of Virginia to
bear his message to the commander of the French fforce on the Ohio.
Governor Dinwiddie intrusted to his young envwy a letter addressed to
the commander of the French forces on the Ohio, in which he demanded
of him his reasons for invading the territory of _Enggland while Great
Britain and France were at peace with each other. Washington was
instructed to observe carefully the numbers and positions of the French,
the strength of their forts, the nature of their communications with
Canada and with their various posts, and to endeavor to ascertain the
real designs of the French in occupying the Ohio valley, and the probabilities of their
' ASHINGTON S JO RN                being  vigorously
supported  from
Can ada. s Ye're
a braw lad," said
W,,'~;,inc         the                         gover, then a frontier por, as
cree, where               delivered the is
Wi~~ "ashi instructions                       to the
ey crossed the moung majoren couand
gin you play your
cards weel, my
boy, ye shall hae
naite cause to  rue
raines, over steep hills, and across streamb saolle  ith the recent rain."s,
Woogaela unite andSW form the Ohio. 0ashingto       n received his instruetions on the 30th of October, 1753, and on the same day set out for
Vinehester, then a frontier post, from which he proceeded to Wills'
creek, where he was to cross the mountains. Having secured the services of Christopher Gist as guide, and of twogreatly interpreters and four others,
Washington set out     on his journey about the  middle of  November.
They crossed the mountains, and journeyed through an unbroken country,
with no paths save the Indian trails to serve as guides, across rugged
ravines, over steep hills, and across streams swollen with the recent rains,
until in nine days they reached the point where the Alleghany and
Monongahela unite and form the Ohio. Washington carefully examined
the place, and was greatly impressed with the advantages offered for the
'location of a fort by the point of land at the junction of the two rivers.




FRENCH AND INDIAN WVAR.


339


The judgment expressed by him at the time was subsequently confirmed
by the choice of this spot by the French for one of their most important
posts-Fort Duquesne.
Washington hlad been ordered by the governor to proceed direct to
Logstown, where he was to hold an interview with the Delaware chief
known as the Half King, to acquaint the Indians with the nature of his
mission, and ascertain their disposition towards the English. While he
was at this place he met several French deserters from the posts on the
lower Ohio, who told him the location, number, and strength of the
French posts between Quebec and New Orleans by way of the Wabash
and the Maumee, and informed him of the intention of the French to
occupy the Olio from its head to its mouth with a similar chain of fbrts.
The Half King confirmed the story of the deserters. He had heard that
the French were coming with a strong force to drive the English out of
the land. A "grand talk " was held with the chiefs in council by Washington, and they answered him, by the Half King, that what he had said
was true; they were brothers, and would guard him on his way to the
nearest French post. They wished neither the English nor the French
to settle in their country; but as the French were the first intruders they
were willing to aid the English in their efforts to expel them. They
agreed to break off friendly relations with the French; but Washington,
who knew the Indian character well, was not altogether satisfied with
their promises.
On the 30th of November he set out from Logstown with his companions, attended by the Half Ring and three other Indians, and on the 4th
arrived at the French post at Venango. The officer in command of this
fort had no authority to receive his letter, and referred him to the Chevalier St. Pierre, the commander of the next post.  They treated the
English with courtesy, and invited Washington to sup with them. When
the wine was passed around they drank deeply and soon lost their discretion. The sober and vigilant Washington noted their words with great
attention, and recorded them in his diary  "They told me," he writes,
"that it was their absolute design to take possession of the Ohio, and, by
G-d, they would do it; for, that although they were sensible the
English could raise two men for their one, they knew their motions were
too slow and dilatory to prevent any undertaking of theirs. They pretend to have an undoubted right to the river, from a discovery made by
one La Salle sixty years ago; and the rise of this expedition is to prevent
our settling on the river or waters of it, as they heard of some families
moving out in order thereto."  The French officers then informed
Washington of their strength south of the lakes, and of the number and
location of their posts between Montreal and Venango.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The French exerted every stratagem to detach the Indians from Washington's party, an(l they met with enough success to justify Washington's
distrust of them. All had come to deliver up the French speech-belts, or,
in other words, to break off friendly relations with the French. The
Delaware chiefs wavered and failed to fulfil their promise; "but the
Half King clung to Washington like a brother, and delivered up his belt
as he had promised."
The party left Venango on the 7th of December, and reached Fort Le
Boeuf, the next post, on the 11th. It was a strong work, defended by
cannon, and near by Washington saw a number of canoes and boats, and
the materials for building others, sure indications that an expedition
down the river was about to be attempted. He obtained an interview
with St. Pierre, the commander, an officer of experience and integrity,
greatly beloved as well as feared by
the Indians. He received the young
/        - tenvoy with courtesy, but refused to?,z:i....~ z          discuss questions of right with him.
// ll                        " I am here," he said, "by the orders
i{' /X:    of my general, to which I shall con-?i                      I'll. form with exactness and resolution."
'       "        /ii?On the 14th St. Pierre delivered to
' Washington his answer to the letter of
'\,- -     Governor Dinwiddie, and next day the
party set out on its return. They
"'Q,                       descended French creek in canoes, at
"' ino little risk, as the stream was full
"",'-''<~  J^       of ice.   At Venango, which was
THE HALF RING.
horses, which were so feeble that it
was doubtful whether they would be able to make the journey home. "I
put myself in an Indian walking-dress," says Washington, "and continued
with them  three days, until I found there was no possibility of their
getting home in any reasonable time. The horses became less able to
travel every day; the cold increased very fast, and the roads were becoming much worse by a deep snow continually freezing; therefore, as I was
uneasy to get back to make report of my proceedings to his honor the
governor, I determined to prosecute my journey the nearest way through
the woods on foot."
Taking Gist as his only companion, and directing their way by the
compass, Washington set out on the 26th, by the nearest way across the
country, for the head of the Ohio. The next day an Indian who had




FRENCH AND INVDIAN WVAR.


lain 'in wait for them fired at Washington at a distance of only fifteen
steps, but missed him, and was made a prisoner by hini. Gist was anxious
to kill the savage on the spot, but Washington would not allow this,
and they kept the fellow until dark, and then released him. They travelled all night and all the next day in order to make sure of escaping
from the enemies they felt certain their freed captive would set upon
their trail.
At dark on the 28th they reached the Alleghany, and spent the
night on the banks of that stream. The next morning they set to work
with one poor hatchet to construct a raft, on which to pass the river,
which was fill of floating ice. They completed their raft about sunset,
Pi
WASHINGTON AND GIST CROSSING THE ALLEGHANY.
and launched it upon the stream. It was caught in the floating ice, and
Washington was hurled off into the water and nearly drowned. Unable
to reach the opposite shore, they made for an island in mid-stream, and
passed the night there. The cold was intense, and Gist had all his fingers
and several of his toes frozen. The next morning the river was a solid
mass of ice, hard enough to bear their weight. They at once crossed to
the opposite bank and continued their journey, and on the 16th of
January, 1754, were at Williamsburg, where Washington delivered to
the governor of Virginia the reply of the French commander, and
reported the results of his journey.
The French commander returned a courteous but evasive answer to
Governor Dinwiddie's communication, and referred him for a definite




342


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


settlement of the matter to the Marquis Duquesne, the governor of
Canada. It was clear from the tone of his letter that he meant to hold
on to the territory he had occupied, and the governor of Virginia was
satisfied from Major Washington's report of his observations that St.
'Pierre was about to extend the line of French posts down the Ohio.
The authorities of Virginia resolved to anticipate him, and in the spring
of 1754 the Ohio Company sent a force of about forty men to build a
fort at the head of. the Ohio, on the site to which Washington had called
attention.
In the meantime, measures were set on foot in Virginia for the protection of the frontiers. A regiment of troops was ordered to be raised,
and it was the general wish that Major Washington should be appointed
to the command. He declined the commission when tendered him, on
the ground of his youth and inexperience, and was made lieutenantcolonel, the command of the regiment being conferred upon Colonel Joshua
Fry. Washington was ordered to repair to the west to take charge of
the defence of the frontiers, and in April, 1754, reached Wills' creek
with three companies of his regiment.
Just at this moment news arrived that the party sent to build a fort at
the head of the Ohio had been driven away by the French. A force of
one thousand men, with artillery, under Captain Coutrecceur, had
descended the Alleghany and had surrounded the English. One hour was
given them to surrender, and being utterly unable to offer any resistance,
they capitulated upon condition of being allowed to retire to Virginia.
Immediately upon the withdrawal of the English the French forces occupied the unfinished work, completed it, and named it Fort Duquesne.
This was a more important act than either party believed it at the time.
It was the beginning of the final struggle by which the power of France
in America was broken. In the history of Europe this struggle is known
as the Seven Years' War; in our own history as the French and Indian
War
Hostilities were now inevitable, and Washington, who was on his
march to the Ohio when the news of the aggression of the French was
received, resolved to push forward without delay. Colonel Fry had
fallen sick, and the direction of affairs on the border had passed entirely
into the hands of the young lieutenant-colonel. He intended to proceed
to the junction of Red Stone creek and the Monongahela, the site occupied by the present town of Brownsville, to erect a fort there, and hold
it until he could be reinforced. His force was poorly provided with
clothing and tents, and was deficient in miiitary supplies of all kinds.
The country to be traversed was a wild, unbroken region, without roads




F1EN~CH AND INDIAN WAR.


343


ot bridges, and through it the artillery and wagons were to be transported. The little force moved slowly and with difficulty, and Wash.
ington pushed on in advance with a small detachment, intending to secure
the position on the Monongahela and await the arrival of the main body,
when the whole force could descend the river in flat-boats to Fort
Duquesne.
On the 20th of May he reached the Youghiogheny and there received
a message from his ally, the Half King, telling him that the French
were in heavy force at Fort Duquesne. This report was confirmed at
the Little Meadows by the traders, and by another message from the
Half King on the 25th of May, warning Washington that a force of
French and Indians had left Fort Duquesne on a secret expedition.
Washington was sure that this expedition was destined to attack him, and
advanced to the Great Meadows and took position there. On the morning of the 27th Gist arrived and reported that he had seen the trail of
the French within five miles of the Great Meadows. In the evening of
the same day a runner came in from the Half King, and with a message
that the French were close at hand. Taking with him forty men,
Washington set off for the Half King's camp, and by a difficult nightmarch through a tangled forest in the midst of a driving rain, reached it
about daylight. The runners of the Half King found the French encamped in a deep glen not far distant, and it was decided to attack them
at once. The Half King and his warriors placed themselves under
Washington's orders, and the march was resumed towards the French
camp. The French were surprised, and an action of about a quarter of
an hour ensued. The French lost ten men killed, among whom was their
commander, Jumonville, and twenty-one prisoners. This was the first
blood shed on the American continent in the long struggle which won
America for the free institutions of the Anglo-Saxon race.
Washington was very anxious to follow up the advantage he had
gained, and had already appealed to the governors of Maryland and
Pennsylvania for assistance, but no aid reached him. Unable to advance
in the face of the rapidly increasing forces of the French, he threwv up a
stockade fort at Great Meadows, which he named Fort Necessity, from
the fact that the provisions of the troops were so nearly exhausted that
the danger of a famine was imminent. On the 3d of July six hundred
French and one hundred Indians suddenly appeared before the fort and
occupied the hills surrounding it. The attacking party were able to
shelter themselves behind:ttees and could command the fort from their
safe position, while the English were greatly exposed, and it was evident
t6 the most inexperienced that the fort was untenable. Nevertheless, the




344


HtISTORY OF THlE UNITED ST.ITES.


work was held for nine hours under a heavy fire, and amid the discomforts of a severe rain-storm. At length De Villiers, the French commander, fearing that his ammunition would be exhausted, proposed a
parley and offered terms to Washington. The English had lost thirty
killed and the French but three. The terms of capitulation proposed by
De Villiers were interpreted to Washington, who did not understand
French, and in consequence of the interpretation, which was made by "a
Dutchman little acquainted with the English tongue," Washington and
his officers "were betrayed into a pledge which they would never have
consented to give, and an act of moral suicide which they could never
have deliberately committed. They understood from Vanbraam's interpretation, that no fort was to be built beyond the mountains on lands belonging to the King of France; but the terms of the articles are, ' neither
in this pla(ce nor beyond the mountains.'"  The Virginians were allowed
to march out of the fort with the honors of war, retaining their arms and
all tlheir stores, but leaving their artillery  This they did on the next
morning, July 4th, 1754. The march across the mountains was rendered
painful by the lack of provisions, and after much suffering the troops
arrived at Fort Cumnberland in Maryland. Although the expedition had
been unsuccessful, the conduct of Washington had been marked by so
much prudence and good judgment that he received the thanks of the
general assembly of Virginia.
Governor Dinwiddie had already thrown many obstacles in the way of
the defence of the colony, and he now refused to reward the provincial
officers with the promotions they had so well earned. In order to avoid
this he dissolved the Virginia regiment, and reorganized it into independent companies, no officer of which was to have a higher rank than
that of captain. It was also ordered that officers holding commissions
from the king should take precedence of those holding commissions from
the colonial government. Washington, feeling that he could no longer
remain in the service with self-respect, resigned his commission and withdrew to Mount Vernon. Soon afterwards Governor Sharpe, of Maryland, having been appointed by the king commander-in-cllief of the forqes.of the southern colonies, proposed to Washington, through a friend, to
return to the army and accept the rank of colonel, but with the actual
authority of a captain. Washington declined the offer with characteristic
dignity  " If you think me," he wrote, " capable of holding a commission that has neither rank nor emolument annexed to it, you must maintain a very contemptible opinion of my weakness, and believe me more
lmp)ty than thle commission itself."
In the meantime, although peace still remained nominally unbroken




FREXCH AND INDIAN WAR.


345


between England and France, each nation was perfectly convinced of the
certainty of a conflict in America, and each began to prepare for it.
France sent large reinforcements to Canada, and the English went on
rapidly with their plans for the conquest of that country  The British
government was very anxious that the colonies should bear the brunt of
the struggle, though it was fully determined to send a royal army to their
assistance, and urged upon them to unite in some plan for their common
defence.
For the purpose of carrying out the wishes of the home government a
convention of delegates from seven of the colonies assembled at Albany,
New York, on the 19th of June, 1754. " The Virginia government was
represented by the presiding officer, Delancey, the lieutenant-governor
of New York;" but New
Hampshire, Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut,
New York, and Maryland
were represented by their
own delegates. The first ob- /
ject of this convention was to
secure the friendship of the
powerful confederacy of the
Six Nations, on the northern
border, and this was suc-                      rin fm
cessfully accomplished.men of
The leading  man of this                d    H
convention  was Benjamini
Franklin.  He was a native
of Boston, and the son of a
tallow chandler. While stillnexperienced in
a youth he had removed to
Philadelphia, and by the force of his own genius had risen from poverty
and obscurity to great prominence among the public men of Pennsylvania, and the literary and scientific men of his day. He had chosen the
avocation of a printer; and by his industry, energy, and integrity had
accumulated property enough to make him independent.    He was
among the most active men in America in promoting the advancement
of literary, scientific, and benevolent institutions, and had already won a
world-wide reputation by his discoveries in science, and especially by his
investigations in electricity and lightning. He was not inexperienced in
public affairs. He had served as clerk to the general assembly of Pennsylvania, as postmaster of Philadelphia, as a member of the provincial




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


assembly of Pennsylvania, and in 1753 had been appointed by the king
postmaster-general of the American colonies. In each of these positions
he had served with distinction, and now, at the ripe age of forty-eight,
he had come to take part in the most important convention ever held in
America.
Franklin had long been of the opinion that the true interests of the
colonies required their union in all measures relating to their common
welfare. Believing that the force of circumstances would soon drive them
into such a union, le sought to accomplish that end through the medium
of this convention. Accordingly he presented to the convention a plan
for the union of all the American colonies, which union he intended
should be perpetual. He proposed that while each colony should retain
the separate and independent control of its own affairs, all should unite
in a perpetual union for the management of their general affairs. This
confederacy was to be controlled by a general government to consist of a
governor-general and a council. The seat of the federal government was to
be Philadelphia, which city he regarded as central to all the colonies. The
governor-general was to be appointed and paid by the king, and was to have
the power of vetoing all laws which should seem to him objectionable.
The members of the council weere to be elected triennially by the colonial
legislatures, and were to be apportioned among the colonies according to
their respective population. " The governor-general was to nominate military officers, subject to the advice of the council, which, in turn, was to
nominate all civil officers. No money was to be issued but by their joint
order, Each colony was to retain its domestic constitution; the federal
government was to regulate all relations of peace or war with the Indians, affairs of trade, and purchases of lands not within the bounds of
particular colonies; to establish, organize, and temporarily to govern new
settlements; to raise soldiers, and equip vessels of force on the seas,
rivers, or lakes; to make laws, and levy just and equal taxes. The
grand council were to meet once a year to chose their own speaker, and
neither to be dissolved nor prorogued, nor continue sitting longer than
six weeks at any one time, but by their own consent."
This plan met with considerable opposition, was thoroughly discussed,
and was finally adopted by the convention. It was not altogether acceptable to the colonies, each of which dreaded that the establishment of a
central government would result in the destruction of the liberties of the
individual provinces. Connecticut promptly rejected itr, New York received it with coldness, and Massachusetts showed a more active opposition
to it. Upon its reception in England it was at once thrown aside by the
royal government. The union proposed by the plan was too perfect, and




FRENCIH. AD INDIAN WAR.


347,would make America practically independent of Great Britain, and so
the board of trade did not even bring it before the notice of the king.
Franklin regarded the failure of his plan of union with great regret.
In after years he wrote: " The colonies so united would have been sufficiently strong to defend themselves. There would then have been no
need of troops from England; of course the subsequent pretext for taxing America, and the bloody contest it occasioned, w uld have been
avoided. But such mistakes are iiot new; history is full of the errors of,states and princes."
The plan for the union of the colonies having failed, the British government resolved to take into its own hands the task of carrying on the
war, with such assistance as the colonies might be willing to afford. A
million of pounds was voted for the defence of the British possessions in
America, and four strong fleets were sent to sea, together with numerous
privateers, which nearly destroyed the French West Indian trade. In
1755 Major-General Edward Braddock was appointed commander-inchief of the English forces in America. He had served under the Duke
of Cumberland, in his expedition into Scotland against the Pretender
Charles Edward, in 1746, and was regarded as one of the most promising
officers in his majesty's service. Braddock sailed from Cork, in Ireland,
early in January, 1755, and on the 20th of February arrived at Alexandria, in Virginia. He was soon followed by two regiments of infantry,
consisting of five hundred men each, the largest force of regulars Great
Britain had ever assembled in America.
A conference of the colonial governors with the new commander-inchief was held at Alexandria, and a plan of campaign was decided upon.
Four expeditions were to be despatcied against the French. The first,
under Braddock in person, was to advance upon Fort Duquesne; the
second, under Governor Shirley of Massachusetts, was to attempt the
capture of Fort Niagara; the third, under William John, the Indian
agent among the Mohawks, and a man of great influence over them, was
to be directed against Crown Point; and the fourth was to capture the
French posts near the head of the Bay of Fundy, and expel the French
from Acadia.
It was now evident that the war was about to commence in good
earnest, and the colonies exerted themselves to support the efforts of the
mother country to the extent of their ability.
General Braddock was thoroughly proficient in the theory of his profession, but his experience of actual warfare had been limited to a single
campaign, and that a brief one. He possessed the entire confidence of
his superiors in England, and his faith in hinself was boundless. He




348


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


believed that the regulars of the British army were capable of accomplishing any task assigned them, and entertained a thorough contempt for
the provincial troops that were to form a part of his command. Soon
after his arrival il Virginia he offered Washington a position on his staff
as aid-de-camp, with the rank of colonel, which was promptly accepted.
Had General Braddock been a different man the presence of Washington
in his military family might have been of the greatest service to him, for
the experience of the young colonel would have made him an invaluable
counsellor. Braddock was in a strange country, and was charged with


WILLS CREEK NARROWS, MD.
th A conduct of a campaign in which the ordinary rules of warfare as
prtctised in Europe could not be adhered to. He knew nothing of the
difficulties of marching his army through a tangled wilderness and over
a mountain range of the first magnitude. Unfortunately for him he was
not aware of his ignorance, and would neither ask for nor listen to advice
or information upon the subject. "He was, I think, a brave man," says
Franklin, "and might probably have made a figure as a good officer in
some European war. But lie had too much self-confidence, too high an
opinion of the validity of regular troops, and too mean a one of both




FRENCH AND INDIAN AIIR.


349


Americans and Indians." During on. of his interviews with him Franklin undertook to impress upon him the necessity of guarding against the
danger of Indian ambuscades.   ' He smiled at my ignorance," says
Franklin, and replied: 'These savages may indeed be a formidable
enemy to your raw American militia; but upon the king's regular and
disciplined troops, sir, it is impossible they should make any impression. "'
The army assembled at Wills' creek, to which place General Braddock
repaired in his coach. The bad roads had put him in a passion, and had
broken his coach, and he was in no mood upon his arrival to pursue a
sensible course. He was advised to employ Indians as scouts on the
march, or to use them to protect a force of Pennsylvanians who were
making a road over the mountains for the passage of the army, but he
refused to do either  Washingtoll urged him to abandon his wagon-train,
to use pack-horses in place of these vehicles, and to move with as little
baggage as possible. Braddock ridiculed this suggestion. Neither he
nor any of his officers would consent to be separated fromn their cumbrous
baggage, or to dispense with any of the luxuries they had been used to.
A month was lost at Wills' (reek, and in June the army began its
march. It was greatly impeded by the difficulty of dragging the wagons
and artillery over roads filled with the stumps of trees and with rocks.
Such little progress was made that Braddock, greatly disheartened, privately asked Washington to advise him what to do. As it was known
that the garrison at Fort Duquesne was small, Washington advised him
to hasten forward with a division of the army in light marching order,
and seize the fort before reinforcements could arrive from Canada. Braddock accordingly detached a division of twelve hundred men and ten
pieces of cannon, with a train of pack-horses to carry the baggage, and
pushed on in advance with them, leaving Colonel Dunbar to bring up
the main division as promptly as possible. A famous hunter and Indianfighter named Captain Jack, who was regarded as the most experienced
man in savage warfare in the colonies, now offered his services and those
of his men to Braddock to act as scouts. Braddock received him with
frigid courtesy, and refused his offer, saying that he " had experienced
troops upon whom he could rely for all purposes."
Instead of pushing on with energy with his advance division, Braddock
moved very slowly, gaining but a little more than three miles a day.
"They halt," wrote Washington, "to level every mole hill and to erect
a bridge over every brook."  On the 8th of July the army reached the
east bank of the Monongahela, about fifteen miles above Fort Duquesne,
having taken about double the necessary time in the march from Wills'




HIISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


creek. On the same day, Washington, who had been ill for some days,
and was still unwell, rejoined Braddock.
Early on the morning of the 9th of July the march was resumed.
The Monongahela was forded a short distance below the mouth of the
Youghiogheny, and the advance continued along the southern bank of
that river. About noon the Monongahela was forded again, and the
army was planted upon the strip of land between the rivers which form
the Ohio. Washington was well convinced that the French and Indians
were informed of the movements of the army, and would seek to interfere
with it before its arrival before the fort, which was only ten miles distant,
and urged Braddock to throw in advance the Virginia Rangers, three
hundred strong, as they were experienced Indian fighters.  Braddock
angrily rebuked his aide, and as if to make the rebuke more pointed,
ordered the Virginia troops and other provincials to take position in the
rear of the regulars. The general was fully convinced of the ability of
his trained troops to take care of themselves. They made a gallant show
as they marched along with their gay uniforms, their burnished arms and
flying colors, and their drums beating a lively march.  Washington
could not repress his admiration at the brilliant sight, nor his anxiety for
the result.
In the meantime the French at Fort Duquesne had been informed by
their scouts of Braddock's movements, and had resolved to ambuscade
him on his march. Early on the morning of the 9th a force of about
two hundred and thirty French and Canadians and six hundred and
thirty-seven Indians, under De Beaujeu, the commandant at Fort
Duquesne, was despatched with orders to occupy a designated spot and
attack the enemy upon their approach. Before reaching it, about two
o'clock in the afternoon, they encountered the advanced force of the
English army, under Lieutenant-Colonel Thomas Gage, and at once
attacked them with spirit.
The English army at this moment was moving along a narrow road
about twelve feet in width, with scarcely a scout thrown out in advance
or upon the flanks. The engineer who was locating the road was the
first to discover the enemy, and called out "French and Indians!"
Instantly a heavy fire was opened upon Gage's force, and his indecision
allowed the French and Indians to seize a commanding ridge, from which
they maintained their attack with spirit. There, concealed among the
trees, they were almost invisible to the English, who were fully exposed
to their fire, as they occupied a broad ravine, covered with low shrubs,
immediately below the eminence held by the French.
The regulars were quickly thrown into confusion by the heavy fire and




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


351


the fierce yells of the Indians, who could nowhere be seen, and their
losses were so severe and sudden that they became panic-stricken. They
were ordered to charge up the hill and drive the French from their cover,
but refused to move, and in their terror fired at random into the woods.
In the meantime the Indians were rapidly spreading along the sides of
the ravine and continuing their fire from their cover among the trees
with fearful accuracy. The advance of the English was driven back, and
it crowded upon the second division in utter disorder. A reinforcement
of eight hundred men under Colonel Burton arrived at this moment, but
only to add to the confusion. The French pushed their lines forward
now and increased the disorder of the English, who had by this time lost
nearly all their officers. Braddock now came up, and gallantly exerted
himself to restore order, but "the king's regulars and disciplined troops"
were so utterly demoralized that not one of his commands was obeyed.
The only semblance of resistance maintained by the English was by
the Virginia Rangers, whom Braddock had insulted at the beginning of
the day's march.
Immediately upon
the commencement
of the battle they
had  adopted the e
tactics of the In-s
dians, and   had
thrown themselves
behind trees, from
which shelter they
were rapidly pick-              BRADDOCKI'S DEFEAT.
ing off the Indians.
Washington entreated Braddock to allow the regulars to follow the
example of the Virginians, but he refused, and stubbornly endeavored to
form them in platoons under the fatal fire that was being poured upon
them by their hidden assailants. Thus through his obstinacy many
useful lives were needlessly thrown away. The officers did not share the
panic of the men, but behaved with the greatest gallantry. They were
the especial marks of the Indian sharpshooters, and many of them were
killed or wounded. Two of Braddock's aides were seriously wounded,
and their duties devolved upon Washington in addition to his own. He
passed repeatedly over the field carrying the orders of the commander
and encouraging the men. When sent to bring up the artillery, he found
it surrounded by Indians, its commander, Sir Peter Halket, killed, and
the men standing helpless from fear. Springing from  his horse he




IIISTOR Y OF THIE UNITED STA TES.


appealed to the men to save the guns, pointed a field piece and discharged
it at the savages, and entreatedl the gunners to rally. lie could accomplish nothing iby either llis vords or example. The men deserted the
guns and fled. In a letter to lhis brother, Washington.wrote: "I had
four bullets through my coat, two horses shot under me, yet escaped
unhurt, though death was levelling my companions on every side
around me." *
Braddock had five horses shot under him, and at length himself
received a mortal
t                          r egwound. As lie fell,
_ ---- _ _    =Captain Stewart, of
_- ___ _5                        the Virginia troops,
___-:.-:-caughlt him  in his
d -e                                 arms. IHe was borne
-l he    fterom the field, though
ll   he begged to be left
to die on the scene
of his defeat.  His
fall was fortunate for
the army, which it
g,i                           saved from destruction. The order was
'        p       given to fall black,
and  the "regulars
fled like sheep before
the hounds."   The
French and Indians
pressed forward in
pursuit, and all would
have been lost had
not the Virginia
Rangers themselves
been in thie rear, and
RETREAT OF BRADDOCX'S ARMIIY.       covered the flight of
the regulars with a
determination which checked the pursuers. The artillery, wagons, and
all the camp train were abandoned, and the savages, stopping to plunder
these, allowed the fugitives to recross the river in safety.


* Washington attributed his wonderful escape from even a wound to the overruling
providence of God. The Indians regarded the matter in the same light. About fifteen
years after the battle, while examining some lands near the mouth of the Great Kanawha




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


353


Having seen the general as comfortable as circumstances would permit,
Washington rode all that night and the next day to Dunbar's camp to
procure wagons for the wounded and soldiers to guard them. With
these he hastened back to the fugitives.
Braddock, unable to ride or to endure the jolting of a wagon, was
carried in a litter as far as the Great Meadows.  He seemed to be heartbroken and rarely spoke. Occasionally he would sayv as if speaking to
himself, with a deep sigh, "Who would have thought it?"       It is said
that he warmly thanked Captain Stewart for his care and kindness, and
apologized to Washington for the manner in which he had received his
advice. He had no wish to live, and he died at Fort Necessity on the
night of the 13th of July    He was buried the next morning before
daybreak as secretly as possible for fear that the savages might lind and
violate his grave.  Close by the national road, about a mile west of Fort
Necessity, a pile of stones still marks his resting-place.
The losses of the English in the battle were terrible.  Out of eightysix officers, twenty-six were killed and thirty-six wounded.  Upward of
seven hundred of the regulars were killed or wounded.    The Virginia
Rangers had suffered terrible losses, for they had not only borne the
brunt of the battle, but had lost many of their number by the random
fire of the frightened regulars.  Dunbar, who succeeded Braddock in the
command, still had fifteen hundred effective men left to him; but he was
too badly frightened to attempt to retrieve the disaster, which a competent officer might have done with such a force. He broke up his camp,
destroyed his stores, and retreated beyond the mountains.  Disregarding
the entreaties of the colonists not to leave the frontiers exposed to the
savages, he continued his retreat to Philadelphia, and went into winter
quarters there.
The effect of these reverses upon the colonists was most marked.
When they understood that Braddock's splendid force of disciplined
regulars had been routed by a mere handful of French and Indians, their
respect for the invincibility of British troops was destroyed; and their
confidence In their own prowess was greatly increased by the proud
reflection that the only thing that had been done to save the army of
Braddock from   total destruction had been accomplished by the provinriver, Washington was visited by an old chief. The chief told him "he was present at the
battle, and among the Indian allies of the French; that he singled him out, and repeatedly
fired his rifle at him; that he also ordered his young warriors to make him their only
mark; but that on finding all their bullets turned aside by some invisible and inscrutable
interposition, he was convinced that the hero at whom he had so often and so truly aimed
must be, for some wise purpose, specially protected by the Great Spirit. He now came,
therefore, to testify his veneration."
23




354


IIISTO RY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


cials. Washington's conduct was a subject of praise in all the colonies,
and brought his name conspicuously before the whole people of America.
In a si.rmon preached a few months after Braddock's defeat, the Rev.
Samluel Davies, a learned clergyman, spoke of him as " that heroic youth,
Colonel Washington, whom I cannot but hope Providence has hitherto
preserved in so signal a manner for some important service to his
country."
The retreat of Dunbar left the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania
at the mercy of the savages, who maintained a desultory but destructive
wEale along the entire border  The defence of this exposed region was


~iA              i
'         '  't'','t       ',,'it~!'' I
URNG OF      ANNING BY GENERAL ARSTRONG.
BUR.NiNG OF KITTANNING BY GENERAL ARMSTRONG.


intrusted to Colonel Washington; but he had so few men as to make his
undertaking a hopeless one. The frontier settlements of Virginia were
destroyed; the beautiful valley of the Shenandoah was ravaged with
merciless fury, and the more protected regions were kept in a state of
constant uneasiness and alarm.  Governor Dinwiddie was repeatedly
appealed to to furnish more men, but refused, and endeavored to excuse
his delinquency by saying: "We dare not part with any of our white
men to any distance, as we must have a watchful eye over our negro
slaves."
Pennsylvania met the troubles with greater vigor and resolution.




FRENCt I AND INDIAN W'AR.


About thirty miles above Fort Duquesne, on the Alleghany river, was
the Indian village of Kittanning, the home of a noted chief named
Captain Jacobs. Together with the Delaware chief Shingis, he had, at
the instigation of the French, kept up a continual warfare upon the
frontier settlements. A military force for the defence of the frontier was
raised by the colony and placed under the command of Benjamni n Franklin as colonel. He soon resigned, and was succeeded by Colonel John
Armstrong, a man better suited to the position, and who subsequently
became a major-general in the war of the Revolution.   Armstrong
resolved to destroy Kittanning and the tribe inhabiting it as the best
means of putting a stop to their outrages, and called for volunteers for
the enterprise. Three hundred men responded. Towards the last of
September, 1756, they crossed the mountains on horseback, and in a few
days reached the vicinity of Kittanning. Dismounting and le:lving their
horses in charge of a guard, they silently surrounded the village. The
Indians spent the night in carousing within hearing of the whites, and
retired to rest at a very late hour. Just before daybreak the whites
attacked the village and set it on fire. It was completely destroyed, and
Jacobs and all but a handful of his men were slain. The few survivors
fled farther west, and the Pennsylvania frontier was relieved of the sufferings it had so long endured.




CHAPTER XXIII.


TIlE FRENCH AND INDIkN WAR-CONTINUED.
'txpeldition against Acadia-Brutal Treatment of the Acadiar.s-They are Expelled from
tlheir Country-A Sad Story-Fate of the Acadians-Johnson at Lake George-March
of Dieskau-Battle of Lake George-Failure of Shirley's Expedition-Arrival of the
Earl of Loudon-Montcalm in Canada-Capture of Oswego by the French-Outrages
of the Earl of Loudon upon New York and Philadelphia —Expedition against Louis
burg-How the Earl of Loudon Beat the French-Capture of Fort William Henry by
Montcalm-Massacre of the Prisoners by the Indians-Efforts of Montcalm to save them
-The Royal Officers attempt to cover their Failures by outraging the Colonies.
P G)
l  HILE   the events we have related were transpiring in the Ohio
G1      valley other exped(itions were despatched against the French.
One of these was directed against that part of Acadia, or Nova
Scotia, which still remained in the hands of the French. It lay
at the head of the Bay of Fundy, and was defended by two
French forts.   This region was the oldest French colony in North
America, having been settled sixteen years before the landing of the Pilgrims, but was regarded by the English as within their jurisdiction. In
May, 1755, an expedition of three thousand New England troops was
desl)ptched from  Boston, under Colonel John Winslow, to attack these
forts and establish the English authority over the French settlements.
Upon reaching the Bay of Fundy Winslow was joined by three hundred
English regulars under Colonel Monckton, who assumed the command.
The forts were taken with comparatively little effort, and the authority
of England was extended over the whole of Nova Scotia. The Acadians
agreed to acknowledge the authority of their new masters, and to observe
a strict neutrality between France and England in the war; and the
English on their part promised not to require of them the usual oaths of
allegiance, to excuse them from bearing arms against France, and to protect them in the exercise of the Catholic religion.
The Acadians numbered about seventeen thousand souls. They were
a simple and harmless people, and were enjoying in a marked degree the
blessings of industry and thrift. They had begun their settlements by
depending upon the fur-trade and the fisheries for their support, but had
abandoned these pursuits for that of agriculture, which was already
3.56




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


0.5 7


yielding them rich rewards for their skill and labor  They were proud
of their farms and took but little interest in public affairs, scarcely knowing what was transpiring in the world around them. It is hard to
imagine a more peaceful or a happier colunlnity than this one at the
time they passed under the baleful rule of England. Crime was unknown
among them, and they seldom carried their disputes before the English
magistrates, but settled them by the arbitration of their old men. They
encouraged early marriages as the best means of preserving the mlorality
of their people; and when a young man married, his neighbors turned
out in force and built him a house, and for the first year of his marriage
aided him to establish himself firmly, while tlle bride's relatives helped
her to furnish the home thus prepared. Thus the people were taugllt to
regard and practise neighborly kindness as one of the cardinal Christian
virtues. They were devoted Catholics, and practised their religion without bigotry  They were attached to the rule of France by langu1agec and
religion, and would have been glad to see her authority re-estal)lished
over thenl; but tlhc submitted peacefully to the rule of the English and
faithfully observed the terms of their surrender.
Unfortunately for the Acadians their possessions soon began to excite
tlhe envy of the English. Lawrence, the governor of Nova Scotia, expressed this feeling in his letter to Lord Halifax, the English premier.
"They possess the best and largest tract of land in this province," he
wrote; " if thev refuse the oaths, it would be much better that they were
away"   The English authorities had prepared a cunningly devised
scheme for dispossessing these simple people of their homes, and they
now proceeded to put it in execution. The usual oaths of allegiance had
not been tendered to the Acadians upon their surrender, as it was known
that as Frenchmen and Catholics they could not take them, as they
required them to bear arms against their ow n brethren in Canada, and to
make war upon their religion. It was resolved now to offer the oaths to
them, and thus either drive them into rebellion or force them to abandon
their homes. When this intention was known, the priests urged them to
refuse the oaths. " Better surrender your meadows to the sea," they doclared, "and your houses to the flames, than, at the peril of your souls,
take the oath of allegiance to the British government."  As for the
Acadians themselves, "they, from their very simplicity and anxious sincerity, were uncertain in their resolves; now gathering courage to flee
beyond the isthmus, for other homes in New France, and now yearning
for their own houses and fields, their herds and pastures."
The officers sent by the English authorities to enforce their demands
conducted themselves with a haughtiness and cruelty which added greatly




358


HISTORY Of THE UNITED STATES.


to the sorrows of the Acadians. Their titles to their lands were declared
null and void, and all their papers and title-deeds were taken from them.
Their property was taken for the public service without compensation,
and if they failed to furnish wood at the times required, the English
soldiers "might take their houses for fuel."  Their guns were seized, and
they were deprived of their boats on the pretext that they might be used
to communicate with the French in Canada. At last, wearied out with
these oppressions, the Acadians offered to swear allegiance to Great
Britain. This, however, formed no part of the plan of their persecutors,
and they were answered, that by a British statute persons who had been
once offered the oaths, and who had refused them, could not be permitted
to take them, but must be treated as Popish recusants.
This brought matters to a crisis, and the English now resolved to strike
the decisive blow  A proclamation was issued, requiring " the old men,
and voung men, as well as all lads over ten years of age," to assemble on
the 5th of September, 1755, at a certain hour, at designated places in
their respective districts, to hear the "wishes of the king."  In the
greater number of places the order was obeyed. What happened at the
village of Grand Prd, the principal settlement, will show the course pursued by the English in all the districts. Four hundred and eighteen of
the men of the place assembled. They were unarmed, and were marched
into the church, which was securely guarded. Winslow, the New England
commander, then addressed them as follows: "You are convened together
to manifest to you his majesty's final resolution to the French inhabitants
of this his province. Your lands and tenements, cattle of all kinds, and
live stock of all sorts, are forfeited to the crown, and you yourselves are
to be removed from this his province. I am, through his majesty's
goodness, directed to allow you liberty to carry off your money and household goods, as many as you can, without discommoding the vessels you
go in."  He then declared them, together with their wives and children,
a total of nineteen hundred and twenty-three souls, the king's prisoners.
The announcement took the unfortunate men by surprise, and filled them
with the deepest indignation; but they were unarmed, and unable to resist. They were held close prisoners in the church, and their homes,
which they had left in the morning full of hope, were to see them no
more. They were kept without food for themselves or their children
that day, and were poorly fed ldurinu the remainder of their captivity.
They were held in confinement unt l tile 10th of September, when it w.is
announced that the vessels were in readiness to carry them away. They
were not to be allowed to join their brethren in Canada lest they should
serve as a reinforcement to the French in that province, but were to be




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


3)09


scattered as paupers through the English colonies, among people of
another race and a different faith.
On the morning of the 10th, the captives were drawn up six deep.
The English, intending to make their trial as bitter and as painful as
possible, had resolved upon the barbarous measure of separating the
families of their victims. The young men and boys were driven at the
point of the bayonet from the church to the ship and compelled to embark. They passed amid the rows of their mothers and sisters, who,
kneeling, prayed heaven to bless and keep them. Then the fathers anti
husbands were forced by the bayonet on board of another ship, and as tihe
vessels were now full, the women and children were left behind until
more ships could come for them. They were kept for weeks near the
sea, suffering greatly from  lack of proper shelter and food, and it was
December before the last of them were removed. Those who tried to
escape were ruthlessly shot down by the sentinels. " Our soldiers hate
them," wrote an English officer, "and if they can but find a pretext to
kill them they will."
In some of the settlements the designs of the English were suspected
and the proclamation was not heeded. Some of the people fled to
Canada; others sought shelter with the Indians, who received them with
kindness; others still fled to the woods, hoping to hide there till the
storm was over. The English at once proceeded to lay waste their
homes; the country was made desolate in order that the fugitives might
be compelled through starvation to surrender themselves.
Seven thousand Acadians were torn from their homes and scattered
among the English colonies on the Atlantic coast, from New Hampshire
to Georgia. Families were utterly broken up, never to be re-united.
The colonial newspapers for many years were filled with mournful advertisements, inquiring for a lost husband or wife; parents sought their
missing children, and children their parents in this way  But of all
these inquiries few were answered. The exiles were doomed to a parting
worse than death, and their captors had done their work so well tlat
human ingenuity could not undo it. Some of those who had been carried
to Georgia attempted to return to their homes. They escaped to sea in
boats, and coasted from point to point northward, until they reached New
England, when they were sternly ordered back. Their homes were their
own no longer.
More than three thousand Acadians fled to Canada, and of these about
fifteen hundred settled south of the Ristigouche. Upon the surrender of
Canada they were again subjected to the persecutions of the English.
Once those who dwelt in Pennsylvania presented a humble petition to




360


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the Earl of Loudon, then the British commander-in-chief in America;
and tile cold-hearted peer, offendcd that the prayer was made in French,
seized tllcir five principal men, who in their own land had been persons
of dignity and substance, and shipped them to England, with the request
that they might be kept from ever again becoming troublesome by being
consigned to service as common sailors on board ships of war. No doubt
existed of the king's approbation. The lords of trade, more merciless
than the savages and than the wilderness in winter, wished very much
that every one of the Acadians should be driven out; and when it seemed


SCENE ON THE COLORADO.
SCENE oN THE COLOR.ADO.


that the work was done, congratulated the king that 'the zealous endeavors
of Lawrence had been crowned with an entire success.' I know not if
the annals of the human race keep the record of sorrows so wantonly inflicted, so bitter and so perennial, as fell upon the French inhabitants of
Acadia.  'We have been true,' they said of themselves, 'to our religion,
and true to ourselves; yet nature appears to consider us only as the objects of public vengeance.' The hand of the English official seemed
lnd(ler a spell with regard to them; and was never uplifted but to curse
tlhlm."' *
* Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. iv., p. 206.




FRENVCH AND INDIAN WAR.


C)G


While these sorrows were being heaped upon the helpless Acadians l,,
England the provincial forces were serving the cause elsewhere with
more credit to their manhood. As lias been stated the expedition against
the French fort at Crown Point, on Lake Champlain, had been intrusted
to General William Johnson. His army consisted principally of troops
from Massachusetts and Connecticut. They were joined at Albany by a
regiment from New Hampshire. The troops rendezvoused at the head
of boat navigation, on the Hudson, in July, 1755, under the command
of General Lyman. They numbered about six thousand men. A fort
was built and named by the troops, in honor of their commander, Fort
Lyman. In August Johnson arrived with the stores and artillery, and
assumed the command of the expedition. He ungenerously changed the
name of the fort to Fort Edward. Leaving a strong force to garrison it
he moved with five thousand men to the head of Lake George, from
which he intended to descend the lake in boats.
The French had been informed of Johnson's movements by tlheir
scouts. Baron Dieskau, the governor of Canada, placed the entire armsbearing population of the Montreal district in the field, and resolved to
prevent Johnson from reaching Crown Point by attacking him in his own
country   With a force of two hundred French regulars, and about
one thousand two hundred Indians, he set out across the country to attack
Fort Edward. Upon arriving in the vicinity of the fort the Indians
learned that it was defended by artillery, of which they were greatly
afraid, and refused to attack it. Dicskau was, therefore, compelled to
change his plan, and resolved to strike a blow at Johnson's camp, which
lie was informed was without cannon.
In the meantime the scouts of the English had detected the movement
against Fort Edward. Ignorant of the change in Dieskau's plans Johnson sent a force of one thousand men, under Colonel Ephraim Williams
of Massachusetts, and two hundred Mohawks, under their famous chief
Hendrick, to the relief of the fort. Their march was reported to tlhe
French, who placed themselves in ambush along the road they were pursuing, and attacked them as soon as they had fairly entered the defile.
The English were at once thrown into confusion. Hendrick was shot
down at the first fire, and Williams fell a few moments later. The English and Mohawks then began a rapid retreat to their camp, closely
pursued by tlheir assailants.
The sound of the firing was soon heard in Johnson's camp, and as it
drew nearer it became apparent that the detachment was retreating. The
troops were gotten under arms, and thle trees in front of the camp were
hurriedly felled to form a rude breastwork. A few cannon had just




HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


arrived( from the Hudson, and these were placed to command the road
by which the French were approaching. These arrangements were just
completed when the fugitives of Williams' command appeared in full
retreat, with the French and Indians but a few hundred yards behind
them. Dieskau urged his men forward with the greatest energy, intending to force his way into the English camp along with the fugitives.
The artillery was carefully trained upon the road by which he was
advancing, and the moment the fugitives were past the guns they opened
with a terrific fire of grape, which caused the Canadians and Indians to
break in confusion, and take to the woods for shelter. The regulars held
their ground, and maintained a determined contest of five hours, in which
they were nearly all slain. The Indians and Canadians did little execution, as they stood in dread of the artillery  At length Dieskau, seeing
that his effort had failed, drew off his men, and retreated. He was pursued for some distance by the English. Towards evening he was suddenly attacked by the New Hampshire regiment, which was marching
from Fort Edward to Johnson's assistance. The French were seized
with a panic at this new attack, and abandoning their brave commander,
fled for their lives. Dieskau, who had been severely wounded several
times, was taken prisoner  He was kindly treated, and was subsequently.sent to England, where he died.
General Johnson was slightly wounded at the commencement of the
battle, and withdrew from the field, leaving the command to General
Lyman, to whom the victory was really due. Notwithstanding this Johnson did not even mention Lyman's name in his report of the battle, but
claimed all the honor for himself. He was rewarded by the king with a
baronetcy, and the gift of twenty-five thousand dollars. General Lyman
was not even thanked for his services.
Johnson made no effort to improve his victory    The expedition
against Crown Point, which might now have been undertaken with a
better prospect of success, was abandoned, and Johnson contented himself with building a useless log fort at the head of Lake George, which
he named Fort William Henry    Late in the fall le placed a garrison in
this fort, and then returned to Albany, where he disbanded his army.
The expedition under Governor Shirley, against Fort Niagara, was
equally unsuccessful. By the month of August Shirley had advanced
no farther than Oswego. Here he received the news of Braddock's
defeat, which so disheartened him that, after building and garrisoning two
forts at Oswego, he returned to Albany  By the death of Braddock
Shirley succeeded to the chief command of all the royal forces in
America.




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAIR.


q P).


In December, 1755, Shirley held a conference with the colonial governors, at New York, to decide upon the campaign for the next year. It
was agreed that three exleditions should be ln(lertaken in 1756:,ne
against Niagara; a second against Fort Duquesne, and a third against
Crown Point. In the meantime Lord Loudon was appointed by the
king commander-in-chief of the forces in America. He sent over General Abercrombie as his lieutenant. Abercrombie arrived in June with
several regiments of British regulars. He relieved General Shirley from
command, but nothing was to be done until the arrival of the commander-in-chief, who did not reach America until July.
Lord Loudon was a more pompous and a slower man than Braddock,
and more incompetent. A force of seven thousand men was assembled
at Albany for the expedition against Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and
London at once repaired thither, and assumed the command. The colonists were confident that something of importance would now be accomplished; but they were destined to disappointment. The commander-inchief and his subordinates spent their time in settling the relative rank
of the royal and provincial officers. Notwithstanding the fact that all
that had been accomplished during the war had been gained by the colonial forces, there was an iniquitous regulation which gave the precedence
to the lowest officer holding a royal commission over one holding a higher
rank from any of the colonies. This led to many disputes, and the
colonists saw themselves robbed of the honors they had so fairly won.
This was only one of the many wrongs by which Great Britain succeeded
in alienating the people of America from their attachment to her.
In the meantime Dieskau had been succeeded as governor of Canada
by the Marquis de Montcalm, the ablest of the rulers of New France.
He was a man of genuine ability and of indomitable energy    He
reached Quebec in 1756, and at once set out for Ticonderoga, which he
placed in a state of defence. Perceiving the exposed condition of the
English forts at Oswego he resolved to capture them. Collecting a force
of five thousand Frenchmen, Canadians, and Indians, he crossed the lake
from Frontenac, and reached Oswego on the 5th of August. He soon
drove the English out of Fort Oswego; but Fort Ontario, the second
work, opposed a more vigorous resistance to him. The garrison held out
until their commander, Colonel Mercer, was killed, and they had lost all
hope of receiving aid from Albany, when they capitulated. An immense
amount of military stores, one hundred and thirty-five pieces of cannon,
and all the boats and vessels Shirley had prepared for the expedition
against Niagara fell into the hands of Montcalm. The Iroquois had
viewed the erection of the forts at Oswego by the English witl great




IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


jealousy, and in order to conciliate them Montcalm wisely destroyed the
works, and withdrew into Canada.
Loudon had detachled a force under Colonel Webb to the assistance of
the Oswego forts, but it was sent so late. that it was met on the way by
the news of the capture of the forts. Colonel Webb, in dismay, fell back
raplidly, and obstructed the road to Albany.
HIaving failed to accomplish anything against the enemy Lord Loudon
no\\' undertook to subjugate the colonies of New York and Pennsylvania.
He was firmly convinced that the colonists needed to be taught submission to the will of the royal commander, and as he had been made a sort
of viceroy of all the colonies, he thought tle present a fitting occasion to
teachl them tllis lesson. He demanded of the cities of Albany, New
York, and Philadelphia free quarters for his troops during the winter.
The mayor of New York refused the demand "as contrary to the laws
of England and the liberties of America." "G-d d-n my blood," said
the viceroy to tle mayor; "if you do not billet my officers upon free
quarters this day, I'll order here all the troops in North America under
my colmand, and billet them myself upon the city."  There was no
reasoning with " the master of twenty legions," and the magistrates were
obliged to get up a subscription for the free support, (uring the winter, of
an army that had passed a whole campaign without coming in sight of
the enemy   In Philadelphia the matter was settled very much in the
same way   Albany was also obliged to submit, but the magistrates took
occasion to tell the royal officers that they (lid not want their services, as
thev could defend their frontiers themselves. "The frontier was left
open to the French; this quartering troops in the principal towns, at the
expense of the inhabitants, by tile illegal authority of a military chief,
was the great result of the campaign."  It was becoming clear to the
colonists that their safety from the depredations of the French and savages was not to be gained by the royal troops, but by their own efforts.
A congress of governors was held at Boston in January, 1757, and it
was resolved that there should be but one expedition this year, and that
this slould be sent under the Earl of London against Louisburg. The
frontier posts, especially Forts Edward and William Henry, were to be
defended, and Washington, with tle Virginia troops, was to guard the
border of that colony against the expeditions of the French from Fort
Duquesne. The last was a difficult and almost impossible duty, for the
French from Fort Duquesne could choose their point of attack anywhere on the long and exposed frontier, while the force under Washington was utterly inadequate to the task of watching the entire line.
Leaving Bouquet to guard the frontier of Carolina against the Chero,




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


306.5


kees, and Webb to hold the country between Lake George and the
Hudson, Lord London, on the 20th of June, 1757, sailed from New
York with six thousand regulars to attack Louisburg. He proceededl to
Halifax, where he was joined by a fleet of eleven ships of war and fotur
thousand troops, bringing his whole force to ten thousand regulars and
sixteen ships of the line and a number of frigates. The campaign of this
redoubtable warrior is thus described by Bancroft: "He landed (at
HlIalifax), levelled the uneven ground for a parade, planted a vegetable


_-_ -_Xk1_!Vy       Zi 1_r-   ---   ----  - -..
Umit
1__-_    '.V                                           t-.      -   A, -IN,                   L.             'A    -:_..           VJ   - Y'. t-q -        - -      dv'              7


S     IT -OF        - - HENRY OLK tG ER
SITE OF FORT WILLIAM HENRY ON LAKE GEORGE.




garden as a precaution against the scurvy, exercised the men in mock
battles and sieges and stormings of fortresses, and when August came,
and the spirit of the army was broken, and Hay, a major-general,
expressed contempt so loudly as to be arrested, the troops were embarked,
as if for Louisburg. But ere the ships sailed, the reconnoitring vessels
came with the news that the French at Cape Breton had one more ship
than the English, and the plan of campaign was change(. Part of
the soldiers landed again at Halifax, and the Earl of Loudon, leaving




IIISTORY OF TMIE UNITED STA'4ES.


his garden to the weeds, and his place of arms to briars, sailed for
New York.
The Marquis of Montcaln was a very different man from the Earl of
Loudon. As a man he was superior to him in every way; as a commander he was active, quick, and resolute; while Loudon was incompetent, slow, and ponipous. Montcalm had stationed himself at Ticonderoga
in order to be able to watch the English, and he resolved to take advantage of Lord London's absence to attack Fort William Henry at the
head of Lake George. On the 2d of August he appeared before the fort
with a force of about six thousand French and Canadians and seventeen
hundred Indians, and laid siege to it. The garrison consisted of about
three thousand men, under Colonel Monroe, a gallant officer. Montcalm
summoned him to surrender the fort, but Monroe returned an indignant
refusal to this demand, and sent to General Webbe, at Fort Edward,
fifteen miles distant, to ask for assistance. Webbe might easily have
saved the fort, as he had four thousand men under his command, but he
made no effort to do so. Colonel Putnam, afterwards famous in the
Revolution, eagerly sought and at last received permission to march with
his regiment to Monroe's assistance, but he had proceeded only a few
miles when Webbe commanded him to return to Fort Edward. In the
place of assistance, the timid Webbe then sent to Monroe a letter greatly
exaggerating the force of the French, and advising him to surrender
This letter was intercepted by Montcalm, who was on tlhe point of raising
the siege, and he forwarded it to Monroe, with a renewed demand for his
surrender. The brave veteran held out, however, until nearly all his
guns were disabled and his ammunition nearly exhausted. He then
hung out a flag of truce, and Montcalm, who was too true a hero not to
appreciate valor in a foe, granted him liberal terms. The garrison were
allowed to march out with the honors of war upon giving their parole
not to serve against France for eighteen months. They were to retain
their private property, and were to liberate all their prisoners. On the
9th of August the fort was surrendered to the French.
Montcalm had kept the savages from liquor in order to be able to
restrain them in tlke hour of victory. They now sought and obtained
rum from the English, and spent the night in dancing and singing. The
next morning, as the English marched out of their camp, the Indians fell
upon them and began to plunder them. From robbery, the excited
savages soon passed to murder, and many of the English were killed and
others made prisoners. The French officers threw themselves into the
melee and exerted themselves gallantly to control the Indians. Many of
them were wounded in these efforts. Montcalm in an agony implored




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


3C7


the Indians to respect the treaty  "Kill me," he cried, as lie struggled
to restrain the savages, " but spare the English, who are under my protection."  He called to the English soldiers to defend themselves. The
retreat to Fort Edward became a disorderly flight. Only about six
hundred men reached there in a body   More than four hundred had
sought shelter in the French camp, and were sent by Montcalm to their
friends under the protection of a strong escort. He also sent one of his
officers to ransom those who had been taken prisoners by the Indians.
The vasst stores accumulated at Fort William Henry were carried away
by the French, and the work itself demolished.
The loss of Fort William Henry greatly frightened General Webbe at
Fort Edward. In spite of his force of six thousand men, and the withdrawal of the French to Lake Champlain, he seriously contemplated a
retreat to beyond Albany   Lord Loudon, who had arrived at New
York, was equally impressed with the danger, and proposed to take
position with his army on Long island for the defence of the continent.
The campaign was over, and the French were everywhere triumphant.
With the exception of Acadia, they held all the country they had occupied at the beginning of the war  The English had lost the forts at
Oswego and William Henry, and immense quantities of supplies. They
had been entirely expelled from the valleys of the Ohio and the St.
Lawrence, and the hostile parties of the Indians were enabled to extend
their ravages far into the interior of' the colonies.
America was thoroughly disgusted with the incompetency and cowardice of the royal commanders. The old spell of British invincibility
was broken, and the colonists were rapidly losing their respect for the
troops sent over from England to protect them. Men were coming to
the conclusion that their connection with Great Britain was simply a
curse to the colonies. They regarded the conduct of the war thus far by
the royal officials as simply " a mixture of ignorance and cowardice," and
were satisfied that they were amply able to defend themselves against the
French and Indians without any assistance whatever from England.
The royal officials sought to cover their failures by complaints against
the Americans. The hearty disgust and contempt wvith which the colonists regarded their pusillanimous conduct was reported by them to the
home government as evidence of a mutinous spirit on the part of the
Americans. Throughout the colonies they pursued one uniform system
of seeking to force the provinces into submission to their own illegal acts,
and to compel them to an acknowledgment of the arbitrary power of the
crown.   " Everywhere," says Bancroft, "the royal officers actively
asserted the authority of the king and the British nation over America.




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STA TES.


Did the increase of population lead the legislatures to enlarge the representative body' The right to do so was denied, and representation was
held to he a privilege conlceded by the king as a boon, and limited by his
will.  Did the British commander believe that the French colonies
throlugh the neutral islands derived provisions from the continent?  By
his own autlority he proclaimed an embargo in every American port.
Did South Carolina, )by its assembly, institute an artillery company?
Iyttlcton interpose( his veto, for there should be no company formed
but by the regal commission. By another act, the same assembly made
provision for quartering soldiers, introducing into the law the declaratory
clause, that 'no soldier should ever be billeted among them.' This also
Lyttleton negativel; and but for the conciliatory good temper of
Bouquet, who comnlanded at Charleston, the province would have been
inflamed by the peremptory order which came from Loudon to grant
billets under the act of Parliament." *
In the eyes of Great Britain America was merely an out-of-the-wav
corner of the world which existed by the bounty of England, and which'
was entitled to no rights, no privileges save what the king in his goodness
should see fit to allow its people; and in theory and practice every royal
official, from the viceroy down to the most insignificant governnent clerk,
arrogated to himself the power of oppression which he claimed for the
sovereign.
* Bancroft's History of the United States, vol. iv., p. 270.




CHAPTER XXIV.
THE FRENCH AND INDIAN         WAR-CONCLUDED.
A Change for the Better-William Pitt Prime Minister-Vigorous Measures AdoptedRecall of the Earl of Loudon-Capture of Louisburg-Abercrombie on Lake GeorgeAdvances against Ticonderoga-Death of Lord Hovwe-Failure of the English attack
upon Ticonderoga- Disgraceful conduct of Abercrombie-His Retreat-Capture ot
Fort Frontenac-Advance of General Forbes-Grant's Defeat-The Virginians again
save the Regulars-Capture of Fort Duquesne-Washington retires from the ArmyTiconderoga and Crown Point occupied by the English-Capture of Fort NiagaraThe Expedition against Quebec-Failure of the first Operations-Despondency of
Wolfe-He Discovers a Landing-place-The Army scales the Heights of AbrahamMontcalm's Surprise-Battle of the Plains of Abraham-Death of 'Wolfe-Defeat of
the French-Death of Montcalm-Surrender of Quebec-Capture of Montreal-Treaty
of Paris-Canada ceded to England-France loses all her American Posesseions-The
Cherokee War-Hostility of the Indians to the English-Pontiac's War-Death of
Pontiac-Bouquet relieves Fort Duquesne-Results of the War.
27-; HE  gross mismanagement of affairs in America aroused a st 1rm
of indignation in England, and the king was obliged to yield to
J^,    the popular sentiment, and change his ministers.      At the head
(Q     of the new ministry he placed William      Pitt, the leader of the
popular party, who was destined to become one of the greatest
of English statesmen.    His great talents had raised him from the insi, —
nificant position of ensign in the guards to the leadership of the government of Great Britain, and were now to be the means of retrievinu4 the
disasters of his country, and    regaining for her her lost power:land
prestige.
A truly great man, Pitt knew      how to admire and sympathize with
merit in others, and was not blinded by the glitter of rank, nor hampered by an aristocratic faith in the divinity of royalty   He appreciated
and sympathized with the Americans more perfectly than any of his predecessors in office, and began his career with the wise determination to
encourage and develop their patriotism     by a generous and systematic
assistance of their efforts. He caused the government of Great Britain
to assume the expenses of the war, and announced that the sums expended by the colonies for the public defence, since the commencement of
hostilities, would be refunded, and that henceforth the British trovern24                                                        369




370


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ment would provide the funds for the prosecution of the war. The
colonies were each required to furnish troops, but Pitt " stipulated that
the colonial troops raised for this purpose should be supplied with arms,
ammuiition, tents, and provisions, in the same manner as the regular
troops, and at the king's expense; so that the only charge to the colonies
would be that of levying, clothing, and paying the men. The governors
were also authorized to issue commissions to provincial officers, from
colonels downwards, and these officers were to hold rank in the united
army according to their commissions. Had this liberal and just system
been adopted at the outset, it would have put a very different face upon
the affairs of the colonies."*  These energetic and just measures were
promptly responded to by the colonies, which placed a force of twentyeight thousand men in the field. To these Pitt added twenty-two thousand British regulars, making a total of fifty thousand men, the largest
army that had ever been assembled in America, and exceeding in number the entire male population of Canada.
The Earl of Loudon was recalled, and instead of a single supreme
command three separate expeditions were organized under different
officers. An expedition against Louisburg was placed under the orders
of Lord Jeffrey Amherst, an able and upright soldier, assisted by Brigadier-General James Wolfe; who, though only thirty-one years old, had
spent eighteen years in the army, and had served at Dettingen, Fontenoy,
and Laffeldt. He was considered one of the ablest commanders in the
English service, and was universally beloved. To General Forbes the
task of c~,onquering the Ohio valley was assigned; and the expedition
against Ticonderoga and Crown Point was intrusted to General Abercroml)ie. Pitt had little faith in Abercrombie, who had been Lord
Loudon's most trusted lieutenant; but retained him to please Lord Bute,
and associated with him, as his second in command, the young and gifted
Lord George Howe, in the hope that Howe's genius would redeem Abercrombie's faults, and lead him to victory.
The expedition against Louisburg consisted of a fleet of twenty ships
of the line and eighteen frigates, under Admiral Boscawen, and an army
of fourteen thousand men, under General Amherst. The fleet reached
Cabarus bay on the 2d of June, 1758. The fortifications of Louisburg
were somewhat dilapidated, but were held by a garrison of thirty-two
hundred men, commanded by Chevalier Drucour, an officer of experience and determination. These frigates were sunk across the mouth of
the harbor to close it against the English, and within the basin lay five
* Sparks' Writings of Washington, vol. ii., p. 289-Note.




FRENCH AND INDIAN lWAR.


371


ships of the line, one fifty-gun ship, and two frigates, which took part in
the defence of the place.
The surf was so heavy that Amherst was unable to land his troops
until the 8th. The first division was led by Wolfe, under the cover of
the fire of the fleet. He forbade a gun to be fired from his command,
and, upon nearing the shore, leaped into the water, followed by his men,
and in the face of a sharp resistance, drove the French from their outlpots
into the town. The place was now regularly invested, and, after a bombardment of fifty days, during which the shipping in the harbor was
destroyed, the town and fortifications were surrendered to the English
on the 27th of July  With Louisburg the French gave up the islands
of Cape Breton and Prince Edward. Five thousand prisoners and an
immense quantity of military supplies were securedl 1y the English.
Halifax being already the chief naval station of the English in these
waters, Louisburg
was abandoned.
Amherst, Wolfe, and   -                 -
Boseawen were honored by the English
government for
their victory  The
season was too far
advanced after thE
capture of Louis-e G. A      g
burg to admit oWOLFE'S ATTACK ON LOUISBURG.
commencement of
operations against Quebec, and Amherst was sud(oenlv called away from
the coast to take charge of the army on Lake George.
Abercrombie had assembled a force of seven thousand En:glish regulars
and nine thousand Americans at the head of Lake George. Among the
American troops were Stark and Putnam, afterwards famous in the war
for independence, the former serving as a captain in the New Hampshire
regiment, the latter as a major of Connecticut troops. Abercrombie was
commander-in-chief, but the troops had little confidence in him. They
were devoted to Lord Howe, who was the real leader of the expedition.
On the 5th of July the army broke up its camp, and embarking in ten
hundred and thirty-five boats, with the artillery on rafts, descended the
lake to its lower end, from which they were to advance overland upon
Fort Carillon, which the French had erected on the promontory of
Ticonderoga. The next morning Lord Howe pushed forward with the
advanced guard, and encountered a scouting party of the French. A




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


sharp conflict ensued. The French were easily driven back, but Lord
Howe was killed almost at the first fire. His death cast a gloom over
tile army, which promised ill for the success of the undertaking.
Abercrombie continued to advance, and on the morning of the 9th
sent Clerk, his chief engineer, to reconnoitre the French position at Ticonderoga. Clerk reported that the French works were feeble, and imperfectly armed. Stark, of New Hampshire, and some of the English
officers saw that they were both strong and well provided with artillery
They so reported to Abercrombie, but he accepted the statement of his
engineer, and, without waiting for his artillery, ordered an assault upon
the French lines that very day
The Marquis of Montcalm was commanding in person at Ticonderoga,
_ -
-___                                   -—._ _ -_
ABERCROMBIE S EXPEDITION ON LAKE GEORGE.
and had disposed his small force of thirty-six hundred and fifty men in
a line of breastworks thrown up about half a mile beyond the fort, and
extending across the promontory on which that work stood. The death
of Lord Howe had deprived the English of their only leader capable of
contending against this accomplished commander, and the incompetency
o)f Abercrombie was to render easy what might have been, under other
circumstances, a most difficult undertaking.
Abercrombie could have brought up his artillery by the next day, but
he was unwilling to wait for it, as he anticipated an easy victory  He
stationed himself in a place of safety about two miles from the field, and
ordered his. troops to assail the French intrenchments with the bayonet.




FRENCH AIND INDIAN WAR.


373


The attack was made in gallant style, and was continued with energy
during the afternoon. The English performed prodigies of valor, but
were not able to overcome the strength of the French works, or the
activity with which the defenders maintained their position. Unlike the
English commander, Montcalm was everywhere along his line, cheering
his men with his presence and example, and distributing refreshments to
them with his own hands. Without a commander who dared place himself under fire, with no one on the spot to direct their movements, the
valor of the English was thrown away    A volley fromn an advanced
party of their own men completed their confusion, and thcly broke helplessly, and fell back in disorder towards Lake George. Abercrombie
made no effort to rally them; he was too badly frightened for that; and
ATTACK ON TICONDEROGA.
led the army towards the landing-place, on Lake George, with such haste
that but for the energetic action of Colonel Bradstreet the troops would
have rushed pell-mell into the boats, without any semblance of order, and
with a still greater loss of life.
The English lost nearly two thousand men in the attack upon the
French works; but they still had left a force of more than four times the
strength of the French, and their artillery had not been engaged. With
this force they might have taken Ticonderoga, but Abercrombie was too
much terrified to attempt anything of the kind. On the mornincg of the
9th he embarked his troops and hastened to the head of Lake George.
Montcalm was astounded at his retreat, but as he had too small a force,
and his men were exhausted, he made no effort at pursuit. Arrived at
the head of Lake George, the frightened Abercrombie sent the artillery




HIS1OR Y OF THE UNITED STATES


and ammunition back to Albany for safety, and occupied his army with
the erection of Fort George, near the ruins of Fort William Henry
The news of this disaster caused General Amherst to hasten with four
regiments and a battalion from Louisburg to Lake George. He reached
the camp of A)bercrombie on the 5th of October, In November orders
arrived from England appointing Amherst commander-in-chief of the
royal forces in America, and recalling Abercrombie, who returned to
England to attempt to excuse his cowardice by villifying America and
the Americans. He could not deceive Pitt, however, whose indignation
at his pusillanimous conduct was only restrained by the influence of Lord
Bute in the royal councils.
After Abercrombie's retreat, Colonel Bradstreet, of New York, at his
earnest solicitation, obtained leave from the council of war to undertake
an expedition against Fort Frontenac, which being situated at the foot of
Lake Ontario, commanded both the lake and the St. Lawrence. Its possession was of the highest importance to the French, as it was their main
depot for the supply
_: -                               __ of the posts on the
-crossed the le i oupper lakes and                   the
Ohio   with military
stores. Collectin g a
fleet of nine armed vessels, with wc  thforce of 2700 men.
o of the vesseall Americand sent consisting chiefly of
troops from New
York and  Mae ainer of the vessac huINVESTMENT OF FORT FRONTENAC.        setts  Bradstreet
hasten ed t o  Os wego
before his movements were known to the enemy      From Oswego he
crossed the lake in open boats, and landed on the Canada side within a
mile of Fort Frontenac. His sudden arrival struck terror   to the garrison, and the greater part secured their safety by an instantaneous flight.
The next day the fort surrendered. The victors captured with it a vast
quantity of military stores destined for the forts in the interior, and a
fleet of nine armed vessels, with which the French controlled the lake.
Two of the vessels were laden with a part of the stores and sent to Oswego, and the remainder of the vessels and stores, together with the fort,
were destroyed. The English then recrossed the lake to Oswego. The
capture of Fort Frontenac was an event of great importance, as it led, as
we shall see further on, to the abandonment by the French of their posts
in the valley of the Ohio.




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR..375


For the reduction of Fort Duquesne a force of seven thousand men
-was assembled under General Forbes. Of these, five thousand were from
Pennsylvania and Virginia, the troops from the latter colony being under
the command of Colonel Washington. The Pennsylvania troops assembled at Raystown, on the Juniata, and the Virginians at Fort Cumlberland. Washington urged upon Forbes the advantages of adopting tile
old road cut by Braddock's army in his advance to the Ohio, but Forbcs,
at the suggestion of some land-speculators, decided to construct a new
and a better road farther to the north. As regarded the future settlement
of the west this was an excellent plan, but as far as it concerned the
immediate object of the campaign it was a mistake, as it involved a large
expenditure of labor and a great waste of time.
While this road was being constructed General Bouquet, with the advanced guard, crossed Laurel Hill and established a post at Loyal Hanna.
The new road progressed very slowly, only forty-five miles being constructed in six weeks. Bouquet had with him a force of about two
thousand men, chiefly Highlanders and Virginians. Learning from  iis
scouts that Fort Duquesne was held by a garrison of only eight hundred
men, of whom three hundred were Indians, Bouquet, without orders
from General Forbes, resolved to attempt the capture of the fort by a
sudden blow  He detached a force of eight hundred Highlanders, and a
company of Virginians, under Major Grant, to reconnoitre Fort Duquesne.
The French were fully ilnformed of all of Grant's movements, but they
allowed him to approach unmolested, intending to disarm his vigilance
and then attack him. Grant affected the usual contempt for the provincial troops, and upon arriving before the fort, placed Maljor Lewis with
the Virginians to guard the baggage, and sent his regulars forward to
reconnoitre and make a sketch of the work. He was greatly encouraged
by the fact that the French allowed him to approach without firing a g-un
at him, and in his self-complacency marched right into an ambuscade
which the enemy had prepared for him. The French commander had
posted the Indians along the sides of the defile by which Grant was advancing, and at a given signal the garrison made a sudden sally from the
fort against the Highlanders, while the Indians opened a heavy fire upon
them from their place of concealment. The regulars were quickly thrown
into confusion, and their officers were found incapable of conducting such
a mode of warfare. Attracted by the firing, Major Lewis, with a company of Virginians, hastened to the scene of the encounter, and by
engaging the enemy hand-to-hand enabled the regulars to save themselves
from a general massacre. The detachment was routed with heavy loss,
and both Grant and Lewis were taken prisoners. The fugitives retreated




376


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


to the point where the baggage had been left. It was guarded by Captain
Bullit, whom Lewis had left there with one company of Virginians. By
the gallant and skilful resistance of this little force the French and
Indians were checked, and finally driven back in confusion. The English
then continued their retreat with all speed to Loyal Hanna. Again the
provincials had saved the regulars from total destruction.  General
Forbes had the magnanimity to acknowledge and compliment the Virginians for their services, and Captain Bullit was promoted to the rank
of major.
General Forbes was greatly disheartened by the news of Grant's disasterl A council of war was called to deliberate upon the future operations
of the army, and decided that as it was now November, and they were
still fifty miles from Fort Duquesne, with an unbroken forest between
them and the fort, nothing more could be accomplished until the spring.
The enterprise was on the point of being abandoned when fortunately
three prisoners were brought in, from whom   Washington drew the
information that the garrison of Fort Duquesne was reduced to a very
small force, that the Indians had all deserted the French, and that the
expected reinforcements and supplies from Canada had not arrived. It
w:ts evident that a well-executed effort would result in the capture of
the fort.
This information decided General Forbes to continue the expedition.
A force of twenty-five hundred picked troops was placed under Washington's command, and he was ordered to push forward as rapidly as:possible, and prepare the road for the advance of the main army
Washington was ably seconded in his movements by the energetic Armstrong, and the march was pressed with such vigor that in ten days the
army arrived in the vicinity of Fort Duquesne. The French now saw
that the fall of the fort was inevitable. They had but five hundred men,
and Bradstreet's capture of Fort Frontenac had cut them off from the
reinforcements and supplies they had expected from Canada. Unwilling
to stand a siege, the result of which was certain, they abandoned the
fort on the night of the 24th of November, and embarking in flat boats,
floated down the Ohio to join their countrymen in the valley of the
Mississippi. On the 25th the English army arrived before the fort, and,
finding it deserted and in ruins, occupied it. At the universal desire of
t-he army Forl)cs named the place Fort Pitt, which has since been changed
to Pittsburgh. The splendid city which occupies the site is the proudest
monument that has been built to the memory of the " Great Commoner."
Two regiments, composed of Pennsylvanians, Virginians, and Marylanders, under Mercer, were left to garrison Fort'Pitt, which was restored






PIRDSEYE VIEW OF PITTSBURGH,




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


to its former strength. General Forbes then returned east of the mountains, and Washington resigned his conmission and retired to private
life. The object of the campaign was accomplished, and he could now
enjoy the rest to which five years of constant service had entitled him.
Tlhe capture of Fort Duquesne was the most important event of the
war   It put an end to the French occupation of the valley of the Ohio,
and settled the claim of Great Britain to that valuable region. The
Indians, having no longer the support and encouragement which they
had derived from the French at this post, ceased their hostile efforts, and
during the remainder of the war the frontiers of Virginia and Pennsylvania were at peace. The capture of the fort was followed by a large
emigration west of the mountains, which, beginning the next spring, soon
placed a large and energetic population of Englishmen and their families
in the valley of the Ohio. The Indians, disheartened by the defeat of
the French, began to form treaties of peace or neutrality with the
English.
Washington's services in this campaign were acknowledged with pride
throughout the colonies, but the British government took no notice of
them. Not even Pitt, with all his appreciation of America, thought it
worth while to offer him any promotion or reward, as had been done in
the case of other meritorious provincial commanders. Soon after his
withdrawal from the army he took his seat in the house of burgesses, to
which he had been elected. That body ordered its speaker to publicly
thank Colonel Washington in the name of the house and of the people of
Virginia for his services to his country  The speaker discharged this
duty with ease and dignity, but when Washington attempted to reply he
blushed and stammered, and was unable to speak a word. The speaker
relieved his confusion by coming to his assistance with the kind remark,
" Sit down, Mr. Washington; your modesty equals your valor, and that
surpasses the power of any language I possess."
The English cause was now more successful than it had ever been, and
Canada was exhausted by the efforts she had put forth for her defence.
This was clear to Montcalm, who had no hope of holding New France
against the attacks of Great Britain, and it was also clear to the far-seeing
mind of Pitt. The British minister, therefore, resolved that the next
campaign should be decisive of the war. He promptly reimbursed the
colonies for the expenses incurred by them during the past year, and
found no difficulty in enlisting them heartily in his schemes. Three
expeditions were ordered for the year 1759. Amherst was to advance
by way of Lake Champlain, and after capturing Ticonderoga and Crown
Point, was to lay siege to Montreal; Wolfe was to ascend the St. Law



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


379


rence and attack Quebec, and was to be joined by Amherst if the latter
should be successful in his efforts against Montreal; and General Prideaux
was to proceed by way of Oswego to capture Fort Niagara, and then
descend Lake Ontario and join Amherst at Montreal.
Amherst moved promptly against Ticondcroga, which post was abandoned by the French upon his approach. Crown Point fell into his
hands in the same manner, but here the advance of the English was
stayed. No boats had been provided to transport the army down Lake
Champlain, and Amherst was forced to halt until these could be procured.


RUINS OF FORT TICONDEROGA.


He was thus unable to invest Montreal, or to cooperate with Wolfe in
the movement against Quebec.
General Prideaux began his march to Oswego about the sall time,
and proceeding from Oswego ]aid siege to Fort Niagara. He was killed
by the bursting of a gun soon after the commencement of the sie'ge, and
the command devolved upon Sir William Johnson, who pressed the attack
with vigor. On the 23d of July, 1758, the fort capitulated; but Johnson was obliged to abandon the attempt to descend the St. Lawrence to
Wolfe's assistance from a lack of boats and provisions.




380


HISTORY OF THE UNITED SbA TES.


The expedition against Quebec assembled in June, 1758, at Louisburg,
under the command of General Wolfe. It consisted of eight thousand
troops and a fleet of twenty-two ships of the line, besides frigates and
some smaller vessels. On the 26th of June the Isle of Orleans was
'ca:Llched, and the troops were immediately landed. A short distance up
the river Quebec rose defiantly, its seemingly impregnable citadel of St.
Louis crowning the lofty cliffs that rose from the river's brink. For the
defence of the place Montcalm  had six greatly reduced battalions of
regulars and a force of Canadian militia. A few Indians remained
faithful to him; but the majority of the tribes, doubtful of the issue of
the contest, preferred to remain neutral. The French commander, seeing
the inferiority of his force to that of the English, put his trust chiefly in
the natural strength of his position, which he believed would enable him
to hold it even with his small force.
The situation of Quebec was peculiar, It lay on a peninsula, between
the river St. Charles on the north and the St. Lawrence on the south and
cast. On these sides it was perfectly protected by the river, leaving the
west side alone exposed. The lower town was situated on the beach, while
the upper stood on the cliffs two hundred feet above the water, and above
this still rose the castle of St. Louis. Arbove the city the high promon.
torv on which the upper town was built stretched away for several miles
in an elevated plain, and from  the river to this plain the rocks rose
almost perpendicularly  Every landing-place was carefully guarded, and
the whole range of cliffs seemed bristling with cannon. The French
coinmander did not believe it possible for an army to scale these cliffs.
Montcalm located his camp below the city, between the St. Charles and
the Montmorenci rivers, and covered the river front of his position with
many floating batteries and ships of war.
The naval superiority of the English at once gave them the command
of the river. The French were driven from Point Levi, opposite the
city, and upon it Wolfe erected batteries, from which he bombarded the
lower town and soon laid it in ashes. The upper town and the citadel
were beyond the range of his guns, and could not be injured by this fire.
Wolfe now decided to storm the French camp on the opposite side of
the St. Lawrence, and in the month of July attacked them from the
direction of the _Montmorenci, but owing to the haste of the first division,
which advanced to the assault before it could be properly supported by
the second, the attack was repulsed with a loss of five hundred men.
This repulse greatly disheartened the English commander, whose sensitive
spirit suffered keenly under the dread that his enterprise was doomed to
failure. He obtained news of the capture of Fort Niagara and the occu



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


pation of Ticonderoga and Crown Point, and eagerly watched for the
approach of the promised assistance from Amherst. It never caine, and
Wolfe saw that he must take Quebec by his own efforts or not at all.
He attempted several diversions above the city in the hope of drawing
Montcalm from his intrenchments into the open field, but the latter
merely sent De Bougainville with fifteen hundred men to watch the
shore above Quebec and prevent a landing. Wolfe fell into a fever,
caused by his
anxiety, and his
despatches to his
government created the gravest o
uneasiness in           _         _
England for the       _                                -
success of his
enterprise.
Though ill,
Wolfe examined
the river with                                Fn,:
eagle eyes to detect some place
at which a land-t
ing could be attempted    His
energy was rewarded by his
discovery of the
cove which now
bears his name.
From the shore
at the head of
this cove a steep             GENERAL JAMES WOLFE.
and difficult
pathway, along which two men could scarcely march abreast, wound up to
the summit of the heights, and was guarded by a small force of
Canadians. Wolfe at once resolved to effect a landing here and ascend
the heights by this path. The greatest secrecy was necessary to the success of the undertaking, and in order to deceive the French as to his real
design, Captain Cook, afterwards famous as a great navigator, was sent
to take soundings and place buoys opposite Montcalm's camp), as if
that were to be the real point of attack. The morning of the 13th of




382


HIST'ORY 01' THE UNITED STATES.


September was chosen for the movement, and the day and night of the
12th were spent in preparations for it.
At one o'clock on the morning of the 13th, a force of about five
thousand men under Wolfe, with Monckton and Murray, set off in boats
from the fleet, which had ascended the river several days befpre, and
dropped down to the point designated for the landing. Each officer was
thoroughly informed of the duties required of him, and each shared the
resolution of the gallant young commander, to conquer or die. As the
boats floated down the stream, in the clear, cool starlight, Wolfe spoke to
his officers of the poet Gray, and of his " Elegy in a Country Churchyard."  "I would prefer," said he, " being the author of that poem to
the glory of beating the French to-morrow."  Then in a musing voice
he repeated the lines:
"The boast of heraldry, the pomp of power,
And all that beauty, all that wealth e'er gave,
Await alike the inexorable hour;
The paths of glory lead but to the grave."
In a short while the landinj-place was reached, and the fleet, following silently, took position to cover the landing if necessary.  Wolfe
and his immediate command leaped ashore, and secured the pathway
The light infantry, who were carried by the tide a little below the path,
clambered up the side of the heights, sustaining themselves by clinging
to the roots and shrubs which lined the precipitous face of the hill.
They reached the summit and drove off the picket-guard after a slight
skirmish. The rest of the troops ascended in safety by the pathway, and
a battery of two guns was abandoned on the left to Colonel Howe.
Having gained the heights, Wolfe moved forward rapidly 'to clear the
forest, and by daybreak his army was drawn up on the Heights of
Abraham, in the rear of the city
Montcalm was speedily informed of the presence of the English. "It
can be but a small party come to burn a few houses and retire," he
answered incredulously  A brief examination satisfied him of his danger,
and he exclaimed in amazement: " Then they have at last got to the weak
side of this miserable garrison. We must give battle and crush them
before mid-day " He at once despatched a messenger for De Bougainville, who was fifteen miles up the river, and marched from his camp
opposite the city to the Heights of Abraham, to drive the English from
them. The opposing forces were about equal in numbers, though the
English troops were superior to their adversaries in steadiness and deterruination. The battle began about ten o'clock, and was stubbornly contested. It was at length decided in favor of the English. Wolfe, though




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


383


wounded several times, continued to direct his army until, as he was
leading them to the final charge, he received a musket ball in the breast.
He tottered, and called to an officer near him: "Support me; let not my
brave fellows see me drop."  He was borne tenderly to the rear, and
water was brought him to quench his thirst. At this moment the officer
upon whom he was leaning cried out: "They run! they run!"  "Who
run?" asked the dying hero, eagerly  "The French," said the officer,
"give way everywhere."   "What?" said Wolfe, summoning up his
DEATH OF GENERAL WOLFE BEFORE QUEBEC.
remaining strength, " do they run already? Go, one of you, to Colonel
Burton; bid him march Webb's regiment with all speed to Charles river
to cut off the fugitives." Then, a smile of contentment overspreading
his pale features, he murmured: "Now, God be praised, I die happy,"
and expired. He had done -his whole duty, and with his life had purchased an empire for his country
Monckton, the second in rank, having been wounded, the command
devolved upon General Townshend, a brave officer, but incapable of
following up such a success with vigor. He recalled the troops from the




384


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


pursuit, and contented himself with the possession of the battle-field.
At this momeftt De Bougainville arrived with his division, but Townshend declined to renew the engagement.
Montcalm had borne himself heroically during the battle, and had
done all that a brave and skilful commander could do to win the victory.
As he was endeavoring to rally his troops at their final repulse, he was
wounded for the second time, and was carried into the city  The surgeon
informed him that his wound was mortal. "So much the better," he
answered cheerfully; " I shall not live to see the surrender of Quebec."
De Ramsay, the commandant of the post, asked his advice about the
defence of the city  " To your keeping," answered Montcalm, " I commend the honor of France. I will neither give orders nor interfere any
further, I have business of greater moment to attend to. My time is
short. I shall pass the night with God, and prepare myself for death."
He then wrote a letter to the English commander, commending the
French prisoners to his generosity, and at five o'clock on the morning of
the 14th his spirit passed away  Succeeding generations have paid to
his memory the honors it deserves, and on the spot where the fate of
Quebec was decided the people of Canada have erected, to commemorate
the heroism of the conqueror and the conquered, a noble monument
inscribed with the names of MVOLFE and MONTCALM.
The French lost five hundred killed and one thousand prisoners, while
the loss of the English was six hundred in killed and wounded. Five
days afterward, on the 18th of September, the city and garrison of Quebec
surrendered to General Townshend. The capture of this great stronghold was hailed with rejoicings in both America and England. Congratulations were showered upon Pitt, who modestly put them aside with
the reverent remark: " I will aim to serve my country; but the more a
man is versed in business, the more he finds the hand of Providence
everywhere."
In April, 1760, De Levi, the French commander at Montreal, attacked
Quebec with a force of ten thousand men, hoping to reduce it before the
arrival of reinforcements from England. Murray, the English commander, marched out with three thousand men to attack him, and in a
severe battle on the 26th of April was defeated and driven back to the
city with a loss of one thousand men. The French then laid siege to
Quebec, but on the 9th of May an English fleet arrived to its relief, and
De Levi was obliged to withdraw to Montreal. In September Montreal
itself was invested by a powerful force under General Amherst. Seeing
that there was no hope of resistance, the French commander surrendered
the town on the 8th of September, 1760. With this capture Canada




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


3-85
A)Q


passed entirely into the hands of the English. Detroit and the other
posts on the lakes were soon given up by the French, and the dominion
of France in America was confined to the valley of the Mississippi.
There were no further hostilities between the Engrlish and French, Iut,
as we shall see, the war was kept up by the Indians for some years later
The French and Indian war was closed by the treaty of Paris, on the
10th of February, 1763. By this treaty Great Britain obtained all the
French territory east of the Mississippi, with the exception of the island
of New Orleans, the northern boundary of which was the rivers Iberville
and Amitd, and Lakes Maurepas and Pontchartrain. Florida wa.s ceded
to England by Spain in exchange for Havana. France ceded to Spain
the island of New Orleans and all Louisiana west of the Mississippi.
Thus Great Britain was mistress of the whole of the vast region east of
the Mississippi, with the exception of the island of New Orleans, from
the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico. The region west of the Mississippi was claimed by Spain. In all the vast continent of America
France retained not one foot of ground.
In the meantime the Indians of the southwest had become involved in
war with the whites. The Cherokees, who had always been friendly to
the English, had done good service during the early part of the war by
protecting the frontiers of Virginia, and had served also in Forbes'
expedition against Fort Duquesne. They received for their services no
reward or pay from any source, and as they were setting out for their
homes neither General Forbes nor the colonial authorities supplied them
with either food or money  To avoid starvation on their march they
were compelled to plunder the barns of some of the settlers, and this led
to a conflict which rapidly spread into a border war, Lyttleton, the governor of South Carolina, exerted himself to prevent the restoration of
peace, and with success, as he desired the credit of exterminating the
Cherokees. He was opposed by the legislature and people of the colony,
but in 1759 he sent a force into their country, which committed such
ravages that the Cherokees, driven to despair, resolved upon a war of
extermination. They made a league with the Muscogees, and sent to the
French in Louisiana for military stores.  The Carolinians asked aid
of General Amherst, who sent them a force of twelve hundred men,
principally Highlanders, under General Montgomery  Reinforced by a
body of Carolinians, Montgomery invaded the Cherokee country in 1760,
and laid it waste. This tribe had made great advances in civilization,
and had settled in villages, and engaged in the cultivation of their lands.
Their homes were made desolate, and they were driven to the mountains.
Montgomery then rejoined Amherst, in the north, in obedience to orders;
25




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATSg


but the Indians for many years maintained a desultory warfare along the
southwestern border
The surrender of Canada to the English was viewed with the greatest
disfavor by the Indians of the north and west, who were attached to tile
French, and were unwilling to submit to the rule of the English. Immediately after the surrender the English occupied all the French posts
along the lakes, and in the Ohio valley, with small garrisons. The contrast between these and the French, who had formerly held these forts,
soon impressed itself forcibly upon the minds of the savages. The
French had been friendly and kind to the Indians, and had sought to
convert them to Christianity; the English were haughty and domineering, and insulted their priests, and denounced their religion. The French
had prohibited the sale of rum to the Indians; the English introduced
it, and finding it profitable continued it, with a recklessness of consequences which did not escape the keen observation of the savages. The
demoralization of the red men was rapid, and drunkenness and its attendant vices wrought sad changes in them. The tribes were bitterly hostile
to the men who were ruining their people, and all were alarmed by the
rapidity with which emigration had been pouring over the mountains
since the capture of Fort Duquesne. They saw that they were about to
be driven from their homes, and forced westward, before the advancing
tide of the whites.
The most determined opponent of the English rule was Pontiac, a
chief of the Ottawas. He was a Catawba by birth, had been brought
from his native country as a prisoner, and had been adopted into the
Ottawa tribe, whose chief he had become by his bravery and skill. He
was the idol of his own people, and his influence over the neighboring
tribes was boundless.  He was styled "the king and lord of all the
country of the northwest," and bitterly resented the English occupation
of his dominions. The first English officer who came to take possession
of the French forts was received by him with the stern demand, " Iow
dare you come to visit my country without my leave?"  This "forest
hero" now resolved to unite all the tribes of the northwest in a last determined effort to drive out the English, and regain the independence of
the red man. The plan of operations which he adopted was most comprehensive, and was the most remarkable exhibition of genuine leadership
ever given by an Indian. He began negotiations with the neighboring
tribes, and induced the Delawares, Shawnees, the Senecas, Miamis, and
many of the smaller tribes, occupying the great region of the upper
lakes, the valley of the Ohio, and a portion of the Mississippi valley, to
join his people in their effort against the English. He sent a prophet to




FRENCH AND INDIAN WAIt.,


all the tribes to declare to them that the Great Spirit had revealed to him
"that if the English were permitted to dwell in their midst, then the
white man's diseases and poisons would utterly destroy them." The conspiracy was pressed forward with energy, and though it was more than a
year in forming, it was kept a profound secret.
The principal post on the upper lakes was Detroit. It was surrounded
by a numerous French population engaged in agriculture and trading.
It was the centre of the trade of this region, and its possession was of
the highest importance to the English. Pontiac was anxious to obtain
possession of this fort, and
sent word to Major Gladwin,
the commandant, that he was     d    v                  -.
coming on a certa'in day, with       ___
his warriors, to lave a talk  i  s  y   P
with him.   The chief was.                           sig
resolved to make this visit                                     a-d
the occasion of seizing the                                    - -- --
fort, and massacring the gar-                             an "or
rison; and he and his warriors
selected for the attempt cut._deavored
down their rifles to a length      '!
which enabled them to con-_        3 _____,t
ceal them under their blankets, ______
in order to enter the fort with ~____
their arms. The plot was revealed to Gladwin by an In-.,
dian girl, wvhose affections
had been won by one of the
Englisli officers, and  wvhen    \iPontiac and his warriors re-                             ",_
paired to the fort for their                PONTIAC.
"talk" Gladwin made him
aware that his conspiracy was discovered, and very unwisely permitted him to leave the fort in safety. Pontiac now threw off the
mask of friendship and boldly attacked Detroit. This wvas tlhe signal
for a general wvar. In about three weeks' time the savages surprised and
captured every fort west of Niagara, with the exception of Detroit and
Pittsburgh. The garrisons were, with a few exceptions, put to death.
Over one hundred traders were killed and scalped in the woods, and more
than five hundred families were driven, with the loss of many of their
numbers, from their settlements on the frontier.  Pontiac endeavored,




388


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


without success, to capture Detroit, and a large force of the warriors of
several of the tribes laid siege to Pittsburgh, the most important post in
the valley of the Ohio. The ravages of the Indians were extended over
the wide territory between the Ohio and the Mississippi, and the settlements in that region were for the time completely broken up.
General Bouquet, with a force of five hundred men, consisting chiefly
of Scotch Highlanders, was sent from eastern Pennsylvania to the relief
of Fort Ligonier, which was located at the western base of the mountains, and of Pittsburgh. Their march lay through a region which had
been (lesolated by the Indians, and they were obliged to depend upon the
stores they carried with them. Upon reaching Fort Ligonier Bouquet
found the communication with Pittsburgh cut off; and could learn nothing
of the fate of the fort or garrison. Leaving his cattle and wagons at
Ligonier, he pushed forward with his men in light marching order, determined to ascertain if Pittsburgh still held out. He had to fight his way
through the Indians, who turned aside from the siege of the fort, and
ambushed the Highlanders at nearly every step. They were overwhelminglv defeated by the gallant Highlanders, for Bouquet was now a veteran
Indian fighter, and had learned to fight the savages with their own tactics.
Their rout was complete, and Bouquet reached Pittsburgh in safety, to the
great joy of the garrison.
Bouquet's victory was decisive. The Indians were utterly disheartened, and fled westward; and from that day the Ohio valley was freed
from their violence. The tide of emigration once more began to flow
over the mountains, and this time it was to know no cessation. The
tribes concerned in Pontiac's conspiracy lost hope, and were overawed by
the preparations of the English for their destruction, and began to withdraw from the confederacy, and make peace with the whites. Pontiac
soon found himself deserted by all his followers, even by his own people;
but his proud spirit would not brook the thought of submission. He
would make no treaty; he was the mortal foe of the English, and would
never acknowledge their rule. Leaving his home and his people, he set
out for the country of the Illinois, for the purpose of stirring up the
more distant tribes to war, A proclamation from Lord Amherst offered
a reward for his murder, and he soon fell, the victim of the hired
assassin.
The long war was over, It had brought both loss and gain to the
colonies. It had involved them in an expenditure of $16,000,000, of
which sum but $5,000,000 had been refunded by the English government. Thus the debts of the colonies were greatly increased. Thirty
thousand men had been killed, or had died from wounds or disease dur



FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR.


ing the war, and the sufferings of the settlers along the extended and
exposed frontiers had been almost incalculable.
On the other hand, the war had greatly increased the business of the
colonies, especially in those of the north. Large sums had been spent in
America by Great Britain for the support of her armies and fleets, and
many fortunes were built up by enterprising men during this period.
Above all the Americans had been taught their own strength, and the
value of united action. They lhad often proved their superiority to the
regular troops of the English army, and had learned valuable lessons in
the art of war. In the long struggle Washington, Gates, Morgan, Montgomery, Stark, Putnam, and others were trained for the great work
which was to be required of them in future years. Thle colonies were
bound together by a common grievance, arising out of' the haughty contempt with which the royal commanders treated the lrovincial troops,
and sacrificed their interests to those of the regulars. The lesson that
the colonies could do without the assistance of England, and that their
true interests demanded a separation from her, vwas deeply implanted in
the minds of many of the leading men. Another gain for tlhe colonies
was a positive increase in their liberties, resulting from the wlar  The
necessity of securing the cordial ccioperation of the Americans during the
struggle caused the royal governors to cease their cf;)rts to enforce arbitrary laws, during the existence of hostilities, as the cnforcement of such
measures would have alienated the colonists, and have prevented them
from raising the needed sup)llies of men and money   The colonial
assemblies were careful to take advantage of this state of affairs. They
made their grants of supplies with great caution, and retained in their
own hands all the disbursements of the public funds. They thus accustomed the people to the practices of free government, and taught them
their rights in the matter, so that when the war closed the royal governors found that they were no longer able to practise their accustomed
tyranny




CHAPTER XXV.


CAUSES OF TIlE AMERICAN         REVOLUTION.
Injlstice of Great Britain towards her Colonies-The Navigation Acts-Effects of these
Laws upon the Colonies-Great Britain seeks to destroy the Manufactures of AmericaWrits of Assistance-They are Opposed - Home Manufactures Encouraged by the
Americans-Ignorance of Englishmen concerning America-Great Britain claims the
Right to Tax America-Rlesistance of tile Colonists -Samuel Adams-The Parsons'
Cause-Patrick Ienry-England persists in her Determination to Tax Amlerica-Passage of tile Stamp Act-Resistance of the Colonies-Meeting of the First Colonial Congress-lts Ac:ion-William Pitt-Repeal of the Stamp Act-Franklin before tile Holse
of Commons-New Taxes imposed upon America-Increased Resistance of the Colonies
-Trool:s quartered in Boston-The " Massacre "-The Non-Importation AssociationsGrowth of HIo.tility to England-Ilurning of the "Gasp "-The Tax on Tea retained
by the King-Destruction of Tea at Boston-Wrath of the British Government-Boston
IIarbor Closed-Troolps Quartered in Boston-The Colonies come to the Assistance of
Boston-Action of the Virginia Assembly-General Gage in Boston-The Regulating
Act-Its Failure-Gage seizes the Massachusetts Powder-Uprising of the ColonyMeetin, of the Continental Conlress-Its Action-Addresses to the King and People of
England — The Earl of Chatlham's Indorsement of Congress —The King remains
Stubborn.
~'.4HE      treaty of Paris placed  England    in  control of the North
(   American continent east of the Mississippi, and the English
4   government was of the olpinion that this possession brought with
it the ri(lht to treat America as it pleased, without regard to the
riglhts or liberties of her people.  We have already considered
so(me of the many acts of injustice by which Great Britain drove the
colonies into rebellion against her   We have now to relate those bearing
more immediately on the separation.
The navigation acts of 1660 and 1663 were passed, as we have seen,
for the purpose of crippling tle commerce of the colonies, and confirming
their dependence upon England.      They were severely felt throughout all
the colonies, and   especially in  New   England, which was largely dependelt upon its commerce.      These acts were the beginning of a policy
deliberately adopted by England, and persisted in by her for more than
a century, for tle purpose of enriching her mercantile class by depriving
the colonists of the just rewards of their labors.     The Americans were
regarded by the mother country as inferiors, and as dependents, who had
390




CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN RETVOLUTION.


391


been planted by her in "settlements established in distant parts of the
world for the benefit of trade."  The natural righlt of all men to acquire
property and wealth by the exercise of their industry was denied to
them; they were to labor only that the Britisll merchant mnight grow
rich at their expense. Every species of industry in America, save the
mere cultivation of the soil, was to be heavily taxed that it might be
crushed out of existence. The Americans were to be obliged to ship
their products to England for sale, and to be compelled to purchase in
her markets the supplies they nee(ded. No foreign country might trade
directly with the colonies. Such articles of foreign production as were
needed must be shipped to England, and then transferred to British vessels for-transportation to the colonies, in order that they might yield a
profit to the English ship-owner   The only direct trade which was
allowed, and was not taxed, was the infamous trafflc in negro slaves,
against which every colony protested, and which Great Britain compelled
them to accept. Even the trees in the " free woods," suitable for masts,
were claimed by the king, and marked by his "surveyoer-general of
woods."  It was a criminal offence to cut one of them after being so
marked.
In spite of these outrages the colonies persisted in their efforts to
establish manufactures and a commerce of their own. As early as 1643
iron works were established in Massachusetts, and in 1721 the New England colonies contained six furnaces, and nineteen forges. Pennsylvania
was still more largely engaged in the manufacture of this metal, and exported large quantities of it to other colonies. By the year 1756 there
were eight furnaces and nine forges, for smelting copper, in operation in
Maryland. In 1721 the British ironnmasters endeavored to induce Parliament to put a stop to the production of iron in America, but without
success. In 1750 they were more successful. In that year an act of
Parliament forbade, under heavy penalties, the explortation of pig-iron
from America to England, ando the manufacture by the A\ mericans of bariron or steel for their own use. All the iron works in the colonies were
ordered to be closed, and any tlhat might afterwards be erected were to be
destroyed as " nuisances."
Some of the colonies had engaged in the manufacture of woollen
goods, and the making of lihats had }become a very large and profitable
business. In 1732 Parliament forbade the transportation of woollen
goods of American manufacture from one colony to another, and tlhe
same restriction was placed upon the trade in hats. As an excuse for
this outrage it was argued that as the Americans lhad an unlimited supply of beaver and other furs open to them, they would soon be able to




IIISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


supply all Europe, as well as themselves, with hats. England was unwilling that America should manufacture a single article wllich she could
supply, and in order to cripple the industry of the colonies still further
it \was enacted by Parliament that no manufacturer should employ more
than two apprentices.  In 1733 tilhe famous "Molasses Act" was passed,
iml)osing a duty on sugar, molasses, or rum  imported into any of the
British possessions from any foreign colony  The object of this act was
to benefit the British West India possessions by.compelling the North
American colonies to trade with them.
In order to enforce the various restrictions upon the. trade of the
colonies (ireat Britain established in America a large force of customs
officers, who were given unlawful powers for this purpose. Parliament
enacted that any sheriff or officer of the customs, who suspected that merchandise imported into the colony in which he was stationeld lad not
paid the duty required by law, might apply to the colonial courts for a
search warrant, or "(rit of assistance," and enter a store or private
dwelling and search for the goods he suspected of being unlawfully imported. These writs were first used in Massachusetts in 1761, and
aroused a storm of indignation from the people, who felt that their
most sacred rights were being violated by them. They were resisted,
and the case was carried before the courts in order to test their validity.
James Otis, the attorney for the crown, resigned his office rather than
argue in behalf of them, and with great eloquence pleaded the cause of
the people.  His speech created a profound impression thoughout the
colonies, and aroused a determination in the hearts of his fellow-citizens
to oppose the other enactments of Parliament which they felt to be unjust. This trial was fatal to the writs, which were scarcely ever used
afterwards. "Then and there," says John Adams, " was the first opposition to arbitrary acts of Great Britain. Then and there American
Independence was born."
The spirit of opposition soon manifested itself in the New England
colonies. The manufactures, trade, and fisheries of that section were
almost ruined, and the people had no choice but to defend themselves.
Associations were formed in all the colonies pledging themselves not to
purchase of English manufacturers anything but the absolute nece.ssities
of life. Families began to make their own linen and woollen-cloths, and
to preserve sheep for their wool. Homespun garments became the dress
of the patriot party, and foreign cloths were almost driven out of use.
It was resolved to encourage home manufactures in every possible way,
and associations were formed for this purpose. These measures became
very popular, and were adopted by the other colonies in rapid succession.




CA USES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


393


England was blind to these signs of alienation and danger, and such
of her public men as saw them regarded them as of no importance. It
was resolved to go still further, and levy direct taxes upon the colonies.
In 1763 such a proposition was brought forward by the ministers. It
was claimed by them that as the debt of England had been largely increased by the French war, which had been fought in their defence, it was
but right that they should helJp to defray the expense by paying a tax to
the English government.
In the meantime the colonies had warmly discussed the intentions of
Great Britain respecting them, and all strenuously denied the right of the
mother country to tax them without granting them some form of representation in her government. They claimed the right to have a voice in
the disposal of their property, and they regarded the (lesign of Parliament as but a new proof of the indisposition of the mother country to
treat them with justice. The feeling of the Americans towards England
at this period has been aptly described as "distrust and suspicion,
strangely mixed up with filial reverence-an instinctive sense of injury,
instantly met by the instinctive suggestion that thlere must be some constitutional reason for dloing it, or it would not be done."  In spite of the
injuries they had received at her hands the Americans were warmly
attached to England. They gloried in her triumphs, were proud to trace
their descent from her, and claimned a share in her great history and grand
achievements. Had England been wise she might have strengthened this
attachment to such an extent that the ties which bound the two countries
could never have been sundered. But England was not only careless of
the rights of Americans, she was grossly ignorant of their country and
of their character, "Few Englishmen had accurate ideas of the nature,
the extent, or even the position of the colonies. And when the Duke of
Newcastle hurried to the king with the information that Cape Breton
was an island, he did what perhaps half his colleagues in the ministry,
and more than half his colleagues in Parliament, would have done in his
place. They knew that the colonies were of vast extent; that they lay
far away beyond the sea; that they produced many things which Englislhmen wantcd to buy, and consumed many things which Englishmen
wanted to sell; that English soldiers had met England's hereditary enemies, the French, in their forests; that English sailors had beaten French
sailors on their coasts. But they did not know that the most flourishing
of these colonies had been planted by men who, prizing freedom above
all other blessings, had planted them in order to secure for themselves
and their'children a home in which they could worship God according
to their own idea of worship, and put forth the strength of their minds




394


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and of their bodies, according to their own conception of what was best
for thein here and hereafter." *  The few Americans who visited Great
Britain found themselves looked upon as aliens and inferiors; their affection for the land of their fathers was met with contempt, and they were
ridiculed as barbarians. The English colonial officials made this feeling
apparent to those Americans wlio remained at honie. Everywhere tihe
colonists saw themselves treated with injustice. The had-earned glories
of their troops in the colonial wars were denied them and claimed for
tlle English regulars, and there was scarcely a lprovincial who had borne
arms but hlad some petty insult or injury, at the hands of the royal
authorities, to complain of. Looking back over their history the Americans could not rememnber
a time when they had
not been treated with in-, justice by Great Britain.
(^  3 rThey owed that country
(4               nothing for the planting
of the colonies; that was
~:the work of their ances=                  'tors, who had been forced
to fly from  England to
— i ---  "                       escape wrong and ii jtur
-w-~rong th eml.  SThey had                           been l ft to
them t —at their a_ ectionquer their early diffieculties without aid and
-sirc to separate fromwith                      scanty syaed her  t hy
reqired a separation    fron England, who had
taken no notice of them
SA.MUEL ADAMS.              until they were sufficiently prosperous to be
profitable to her Then she had rarely laid in her courand on them butof to
wrong them.   Sh    se had pursu  ed suc h a uniformly unjus t policy towards
them that their affection for her was rapidly givin. wav to a general desire to separate from her  They owed her nothing; they were resolved
to maintain their liberties against her, Some of the leading men of the
colony had already begun to dream of the future greatness of America,
and had become convinced that the true interests of their country
required a separation from England.
In spite of this feeling England persisted in her course of folly  In
March, 1764, the Houise of Commons resolved, "that Parliament had a


* Historical View of the American Revolution. By G. \V    Greene, p. 15.




CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


595


right to tax America."  The next month (April) witnessed the enforcement of thlis claim in the passage of an act of Parliament levying duties, upon certain articles imported into America.  By the same act iron and
lumber were added to the " enumcrated articles" which could be exported
only to England. The preamble to this measure declared that its pilrpose was to raise "a revenue for the expenses of defending, protecting,
and securing his majesty's dominions in America."
The colonists protested against this act as a violation of their liberties,
and declared that they had borne their full share of the cxpense of the
wars for their defence, that they were now able to protect themselves
without pssistance from the king, and added the significant warning that
"taxation withouLt representation was t!ranny "  No one yet thought of
armed resistance; tlhe colonists were resolved to exhaust every peaceful
means of redress before proceeding to extreme measures.  As vet the
desire for separation was confined to a few far-seeing men.
Prominent almong these was Samuel Adams, of Boston, a man in
whom the loftiest virtues of the old Puritans were mingled with the
graces of more modern times. Modest and unassuming in manner, a
man of incorruptille integrity and( sincere picty, lie was insensible to fear
in the discharge of his duty  He was a deep student of constitutional
law, and w as gifted with an eloquence whlich could nmove multitudes.
His clear vision had already discerned the dangers which threatened his
country, and lhad discovered the only path 1,v \wllichl she could emerge from
them  in safety  His plan was simple: resistance, peaceable at first;.forcible if necessary  Under his guidance the pl)cole of Boston met and
protested against the new plan of taxation, and instructed their representatives in the general court to oppose it. " We claim Britisl rights,
not by charter only," said the Boston resolves; "we are born to them.
If we are taxed without our consent, our property is taken without our
consent, and then we are no more freemen, but slaves."  The general
court of Massachusetts declared "that the imposition of duties and taxes
by the Parliament of Great Britain upon a pcolple not represented in the
House of Commons is absolutely irreconcilable witl their rights."  A
committee was appointed to correspond with the other colonies, with a
view to bringing about a concerted action for the redress of grievances.
In Virginia, New York, Connecticut, and the Carolinas equally vigorous
measures were taken.
In Virginia the first indication of the intention of the people to resist the
arbitrary measures of the crown was given in a matter insignificant in itself,
but clearly involving the great principle at issue. In that colony tobacco
was the lawful currency, and the failure of a crop, or a rise in tlle price of




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


tobacco, made such payments often very burdensome. In the winter of
1763 the legislature passed a law autlhorizing the people of the colony to
pay their taxes and other public dues in money, at tlhe rate of twopence a
pound for the tobacco due.  The clergymen of the established church
had each a salary fixed by law at a certain number of pounds of tobacco,
and as this measure involved them in a loss they refused to acquiesce in
it, and induced Sherlock, the bishop of London, to persuade the king
to refuse the law his signature. "The riglhts of the clergy and the
authority of the king must stand or fall together" was the sound argument of the bishop. Failing
of -           the royal signaturi the lanw
was inoperative.
The matter was soon
brouo'ht to an issue in Vir(                   gin ia. The Rev Mr. Maaury,
one of the clergymel affected
whos ~.- -~           -by the law, brought a suit to
recover damages, or the difference between twopence per
-- '-,               -pound and the current market
price of tobacco, which was
cai  much higher. This was popularly known as the "Parsons' Cause." It was a clearly
joined issue between the right.
of the people to make their
other.  The "parsons" secured the best talent in the colony for the prosecution of their claims;
the cause of tlhe "people" was confided to a young man of twenty-seven,
wvhose youth was supp)lemented by the additional disadvantages of being
poor and lunlkllOWnl. He was Patrick Henry, the son of a plain farmer,
and a native of the county of Hanover  He had received but little education, as his ftther's straitened circumstances had compelled him to put
his son to the task of earning his bread at the early age of fifteen years.
He entered a country store, and the next year went into business with his
elder brother, William, who being too indolent to attend to l)usiness left
the store to the management, or rather the mismauagement of Patrick.
Tlhe young man was brinmming over with good nature, and could never find
it in his heart to refiuse any one credit, and was too kind-hearted to press




CA USES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


unwilling debtors to payment. He let the store "manage itself," and
amused himself by studying the character of his customers, and with his
flute and violin. He was also a great reader, and read every work he
could buy or borrow. The store survived about a year, and the next two
or three years were passed by Patrick in settling its affhirs. At the age
of eighteen he married, and began life as a farmer. He soon grew tired
of this pursuit, and selling his farm once more engaged in mercantile
life. It was not suited to him, nor he to it. He passed his days in reading, this time giving his attention to works of history and philosophy.
Livy was his favorite, and he read it through at least once a year for
many years. His second mercantile enterprise ended in bankruptcy in a
few years, and in extreme want he determined to try the law  le obtained
a license to practice after a six weeks' course of study, and entered upon
his new career utterly ignorant of its duties. It is said that he could not
then draw up the simplest legal paper without assistance. He was then
twenty-four years old, but it was not until he had reached the age of
twenty-seven that he obtained a case worthy of his powers; for he had
genius, and it only required the prol)er circumstances to draw it olt. He
had passed days in communion with nature in his frequent hunting and
fishing excursions, and had drunk deeply of the wisdom she imparts to
her votaries. He had studied men with the eve of a master, and he had
at last fallen into the position from which he could rise to his true place
among the leading spirits of the age. In the case with which he was
now intrusted, a decision of the court on a demurrer, in favor of the claims
of the clergy, had left nothing undetermined but the amount of damages
in the cause which was pending.
"The array before Mr. Henry's eyes," says his biographer, William
Wirt, "was now most fearful. On the bench sat more than twenty
clergymen, the most learned men in the colony, and the most capable, a:4
well as the severest critics before whom it was possible for him to lhave
made his debut. The court-house was crowded with an overwhelming
multitude, and surrounded with an immense and anxious throng, lwho,
not finding room to enter, were endeavoring to listen without, in the
deepest attention. But there was something still more awfully disconcerting than all this; for in the chair of the presiding magistrate sat no other
person than his own father  Ir, Lyons opened the cause very briefly: in
the way of argument he did nothing more than explain to the jury that
the decision upon the demurrer had put the act of 1750 entirely out of
the way, and left the law of 1748 as the only standard of their damages;
he then concluded with a highly wrought eulogium on the benevolence
of the clergy."




IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


When it came Patrick Henry's turn to speak, he rose awkwardly, amid
a profound silence. No one had ever heard him speak, and all were
anxious to see how he would acquit himself. He clutched nervously at
his papers, and faltered out his opening sentences with a degree of con;fusion which threatened every moment to put an end to his effort. The
people watched their champion in sorrow and indignation; tihe clergy
exchanged glances of triumph, and eyed the speaker with contempt; while
his father, overcome with shame, seemed ready to drop from his chair.
But suddenly there came a change over the young advocate. Warming
with his subject, he threw off his embarrassment and awkwardness, and
stood erect and confident. His look of timidity gave place to one of
command; his countenance glowed with the fire of genius, and startled
the gazers by the aspect of majesty which it assumed for the first time.
His tones grew clear and bold, his action graceful and commanding, and
the astounded jury and audience were given a display of eloquence such
as was without a parallel in the history of the colony. Henry knew that
the case was against him, but lie pleaded the natural right of Virginia to
make her own laws independently of the king and Parliament. He
proved the justness of the law; he drew a striking picture of the character
of a good king, who should be the father of his people, but who becomel
their tyrant and oppressor, and forfeits his claim to obedience when he
annuls just and good laws. The opposing counsel cried out at this bold
declaration, " He has spoken treason," but was silenced by the excited
throng.
"They say," says \Mr Wirt, " that the people, whose countenances had
fallen as he arose, liad heard but a very few sentences before they began
to look up; then to look at each other in surprise, as if doubting the evidence of their own senses; then, attracted by some gesture, struck by
some majestic attitude, fascinated by the spell of his eye, the charm of his
emphasis, and the varied and commanding expression of his countenance,
they could look away no more. In less than twenty minutes they might
be seen in every part of the house, on every bench, in every window,
stooping forward from their stands, in death-like silence; their features
fixed in amazement and awe, all their senses listening and riveted upon
the speaker, as if to catch the last strain of some heavenly visitant. The
mockery of the clergy was soon turned into alarm, their triumph into
confusion and despair, and at one burst of his rapid and overwhelming
invective, they fled from the bench in precipitation and terror. As for
the father, such was his surprise, such his amazement, such his rapture,
that, forgetting where he was, and the character which he was filling,
tears of ecstasy streamed down his cheeks without the power or inclination
to repress them."




CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


399


The jury brought in a verdict of one penny damages for the "parsons,"
and the court overruled the motion of their counsel for a new trial.
Henry from that moment took his place among the leaders of the patriot
party in Virginia. He had struck a chord which responded in every
American heart; he had denied the right of the king to make laws for
the colonies.
The remonstrance of Massachusetts was followed by similar appeals
from Connecticut, New York, Rhode Island, and Virginia. The petition of New York was couched in such strong terms that no member of
Parliament could be found bold enough to present it. These remonstrances were unheeded by Parliament, which pronounced them "absurd" and " insolent."  That body persisted in its determination to tax
the colonies, and Grenville, the prime minister, warned the Americans that in a contest            -
with Great Britain they could expect nothing  /   '  i
but defeat. He announced the intention of
the English government to levy the taxes,
and graciously added that if the colonies preferred any special form of taxation, their
wishes would be met as far as possible. In
March, 1765, the measure known as the \
"Stamp Act" passed the House of Commons by a vote of five to one, and was      '                /
adopted almost unanimously by the House
of Lords.  It met with a warm opposition     GEORGE THE THIRD
in the Commons from the friends of America,
prominent among whom was Colonel Barr6, who had served with Wolfe
in America, and had learned to appreciate the American character. The
measure received the royal signature at once. The poor king would have
signed any thing he was bidden-he was insane. The act imposed a
duty on all paper, vellum, and parchment used in the colonies, and required that all writings of a legal or business nature should be made on
"stamped paper;" otherwise they were declared null and void.
In order to enforce the "Stamp Act," Parliament, two months later,
passed "the Quartering Act." It authorized the ministers to send as
many troops as they should see fit to America, to enforce submission to
the acts of Parliament. Wherever these troops should be stationed, it
should be the duty of the people, at their own expense, to furnish them
with quarters, fuel, bedding, cider or ruin, candles, soap, "and other
necessaries."
The news of the passage of these acts produced the most intense ex



400


IISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


citement ill America. The general assembly of Virginia was in session
when the news was received in May. The royalist leaders were amazed
at the folly of the ministry, but deemed it best to take no action in the
matter.  Patrick Henry, now a member of the assembly, rose in his
place and offered a series of resolutions, declaring that the people of Virginia were bound to pay only such taxes as should be levied by their own
assembly, and that all who maintained the contrary should be regarded
as enemies of the liberties of the colony. These resolutions provoked an
exciting debate, in which Henry in a magnificent oration exposed the
tyranny of the British government, and stirred the hearts of the burgesses with a determination to resist. "Caesar had his Brutus," exclaimed the orator in one of his loftiest flights, "Charles the First his
Cromwell, and George the Third -."   The assembly was in an uproar.
"Treason! treason!" shouted the speaker. A few joined in the cry, but
the majority waited in breathless suspense the completion of the sentence
of Henry, who, fixing his eye upon tile speaker, added in a tone which
was peculiar to himself, "may profit by their example. If that be
treason, make the most of it."  The resolutions were adopted by a large
majority. The next day, during Henry's absence, the timid assembly
rescinded some of the resolves, and modified the others. The assembly,
for thus daring to exercise its right of expressing its opinion, was at once
dissolved by the governor; but too late to prevent its action from producing its effect. Copies of the resolutions of Henry were forwarded to
Philadelphia, where they were printed and circulated through the colonies. They aroused the drooping spirits of the people, and it was resolved everywhere that the stamps should not be used in America.
The general court of Massachusetts ordered that the courts should not
require the use of stamps in conducting their business; and in June, before
the Virginia resolutions reached Boston, issued a circular inviting all the
colonies to send delegates to a Congress to be held at New York in
October. In the meantime associations were organized in all the colonies
as far south as Maryland, called "Sons of Liberty," for the purpose of
stopping the use of stamps. The people were resolved to take the matter
in their own hands. In Boston the mob attacked the house of Oliver,
the secretary of the colony, who had been appointed to distribute the
stamps, and compelled him to resign. They-also attacked the houses of
some of the most prominent supporters of the ministry, but the patriots
sincerely deplored and condemned these violent proceedings. At Wethersfield, Connecticut, five hundred farmers seized Jared Ingersol, the
stamp officer for that colony, compelled him to resign, and then to remove
his hat and give "three cheers for liberty, property, and no stamps."




CA USES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


401


Similar scenes were enacted in the other colonies, expressive of the determination of the people to resist the measures of the crown.
On the 7th of October, 1765, the First Colonial Congress met at New
York. It was composed of delegates from the colonies of Massachusetts,
Rhode Island, Connecticut, Pennsylvania, Maryland, South Carolina,
New York, and New Jersey. New Hampshire, though not represented
by a delegate, gave her support to its measures, and Georgia formally
signified her acceptance of the work of this body  Timothy Ruggles, of
Massachusetts, was chosen president. The session extended over three
weeks, and resulted in the adoption of a" Declaration of the Rights and
Grievances of the Colonies;" a petition to the king; and a memorial to
both Houses of Parliament. In the Declaration of Rights the Congress
took the ground that it was a violation of their rights to tax them without
granting them a representation in the Parliament of Great Britain, and
that as such representation was impossible because of the distance between
the two countries, no taxes could be legally imposed upon the colonies but
b)y their own assemblies. The measures of the Congress were, as soon as
possible, indorsed by all the colonial assemblies, and thus the colonies
were drawn into that union which, in their own language, became "a
bundle of sticks, which could neither lbe bent nor broken."
At length the 1st of November arrived, the day on which the Stamp
Act was to go into operation. Not a man could be found to execute the
law, all the stamp officers having resigned through fear of popular violence. Governor Colden, of New York, declared he was resolved to have
the stamps distributed, but the people of the city warned him that he
would do so at his peril, and burned him in effigy  Colden became
alarmed at these demonstrations, and on the 5th of November delivered
the stamps to the mayor and council of New York. In all the colonies
the 1st of November was observed as a day of mourning. Bells were
tolled, flags hung at half-mast, and business suspended. The merchants
of New York, Boston, and Philadelphia united in an agreement to import no more goods from England, to countermand the orders already
sent out, and to receive no goods on commission until the Stamp Act
should be repealed. Their action was promptly sustained by the people,
who pledged themselves to buy no articles of English manufacture, and to
encourage home productions. Circulars were sent throughout the colonies urging the people to unite in such action, and were heartily responded
to. Business went on without the use of stamps, and the courts ignored
them in their proceedings.
The news of these proceedings should have warned the English ministers of their folly: it only made them more determined to persist in it.
26




402


IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES,


They resolved not to repeal the Stamp Act.   To comply with tlho
request of the colonists now that they had resisted the law, would, they
declared, bc simply a surrender to rebellion. " Sooner than make our
colonies our allies," said one of their number, " I would wish to see them
returned to their primitive deserts."  The friends of America, led by the
aged and infirm William Pitt, made a determined effort to procure the
repeal of the Stamp Act, and they were now supported by all the influence
of the English merchants, who found their trade rapidly falling off in
consequence of the non-intercourse resolves adopted by the American,


STAMP ACT OFFICIAL BEATEN BY THE PEOPLE.
Swathed in flannels, Pitt proceeded to the House of Commons, and in a
speech of great vigor urged the House to repeal the obnoxious and unconstitutional measure.  In reply to Grenville, the prime minister, who
accused him of exciting sedition in America, he said, "Sir, I have been
charged with giving birth to sedition in America. Sorry I am to have
the liberty of speech in this House imputed as a crime. But the imputation will not deter me; it is a liberty I mean to exercise. The gentle



CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


403


man tells us that America is obstinate; that America is almost in rebellion.
I rejoice that America has resisted." The House started at these words,
but Pitt continued firmly, " If they had submitted, they would have voluntarily become slaves. They have been driven to madness by injustice.
My opinion is that the Stamp Act should be repealed, absolutely, totally,
immediately-"  Edmund Burke, then a rising young man, eloquently
sustained the appeal of the great commoner.
The Commons had already begun to waver, but before yielding entirely, they wished to ascertain from competent witnesses the exact temper
and disposition of the Americans. For this purpose, Benjamin Franklin,
who was residing in London at the time as the agent of several of the
colonies, was summoned before the bar of the House to give the desired
information. He appeared, in answer to the summons, on the 13th of
February, 1706. He was questioned by Lord Grenville and Charles
Townsbend, and by several friends of the ministry, and delivered his answers with firmness and clearness. He told them that the colonists could
not pay for the stamps, as there was not enough gold and silver in the
colonies for that purpose; that they had incurred more than their share
of the expense of the last war, for which Great Britain had in no way
reimbursed them; that they were still burdened with heavy debts contracted in consequence of this war; that they were well disposed towards
Great Britain before 1763, and considered Parliament as " the great bulwark and security of their liberties and privileges; but that now their
temper was much altered, and their respect for it lessened; and if the act
is not repealed, the consequence would be a total loss of the respect and
affection they bore to this country, and of all the commerce that depended
on that respect and affection."  He startled the House by declaring that
in a few years America would be amply able to supply herself with all
the necessities of life then furnished her by Great Britain. "I do not
know," said he, "a single article imported into the northern colonies but
what they can either do without or make themselves. The people will
spin and work for themselves, in their own houses. In three years there
may be wool and manufactures enough."  "If the legislature," he was
asked, ('should think fit to ascertain its right to lay taxes, by any act
laying a small tax, contrary to their opinion, would they submit to pay
the tax?"  "An internal tax," he replied, "how small soever, laid by
the legislature here, on the people there, will never be submitted to. They
will oppose it to the last. The people will pay no internal tax by Parliament."  " May they not," asked a friend of Grenville, " by the same interpretation of their common rights, as Englishmen, as declared by Magna
Charta and the Petition of Right, object to the Parliament's right of ex



404


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ternal taxation?" *  "They never have hitherto," answered Franklin,
*promptly. "Many arguments have been lately used here to show them
that there is no difference, and that if you have no right to tax them internally, you have none to tax them externally, or make any other law
to bind them. At present they do not reason so; but in time they may be
convinced(1 by these arguments."
Franklin's testimony was conclusive. The Stamp Act was repealed
on the 18th of March, 1766, not because it was acknowledged by England as a measure of injustice, but because it could not be enforced without a collision with the colonies, which the ministry were not as yet
prepared for. The people of London greeted the repeal with great joy
Bonfires were lighted, bells were rung, the city was illuminated, and the
shipping in the Thames was decorated with flags. The news was sent by
special messengers to the nearest ports, in order that it might reach
America with as little delay as possible.
In America the news of the repeal of the Stamp Act was received
with the greatest joy  The bells were rung in the principal cities, the
imprisoned debtors were released from captivity, the associations for nonintercourse with England were dissolved, and everywhere Pitt was hailed
as the champion of the liberties of America. New York, Virginia, and
Maryland each voted a statue to him.
The rejoicings of the Americans were premature: Parliament in
repealing the Stamp Act solemnly asserted, by a bill for that purpose, its
right and power to "bind the colonies in all cases whatsoever " England
was only baffled for the moment; she had not relinquished her designs
upon the liberties of America.
The repeal of the Stamp Act brought with it the fall of Grenville's
ministry. Another was appointed under the leadership of the Marquis of
Rockingham; but it was short-lived, and soon gave way The king then
summoned William Pitt, who had in the meantime been created Earl of
Chatham, to form an independent ministry, late in 1766. This act was
regarded with great hope in America, as Pitt was universally considered
the colonists' best friend. These hopes were doomed to disappointment.
In January, 1767, Charles Townshend, the chancellor of the exchequer
in Pitt's cabinet, taking advantage of the absence of the prime minister,
declared in the House of Commons that it was his intention, at all risks,
to derive a revenue from America by laying taxes upon her, and that
he knew how to raise this revenue from her. Having thus thrown down
the gauntlet to his official chief it became evident that either the Earl of
*Chatham must relinquish the premiership, or Townshend must leave the
* The levying of duties by Parliament on merchandise imported into the colonies.




CAUSES OF T'HE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


405


cabinet. Chatham was anxious to dismiss him from the chancellorship,
but as it was known that Townshend was acting in accordance with the
sympathies and wishes of the king, no one was willing to risk his prospects by accepting the chancellorship in Townshend's place; and Chatham, unable to fill his place, was obliged to retain him. In utter
disgust Chatham withdrew from active participation in the affairs of the
cabinet, and Townshend remained supreme director of the colonial
policy of England. In May Townshend revealed his plan for raising a
revenue in America. It was to levy a duty, to be collected in the
colonies, o: certain articles of commerce, such as wine, oil, paints, glass,
paper, and lead colors, and especially upon tea, which last commodity he
declared the Americans obtained cheaper from the Dutch smugglers than
the English themselves. He was told that if he would withdraw the
army from America there would be no necessity for taxing the colonies.
He replied, "I will hear nothing on the subject; it is absolutely necessary to keep an army there."  In June, 1767, an act was passed by
Parliament levying upon the colonies the duties proposed by Townshend;
and a board of commissioners of the customs for America was established,
with its head-quarters at Boston. Soon after their appointment the
"Romney" frigate entered Boston harbor, and the new commissioners,
confident in her protection, treated the people of Boston with unbearable
haughtincss. Her officers frequently stopped the New England vessels
as they entered the harbor, and impressed seamen from their decks.
The colonies were moved with the profoundest indignation upon the
receipt of the news of the imposition of the new taxes. The colonial
newspapers, which now numbered twenty-five, were filled with appeals to
the people to stand up for their liberties. The old associations for nonimportation of English goods were revived, and on every hand the
declaration was unanimous that the Americans would neither eat, drink,
nor wear anything imported from England. The general court of
Massachusetts issued a circular letter to the other colonial assemblies
inviting them to unite with her in measures for obtaining redress.
The English ministers were greatly incensed at the new resistance of
the colonists, and in June, 1768, ordered the general court of Massachusetts to rescind its circular letter, Their demand was refused, and the
general court, led by James Otis and Samuel Adams, expressed its conviction that Parliament would better serve the cause of peace by repealing its obnoxious laws. The circular had been favorably received by the
other colonies, and Massachusetts was constantly receiving from then
encouragement to persist in her resistance to the tyranny of the ministry.
As a punishment for the refusal of the general court to rescind its circu



406


IlISTORY OF THE UNIT'ED STATE.


lar, that body was dissolved by the royal governor of Massachusetts.
Some of the other colonial assemblies that had shown sympathy with
Massachusetts were also dissolved by their respective governors.
A very bitter feeling existed between the people and the royal officials,
and, to make matters worse, at this crisis the revenue officers at Boston
seized a schooner belonging to Jolhn Hancock, one of the patriot leaders,
on the pretext that her owner had made a false entry of her cargo, which
consisted of wine. The schooner was towed under the guns of the
"Romney" frigate, and a crowd collected in Boston and attacked the


FANEUIL HALL IN 1775.


houses of the commissioners of customs, who were forced to fly to the fort
on Castle island for safety.
The report of this outbreak was transmitted to England as proof that
Massachusetts was almost in a state of insurrection, and it was resolved
by the ministry to send troops to overawe " the insolent town of Boston,"
and to hold Massachusetts as a conquered country  A regiment of regulars under General Gage reached Boston in September, 1768, but the
assembly refused to provide quarters or food, or the other necessaries
which were demanded by their commander in accordance with the
"Quartering Act."  General Gage was obliged to encamp a part of his
men on Boston Common, while he lodged the rest temporarily in Fancuil




CAUSES OF TIME AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


407


Hall. With considerable difficulty he hired several houses in Boston
and quartered his troops in them. The assembly of New York also
refused to provide food or quarters for the royal troops, and was dissolved
by the governor of the province.
The wrath of the English officials was concentrated upon Boston, which
was held as though it were a conquered city. Sentinels were placed at
the street corners, and the citizens were challenged by them as they went
about their daily duties. The ill-feeling between the citizens and the
troops gave rise to several encounters between them. On the evening of
the 2d of March, 1770, a sentinel was attacked by the mob. A detachment of troops was sent to his aid, and was stoned by the mob. At
length a soldier fired his musket at the crowd and his comrades poured
in a volley, killing three and wounding five citizens. The city was thrown
THE BOSTON MASSACRE.
into an uproar, the alarm bells were rung, and crowds poured into the
streets. The danger of a general collision was very great, but the people
were persuaded to disperse upon the promise of Hutchinson, the governor, that justice should be done. This outbreak was known at the
time as "the Boston Massacre."  The next morning a meeting of the
citizens was held at Faneuil Hall. Resolutions were passed, demanding
the removal of the troops from the city to the fort on Castle island, and
the arraignment 'before the civil courts of Captain Preston, the officer
who ordered the troops to fire. The soldiers were removed from the
town as the only means of preserving the peace, and Captain Preston
and six of his men were arraigned for murder, John Adams and Josiah
Quincy, two leaders of the patriot party, undertook the defence of the
accused officer and his men in order to make sure that they should have
a fair trial. They were acquitted of murder, but two of the soldiers




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


were convicted of manslaughter. The calmness and deliberation with
whllich this trial was conducted had a happy effect in England, and
exhibited the fairness and moderation of the colonists in the most favorable light.
The British merchants now began to feel the effect of the non-importation associations of the Americans, and their trade suffered even more
than it had done in the times of the Stamp Act, in consequence of the
cessation of orders for goods from the colonies. They now began to sustain the demand of the colonists for the repeal of the unjust taxes. Lord
North, who was now prime minister, was willing to grant their demand,
and to remove all the taxes except the duty on tea, which he retained at
the express command of the king, who had now recovered his reason, and
was the real director of the policy of his government. George III.
held on with the most stubborn tenacity to the assertion of his right to
tax the colonies, and insisted ("that there should be always one tax, at
least, to keep up the right of taxing."  This concession was made ia
May, 1770, and for nearly a year there was a lull in the excitement.
The matter was not settled, however, for the Americans had not resisted
the amount of the tax, but the imposition of any tax at all. They were
contending for a principle, not for the saving of a few dollars.
The bad feeling which was rapidly growing up between the colonists
and the mother country was greatly increased by the injustice and annoyance heaped upon the colonists by the royal officials. Almost every
colony had to complain of these outrages, and the king's officers seemed
to think they could not do their cause better service than by exasperating
the Americans. In New York the people had erected a liberty pole in
the fields, now the City Hall Park. One night in January, 1770, a party
of soldiers from the fort cut dowvn the pole. This act was bitterly resented
by the citizens, and frequent quarrels occurred between them and the
troops, though there was no actual bloodshed.
Early in 1772 the armed schooner "Gaspd" was stationed in Narragansett bay to enforce the revenue laws. Her commander, Lieutenant
Dudingston, undertook to execute his orders in the most insulting and
arbitrary manner. Market boats and other vessels passing the "Gasp6"
were compelled to lower their colors to her, and armed parties from the
schooner were sent ashore on the neighboring islands, and carried off
such provisions as they desired. Complaint was made by the citizens of
Providence to the governor of Rhode Island, who referred the matter to
the chief justice, Hopkins, for his opinion. The chief justice declared
"that any person who should come into the colony and exercise any
authority by force of ar.ms, without showing his commission to the gov



CAUSES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


409


ernor, and, if a custom-house officer, without being sworn into his office,
was guilty of a trespass, if not piracy." It was clear from the opinion
of the chief justice that Dudingston was exceeding his authority, and the
governor sent a sheriff on board the " Gasp6 " to ascertain by what orders
the lieutenant acted. Dudingston referred the matter to the admiral at
Boston, whllo replied: "The lieutenant, sir, has done his duty. I shall
give the king's officers directions that they send every man taken in
molesting them to me. As sure as the people of Newport attempt to
rescue any vessel and any of them are taken I will hang them as pirates."
The insolence of the admiral caused even more indignation than the
outrages of Dudingston, and the citizens of Rhode Island resolved to
take the matter into their own hands at the earliest opportunity  On the
9th of June, 1772, the Providence packet, a swift sailer, was passing up
the bay when she was hailed by the "Gasp4."  She paid no attention to
the hail, and being of light draught stood in near the shore. The
"Gasp6" gave chase, and, attempting to follow her, ran aground on
Namquit, a short distance below Pautuxet. The tide falling soon, left
her fast. The news of her disaster was conveyed to Providence by the
packet, and a plan was at once matured for her destruction. On the
following night a party of men in six or seven boats, led by John Brown,
a leading merchant of Providence, Captain Abraham Whipple of Providence, Simeon Potter of Bristol, and others, left Providence and dropped
down towards the position of the "Gasp6."  They were discovered as
they approached, and were lailed by Dudingston. One of the party in
the boats fired and Dudingston fell wounded. The schooner was then
boarded without opposition, her crew were set ashore, and the " Gasp6"
was set on fire and burned to the water's edge. A large reward was
offered for the perpetrators of this bold act. All were known in Providence; but in spite of this, the royal officials were not able to secure the
apprehension of any of them. The secret was faithfully kept.
The non-importation associations had, upon the repeal of the duties we
have mentioned, limited their opposition to the use of tea, and the East
India Company in England found itself burdened with an enormous
stock of tea which it could not dispose of as usual in consequence of the
cessation of sales in America. The company therefore proposed to pay
all the duties on the tea in England, and ship it to America at its own
risk, hoping that the fact of there being no duty to pay in America would
induce the colonists to purchase it. This plan met the determined opposition of the king, who would not consent to relinquish the assertion of
his right to tax the Americans. Lord North could not understand that
it was not the amount of the tax, but the principle involved in it, that




IIlSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


was opposed by the Americans, and he proposed that the East India
Company should pay three-fourths of the duty in England, leaving the
other fourth-about three pence on a pound-to be collected in America.
His lordship was told plainly that the Americans would not purchase the
tea on these conditions; but he answered: "It is to no purpose the
making objections, for the king will have it so. The king means to try
the question with the Americans."
There were men in America who fully understood that the king meant
"to try the question with the Americans," and were willing the trial
should come. Samuel Adams was satisfied as to what would be the
result, and was diligently working to prepare the people for it. He had
the satisfaction of seeing public opinion in America daily assume a more
enlightened and determined condition. A convention of all the colonies
for taking action for a common resistance seemed to him a necessity, and
he sent forth circulars to the various provinces urging them to assert
their rights upon every possible occasion, and to combine for mutual
support and protection.
The news of the agreement between the East India Company and the
government for the exportation of tea increased the determination of the
colonists to resist the tax. It was also resolved that the tea should
neither be landed nor sold. A meeting was held in Philadelphia and
resolutions were passed requesting those to whom the tea was consigned
"to resign their appointments." It was also resolved that whosoever
should "aid or abet in unloading, receiving, or vending the tea" should
be regarded " as an enemy to his country  Meetings of a similar nature
were held in New York and Charleston, and similar resolutions were
adopted. A fast-sailing vessel reached Boston about the 1st of November,
1773, with the news that several ships laden with tea had sailed from
England for America. On the 3d of November a meeting was held at
Faneuil Hall, and on motion of Samuel Adams, it was unanimously
resolved to send the tea back upon its arrival. A man in the crowd
cried out: "The only way to get rid of it is to throw it overboard."
The meeting invited the consignees of the tea to resign their appointments.
Two of these men were sons of Governor Hutchinson, who was intensely
hated by the people of Massachusetts because of his double-faced policy,
which had been detected and exposed by Dr. Franklin. Until this discovery Hutchinson had induced the people of Massachusetts to believe
that he was their best friend, when in reality he had suggested to the
British government nearly all the unjust measures that had been directed
against that colony.
The first of the tea ships reached Boston on the 25thl of November,




CA USES OF TIlE AMJERICAN REVOLUTION.


1773. A meeting of the citizens was held at Faneuil Hall, and it was
ordered that the vessel should be moored to the wharf, and a guard of'
twenty-five citizens was placed over her to see that no tea was removed.
The owner of the vessel agreed to send the cargo back if the governor
would give his permit for the vessel to leave Boston; This the governor
withheld, and in the meantime two other slips arrived with cargoes of
tea and were ordered to anchor beside the first. The committee appointed
by the ineeting of citizens waited on the consignees, but obtained no
satisfaction from them. The law required that the tea must be landed
within twenty days after its arrival, or be seized for non-payment of
duties. The consignees and the governor had determined to wait until
the expiration of this time, when the royal authorities would seize the
tea and remove it beyond the reach of the citizens. The duties could
then be paid and the tea landed and sold. Their intentions were fully
understood by the patriots. When the committee made its report to the
meeting of citizens, it was received in a dead silence, and the meeting
adjourned without taking any action upon it.  This ominous silence
alarmed the consignees. Hutchinson's two sons fled to the fort and
placed themselves under the protection of the troops, while the governor
quietly left the city
On the 16th of December another meeting was held. The next day
the time allowed by law would expire and the tea would be placed
under the protection of the fort and the armed ships in the harbor. The
owner had gone to see the governor, at Milton, to obtain a pass for his
vessels, without which they could not leave the harbor, This the
governor refused on the ground that he had not a proper clearance. He
returned to Boston late in the evening and reported the result of his
mission to the meeting. Then Samuel Adams arose and gave the signal
for the action that had been determined upon by saying: " This meeting
can do nothing more to save the country "
Instantly a shout rang through the room, and a band of forty or fifty
men "dressed like Mohawk Indians," with their faces blackened to prevent recognition, hastened from the meeting to the wharf where the ships
were moored. A guard was posted to prevent the intrusion of spies, and
the ships were at once seized. Three hundred and forty-two chests of
tea were broken open and their contents poured into the water  The
affair was witnessed in silence by a large crowd on the shore. When the
destruction of the tea was completed, the "Indians " and the crowd dispersed to their homes.  Paul Revere was despatched by the patriot
leaders to carry the news to New York and Philadelphia.
At New York and Philadelphia the people would not allow the tea to




412


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


be landed, and at Charleston it was stored in damp cellars, where the
whole cargo was soon ruined. At Annapolis a ship and its cargo were
burned; the owner of the vessel himself setting fire to the ship.
The British government was greatly incensed at the refusal of the
colonists to allow the tea to be landed, and determined to compel the
Americans to subml)it to the authority of Great Britain. Boston, in particular, was to be made a terrible example to the rest of the colonies. A
bill was introduced into Parliament, and passed by a majority of four to
one, closing the port of Boston to all commerce, and transferring the seat
of government to Salem. The British ministry boasted that with ten
DESTRUCTION OF TEA IN BOSTON HARBOR.
thousand regulars they could " n march through the continent," and they
were resolved to bring America to her knees and make her confess her
fault in dust and humiliation. In addition to the Boston Port Bill,
Parliament passed other measures of equal severity  By one of these the
royal officers were ordered to quarter the troops sent out from England
on all the colonies at the people's expense; another provided that if any
officer, in the execution of the Quartering Act, should commit an act of
violence, he should be sent to England for trial. The deliberate purpose
of this last act was to encourage the military and other officials to acts
of violence and oppression by shielding themi from   punishment inl
America. The liberties of the American people were thus placed at the




CA USES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


413


mercy of every petty official bearing a royal commission. Another law,
known as the " Quebec Act," granted unusual concessions to the Roman
Catholics of Canada, in order to attach tlhem to the royal cause in the
event of a.collision betw3en England and the colonies.
Boston was largely dcpendent upon her commerce, and the closing of
her harbor entirely destroyed her trade and brought great loss and
suffering to her people. The outrage to which she was thus subjected
was resented by the whole country, and evidences of sympathy poured in
upon her from every quarter. Salem refused to allow the establishment
of the seat of government within her limits, and offered the use of her
port to the merchants of Boston free of clharge. MIal'blchead made a
similar offer. Large numbers of the people of Boston were thrown out
of employment by the closing of Boston harbor, and their families, left
helpless, suffered considerably.  The various colonies came forward
promptly to their relief. The neighboring towns sent in provisions and
other necessaries of life, and money was subscribed in other parts of the
country  South Carolina sent to Boston two hundred barrels of rice, and
promised eight hundred more when they were wanted. North Carolina
sent a contribution of ~2000 in money, and money and provisions were
sent from Virginia and Maryland. In the former colony, the farmers
beyond the Blue Ridge raised a contribution of one hundred and thirtyseven barrels of flour and sent it to Boston. Even the city of London
sent $150,000 to the relief of Boston. Cheered by these evidences of
sympathy, Boston resolved to hold out to the end.
One of the first and most determined of the colonies in expressing her
sympathy for Massachusetts was Virginia. Upon the receipt of the news
of the closing of the port of Boston, the assembly of this colony passed
resolutions of sympathy with Massachusetts, and appointed the 1st of
June, the day designated for the enforcement of the Port Bill, as a day
of fasting and prayer. For this bold action the governor dissolved the
assembly. It met the next day-May 25th-in spite of Governor Dunmore's prohibition, in the coffee room of the Raleigh Tavern, and declared
that an attack on Massachusetts was an attack on every other colony and
ought to be opposed by the united wisdom of all. The assembly urged
that a general congress of all the colonies should be held to take united
action for the redress of grievances, and a committee was appointed to
correspond with the other colonies for the purpose of bringing about this
congress. The 1st of June was rigidly observed in Virginia as a fast
day. George Mason charged his family to be careful to attend church
on that day clad in mourning.
In the meantime Hutchinson had been replaced as governor of Massa



414


HISTORY OF TTE UNITED STATES.


chusetts by General Gage, the commander-in-chief of the British army in
North America. He landed in Boston on the 17th of May, 1774, and
was well received by the people. He was a man of mild character and
great good-nature, and utterly unfit for the task of coercing a free people.
The determined attitude of the patriots bewildered him. He brought
with him instructions for " the seizure and condign punishliielnt of Samuel
Adams, John HIancock, Joseph Warren, and other leading patriots; but
he stood in such dread of them that he never so much as attempted their
arrest." He was greatly perplexed to know how to manage the people
of Boston. It was clear to him that they intended to resist the injustice
of the mother country, but they kept so carefully within the law that he
could not take hold of their acts. They held meetings and discussed
their grievances, but violated no
law, and discountenanced violence
of all kinds. He was authorized
by the British  government to
fire upon the colonists whenever
he should see fit; but their prmdent and peaceful course gave
Il him no opportunity for so doing.
The government at length undertook to put a stop to the town
meetings of the Americans by: forbidding them   to hold such
meetings after a certain day
They evaded this law by convoking the meetings before the desigjolI HANCOCK.           alive" by adjourning them from
time to time. Faneuil Hall and
the Old South Church were the favorite places of meeting; but many of
these assemblies were held under the Liberty Tree.
In the meantime the recommendation of Virginia for a general congress was accepted by the other colonies, and measures were set on foot
to bring it about. The need of such an assembly, which should represent
the whole country, was becoming more and more apparent every day.
In the various colonies delegates were chosen, and it was agreed, at the
instance of the legislature of Massachusetts, that the congress should
meet in Philadelphia on the 5th of September, 1774. Martin, the royalist governor of Georgia, prevented that colony from choosing delegates
to the congress, and General 'Gage attempted a similar interference with




CA USES OF THE AMAERICAN REVOLUTION.


tile general court of Massachusetts. Samuel Adams, as usual, had anticipatedl him, however  On the 17th of June, lhaving privately ascertained the sentiments of the members, he locked the door of the room in
which the meeting of the assenbly was held, and so kept out the
governor's secretary, who came to dissolve the session, and who knocked
in vain for admission.  Thus safe from  executive interference, the
general court proceeded to appoint its delegates to the congress, and to
uikce provision for their support. This accomplished, the doors were
opened and the members submitted to the dissolution pronounced by
Governor Gage.
The act of Parliament by which the British government undertook to
prohibit the town meetings of Massachusetts was known as the " Regulating Act."  It was introduced into Parliament by Lord North in April,
and received the royal assent in May, 17 54.  It was an infamous
measure. It annulled the charter of the colony, and " without previous
notice to Massachusetts, and without a hearing, it arbitrarily took away
rights and liberties which the people had enjoyed from the foundation of
the colony, except in the evil days of James II."  All the power of the
colony was concentrated in the hands of the royal governor by conferring
upon him the appointment of all the courts of justice and every official
connected with them. The courts were all to be remodelled in the interest of the king, and Gage at once set to work to appoint the new judges.
The whole colony united in a determined resistance to them. In many
of the towns the citizens would not allow the new courts to be opened,
and in Boston no man could be found to serve as a juror in the courts
appointed for that city  A meeting of the citizens of Boston was held
at Faneuil Hall on the 26th of August, 1774, and was attended by delegates from the counties of Worcester, Middlesex, and Essex. It adopted
a series of resolutions denying the authority of Parliament to change any
of the laws of the province, and declared that the new government set up
by Gage under the Regulating Act was unconstitutional, and that the new
officers, should they attempt to act, would become the enemies of the
province although they bore the commission of the king. In order to
provide for the safety of the colony a provincial congress with large
executive powers was advised by the convention. Gage found himself
unable to enforce the new laws. "The chief justice and his colleagues,
repairing in a body to the governor, represented the impossibility of
exercising their office in Boston or in any other part of the province; the
army was too small for their protection; and besides, none would act as
jurors. Thus the authority of the new government, as established by
act of Parliament, perished in the presence of the governor, the judges,




IHISTORlY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and tlhe army." *  T]hs defeated Gage began to increase the niumbr of
troops at Boston.
On the 1st of September Gage sent a detachment to Quarry Hill, near
Charlestown, and seized tlhe public magazine in which the province of
Massachusetts kept its powder for its militia, and brought it to Boston.
The news of this seizure roused the people of the surrounding counties to
a high state of indignation. A body of several thousand of the best
citizens of Middlesex, "leaving their guns in the rear," marched to Caimbridge to protest against the outrage.  They compelled Danforth, a
county judge and a member of Gage's council, Phipps, the high sheriff,
and Oliver, the lieutenant-governor, to resign their places.  They
attempted no violence, and inasmuch as Gage had acted within the letter
of the law in removing thle p)owder, dispersed quietly, satisfied for the
time with their protest. Their demonstration thoroughly alarmed Gage,
who kept the troops in Boston under arms all night, posted cannon to
command the approaches to the town, and doubled all the guards. At
the same time he wrote to England for reinforcements.
The news of the seizure of the Massachusetts powder spread rapidly
thlrough the province and into the adjoining colonies. The seizure was
made on Thursday morning, and by Saturday morning twenty thousand
men were under arms and advancing upon Boston. They were stopped
by expresses from the patriots at Boston, but their prompt action showed
the spirit of the province. When the news reached Israel Putnam, in
his home in Connecticut, the old hero at once called on the militia to go
with him to the aid of Boston, where the report said the people had been
fired on by the royal troops and shipping. His call was answered by
thousands, but later advices from Boston put a stop to the march. "But
for counter intelligence," wrote Putnam to the patriots at Boston, "we
should have had forty thousand men, well equipped and ready to march
this morning. Send a written express to the foreman of this committee
when you have occasion of our martial assistance; we shall attend your
summons, and shall glory in having a share in the honor of ridding our
country of the yoke of tyranny which our firefathers have not borne,
neither will we. And we much desire you to keep a strict guard over
the remainder of your powder, for that must be the great means, under
God, of tlhe salvation of our country "
The excitement was not without its good results, however, It led
every man to examine the condition of his means of resistance, and to
supply his deficiencies in arms and equipments. The royal authority
* Bancroft.




CA USES OF THE,4MRICAN RE VOLUTION.


417


was at an end outside of Boston, and active royalists found it best to
seek safety within that city
The general congress, or, as it is better known, the Old Continental
Congress, met in Carpenter's Hall, in Philadelphia, on the 5th of Septembler, 1774. It numbered fifty-five members, consisting of delegates
from every colony save Georgia, whose governor hlad prevented the election of delegates. Among the members were many of the most eminent
men in the land. From Virginia came George Washington, Patrick
Henry, and Richard Henry Lee; from Massachusetts Samuel Adams
and John Adams; from New York Philip Livingston, John Jay, and
William Livingston; from Rhode Island the venerable Stephen Hopkins; from Connecticut Roger Sherman; from South Carolina Edward
CARPENTER'S HALL, PHILADELPHIA.
and John Rutledge and Christopher Gadsden; and from New Jersey the
Rev John Witherspoon, the President of Princeton College. The members of this illustrious body were not strangers to each other, though the
majority of them met now for the first time. They had corresponded
with each other, and had discussed their wrongs so thoroughly that each
was well acquainted with the sentiments of his colleagues, and all were
bound together by a common sympathy.
The congress was organized by the election of Peyton Randolph, of
Virginia, as speaker. Charles Thomson, of Pennsylvania, an Irishman
by birth, and the principal of the Quaker High School in Philadelphia,
was then chosen secretary  It was proposed to open the sessions with
27




418


HISIY)RY OF THE UNITED STA.TES.


prayer. Some of the members thought this might be inexpedient, as all
the delegates might not be able to join in the same form of worship. Up
rose Samuel Adams, in whose great soul there was not a grain of sham.
He was a strict Congregationalist. "I am no bigot," he said. "I can
hear a prayer from a man of piety and virtue, whatever may be his cloth,
provided he is at the same time a friend to his country "  On his motion
the Rev Mr Duch6, an Episcopal clergyman of Philadelphia, was invited to act as chaplain.  Mr Duch6 accepted the invitation.
When the co( gress assembled the next morning all was anxiety and
apprehension, for the rumor of the attack upon Boston, which had reached
Putnam and aroused Connecticut, had gotten as far as Philadelphia.
The chaplain opened the session by reading the thirty-fifth Psalm, which
seemed, as John Adams said, ordained by Heaven to be read that morning, and then broke forth into an extempore prayer of great fervor and
eloquence. At the close of the prayer a deep silence prevailed in the
hall. It was broken by Patrick Henry, who rose to open the day's proceedings. He began slowly and hesitatingly at first, "as if borne down
by the weight of his subject," but as he proceeded he rose grandly to the
duty of the occasion, and in a speech of masterly eloquence he recited the
wrongs of the American colonies at the hands of Great Britain, and declared that all government in America was dissolved, and urged upon the
congress the necessity of forming a new government for the colonies.
Towards the close of his speech he struck a chord which answered in
every heart. " British oppression," he exclaimed, "has effaced the boundaries of the several colonies; the distinctions between Virginians, Pennsylvanians, New Yorkers, and Newv Englanders are no more. I am not
a Virginian, but an American." The deputies were astonished at his
elequence, as well as at the magnitude of the interests with which they
were intrusted.
The congress continued its sessions for seven weeks.  It had no
authority to bind the colonies to any course; its powers were merely advisory, and it did not transcend its authority It drew up a Declaration
of Rights, in which it defined the natural rights of man to be the enjoyment of life, liberty, and property  It claimed for the Americans, as
British subjects, the right to participate in the making of their laws, and
the levying of taxes upon their own people. The right of trial by jury in
the immediate vicinity of the scene of the alleged offence, and the right
of holding public meetings and petitioning for the redress of grievances,
were solemnly asserted. A protest was entered against the maintaining
of standing armies in America without the consent of the colonies, and
against eleven specified acts passed since the opening of the reign of




CA UES OF THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


419


George III., as violative of the rights of the colonies. The declaration
concluded with the solemn warning, "To these grievous acts and measures
Americans cannot submit."
Congress then addressed itself to a plan for obtaining redress. It was
agreed to form an "American Association," whose members were to
pledge themselves not to trade with Great Britain or the West Indies, or
with persons engaged in the slave trade; not to use tea or any British
goods; and not to trade with any colony which should refuse to join the


IJ.ARBQDR OF NEW YORK IN 1875.


association. For the purpose of enforcing the objects of this association
committees were to be appointed in the various parts of the country to see
that its provisions were carried into effect.
Other papers were adopted by the congress, setting forth its views
more clearly. A petition to the king was prepared by John Dickinson,
of Pennsylvania, who also drafted an address to the people of Canada.
A memorial to the people of the colonies was written by Richard Henry
` Lee, of Virginia, and an address to the people of Great Britain by John
Jay, of New York. These papers were forwarded to England to be laid




420


HIS'TO R Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


before the British government, and on the 26th of October the congress
adjourned to meet on the 10th of May, 1775.
In January, 1775, Lord North presented the papers adopted by congress
to the House of Commons, and at the same time they were laid before
the House of Lords by Lord Dartmouth. The venerable Earl of Chatham
made this the oc(casion of a p)owerful appeal to the majority in Parliament
to reverse their arbitrary course towards the Americans before it should
be too late. Referring to the papers laid before the House, he said:
" When vour lordships look at the papers transmitted us from America,
when you consider their decency, firmness and wisdom, you cannot but
respect their clause and wish to make it your own. For myself, I must
avow, that in all nm reading-and I have read Thucydides, and have
studied and admired the master states of the world-for solidity of
reason, force of sagacity, and wisdom of conclusion under a complication
of difficult circumstances, no nation or body of men can stand in preference to the general congress at Philadelphia. The histories of Greece and
Rome give us nothing equal to it, and all attempts to impose servitude
upon such a mighty continental nation must be in vain. We shall be
forced ultimately to retract; let us retract while we can, not when we
must. These violent acts must be repealed; you will repeal them; I
pledge myself for it, I stake my reputation on it, that you will in the end
repeal them. Avoid, then, this humiliating necessity"
The king was furious when the words of the greatest statesman of his
kingdom were repeated to him. Neither the wisdom nor the eloquence
of Chatham could turn the king or the ministers from their mad course.
They had but one plan for America now. She must submit humlbly to
their will; if she should resist, she must be crushed into submission.
rThe king meant to try the question with the Americans.




CHAPTER XXVI


THE AMERICAN       REVOLUTION
Gage fortifies Boston Neck-He summons the General Court-Recalls his ProclamationThe Provincial Congress of Massachusetts-It takes Measures for Defence-The Militia
Organized-The Minute MAen-Friends of America, in Elngland-Gage resolves to seize
the Stores at Concord —Midnight March of the British Troops-The Alarm given-Skirmishes at Lexington and Concord-Retreat of the British-A terrible March-Uprising
of New England-Boston Invested-Dunmore seizes the Virginia Powder-Is made to
pay for it-Uprising of thle Middle and Southern Colonies-The Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence-Capture of Ticonderoga and Crown Point-Meeting of the
Second Continental Congress-Congress resolves to sustain Massachlus.tts-Renewed
Efforts for Peace-Congress assumes the General Government of the Colonies-A Federal
Union Organized-Its Character-A Continental Army formed-George Washington
appointed Commander-in-chief-General Officers appointed-Condition of the Army
before Boston-Inaction of Gage-Battle of Breed's Hill-A glorious Defence-The
Battle equivalent to a Victory in its effects upon the Country-Arrival of Washington
at Cambridge-He takes Command of the Army-THe reorganizes the Army-Difficulties of the undertaking-The Invasion of Canada resolved upon-March of Montgomery
and Arnold-Rapid Successes of Montgomery-He captures Montreal-MAarch of
Arnold through the Wilderness-Arrival before Quebec-Forms a Junction with Montgomery-The Siege of Quebec-The Ice Forts-Failure of the Attack-Death of Montgomery-Retreat of the Americans from Canada-Lord Dunmore's War in VirginiaDestruction of Norfolk-The Thirteen United Colonies-Burning of Falmouth-Naval
Matters-Action of Great Britain-The War to be carried on-The Hessians.
HILE    the Continental Congress was in session, matters were in a
most serious state in Massachusetts.    General Gage, alarmed by
the threatening aspect of the Americans, began to fortify Boston
Nec Ncck:, the narrow peninsula which united the city with the main
land.   A regiment was stationed at these works to prevent communication between the citizens and the people in the country            The
news of this action spread rapidly     At Portsmouth, New Hampshire, a
company of volunteers seized the fort and carried off one hundred and
fifty  barrels of powder and several cannon.        At Newport forty-four
cannon   were seized   by the people and      sent to Providence for safekeeping.
In the midst of this excitement, Gage, thinking such a step might conciliate the people, summoned the general court to meet at Salemr; but
alarmed at the growing spirit of liberty, countermanded the order         The
421




HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


members of the general court met, however, at Salem, on the 5th of
October, 1774, but finding no one to organize them adjourned to Concord,
where they resolved themselves into a provincial congress, of which John
Hancock was elected president. This congress existed as the government
of the people, and was independent of the authority of the king. They
protested their loyalty to King George, and their desire for peace, and
endeavored to induce Gage to desist from fortifying Boston Neck. Gage
refused to comply with their demand, and warned them to desist
from their unlawful course. The
-=                      provincial congress paid no attention to his warning, but proceeded
to call out the militia to the number of twelve thousand. They
were allowed to remain at their
homes, but were required to be
ready for service at a minute's
warning. Hence they were known
as "Minute Men." Two com'r       mittees of safety were appointed:
one to call out the minute men
when their services were needed;
the other to supply them with
provisions and ammunition. Two
_         pgeneral officers, Artemas Ward
and  Seth  Pomeroy, were ap_        lpointed. The other New Eng-                   land colonies were invited to increase the number of minute men
to twenty thousand. The sum
of ~20,000 was voted for the.-..                      military service, and MassachuTHE MJINUTE MAN.         setts prepared for the worst. In
every colony military preparations were set on foot, and the whole of America began to prepare for the
coming storm which all thinking men now saw was close at hand.
The papers drawn up by the Continental Congress had been widely
circulated in EAngland, and had aroused a great deal of sympathy for
America, and it was hoped by many that the new Parliament, which met
in January, 1775, would see the necessity of doing justice to the colonies.
The cause of America was eloquently pleaded by the Earl of Chatham




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


423


and others, but the king and the ministers were resolved to compel the
submission of the Americans, and the majority in Parliament sustained
them. A measure known as the "New England Restraining Bill" was introduced by Lord North, which deprived the people of New England of
the privilege of fishing on the banks of Newfoundland. In March news
arrived that all the colonies had indorsed the action of the Continental
Congress, and had pledged themselves to support it. To punish them the
provisions of the Restraining Bill were extended to every colony save
New York, Delaware, and North Carolina. These colonies were exempted in the hope of inducing them to desert the American cause. Tile
measure failed of its object; and the three favored colonies remained
firm in their support of the congress.
General Gage now resolved to take a decisive step. He learned that
the patriots had established a depot of provisions and military stores at
Concord, eighteen miles from Boston, an(l resolved to seize these supplies
at once. The military force under his command at Boston numbered
three thousand men, and he felt himself strong enough, not only to seize
these stores, but also to arrest John Hancock and Samuel Aldams, who
were lodging at Lexington. Accordingly, on the night of the 18th of
April, 1775, he detached a force of eight hundred men under LieutenantColonel Smith, and shortly before midnight had tlem (,onveved alcross
Charles river to Cambridge, from which place they began their nlarl'h to
Concord. Gage had c(llnducted the whole movement with the greatest
secrecy, but his preparations had been detected by the patriot leaders in
Boston, and Hancock and Adams had been warned of their danger.
The British had hardly embarked in their boats when two lanterns were
displayed from the tower of the Old North Church. Paul Revere, the
chosen messenger, who had been awaiting this signal, at once set off from
Charlestown and rode in haste to Lexington to warn the patriots of the
approach of the British troops. At the same time William Dawes left
Boston by the road over the Neck, and rode at full speed towards Lexington, arousing the country as he went along with his stirring tidings.
Other messengers were sent forward by these men, and the alarm spread
rapidly through the country
From Cambridge the British pushed forward rapidly towards Lexingtonl. They had not gone far when they heard in advance of them the
firing of alarm guns, and the tolling of bells. The British officers were
astonished at the rapidity with which their movement had been discovered; but they could not doubt the meaning of these signals. The
country was being aroused, and their situation was becoming serious.
Lieutenant-Colonel Smith sent a nlessenger to General Gage for reinforce



7=-.- — =                          Z-.
I - -i       - - =   m
_I_:- — _- -.              -..

how


THE BATTLE OF LEXINGTON, APRIL 19, 1775,




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


425


ments, and ordered Major Pitcairn to push forward with a part of the
force and seize the two bridges at Concord. Pitcairn obeyed his orders
promptly, and arrested every one whom he met or overtook save a countryman, who escaped and reached Lexington in time to give the alarm.
Pitcairn's division reached Lexington at daybreak on the 19th of
April. They found seventy or eighty minute men, and several other
persons, assembled on the common. They were ignorant of the intentions
of the British, and supposed they merely wished to arrest Adams and
Hancock, who had left the village upon the first alarm. As he saw the
group Pitcairn ordered his men to halt and load their muskets, and
Milllrlfl OWWEAi^                                          ],its
\_______                    _                    __ 1___
-)-.-                             -
BRITISH TROOPS ON CONCORD COMMON., called out to the Americans, "Disperse, ye villains, ye rebels, disperse;
lay down your arms; why don't you lay down your arms and disperse?"
The Americans stood motionless and silent, "witnesses against aggression; too few to resist; too brave to fly-" Pitcairn, seeing that his order
was not obeyed, discharged his pistol, and ordered his men to fire. A
few straggling shots followed this order, and then the regulars poured a
close heavy volley into the Americans, killing seven, and wounding nine
of them. Parker, the commander of the minute men, seeing that the
affair was to be a massacre instead of a battle, ordered his men to disperse.
The British then gave three cheers for their victory. In a little while
Colonel Smith arrived with the remainder of his command, and the
whnl nart.v thn Tnshofl on tnwardf (nonrd




426


HISTl'ORY OF THE UNITED STAT'ES.


The alarm  had already reached Concord, and in a little while news
was received of the massacre at Lexington. The minute men promptly
assembled on the common, near the church, and awaited the approach of
the ene!my  The minute imen from Lincoln came in at an early hour, and
a few from Acton. About seven o'clock the British were seen advancing
in two divisions, and as it was evident that they were about four times as
numerous as the Americans, the latter retreated to the summit of a hill
On the oppolsite side of the Concord river, and there awaited the arrival
of reinforcements, which were coming in from the surrounding country.
The British occupied the town, and posting a force of one hundred men
to hold the North bridge, began their search for arms and stores. The
greater lpart,of these had been secreted, but the soldiers found a few that
could not be removed, and gave the rest of their time to plundering the
houses of the town. "This slight waste of stores," says Bancroft, "was
all the advantage for which Gage precil)itated a civil war,"
Between nine and ten o'clock the American force had increased by the
arrival of the minute men from Acton, Bedford, Westford, Carlisle,
Littleton, and Chelmsford, to about four hundred and fifty  Below
them, in full view, were tlhe regulars plundering their homes, and from
the town rose the smoke of the fires the soldiers had kindled for the
destruction of the few stores they had managed.to secure. Not knowing
whether they meant to burn the town or not, the officers of the minute
mlen resolved to advance andl enter Concord. Barret, the commandingl officer, cautioned the men not to fire unless attacked. As their
approach was discovered the British began to take up the planks of the
North bridge, and to prevent this the Americans quickened their pace.
The regulars then fired a volley which killed two of the minute men.
The fire was returned, and two of the soldiers were killed and several
wounled. These volleys were followed by some desultory skirmishing,
and about noon Colonel Smith drew off his men and began to retreat by
the way he had come.
With the retreat of the British from Concord the real work of the day
began. The country was thoroughly aroused, and men came pouring in
from every direction eager to get a shot at the regulars. The road by
which the royal forces were retreating was narrow and crooked, and led
through forests and thickets, and was bordered by the stone walls which
enclosed the farms. At every step the militia and minute men hung upon
the enemy, and kept up an irregular but fatal fire upon them from
behind trees, fences, and houses. Flanking parties were thrown out to
clear the way, but without success. The number of the Americans
increased at every step. Each town took up the strife as the regulars




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


427


entered its limits. Far and wide the alarm was spreading through the
country, and the people were getting under arms. By noon a messenger
rode furiously into the distant town of Worcester and shouted the alarm.
Instantly the minute men of the town got under arms, and after joining
their minister in prayer, on the common, took up the march for Cambridge. The whole province was rising, and the enemies of the fugitive
regulars were increasing every moment.
Smith hurried his command through Lexington at a rapid rate, and a
short distance beyond the town met Lord Percy advancing to his assistance with twelve hundred infantry and two pieces of artillery. Percy
THE FIGHT AT CONCORD BRIDGE.
formed his men into a square, enclosing the fugitives, who dropped helplessly on the ground, " their tongues hanging out of their mouths like
those of dogs after a chase," and with his cannon kept the Americans at
bay He could not think of holding his position, however, and after a
halt of half an hour resumed the retreat, first setting fire to some houses
in Lexington. The fighting now became more energetic than ever.
From either side, from in front and the rear, the Americans kept up. a
constant fire upon the British, who revenged themselves b) murdering
some helpless people along the road, and burrning houses. Below West
Cambridge the British broke into a run, and at length, about sunset, succeeded in escaping across Charlestowni Neck, where they were safe under
the fire of their shipping. Had the militia from Marblehead and Salem,




IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


who were on the march, been more alert, the entire British force would
have been captured, as they were in no condition to resist a determined
attack in front.
Thle loss of the Americans during the day was forty-nine killed, thirtyfbur wounded, and five missing. The British lost in killed, wounded, and
missinlg two hunldred and seventy-three men, or more titan fell in Wolfe'w
army in the battle of.....=                       _ --      - the Heights of Abra-______            ____ __      '            ha7n.  Many of the
— _==_     officers, including
-o    -.                      Colonel Suith, were
=-_   _                 wvounded.
i  = TThe news of the
by  =___conflicts at Lexington
an                                     — '   and Concord spread
_                  rapidly thlrough New
En gland, and  was. -e         o   e     i               l sent by express messi- ngers to New York
-               and the colonies
-                 farther  south.  In
New England it produced a general upby  -                       rising of the people,
'"      /      __and in ten days Bos-,~/ib-~l]  'l eton     was blockaded
7 Cby an irregular army
-         (if twenty thousand
provincial  troops,
whose encampments
extended from RoxIWTREAT OF THE BRITISH FRoM LEXIXNTON.   bury to the Mystic
river, above Charlestown, a distance of tn miles.  John Stark, who had served with gallantry
in the old French war, was- on his way to Boston in ten minutes after he
was informed of the fihlitin-_ Israel Putnam, a veteran soldier, and as
true a hero as ever live-d, was ploughing in his field when the courier rode
by with the. tidin:_s of the battle. He left his plough, sprang on his horse,
and:after rousing' his neighbors rode fromn his home, in Connecticut, to
Cambridgz{e, without even stopping to change his clothes. The Massachusetts (_,mress took energetic measures for the support of the army




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


429


before Boston, and in a few days this force began to assume a nlore
regular character.
Matters had also reached a crisis in Virginia. On the night of tlhe
20th of April Lord Dunmore seized the powder in the magazine at \Villiarnsburg, and sent it, under guard of a party of marines, on board an
armed schooner in the James river, The inhabitants on the morning of
the 21st took arms to compel the restoration of the powder, but were persuaded to refrain from violence. In a few days the news from Lexington
and Concord was received, and it was the general belief that Dunmore's
course was only a part of a general plan to disarm the colonies. On the
2d of May Patrick Henry summoned the independent companies of
CAPTURE OF TICONDEROGA BY ALLEN.
Hanover to meet him at a certain place, and led them towards Williamsburg, determined to compel the governor to restore the powder, or pay its
full value in money. On the march they were met by a messenger from
Dunmore, who paid them the full value of the powder in money  This
money was soon after forwarded to Congress. The companies then disbanded, and returned home. Dunmore, thoroughly frightened, fled with
his family on board a man-of-war, and declared " Patrick Henry and his
associates to be in rebellion."  Afraid to meet the Virginians in an open
fight, he threatened to arm their slaves against them, and inaugurate a
general massacre.
The middle and southern colonies were prompt to follow the example




430


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of New England. The people of New York seized the provisions intended for the king's troops at Boston, shut up the custom-house, and
forbade any vessels to leave the harbor for ports or colonies acknowledging the authority of Great Britain. The arms and ammunition belonging
to the city were seized by the volunteer.s, and measures were set on foot
for a general resistance to the authority of the king. New Jersey was
equally determined, and in Pennsylvania enthusiastic meetings of citizens
resolved "to associate for the purpose of defending, with arms, their
lives, their property, and liberty"  Military companies were formed, and
trained in the exercise of arms. The people of Maryland compelled
their royalist governor to surrender to them all the arms and ammunition
of the province. The militia officers of South Carolina at once resigned
their commissions from the governor, and regiments of militia for the defence of the colony were raised and drilled. At Charleston the royal
arsenal was seized, and its contents distributed among the people. Georgia also placed herself in the ranks of her patriot sisters, and seizing the
ammunition and arms within her limits prepared for resistance. North
Carolina took a more decisive stand than any of the colonies.  The
spirit of resistance ran high within her borders. A convention of the
people of Mecklenburg county was held at Charlotte on the 29th of May,
and adopted a series of resolutions declaring themselves independent of
the control of Great Britain, and renouncing all allegiance to her. This
was the famous " Mecklenburg Declaration of Independence."     The
whole country, from New Hampshire to Georgia, was united in its determination to resist the injustice of Great Britain with arms. Massachusetts had struck the first blow, but every colony was now prepared and
determined to bear its part in the great struggle for freedom.
The Massachusetts Committee of Safety were anxious to secure the
important posts of Ticonderoga and Crown Point on Lake Champlain.
The possession of these posts would not only enable the Americans to
command the entrance to Canada, but would give them the large quantities of military supplies stored in these forts. The project was entered
into with great energy by Benedict Arnold, then commanding a company
before Boston, and by Ethan Allen of Vermont. Allen was the leader
of the Green Mountain Boys, a military organization in Vermont, which
had been formed to resist the authority of New York, which claimed
Vermont as a part of its territory  The people of Vermont, however,
preferred the authority of New Hampshire to that of New York. The
dispute had become quite animated when the outbreak of the Revolution
drew the attention of all parties to more stirring events. Arnold, upon
hearing that Allen was preparing to seize the forts, set out at once for




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


Vermont, and overtook the Green Mountain Boys near the head of Lake
Champlain. Producing a colonel's commission he ordered Allen to surrender the command to him, but the latter refused, and was sustained by
his men, and Arnold at length agreed to serve as a volunteer, Securing
a few boats Allen crossed the lake with his little force, about two hundred
and seventy in number, and at daybreak, on the morning of May 10th,
surprised Fort Ticonderoga, and made prisoners of the garrison before
they were fairly awake. Not a blow was struck. The astounded commander of the fort asked Allen by whose authority he acted. "In the


]

INDEPENDENCE HALL IN 1776.


name of the Great Jehovah and the Continental Congress," was the instant reply, delivered in stentorian tones. The commandant instantly
submitted. On the 12th of May Seth Warner, Allen's lieutenant, surprised Crown Point, and secured the fort. Arnold secured a number of
boats and, descending the lake, captured St. John's, in the "Sorel." Sixty
prisoners were taken in this expedition, and besides two of the most important military posts in America the patriots secured two hundred
cannon, and a large supply of ammunition.
On the 10th of May, the day of the capture of Ticonderoga, the




432


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


second Continental Congress met at Philadelphia. This time they assembled in the State-house, a place more suited to the dignity of such a body;
and calculated to give more publicity to their proceedings. No change
was at first made in the officers of the preceding session, but in a few
days Peyton Randolph resigned his position to return home to attend
the Virginia legislature, which had been summoned by the governor.
Thomas Jefferson was appointed to fill his place as a delegate. John
Hancock of Massachusetts, who had been specially exempted by the king
from all offers of amnesty, was chosen president of the Congress. Three
new members of note now entered the Congress. They were Benjamin
Franklin, a delegate from Pennsylvania, and George Clinton and Robert
R. Livingston, delegates from New York. Franklin had just returned
from England, where he had resided for several years as the agent for
some of the colonies. He had been in constant official contact with the
leading men of Great Britain, and was thoroughly informed as to the
policy of the British government respecting America. He was, therefore,
a most valuable acquisition to the Congress.
The circumstances under which this Congress assembled were very different from those which had attended the meeting of its predecessor.
Then there was hope that the remonstrances of the colonies would open
the eyes of the British government to the folly of its course; but those
remonstrances had been received with fresh outrages, their petitions had
"been spurned with contempt from the foot of the throne," and the
British army had begun the war at Lexington and Concord. Massachusetts, driven beyond the point of forbearance, had taken up arms, and
had besieged the royal troops in Boston. A state of war actually existed,
and Congress must either sustain Massachusetts, and so involve every
colony in the struggle, or leave her to meet the power of Great Britain
unaided. The whole country was in favor of standing by Massachusetts, and the delegates in Congress reflected this feeling. It was therefore resolved by Congress to place all the colonies in a state of defence,
and to prepare for a vigorous prosecution of the war should it be found
impossible to avert it. At the same time, as a last means of preserving
peace, a new petition was addressed to the king stating the grievances of
the colonies, and asking for justice at his majesty's hands. Addresses
were also issued to the people of Great Britain, Ireland, and Jamaica
To the people of Great Britain they declared, after relating their wrongs,
and their failure to obtain redress: " We are reduced to the alternative
of choosing an unconditional submission to the tyranny of irritated ministers, or resistance by force. The latter is our clioice. We have counted
the cost of this contest, and we find nothing so dreadful as voluntary




THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


40:,


slavery."  In the petition to the king Congress denied that it w\as the
intention of the colonies to cast off their allegiance; but asserted their
intention to maintain their rights. When this petition was presented to
the king, in September, lie refused to take any notice of it.
In view of the altered position of affairs Massachusetts consulted the
Congress as to the propriety of establishing a regular system of governmient, and was advised to make such regulations for that purpose as were
necessary, and to continue them as a temporary expedient until it.should
be known whether the king would allow the colony to resume the government guaranteed to it by its charter. In order to avoid the trouble
which would ensue from an interruption of the regular postal coimmunication between the colonies, Congress assumed the power of organizing a
general system of mails for the whole country, and appointed Dr,
Franklin postmaster-general.
From these acts Congress advanced to others still more important. A
"Federal Union" of the colonies was organized, in which each colony
retained the exclusive control of its internal affairs, but delegated to Congress authority to direct all matters pertaining to the general welfare of
the colonies, such as the power to declare war, make peace, and negotiate
treaties of alliance and friendship with foreign countries.  In the exercise of these powers Congress assumed the general government of America.
A day of fasting and prayer to God, for his assistance in the struggle for
freedom, was enjoined upon all the colonies. All persons were forbidden
to furnish provisions under any circumstances. MIcsures were adopted
for the organization and enlistment of an army, and for the purpose of
erecting fortifications at suitable points, and procuring arms and ammunition. In order to raise the funds needed for carrying out these objects
"Bills of Credit," to the amount of two millions of dollars, were issued,
and for their redemption Congress pledged the faith of the "United
Colonies."  The provincial congress of Massachusetts requested the Congress at Philadelphia to adopt the New England forces before Boston as
the "Continental Army," and this request was at once complied with.
As General Ward, the commander of these troops, held his commission
from Massachusetts, it was necessary for Congress to appoint a commander-in-chief commissioned by itself.
With respect to this appointment the members were divided. Some
thought that as the troops were all New England men, the commander
should be chosen from the same section. Others favored the appointment
of a commander who would inspire the confidence of, and be acceptable
to, the entire country. The name of General 'Ward was suggested l)y
the first party; but a majority of the delegates favored the appointment
28




434


HSISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of Colonel Washington, who was a member of Congress, and chairman
of the committee on military affairs, in which capacity he had proposed
the plan for the organization of the army, and had suggested the most
important measures for defenee. He had profoundly impressed the delegnates with his great and commanding character, his military ability, and
his wisdom as a statesman. Patrick Henry, on his return home from the
first Congress, had been asked who was the greatest man in that body.
His reply expressed the views of his colleagues respecting Washington.
" If you speak of eloquence," he said, " AIr. Rutledge, of South Carolina, is, by far, the greatest orator; but if you speak of solid information
and sound judgment Colonel Washington is unquestionably the greatest
man on that floor." Dr.
-Warren wrote from Massachusetts to  Samuel
Adams, in Congress,about
this time, that the appointment of Colonel Wash/..; -    L         ington as commander-inchief would give great
-            satisfaction to many leads awing men ini Massachusetts.: -> John Adams was anxious
having satisfied himself
co-a  of the wishes of the
greater part of the delegates, ventured openly to
allude to Washington as
WASmINGTON.               the proper person for the
position,and spoke of him
as a gentleman whose "skill and experience as an officer, whose independent fortune, great talents, and excellent universal character, would
command the approbation of all America, and unite the cordial exertions
of the colonies better than any other person in the Union." On the 14th
of June Mr. Johnson, of Maryland, formally nominated Washington to the
office of commander-in-chief, and he was unanimously chosen by ballot.
The next day his election was communicated to him by the President of
Congress. Washington rose in his place, and thanked the House for the
unexpected honor conferred upon him, assured them of his devotion to
the cause, and announced his acceptance of the great trust confided to
him. He declared his intention to refuse the pay affixed to the office,




THE AMERICAAN BREVOLUTION.


4';5


which had been placed at five hundred dollars a month, and added: " I
will keep an exact account of my expenses. These, I doubt not, they will
discharge, and that is all I desire." Congress, on its part, pledged its
hearty support to the new commander, and resolved " to maintain and
assist, and adhere to him with their lives and fortunes in the defence of
American liberty "
Washington lost no time in proceeding to assume the command conferred upon him. After a few (lays spent in preparation, in Philadelphia,
he left that city on the 21st of June, for the head-quarters of the army,
accompanied  by
Generals Lee and
Schuyler.
Afew daysafter
the election of the
commander-inchief Congress appointed four major-generals, one
brigadier, and Israel Puteig     h t brigadier-AL I                L
generals for the
subordinaters wre S                     Po
mands in    the           Gre
American  army       -te
The major-gen-out fift
erals     ere Arte-l                    i
mas WardCharles;
Lee, PhilipSchuyler, and Israel Putnam.  The adju-                GENERAL ISRAEL PUTNAM.
taut-general was
Horatio Gates. The brigadiers were Seth Pomeroy, Richard Montgomery, David Wooster, William Heath, Joseph Spencer, John Thomas,,
John Sullivan, and Nathaniel Greene.
In the meantime the blockade of Boston had been continued by the provincial army, under General Ward. These forces numbered about fifteen
thousand men, and had come from their respective towns in independent
companies, and were without any regular organization. They had no uniform, but the majority wore their ordinary homespun working-clothes; they




436


HISTORl Y OF THE UNIT'ED STATES.


were deficient in arms; a few had muskets, but the majority had rifles
and fowling-pieces. The artillery consisted of nine pieces of cannon, and
was commanded by Colonel Gridley, who had directed the artillery at the
siege of Louisburg.  The Massachusetts troops were commanded by
General Ward; those from New Hampshire by Colonel Stark; the Connecticut troops by Putnam; and the regiment from Rhode Island by
Nathaniel Greene, a young blacksmith. Save for the solemnity of the
cause, and the earnestness and determination which animated the whole
force, there was little to save this quaint assemblage from the ridicule
'which the royal officers heaped upon it. It did to ordinary view seem
tile height of folly to oppose such an ill-provided and unorganized mass
to the splendidly equipped veterans who served King George.
Yet this force, "with calico frocks and fowling-pieces," hemmed in
within the narrow limits of Boston, the splendid army of ten thousand
men, commanded by such generals as Howe, Burgoyne, and Sir Henry
Clinton, which Gage had concentrated in Boston. Burgoyne could not
repress his astonishment upon reaching Boston. "What!" he exclaimed,
"ten thousand peasants keep five thousand king's troops shut up)! Well,
let us get in, and we'll soon find elbow-room."  In spite of his immense
superiority, however, Gage did not venture to attack the American lines.
He contented himself with issuing a proclamation declaring the province
under martial law, and offering a free pardon to all rebels who should
return to their allegiance, with the exception of Samuel Adams and John
Hancock. These rebels were cut off from all hope of the king's mercy,
and were given to understand that they could expect nothing but the most
summary punishment.
General Gage now determined to extend his lines and to occupy
Dorchester Heights, overlooking South Boston, and Bunker Hill, an
eminence rising beyond Charlestown, on the north of Boston. The execution of this design was fixed for the 18th of June, and in the meantime
Gage's intention became known in the American camp. To prevent it,
it was resolved, at the instance of the Massachusetts Committee of
Safety, to seize and fortify these eminences, beginning with Bunker Hill.
The more prudent opposed this undertaking as too rash; it was certain to
bring on a general engagement of the opposing forces, and the Americans,were too poorly provided with arms and ammunition to hope for success..Others insisted that no time should be lost in securing the heights.
Putnam was confident they could be held with proper intrenchments, and
that thus protected the troops could be relied upon to hold their position.
The great scarcity of ammunition rendered the undertaking one of peculiar daring, and it was necessary to select for the command an officer




THW A.ERICAN REVOLUTION.                    437
whose firmness and discretion could be depended upon. The choice fell
upon Colonel William Prescott of Massachusetts, and a brigade was
placed under his orders.
Soon after sunset on the 16th of June a force of about eleven hundred
men, armed principally with fowling-pieces, and carrying their scanty
stock of powder and ball in their old-fashioned powder horns and
pouches, assembled on Cambridge Common. Langdon, the President of
Harvard College, one of the chaplains of the army, offered up an impressive prayer, and then the order was given to march and the colu:n


1 7
'17
=-7z%
77


BUNKER HILL MONUMENT.


*moved off in the darkness. No one knew the object of the expedition,
but the presence of several wagons loaded with intrenching tools made it
evident that the movement was one of importance. Charlestown Neck
was strongly guarded, but the detachment passed it in safety and reached
the summit of Bunker Hill without being observed. The Committee of
Safety had suggested that Bunker Hill should be secured, but Prescott's
orders from General Ward were to fortify Breed's Hill, a lower eminence
but nearer to Boston, and commanding the harbor more perfectly. It
as a more exposed position than the other, but Prescott decided to obey
his orders. Colonel Gridley, who was an experienced engineer, marked




438


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


out a redoubt about eight rods square, and in the clear June starlight
the men set to work with a will to construct the fortification before the
morning should reveal theni to the British. It was midnight when the
men bcian their labors. A strong guard was thrown out along the shore
of the harbor to prevent a surprise, and the men could distinctly hear the
call of the sentinels on thle men-of-war in the harbor. During the night
Putnam came over to the lhill to encourage the Connecticut troops by his
presence, but assumed no command.
The early morning light revealed to the astonished royalists the halffinished redoubt on Breed's Hill and the Americans still busily at work
upon it. The sloop-of-war " Lively," lying off the present navy yard,
without waiting for orders, opened a steady fire upon the redoubt, and
her example was soon followed by the other war vessels and the floating
batteries in the harbor. A battery of heavy guns was posted on Copp's
Hill in Boston, about twelve hundred yards distant, and opened on the
redoubt. This fire was well calculated to demoralize a raw force such as
that within the redoubt, but it produced no effect upon the Americans,
who went on 'with their task quietly and with energy  Gridley soon
withdrew from  the hill, and Prescott, thus deserted, and without an
engineer, prepared to extend his line to the best of his ability  He prolonged it from the east side of the redoubt northward for about twenty
rods towards the bottom of the hill; but the men were prevented from
completing it by the heavy fire of the British artillery  One man ventured beyond the redoubt early in the day, and was killed by a shell.
Prescott ordered him to be instantly buried, lest the sight of his body
might dishearten the men. To inspire the troops with confidence, Prescott sprang upon the parapet and walked slowly up and down the work
examining it and issuing his orders.
In the meantime the firing' had aroused the people of Boston, who.crowded the house-tops and every available point from which a view of
the action could be obtained. General Gage reconnoitred the American
~position from Boston, through his glass, and observed Prescott, who was
standing on the redoubt inspecting the work. " Who is that officer in
command?" he asked of Councillor Willard, who was by his side.
"Will he fight?"     Willard had recognized Prescott, who was his
brother-in-law, and replied: " He is an old soldier, and will fight to the
last drop of his blood."  Gage thereupon determined to dislodge the
Americans from their position without loss of time, and summoned a
council of his officers at his head-quarters, in which it was decided to
v'ross Charles river, effect a landing at Moulton's Point, and attack the,works in front. Generals Clinton and Grant ad:jcated an attack fromn




TIHE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


439


the direction of Charlestown Neck, which would have resulted in the
capture of the whole American force; but Gage refused to place hiis
attacking column between the American army at Cambridge and the
detachment on the hill.
The bustle in Boston as the British prepared for the attack couldl be
distinctly seen by the Americans, and urgent messages were sc(t to
General Ward for reinforcements and provisions. Pirtnam hurried to
Ward's head-quarters to urge this demand; but Ward, who was greatly
oppressed by the scarcity of powder in the camp, hesitated to weaken the
main body, and it was not until eleven o'clock on thie morning of the
17th of June that he gave orders for the regiments of Stark and Reed
to advance to Prescott's assistance. The arrival of these troops greatly
cheered the little band under Prescott, who had been working all night,
and were greatly in need of food. In the meantime Prescott had posted
the Connecticut troops behind a rustic breastwork which he had constructed on the north of the redoubt. A stone fence ran down the side
of the hill towards a swamp in this direction. Behind this the Amncricans placed a post and rail fence which they had torn up, and filled the
interval between them with new-mown hay, thus forming a rude shelter
A part of the reinforcements joined Knowlton at this breastwork, and the
remainder halted on Bunker Hill to enable Putnam to hold that point,
the possession of which he considered essential to the safety of the fo;rce
on Breed's Hill. About two o'clock General W1arren arrived. He held
the commission of a major-general, and both Prescott and Putnam offered
to relinquish the command to him, but he refused it, saying lie had
come to serve as a volunteer, and took his place in the ranks at tlle
redoubt.
At noon twenty-eight barges filled wkh regulars, under the conmmand
of Generals Howe alnd Pigott, left Boston, and crossing the harbor,
landed at Moulton's Point, under the cover of a heavv fire from the
shipping. General Howe now discovered that the American position
was stronger than he had supposed, and sent over to General Gage for
reinforcements. 1While awaiting their arrival lhe refreshed llis men with
provisions and grog. His reinforcements having arrived, General Howe
found himself at the head of over two thousand veteran troops, splendidly
equipped in every respect. Opposed to him were about fifteen hundred
imperfectly armed Americans. Gage had threatened that if Charlestownl
Heights were occupied by the provincials he would burn the town of
Charlestown. He now proceeded to execute his barbarous threat, alnd
fired the town by means of shells from  the battery on Copp's Hill,
hoping that the flames and smoke would screen the approach of llis




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


attacking party under General Howe. A change of wind prevented this,
however, and carried the smoke in the opposite direction.
About half-past two o'clock on the afternoon of the 17th of June
General Howe gave the order to advance. One division, under General
Pigott, was ordered to storm the redoubt, while the other was led by
General Howe in person against the rail fence, for the purpose of turning
the Americkn left flank and cutting off the retreat of the force in the
redoubt. Prescott passed along his line as lie saw the advance of the
enemy, and encouraged his men with his cheering words. "The red
coats," he said, " will never reach the redoubt if you will but withhold
your fire till I give the order, and be careful not to shoot over their
heads."  Putnanl hlad come down to the rail fence to encourage the men
plsted there, and as lec saw the advance of the enemy called out to the
troops: " Wait till you see the whites of their eyes; aim at their waistbands; pick off the handsome coats."
The British adv.anced in splendid style up the side of the hill, firing
rapidly as they moved on. The Americans awaited their advance in a
deep silence. As Pigrott's division came within forty yards of the redoubt,
the defenders levelled their gullns and took a steady aim. A minute or
two later Prescott gave tlhe commlnand, " Fire!"  A sheet of flame broke
from the rampart and tore great gaps in the English line, which reeled
and staggered back down the hill. The officers exerted themselves gallantlv to rally the men, and once more the line advanced. This time the
Americans suffered them to come nearer, and again drove them back with
a fatal fire before whic.h whole ranks went down. They broke in such
confusion that Pigott himself ordered a retreat.  The division under
General Howe was equally unfortunate.   It was suffered to advance
within thirty yards of the rail fence, and was then driven back by a fire
which broke it in confusion. The British retired to the shore from
which they had started. Greatly astonished, but not disheartened by his
repulse, General Howe reformed his line, and after an interval of fifteen
minutes moved off again against the works, his plan being the same as
that of the first assault. This tine the Americans reserved their fire as
before, and once more sent the whole British line reeling and broken
down the hill. Officers of experience on the English side subsequently
declared that they had never seen such firing in any battle in which they
hlad been engaged. A deafening cheer from the patriot line greeted the
repulse of the enemy. " If we can drive them back once more," cried
Prescott, "they cannot rally again."  A shout fiom the redoubt answered him. "( We are ready for the red coats again!"
General Clinton had witnessed the repulse of the regulars from his




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441




442


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATE S.


position on Copp's Hill, and was filled with astonishment and indignation at the sight.  Without waiting for orders, he crossed over to Charlestown withl reinforcements, andl offered his services to General Howe as a
volunteer.  Manly of the English officers were opposed to another attack;
but as it was learned that the ammunition of the Americans was very
low, Howe resolved to storm the works with the bayonet, and this time
to break through the open space between the redoubt and the rail fence
breastwork. His Ien were ordered to lay aside their knapsacks, and
many of them threw off their coats also. A raking fire of artillery drove
the Americans from the breastwork extending from the redoubt into that
work for shelter, and the order was given to the regulars to advance
with fixed bayonets. The Americans were nearly out of ammunition,
and in the whole command tlherc were not fifty men with bayonets to
their guns. They met the advance of the enemy with a sharp fire, but
their powder having given out, were not able to check them. Pressing
on the British assailed the redoubt on three sides with the bayonet. A
desperate hand-to-hand struggle followed; the Americans fighting with
clubbed(l guns and with stones. It was impossible to hold the work,
however, and Prescott gave the order to retreat. The men fell back in
good ordler  The aged General Pomeroy, who was serving as a volunteer in the ranks, clubbed his gun and retreated with his face to the
regulars, keeping them at bay b) his determined action. The detachment
at the rail fence, under Knowlton, Stark, and Reed, held their position
until thelir comrades had withdrawn from the redoubt, and then retreated
in gool order down the hill, thus preventing the enlemy from cutting off
thel retreat of Prescott's party  One of the last to leave the redoubt was
General Warren, who had borne himself with great gallantry in tlhe
en11.igelmenlt. He had scarcely left the trenches when he fell shot through
the head, thus consecrating the spot with his blood, and leaving to his
country a noble memory which -she has ever held in grateful honor.
Putnam had gone to the rear before the final attack of the enemy to
collect men for a reinforcement. On his -return he met the retreating
provincials passing over Bunker Hill. Without orders from any one,
he rallied such as would obey him, and for the first time during the day
assumed the command. With these forces, and a detachment whichl
arrived too late to take part in the battle, he withdrew to Prospect Hill,
where he began to fortify his position. The British made no effort to
pursue him, but contented themselves with occupying Breed's and
Bunker Hills.
In this battle the Americans lost four hundred and fifty men, killed,
wounded, and prisoners. The British, out of a force of less than three




THE AMERICAN RE VOL UT1YO.4.


443


thousand, lost one thousand and fifty-four, including eighty-three officers,
thirteen of whom were killed. Among the killed was Major Pitcairn,
who had ordered his men to fire on the patriots at Lexillgton. The
victory was dearly bought by the British.
In its moral effects the battle was worth as mitch to the Americans as
a success. It taught them that undisciplined provincials could hlold their
ground against the king's regulars, and inspired thlem witl a confidence
in their own ability to maintain the struggle. They had held their
ground against twice their number, and were (Irivenl from it only when
their ammunition failed. General Gage was deeply impressed with this
lesson, and made no attempt to assume the offensive. When tile news of
the battle reached England the ministers were greatly dissatisfiedl with
their victory  Gage was recalled, and General Howe was apl)ointed his
successor.
Washington, who had started on his journey to New England before
the arrival of the news of the battle, was met on the way by the courier
who bore the tidings to Congress. He hastened his journey and r,(.ilched
Cambridge on the 2d of July. The next day he formally assum:ed tlle
command of the army    He was received with an enthusiasm 'tllich was
most gratifying to him, and at once set to work to place the army in a
proper condition for the service required of it. He was fully aware of
the magnitude of the task he had undertaken, and his letters written at
the time indicate a deep reliance upon God for assistance in disch.arging
it. The army numbered about fourteen thousand men, and was without
organization, without uniforms, poorly armed, and imperfectly clothed.
It must be disciplined, supplied with arms and clothing, and with
ammunition. At the same time the enemy in Boston must be watched
and kept in check. To make the army effective its force must be raised
to twenty or twenty-five thousand men, and the petty jealousies whli.I
divided it must be removed.
It was resolved to maintain the present position of the armv before
Boston, and to capture or drive out the British force in that city.
Washington established his head-quarters at Cambridge, \which was his
centre, ald was under the immediate command of General Putnam.
The right wing, under General Ward, held Roxburv, and the left, under
General Charles Lee, was at Prospect Hill. 'About this time the army
was joined by a force of riflemen from Virginia, Maryland, and Pennsylvania, under Daniel Morgan, who was destined' to achieve distinction
during the war. He was rough and uneducated, but was one of the
truest sons of America. He was never found wanting in any position in
which he was p)laced, and i'as a man upon whose devotion and integrity
absolute reliance could be placed by his commanders.




444


HIISTORI1' OF THE UNITED STATEA


The winter was passed in the organization of the army. The want of
ammunition prevented Washington from assuming the offensive, though
he greatly desired to do so. It was necessary to observe the gratest care
to prevent this state of affairs from becoming known to the British, and
at the sanme time every effort was made to supply the deficiency  These
efforts were partially successful.
It was proposed to attack Canada soon after the capture of the forts at
Ticonderoga and Crown Point. This proposal met with little favor in
Congress until it was known that the British were assembling a force of
regulars, and enlisting the Indians in Canada, for the invasion of New
York. Then, as a measure of self-defence, the proposed invasion of that
country was sanctioned, and preparations for it were actively begun.
Two expeditions were determined upon; one by way of Lake Champlain,
the other across the wilderness, by way of the Kennebec and Chaudiere
rivers. The first was intrusted to General Philip Schuyler, who had
been appointed by Washington to the command in New York; and the
latter to Colonel Arnold, who was in the camp at Cambridge, eager for
some opportunity to distinguish himself.
A force of New York and New England troops was assembled on
Lake Champlain under Schuyler, who was ably seconded by BrigadierGeneral Richard Montgomery, who had served under Wolfe in the old
French war. Schuyler moved down the lake to the Isle aux Noix in
the Sorcl river, and occupied that island. In September he made an
attempt to capture St. John's, but finding it much stronger than he had
supposed, resumed his former position. Falling seriously ill soon after,
he was obliged to withdraw to Albany, and relinquished the command to
Montgomery    Reaching Albany he succeeded in securing supplies,
ammunition, and reinforcements, and sent them to Montgomery  That
energetic officer at once assumed the offensive, and captured St. John's, on
the Sorel river, on the 3d of November, after a spirited resistance, and
in spite of the efforts of Sir Guy Carleton to relieve it. On the 13th of
November Montgomery arrived before Montreal, which surrendered
upon his first summons. This capture enabled the American commander
to supply his men with woollen clothes, of which they were very much
in nee(d. Although it was the beginning of the winter, and his force was
reduced to three hundred men, poorly clad, and lacking almost every
kind of supplies, Montgomery set out without delay to join Arnold
before Quebec.
Arnold had left the camp at Cambridge in September with a force of
eleven hundred  men, including three companies of riflemen under
Morgan. He was to ascend the Kennebec, and march across the wilder



THE AMERICAN REVOLUTION.


44.5


ness to Quebec, where he was to unite his force with the army from New
York. The march across the unbroken wilderness of Maine and Canada
is one of the most memorable in history. It consumed two months of
time, and was marked by intense suffering and unceasing and severe
labor. The troops had to cut their way through an unbroken wildernes.,
ford icy streams, climb mountains, and brave the rigors of the Canadian
winter. Their provisions
gave out, and they were
tlducel to the necessity            -
of eating their dogss and
chewing their moccasins.
At length, on the 9th of
November, Arnold  with
about six hundred and i                a
ifty effective men reache d
Levi.  Could he have I n
crossed over to Quebec at
once, that city must have
fallen into his hands; but
he was unable to do so,
as he had no boats; and
in a few days Sir Guy
Carleton  arrived  fromi
Montreal, which he had
abandoned to Montgom- '
ery, and put the city in
a state of defence. Eludingthe two armed vessels \
which held the river,
Arnold crossed his command to the opposite side       ARNOLD'S MARCH TO QUEBEC.
of the St. Lawrence, and
climbing the cliffs by the path which Wolfe had ascended, occupied the
Heights of Abraham, and endeavored to draw the garrison out of their
works to meet him. They declined his challenge, and finding it inmpossible to besiege the city without artillery, he moved to a point twenty miles
up the river, where he met Montgomery, from whom he obtained clothing for his men, who had lost nearly all their clothes in their march
through the wilderness.
Montgomery now assumed the command of the united forces, which




446


HIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


numbered less than a thousand men, ancT on the 5th of December laid
siege to Quebec. Having no materials for the proper construction of a
battery, a novel expedient was adopted. Gabions were filled with ice
and snow, over which water was poured. The cold soon froze this to a
solid mass; but, as the ice was brittle, it afforded no protection against
the fire of the enemy's guns. The Americans soon found their artillery
too litlht to make any impression upon the walls of the city, and as a last
resort it was determined to attempt the capture of the place by an assault,
which was ordered for the 31st of December. The attack was made with


GENERAL RICHARD MONTGOMERY.


spirit, but was unsuccessful. Montgomery was shot down while leading
the attack on the lower town, and his column was driven back. Arnold
was severely wounded in the assault upon the upper town, and the conimand passed to Morgan, the next in rank.     Morgan succeeded in
carrying the two batteries which defended the entrance to Quebec, and in
forcing his way into the town; but being overpowered by numbers was
compelled to surrender, He and his men were treated with especial
kindness by Sir Guy Carleton in recognition of their bravery. The
attack having proved a failure, Arnold, whose force had been reduced to




TIIE AMERIC.tAN REVOLUTION.


447


five hundred men, fell back to a position about three miles above Quebec,
and held it all winter, hoping to receive such reinforcements as would
enable him to take Quebec.
In April, 1776, General Wooster joined Arnold with reinforcements,
and assuming the command, made anotler ulsuccessful effort to capture
Quebec. Wooster was soon recalled, and was succeededl by General
Thomas. Sir Guy Carleton, governor of Canada, was heavily reinforced,
and Thomas was obliged to abandon the attempt on Quebec and retreat.
His movement was so hasty that he left his baggage, artillery, and sick
in Carleton's hands. The British commander, with a humlanity rare
among his countrymen during this struggle, treated the sick prisoners
with great kindness. Thomas fell back as far as the Sorel, where he
died of the small-pox, which was making great ravages among the
troops. Sir Guy Carleton continued to advance, and defeated a portion
of the army under General Thompson at Three Rivers. Thompson and
a number of his officers and men were made prisoners. The remainder
secured their retreat and joined General Sullivan on the Sorel. The
wreck of the army now fell back from Canada to Crown Point in a most
miserable and disheartened condition.  Thus ended the invasion of
Canada, the most disastrous expedition attempted by the Americans
(luring the war; yet still one the failures of which were greatly offset by
the heroic daring of the troops engaged. Carleton was alle to occupy
the entrances to Canada with a strong force, and to make any future
attempt at invasion impossible.
While these events were transpiring in Canada, Virginia was also the
scene of war, Towards the close of the year 1775 Lord Dunmore, the
royalist governor of Virginia, who had taken reflge on board a man-ofwar, issued a proclamation offering freedom to the negro slaves and
indentured white servants of.tle patriots who would join him in the
servile war he meant to inaugurate.  With a force collected in this
manner, he landed at Norfolk and took possession of the town. Fugitive
slaves joined him in considerable numbers, and it seemed likely that he
would be able to carry out his threat and scourge Virginia and North
Carolina with a warfare of massacre and servile violence. Several regiments were raised in Virginia to drive him out of the province. The
second of these, under Colonel Woodford, seized the narrow peninsula
which connects Norfolk with the mainland, and on the 9th of December
was attacked by Dunmore's forces, which were summarily defeated. In
revenge, Dunmore returned in January, 1776, and bomblarded and
burned Norfolk, then the largest and richest town and the principal
shipping port of Virginia.




448


4HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


On the 5th of September, 1775, the Continental Congress resumed its
sessions. Delegates from Georgia appeared and were admitted to seats in
the Congress, and the colonies assumed the style of the Thirteen United
Colonies. Matters were not very encouraging when Congress met. The
army was in need of everything that could contribute to its efficiency,
and the New England coast was harassed with the armed vessels of
Great Britain, which laid its towns under exaction, or subjected them to
bombardment, and committed other gross outrages upon the inhabitants.
On the 18th of October the town of Falmouth, now Portland, in Maine,
was burned by Lieutenant Mowatt of the British navy       The other
towns, warned by the fate of Falmouth, proceeded to fortify themselves,
and escaped with nothing worse than an occasional engagement with some
royal cruiser.
Naval matters very largely occupied the attention of the whole country
at this period. The only way in which the needed supplies could be
obtained was by purchase abroad or the capture of the enemy's ships.
Maryland, Virginia, and South Carolina promptly established naval
boards for the purpose of fitting out cruisers for this service; and among
the first acts of Washington, after assuming the command of the army,
was to send out armed vessels to the St. Lawrence and the New England
waters to seize the supply ships of the English on their way to Canada
and Boston. A number of vessels were captured by these cruisers, and a
considerable quantity of arms, ammunition, and other stores thus accumulated. Congress appointed a secret committee to import powder from the
West Indies, and to erect mills in the interior for its manufacture, and
foundries for casting cannon. Licenses were issued to privateers, and a
naval committee was appointed to superintend the formation of a marine
force for the defence of the harbors, and was charged with the building
of thirteen frigates. In December a secret committee was appointed to
open and conduct a correspondence with foreign nations, or with friends
of the cause in Europe.
Parliament, in the meantime, had not been idle, but had enacted
stringent measures for the prosecution of the war and the punishment of
the colonists. The measures adopted by the British government were
cruel and barbarous. The Americans were to be treated as criminals and
as deserving of death. They were made subject to the pains and penalties of treason if captured, and could in no case expect the treatment of
prisoners of war. The crews of all vessels captured in trading to the
colonies were condemned beforehand to serve in the marine corps of the
royal navy   It was decided to increase the British army ili America to
forty thousand men. Twenty-five thousand of these troops were to be




THE AIMERICAN REVOLUTION.


449


raised, and the effort to enlist men was begun in England, but without
success. Recruits could not be found in sufficient numbers to repay the
effort. The ministry could not hope for better success in Ireland, as
they had been warned by General Howe that the Irish were strong sympathizers with the Americans and could not be relied upon to fight
against them. In this emergency the government resolved to cmploy
German troops for the subjugation of America, and negotiations were
opened with Brunswick and Hesse Cassel, two petty German States. The
result was that Great Britain hired seventeen thousand troops from these
states for the conquest of the English-speaking people of America. These
mercenaries were generally known as Hessians, and became the objects
of the bitter hatred of the Americans-a hatred which they fully earned
by their subsequent cruelties towards the colonists.
These measures were not adopted by the British government without
opposition. There was a determined minority in England, consisting of
such men as Burke, Barr4, and the Duke of Grafton, who manfully
sought to obtain justice for the colonies up to the last moment at which a
settlement was possible. The corporation of London and the mercantile
interests of the country generally were opposed to the measures of the
government, and sought to procure a just and peaceful settlement; but all
efforts were in vain. The king and the ministry were resolved upon the
subjugation of America; nothing else would satisfy them.
29




CHAPTER XXVII
THE DECLARATION      OF INDEPENDENCE.
The Siege of Boston-Difficulties of the American Army-Activity of the PrivateersClinton's Expedition-Colonel Knox arrives from Ticonderoga with Cannon-Seizure
of Dorchester Heights by Washington-The British Evacuate Boston-Royalist Plots
in New York-Paper MIoney Issued by Congress-Gates sent to the North-The British
Attack Charleston-Battle of Fort Moultrie-The Howes in New York Bay-Change
in the Character of the War-Growing Sentiment in Favor of Independence-Virginia
Proposes that the Colonies Assert their Independence-Action of Congress-The Declaration of Independence-Articles of Confederation Adopted by Congress-Lord Howe's
Efforts at Conciliation-Addresses a Letter to Washington-Battle of Long IslandDefeat of the Americans-Retreat from Long Island-Evacuation of New York by the
Americans-Loss of Fort Washington-Washington Retreats through New Jersey-He
Crosses the Delaware-Darkest Period of the War-Washington's Determination to
Continue the War-Lord Howe's Proclamation-Its Effect-Congress at BaltimoreCarleton Invades New York-Defeats Arnold on Lake Champlain-Carleton Retires
into Canada-Battle of Trenton-Happy Effects of the Victory-Congress confers Dictatorial Powers upon Washington-Commissioners sent to France.
S H E  winter of 1775-76 was passed by the army before Boston in
inaction.  There was not ammunition enough in the camp to
enable Washington to attack Boston, and the British were well
content to remain within their lines without seeking to raise the
siege.  Washington exerted     himself to the utmost to obtain
artillery and powder. Henry Knox, a bookseller of Boston, who had
entered the military service of the colonies, had attracted the attention of
the commander-in-chief by his skill in the use of artillery, and in planning the works erected for the defence of the camp. Knox now proposed
to go to Ticonderoga and bring away from that place and from        Crown
Point all the artillery and powder that could be spared, and his plan was
at once approved by Washington, who urged Congress to commission him
a colonel of artillery   At the same time he wrote to Schuyler, the comniander in New York, to give Knox every assistance in his power in his
cffort to bring the artillery from Lake Champlain to Boston. Great difficulties were experienced during the winter in inducing the troops to
renew their enlistments.   It required all the ingenuity and tact of which
Washington was master to remove the prejudices and jealousies which
had grown up in the camp since the commencement of the blockade of
450




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


Boston, and which threatened to disband the army  lie succeeded in a
greater degree than he had expected. At the opening of the year 1776
he had about ten thousand men in camp, many of whon were raw troops
newly enlisted, and without arms. Still they were a more harmonious
and contented force than the first army  Towards the close of 1775 the
privateers made extensive captures from the British. Captain Manly,
of the schooner "Lee," captured a British brig, off Cape Ann, laden
with arms, artillery, and military stores for the British army at Boston.
These were sent at once to Washington, and proved of the greatest service. Among the captures was an immense mortar, which Putnam
named the "Congress," and
placed in position at Lechl-.._..mere Point, on the north of  -
Boston.
Matters were gloomy indeed. The people were anxious that Boston should be
attacked, but such a course
was impossible. As late as
the 10th of February, 1776,
Washington wrote: "With-                             d
out men, without arms, with-               eo
out ammunition, little is to be
done." To increase the discouragement of the patriots
news came of the defeat of
the attempt to conquer Can- Pr  G        w
ada. The British were col-  =..
lecting a fleet for a demon-       GENERAL HENRY 'OX.
stration against some point on
the Atlantic coast, and as it was not certain where the blow would fall, a
feeling of general uneasiness prevailed along the entire seaboard.
This expedition sailed from Boston, under Sir Henry Clinton, about
the 1st of February  Washington, who had for some time suspected
that it was designed to capture New York, had already sent General
Charles Lee to raise troops to occupy that important city, and hold it
against the British. Lee executed his task with energy, and on the 4th
of February entered New York, and encamped in the suburbs, in what
is now the City Hall Park. Governor Tryon, who had taken refuge on
board a man-of-war, threatened to bombard the city if the American
forces should enter it; but Lee informed hini that the first shot fired at




452


HISTORY OF TIHE UNITED STATES.


New York wouldl be the signal for the execution of the leading friends
of the royal cause in that city  Tills decisive answer induced Tryon to
delay his barbarous purpose. That afternoon Sir Henry Clinton, with
his fleet, entered the harbor, Finding that he had come too late to secure
the city, Clinton declared that lie had merely called at the harbor to pay
a visit to his friend Tryon, and in a few days he sailed away for North
Carolina, where the royalist Governor Martin, who, like Tryon, had
taken refuige on board a man-of-war, had been endeavoring to stir up an
insurrection of the Tories, as the royalists were called. The command
of this movement was to be assumed by Clinton. Martin also expected
'* -I~..- -  -..-  = -
SIEGE OF BOSTON.
to be reinforced by seven regiments and a fleet under Sir Peter Parker,
which were on their way from Ireland. To gain time, and stir up the
Tories to prompt action, he commissioned two retired officers of the
British army, Scotchmen, named McDonald and McLeod, who had
recently settled in North Carolina, to raise troops among the friends of
the king in the interior, They succeeded in raising about fifteen hundred
men, and set off for the coast to join Martin. The patriots at once rallied in considerable force to oppose their march, and intercepted them at
Moore's Creek Bridge, near Wilmington. On the 25th of February, a
sharp engagement was fought here, which resulted in the defeat of the
Tories. MecLeod was killed, and McDonald was taken prisoner. Eighteen




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


453


hundred stand of arms, one hundred and fifty swords, two medicinechests, and the sum of fifteen thousand pounds sterling, in gold, fell into
the hands of the victors, and went far toward supplying their deficiencies. The contemplated rising of the Tories was put down in the interior
counties, and Martin, finding his Ilopes of raising troops in North Carolina destroyed, withdrew with Clinton to the Cape Fear to await the
arrival of the fleet of Sir Peter Parker.
In the meantime a Union flag had been provided for the army before
Boston, and was formally displayed for the first time in the American
camp on the 1st of January, 1776. It retained the English cross in the
upper left hand corner, in token of the relations still existing between
the colonies and England; and bore on its broad field thirteen stripes of
alternate red and white, representing the thirteen colonies united for the
defence of their liberties. Towards the close of February the stock of
powder was   considerably increased,.
and a little later.-._ i
Colonel Knox arrived from  Ticonderoga with the cannon and ammunition from that post.                              i
He had transported
them on sledges
across the long
across the long    WASHINGTON WATCHING THE BRITISH EVACUATE BOSTON.
stretch of country
between Lake Champlain and Boston, and had overcome difficulties in
the accomplishment of this task which seemed at first insurmountable.
The arrival of these guns gave Washington a fair supply of heavy
ordnance, and put an end to the long delay which had prevailed in the
American camp. The regular army had been increased to fourteen
thousand men, and had been reinforced by six thousand militia from
Massachusetts.
All now was bustle and activity  The newly arrived cannon were
mounted to command the city, and Washington was at length able to
attempt the long-desired demonstration against the enemy in Boston. As
early as December, 1775, Congress had urged him to undertake the capture of Boston, and had authorized him to destroy the city if he could
expel the British in no other way, and John Hancock, who was a lar -e
property-owner, regardless of the fate of his possessions, had written to
him: "Do it, and may God crown your attempt with success."   All




454


IHISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


through the winter Washington had been held back from such an attempt
by the advice of his council of war, which hesitated to assume the offensive with an insufficient supply of ammunition and artillery. Putnam
had succeeded in fortifying the neighboring heights on the mainland, but
had been obliged to do much of this work at night to avoid the fire of
the enemy's shipping. The last obstacle to decisive action was now
removed. Washington resolved to seize the eminence on the south of
Boston, known as Dorchester Heighlts. It commanded the town from
that quarter, and also the shipping in the harbor. Its possession by the
Americans would force Sir William Howe either to evacuate the city or
risk a general engagement for its recovery.
On the evening of the 2d of March a heavy fire was opened upon the
British lines by the American batteries, and also upon Boston. A number of houses were set on fire, and the attention of the British was fully
occupied in extinguishing the flames. The bombardment was renewed
the next night. At dark, on the evening of the 4th of March, the
Americans renewed their fire with redoubled vigor, and were replied to
with spirit by the British, and during the whole night the roar of cannon
went on, covering the movements of the Americans from observation by
the eneniv. The force assigned for the seizure of Dorchester Heights
was placed under the command of General Thomas, and in case the movement should be discovered, and the enemy should seek to dislodge this
detachment from the heights, General Putnam was ordered to cross
Charles river, with a column of four thousand picked troops, and attack
the city from that quarter  Under the cover of the heavy cannonade
the column of General Thomas passed the narrow isthmus in safety, and
reached the heights by eight o'clock, undiscovered by the enemy. They
at once set to work, though the ground was frozen to a depth of more
than eighteen inches, and by morning had thrown up a series of earthworks which entirely commanded both the city and the harbor. General
Howe was greatly astonished as he examined these works through his
glass when the mists of the morning cleared away  "The rebels," he
said, (" have done more work in a night than my whole army would have
done in a month." The British admiral declared that his ships could not
remain in the harbor, as the possession of the heights by the Americans
placed the fleet entirely at their mercy  It was evident to all the British
commanders that the heights must be recovered, or the city abandoned;
and General Howe determined to storm the American works that night,
and made preparations for an attack. This movement was prevented by
a severe storm, which put a stop to the cooperation of the fleet, and when
the storm had died away the works had been so greatly strengthened as




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


to render an assault hopeless. A council of war was held, and it was
resolved to abandon the town. As sucht  a step required somle time, Howe
secured the safety of his army by declaring that lie would burn the town
if his troops were fired on during their embarkation. A deputation of
the citizens proceeded to the American camp and informed General
Washington of Howe's determination, and in order to save the city front
further suffering the British were allowed to depart in peace. They consumed eleven days in their embarkation. They embarked about fifteen
hundred Tories with them, and after plundering a number of stores and
private houses, and robbing the inhabitants of a considerable supply of
provisions, they embarked on the 17th of March, and dropping down the
MEDAL STRUCK BY CONGRESS IN IONOR OF THE RECAPTURE OF BOSTON.
bay anchored in Nantasket roads. They had scarcely left the city when
the American army, under Washington, marched in and occupied the
place. The long siege of ten months was at an end, and Boston was
again free. The patriot army was received with enthusiasm, and matters
soon began to resume their accustomed condition.
By the capture. of Boston the Americans obtained possession of two
hundred and fifty pieces of artillery, four mortars, and a considerable
quantity of ammunition, provisions, and clothing, which the British could
not carry away. After the departure of the British fleet from Nantasket
roads several transports with troops, not aware of the evacuation, entered
the harbor, and were captured. Several storeships, laden with military
supplies of all kinds, also arrived from England, and were captured in




IHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the same way. These captures were of the highest importance to the
patriots. Their supply of ammunition was in this way increased more
than sevenfold.
The capture of Boston was justly esteemed the most important success
of the war It freed New England from the presence of the English,
and enabled her to contribute men and money to the defence of the middle
colonies. On motion of John Adams, Congress adopted a unanimous vote
of thanks to Washington and the army, and ordered a gold medal to be
struck in commemoration of the deliverance of Boston.
The British fleet remained in Nanta-sket roads for several days after
the evacuation of Boston, and then bore away for Halifax. Washington
was fearful that its destination was New York, and leaving General Ward
with five regiments to hold Boston, hastened southward with the main
body of the army. He reached New York on the 13th of April, and set
to work with vigor to put the city and its approaches in a state of defence. He soon discovered that the Tories in the city were in constant
communication with Governor Tryon and the British ships in the harbor.
Severe measures were at once adopted to stop this intercourse. A conspiracy for the recovery of the city by Tryon was discovered, and his
agents were found tampering with the American soldiers. One Thomas
Hickey, a deserter from the British army, was hanged "for mutiny,
sedition, and treachery," and this vigorous measure at once put a stop to
the plots of the Tories.
Congress, in February, 1776, found itself obliged to issue four millions
of dollars of additional paper money in order to meet the expenses of the
war, which were heavier than had been supposed. For the proper management of the finances, an auditor-general and assistants were appointed
to act under the financial committee of Congress, and it was not long before this branch of the public service assumed the form of a treasury
department. In April a war office was established by Congress under
the supervision of a committee of its members. John Adams was made
chairman of this committee, and resigned his post of chief-justice of
Massachusetts to accept it.
The retreat of Sullivan from Canada now became known, and the conduct of that officer was approved by Congress, which passed a vote of
thanks to him. At the same time it appointed Major-General Horatio
Gates to the command of the army in his place. Gates was an Englishman by birth, and had joined the colonial movement in the hope of
winning honors and fame by his services. He had served in the British
triny during the colonial period, but had failed to receive the rewards he
deemed himself entitled to, and had resigned his commission in disgust,




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


457


and had onme to America to reside a few years before the rupture withl
England. His experience and skill made him a valuable acquisition to
the American army, but his ambition and jealousy were destined to
cause it considerable trouble. Gates at once claimed that his command
embraced not only the troops on Lake Champlain, but also the whole
northern army under Schuyler. The matter was referred to Congress,
and it was decided that Gates was independent of the control of Schuyler
only while in Canada. Elsewhere he was subject to Schuyler's command.
In the meantime Congress had sent General Charles Lee to the south
to take command of the troops assembling to oppose Sir Henry Clinton,
who was waiting off the mouth of the Cape Fear river for the arrival of
the fleet of Sir Peter Parker from Ireland. This fleet joined Clinton in
May, and a little later Congress learned by means of intercepted letters
that Charleston, in South Carolina, was the object of attack. The command of the strong
military force which       —.     -. —;
the fleet brought was I
to be held by Sir
Henry Clinton, to
whom   the  general a  i
direction of the ex-      | -                 b
pedition was intrusted. Lee hastened at
once to Charleston.
He found there a
ATTACK ON FORT MOULTRIE.
force of about six
thousand men, from the Carolinas and Virginia; but the city was not
defended by a single fortification. Had Clinton assailed it at once, it must
have fallen into his hands, as he arrived in the harbor on the 4th of June,
the very day that Lee reached the city; but he delayed his attack until
he could fortify his own position, and so gave Lee time to erect works
for the defence of the city
The key to the American position was Fort Moultrie, a small
work built of palmetto logs, and situated on the southwest point of Sullivan's island. It was commanded by Colonel William Moultrie, whose
name it bore. In front of it lay the British fleet under Sir Peter Parker
Sir Henry Clinton had taken position with two thousand men on Long
island, which was separated from Sullivan's island by only a narrow
creek, and was building batteries to cover his passage of the creek. His
plan was to allow the fleet to breach the walls of Fort Moultrie, and then
to cross his troops to Sullivan's island under the cover of his batteries,




458


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEiS.


and carry the fort by storm. Lee, who was ignorant of the capacity of
the soft, spongy palmetto wood for resisting the force of cannon shot, regarded the effort to hold Fort Moultrie as madness. He stationed a force
under Colonel Thompson on Sullivan's island opposite Clinton to dispute
his passage of the creek, and took position on the mainland with the rest
of his force where he could support either Moultrie or Thompson, as
might be necessary.
On the 28th of June, the enemy's fleet opened fire on Fort Moultrie,
which replied with spirit, and for ten hours the cannonade was maintained with great vigor by both sides. The enemy's balls buried themselves in the soft. spongy wood of the palmetto logs, and thus did little
SERGEANT JASPER AT FORT MOULTRIE.
injury to the fort; but the well-directed fire of the American guns inflicted
great damage upon the fleet. The British were finally compelled to
withdraw with heavy loss, and abandoned and set fire to one of their
ships. During the engagement the flag of the fort was shot away, and
fell outside of the walls. Sergeant Jasper, of the South Carolina forces,
at once sprang over the wall, and amidst a heavy fire secured the flag,
tied it to a pole, and set it up again on the ramparts. This done, he rejoined his comrades at the guns. A few days later, Governor Rutledge
presented Jasper with his own sword, and offered him a lieutenant's commission. Jasper accepted the sword, but declined the commission on the
ground that he could neither read nor write.
Clipton made repeated efforts to cross the creek and storm the fort




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


45 9


during the battle, but was as often driven back by the batteries under
Thompson. At length, the fleet having withdrawn, he embarked his
men, and soon after sailed for New York to join the troops assembling
near that city.
Washington was correct in supposing that New York was the true destination of Sir William Howe after leaving Nantasket roads. That coinmmander sailed first to Halifax, where he landed the civilians and other
useless incumbrances he had been obliged to carry away from Boston.
Then, refitting his command, he awaited the arrival of his brother, Admiral Lord Howe, who was on his way from England with reinforcements. In the latter part of June he sailed from Halifax for New York,
and arrived within Sandy Hook on the 28th of June, the very day of the
attack on Fort Moultrie. He landed his forces on Staten island, where
he was received with enthusiasm by tile Tories. A  little later he was
joined by Sir Henry Clinton from Charleston, and about the middle of
July Lord Howe arrived with reinforcements, a large part of whom were
Hessians, hired as we have stated by the king of England from the duke
of Hesse Cassel, in Germany  Their arrival raised the strength of the
British army in New York bay to 30,000 men. Their attack upon the
city was merely a question of time, and under the most favorable circumstances it was scarcely to be hoped that Washington would succeed in
maintaining his hold upon New York. In the meantime an event of the
highest importance had changed the whole character of the war as regarded the Americans.
The colonists had taken up arms to resist the aggressions of the king
and government of Great Britain upon their liberties, and to compel the
mother country to respect the rights guaranteed to them by their charters
and by the British constitution. Thus far the war had been waged for
these ends. At the outset of the struggle a few far-seeing persons, such
as Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry, had been convinced that an appeal
to arms would render the final separation of the colonies from England
inevitable, and that such an issue was but the fulfilment of the destiny of
their country, and as such to be desired. The great majority of the
people, however, neither thought of nor wished for independence. They
would have been satisfied to secure their liberties and privileges as English subjects, and would gladly have continued loyal to the king. The
events of the war had made it plain to the most skeptical that England
did not intend to do justice to her colonies. Neither the king, the ministry, nor Parliament were disposed to swerve from their purpose of reducing America to absolute submission to their will. They were determined that the colonists should bear every burden of British citizenship.




IISTORY OF THE UVNIED STATES.


and enjoy none of its privileges save what they should see fit to allow'
them.   Americans were not to enjoy either liberty or property as lawful
righllts, but both these possessions were to be held by them at the pleasure


INDEPENDENCE HALL, P-ILADELPIA, IN 1875.- 'INDEPENDENCE HALL, PHILADELPHIA, IN 1875.


of Great Britain. This determination was so clear that none could mistake it. Since the commencement of the struggle public opinion inl
America had undergone a great change, and the party in favor of a tota.
and final separation from the mother country had increased so rapidly




'THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCCE.


461


that it now embraced the great majority of the American people. Now
that they had become convinced that they could maintain their liberties
only by a total and unqualified separation from Great Britain, they did
not hesitate to choose that course. Their choice was made without regret. At the commencement of the war a very genuine attachment bound
the people of the colonies to England; but the course of the royal government and the severities of the British commanders ill the northern colonies, and the outrages of the royal governors in the south, had entirely
alienated the people from their love for England.
Still there were many Tories, or friends of the king, in America, and
they were active and bitter in their opposition to the patriots. From the!   ii
INTERIOR OF INDEPENDENCE HALL.
first the Americans regarded the Tories with a feeling of hatred which
increased as the struggle went on, and this feeling was soon extended to
all who fought under the royal flag or sought to uphold its cause.
Not only had the people been gradually coming to view independence
as desirable and indispensable; the exercise by Congress of the functions
of a supreme government had accustomed them to it, and had shown them
their capacity for conducting a general government for the whole country.
Early in March, 1776, Congress granted letters of marque and reprisal
against British commerce, and somewhat later sent Silas Deane as its
commissioner to France to seek assistance from that country  In May it
had formally recommended the colonies to disregard the royal governments and adopt systems suited to their needs, and in harmony with the




462


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


changed state of affairs. To all men it was evident that a formal renunciation of allegiance to Great Britain and the assertion of their independence by the colonies was merely a question of time.
It was, therefore, a surprise to no one when the first definite action
looking towards independence was taken. On the 15th of May, 1776,
the general assembly of Virginia instructed the delegates of that colony
in Congress to offer a resolution in favor of the separation of the colonies
from England, and the formal declaration of their independence. On the
30th of May Massachusetts instructed her delegates to support this resolution. On the 7th of June Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, offered a
resolution in Congress, "that the united colonies are, and ought to be,
free and independent states, and that their political connection with Great
Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved."  The resolution was seconded by
John Adams, of Massachusetts, and was debated with great earnestness.
It was adopted by a bare majority of one-seven colonies voting for it,
and six against it. In accordance with the resolution, a committee was
appointed to draw up a declaration of independence, and, in order that
the delegates might have an opportunity to ascertain the wishes of their
constituents, the consideration of the subject was postponed until the 1st
of July   Two other committees were also appointed. One of these was
charged with the preparation of a plan for uniting the colonies in a single
government; the other was to report a plan for securing alliances withl
foreign nations. The committee charged with the preparation of a declaration of independence consisted of Benjamin Franklin, John Adams,
Thomas Jefferson, Roger Sherman, and Robert R. Livingston.
On the 28th of June the committee reported the declaration to Congress. It was written by Thomas Jefferson, and with a few verbal alterations was adopted by the committee as it canme from   his hand. It
reviewed in a clear and comprehensive manner the causes which had
impelled the colonies to take up arms for the defence of their liberties,
and which now induced them to sever the ties that bound them to Great
Britain. The declaration concluded in these memorable words: " We,
therefore, the representatives of the United States of America, in general
Congress assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of all the world for
the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the name and by the authority of
the good people of these colonies, solemnly publish and declare that these
united colonies are, and of right ought to be, free and independent
states; that they are absolved from all allegiance to the British crown,
and that all political connection between them and the state of Great
Britain is, and ought to be, dissolved; and that, as free and independent
states, they have full power to levy wvar, conclude peace, contract alli



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VIEW!N THlE GRAND) CASON OF THE COLORADO RIVER.


463




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ances, establish commerce, and to do all other acts and things which
independent states may of right do. And for the support of this declaration, with a firm reliance on the protection of a Divine Providence, we
mutually pledge to each other our lives, our fortunes, and our sacred
honor "
The declaration was debated in Congress, and a few passages, which it
was feared might offend the friends of the colonies in Great Britain, were
stricken out. The vote was then taken by colonies, and though some of
the delegates voted against it, the declaration received the votes of all the
colonies with the exception of New York, which accepted it a few days
later. On the 4th day of July 1776, the Declaration of Independence was
formally adopted by Congress, and
A                     was ordered to be published to the
world, and to b3 read at the head of
-,, -                     the regiments of the army
Congress was in session in the hall
of the state house in Philadelphia... In the spire of this venerable buildLt ^ing hung a bell, inscribed with the
words  of Scripture:    Proclaim
liberty throughout all the land unto
m    -      all the inhabitants thereof." On the
l morning of the 4th of July vast
crowds assembled around the building, as it was known that Congress
would on that day take definite ac=               --       tion upon the declaration.   The
a'      bell-ringer stationed himself in the
tower ready to proclaim the good
OLD BELL OF INDEPENDENCE HALL.  news the moment it should be an-, nounced to him, and had posted his
little son at the door of the hall to await the signal of the door-keeper.
When the announcement of the vote was made, the door-keeper gave the
signal and the boy ran quickly to the tower. The old man heard him
coming, and clutched the bell-rope with a firm grasp. The next instant
the glad cry of the boy's voice was heard. " Ring! ring! " he cried; and
then the deep, sonorous tones of the bell went rolling out of the tower,
and were answered with a mighty shout from the assembled throng without. The declaration was received by all the states and by the army with
enthusiasm. Thus the thirteen united colonies became the thirteen United
States. It should not be forgotten that the declaration did not make the




TIlE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


colonies independent states, or states in any sense. It was simply their
announcement to the world that they had, each for itself, by the exercise
of its own sovereign power, assumed the independence which rightfully
belonged to it.
The Declaration of Independence put an end to all the hopes that had
been cherished of an accommodation with Great Britain, and caused those
who were still wavering to embrace the cause of their country. It relieved Congress of the disadvantage under which it had hitherto acted,
and enabled it to pursue a more vigorous and decisive policy in the
prosecution of the war. There was no retreat now; nothing remained
but to continue the struggle until Great Britain should be compelled
to acknowledge the independence of the states, or they should be
reduced to the condition of conquered provinces.
On the 12th of
July the committee                  ~
appointed to prepare                                     l
a plan for the union
of the  States reported one, which                     ndependence and e
is th us sudelegatened up                           States.
"1st. The style
of the confederacy
wa themselves to be   each othe
4nited                      States of
DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE PROCLAIMED
" 5t2d. Each State as to main delegates.
retai"6   its sovereignty, free dom, and independence and every power
anfug riit  which is not exp ressly delegated to  the entited States.
3d. The object of the confederation was for their mutual defence,
the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other against all force offered to or attacks
made upon them, or any of them, on account of religion, sovereignty,
trade, or any other pretence whatever,
"4th. In determining all questions in Congress each State was to have
one vote.
"5th. Each State was to maintain its own delegates.
"6th. The free inhabitants of each State, paupers, vagabonds, and
fugitives from justice excepted, were to be entitled to all privileges and
immunities of free citizens in the several States.
"7th. All fugitives from justice from one State into another were to
be delivered u') on demand.
A




466


IISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


" 8th. Full faith and credit were to be given to the records of each
State in all the others.
"9th. Congress was to grant no title of nobility.
"10th. No person lolding any office was to receive a present from a
foreign power.
" llth. No State was to form any agreement or alliance with a foreign
power without the consent of the States in Congress assembled.
"12th. No two or more States were to form any alliance between
themselves without the like consent of the States in Congress assembled.
" 13th. No State, without the like consent of Congress, was to keep
war ships or an army in time of peace; but each was to keep a wellorganized and disciplined militia, with munitions of war.
"14th. No State was to lay any duty upon foreign imports which
would interfere with any treaty made by Congress.
"15th. No State was to issue letters of marque, or to engage in war,
without the cohsent of the Congress, unless actually invaded or menaced
with invasion.
"16th. When Federal land forces were raised, each State was to raise
the quota required by Congress, arm and equip them at the expense of
all the States, and to appoint all officers of and under the rank of
colonel.
"17th. Each State was to levy and raise the quota of tax required by
Congress for Federal purposes.
"18 th. The faith of all the States was pledged to pay all the bills of
credit emitted, or money borrowed on their joint account, by the
Congress.
" 19th. It was agreed and covenanted that Canada might accede to the
union so formed if she chose to do so.
" 20th (and lastly). Each State was to abide by the determination of
all the States in Congress assembled, on all questions which, by the
confederation, were submitted to them. The Articles of Confederation
were to be inviolably observed by every State, and the Union was to be
perpetual. No article of the confederation was to be altered without the
consent of every State.
"The delegations of power by each of the States to all the States, in
general Congress assembled, upon a like analysis, may be stated as
follows:
"1st. The sole and exclusive power to determine on war and peace,
except in case a State should be invaded or menaced with invasion.
"2d. To send and receive ambassadors.
3d. To make treaties, with a proviso, etc.




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE


467


' 4th. To establish rules for captures.
"5th. To grant letters of marque and reprisal.
"6th. To appoint courts for trial of piracies and other crimes
specified.
" 7th. To decide questions of dispute between two or more States, in a
Drescribed manner.
" 8th. The sole and exclusive power to coin money and regulate the
value.
9th. To fix a standard of weights and measures.
"10th. To regulate trade with the Indian tribes.
"1 lth. To establish post-offices.
"12th. To appoint all officers of the militia land forces, when called
out by Congress, except regimental.
"13th. To appoint all officers of the Federal naval forces.
"14th. To make rules and regulations for the government of land and
naval forces.
"15th. To appropriate and apply public money for public expenses,
the common defence, and general welfare.
"16th. To borrow money and emit bills of credit.
" 17th. To build and equip a navy
"18th. To agree upon the number of land forces, and make requisitions upon the States for their quotas, in proportion to the value of all
land within each State.
"The foregoing powers were delegated with this limitation: The war
power, the treaty power, the power to coin money, the power to regulate
the value thereof, the power of fixing the quotas of money to be raised )y
the States, the power to emit bills of credit, the power to borrow money,
the power to appropriate money, the power to regulate the number of
land and naval forces, and the power to appoint a commander-in-chief of
the army as well as the navy, were never to be exercised unless nine of
the States were assenting to the same.
"These articles form the original basis and first Constitution of the
existing Federal Union of the United States of America." *
These Articles of Confederation were adopted, after discussion, by Congress, voting by States, and were then submitted to the several States for
ratification by them. In the meantime Congress continued to exercise
the powers conferred by them. By the early part of 1777 all the States
save Maryland had ratified and adopted the articles. That State did not
give her full assent to them until 1781.
* Ton. Alexander H. Stephens.




468


HISTORY* OF THE UNITED STATES.


Lord Howe arrived in New York bay about the middle of July, as has
been stated. He was vested with full powers by the king to settle the
quarrel between America and England if the Americans would agree to
submit unconditionally to the king. Failing to accomplish a settlement,
he and his brother, Sir William Howe, were charged with the supreme
conduct of the war  Lord Howe was a man of amiable disposition, and
really desired peace; but as he was fully convinced of the justice of the
royal pretensions, he could not understand or appreciate the claims or
grievances of the Americans. Moreover, he had come too late. The
American people meant that their separation from Great Britain should
be final.  Lord Howe was greatly deceived upon his arrival as to
the actual state of feeling in America. He was received with loyal addresses by the Tories of Long and Staten islands and the New Jersey
shore, and was assulred by Governor Tryon that the country was full
of friends of the king who might be induced to join him if properly
supported.
Lord Howe, therefore, resolved to attempt a peaceful settlement before
proceeding to hostilities; and issued a circular addressed to the people
of America, offering them the royal pardon if they would cease their
rebellion, lay down their arms, and trust to the clemency of the king.
Congress gave to this circular the widest publicity, by causing it to be
published in every newspaper in the Union, in order that the people
nmight see that the only settlement that would be accepted by England
was their voluntary and absolute submission to her arbitrary will.
"Tlhey must fight or be slaves."
About the same time Lord Howe addressed a letter to the American.comlmander-in-chief, styling him George Washington, Esquire. No notice
*of this communication was taken 1by Washington, and Howe sent him
another letter addressed to George Washington, etc., etc. Washington,
rightly considering that the omission of his official title was an insult to
his country, refused to receive the letter. Adjutant-General Patterson,.of Lord Howe's staff, who bore the communication, expressed his regret
that the letter could not be opened.  Lord Howe, he said, came vested
with great powers, and was sincerely anxious for peace. Washington,
who had received him with kindly courtesy, replied that he was aware
that Lord Howe was intrusted with the power to grant pardons, but that
as the Americans were engaged in the defence of their rights, and had
committed no crime, they had no need of pardon, and his lordship's good
intentions could not be of service to them.
It was now plain to Lord Howe that he had been deceived by Tryon




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


46f


and his friends, and that nothing could be accomplished save by force of
arms. His circular had produced no effect, and he could detect no sign
of wavering on the part of the Americans.
It had been evident for some time that the next effort of the British
would be to get possession of the city of New York. Their fleet already
held the harbor, and should they succeed in securing the Hudson they
would be able to establish a direct communication with Canada, and to
isolate New England and New York from the Middle States and the
South.  Reinforcements were sent to Washington from Pennsylvania,
Maryland, Virginia, and Delaware. These gave the American commander a force of about twenty-five thousand men; but scarcely seventeen thousand were fit for duty; the remainder being disabled by sickness. Washington erected two forts on Manhattan island, one just above
Kingsbridge, named Fort Washington, and the otherjust below it, named
Fort Independence. Kingshridge furnished the only communication
between the island of Manhattan and the mainland, and these forts were
erected for its defence, as well as to hold the enemy's vessels in check
should they attempt to ascend the Hudson. On the New Jersey side of
the river, opposite Fort Washington, a third work was erected, and
named Fort Lee. Other forts were built higher up the Hudson to hold
the river against the enemy and maintain the communication between the
Northern and Southern States. One of these, called Fort Montgomery,
was located at the entrance to the Highlands, opposite the promontory of
Anthony's Nose; another was built six miles higher up the river, and
was known as Fort Constitution.
For the defence of the heights of Brooklyn, which commanded the
city of New York, Washington caused a line of works to be erected on
a range of hills a short distance south of Brooklyn, and established there
an intrenched camp. General Nathaniel Greefie was placed in command
of this position, and exerted himself with vigor to strengthen it. When
he had matured his plans he was suddenly taken ill, and was obliged to
relinquish the command to General Sullivan.
The Britisl fleet lay in Gravesend bay, just without the Narrows, and
Washington was for a while uncertain whether they would make their
first attempt against the force on Long island, or attack the city of New
York. It soon became evident that the capture of the lines on Long
island would be their first care, and Sullivan was reinforced with six
battalionls, all that could be spared from New York, and on the 24th of
August General Putnam was placed in command of the forces on Long
island.
On the night of the 26th of August the Britisll crossed over from




470


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Staten island to Long island, and prepared to give battle. Their plan
was to engage the attention of the Americans by a direct attack with two
divisions, while Sir Henry Clinton, with a third division, was to turn the
left flank of the Americans and gain their rear. They hoped, if these
movements were successful, to surround and capture the entire force under
Putnam. Clinton began his march about nine o'clock on the night of
the 26th, guided by a Long island Tory  About daylight, on the morning of the 27th of August, the enemy made their attack upon the front of
the American position, and engaged
their attention  in
this direction, while
Clinton, by a rapid
march, gained their
rear.  For a while
the   Americans
crfoughtell,but find -
tonly bayoneted bying themselves fought in the
Washington hastened to Brooklyn as soon as    in      danger o f:   ~   binand arrivcaptured  they
owerless to repaiabandoned the  field,and retreated  within
thise intrdaye                                    ments at;,Brooklyn.                           The
The AmHessian                                        troops befive thousand men engaged  with  great
barbarity during the
engagement, and
a number of the
GENERAL JOHN SULLIVAN.             Amerians were
tonly bayoneted by them. A part of the engagement was fought in the
beautiful region now occupied by Greenwood cemetery,
Washington hastened to Brooklyn as soon as informed of the battle,
and arrived just in time to witness the defeat of his troops. He was
powerless to repair the disaster, and could only look on in helpless agony.
"' My God!" he exclaimed, with tears: "What brave fellows I must lose
this day!"
The American loss was very severe in this battle. Out of a force of
five thousand men engaged they lost two thousand men, a large num



THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


471


ber of whom were prisoners.  The British had sixteen thousand men
engaged, and lost four hundred. Had they followed up their victory
by an immediate assault upon the American intrenchlments they must
have carried them; but General Howe believed that Washington had a
much stronger force for their defence than was the case, and encamped
in front of the intrenchments, intending to begin operations against them
the next day. The 28th, however, was a day of drenching rain, and the
enemy were unable to do miore than break ground for a battery  On
the 29th a dense fog hung over the island; but it lifted for a moment,
and enabled the Americans to detect an unusual commotion among the


THE RETREAT FROM LONG ISLAND.


British shipping.  It seemed plain that the enemy were preparing to
enter the East river with their fleet, and so separate the force on Long
island from that in New York.    Washington at once summoned a
council of war, and it was decided to retreat from Long island without
delay  It was a hazardous attempt, for the army under General Howe
was so close to the American lines that the conversations of the men
could be heard, and the British fleet might at any mhoment seize the East
river. To withdraw a force of nine thousand men across a wide, deep
river, in the face of such an army and fleet, was a task which required
the greatest skill. It was successfully accomplished, however. Every




472


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


boat in and around New York and Brooklyn was impressed, and though
the orders for the retreat were not issued until noon on the 29th, everythling was in readiness for the retreat by eight o'clock that evening. At
midnight the troops took up their silent march from the intrenched line
to the ferry, where the boats, manned by Glover's regiment, which was
composed of fishermen from Marblehead, awaited them. By eight
o'clock the next morning the entire army, with all its cattle, horses, and
wagons, was safe upon the New York side of the river.
Howe was greatly mortified at the escape of the American army, for
he had regarded it as a sure prize, and prepared, with the aid of his
ships, to seize the upper part of Manhattan island, and confine the Americans to the city of New York, where their surrender would be inevitable.
Before proceeding to the execution of this plan he resolved to make
another effort to induce the Americans to abandon their cause, as he
rightly believed their defeat on Long island would be followed by a season
of great depression. A few days after the retreat he released General Sullivan, who had been taken prisoner in the battle, on parole, and sent a
letter by him to Congress, asking that body to send an informal committee, whom he would receive as private gentlemen, to confer with him
on some measure of reconciliation. Congress, willing to hear what he
had to propose, sent Dr. Franklin, John Adams, and Edward Rutledge
to confer with him. They met Lord Howe &t a house on Staten island,
opposite Amboy    The only terms his lordship had to propose were the
unconditional submission of the Americans to the royal mercy  He was
informed that the Americans would consent to treat with Great Britain
only as "a free and independent nation," and that it was useless to propose any other basis for a settlement. Lord Howe thereupon expressed
his regret that he should be obliged to distress the Americans. Dr.
Franklin thanked him for his good feeling, and remarked: " The Americans will endeavor to lessen the pain you may feel by taking good care
of themselves."  The report of the interview was made public by Congress, and had a happy effect. It convinced all classes that England had
no terms to offer them but such as embraced a shameful surrender of
their liberties.
Fearful that Howe would seek to shut him utp in New York, Washington left a force within the city to hold it, and encamped with the main
body of his army on Harlem Heights, at the northern end of the
island, from which he could secure his retreat into Westchester county
The army was reduced to less than twenty thousand men, and was disheartened by the defeat on Long island.    it was seriously debated
whether New York should be defended or not; and it was proposed to




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


473


burn the city to the ground, in order to prevent the enemy from securing
comfortable winter-quarters in it. Congress ordered that the city should
not be destroyed, but it was evident that it could not be held.
Washington was anxious to learn the intentions of the enemy, who
still remained on Long island, and Captain Nathan Hale, a talented
young officer of the Connecticut line, volunteered to enter their lines
and procure the desired information. He proceeded to the British camp,
obtained the information wanted, and was returning in safety when he
was arrested by a party of the enemy, among whom was a Tory relative,
who recognized him. He was taken to Howe's head-quarters, and the
next morning, September 22d, without any form of trial, was hanged as
a spy. He met his death with firmness, saying: " I only regret that I
have but one life to lose for my country "
In the meantime the British had seized the islands at the mouth of the
Harlem river, and had erected a battery on one of them. On the 15th
of September they crossed in force to Manhattan island, at Kipp's bay,
about three miles above the city  They easily drove back the force
stationed there to resist their landing, and secured their position. Washington at once sent General Heath to hold the enemy in check, and
ordered Putnam to evacuate the city of New York, and retire to Harlem
Heights, without the loss of a moment.  Putnam  obeyel his orderg
promptly, and retreated from the city along the line of the Blomiingdale
road, now the upper part of Broadway  His march was retarded by a
crowd of women and children fleeing from the city, and was exposed to
the fire of the enemy's ships in the Hudson. By great exertions he managed to save his command, but was obliged to leave his heavy artillery
and three hundred men in the hands of the enemy  The British at once
took possession of New York, and threw up a line of intrenchments
above the city, from the Hudson, at Bloomingdale, to the East river, at
Kipp's bay. The Americans now held the upper part of the island, and
erected a double line of earthworks from river to river, about four miles
below Kingsbridge.
On the 16th of September the enemy made an attack upon the American advanced posts, but were handsomely repulsed by the Virginia and
Connecticut troops. Major Leitch, the commalder of the Virginians,
and Colonel Knowlton, the commander of the Connecticut reginmnt, and
one of the captains at Bunker Hill, were killed. In spite of these losses
the spirits of the troops, which had been much depressed by the recent
disasters, were greatly cheered.
A lull of several weeks followed, during which the Americans suffered
greatly from sickness. They were without proper hospital accommoda



474


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


tions, "and they lay about in almost every barn, stable, shed, and even
under the fences and bushes."
Howe now began to move his army towards Long island sound, for
the purpose of marching across the mainland to the Hudson, and cutting
off the retreat of AWaslington from Manhattan island; and at the same
time sent his fleet up the Hudson. His intention was understood by
Washington, who left three thousand men to defend Fort Washington,
and with the main body of his army fell back to the line of the Bronx,
near the village of White Plains. Here he was attacked, on the 28th of
October, by General Howe, who was advancing from the direction of
New R1ochellc, and who was still hopeful of gaining the American rear.
A spirited encounter ensued, in which each party lost about four hundred
men; and the British intrenched themselves in front of the American
position.
Apprehensive of an effort on the part of the enemy to storm his line,
Washington caused the troops to spend the niglht in strengthening the
rude works which covered it. They labored with such diligence that the
next morning the British commander decided that the line was too strong
to be attacked, and determined to wait for reinforcements. That night
W1ashington silently abandoned his lines at White Plains, and withdrew
to the heights of North Castle, five miles distant. Howe, unwilling to
follow him further, marched to Dobb's ferry, on the Hudson, and
encamped.
This molvemenlt of the British commander caused Washington to fear
that lie meant to cross over into New Jersey  He accordingly made a
new disposition of his forces to meet any emergency  General Charles
Lee, who had recently returned from the South, was left at North Castle
with a portion of tle army to watch Howe; Heath, with another portion,
was ordered to occupy Peekskill to defend the passes of the Highlands;
and Putnam was stationed, with a third detachment, on the west side of
the Hudson to hold that region. With the remainder of his troops
WVashlingto n crossed the Hudson and joined General Greene at Fort Lee,
arriving there on the 13th of November. A force of three thousand
Pennsylvania troops had been left to hold Fort Washington, on Manhattan island. Washington was in favor of withdrawing them at once, but
left the matter to the decision of General Greene and Colonel Magavw, the
commander of the fort, who determined to hold it. The result proved
their error. Fort Washington was attacked on the 16th of November
by a force of five thousand Hessians and some English troops, under
General Knyphausen, and was taken by storm. The enemy lost nearly
one thousand men, and took over two thousand prisoners. Washington




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


475


witnessed the capture from  Fort Lee without the ability to aid the
garrison.
Fort Washington having fallen, Fort Lee was no longer of service,
and the commander-in-chief resolved to abandon it before it was too late.
The removal of the stores was at once begun, but before it could be completed Lord Cornwallis, with a force of six thousand men, crossed the
Hudson below Dobb's ferry, and by a rapid march across the country
endeavored to confine the Americans to the strip of land between the
Hudson and the Hackensack. An immediate retreat from Fort Lee
became necessary, in order to secure the bridge over the Hackensack.
All the heavy cannon at Fort Lee, a considerable quantity of provisions
and military stores, and three hundred tents were abandoned, and fell
into the hands of the British. The passage of the Hackensack was
secured, and the army
ben its memorable-                                         -
retreat across New Jer-,.
sRaritey, closely folloed at
by     the enemy,                  undern,
Lord Cornwallis. a very anxious to procure boats, cross the rier, and
push on to Philadelphia, but Howe decided to wait until the ri:er should
From  the Hacken-sians                                       ere
sack Washington fell
back behind the Passaic at Newark. Asthe town.
his rear-guard passedi
out of the town the -_
advance of Cornwallis
entered Newark. The      RETREAT OF WASHINGTON ACROSS NEW JERSEY.
Raritan was crossed at
New Brunswick, and Washington left a force of twelve hundred men at
Princeton, under Lord Stirling, and pushed on to Trenton to secure the
passage of the Delaware. The British hung closely upon him during the
whole retreat, the opposing forces being often within cannon-shot of each
other. On the 8th of December, with scarcely three thousand men,
Washington crossed the Delaware at Trenton, and went into camp in
Pennsylvania. The enemy reached the river soon after, but, as all the
boats had been secured by the Americans, were unable to cross over.
Lord Cornwallis was very anxious to procure boats, cross the river, and
push on to Philadelphia, but Howe decided to wait until the river should
be frozen, and to pass it on the ice. In the meantime, the Hessians were
stationed in Trenton, and guarded the river for some distance above and
below the town.




476


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The American war hat now entered its darkest period for the Americans. New York was lost to them, they had been driven from     New
Jersey, and their army seemed melting away- During the painful retreat
across New Jersey, Washington had exerted himself to the utmost to call
in the other detachments of his army. General Schuyler was directed to
send him the Pennsylvania and New Jersey troops in his command; but
the enlistments of these troops were rapidly expiring, and they could
not be induced to renew them. General Charles Lee was ordered to cross
the Hudson and join the commander-in-chief with all speed, but he
moved with a
slowness and care-.                     lessness that were
criminal. He refortnight on the
east side of the
Hudson, and then
pasd t G'cens              wiiith such slowgardedness that he did
gra icn.                        not reach Morrisco      i n<                                     town until the 8th
of December. On: <   the  13th, while
y i n g  carelessly
apart from his
i~       troops, at a small
inn at Baskinga h  ao  w                            ridge, he was cap'                                tured by a troop
GENERAL CHARLES LEE.                 of British cavalry.
The command
passed to General Sullivan, and in a few days he had united his forces
with those of the commander-in-chief.  General Lee had an abiding
confidence in his own ability, and was reluctant to lose his independent
command by joining Washington.     His natural self-conceit had been
greatly increased by his success at the South, and he was firmly convinced
that he alone was capable of guiding the American cause through the
difficulties which encompassed it. Influenced by this feeling be disregarded the authority of the commander-in-chief4 and subjected him to
great inconvenience. He was not untrue to the cause he had embraced,




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENGCE.


477


but his patriotism was of a different type from that which animated
Washington.
The enlistments of a large part of the troops expired on the 1st of
December, and nothing could induce them    to remain in the army.
Whole regiments abandoned the service, and the handful of reinforcements which was obtained from Philadelphia fell far short of supplying
their place. The people were disheartened, and it seemed that the cause
was hopeless. A force of six thousand militia was raised in Massachusetts and Connecticut, and was on the point of marching to Washington's
assistance, when the fleet of Sir Peter Parker entered Newport harbor,
and landed a force on the island of Rhode Island, which took possession
of Newport. In view of this invasion it was deemed best to retain the
New England militia at home.
Washington was fully alive to the danger which threatened the cause;
but he was calm and cheerful. During the retreat through New Jersey
he said to Colonel Reed: "Should we retreat to the back parts of Pennsylvania, will the Pennsylvanians support us?"  "If the lower counties
are subdued, and give up," said the colonel, " the back counties will do
the same."  Washington passed his hand over his throat, and said, with
a smile: " My neck does not feel as though it was made for a halter.
We must retire to Augusta county, in Virginia. Numbers will be
obliged to repair to us for safety; and we must try what we can do in
carrying on a predatory war; and if overpowered we must cross the
Allegheny mountains."
At this juncture of affairs Lord and General Howe issued a proclamation, by virtue of their authority as commissioners appointed by the
crown for the settlement of the war, in which all persons in America in
arms against his majesty's government were ordered to disperse and
return to their homes, and all civil officers were commanded to discontinue their treasonable practices, and relinquish their usurped authority.
A full and free pardon was offered to every one who would, within sixty
days, appear before certain designated officials, claim the pardon offered,
and take an oath pledging him to obey the laws, and submit to the
authority of the king. Large numbers of persons, most of whom were
possessed of property which they desired to save, at once came forward,
made their submission, and took the required oath. Some of these were
men who had borne a prominent part in the patriot movement; among
them were tw9 delegates from Pennsylvania to the Continental Congress,
and the president of the New Jersey convention, which had ratified the
Declaration of Independence. Within ten days after the proclamation
was issued between two and threc thousand persons submitted, and swore




478


SIISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


allegiance to the king. In Philadelphia great excitement prevailed, and
General Putnam, who was in command there, feeling that there was
danger that the royalists in the city might succeed in obtaining control of
it, advised that, until matters were placed on a more certain footing, Congress should hold its sessions at some safer place.  Accordingly it
adjourned on the 12th of December to meet in Baltimore.
The only quarter in which the Americans had been able to oppose anything of a successful resistance to the British was the region of Lake
Champlain. We have related the retreat of Sullivan and Arnold from
Canada, and the appointment of Gates to the command of their forces.
The army halted at Forts Ticonderoga and Crown Point, which it
strengthened, and awaited the development of the plans of Sir Guy
Carleton, the British commander in Canada.
That officer had determined to secure the control of Lakes Champlain
and George, and then to push on to the Hudson, open communication
with the Howes at New York, and spend the winter at Albany   He
would thus entirely sever the communication between New England and
New York, and the Middle and Southern States. Sullivan had wisely
destroyed all the boats on Lake Champlain which he did not need for his
own purposes, and as there was no road along the shore by which lihe
could advance, Carleton was obliged to construct a fleet before he could
attempt to ascend the lake. He exerted himself with such energy that
in three months he had a fleet of five large and twenty small vessels, and
a number of armed boats assembled at the foot of the lake.
Gates was informed of Carleton's design, and ordered Arnold, who was
possessed of some nautical knowledge, to construct a flotilla and take
command of it for the purpose of contesting Carleton's effort to ascend the
lake. Arnold set to work with enthusiasm, and soon had a force of vessels afloat about half as strong as that of the enemy. He chose a favorable position, and awaited Carleton's approach.  A sharp encounter
occurred between the opposing forces early in October near Valcour
island, but was indecisive, and at nightfall Carleton took position to cut
off Arnold's retreat. The night was dark and cloudy, and taking advantage of it, Arnold passed the enemy, and sailed for Crown Point. His
vessels were in bad condition, however, and two were sunk on the voyage.
Only six succeeded in coming within sight of Crown Point, near which
they were overtaken by Carleton on the 6th of October, Arnold made
a gallant fight with his remaining vessels. One was taken with her
crew, and Arnold's flag-ship, the " Congress," was cut to pieces, and half
of her crew were slain. Resolved not to surrender, Arnold ordered the
vessels to be run aground, and set them on fire. He and his men then




THE DECLARATION OF INDEIPENDEL'CE.


479


waded ashore, and by a sharp fire from their rifles kept the enemy from
the burning galleys until they were entirely consumed. The Americans
then hastened to Crown Point, where they set fire to the fort and the
stores, and continued their retreat to Ticonderoga.  Gates greatly
strengthened the defences of this post, and when Carleton arrived before
it, he found it too strong to be attacked. He therefore abandoned his
attempt to reach the Hudson, and returned to Canada.
A fewv weeks later, feeling that the lake country was safe for the winter,
Gates, in obedience to orders from Washington, sent him part of his force,
and shortly afterwards marched with the remainder cf his troops to the
assistance of the commander-in-chief.
Including these troops, Washington's force now numbered about six
thousand men fit for duty. The enlistments of many of them would expire
on the last day of December, and it was of the highest importance that something should be done to revive the confidence of the country before these
men should be lost to the army  The circumstances in which Washington
was placed required a blow to be struck in some quarter. A victory
would be productive of the most important moral results; a defeat could
do no more than ruin the cause, and a policy of inaction was sure to
accomplish that.
An opportunity at once presented itself. The British had ceased their
pursuit, and though they held New Jersey in strong force, had scattered
their detachments through the State. General Howe was in New York,
and Lord Cornwallis was at the same place, and was about to sail for
England. Both commanders believed the American army to be too
seriously crippled to assume the offensive during the winter, The Hessians, who constituted the advance-guard of the royal forces, were stationed along the Delaware. Colonel Donop had his head-quarters at
Burlington, and Colonel Rahl was at Trenton with a force of fifteen
hundred men. Rahl was a brave and competent officer, but he entertained such a thorough contempt for the Americans that he neglected to
protect his position by earthworks or other defences. The Hessians kept
the country in terror; they were inveterate thieves, and plundered both
patriot and royalist without mercy. They had earned the deep and
abiding hatred of the American soldiers by bayoneting the wounded in
the battles in which they had been engaged.
Washington now determined to recross the Delaware and attack the Hessians at different points. A force of twenty-four hundred picked troops
under his own command was to cross the river a few miles above Trenton
and attack the enemy at that place; and at the same time another detachment
under Reed and Cadwallader were to cross over from  Bristol and drive




480


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the Hessians under Colonel Donop out of Burlington, These attaocl
were to be simultaneous, and were ordered to be made at five o'clock on
the morning of the 26th of December.
The division of Washington was accompanied by a train of twenty.
four field-pieces under Colonel Knox. The river was high and full of
floating ice, and the weather was cold and stormy. A detachment of
boats had been collected for the service, and was manned by Colonel
Glover's regiment of Marblehead fishermen, who had ferried the army
over the East river in the retreat from Long island. The march was
begun just after dark on Christmas night, and Washington hoped to
reach the New Jersey shore by midnight; but the passage of the river
F —i
WASHINGTON CROSSING THE DELAWARE.
was difficult and tedious by reason of the floating ice and the high wind
whlich repeatedly swept the boats out of their course; and it was four
o'clock before the artillery was landed. The march was at once resumed. Washington, with the main body, moved by a wide circuit to
gain the north of the town, while a detachment under Sullivan was
ordered to advance by the river road and attack the enemy from the west
and south sides.
A blinding storm of hail and snow delayed the advance of the troops,
but also concealed their movements from the enemy; and it was eight
o'clock before Trenton was reached. The attack was at once begun, and
was pressed with vigor. The Hessians were completely taken by suro




THE DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE.


prise; they flew to arms promptly, but by this time the Americans had
gained the main street, and were sweeping it with a battery of six piecces.
Colonel Rahl was mortally wounded while leading his grenadiers to tile
charge, and his men, seized with a panic, endeavored to retreat. Findingr
that they were surrounded, about one thousand of them thlrew down
their arms and surrendered. The remainder succeeded in escaping and
joining Colonel Donop at Burlington.
The Americans lost two men killed, and two were frozen to death on
the march. Several were wounded. They took one thousand prisoners
with their arms. Thirty-two of the captives were officers.
Washington now learned that the ice was so thick in front of Bristol
that Reed and Cadwallader had not been able to get their cannon over
the river, and had not attacked the enemy at Burlington. He therefore
deemed it best to withdraw into Pennsylvania, as Donop's force was still
intact at Burlington,
and the enemy liad __-                                 -
another column   at --.
Princeton     a few.
the evening of the
26   th                                   hope. Seeral returned  ts,
whose ters of enlistment camxpired beyon the last day of Dcember,  re inday h      e learned from
Reed and Cadwalla-orn
dera  who had crossed30th TTLE OF TRENTON.
the Delaware on the 27th that Donop had called in all his detachments
along the river, and had retreated in haste to New Brunswick and
Princeton.
The news of the victory at Trenton was received with delight in all
parts of the country, and men   began to   take hope. Several regiments,
whose termns of enlistment expired on the last day of December, were induced to remain six weeks longer. Washington resolved to make an
effort to recover New Jersey, and men of influence were sent to rouse the
militia of that State to take up arms for the defence of their homes.
Altogether matters assumed a more promising aspect than they had worn
at any period of the war  On the 30th of December Washington recrossed the Delaware and took position at Trenton.
About the same time Congress bestowed upon Washington the highest
proof of their confidence in his wisdom and integrity that a free people
can ever confer upon a leader. On the 27th of December Congress con31




482


4HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ferred upon General Washington, by a formal resolution, unlimited military power for six months. The committee, in their letter informing him
of this act, wrote: " Happy is it for this country that the general of their
forces can safely be intrusted with the most unlimited power, and neither
personal security, liberty, nor property be in the least endangered thereby "  The confidence of the country was not misplaced. Never was
dictatorial power used more wisely or unselfishly, and never did its
exercise produce more beneficial results.
It was resolved by Congress to secure assistance from abroad, and on
the 30th of December Benjamin Franklin, Silas Deane, and Arthur Leethe last of whom was appointed in place of Mr. Jefferson, who could not
go-were sent as commissioners to France to secure the assistance of the
government of that country. France was not yet prepared to go to war
with England, and the commissioners could do no more than secure aid
in money, which was expended in the purchase of supplies and military
stores, which were shipped to the United States. It was arranged that
this money should be repaid by Congress in the produce of the country,
especially in tobacco, which was to be shipped to France through a mercantile house. The assistance thus obtained was of the greatest service to'
the Americans.




CHAPTER XXVIII.


THE YEAR 1777.
fowe attempts to Crush Washington-Battle of Princeton-The British Confined to the
Seaboard-Recovery of New Jersey-Thle American Army in Winter Quarters at
Morristown-Effects of the American Successes-Difficulty of Procuring TroolsWashington Refuses to Exchange Prisoners-IIis Course Approved by CongrcsshMeasures of Congress-Naval Affiirs-Tryon Burns Danbury-Gallantry of ArnoldTroubles in the Northern Department-Congress Adopts a National Flag-" Tile Stars
and Stripes"-Course of France towards the United States-France decides to Assist the
Americans-Lafayette-His arrival in Amlerica-Capture of tile British General
Prescott-Howe threatens Philadelphia-Washington moves Southward-Battle of tile
Brandywine-Washington Retreats to the Schyllkill —Wayne's Defeat at Paoli-Plliladelpiia Evacuated by the Americans-It is Occupied by the Britishl-Battle of Germantown-The British Attack the Forts on the Delaware-They are Abandoned by the
Americans-Burgoyne's Army in Canada —Advance of Burgoyne into New YorkInvestment of Ticonderoga-It i. Abandoned by tile Americans —The Retreat to
Fort Edward-Burgovne reaches the Iludson —lMurder of Miss McCrea-Siege of Fort
Schuyler-Battle of Bennington-Critical Situation of Burgoyne-Gates ill Command
of the American Army-Battles of Belimus' Heights and Stillwater-Surrender of
Burgoyne's Army-Clinton in the Highlands.?.REAT was the astonishment of General Howe when he learned of
9iifi   the battle at Trenton.   He could scarcely believe that a handfull
~I      of militia had captured a strong force of veteran troops led by
e   such a commander as Colonel Rahl.       He at once took prompt
measures to repair the disaster,    Lord Cornwallis, who was o;
the eve of sailing for England, was ordered to resume his command in
New Jersey, and a force of seven thousand men was rapidly collected and
placed under his orders.  These troops rendezvoused at Princeton.
Washington was informed of these movements, and ordered Generals
Mifflin and Cadwallader to join him without delay.    They reached Trenton the 1st of January, with thirty-five hundred men.       This increased
the American force to about five thousand men fit for duty       Upon the
approach of Cornwallis' army, Washington        took  position behind the
Assunpink, and prepared to dispute the passage of that stream.         The
fords and bridge over the creek were carefully guarded, and were swept
by the fire of the artillery placed to command them.        A  force under
General Greene and Colonel Hand was thrown forward to lhold the enemlv
483




IIIS'TORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ill cllc(k,:1a(d so retarded their movements that tle British army did not
arriv   e lc',b renrllton until four o'clock in the afternoon of January 2(1,
1777   Corllwallis i;ade several determined efforts to force a passage of
tlhe crcck, but wa:s each( time driven back by the well-directed fire of the
plrovilnei:al. Tlinkillg that lie could accomplish more the next da, the
iBitis!i c'm:mnandcr drew oilf lis men, resolving to renew the attack in
tlhe Ilml)llin  whJen, lie boasted, he would " bag the fox."  Botl armies
encamlled for the nirght i;l sigllt of each other, reddening the sky with the
glow of tleir caml)-fires.
Tile situation of tlhe American army was now critical in the extreme.
A retreat into Pennsylvania was impossible, as the Delaware was full of
COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY) AT PRINCETON.
floating ice, and could not be passed in the face of such an army as that
of Cornwallis. The issue of the next day's conflict was, to say the least;,
doubtful, for the army of Cornwallis was composed mainly of veteran
trool)., and he was himself a leader of genuine ability. In this emergency
Washington determined upon one of the most brilliant and well-conceived
operations of the war. It was known to him that the British had their
main depot of supplies at New Brunswick, and he supposed from the
presence of so many troopls with Cornwallis that this depot lhad been left
unguarded. He therefore resolved to break up his camp, and march by
an unfrequented road around the left flank of the enemy to Princeton.
- —. -- '*-~
ati unfrequented road aroundX thle left flank of the enemy to Princeton.




THE YEAR, 1777


capture the force stationed thlere, and then hasten to New Brunswick and
secure the stores at that place. Sending his hleavy baggage and stores
down the river to Burlington, WashIington silently withdrew his army
fromI its position at midnighlt, leaving the camp-fires burning to deceive
the enemy, and a small force to watch the British and destroy the bridlg-c;
after the army had passed on.
A forced march brought the Americans within three miles of Princeton
by daybreak on the morning of the 3d of January      The army was
divided into two divisions, one under Washington, and the other under
General Miercer, which approached tlhe town by different routes. Three
British regiments on their way to Trenton had passed the previous night
BATTLE OF PRINCETON.
at Princeton, and had resumed their march at dawn. The first of these,
under Colonel Mawhood, was encountered by tlhc division of General
Mercer, about two miles from Princeton. As Mawhood supposed Mercer's
force to be a party retreating from Trenton, he at once resolved to attack
it. His attack was successful. The Americans were driven back, and
General Mercer was wounded, bayoneted, and left on the field apparently dead. Mercer's trools fell back in confusion, and a body of Pennsylvania militia, which had been sent by Washington to their assistance, was
held in check by thie fire of thle British artillery.
At this moment, Washington, who liad been rendered anxious by the




486


IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


obstinate and continued firing, arrived on the field. A glance showed
him the broken and shattered regiments of Mercer falling back in confusion, and the Pennsylvania militia wavering under the heavy cannonade
directed against them. Not a moment was to be lost, and putting spurs
to his horse, he dashed forward in the face of the fire of Mawhood's
artillery, and waving his hat, called upon the troops to rally and follow
him. The effect was electrical; the fugitives rallied with a loud cheer
and reformed their line, and at the same moment a Virginia regiment,
which had just arrived, dashed out of a neighboring wood and opened
a heavy fire upon the enemy  A little later the American artillery came
up, and opened a shower of grape upon the British. Mawhood was driven
back, and with great difficulty succeeded in regaining the main road,
along whlich he retreated with all speed to Trenton.
The second British regiment, advancing from Princeton to 5Mawhood's
assistance, was attacked by St. Clair's brigade, and was speedily driven
across the country towards New Brunswick. The third regiment, seeing
the fate of their comrades, became panic-stricken.  A  portion fled
towards New Brunswick, and the remainder took refuge in the college
building at Princeton. They surrendered after a few shots from the
American artillery.
Thle Americans lost but a few men in this battle; but General Mercer,
a brave and efficient commander, was mortally wounded, and died a few
davs after the engagement. The British lost about one hundred killed
and three hundred prisoners.
Eager to secure the stores at New Brunswick, Washington pushed on
with splee(d in tlhat direction, but after passing a few miles beyond Princeton decided to abandon the attempt. He was sure that Cornwallis would
pursue him as soon as his retreat from Trenton was discovered, and his
men were too much exhausted to reach New Brunswick before the arrival
of the enemy. They had been without rest for a night and a day, and
some of them   were barefooted. His generals sustained him in the
opinion that it was injiudicious to continue the movement against New
Brunswick, and he reluctantly abandoned it, and withdrew in the direction of Morristown.
When Cornwallis discovered the withdrawal of the Americans on the
morning of the 3d of January, he was greatly perplexed to know in
what direction they had gone. In a little while the sound of tlle cannonade at Princeton revealed to him the route taken by them, and he at
once understood the design of Washington. He must save his stores at
any risk, anld he broke up his camp and set out for Princeton and New
Brunswick. Thle Americans had obstructed the Princeton road, and had




'1IE  YEAR    1777.


487


broken down the bridge over Stony creek, a few miles from the town.
Without waiting to rebuild the bridge, the British commander forced his
men through the icy waters, which were breast high, and hastened through
Princeton with all speed. Believing that Washington had hurried oil to
New Brunswick, Cornwallis marched direct to that place, and did not
notice tlhe deflection of the American army from the main route. Reaching New Brunswick, lie made arrangements to defend the town, which lie
supposed would be attacked.
In the meantime the American army retreated to a strong position at
Morristown, where tl)e troops erected huts in which to pass the winter.
Finding that the enemy did not attack him, Washington ventured to
extend his line. His right was at Princeton, under General Putnam,
and his left, under General Heath, was in the Highlands.  His own
head-quarters were at Morristown.   For six months neither lfarty
attempted any movement of importance. Washington was not idle,
however. Though he had but the skeleton of an army at Morristown,
he displayed such activity in cutting off the foraging p)arties of the
British that they were unable to draw any supplies from the country
beyond their lines, and rarely ventured without their camps. By the
beginning of spring Cornwallis had abandoned every post in New Jersey
save New Brunswick and Perth Anmboy. From these points he could
communicate with and draw his supplies from  New York by water.
Thus was New Jersey almost entirely redeemed from the enemy  The
militia of the State recovered from their former despondency, and warmly
seconded the efforts of Washington against the British.
Confidence was returning to the country; and though men felt that the
struggle might yet be long and arduous, it was not as hopeless as they
had feared.
Washington passed the winter in endeavoring to reorganize the army,
and fit it for the work required of it in the spring. Tle policy of short
enlistments adopted by Congress was the source of very great trouble,
and the expiration of the enlistments of a large part of the army during
this winter caused the commander-in-chief the greatest anxiety  He
repeatedly condemned this policy, and endeavored to procure the substitution of a longer term. Great efforts were made to procure recruits,.
but they came in very slowly  In order to check the ravages of the
small-pox in the canmp, the recruits were inoculated immediately uponl
their arrival.
Efforts were now made to bring about an exchange of prisoners. The
British objected to an exchange of man for man, on the ground thlat the
Americans were rebels, and such an exchange would be an acknowledg



488.


HISTORY. OF THE UNITED STATES.


ment of their belligerent rights. Somewhat later General Howe, who
had about five thousand prisoners in New York, renewed the negotiation.
The British had treated the captured Americans with great severity, and
had confined them in warehouses in New York, and in foul hulks
anchored in the bay. They were improperly fed, and were allowed to
remain, almost naked. Their sufferings were fearful, and they were
reduced and emaciated in strength and body, until they were truly said
to resemble " walking corpses." British cruelty never exhibited itself in
a more inhuman form than in the treatment of these unfortunate captive


UNITED STATES NAVY YARD, BROOKLYN.


by the royal officials. More than ten thousand of them died in New
York, during the war, from the effects of this treatment. When General Howe's proposal to exchange these men for the Hessians taken by
the Americans was received, it was declined by Washington. The Hessians had been well fed and well treated by the Americans, and were hale
and hearty, and Washington was unwilling to liberate them for service
in the British army, and to receive in exchange for them half-starved
men, who were so weak that they could scarcely reach their homes. It




THE YEAR 1777..


489


was a stern necessity, but it was recoTnized by Congress, and Washington's view of the matter was sustained.
During the winter five more major-generals were commissioned by
Congress. They were Stirling, St. Clair, lifflin, Stephen, and Lincoln.
Arnold, who was the senior brigadier in the service, justly conceived that
his rank and services in battle entitled him to promlotion, and was inljignnnt at having been passed over in the new ap)pointlntets, and complained
bitterly of the injustice done him. Eighteen brigadier-generals were also
appointed. Among them were George Clinton, of' New York; Glover,
the conmmander of the Marblehead regiment; Woodford and Mulllenberg, of Virginia; and Hand and Anthony Wayne, of Pennsylvania.
Congress gave great attention to the reorganization of the arm!y during
this session. A quartermaster's department was organized, with General
Mifflin at its head. Four regiments of cavalry were ordered to be
enlisted. The hospital service was reorganized, andl placed under the
control of Dr. Shippen, of Philadelphia; and Dr Rush, of Philadelphia, one of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, was
appointed surgeon-general of the army
Efforts were also made to place the navy upon a better footing.
Several of the frigates ordered by Congress to be built had been completed and equipped; but the work on the rest was delayed I) the want
of funds. Efforts were made to complete them, as they were greatly
needed; all the vessels constituting the American fleet being at this time
blockaded in the harbor of Providence, Rhode Island, by the enemy
Since the beginning of the struggle a destructive warfare had been
carried on by the privateers of New England against the commerce of
Great Britain, especially against the vessels of that country trading to
the West Indies. During the first years of the war nearly three hundred
of these were captured by the privateers. The cargoes of the captured
vessels were valued at the immense sum of five millions of dollars. 'The
American merchantmen also maintained a regular communication with
France, Spain, and Holland, and a profitable trade was carried on
between the United States and those countries. It was attended with
great risk, however, and many of the American vessels were captured by
the British men-of-war,
Washington remained at Morristown some time after the spring
opened, and exerted himself to the utmost to take the field as soon as the
enemy should develop their plans. The first months of the season were
employed by the British commander in a series of plundering expeditions. One of these was directed against Peekskill, where tlhe Americans
had collected a large quantity of stores. General McDougall, command



490


HISTORY OF T'HE UNITED STATES.


ing the American force at that point, found it impossible to defend the
stores, and set fire to them and retreated to the heights overloo'ing the
town. The enemy made no attempt to follow him, and retur.td down
the river. General Heath had been transferred to the comraiand of the
forces in Massachusetts, and was succeeded in the comnlaud of the
Highlands by General Putnam.
In the latter part of April General Tryon, the last roya]lst governor
of New York, was sent by General Howe, with a force co two thousand
men, to destroy a large quantity of stores collected by t':, Americans at
Danbury, in the western part of Connecticut, about twe.ity-three miles
from the sound. On the 26th of April, Tryon land4.' near Norwalk,
and marclhed to Danbury, wlhere he burned the stores and set fire to the
town. Thus far lie had met with no opposition; bit the alarm had
spread immediately after his landing, and the Connec-icut militia, to the
number of six hundred men, assembled under Generals Silliman and
Woostcr   Arnold chanced to be at New Haven, and c6llecting a small
force of volunteers, hlurried to join Silliman and Wooster, and the whole
command hastened after the marauders.
Tryon began his retreat from Danbury before daylight on the morning
of the 27th, and was soon after attacked by the militia. During the
27th and 28th, the British were harassed at every step by the little band
of Americans, who, though too weak to defeat them in any single encounter,
hung upon their march and inflicted upon them a loss of nearly three hundred men. Tlce enemy at last came under the protection of the guns of
their ships, and the Americans were forced to withdraw  Tryon then
re-embarked his exhausted troops and returned to New York. The
American loss was slight. The brave old General Wooster, a veteran
of sixty-eight years, was mortally wounded at the head of his men, and
died a few days later, Arnold behaved witl such distinguished gallantry
in tl;is affair that Congress rewarded him with the rank of major-general, and presented him with a horse handsomely equipped. Even this
acknowledgment of his merit was mingled with injustice, for the date of
his commission still left him below the rank he was entitled to; and he
felt the second slight as another undeserved injury.
The Connecticut militia were very indignant at the burning of Danbury, and resolved to avenge it. In the latter part of May, a party of
one hundred and seventy men, under Colonel Meigs, crossed the sound
in whale-boats to the east end of Long island. They carried their boats
during the night fifteen miles across the neck, and launching them again,
proceeded to Sag Harbor, where they destroyed twelve vessels and a large
quantity of stores collected there by the British, and made ninety prisoners. They then returned to Connecticut without the loss of a man.




THE YEAR 1777


491


Recruits came in to the American camp very slowly, and various expedients were adopted by Washington to hasten the enilistments. At his
instance, Congress declared that all indented servants whllo enlisted in the
army should receive their freedom  at once. Bounties in land were offered
to such Hessians as should desert the Britishl service. This last measure
did not accomplish much towards crippling the ellnemy
In the northern department, Schuyler was left with a mere skeleton
of an army   He had but seven hundred men, at the most, at Ticonderoga, and lie was fearftll that
Carleton would learn his weakness, pass Lake Champlain on
the ice, capture Ticonderoga,,
and 1l)us1 on to Albany  He
repeatedly urged the commander-in-chief to send  hini reinforcements anl( supplies, but
his re(llest could not be grante(ld,
as there were none to be sl)ared  / q                    1^
firom Washington's army During the winter a persistent effort
was ma(le to drive Schuyler:   -
from  his comlman(l, in ord(ler
that Gates mighllt succeed to it.      -         -
Charges were brought against        " a
him with such recklessness that  ~
he offered  his resi(rlgnation to —
Congres.s. Tlhat body refiused(            -
to accept it; but as the efforts     GENERAL PHILIP SCIIUYLER.
of' his enemies were not disconcontillued, Schuyler went to Philadelphia, in April, 1 777, and demanded
an investigation into his con(luct. Gates succeeded him in his command.
S(huyler was fully vindicated by the report of the investigating committee of Congress, and was ordered to resume his commnland. Gates was
greatly surprisedl by the result, and reluctantly relinquished the comnmand
of the northern department to his rival, and relpairedl to Philadelphia
to seek redress at the hands of Congress for what he termed( his wronlls.
Until now the Americans had been without a national flag. Congress,
in June, 1777, remedied this very serious want by adop)ting the old
"Union Flag," withl its thirteen stripes; but substituted, in place of St.
George's Cross, a group of thirteen stars, one for each State. Thus the
"Stars and Stripes" became the national ensign of tlhe republic-a star




HISTORY OF THE UJNITED STATES.


having been added for each additional State that has since joined the
original thirteen.
The war in America had been watched with the deepest interest in
Europe, and especially by France. The French government had been
convinced long before the outbreak of the revolution that the treatment
which the colonies were receiving from Great Britain would ultimately
cause their separation from her; and ten years before the war began, the
Duke (ld Choiseul, the prime minister of Louis XV., had sent Baron
De Kall) to examine and report the state of the feelings of the colonists
towards Great Britain. Dc Kalb was a shrewd observer, and furnished
his government with ample proofs that England was, alienating the
Americans by her treatment of them. Choiseul conceived the hope that,
by offering the Americans free trade with France, they would be made
to resent the course of England even more decidedly  When the revolutionI began, the French government was fully prepared for it, and was
ready to avenge the loss of Canada by aiding the new republic in its
efforts to throw off the authority of Great Britain. It was merely waiting to see whether the Americans were able to maintain the stand they
liad taken. The news of the defeat on Long island, the loss of New
York, and the retreat through New Jersey, filled tlhe friends of America
with serious alarm, and it was generally believed in Europe that the
Americans would not be able to withstand the superior force of the
mother country
In the early spring of 1777 it was known in Europe that the American
army, which it was supposed had been driven in hopeless disorder over
the Delaware without the means of continuing the war, had suddenly
rallied and beaten a force of veteran troops at Trenton, and again at
Princeton, and had recovered New Jersey from the enemy  This intelligence produced the most profound astonishment in Eiarope, and was
received in France with genuine satisfaction. The Americans were
extolled as a race of heroes, and the prudence and good generalship of
Washington were spoken of with the highest praise.
The French government now felt justified in aiding the patriots; but
it proceeded with caution. American privateers were secretly fitted out,
with the connivance of the government, and were permitted to sell their
prizes in French ports, and tlie protests of the British ambassador against
such acts were unheeded. The government made secret grants of arms
and military stores to the Americans, and three ship-loads were sent out
in the spring of 1777. Two of these vessels were captured by the English, but the third reached America in safety, and its cargo went to supply
the deficiencies of the army at Morristown.




THE   YEAR 1777.


493


In the spring of this year tlhec commissioners sent to France by Congress reached that country  They hl(ad full powers to enter into an
alliance with the French king. They were granted several private
interviews by the Count dc Vergennes, the French prime minister,
and were secretly encouraged to lhope for the success of their mission.
As yet, however, France was not prepared to declare war against
Great Britain.
Though the government delayed its action, there were generous hearts
in France who were determined to give all the aid and comfort in their
power to the struggling patriots. One of these was the youthful Marquis
de Lafayette, the heir of a noble name, the possessor of wealth and a
high social position, and the husband of a beautiful and accomplished
wife. He had heard at a dinner
party given by the French offi-,       \
cials at Mavence to the Dule of            :'
Gloucester, a brother of the king
of England, the story of the war u     -.
then going on in America, and          g-     i
its causes, related by the lips of
the royal guest. Itis gellcerous,:
heart at once went out in s m-                         I
pathy to the patriots, and lie
ro*olved to leave his family and   -
all his advantages at home, and
go to the aid of the Americans.:
He revealed his intention to the             7
Count de Broglie, a Marslhal of
France, who regarded his enter-  -,          -          7 1 j~)^
prise as Quixotic, and refused to           LAFAYETTE.
aid him. Finding him determined, the count introduced his young friend to the Baron de Kalb, an
officer of experience and merit, who had visited America as Choiseur's
agent in the last reign. De Kalb introduced Lafayette to Silas Deane,
then the only American commissioner in France. The news of the loss
of New York and of New Jersey arrived about this time, but did not
lessen the ardor of Lafayette; and though the newly-arrived commissioners, Franklin and Lee, candidly told him that they could not encourage him to hope for a successful issue of their cause, le avowed his
determination to proceed. He purchased a vessel, which was loaded
with arms and supplies by the commissioners.   The French government attempted to prevent him from sailing, but he succeeded  in getting




494


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


off, acconpanied by De Kalb and several others. He reached Philadelphia, offere(l his services to Congress without pay, and was commissioned a najor-general in the American army, though not yet
twenty years old.
Lafayette was not the only foreigner whose services were accepted by
Congress. De Kalb; Count Pulaski and Thaddeus Kosciusko, natives
of Poland; and Conway, an Irishman who had seen thirty years' service
in the French army, and who, in an evil hour for this country, came to
America; and, later still, Baron Steuben, one of Frederick the Great's
veterans, and who (lid good service to the cause by introducing into the
American ranks the drill and discipline of the Prussian army, were commissioned and assigned to duty by Congress.
About the middle of May, Washington broke up his camp at Morristown, and occupied the heights of Middlebrook in order to watch tile
British to better advantage. Howe made repeated efforts to draw him
from  this strong position  into the open field, where the superior;'P X.' i;discipline of the royal
troops would give him
I jan advantage, but
Washington     outgeneralled him come oplertely, and H oowe
n a dk                           finding it impossible
Barto bring on an engage-from  i  e  ad h      d                      ment, withdrew his
— army to Staten island.
LAI'AYETTE OFFERING HIS SERVICES TO DR. FRANKLIN.  While these movments were in progress, the British sustained a serious loss in the
capture of General Prescott one of their principal officers, who had
earned the dislike of the Americans by his arbitrary and contemptuous treatment of them. He was commanding the British forces at
Newport, and had his head-quarters on the outskirts of the town.
On a dark night in July, a company of picked men, under Colonel
Barton, crossed Narragansett bay in whale boats, and passing silently
through the British fleet, landed near Prescott's quarters. The sentinel at the door was secured, and the astounded general was roused
from his bed, and hurried away without being allowed time to dress.
Hie was conveyed within the American lines, and was afterwards exchanged for General Charles Lee.
Washington now learned of the invasion of New York by the army
of General Burgoyne, to which we shall refer further on. It was evident




THE    YEARI 1777.


495


thar. Burgoyne was trying to reach the Hudson. Washington's spies in
New York informed him that Howe was prelaring to send off the larger
part of his force by water, and the colmmander-in-chief was perplexed
to know whether Howe intended ascending the Hudson to coi6erate with
Burgoyne, or to transport his army to Philadelphia by water  Towar(ls
the last of July Howe sailed with his fleet from New York, and stood
out to sea. Ten days later his ships were reported off the mouth of the
Delaware. Washington now felt confident that his design was to attack
Philadelphia, and crossed the Delaware with his army, and marchled to
Germantown to await the development of the enemy's plans. About the
same time the British fleet stood out to sea again. Its destination was
— E
SCENE ON THE WISSAHICKIN.
uncertain, and Washington held his army in readiness to march at a
minute's notice to the threatened point.
While awaiting the movements of Sir William Howe, Washington
visited Philadelphia, where Arnold was in command and was engaged
in fortifying the city, to consult with Congress, and push forward the
measures for the defence of the place. While there he met the newlyarrived Lafayette. Washington was an acute judge of men, and at his
first interview with Lafayette was deeply impressed with the noble and
earnest character of the young soldier, and conceived for him a warm
regard which ended only with his life.
In the midst of the uncertainty attending Howe's movements, Waslhington received urgent appeals from Schuyler for assistance. He sent
him two brigades from the Highlands, and ordered Colonel Morgan to




496


HIISTORY OF THE' UNiTED STATES.


join him with his riflemen, who were regarded as more than a match for
the Indians of Burgoyne's army. Arnold was also sent to assume comamand of a division in tlhe northern army, as he was familiar with the
country. Pultnaml was ordered to prevent Sir Henry Clinton, who had
been left at New York, from ascending the Hudson and forming a junction with Burgoyne; and General Lincoln, commanding the militia of
Massachusetts, was directed to march with a portion of his force to
Schuylcr's assistance.
As nothing had been heard of the British fleet, Washington was about
to move from Germantown into New Jersey once more, whlen news was
received tlhat the enemy had ascended the Chesapeake to its head, and
had landed their forces at Elkton, in Maryland, about sixty miles from
Philadelphia. The Delaware had been obstructed and fortified a short distance below Philadelphia, and Howe had ascended the Chesapeake in order
to sec(urc an undis— eighteen ttousaned landing. He
toards Piladelialphia, while
as      ton  ad but eeven tousa    e  te          fleet shoul, and was
itrn no  repared  to  thderta  a camaen countryDela......Ne..                                     ~werare and aid the
a     forced mares sceeed in reaching the iciity ofin reducilmington
for the  ATTE OF T  BritisANDYW. Upon examing the forts on t
cie   to cotst the hassage of the Band effected his landin stat Elktioned his
armywithout oppos ittion, on the 25 iish wereand adt oancing by the maince
towards to Philadelphia,       sed the Brandy
anashington had but eleven thouser man efforetive men with him, ad waths
in no way prepared to undertake a campaign in the open country
'Nrevertheles~s, hie advanced at once to dispute the progress of the enemy,
pointd forced marches seeed in reaching the vicinity of his army to cover itWil Oing tle
Eof Septem arrial tof the BritisBritish. Upon army reacexamining the creek. Howe ordered General Kto contest the passae fethin andywine creek, as andf he werestatio about histo
army along its left bank. The British were advancing by the main
road to Philadelphia, which crossed the Brandywine at Chadd's ford,
and as Washington supposed their main effort would be made at this
point, he stationed the greater part of his army to cover it. On the 11th
of September the British army reached the creek. Howe ordered General Knyphausen to make a feint at Chadd's ford, as if he were about to




THE YEAR 1777.


-197


force a passage, while lhe sent Cornwallis with a strong column to pass
the creek higher up and turn tlhe American right flank. Th'is plan was
successfully carried out. Washington was deceived lby tile officer sent to
ascertain if thle enemy were threatening his right, and was left in ignorance of Cornwallis' movement until it was too late to prevent it. Icingir
outflanked, the American army was compelled to fall back, with a loss
of twelve hundred men. The troops did not know tl<y had suffered a
reverse, but supposing they had merely experienced a check were in ligh
spirits. Lafayette was wounded in this battle; and Pulaski so greatly
distinguished himself that he was subsequently rewarded by Congrcss
with the rank of brigadier-general and the command of the cavalry
THE SCHUYLKILL, AT PHILADELPHIA.
/
Sir William Howe did not push his advantage, but remained for two
days near the battle-field. Washington, in the meantime, retreated to
Chester, and then to the Schuylkill, which he crossed on the 12th of
September, and proceeded to Germantown, where the army went into.camp. The men were in excellent spirits, and a day or two later Washington recrossed the river, and moved towards the enemy, whom  he
encountered about twenty-five miles from Philadelphia, on the 16th. A
violent rain-storm prevented the two armies from engaging, and injured
the arms and ammunition of the men so much that Washington deemed
it best to withdraw to Pott's Grove, on the Schuylkill, about thirty miles


32




498


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


from Philadelphia. At the same time he detached General Wayne, with
a force of fifteen hundred men, to gain the enemy's rear and cut off their
wagon train. A Tory carried information of this movement to the British
commander, and Wayne was himself surprised at Paoli tavern, on the
20th of September, and defeated with a loss of three hundred men.
It being impossible to save the city of Philadelphia from capture the
military stores were removed, and a contribution was levied upon the
people to supply the army with clothing, shoes, and other necessaries
during the winter. Congress in view of the great danger which threatened the country conferred dictatorial powers upon Washington for sixty
days, and then extended this time to a period of four months. Congress
then adjourned to meet at Lancaster, from which, a few days later, it
transferred its sessions to York beyond the Susquehanna.
Howe crossed the Schuylkill by a night march, and on the 26th of
September entered Philadelphia. The bulk of his army was stationed at
Germantown, and a small detachment was left to hold the city.
The Americans, though they had lost Philadelphia, still held the forts
on the Delaware, a short distance below the mouth of the Schuylkill.
The work on the Pennsylvania side was called Fort Mifflin, and was built
on a low mud island. Immediately opposite, at Red Bank, on the New
Jersey shore, was Fort Mercer. Both works were armed with heavy
guns, and commanded the river perfectly  The channel was obstructed
with heavy logs fastened together and sunk in the stream so securely as
to render their removal difficult. Above these obstructions were several
floating batteries.
After landing the British army at Elkton, Lord Howe carried his fleet
down the Chesapeake, and entering the Delaware took position below the
forts to await the cooperation of the army in the attack upon them.
Washington having learned that Howe had withdrawni a part of his
force from Germantown to aid in the operations against the fort, resolved
to surprise the remainder. A night march of fourteen miles brought the
American army to Germantown at sunrise on the morning of the 4th of
October. A heavy fog hung over the country and prevented the commander-in-chief from seeing either the position of the enemy or that of
his own troops. The British were taken by surprise, and were driven id
disorder. The victory seemed within the grasp of Washington, when the
Americans abandoned the pursuit to attack a stone house in which a few
of the enemy had taken refuge. While thus engaged they were seized
with an unaccountable panic, which threw them into confusion. The
British rallied, and assailing the Americans in their turn, drove them
from the field with a loss of one thousand men. Washington was greatly




THE YEAR 1777


499


mortified by this failure. He wrote to Congress: "Every account confirms the opinion I at first entertained, that our troops retreated at the
instant when victory was declaring herself in our favor."
Howe now drew in his army nearer to Philadelphia, and prepared for
an immediate attack on the forts on the Delaware. These held that river
so securely that the British fleet was not able to bring supplies up to the
city. The provisions of the army were nearly exhausted, and if the forts
could not be reduced it would be necessary to evacuate Philadelphia in
order to obtain food. On tht 22d of October, Count Donop was sent
with a force of twelve hundred picked Hessians to storm Fort Mercer, at
Red Bank, while the fleet reduced Fort Mifflin.  Donop's attack was
THE BATTLE OF GERMANTOWN-CHEW'S HOUSE.
repulsed with a loss of four hundred men, the Hessian commander himself being among the slain. In the attack on Fort Mifflin the British
lost two ships, and the remainder were more or less injured by the fire
of the American guns.'
Shortly after this repulse, the British erected batteries on a small island
in the Delaware, which commanded Fort Mifflin, and on the 10th of
November opened a heavy bombardment of the fort from these works
and from their fleet. The bombardment was continued until the night
of the 15th. The works being nearly destroyed, Fort Mifflin was abandoned on the night of the 16th, and on the 18th the garrison was
withdrawn from the fort at Red. Bank. The British now removed the
obstructions from the river, and their fleet ascended to Philadelphia.




500


HISTORY OF THE' UNITED STATES.


General Howe constructed a strongly fortified line from the Schuylkill to
the Delaware, above Philadelphia, and went into winter quarters with
his army behind these defences.
The season being too late for active operations, Washington withdrew
his army to Valley Forge on the Schuylkill, about twenty miles from
Philadelphia, and went into winter quarters. From this position he
could protect Congress, which was sitting at York, and insure the safety
of his principal depot of supplies at Reading.
In the northern department the year had been marked by the most
important events. Sir Guy Carleton was succeeded in the command of
the British forces in Canada by General Burgoyne, an officer of ability and
-a~~
ATTACK ON RED BANK.
integrity. IIe was strongly reinforced, and soon had under his command
a finely equipped army of ten thousand men. About eight thousand of
these were British and Hessian regulars, the remainder Canadians and
Indians. The army was plentifully supplied with artillery of the most
improved pattern, which was under the immediate command of General
Philips, a veteran who had served with great distinction in the seven
years war. The second in command of the army was General Frazer, an
officer of acknowledged skill, who was greatly beloved by the troops.
Baron Reidesel, the commander of the Hessians, was also an old soldier.
Altogether, the force under Burgoyne was the most splendid body of
troops Great Britain had yet assembled in America. With this army
Burgoyne was to advance by way of Lake Champlain to the Hudson,
while a detachment under General St. Leger was to move eastward by




THE YEAR 1777


601


way of Oswego and descend the Mohawk to the Hudson. Having
secured the Hudson, Burgoyne was to open communication with Sir
Henry Clinton in New York, capture the forts in the Highlands, and so
cut off New England from the Middle and Southern States.
To oppose his advance General Schuyler had a weak army between
Albany and Lake Champlain. General St. Clair with a detachment of
three thousand men held Ticonderoga, and though he seriously feared that
his force was too weak to offer much resistance, trusted to the natural
strength of his position, and hoped to be able to hold Ticonderoga until
aid could reach him.  \


ALBANY, NEW YORK, IN 1875.
On the 2d of July Burgoyne's army appeared before Ticonderoga, and
invested that post. Opposite Fort Ticonderoga, on the right hand side
of the outlet of Lake George, is a lofty hill known as Mount Defiance.
The Americans had neglected to fortify this hill, thinking it inaccessible
to artillery. General Philips was of a different opinion, and in three
days of hard labor succeeded in dragging his guns to the summit of
Mount Defiance, from which they commanded the forts on both sides of
the lake. St. Clair now saw that the forts were untenable, and that he
must evacuate them at once in order to save his army  Sending his baggage and stores in boats up the lake to Skenesborough, now Whitehall,




502


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATFM.


he evacuated Fort Ticonderoga and crossed over to Fort Independence,
on the opposite side of the lake. His withdrawal was discovered before
it was completed, and the British at once followed in pursuit. Burgoyne
ordered General Frazer to follow St. Clair's command, while he himself
passed up the lake and destroyed the stores at Skenesborough. Upon
his approach, on the afternoon of the 7th, the American force at Skenesborough set fire to the stores, and retreated rapidly to Fort Anne, which
was reached the next morning. The British appeared before this fort the
same day, but were held in check, and that night the Americans set fire
to Fort Anne and retreated to Fort Edward, sixteen miles farther.
On the afternoon of the 7th, General Frazer came up with St. Clair's
rear guard at Hubbardton, and defeated it with severe loss. St. Clair
continued his retreat through the woods, and a week later reached Fort
Edward with his exhausted troops.
General Schuyler had advanced to Fort Edward with a force of five
thousand men, nearly all of whom were militia; many were without arms,
and there was a woful scarcity of ammunition and provisions in his camp.
Schuyler was joined here by the remnant of St. Clair's command, and as
Burgoyne had halted for a few days at the head of Lake Champlain,
which was twenty-four miles distant from Fort Edward, Schuyler set his
men to work to obstruct the road between those two points by felling
trees across it and destroying bridges. So thoroughly was this work done
that Burgoyne's army consumed a fortnight in its advance from Skenesborough to the Hudson. It reached the neighborhood of Fort Edward
on the 29th of July  Schuyler at once abandoned the fort, and fell back
to Saratoga, from which he moved to Stillwater, near the mouth of the
Mohawk.
The loss of Ticonderoga and the northern forts was regarded by Congress as an evidence of the incapacity of Schuyler and his subordinates,
and so little allowance was made for the serious disadvantages under
which those officers labored, that Congress ordered all the northern
generals to be recalled and their conduct investigated. It was not until
Washington called the attention of Congress to the fact that a compliance
with this order would leave the northern army without officers, that that
body consented to suspend its unwise decree. The prejudice against
Schuyler, though unjust, was deep, and his removal from his command
was resolved upon. Washington declined to deprive him of his command, as his confidence in Schuyler was unshaken, and Congress took the
matter in its own hands. " The eastern influence prevailed," says Irving,
"and Gates received the appointment so long the object of his aspirations,
if not intrigues."




THE YEAR 1777


503


Upon reaching Fort Edward, Burgoyne, confident that the game was
in his own hands, issued a proclamation calling upon the people to send
representatives to a convention to meet at Castleton to provide for the reestablishment of the royal authority. This was met by a proclamation
from Schuyler, who declared that he would punish a.s traitors all who
should comply with Burgoyne's call, or in any way give aid and comfort
to the enemy. There was not much need for this threat, for the militia
of the northern district were rapidly rallying to Schuyler's aid; the people
of the whole region were profoundly excited, and they were determined
that the British army should never leave their country
Much of this feeling was caused by the outrages of the Indians in
Burgoyne's army, who prowled about the country, murdering and plundering the people who were exposed to their fury  One of their crimes
roused the whole northern region to action. A beautiful young girl,
Jenny McCrea by
name, was visiting a    -
friend near Fort Edtrothed to a young
Tory who had fled to
Canada some time
since, and was now
serving as a lieutenant in  Burgoyne's
army    When   her             SIEGE OF FORT SCHUYLER.
friends  removed
from Fort Edward to Albany, to avoid the danger which threatened them, she lingered behind in spite of their invitation to accompany them, hoping to meet her lover upon the advance of Burgoyne's
forces. The house in which she was staying was attacked by a party of
Indians, and she was taken prisoner  Anxious for her safety she promised her captors a liberal reward if they would conduct' her to her lover
in the British camp. On the way they quarrelled over the promised reward, and in their rage murdered the poor girl and carried her scalp into
the British camp. Burgoyne was horror-struck at the atrocious deed,
and promptly disavowed it; but the news of the murder roused a stern
desire for vengeance throughout the northern department. The terrible
scenes of the old French war were not forgotten, and the people were
fearful they would now be revived under British influence unless Burgoyne's army were destroyed. Thousands flocked to the American camp,
with such arms as they could procure, eager to crush the enemy.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


In the meantime St. Leger had moved from Oswego into the valley of
the Mohawk, and had laid siege to Fort Schuyler or Stanwix, on the site
of the present city of Rome. The fort was commanded by Colonel Gansevoort. The sicgc was begun on the 3d of August, and a few days later
news was received by the little garrison that General Herkimer with
eight hundred militia was advancing to their assistance. On the 6th of
August Herkimer reached a place called Oriskany, where, owing to the
impatience of his men, he fell into an ambush of Tories and Indians.
The fight which ensued was one of the most desperate of the war; quarter
BURGOYNE'S ENCAMPMENT ON THE HUDSON.
was neither asked nor given by either party  Herkimer was mortally
wounded, but continued to cheer on his men, until a successful sally from
the fort compelled St. Leger to recall the force engaged with Herkimer
to defend his own camp. The American militia then retreated, carrying
with them    their commander, who died a few days later. Fort Schuyler
was left in a critical condition, and Arnold was sent at his own request to
its relief. He caused the strength of his force to be greatly exaggerated,
and spread a report that Burgoyne had been defeated. The Indians deIserted St. Leger rapidly upon hearing these reports, and that commander




THE 'YEAR 1777


hastily abandoned his camp, and retreated into Canada with the remainder
of his force.
Burgoyne had now reached the Hudson, and had full command of Lakes
George and Champlain; but the people of the country were hostile to
him, and he found it hard to procure either cattle or horses. Though his
camp on the Hudson was but eighteen miles from Lake George, this lack
of animals made it almost impossible to transport his supplies across
the intervening country, ant l his army
was beginning to run
short of provisions.           is            a
To obtain horses
and provisions, Burgoyne, early in August, sent a force of                            t
five hundred Germans and a detach-     A     d
ment of Indians and                                         of -e
aTori es o under Lieu-      i p         a
Baum, to seize the                                h
stores collected by?-                                '
the  Americans  at
Bennington, Ve   -                    r
mont, and to collect                                  mtawr
such horses and cattle
as they could on the
march. He was told            -
that the people of
the   neighborhood
were largely devoted
to the king, and that
the stores were un-                GENERAL JOHN STARK.
guarded.
The news of the approach of this force spread rapidly through the
country, and the Green Mountain Boys, as the Vermont militia were
termed, flew to arms. Colonel Stark, who had retired from the Continental army on account of having been neglected in the recent promotions, was in the neighborhood, and was offered the command of the
gathering forces. He accepted it promptly, and issued a warning to the
people along the route of the British to drive off their horses and cattle,




506


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and to conceal their grain and wagons to prevent their capture by the
enemy    A messenger was sent with all speed to Manchester to Colonel
Setlh Warner, urging him to march at once with his regiment to BenuiIgton, where he was needed.
Bautni had advanced to within six miles of Bennington when he heard
of the approach of the militia under Stark. He halted, intrenched his
position, and sent to Burgoyne for reinforcements. Colonel Breyman


BATTLE OF BENNINGTON.


with five hundred Hessians and two pieces of artillery was despatched to
his assistance.
Stark was prevented from making an immediate attack upom Baum by
a furious rain-storm, which also delayed the march of Breyman and
Warner. During the night of the 15th of August, Stark was joined by
the militia from Berkshire, Massachusetts. They were anxious to engage
the enemy at once, and were impatient at the delay caused by the storm.
One of their number, Parson Allen, approached Stark. " General," said
he, " the people of Berkshire have often been called out to no purpose;
if you don't give them a chance to fight now, they will never turn out




THE YEAR 1777.


507


again."  Stark remarked his earnestness, and said with a smile, "You
would not turn out now, while it is dark and raining, would you?'
" Not just now," answered the parson. " Well," said Stark, " if the Lord
should once more give us sunshine, and I don't give you fighting enough,
I'll never ask you to turn out again."
The morning of the 16th came bright and clear, and Stark at once began
his advance upon the enemy. Arriving in sight of the British works, he
pointed them out to his men. "There are the red coats! We must beat
them to-day, or Molly Stark sleeps a widow to-night." A spirited attack
was made upon the British lines, both in front and in the rear, and after
two hours' hard fighting they were carried by storm. Baum fell mortally
wounded, and his men laid down their arms. The Indians and Tories
had escaped to the woods at the opening of the battle.
The fighting had scarcely ended when the force under Colonel Breyman
appeared, and at once engaged the Americans. At the same moment
Warner's regiment, which had pushed forward all night in the rain,
reached the field. The battle was continued until nightfall, when Breyman abandoned his artillery and made a hurried retreat to Burgoyne's
camp on the Hudson. The Americans had fourteen killed and forty
wounded. They took six hundred prisoners, one thousand stand of arms,
and four pieces of cannon.
Burgoyne now found himself in a most critical condition. He had
reached the Hudson, but his troops were short of provisions; his efforts
against Fort Schuyler and Bennington had failed, and his force was being
reduced by the desertions of the Indians. Burgoyne, who was a man of
humanity and true soldierly spirit, had no sympathy with the barbarous
policy of his government in employing the savages against the Americans,
and had sternly cut short their cruelties. The Indians had taken offence
at his course, and were leaving his army in great numbers. He made no
effort to detain them, preferring to lose their services rather than allow
them to continue their atrocities. On the other hand the American army
was daily growing stronger. The militia wvere flocking to it in great
numbers, and reinforcements were received from the Highlands. The
militia of New Hampshire and Massachusetts were threatening Ticonderoga, the capture of which post would cut off his communications with
Canada. The contrast between the present condition of the British army
and that of a few weeks before was marked indeed.
Matters were in this state when General Gates arrived, late in August,
and assumed the command of the army, which was now six thousand
strong, and receiving reinforcements every day. Schuyler, superior to
all sense of personal wrong, cheerfully rendered him all the assistance in




508


HISTORY OP THE UNITED STATES.


his power in mastering the question before him; but Gates repaid this
generosity with characteristic jealousy. He did not even invite Schuyler
to his first council of war held a few days later. He at once left the position at the mouth of the Mohawk, and on the 12th of September advanced
to Behmus' Heights, a spur of hills bordering the Hudson. The army
now numbered nine thousand effective men, indifferently armed, but resolved to conquer. "Gates had no fitness for command," says Bancroft,
"and wanted personal courage."  He intrenched his position, and for the
defence of his right and left flanks erected strong batteries.
Burgoyne by great
exertions succeeded
was now reduced to
vabout six thousand
men.   He  resolved
t                    r  r    i t          to adhere to his origthe  in check, and not permit the  to turn the Amerinal plan, and en-... deavor to force his
ewai t       eAlbany,and
on fo, a    o     o      o       the a   ce3th of Septtember crossedind                               heen
ightfa. It was                     Hudson at Schuylerville, and encamped
on the plains of Saratoga, intending to
>           decide the campaign. by a general engage' ment. On the morning of the 19th of
GENERAL HORATIO GATES.           September he advanced against the
American position. Gates wished to await the attack of the enemy in his intrenched position, but Arnold urged him to throw forward a force to hold
them in check, and not permit them to turn the American left, as they
evidently intended. After considerable solicitation he obtained the desired
permission from Gates, and moved forward to check the advance of the
British. A determined conflict immediately ensued and continued until
nightfall. It was one of the most stubbornly coiotested engagements of the




THE YEAR 1777


509


war, and its result was mainly due to the skill and courage of Arnold, who
held the enemy in check during the day, and prevented the success of their
plan for turning Gates' left flank. The British remained in possession
of the field at night, and the Americans rejoined their main body  The
latter regarded the battle as a victory, as they had accomplished all they
had expected.
Burgoyne's difficulties thickened rapidly  On the 17th a detachment
of Massachusetts militia seized the posts at the outlet of Lake George and
captured a fleet of three hundred boats loaded with supplies for Burgoyne's army, and took three hundred prisoners. This force then united
with another and laid siege to Ticonderoga. These successes com(pletely
destroyed Burgoyne's communication with Canada, and with it his means
of supplying his army  In this emergency he was greatly encouraged by
the receipt of a letter from Sir Henry Clinton at New York, informing
him that he (Clinton) would in a few days make an effort to ascend the
Hudson and open communication with him. Burgoyne thereupon resolved to endeavor to hold his position until the arrival of Clinton.
Three weeks passed away in inaction, and though skirmishes between the
advanced parties were frequent, neither commander cared to attack the
other; Burgoyne because he was anxious to defer a decisive engagement,
Gates because he was scantily supplied with ammunition.
Tlhe success of the battle of Behmus' Heights was gcnerally attributed
by the troops to Arnold, who was very popular with them. Gates'
jealousy was most probably aroused by this belief; and he unceremoniously deprived Arnold of his command. During this delay the American
army was increased by the arrival of the Massachusetts militia and other
reinforcements, to about eleven thousand men.
Burgoyne's situation was now more critical than ever His best officers
favored a retreat to Fort Edward; but the British commander decided
before undertaking that movement to reconnoitre the American position
in strong force. If it was found that it could not be attacked, he was
willing to retreat to Fort-Edward. A force of fifteen hundred picked men
and ten pieces of cannon, commanded by the most experienced officers in
the army, was sent on the 7th of October to reconnoitre the American
position. Gates, by the advice of Morgan, attacked this force on both
flanks, and sent Morgan with his riflemen to cut the enemy off from their
camp.
The sound of the firing roused Arnold, who was brooding over his
wrongs. He mounted his horse and rode at full speed to the battle-field
in spite of the efforts of Gates to stop him. He reached the scene of
action, and was recognized by the troops, who received him with cheers.




510


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Without orders or any definite command, he placed himself at the head
of the troops and led them against the enemy. The British, led by General Frazer, held their ground manfully, but at length Frazer was mnortally wounded by one of Morgan's riflemen, and his line gave way
Burgoyne fearlessly exposed himself in the effort to rally the men, but
was at length obliged to order a retreat to the camp. This was accomplished with extreme difficulty, and the Americans, following in close
pursuit, made a determined attack upon the British intrenchments, which
were stubbornly defended. In this attack Arnold displayed great hero

BURGOYNE S RETREAT.


ism, and was wounded within the enemy's works. Though they failed
to capture the whole line, the Americans carried the camp of Colonel
Breyman's regiment of Hessians, the key to Burgoyne's position, and took
a number of prisoners.
The Americans bivouacked on the field, intending to renew the battle
the next day, but during the night Burgoyne abandoned his sick and
wounded, and silently withdrew from his intrenchments. The roads
being rendered bad by the rains, he halted and took position about two
miles from the town of Saratoga. On the night of the 9th, finding that




THE YEAR 1777.


the Americans held the Hudson in such heavy force as to render its passage impracticable, he retreated to Saratoga. He then sent out a detachment to rebuild the bridges on the road to Fort Edward, but found the
road in the possession of the Americans, who also held Fort Edward, and
had captured all the boats laden with provisions for his army  He was
thus left with but three days' rations for his men. On the 12th the
American army, which had followed the British closely, invested their
position, and opened
a heavy fire upon
their camp. On the
13th Burgoyne called        = l
a council of his of-.        ____-_
ficers, and it was re- -
solved to open negotiations with Gates.
He proposed to Gates
to surrender his army                                         ton condition that they ar
sh   ould be allowed to
sail for   England                               a l: q
from  the  port of
Boston, first pledging.
themselves not to
serve again in Northa
America during the     /
war. Gates had heardd
of the successes of
Clinton on the Hudson, and was fearful
that he would reach
Albany.  He therefore weakly agreed to
Burgoyne's proposal,            SURRENDER OF BURGOYNE.
and consented that
the British army should march out of its camp with the honors of war; that
the troops should be taken to Boston and sent to England, and that they
should pledge themselves not to serve again in America during the war.
These matters being arranged the British army surrendered on the 17th of
October, and was fed by the Americans, for its provisions were exhausted.
About six thousand prisoners were surrendered, together with nearly five
thousand muskets, forty-two brass field-pieces, and a large quantity of




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


military stores. Upon the surrender of Burgoyne, the British garrison at
Ticonderoga evacuated that place, and retreated into Canada.
Congress refused to ratify the terms granted to Burgoyne by Gates. It
was )plain that if they were sent to England they could release an equal
number of troops there, who could be sent to the aid of Sir Henry Clinton
in New York. This would deprive the United States of one of the most
important results of the surrender. Burgoyne and two attendants were
permitted to return to England, but the captive troops were held as prisoners of war, and the next year were marched to Charlottesville, Virginia,
and quartered in log huts, where the greater part of them remained until
near the close of the war,
Some time before Burgoyne's surrender, Sir Henry Clinton, having
received reinforcements from England, resolved to undertake the capture
of the forts in the Highlands of the Hudson, the garrisons of which had
been greatly weakened byv the detachments sent from them to Washington
and Gates. On the 6th of October he attacked and captured Forts Montgomery and Clinton. General George Clinton, who commanded at these
forts, finding he could not hold them, sent to General Putnam for assistance, but his messenger deserted to the enemy, and the forts Awere abandoned. General Tryon was sent to occupy Kingston, which he ordered
to be. burned. When the enemy heard of Burgoyne's surrender, they
retreated, setting fire to the house of every patriot along the river.
Clinton then dismantled the captured forts, and returned to New York,
taking with him all the heavy cannon and stores.
The capture of Burgoyne's army was hailed with delight throughout
the (country  It was the most important success of the war, and put an
end to the danger of invasion from Canada. Gates was greatly puffed up
by his triumph, and imagined himself the hero of the war. He sent his
official report of the surrender to Congress direct, and not through the
commander-in-chief, as his duty required, thus offering a grave insult to
Washington.
General Schuyler now demanded an investigation of his conduct previous to his relinquishment of his command to Gates. He was thoroughly
acquitted of the charges of mismanagement brought against him by his
enemies, and was strongly urged by Congress to remain in the army- He
declined to do so, and resigned his commission; but was soon afterwards
returned to Congress from the State of New York.




CHAPTER XXIX


AID FROM ABROAD.
Sufferings of the Army at Valley Forge-Appeals of Washington to Congress-Tle British
in Philadelphia-The Conway Cabal-Its Disgraceful Failure-Efforts to Improve the
Army-Worthlessness of Continental Bills-General Lee Exchanged-Effect of Burgoyne's Surrender upon England-The King is Forced to Agree to Measures of Conciliation-Action of France-Louis XVI. Iecognizes the Independence of the United
States-Alliance Between the United States and France-Failure of the British Measures of Conciliation-Clinton Evacuates Philadelphia-Battle of Monmolith-General
Lee Disnissed fiom the Army-Attack upon Newport-Its Failure —Withdrawal of the
French Fleet to the West Indies-Outrages of the British on Long Island Sound —Massacre of Wyoming-The Winter of 1779-80-The Army in Winter Quarters-Robert
Morris-Condition of Congress-Georgia Subdued by the British-Prevost Attempts to
take Charleston-Siege of Savannah-Its Failure-Capture of Stony Point-Capture of
Paulus Hook-The Indians Punished-Naval Affairs-Exploits of John Paul JonesEvacuation of Newport-Settlement of Kentucky-Conquest of the Illinois Country by
George Rogers Clarke-Settlement of Tennessee.,HE     sufferings of the American army during the long wihter at
Valley Forge were very great.     Many were barefooted, and their
r   marches through the frost and snow could b)e traced by the blood
from their feet.     They were without clothing, without food, and
were utterly unable to keep the field.  Yet in spite of these sufferings many persons severely censured the commander-in-chief for going
into winter quarters without attacking Philadelphia.    In reply to one of
these remonstrances from   the legislature of Pennsylvania, Washington
wrote to Congress on the 23d of December, 1777: "Men are confined to
hospitals or in farmers' houses for want of shoes.   We have this day no
less than two thousand eight hundred and ninety-eight men in camp unfit
for duty, because they are barefoot and otherwise naked.       Our whole
strength in continental troops amounts to no more than eight thousand
two hundred in camp fit for duty.    Since the fourth instant our numbers
fit for duty from  hardships and exposures have decreased nearly two
thousand men.    Numbers still are obliged to sit all night by fires. Gentlemen reprobate the going into winter quarters as much as if they
thought the soldiers were made of stocks and stones.     I can assure those
gentlemen that it is a much easier and less distressing thing to draw
remonstrances in a comfortable room    by a good fireside than to occupy a
33                                                       513




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


cold, bleak hill, and sleep under frost and snow without clothes or
blankets. However, although they seem to have little feeling for the
naked and distressed soldiers, I feel superabundantly for them, and from
my soul I pity those miseries which it is neither in my power to relieve
nor prevent."
Congress did little or nothing to relieve the sufferings of the army. It
promised the troops one month's extra pay, but made no effort to provide
food or clothing for them.  It authorized Washington to impress whatever articles were needed, but. he remonstrated against this arbitrary use
of power, as he was convinced that it would not supply the wants of the
army, but would certainly anger the people of the country  Congress
towards the close of the winter manifested so much hostility to the army


SUFFERINGS OF THE TROOPS AT VALLEY FORGE.


because of its appeals for food and
clothes,    that
Washington earnestly remonstrated
against this feeling and reminded
that body that the
troops were " citizens, having all
the ties and interests of citizens."
It is not too much
to say that the personal influence of
Washington went


further than anything else in keeping the army together during this trying winter. Under any other commander the troops would have dispersed. Encouraged by the calm and lofty patience of Washington, the
troops remained faithful to their cause and bore their sufferings with a
heroic fortitude which their descendants will ever bear in grateful honor.
All this while the British army was comfortably quartered in Philadelphia, and the officers were billeted upon the inhabitants. They were
amply supplied with every comfort, and their leisure time was given up
to pleasure and dissipation on a scale the Quaker City had never dreamed
of. " By a proportionate tax on the pay and allowances of each officer a
house was opened for daily resort, and for weekly balls, with a gaming
table which had assiduous votaries, and a room devoted to the game of
chess. Thrice a week plays were enacted by amateur performers..




AID FROM ABROAD.


515


The officers, among whom all ranks of the British aristocracy were represented, lived in open licentiousness."  The contrast between the pleasures
and case of these well-fed troops and the suffirings and privations of the
ragged patriots at Valley Forge was marked indeed; and when it is
remembered that the comforts of the British could have been purchased
by the patriots at the price of desertion their heroic constancy becomes
more striking.
The patriotism of Washington was not appreciated by all parties.  A
number of discontented members of Congress and officers of the army
were anxious that he should be removed or forced to resign in order
that their favorite General Gates might be promoted to the chief command of the army   One of the prime movers of the intrigue was an
Irish adventurer named Conway, who had been promoted to the rank of
brigadier-general, from which circumstance the plot is known as the
"Conway Cabal."   The entire truth concerning this plot will never be
known, for after its failure the actors in it were only too glad to disavow
their connection with it. The conspirators did not dare to make an open
attack upon the commander-in-chief, but undertook by means of anonymous letters, underhanded appeals to the officers and men of the army,
and comparisons between Gates' success and what they termed Washington's failure, to destroy the confidence of the troops in their leader, and
to disgust him with his command and so drive him to resign it. Generals MAiffin and Gates were very active in this conspiracy, and even
Sullivan and Wayne were in favor of the scheme of making Gates commander-in-chief. Dr Benjamin Rush wrote a letter, to which he did
not dare sign his name, to Patrick Henry, then governor of Virginia,
representing the army of Washington as without a head, and disparaging
Washington as no general. "A Gates, a Lee, or a Conway," he added,
" would in a few weeks render them an irresistible body of men. Some
of the contents of this letter ought to be made public in order to awaken,
enlighten,.and alarm our country"  Patrick Henry took no notice of this
paper save to forward it to Washington. A similar anonymous document was forwarded to Henry Laurens, the president of Congress, wrho
also sent it to Washington. Great efforts were made to win over Lafayette to the plot, but without the least success.
Washington was to a great extent aware of the plot against him but
took no public notice of it. He was deeply pained' by the unjust censure
to which he was subjected, but he never for a moment harbored the thought
of laying down the great work he had assumed. He knew his course
would bear the most rigid inspection. He knew that the capture of
Burgoyne's army, which had made Gates the hero of the hour, was. due




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


to no skill on the part of that officer, but was the result of the plan of
defence Washington had long before arranged with General Schuyler. In
his efforts to contend against General Howe he was under many disad-.
vantages, not the least of which was the fact that his army was encamped
in a region abounding in Tories who refused him any support and constantly aided the British. His army was imperfectly disciplined; it was
inferior in numbers and equipment to the enemy; and was in no condition to meet Howe in the open field, still less to undertake the difficult
task of driving him from his intrenchments at Philadelphia. " Had the
same spirit pervaded the people of this and the neighboring States, as the
States of New York and New England," said Washington, "we might
have had General Howe nearly in the same situation of General Burgoyne."  Washington knew that the salvation of the country demanded.
his presence at the head of the army  He trusted to time for his vindication, and was chiefly anxious that the enemy should not learn of the
dissensions in the councils and camp of the Americans. He firmly
opposed the appointment of Conway to the post of "inspector of the
armies of the United States," but Congress, under the influence of the
cabal, appointed Conway to that place with the rank of major-general.
In a little while the action of the conspirators became known and
aroused such a storm of indignation from the officers and men of the
army, from the legislatures of the States, and from the great mass of the
people that Gates and Conway and their associates cowered before it, and
Congress became heartily ashamed of having given the plot any encouragement. The only effect of the conspiracy was to raise Washington
ligher in the confidence and affection of his countrymen. The members
of the conspiracy were ever afterwards anxious to deny their share in it,
and exerted themselves to prevent the truth concerning it from becoming
known.
The punishment of Gates came as soon as he was intrusted with an
independent command, as we shall see. As for Conway, he was despised
by the better part of the officers of the army, and found his position so
unenviable that he addressed a note to Congress complaining that he had
been badly treated, and intimated his intention to resign because he was
not ordered to the northern department.  Congress was by this time
ashamed of having bestowed upon him   such undeserved honors, and
gladly interpreted his letter as an actual resignation of his rank, and at
once ended the difficulty by accepting it. Conway was profoundly astonished. He was confident that Congress would become terrified by his
threat to resign, and urge him to remain in the service, and was utterly
unprepared for the action of that body  He hastened to explain his




AID FROM ABROAD.


letter, but was not listened to. Some time after this he ventured to
lenounce the commander-in-chief, and was challenged to a duel by General Cadwallader, who had already charged him with cowardice at the
battle of Germantown. Conway was wounded; and believing himself
near death wrote to Washington, apologizilg  or his con(luct towards
him. "You are," he said, "in my cyes the great and good man. May
you long enjoy the love, veneration, and esteem of these States whose
liberties yvo have asserted bv your virtues."  His wound was not mortal
as hle had supposed, and lie recovered, and soon left the cuntry
The winter w'as passed by Washington in an effort to increase the army,
and render it more efficient. Baron Steuben, a Prussian officer, who had
served undler Fre(lerick the Great, was appointed inspector, withl the rank
of major-general. He introduced into the army the drill and discipline
of the Prussian service, and greatly increased its efficiency  The various
States, save Georgia and South Carolina, were calle(l upon by Congress
to contribute their quota of troops to the army  In consideration of
their large slave population, and the necessity of retaining their troops
for their own defence, those States were excused from compliance with
this demand. Count Pulaski succeeded in raising an independent body
of cavalry, and Major Henry Lee organized a regiment of light horse,
which under his command subsequently became notedl as one of the most
efficient corps of the army  Conogress proposed to increase the force of
the army to sixty thousand men, but was never able to bring it to more
than half that number.
The inability of Congress to pay the troops compelled many of the
officers to leave the army, in order to provide for their families, who were
suffering. Congress called upon the States to raise money for the public
expenses by taxing their people, but some of them neglected to respond
to this appeal, and the remainder were too poor to render much assistance.
Congress issued new bills of credit; but the value of the "Continental
Currencyv," as this money was called, had depreciated so greatly that a
pair of shoes could not be bought for less than from five to six hundred
dollars in these bills. The Tories and the British depreciated them still
further blN flooding the country with counterfeits.
A great improvement was made in the supply of provisions furnished
the army by the appointment of General Greene, at the request of Washington, to the post of quartermaster-general, which had been held by
General Mifflin, who had neglected its duties on all occasions. At the
urgent solicitation of the commander-in-chief, Greene assumed the distasteful position for one year, and discharged its duties with a skill and(
precision which kept the army so well supplied with provisions and




HISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


ammunition that it was never, during his 'administration, obliged to
abandon a movement because of a lack of these necessities.
In April, 1778, General Prescott was exchanged for General Charles
Lee, who at once returned to duty in the army   During his captivity
Lee, who was willing to ruin the cause if lie coul( benefit himself, proposed a plan to the British ministry by which they could, in his opinion,
bring the war to a successful close. The ministers did not see fit to adopt
Lee's plan, but filed it away among the British archives, and the traitor
was exchanged and permitted to resume his command in the American
army, to beconme again a source of trouble and loss to it. *
In the meantime the American cause had assumed a new phase abroad.
The English government had confidently expected that Burgoyne's
expedition would be successful, and the result of his operations was
watched by France with the deepest anxiety  When news arrived of the
defeat of BurgoyVne the astonishment of King George and his ministers
was eqlualled only by their mortification. It was resolved to wipe out
the humiliation b)y a more vigorous prosecution of the war.  It was
rumored that France i'was about to aid the Americans, and that Holland
was on the point of loaning them  money    These rumors aroused the
English people to a heartier support of the government than they had
yet (iven it, and many of the principal cities offered to raise troops tc
supply the places of those who had been surrendered by Burgoyne. At
the same time the friends of America were greatly encouraged, and
resolved to make a new effort to put a stop to the war by offering
America such terms as would either induce her to renew her former connection with Great Britain, or to become the ally and friend of that
country   A considerable sum of money was subscribed by these for the
relief of the American prisoners, who were left by the government
without even the necessaries of life.
When Parliament assembled a strong attack was made upon the policy
of the king b)y the friends of America. The employment of the Hessians, and, above all, of the barbarous Indians of North America, whose
cruelties shocked the English people, was severely denounced. The mercantile class was seriously discontented. Its trade with America was
destroyed, and the activity of the American cruisers was so great that six
hundred English vessels had already been captured; and it was necessary
to convoy merchantmen, by vessels of war, from one port of the kingdom
to another   Thus far the war had caused an expenditure of twenty
thousand lives and one hundred millions of dollars, and the conquest of
Anmerica was as far off as at the commencement of hostilities.
* T!, reader is referred to the work of Mr. George H. Moore, " The Treason of General Charles Lee," for the details of this plan.




AID F10M ABROAD.


Under this pressure the kIing was constrained to yield, and, in January,
1788, Lord North presented to Parliament two bills by which his majesty
hoped to maintain his authority in America, and conciliate his revolted
subjects. The first of these renounced all intention on the part of Great
Britain to levy taxes in America; the other appointed five commissioners
to negotiate with the Americans for the restoration of the authority of
England and the close of the war. The consent of the king to these
measures was wrung from him by the complaints of a large part of tlhe
English people, and by his fear that France would openly aid the United
States. These bills involved a direct surrender of the whole ground of
the war; but indicated no change of opinion on the part of the kilnj
This action on the part of Great Britain aroused the French government to a more energetic course. Louis XVI. was opposed to treating
with the United States; but the French ministers were aware that a
prompt recognition on their part of the indepeldence of the republic
would effectually neutralize the measures of Great Britain, and prevent a
reconciliation. France was perfectly willing that America and Elgland
should weaken each other by their contest, but she was resolved that
Great Britain should never recover her colonies. The capture of Burgoyne's army had demonstrated the ability of America to continue the
war, and the French ministers resolved to lose no time in conclluding an
alliance with her. On the 17th of December, 1777, the Count de Vergennes caused Franklin and Deane to be informed of the king's intention
not only to acknowledge but to support the independence of America,
and on the 6th of February a treaty of friendship and commerce, and a
second treaty of defensive alliance, were concluded between the United
States and France. The latter bound the United States to support
France in case Great Britain should declare war against her. The king
of France acknowledged the independence of the United States of
America, and agreed to assist them witll his fleet and army  No peace
was to be made without mutual consent, and not until the independence
of the United States should be acknowledged bl Great Britain. These
treaties were ratified by Congress, and were hailed with joy by the Americans, whose confidence was revived by the assurance of the assistance of
one of the most powerful states of Europe.
When the news of the treaties was received in England, the friends of
America urged the government to abandon the war, and acknowledge the
independence of the United States, as the only means of retaining the
good feeling and trade of that country. The government would not
even entertain the proposition. The most it would do was to pass the
conciliatory bills of Lord North.  If they failed to accomplish the




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


desired end the war must go on. In March France formally communicated to England her treaties with America. This was regarded by
England as equivalent to a declaration of war, and the British ambassador was at once recalled from Paris.
In June the British commissioners, appointed to treat under Lord
North's conciliatory measures, arrived in America and opened negotiations. Congress demanded, as a prelude to any negotiations, that the
independence of the United States should be recognized by England, and
her fleets and armies withdrawn from America. The commissioners
having no authority to treat upon any such basis returned to England,
having first made several ineffectual efforts to detach promcorinent Americans from the cause
by bribery.
lap                   The course of Sir William
Xwou d ed,  iHowe had not pleased the
British government, and he
sea; while, ith his army, twel e thousand stronge ft his com-ladelphia
on the 18th of June,  and on the   11Delaware, th of Mayrch
through New Jersey to Ne788 York. As soon and was replaced ofSir
his movement he broke up his camp, on the 24th of June, and crosed
the Delaware in pursuit of the Britis Henry  Clinton.  About the
same time Clinton was informed  by his government
wthat a large French fleet might
them to move very slowly, and Washington soon overtook them. A
be expected at any moment on
r   the American coast, and was
e h                 orodered to evacuate Philadelphia and concentrate all his
SIR HEINRY CLINTON.        forces at New York. He accordingly sent his sick and
wounded, and most of his stores, with his fleet around to New York by
sea; while, with his army, twelve thousand strong, he left Philadelphia
on the 18th of June, and, crossing the Delaware, began his march
through New Jersey to New York. As soon as Washington learned of
his movement he broke up his camp, on the 24th of June, and crossed
the Delaware in pursuit of the British army The intense heat of the
weather, and the heavy train which the British carried with them, caused
them to move very slowly, and Washington soon overtook them. A
council of war was called, at which General Charles Lee, who held the
second rank in the American army, urged that Washington should confine his efforts to harassing the British on the march. It was resolved




AID FROM ABROAD.


however, to attack the enemy and force them to a general engagement.
Lee at first declined to take any part in the battle, but at the last moment
changed his mind, and solicited a command.
Upon the adjournment of the council of wvar, on the 27th of June,
Washington sent Lafayette, with two thousand mien, to occupy thle hills
near Monmouth Court-house, and confine the enemN to the plaiins. On
the morning of tle 28th of June Lee, who had asked for a command,
was sent forward by Washington, with two brigades, t, attack the enemy.
Upon coming up with Lafayette, who was his junior, Lee assumed the
command of the whole advanced force, and marched in tlhe direction of
the enemy, who had encamped on the previous night near Monmouth
Court-house, and had resumed their march, early on the morning (f the
28th. As soon as Clinton heard of Lee's advance, lie deterinined to
drive him back, and for this purpose wheeled about with his whole rear
division, and made a sharp attack upon Lee, who fell back to higher
ground. A misunderstanding of his order caused one of his subordinate
officers to abandon his position, and Lee's whole force fell back in sonme
confusion. In the excitement of the moment Lee forgot to send word to
Washington of his movement, and tihe first the commander-in-chief, who
was advancing with the main body, knew of it was the riglit of Lee's
command falling back rapidly, and in disorder, Riding up to the ftruitives he asked them wlhy they were retreating~, and was answered that
they did not know, but had been ordered to do ds,. Suspecting that the
retreat had been ordered for the purpose of ruining tle plan of battle,
Washington hastened forward until lie met General Lee, and sternly
demanded of him: "What is the meaning of all this, sir?"  Lee was
disconcerted for a moment, and then answered that the retreat was contrary to his orders; and moreover that he did not wish to encounter the
whole British army  "I am sorry," said Washington, "that vou undertook the command unless you meant to fight the enemy "  Lee answered
that he did not think it prudent to bring on a general engagement.
Washington replied, sternly: "Whatever your opinion may have been, I
expect my orders to be obeyed."
Washington at once reformed the men on a commanding eminence,
and hurried the main body of the Americans forward to their support.
The British soon appeared in force, and endeavored to dislodge the
Americans from their position, and failing in this, attempted, but without
success, to turn their left flank. The battle lasted until nightfall, and
the American army bivouacked on the field, expecting to renew tlhe
engagement the next morning; but during the night Clinton skilfully
withdrew from his lines and continued his retreat. The weather was so




5o2


HIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


warm that Washington did not deem it prudent to continue the pursuit,
and Clinton was allowed to regain New York without further molestation. The Americans lost about two hundred men in this engagement,
a nunmbcr of whomn died from the effects of the extreme heat. The British,
lost three hundred men. During the retreat, two thousand Hessians
deserted from the British ranks.
As General Lee possessed a large share of the confidence of the commander-in-chief, he might have saved himself from the consequences of
his fault, had he sought to explain his conduct in a proper manner. On
the day after the battle he addressed an insulting letter to Washington, and
met tlhe reply of the commander-in-chief with another letter still more
disrespectful in tone, demanding a court of inquiry  The court found
him guilty of disobedience of orders, and of disrespect to the commanderin-chief, and sentenced him to be suspended from his rank for one year.
Towards the close of his term of punishment he addressed an insolent
letter to Congress, in consequence of some fancied neglect, and was dismissed from the army   A few years later he died in Philadelphia.
After the battle of Monmouth, Washington halted for a short time to
refresh his men, and then marching to the Hudson crossed that stream,
and took position at White Plains, in New York, to be ready to cooperate with the French fleet, which was daily expected, in an attack upon
the city of New York. The French fleet under Count D'Estaing, with
four thousand troops on board, had arrived in the Delaware just after
Lord Howe had sailed for New York. Failing to find the enemy in the
Delaware, D'Estaing sailed for New York, but Lord Howe withdrew
his vessels into Raritan bay, and as the larger French ships could not
cross the bar, the contemplated attack upon New York was abandoned,
to the great regret of Washington.
The French fleet brought tlhe American commissioners who had negotiated the treaty with France, and also Monsieur Gerard, the first ambassador from the French king to the United States.
In place of the combined attack upon New York, it was resolved by
WVashilngton, in concert with the French admiral, to attack Newport and
drive the British out of Rhode Island. The British had established one
of their principal depots of supplies at this point, and had there a force
of six thousand men under General Pigot. It was arranged that a force
of American troops under General Sullivan should attack the enemy by
land, while the French fleet and army should cooperate with Sullivan
from the sea. On the 29th of July D'Estaing reached Narragansett bay
with his fleet, and on the 8th of August entered Newport harbor, in spite
of the fire of the British batteries. A whole week had been lost, how



AID FROM ABROAD.


ever, by the failure of the American troops to reach the positions assigned
them as promptly as the French fleet. The delay was unavoidable, but
it ruined the enterprise. On the 9th Lord Howe arrived off Newport
harbor with his fleet to the assistance of General Pigot. On the 10th
D'Estaing sailed out to engage the British fleet, but before this couldl
be effected a sudden and terrible storm  scattered botll fleets. Howe
returned to New York, and D'Estaing made his way back to Narragansett bay in a crippled condition. Instead of landing the four thousand French troops he had brought with him, the French admiral sailed
to Boston with his whole force to refit.
Sullivan in the meantime had crossedl from the mainland to the island
of Rhode Island, and had taken position before the British intrenchments
in front of Newport. Here he awaited the return of the French fleet,
and in the mncanwhila kept up a stea(ly fire upon the British works.
Upon D'Estaing's return he informed Sullivan of his intention to sail to
Boston to refit his ships. Sullivan earnestly begged him to remain two
or three days, as the British must certainly surrender by the end of that
time. D'Estaing refused to do so. Sullivan then asked that the French
troops might be left to cooperate with him, and this also was refused.
Left alone, Sullivan was obliged to retreat to the mainland, as he learned
that aid was on its way from  New York to Pigot. He effected this
movement with skill and success, on the night of the 30th of August.
The next day Sir Henry Clinton reached Newp)ort with a squadron of
several ships and a reinforcement of four thousand men.
As he had arrived too late to attack the force under Sullivan, Clinton
sent the troops he had brought with him, under Major-G eneral Grey, to
ravage the coasts to the eastward. Grey destroyed a large number of
vessels along the coasts, and stripped Fair Haven, New  ec(lford, and the
island of Martha's Vineyard of everything that could be carried off, and
returned to New York laden with plunder.
Late in October a British fleet which had been despatehed from Eniland under Admiral Byron in pursuit of D'Estaing, arrived off lBoston
harbor, Byron was unwilling to venture within the harbor, and the
French would not leave their place of security, and tle EnglishI re1mained
off Boston until a storm arose and scattered their fleet. On the 1st of
November the Frenchll, taking advantage of the enforced withdrawal of
their enemy, stood out to sea and sailed for the West Indies, and on the
same day Clinton despatched a force of five thousand Britisll troops fron
New York to the West Indies.
Brutal as was the conduct of General Grey, it had been already sulrpassed by the British and their Indian allies in Pennsylvania. Tie




HIISTORY OF THIE UNITED STATES.


inhabitants of Wyoming valley, a beautiful region on the Susquehanna,
had driven away the Tories from that region, and these had resolved
upoll revenge(lc. Early il July a force of about eleven hundred Tories
and Indians, under Colonel John Butler and the Indian chief Brandt,
entfered the Wyoming valley  Nearly all the able-bodied settlers were
absent with tle American army, and upon hearing of tle approach of
the enemy a small force had been despatched by Washington under
Colonel Zebulon Butler, to the assistance of the settlers. This force was
defeated by the Tories and Indians, who then proceeded to lay waste the
vallvy and murder the inhabitants. They performed their bloody work
in tlte most barbarous manner, and the beautiful valley was made a desolation. In tlhe following month Cherry valley in New York was ravaged
with equal cruelt y by a force of Tories and Indians, and the inhabitants
were either murdered or carried into captivity  The entire region of the
u 1 p e r Susquehanna
and Delaware and the
one to n  mn u r G rvalley of the MBohawk
were at the mercy of
co nder inthe savage allies of
Great Britain.
an. On I  arc  acrossIn the latter part
of November, Sir
Henry Clinton sent
a force of two thouSURRENDER OF SA.ANNAH.            sand men from New
York under Colonel
Campbell to attack Savannah, Georgia, which was held by a garrison of
oner tho   usand men under General Robert Howe. The British carried
the Ainerican position after a serp engasgement, and on the 29th of
December, Savannah surrendered to them. General Prevost, the Engliss
commander in Florida, now repaired to Savannah, and assumed the conmnmand. On his march across the country he captured Sunbury, a fort
of considcral)le importance. Upon reaching Savannah he sent Colonel
('ampbell to seize Augusta, whlich was quickly secured and fortified.
Georgia was thus entirely subdued by the British by the middle of
January, 17 79.
Aftcr thle failure of the attack upon Newport the American army went
into winter quarters, occupying a series of cantonments extending from
the (:eastern end of Long Island sound to the Delaware. This disposition
enabled them to oppose a force to the British at every important point.
Washington established his llead-quarters at Middlebrook, New Jersey,




AID FROM ABROAD.


525


near the centre of his line. The winter passed away without any event
of importance. The British held New York and Newport witl too
strong a force to make an attack upon either post successful, and the
withdrawal of the French fleet to the West Indies left Washington
without any means of encountering the naval force of the enemy.
The season was not without its trials, however. Washington wrote
at the beginning of the year 1779, " Our affairs are il a more distressed,
ruinous, and deplorable condition than they have been since the colnmencement of the war," The currency of the country grew more worthless every day. During the year 1779 the enormous sum of one hunrded
and thirty-one million of dollars was issued in continental bills. The
magnitude of the volume of the currency only served to depreciate it
more and more, and though supplies and articles of trade were plentiful,
their owners refused to accept the depreciated bills of Congrcss, and
would sell for gold and silver only "A wagon-load of money," Washington wrote to the president of Congress, " will not purchase a wagon-load
of provisions." During the year the currency depreciated from $8 for one
dollar to $41.50 for one dollar. Congress had so little specie that everything must have gone to ruin but for the exertions of Robert Morris, a
member of Congress from  Pennsylvania, and a leading merchant of
Philadelphia, who borrowed large sums of coin on his own credit, and
loaned them to the government. This he continued to do throughout
the war.
Congress had long before this been deprived of many of its ablest members, who had resigned their seats in order to accept appointments in their
own States, or to enter the army  Their places were filled with weaker
men, and many dissensions mark the deliberations of the Congress of
this period. Many members of Congress and a large part of the people
seemed to regard the alliance with France as decisive of the war, and
were disposed to relax their efforts. During the winter it was proposed
to join the French in an expedition for the recovery of Canada for France,
and the scheme found favor with a majority of the delegates in Congress.
Washington opposed it with firmness. He pointed out to Congress the
difficulties of the undertaking, and declared his conviction that it was
not to the interest of the United States that a power different in race,
language and religion from the people of this republic should have a
footing upon this continent. In addition to this he did not desire the
people of the United States to increase their obligations to a foreign, even
though a friendly, power.
The American forces in the Southern States were commanded by General Benjamin Lincoln. The Tories were very numerous and very active




626


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


in this region, and the feeling between them and the patriots was one of
the bitterest hostility, and often manifested itself in bloody and relentless
conflicts. Seven hundred Tories under Colonel Boyd set out in February, 1779, to join Colonel Campbell at Augusta. On the 14th thev
were attacked at Kettle creek, by a force of patriots under Colonel Pickens,
and were defeated with heavy loss. Pickens hung five of his prisoners
as traitors.
General Lincoln now sent General Ashe with two thousand men to
drive the British out of Augusta. Upon hearing of his approach Colonel
(Cam)pbell evacuated
Augusta and fell.d..:. back to Brier creek,
1 ',...X. Ha small stream about
-     iin           I -:? 'halfwvav to Sarannah. Ashe followed
servingr proper cauGENERAL BENJAMIN LItCOLN.        ob
tion and on the   3dcountry
to Charleston, andof demandedarch was surreinforced, no sooner heard of this movement than he d and routed  by
Campbemarchesll, with the
Johns islaentire force. This
d e of June  a t  enco uraged
with heavy loss. A little latGeneral Prevost  t o
in     '                                        attempnse heat  the  capture
during the remainder         of                Charleston. He
ENERAL BENJAMIN LINCOLN.eet  nder Count    tain  arrived
to Charleston, and demanded its surrender    Lincoln, who had been
reinforced, no sooner heard of this movement than he hastened by forced
marches to the relief of Charleston, and compelled Prevost to retire to St.
John's island, opposite the mainland. The British threw up a redoubt
at Stone ferry to protect the crossing to this island. It was attacked on
the 20th of June by the forces of General Lincoln, who were repulsed
with heavy loss. A little later Prevost withdrew to Savannah. The
intense heat of the weather suspended military operations in the south
during the remainder of the summer.
In September, 1779, the French fleet under Count D'Estaing arrived
off the coast of Georgia from the West Indies, and the admiral agreed to
join Lincoln in an effort to recapture Savannah. The American army




AID FROM ABROAD.


627


began its investment of the city on the 23d of September, and everything
promised favorably for success; but D'Estaing became impatitnt of tlhe
delay of a regular siege, and declared that lie must return to the \West
Indies to watch the British fleet in those waters. Savannah must either
be taken by assault, or he would witllldraw from the siege. To please
him Lincoln consented to storm the British works, and the assault was
made on the 9th of October, but was repulsed with severe loss. D'Estaing
himself was wounded, and the chivalrous Count Pulaski was killed.
Lincoln now retreated to Charleston, and the French fleet sailed to the
West Indies, having a second time failed to render any real assistance to
the Americans. This disaster closed the campaign for the year in the
south.
In the meantime Sir Henry Clinton had been ordered by lhis government to harass the American coast, and in accordance with these instructions despatched a number of plundering expeditions from New York
against exposed points. One of these was sent in M1ay, under General
Mathews, into the Chesapeake. Mathews entered the Elizabeth river,
plundered the towns of Norfolk and Portsmouth, and burne(l one hundred and thirty merchant vessels and several ships of war on the stocks
at Gosport, near Portsmouth. He then ascended the James for some
distance and ravaged its shores. He destroyed in this expedition two
millions of dollars worth of property, and carried off about three thousand
hogsheads of tobacco.
Upon the return of this expedition, Clinton ascended the Hudson for
the purpose of destroying two forts which the Americans were constructing a short distance below Wrest Point, for the protection of King's ferry,
an important crossing-place between the Eastern and Middle States. One
of these, which was being built at Stony Point, was abandoned. Tlhe
work on Verplanek's Point, on the east side of the Hudson, immediately
opposite, was compelled to surrender early in June.
Returning to New York, Clinton sent General Tryon vith twenty-five
hundred men to plunder the coast of Long Island sound. He plundered
New Haven, burned Fairfield and Norwalk, and committed other outrages at Sag Harbor, on Long island. In the course of a few days this
inhuman wretch burned two hundred and fifty dwelling-houses, five
churches, and one hundred and twenty-five barns and stores. Many of
the inhabitants were cruelly murdered, and a number of women were
outraged by the British troops. Tryon would have carried his outrages
further had he not been recalled to New York by Clinton, who feared
that Washington was about to attack him.
The loss of Stony Point was a serious blow to Washington, as it corn



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


pelled him to establish a new line of communication between the opposite
sides of the Hudtson by a longer and more tedious route through tile
Iighlands. IIe resolved, therefore, the recapture of the post from the
British at all hazards. Tie British had greatly strengthened the fort,
which the iAmericans had left unfinished, and the only way in which it
could be captured was by a surprise. It was a desperate undertaking, and
Washington proposed to General Anthony Wayne to attempt it. Wayne
readily consented, and the two generals made a careful reconnoissance of
the position. It was.              ~      agreed to make the
attempt at midnight,.              and  in  order to
guard against a betrayal of the move-; i  by              ment every dog in
the vicinity was put
"l!                    to death. A negro
who visited the fort
' — Lo                     regularly  to  sell
/  afruit and who had: T           ~been for some time.:~ acting as a spy for._w  the Americans,
agreed to guide them
t                                      /t d   to the work.
r     At midnight on
the 15th of July,; 7the storming party,
guided by the neGENERAL ANTHONY WAYNE.            gro, approached the
fort in two divisions.  Not a man was permitted to load      his musket lest the
accidental discharge of a gun should ruin the movement.      The
negro, accompanied by two soldiers who were disguised as farmers,
approached the first sentinel and gave the countersign.  The sentinel was at once seized and gagged, and the same was done with the
second sentinel. The third, however, gave the alarm, and the garrison
flew to arms and opened a sharp fire upon the Americans. The latter
now dashed forward at a run, scaled the parapet, and in a few moments
the two opposite divisions met in the centre of the fort. The Americans
twok more than five hundred prisoners, and all the supplies and artillery




AID FROM ABROAD.


529


of the fort fell into their hands. Though they were justly exasperated by
the brutal outrages of the British, which we have related, they conducted
themselves towards their prisoners with a noble humanity  The British
historian Stednan declares, " They (the Americans) would have been fully
justified in putting the garrison to the sword; not one man of which wal '
put to death but in fair combat."  It was one of the most brilliant expeditions of the war.  Wayne now proceeded to prepare for the reduction,
of the fort at Verplanck's Point, but while he was thus engaged a heavy
British force ascended the river to its relief, and he was obliged to forego
his attack, and also to abandon Stony Point.
On the night of the 18th of June, Major Henry Lee made a bold dash
STORMING OF STONY POINT.
at the British fort at Paulus Hook, now Jersey City, and captured it,
taking one hundred and fifty-nine prisoners. The British made great
efforts to intercept him, but he effected his retreat in safety, bringing off
his prisoners, and losing only two men. For these gallant exploits
Wayne and Lee were each voted a gold medal by Congress.
Towards the close of the summer of 1779, Washington resolved to inflict upon the Indians a severe punishment for their outrages upon the
whites, and especially for the massacres of Wyoming and Cherry valley
in the previous year. Early in August General Sullivan was sent into
western New York with three thousand men, with orders to ravage the
country of the Six Nations. He was joined by General James Clinton.3t




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


with two thousand men, and on the 29th of August attacked and defeated
a force of seventeen hundred Indians and Tories at Newtown, now Elmira. Sullivan followed up this victory by pushing forward into the
Indian country, and laying it waste with fire and sword. In the course
of a few weeks le destroyed more than forty Indian villages, and burned
all the cornfields and orchards. The beautiful valley of the Genesee was
made a (lesert, and to avoid starvation the Indians and their Tory allies
were obliged to emigrate to Canada. They were quieted but for a time
by the terrible vengeance of the Americans, and soon renewed their
depredations, and continued them to the end of the war.
Congress had made great efforts to increase the force of the navy,
and the number of American menof-war had been materially en- v
larged. Many of them had beeh
captured, however, by the enemy,
and the navy was still weak and
unable to render much service to
the cause. The privateers were
m  In unusually active, and were hunted
with unremitting vigilance by the
--     English war vessels. They man-./.                   aged to inflict great losses upon:>-~ ~-      \,i/llllt             the commerce of Great Britain,:    ', m.:< however. A number of American
cruisers were fitted out in France,
and kept the English coast in
terror.
John Paul Jones, a native of
LIEUTENANT-COLONEL HENRY LEE.
Scotland, who had been brought to
Virginia at an early age, was one of the first naval officers commissioned
by Congress. He was given the command of the " Ranger," a vessel of
eighteen guns, and by his brilliant and daring exploits kept the English
coast in a state of terror, and even ventured to attack exposed points on
the coast of Scotland. In 1779 he was given command of a small
squadron of three ships of war fitted out in France, and sailing from
L'Orient, proceeded on a cruise along the coast of Great Britain. On
the 23d of September, he fell in with a fleet of merchantmen convoyed by
two Engli.h frigates, and at once attacked them. The battle began at
seven in the evening, and was continued for three hours with great fury.
Jones lashed his flagship, the " Bon Homme Richard," to the English
frigate " Serapis," and the two vessels fought muzzle to muzzle until the




AID FROM ABROAD.


531


"Serapis" surrendered. The other English vessel was also captured.
The battle was one of the most desperate in the annals of naval warfare,
and Jones' flagship was so badly injured that it sunk in a few hours after
the fighting was over
In October, Sir H e ii ry
C I i n t o n, in obedience to
orders from home, evaculated
Newport, and concentrated
his fiorces at New  York,
which place he believed was
in.danger of an attack by the
imericans and  French
Until the close of the season  '' >.         — '
'   ashington  cherished  the  4       f         -
hope that the French fleet   ~,;
ld return and assist himin an effort to regain New
York, and had called out the                         -
militia  for this  purpose.
When he learned that D'Es-   -.-.!     fj  -',:m
taing had sailed to the West           JOHN PAUL JONES.
Indies after the failure of the                  /
attack upon Savannah, he dismissed the militia to their homes, and went
into winter quarters in Newv Jersey, with his head-quarters at Morristown.
While these events had been transpiring upon the Atlantic seaboard,
the United States had been steadily pushing their way westward beyond
the mountains. In 1769, before
*o.DIVI0 x        y    the commencement of the Revo-.lution the beautiful region now
known as Kentucky had been
visited and explored by Daniel
-         Boone, a falmous Indian hunter
He was charmed with the beauty
COAT OF ARMS OF KENTUCKY.  of the country and the excellence
of the climate, and resolved to
make it his home. The reports of Boone and his companions aroused a
great interest in the new country among the inhabitants of the older settlements in Virginia and North Carolina, more especially as it was in this
region that the lands given to the Virginia troops for their services in the
French war were located. Surveyors were soon after sent out to lay off




JIISTOIR  01F T'IE UNITED,STA TES.


these lands, and in 1773 a party tinder Captain Bullit reached the falls,f the Ohio, and built a fortified camp there for the purpose of surveying
the region. This was the commencement of the city of Louisville, but
the actual settlement of the place was not begun until 1778. In 1774
IIarrodsblurg was founded lb Janmes Harrod, one of Boone's companions;
alln in 1775 Daniel Boone lbuilt a fort on the site of the present town of
Boonesborough. The savages made repeated attacks upon his party, but
failed to drive them away Trlle fort was finished by the middle of April,
and soon after Boone was joined by his wife and daughters, the first
white women in Kentucky
The region of Kentucky was claimed by Virginia, but the settlers submitted to the authority of that province with impatience. They sent a
delegate to the Continental
Congress in October, 1775,, and claimed representation in
that body as an independent
colony under the name of
Transylvania; but the delegate of the fourteenth colony
was not admitted by Congress,
as Virginia claimed the terri-f  ittory as her own. In the spring
of 1777 the general assembly
]                 -mi aof Virginia      organized the
Kentucky region as a countre,
and established a court of
quarter sessions at Harrodsburg. In this condition KenDXN'IEL BOONER.
tucky remained during the
Revolution. The population increased rapidly in spite of the war and
of the unremitting hostility of the Indians.
During the Revolution the Kentucky settlements suffered very much
from the hostility of the Indians, who were urged on by the emissaries
of Great Britain to a war of extermination. The principal agent of the
mnother country in this barbarous warfare was Hamilton, the British,,r-mnlanler at Detroit. In order to put a stop to his intrigues and de1prive the Indians of his aid, Congress resolved to despatch a force to
attalck Detroit.
While this plan was in contemplation the State of Virginia, in 1778,
sent Colonel George Rogers Clarke with a force of two hundred men to
conquer the territory northwest of the Ohio, which Virginia claimed as




.lID l.l OM  11ABLO.A D.


r. ) '-)r 6
(".Q^)


a part of lher possessions. Clarke was a backwoodsman, but one of
nature's heroes. He a,,.aemibled his men at Pittsburg, and descended the
Ohio to the falls in flat-boats. There he established a settlement of
thirteen families, the germ of the present city of Louisville. Being
joined by some Kentuckians he continued his descent of tlhe river to a
slhort distance below the month of the Tennessee. Landing and concealing his boats, he struck across the country and surprised and captured
the town of Kaskaskia, within thelimits of the present     -            -
State of Indiana -_
A detachment was                            ^- -
sent to Kahokia,
and received its submission. The peo-                                      _   _
ple of these towns '                                      _    _
were of French --.- — _
origin, and were                    _ —                _,  _...
greatly averse to the
English rule under __..
which they had             ___
lived since the con-_quest of Canada
The alliancebetween
the United Stateso Clare.
and Fr      ancember real
them  very willinois                                         y, and
to acknowled                             savage the. He
authority of the
Union, to which
they readily swore
allegiance    The.             GENERAL GEORGE ROGERS CLARKE.
fort at Vincennes
was in a weak condition and was held by a small garrison, and readily
submitted to Clarke.
Hamilton no sooner heard of the, successes of Clarke than he set,,tat
from Detroit on the 7th of October, 1778, with a force of three hundlred
and fifty warriors, and on the 17th of December reoccupied Vincenncs.
He now prepared to drive the Americans out of the Illinois country, and
spent the winter in trying to arouse the savages against them. He
offered a significant. reward for every American scalp brought in to him,




IISTORY 01F THE UNITED STATES.


but offered nothing for prisoners. At the same time he proposed to
invade Virginia in the spring with an overwhelming force of Indians.
Clarke and his party were in very great danger. They were entirely
cut off from Virgillia and without hope of reinforcements. In this
emergen(cy, Clarke, who had learned that Hamilton had greatly weakened
the garrison at Nincennes, 1( solve(l to stake the fate of the west on a
single issue, and attempt the capture of that post. On the 7th of February, 1779, he left Kaskaskia with one hundred and thirty men, and
marched across the country towards Vincennes. On the 18th they were
within nine miles of Vincennes.   The Wabash had overflowed the
country along its banks, and in order to reach the object of their march,
- -  -  --- -- - -   -  --: -  -  --- - - -. ---  -I —
- =-: ---_- --
FRANKFORT, KENTUCKY.
Clarke and his men were oblioed to cross the submerged lands, up to
their armpits in water. They were five days in crossing these "drowned
lands," and had the weather been less mild, must have perished. On
the 23d Vincennes was reached, and the town was at once carried.
Clarke then laid siege to the fort, assisted in this task by the inhabitants
of the town, and in twenty-four hours compelled Hamilton and his men
to surrender themselves prisoners of war,
Clarke was unable to advance against Detroit because of the insufficiency of his force. His successes, however, were among the most important of the war. They not only put an end to the British scheme of
a general Indian war along the western frontier of the United States,
but established the authority of the Union over the country east of the
Mississippi, and prevented Great Britain from asserting a claim to that




AID FROM ABROAD.


535


region at the conclusion of peace, a few years later. Returning to the
Ohio, Clarke built a blockhouse at the falls. The conquered territory
was claimed by Virginia, and was erected by the legislature of that State
into the county of Illinois. By order of Governor Jefferson of Virginia,
tlarke established a fort on the Mississippi, about five miles below the
mouth of the Ohio, which he named Fort Jefferson, and entered into
friendly relations with the Spaniards at St. Louis.
The Tennessee region, which formed a part of the province of North
Carolina, had been settled previous to the outbreak of hostilities. Fort
Loudon, about 30 miles southwest
of Knoxville, was built in 1756, and  -..:-^
in 1770 the Cumberland valley was..
settled, and Nashville was founded.   8             \      ^.
By the commencement of the revo-.j__:
lution the Tennessee country was -          %             9
quite thickly settled, and the population was increasing at an encouraging
rate. In 1776 the Cherokees, incited by the British, waged a formidable war upon the settlers, but were defeated by the forces of Virginia and North Carolina. A little later the legislature of North Carolina organized the Tennessee settlements as the " District of Washington."




CHAPTER XXX


THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.
Severity of the Winter or 1779-80-Sufferings of the American Army-Clinton Sails for
the Carolinas-Colonel Tarleton-(Capture of Charleston-Conquest of South CarolinaGates in Command of the Southern Army-Battle of Camden-Exploits of Marion and
Sumter-Advance of Cornwallis-Battle of King's Mountain-Gates Succeeded by
General Greene-Knyphausen's Expeditions into New Jersey-Arrival of the French
Fleet and Army-Arnold's Treason-The Plot for the Betrayal of West Point-Arrest of
Major Andre-Flight of Arnold-Execution of Andre-Mutiny of the Pennsylvania
and New Jersey Troops-Measures of (ongress-Arnold Captures Richmond, VirginiaBattle of the Cowpens-MIasterly Retreat of General Greene-Cornwallis Baffled-Battle
of Guilford (ourt IJouse-Cornwallis at Wilmington-Battle of Hobkirk's Hill-Siege
of Ninety-Six-Execution of Colonel Hayne-Battle of Eutaw Springs-Washington
Decides to Attack New York-The French Army on the Hudson-Financial AffairsResumption of Specie Payments-Message from the Count De Grasse-Cornwallis at
Yorktown-The American Army Moves Southward-Siege of Yorktown-Surrender of
( Crnwallis-Effect of the News in England-Indian Troubles-Efforts in England for
Peace-Negotiations Opened-Treaty of Paris-End of the War-The Army Disbanded
-Washington Resigns his Commission.?HE winter of 1779-80 was passed by the American army in huts
near Morristown.     It was one of the severest seasons ever ex-,  perienced in America.     The harbor of New      York was frozen
4     over as far as the Narrovws, and the ice was strong enough to
bear the heaviest artillery.  Communication between New York
and the sea was entirely cut off, and the British garrison and the citizens
suffered  from  a scarcity  of provisions.   Knyphausen was afraid the
Americans would seek to pass the Hudson on the ice and attack the city,
and landed the crews of the shipping in the harbor, and added them to
the garrison. His precautions were useless, as the American army was
too weak and too poorly supplied to undertake the capture of New York.
The troops at Morristown suffered very greatly during the winter.
They had scarcely clothing enough to protect them      from  the cold; and
provisions were so scarce that in order to keep his men from     starvation,
Washington was compelled to impress supplies from the people of the
surrounding country     The heavy snows made the army entirely dependent upon New Jersey for its subsistence, as transportation from a long
distance could not be attempted. The people of New Jersey bore the
536




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


sacrifices imposed upon them with a noble cheerfulness, and though their
State was drained almost to exhaustion, were untiring in their efforts to
provide food and clothing for the troops. The Continental currency had
fallen so low that one dollar in silver was worth thirty dollars in paper
by the beginning of the year 1780; but neither officers nor men coul(
obtain their pay in this depreciated currency. It was almost impossible
for the government to purchase anything with its notes.
About the last of December, 1789, Sir Henry Clinton, leaving a strong
garrison under General Knyphausen to hold New York, sailed south,
with the greater part of his army, in the fleet of Admiral Arbuthnot. He
_ _ _ _-_ -__            X _ D _ - - - -*
-              =   -   =     g, —           - - - - -.-
CHARLESTON, SOUTH CAROLINA, IN 1875.
proceeded first to Savannah, and then moved nortlhward for the purpose
of besieging Charleston. General Lincoln exerted himself with energy to
fortify that city Four thousand citizens enrolled themselves to assist the
regular garrison in the defence, but only two hundred militia from the
interior responded to Lincoln's call for aid. Reinforcements were received
from Virginia and North Carolina, and Lincoln was able to muster seven
thousand men, of whom but two thousand were regular troops.    In
February, 1780, the British landed at St. John's island, about thirty
miles below Charleston. Clinton advanced towards the city along the
banks of the Ashley, while the fleet sailed around to force an entrance
into the harbor. The advance of Clinton was very gradual, and Lincoln




1IiISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


was enabled to strengthen his works, and prepare for a siege. It was not
until early in April that Clinton's army appeared before the American
works and beran preparations to reduce them. A day or two later the
British fleet passed Fort Moultrie with but little loss, and took position
off the city
Clinton had lost nearly all his horses on the voyage from New York,
and was anxious to replace them from the country north of Charleston.
The Americans had stationed bodies of militia at different points north of
the city to keep open the communications with Charleston, and to prevent
the foraging parties of the British from reaching the interior. Clinton
intrusted the task of breaking up these posts and obtaining fresh horses
to Lieutenant-Colonel Banastre Tarleton, a young and energetic officer.
Tarleton was short of stature, of a dark, swarthy complexion, and broad
shouldered and muscular. He was insensible to fatigue, unscrupulous as
to the means by which he accomplished his objects, merciless in battle,
and unflatrring in pursuit. He was one of the most efficient officers in
the English army, and one of the most cruel. By purchase from friends
and seizures from foes, he soon supplied Clinton with all the horses he
neleded. He then began his attempt to break up the American posts
north of Charleston. On the night of the 14th of April, he surprised a
bo(dy of fourteen hundred cavalry under General Huger and Colonel
William Washington, at Monk's Corner, about thirty miles north of
Charleston. The Americans were defeated with a loss of one hundred
prisoners and four hundred wagons laden with stores. A little later Fort
Moultrie surrendered, and soon after Tarleton cut to pieces another
detachment of American cavalry
Charleston was now completely invested, and the siege was pressed with
vigor by Clinton. Lincoln's situation became every day more hopeless.
The fire of the British artillery destroyed his defences and dismounted
his cannon, and as he was entirely cut off from the country he had no
hope of relief from without. On the 9th of May, a terrible fire was
opened upon the defences and the city of Charleston. The city was set
on fire in five places, and the American works were reduced to a mass of
ruins. On the 12th, Lincoln surrendered the town and his army to Sir
Henry Clinton. The prisoners, including every male adult in the city,'
numbered about six thousand men. The regulars were held as prisoners
of war, but the militia were dismissed to their homes on their promise
not to serve again during the war.
Clinton followed up his capture of the city by a series of vigorous measures. Tarleton was despatched into the interior to attack a Virginia
regiment under Colonel Beaufort, which was advancing to the relief of




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


5:39


Charleston. Beaufort began his retreat as soon as he heard of the surrender of Charleston, but was overtaken and surprised by Tarleton at Waxhaw's, on the boundary of North Carolina. The British had made a forced
march of one hundred and five miles in fifty-four hours. They gave no
quarter to the Americans, and put to the sword all who were unable to
escape.  Their barbarous conduct on this occasion was termed by the
American's " Tarleton's quarters." A second column was sent by Clinton
towards Augusta, and a third towards Camden to reduce the country
between Charleston and those points.  They encountered but little
resistance. Clinton issued a proclamation threatening to visit the severest
punishments upon those who refused to submit to the royal authority;
and this was followed a little later by another, offering pardon to all who
would return to their allegiance and assist in restoring the authority of
the king. The measures of the British commander were entirely successful, and South Carolina was so completely subjugated that early in June,
Sir Henry Clinton sailed for New York, leaving Lord Cornwallis to
complete the conquest of the State. The country abounded in Tories, who
exerted themselves actively to assist the British commander in his efforts
to hold the Carolinas in subjection. Large numbers of them joined the
British army, and "loyal legions" were formed in various parts of the
country  The only resistance kept up by the Americans was maintained
by the partisan corps of patriots led by Marion, Sumter, and Pickens.
The exploits of these daring bands caused the British commander to feel
that he could not hold the Carolinas except bv the aid of a strong force, and
kept him in a state of constant uneasiness. On the 16th of August, Sumter defeated a large body of British and Tories at Hanging Rock, east of
the Wateree river. Large numbers of negroes deserted their masters and
fled to the British.
In order to offer a definite resistance to the British, and to collect a
regular army to oppose them, the Baron De Kalb was sent to take command of the troops in the south, and all the regulars south of Pennsylvania were ordered to join him. De Kalb managed to collect about two
regiments, and with these moved slowly southward. A lack of provisions
forced him to halt three weeks on Deep river, one of the upper tributaries
of the Cape Fear
Matters were so bad in the south that Congress resolved to send
General Gates, the conqueror of Burgoyne, to take command of the army
in that quarter. General Charles Lee, who knew that Gates was not the
man to retrieve such losses, predicted that "his northern laurels would
soon be changed into southern willows."  Gates hastened southward, and
overtook De Kalb at Deep river, and assumed the command. De Kalb




540


IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


advised him to move into South Carolina by a circuitous route through
the county of Mecklenburg, which was true to the patriot cause, and where
provisions could be easily obtained. Gates declined to take his advice,
and( marched towards Camden by the direct route, which led through a
barren and almost uninhabited region. He was sure that his wagons from
the north laden with provisions would overtake the troops in two days;
but he was mistaken: the wagons never made their appearance, and the
troops suffered greatlv from  hunger and disease. His army increas(ed
every day by reinf;)rccments from Virginia and North Carolina. On the
13th of August, lie reached Clermont, about twelve miles from Camden.
His force now amountc(l to nearly four thousand men, nearly two-thirds
of whomt were Continentals.
Upon the approach of GaU's, Lord Rawdon, the British commander in
this part of the State, fell eback to Camden, where he was joined by Cornwallis, who had just arrived from Charleston, and who assumed the command. On the night of the 15oth, Gates moved nearer to Camden, and
at the same time Cornwallis advanced to attack Gates, whom he hoped to
surprise. The advanced guards encountered each other in the woods,
and the two armies halted until morningl. The battle began with dawn,
on the 16th of August. The militia fled at the first charge of the British,
but tlie Continentals, under the brave De Kalb, stood firm, though attacked
in front and flank. At length De Kalb fell mortally wounded, and the
Continentals -ave way    The American army was completely routed,
and was broken up into small parties and scattered through the country
These co'!tinud(l a disorderly retreat, closely followed for about thirty
miles by Tarleton's cavalry, who cut them down without mercy
The lbattle of Camden was the most disastrous defeat incurred by the
Americans hduring the whole war   They lost nearly eighteen hundred
men in killedl and prisoners, and all their artillery and stores. A few
days after the battle, Gates reached Charlotte, North Carolina, with about
two hundred men, the remains of the army which his incapacity had
ruined.
A few days previous to the battle, Sumter surprised a detachment
convoying stores to the British army at Camden, and took two hundred
prisoners. As soon as Cornwallis heard of this, he sent Tarleton in purs-lit of thle " Game Cock," as lie styled Sumter. Tarleton pushed forward
": Atl such vigor that half of his men and horses were broken down. IHe
overtook Sumter at Fishing Creek, on the west bank of the Catawba, and
routed him with the loss of the greater part of his partisan corps, and
rescued the prisoners.
All united and organized resistance to the British in the Carolinas now




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


541


ceased for a time. The true policy of Cornwallis was to conciliate the
people by acts of clemency, but instead of this he exasperated them by
his unnecessary severity  Among the prisoners taken at the defeat of
Sumter were a number who had given their parol not to serve during the
war. Some of these were hanged on the spot; the remainder were subjected to a severe imprisonment. These severities aroused a desire for
vengeance among the people, and gave many recruits to Marion, who
from the swamps of the lower Pedee maintained a constant and severe
partisan warfare against the British. At the same time, Sumter by great
exertions recruited his command,
and resumed his
operations in the
upper country,    _
These bands were,,, ',
deficient in arms,i          '/
at firstanbut supalarm.
plied themselvec/
froin the enemy           -/
They made their
own gunpowder                                at some exposed point
and before pursuit could oe attempted oould be miles awa, or safe ill
cast their own   /
bullets anod pro-  / ahim. Virginia and                   arla
vided foog d  fore h, bt /
themselves  and / /bo
their horses. By
their rapid  and
secret movements
they kept the                                   C
British in a state /ontain
of constant alarm.
of constn  ma         GENERAL FRANCIS MARION.
They would make
a sudden and unexpected attack upon the enemy at some exposed point,
and before pursuit could be attempted would be miles away, or safe in
the labyrinths of the swamps.
Gates continued to retreat slowly to the northward after his defeat.
He had now about a thousand men with him. Virginia and Maryland
made great exertions to reinforce him, but without success.
In September, Cornwallis advanced northward with the main body of
his army  Upon reaching Charlotte he despatched Colonel Ferguson,
one of his most trusted officers, to rally the Tories among the mountains




542


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


in the interior. Cornwallis intended to advance from Charlotte by way
of Salisbury and Hillsborough into Virginia, and form a junction with a
force to be sent to the lower Chesapeake by Sir Henry Clinton. The
success of this movement would complete the subjugation of the south.
The patriots in the country thrllugh which his army passed were very
active. His expresses were captured or shot, and his pialn:; made known
to the Americans. While Ferguson was on the march, Cornwallis
advanced to Salisbury
The movement of' Ferguson roused the patriots of the interior counties
to arms, and they assembled rapidly, with the intention of cutting him
off from the army under Cornwallis. They came from all directions,
-I
BATTLE OF KING S MOUNTAIN.
from as far as Kentucky and Tennessee. Their weapons were their rifles,
to the use of which they had been trained from childhood; they had no
baggage; and they moved forward as rapidly as their horses could carry
them. These forces had been gathering for several days before the rumors
of their march reached Colonel Ferguson. He regarded the reports with
distrust at first, but upon receiving more accurate information began a
rapid retreat. About the same time the various parties of the Americans
effected ajunction. They numbered three thousand men. A council of
war was held, and it was resolved to send forward a detachment to bring
Ferguson to a stand, and to follow with the main body as quickly as
possible.
Nine hundred men, mounted on swift horses, were sent forward, under




THIE CLOSE OF TIHE WAR.


5443


Colonel Campbell. They rode for thirty-six hours, a large part of the
time through a drenching rain, and dismounted but once during this
period. Ferguson, alarmed and astounded at this determination to crush
him, fell back to a strong position on King's mountain, near the Catawba.
He was attacked there on the 7th of October by the Americans, and
defeated after a hotly contested fight. Ferguson and about one hundred
and fifty of his men were killed, the remainder were compellhd to surrender. The prisoners numbered about nine hundred( and fifty, of whom
about one hundred and fifty were wounded. The Americans lost twenty
killed and a somewhat larger number wounded. The North Carolinians
selected ten of the Tories who had earned their fate by their cruelties to the
Americans, and hanged them on the spot. The Americans then separated
and returned home, after seeing their prisoners safe in the lhands of the
proper authorities. Their victory raised the drooping spirits of their
countrymen, and encouraged them to fresh exertions to resist the British.
As soon as Cornwallis heard of it, he abandoned his forward movement,
and, falling back into South Carolina, took position between the Broad
and Saluda rivers. He remained there until the close of the year.
Marion took advantage of the change of feeling canused by the victorv
of King's mountain to renew his operations on the Pedlee, but Tarleton
compelled him to withdraw to his fastness in the swamllps. Sumter was
more successful in the northern part of the State, and defeated a detachment sent in pursuit of him. Tarleton then went after him in person,
but was defeated and forced to retreat. Sumter was wo,:unded in this
engagement, and was compelled to withdraw from the field for several
months. During this period his command, deprived of their leader, disbanded. The contest in the Carolinas degenerated into a savage civil
war. The patriots and Tories fought each other wherever they met, and
destroyed each other's property throughout the State. The country was
thus kept in constant terror
Upon the retreat of Cornwallis from Salisbury, Gates advanced southward as far as Charlotte. Here he was relieved of his cornmmand )by
General Nathaniel Greene, who had been appointed by Congress, at the
urgent solicitation of Washington, to take charge of the southern department. Gates had given great dissatisfaction by his failure in the south,
and Congress ordered a court of inquiry to examine into his conduct.
Greene was placed in charge of the entire south from Delaware to Georgia,
"subject to the control of the commander-in-chief."  Thus Washington
was given the supreme direction of the war. Greene possessed his entire
confidence, and the most cordial and affectionate relations existed' between
them. Greene found the remnants of Gates' army in a half mutinous




544


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


con(lition. The men were without pay, without clothing, and suffering
for the necessaries of life. Reinforcements were sent him from the north,
among which were Morgan's regiment of riflemen, Lee's legion of lighthorse, and several batteries of artillery
We lmust now return to the army under Washington. As the spring
opened the sufferings of the troops at Morristown increased. Food was
so scarce that the troops were driven to desperation. Two regiments of
Connecticut troops
declared their inA                               teDtion to abandon
-_ ~                            the army and march
A.  n  b t                     home, or wrest prors                         visions fromthe peowple of the surround4:.    "'""..               ing country by force..i,.Washington was
tcompelled to exert.,> hoJn, and  c.h  a      pringfi  all his influence and
c                                   authority to restore
of,1 th.:n,. it,                      order, It was with
was obliged to make a hasty retreat                   dito Elizficulty that
//c provisions were procured and the wants
of the troops supplied. The danger
'/                  caused by this state
7  of affairs was so
/ t,       great that Congress
authorized Washington to declare
martial law.
GENERAL NATHANIEL GREENE.                The news of these
troubles in the
American camp induced Knyphausen to undertake an expedition into
New Jersey    He landed at Elizabethtown, with five thousand men, on
the 6th of June, and marched towards Springfield. His advance was
warmly contested by the militia of the region, but he penetrated as far as
the village of Connecticut Farms. Being unable to advance farther he
caused the village to be sacked and burned; and Mrs. Caldwell, the wife
of the minister of the village, was murdered by some of the British
troops. The militia of the region gathered in force, and Knyphausen
was obliged to make a hasty retreat to Elizabethtown.




THE CLOSE OF THE WVAR.


545


The murder of Mrs. Caldwell aroused thle most intense excitement
throughout New Jersey. It was denounced as one of the most infamlous
deeds of the war, and gave rise to a fierce and general spirit of vengeance.
Her husband, an eloquent and highly esteemed minister, animlte(l his
countrymen by his stirring sermons, and he soon had the satisfaction of
seeing that his labors were not in vain.
After the return of Sir Henry Clinton to New Yo~rk, Washington
moved a part of his troops towards the Highlands. Knvph)ausen again
advanced from  Elizabethtown towards Springfield, hOping to gain the
passes beyond Morristown before his march should be discovered. His
advance wvas detected, however, and General Greene, who wan:S in command of the American forces, 1)rel)ared to resist him. A sharp fight
ensue(l, in which Greene succeeded in checking thel British advance.
The New Jersey regiment, of which Caldwell was chaplain, was engaged
in the battle. The wadding of the men gave out, and Caldwell, mounting his horse, galloped to the Presbyterian church, and returned with an
armful of Dr. Watts' hymn books, which he distributed among the
troops, with the pious injunction, " Now put Watts into them, boys!"
The militia came flocking in to the slpport of General Greene, and
Knyphausen finding it impossible to advance farther, burned Springfield
and fell back to Elizabethtown.
The Americans were greatly encouraged in the spring by the return
of Lafayette, who had spent the winter in France. He had been successfill in his endeavors to induce the French court to send another fleet and
army to tle assistance of the patriots; and lie now brought the good news
that a new expedition was on its way to America. In July a fleet under
Count de Tiernay, with an army of seven thousand men, under Count de
Rochambeau, reached Newport. The Count de Rochambeau was directed
by his government to place himself tinder the orders of General Walshington in order to avoid disputes that rmight arise from military etiquette.
This expedition was the first division of the army to be sent to America
by France. The second division was to sail from Brest, but was unable
to do so, as it was blockaded in that harbor by a British squadron.
Thus the supplies of arms and clothing which were to lhave been sent to
the American army were delayed, and the troops under Washington were
unable to co6perate with the French in an attack upon New York. An
English fleet had followed the French across the Atlantic, and Clinton
was anxious to secure its co6oeration in an attack upon the French at
Newport. He could not agree with Admiral Arbuthnot upon a plan of
attack, and the English admiral contented himself with blockading the
French in Newport harbor, Washington called out the militia of New
35




546


IISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


England to assist in the defence of Newport in case of an attack. The
French fleet was shut up in this port, and to the great disappointment
of Washington, was unable to take part in any combined operation.
Some weeks later Washington, anxious to strike a decisive blow at the
enemy, invited the French commanders, De Tiernay and Rochambeau, to
meet him at Hartford, to arrange a plan for an attack upon New York.
The meeting was held, but it was decided to ask the cooperation of the
French admiral in the West Indies, as the fleet at Newport was not
strong enough to cope with the British fleet at New York. Until the
answer of the admiral was received nothing could be done.
While absent at Hartford a plot was discovered which involved
the fair fame of one of the most brilliant officers of the American army
General Benedict Arnold had been disabled by the wounds he had
received at Quebec and Saratoga from
undertaking active service, and through
-         the influence of Washington had been
\                    placed in command of Philadelphia
/                \   after its evacuation by Clinton in 1778.
There he lived in a style far beyond
h L his means, and became involved in
\       /               debts, which lie was unable to pay-, 'To raise the funds to discharge them
B xi^'5         he engaged in privateering and mercantile speculations. These were gen^  t                erally unsuccessful, and merely in" creased his difficulties. His haughty
— and overbearing manner involved him
in a quarrel with the authorities of Pennsylvania, who accused him before
Congress of abusing his official position and misusing the public funds.
He was tried by a court-martial and was sentenced to be reprimanded:by the comnmander-in-chief. Washington performed this disagreeable
task as delicately as possible, but did not lose his confidence in Arnold.
He knew him as an able officer, but, as his acquaintance with him was
limited, was most likely ignorant of the faults of Arnold's character,
"which were well known to the members of Congress from Connecticut,
who had no confidence in him. To them lie was known to be naturally
dishonest, regardless of the rights of others, and cruel and tyrannical
in his dealings with those under his authority. Arnold never forgave
the disgrace inflicted upon him by the sentence of the court-martial, and
cherished the determination to be revenged upon Washington for the. reprimand received from him.




TIHE CLOSE OF THlE 11WAR.


547


While in  hlliladelphia, Arnold had married a member of a Tory
family, and was thus enabled to communicate readily with the British
officers. He opened a correspondence with Sir Henry Clinton, signing
himself Gustavus. He lept uip tils correspondence ior several months,
and then made himself known to the British commander  In tle meantime, at his earnest solicitation, he was appointed by W\aslington, in
August, 1780, to the command of West Point, the strongest ai;d most
important fortress in America. He did this with the deliberate intention
of betraying the post into the hands of the enemy
The correspondence had been conducted on the part of Sir IHenry
Clinton by Major John Andre of the British army, a young man of amiable character and more than ordinary accomplishments. Iec wrote under
the assumed name of John Anderson. He was an especial favorite of
Sir Henry Clinton, and was beloved
by the whole army in which he served.
Soon after the appointment of Arnold
to the command of West Point, Andre
volunteered to go up the Hudson and
have an interview with him for the purpose of completing the arrangements for.f."
the betrayal of that fortress. His offer
was accepted by Clinton, and li he ascended the Hudson as far as Haverstraw
in the sloop of war "Vulture."  He
was set ashore and was met near Hav- y;.                 -
erstraw on the west bank of the Hud-  " _ l
son by General Arnold, on the 22d of
September. The meeting took place about dark, and the night had passed
before the arrangements were completed. Much against his will, Andrd
was compelled to pass the next day within the American lines. During
the 23d the " Vulture," having attracted the attention of tlec Americans,
was fired upon and forced to drop down the river  Andre found the man
who had set him ashore unwilling to row him back to the sloop, and he
was compelled to return to New York by land. He changed his uniform
for a citizen's dress, and, provided with a pass from Arnold, under the
name of John Anderson, set out for New York along the east bank of
the river, which he deemed safer than the opposite shore.
All went well until Andre reached the vicinity of Tarrytown. There
he was stopped by three young men, John Paulding, David Williams,
and Isaac Van Wart. They asked him his name and destination, and
he, supposing them to be Tories, did not use the pass given him by Arnold,




JfISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


but frankly avowed himself a British officer travelling on important btLsiness. To his dismay he then learned that his captors were of the patriot
party, and lie offered them his watch, purse, and any reward they might
name if they would suffer him to proceed. They refused to allow him
to stir a step, and searched his person. They found concealed in his
boots papers giving tie plan of West Point, and an account of its garrisn. Andr6 was taken by his captors before Colonel Jamison, the commander of tlhe nearest American post. Jamison recognized the hand,
writing as that of Arnold, but, unwilling to believe that his commander
could be guilty of treason, lie detained the prisoner, and wrote to Arnold
inforning him of the arrest of Andre and of tlme papers found upon his
perso:n. The papers themselves he forwarded by a special messenger to
Washinvgton, who was on his return from Hartford.
Arnold received Colonel Jamison's letter as he sat at breakfast with
some of his officers. I-e concealed his emotion, and excusing himself
to hisguests, called hisii___
wiFro froi the room, o
stOl1fet lice omust flee to
for his life, ano, hast-                                     innocent of n t  are in his larot.
escac   dlown the      lot. He    as at once brout to trial upon the
to        the Vultureerican lines as a s          Te,"artial
anil was received on
board    y the com-een indced to enter
me Ander                of that vesseArnold.             enied tat
From his a s lace th   ction     not to say anyt   that    t cri
safte himself, e frankly confessed the wrote to
ponashins ton askiconfession to protect his wife who, he declared, was innocent of any share in his plot.
When lie learned that Arnold was safe, Andr6 wrote to Washington,
and onfssWashingtond the whole plot. He was at once brought to trial upon the
charge of being    within the American lines as   a spy. The   court-martial
wase dresided over by G      eneral Greene,  and Lafayette  and Steuben were
among its members. Andre asserted that he had been induced to enter
the American lines by the misrepresentations of Arnold. He denied that
he was a spy, and though cautioned not to say anything that might criminate himself, he frankly confessed the whole plot. He was sentenced
upon his own confession to be hanged. Clinton made great exertions
to save him, and Washington, whose sympathy was won by the amiable
character of Andr6, was anxious to spare him. The circumstances of the
case demanded that the law should be executed, and Andre avas hanged




.. THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


at Tappan, near the Hudson, on the 2d of October, 1780. Congress
voted to each of his three captors a pension of two hundred dollars for
life and a silver medal.
The plot of Arncld had been discovered by the merest chance, and the
American cause had narrowly escaped a crushing disaster. The loss of
West Point. would have given the British the entire control of the Hudson, and have enabled them to separate New England from the Middle
and Southern States. It might have proved fatal to the cause, and certainly would have reduced Washington. to great extremities. Arnold


WEST POINT IN 1875.


received for his treachery the sum of ten thousand pounds sterling and a
commission as brigadier-general in the English service. He was regarded
with general contempt by the English officers, who refused to associate
with him, and were greatly averse to serving under him.
In the summer of 1780 it seemed likely that England would be
involved in war with the whole civilized world. The claim of Great
Britain to the right to search the vessels of neutral nations for articles
'ontraband of war was productive of great annoyance to the northern
powers, whose commerce was subjected to serious loss by these arbitrary




IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


measures. Catharine II. of Russia determined to resist it, and organized
with Denmark and Sweden a league known as the "Armed Neutrality,"
for the purpose of enforcing the principle that neutral ships in time of
war are entitled to carry merchandise without being liable to search or
seizure by the belligerent powers.
Holland joined this league, and concluded a secret commercial treaty
with the United States. This treaty was discovered by Great Britain
almost immediately, and in the following manner: The American minister to Holland, Henry Laurens, was captured at sea by a British frigate.
He threw his papers, the treaty among them, into the sea, but they were
recovered by an English sailor, who sprang overboard and secured them.
They were laid before the British government, which demanded that
Holland should disavow the treaty and the correspondence with the
United States. The Dutch government returned an evasive answer, and
England immediately declared war against Holland. The English fleet
at once proceeded to attack the Dutch possessions and commerce in all
parts of the world. Holland declared war against Great Britain, and
her fleet was added to that of France against England. Spain now nmade
an alliance with France against England, and sent her fleet to cooperate
with the French in the West Indies, and also laid siege to Gibraltar. The
Irish about the same time demanded a reform of the many abuses from
which that island had been suffering since the battle of the Boyne, and this
demand was sustained by a force of eighty thousand armed Protestant
volunteers which had been raised for the defence of Ireland against a
threatened attack of the French. They demanded an independent parliament, and even threatened a total separation from Great Britain. In the
face of these difficulties the spirit of England rose higher than ever, and
that country, with a vigor worthy of her ancient renown, put forth all
her energies to find a way out of her difficulties. The whole world was
arrayed against her, but in the face of it she held her own. The heroism
manifested by England at this trying period is worthy of the highest
admiration.
The American army passed the winter of 1780-81 in cantonments
east and west of the Hudson. The Pennsylvania troops were stationed
near Morristown, and the New Jersey regiments at Pompton. Though
the troops were better provided with food than during the previous winter,
their sufferings were still very severe. They were neglected by Congress,
which was too much occupied with its dissensions to make any serious
effort to relieve the wants of the soldiers. The Pennsylvania troops had
an especial cause of complaint. Their enlistments were for three years or
the war. The three years had expired, but the government refused to




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


discharge them on the ground that the enlistments were for the period of
the war, no matter how long it should last. The troops on the other
hand contended that the words " for the war " meant that the enlistments
should expire if the war closed in less than three years.
On the 1st of January, 1781, thirteen hundred Pennsylvania troops
left the camp at Morristown under arms, and set off for Philadelphia, to
obtain redress from Congress. General Wayne, their commander, placed
himself in front of them, and, pistol in hand, attempted to stop their
march. In an instant their bayonets were at his breast. " We love, we
respect you," they exclaimed, " but you are a dead man if you fire. Do
not mistake us; we are not going to the enemy; were they now to come
out you would see us fight under your orders, with as much resolution
and alacrity as ever." They halted at Princeton, where they were met by
the agents of Sir Henry Clinton, who endeavored to induce them to join
the British service. They promptly seized these men and delivered them
up to General Wayne as spies. At a later period it was proposed to
reward them for this action, but they refused to accept anything, saving:
" We ask no reward for doing our duty to our country "
Congress was greatly alarmed by the approach of these troops, and a
committee, accompanied by Reed, the president of Pennsylvania, was sent
to meet them. The committee met the leaders of the mutineers, and
agreed to relieve their immediate wants, and to secure them their back
pay by means of certificates. Permission was given to all whlo had served
three years to withdraw from the army  Upon these conditions the troops
returned to duty. The disaffection in the army was increased by the
yielding of Congress. On the 20th of January the New Jersey troops
at Pompton mutinied, but this outbreak was quelled by a detachment
sent from West Point by Washington.
The mutiny opened the eyes of the country to the sufferings of the
army, and aroused all parties to thle necessity of providing for the troops.
It wvas clearly understood that a failure to sustain the army would result
in the defeat of the cause. Urgent appeals were made by Congress to
all the States, and especially to those of New England, to supply the
wants of the army, and Congress endeavored to negotiate a loan abroad.
Direct taxation was resorted to to provide money at once.
The year 1781 opened with a military expedition under the command
of the traitor Arnold, now a brigadier-general in the British service.
Early in January he was sent by Sir Henry Clinton, wvith sixteen hundred British and Tories, from New York to the Chesapeake, to ravage
the shores of Virginia. After plundering the plantations along the lower
bay and the James, Arnold ascended that river, and landing his troops




HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES.


marched to Richmond. Thomas Jefferson, then governor of Virginia,
called out the militia, but only a handful responded. Arnold occupied
Riclhmond, burned the public buildings and some private dwellings, and
then re-embarked and dropped down the river to Portsmouth. Washington was anxious to capture him, and sent Lafayette, with a force
of twelve hundred men, southward, by land, to prevent Arnold from
escapling overland to join Cornwallis in the Carolinas, and at the same
time the French fleet sailed from Newport for the Chesapeake to prevent
the escape of the traitor by water. The British Admiral Arbuthnot followed tile French fleet, and brought it to an engagement off the mouth
of the Chesapeake. The French were worsted and obliged to return to
Newport, and Admiral Arbuthnot entered the bay, and reinforced Arnold
with two thousand British troops, under General Philips, who assumed
the command at
-:~. ' _-~  Portsnmouth, and
/, f                          -fortified his position
there                         From  his
cam1p he sent out de~ ~-.~ ~        ~.tachments to ravage
~,... the country in all
directions.   Lafayette, in the meantime, upon hearing
of the failure of the
BATTLE OF THE COWPENS.
plan, halted at Antirpolis, in Maryland. Arnold, upon being superseded by Philips,
returned to New York.
Early in January Cornwallis, who was at Winnsborough, South Caro'lina, sent Colonel Tarleton, with a force of one thousand cavalry and
light infantry, to cut off Morgn's division from the column under General Greene. Morgan was between the Broad and Catawba rivers at the
time, and upon hearing of Tarleton's approach began to retreat towards
the Catawba. Tarleton pushed on with such speed that Morgan saw he
must be overtaken. He accot'dingly halted, and took position at the
"Cowpens," about thirty miles west of King's mountain, and rested his
men. Tarleton arrived in front of this position on the 17th of January,
and made an impetuous attack upon the Americans. At first he drove
the militia before him, but Morgan keeping his Continentals well in hand,
suddenly wheeled upon him, and drove him from the field. The two
forces were about equal. Morgan lost but eighity men, while the loss of
the British was over six hundred. Tarleton escaped from the field with
-only a few of his cavalry.




THE CLOSE OF TIlE IV WR.


Cornwallis moved forward as soon as he learned of Tarleton's defeat.
He supposed that Morgan would be encumbered with his wounded and
prisoners, and would be slow in leaving the scene of his victory, and he
hoped by a rapid march to come up with him, crusl hlinl, and rser'eI  tile
prisoners before lie could join General Greene. Morganl was much too
wary to be caught in such a trap. He felt sure Cornwallis would scek to
avenge Tarleton's defeat, and leaving his wounded under a flay of truce,
he resumed his retreat with all speed immediately after the battle, and
hurrying towards the Catawba, crossed tlat river  Two hours after he
had passed it the advance of Cornwallis'
army reached the bank
of the river, but, owing
to a sudden rise in the                   D
stream, were unable to
cross it. The British,
were detained in this
manner for two days,                                          - -
during which Morgan  _-.m o                             wa
rested his men, and  ----:      r    e hi a
sent off hlis prisoners - _
to a place of safety.
Two days after the
pawsage of the Ca-l t
tawbia  Morgan  was
joined by the troops,
under General Greene,
who had heard of the                   n a
victory of the Cow~z-,
pens, and was advancing to the assistance of        GENERAL DANIEL MORGAN.
his lieutenant. Greene
was not yet strong enough to meet the British, and hlie continued the
retreat towards the Yadkin. He moved slowly, and his rear-guard was
still engaged in.the passage of the Yadkin, when the adlvanced guard of
Cornwallis reached that stream, on the 3d of February  Cornwallis had
burned all his heavy baggage, and had reduced his army to the strictest
light marching order, in the hope of being able to intercept Greene. A
skirmish ensued on the banks of the Yadkin, and night coming on the
British commander deferred the passage of the stream until the next day
IDuring the night a heavy rain swelled the river so high that it could not




IST'ORY' O1' THE UNITED STATES.


be forded, and the Americans had secured all the boats on the other side.
Greene, profiting by this delay, hurried on to cross the Dan into Virginia, where he could receive reinforcements and supplies. Morgan was
left to cover the retreat of the army, but falling ill was obliged to relinqllish the command of thle rear-guard to Colonel Otho H. Williams.
Cornwallis passed the Yadkin as soon as possible, alnd strained every
nerve to prevent Greene from crossing the Dan. He supposed the Americans would not be able to cross at the lower ferries, but would be obliged
to pass the river higher up, where it could be forded. He therefore
urged his army to its utmost exertions to secure these fords before the
arrival of the Americans.  Perceiving Cornwallis' error, Colonel Williams retreated towards the upper fords, and so confirmed the British
commander in his delusion.  Having led thle British sufficiently out of
the way, Williams wheeled about, and by a rapid march of forty miles
in twenty-four hours, down the river, rejoined Greene, who had moved
with all speed to the lower ferries, where, in anticipation of his retreat,
lie had collected a supply of boats. The Dan was passed on the 15th of
February, and the American army was safe from its pursuers. An hour
or two later Cornwallis, who had discovered his mistake, and had marched
with speed from the upper fords, appeared on the opposite bank of the
river, only to see his adversary safely beyond his reach. The river was
too deep to be forded, and Greene had all the boats in his possession.
Cornwallis was deeply mortified at his failure to intercept Greene. He
had pursued him for over two hundred miles, and had made great sacrifices to come up withl him, but the American commander had managed to
elude him, and lhad successfully carried out one of the most brilliant
retreats in history  The Americans regarded their escape as providential; and not without cause. Their way across the Carolinas might be
tracked by the blood from their feet; and twice, when the enemy had
come within gunshot of themn, the rising of the waters of the Catawba and
tlhe Yadkin, which they had passed in safety, had held back thle British
and enabled them to escape. After resting his men for a few days on
the banks of the Dan, Cornwallis fell back to HIillsborough.
Having received reinforcements, General Greene recrossed the Dan,
about the last of February, and advanced into the Carolinas to watch
Cornwallis and encourage the patriots of that region. Cornwallis, being
short of supplies, move(l slowly southward. Greene followed him cautiously, too weak to risk a battle, but ready to take advantage of the first
error on tile part of his adversary  His movements were conducted with
the utmost circumslpection, and in order to guard against a surprise he
never remained in the same s place more than one day, and kept secret




TIHE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


555


until tlhe last moment the places he selected for his encampments. In the
meantime lie was gradually receiving reinforcements, from Virginia and
Maryland, until his army numbered four thousand men.
Feeling himself strong enough to attack the enemy, Greene left his
ba,ggage at a point of safety, and advanced to Guilford Court-house,
seventeen miles distant, with the intention of bringing Cornwallis to a
decisive engagement. Here he was attacked by Cornwallis, on the 15th
of March, and after one of the hardest-fought battles of the war, was
compelled to retreat. Greene withdrew in good order, and Cornwallis,
thoughl victorious on the field, was so sorely crippled that lie was unable
to make any pursuit, and was obliged to fall back to Wilmington, near
the mouth of the Cape Fear river. By the time lihe reached that place,
his army had been so much weakened by desertions, and losses in battle,
that it amounted to but fourteen hundred men.
Greene lost a thousand militia by desertion during his retreat, but was
soon enabled to supply their places. He then moved into South Carolina
for the purpose of attacking the British force under Lord Rawdon, which
was posted at Camden. He advanced to Hobkirk's Hill, about two miles
from Camden, where he was attacked, on the 25th of April, by Lord
Rawvdon. After a sharp engagement Greene was defeated, and obliged
to retreat. He withdrew his army in good order, having inflicted upon
his adversary a loss about equal to his own. Rawdon was unable to
derive any advantage from his victory, as lie could not bring Greene to
another general engagement.  The activity of the American partisan
corps in his rear alarmed him  for the safety of his communications
with Charleston, and lie abandoned Camden and fell back to Monk's
Corner
In the meantime Lee, Marion, Pickens, and the other partisan leaders
had broken up the fortified posts of the British with suc'lh success, that by
the month of June, 1781, only three positions of iml)ortance remained to
the British in South Carolina-Charleston, Nelson's Ferry, and Fort
Ninety-six, near the Saluda. The last-named position was of the greatest
importance, and was held by a force of Carolina Tories. Lee and
Pickens were sent against Augusta, Georgia, and captured it after a close
investment of seven days. General Greene himself marched against
Ninety-six, and laid siege to it. Being informed that Lord Rawdon was
marching to relieve it, he determined to carry the fort by assault before
Rawdon could arrive. The assault was made on the 18th of June, but
was repulsed with severe loss. Greene then raised the siege and retreated
across the Saluda.
Early in July the excessive heat put an end to active operations on tho




556


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


part of the two armies. Greene withdrew to the high hills of the Santee,
and the British went into camp on the Congaree. A bitter partisan warfare now sprung up between the patriots and the Tories, and continued
through tlhe sulInler  Ilouses were pillaged and burned, farms were
laid waste, and no quarter was given by either party. Even women and
children were included in these dreadful massacres.
Lord Rawvdon now resolved to add to the horrors of this warfare by
executing as traitors those whlo lad given their parole not to engage in the
war, or hlad received a protection, if they should be taken in arms. Among
the prisoners taken by the British, at the capture of Charleston, was
Colonel Isaac Hayne, a distinguished citizen of that place. His wife was
dying and his children were helpless, and he gave his parole to remain
BATTLE OF EUTAW SPRINGS.
neutral, in order to be able to take care of them, and was promised protection. At a later period, the British commander being in need of
reinforcements, Hayne was ordered to take up arms against his country
in behalf of the king. He regarded himself as relieved from his parole
by this command, and soon after escaped from Charleston, and raised a
partisan corps, at the head of which he was captured. He was condemned to die as a traitor; and though the inhabitants of Charleston,
both patriot and royalist, petitioned for his pardon, it was refused, and
he was hanged, by order of Lord Rawdon, on the 5th of August. His
execution was regarded by the Americans as cruel and unjust, and as contrary to military law  General Greene felt himself obliged to retaliate
by executing as deserters all those prisoners who.had formerly served in
his own army, and so bitter was the feeling of the American troops that




THE CLOSE OF THE KA l R.


they could scarcely be'prevented from shooting the British officers who
fell into their hands.
Lord Rawdon now sailed for England, and left the comnland of his
army to Colonel Stewart, an officer of ability and experience. At tlhe
close of the summer (General Greene, whose army hadt been ilncreased by
the commands of Marion and Pickens to twenty-five lundred men,
resumed the offensive. He attacked the British at Eutaw Springs, on
the 8th of September, and after a severely contested battle tle left wing
of the British was routed. In the moment of victory tlle American
army stopped to plunder the enemy's camp, and the Britislh taking
advantage of tlec delay, rallied and made a stand in a large stone house,
from which they could not be driven. Greene was forced to draw off
his troops and leave the field to the British, who lost seven hundred men
in the engagement. The American loss was five hundred men. Botll
sides claimed the victory; but the advantage certainly was, not with the
British, who lost more than a third of their men.  Colonel Stewart, in
view of this loss, fell back to the vicinity of Charleston. Greene followed him as far as Monk's Corner, and then returned to tl1 hlills of thl
Santee. The American colnmander had abunldant reason(n to bel satisfid
with the result of his operations in So(uth Carolina. He had rescued the
greater part of the State from the British, nnd had confi ed them to thle
region between the Santee and the lower Savannah.  He hlad relpeatedly
engaged the enemy with the most inadequate means, anid undlr thll most
unfavorable circumstances, and Ilad never failed, even tlholril defeated,
to accomplish the object for which he fought. He had baffled the British
commanders over again, and, like William of Orange, had managed to
derive greater advantages from his reverses than his advers;ries were able
to draw from their victories.
Washington was well pleased with the aclievements, in the south, of
his most trusted lieutenant.  He was very anxious to attenlmt sometling
decisive with his own army, if he could secure the aid of a French army
and fleet. Two enterprises offered themselves to him-an attack upon
New York, which had been greatly weakened by detaclments; sent from
its garrison to the south, and an expedition against Cornwallis. That
commander had left Wilmington, on the 20th of April, and had advanced,
without encountering any serious resistance, to Petersburg, Virginia. He
arrived there on the 20th of May, and was joined by the troops under
General Philips, who had been plundering the country along the James
river. While Washington was hesitating which twould be the best course
to pursue, a French frigate arrived at Newport, with the Count de Barras
on board, who had come to take command of the fleet at Newport. He




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


broughlt the good news that a fleet of twenty ships-of-the-line, under the
Count de Grasse, lhaving on board a considerable force of troops, had
sailed for America, and might be expected to arrive in the course of a
few nmonths. Washington held a conference with the Count de Rochambeau, at Wcathersfield, Connecticut, and it was resolved to attack New
York. The French army was to march from Newport and form a junction with the Americans on the Hudson. A frigate was despatched to
the WVest Indies to inform the Count de Grasse of this arrangement, and
to ask his cooperation in the proposed attack.
Sir Henry Clinton, who suspected the designs of Washington, now
ordered Iord Cornwallis, who had crossed the James river, and was at
Williamsburg, to send him a reinforcement of troops. Cornwallis prepared to comply with this order, and for that purpose marched towards
Portsmouth, followed cautiously by Lafayette and Steuben, who had with
them about four thousand American troops. On the march a slight
engagement occurred, near Westover, between Lafayette and Cornwallis,
in which the Americans narrowly escaped a defeat. The British army
crossed to tlhe south side of the James, and a detachment was embarked
for Newv York. At this moment a second order was received from Sir
Henrv Clinton, who had received a reinforcement of Hessians from England, directing Cornwallis to retain all his force, choose some central
position in Virginia, fortify himself in it, and await the development of
the American plans. Cornwallis should have taken position at Portsmouth, from which place his line of retreat to the south would have
remained intact. In an evil hour for himself he recrossed the James,
and crossing the peninsula between that river and the York, took position
at the towns of Gloucester and Yorktown, opposite each other, on the
York river. He had with him      an army of eight thousand effective
troops, and proceeded to fortify his position with strong intrenchments.
A number of vessels of war were anchored between Yorktown and
Gloucester to maintain the communication between those points, and to
assist in the defence of the place.
During all this time the financial affairs of the republic were growing
worse and more hopeless. The continental currency had become utterly
worthless, one dollar in paper being worth only one cent in coin, at the
opening of the year 1781. In the spring of that year Congress sought
to put an end to its financial troubles by taking the control of the finances
from a board which had hitherto managed them, and intrusting them to
Robert Morris, whose services in behalf of the cause have been mentioned before. Morris was an experienced financier, and had opposed,
with all his energy, the system  of making continental money a legal




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


559


tender. He now made a return to specie payments the condition of his
acceptance of the trust imposed upon him by Congress. On the 22d of
May, 1781, Congress most unwillingly resolved: "That the whole debts
already due by the United States be liquidated as soon as may be to their
specie value, and funded, if agreeable to the creditors, as a loan upon
interest; that the States be severally informed that the calculations of
the present campaign are made in solid coin, and, therefore, tlat the
requisitions from them respectively being grounded on those calculations,
must be complied with in such manner as effectually to answer the purpose designed; that, experience having evinced the inefficacy of all
attempts to support the credit of paper money by compulsory acts, it is
TCON BPIERTA          L BI.iof
/         14T0A551P'    SIX 5ortt&{^   ^.$
__________  lea.7 s. B          -'y
i ^         X DOLLARS fLLASotI
cO    SPIENISH MILLED
recommended to such States, where laws making paper bills a tender yet
exist, to repeal the same." On the 31st of May continental bills, being
no longer a legal tender, ceased to circulate. Henceforth all transactions
were to be i          hard money   The result amply vindicated the wisdom of
Mo    rris' views.  He induced Congress to establish the Bank of the
United States, at Philadelphia,  ith a capital of to millions of dollars
and a charter for ten years. This bank was allowed the privilege of
issuing its own notes, which it was required to redeem in specie upon
CONTINENTAL BILLS.
recommended to such States, where laws making paper bills a tender yet
exist, to repeal the same." On the 31st of May continental bills, being
no longer a legal tender, ceased to circulate. Henceforth all transactions
were to be in hard money  The result amply vindicated the wisdom of
Morris' views. He induced Congress to establish the Bank of the
United States, at Philadelphia, with a capital of two millions of dollars
and a charter for ten years. This bank was allowed the privilege of
issuing its own notes, which it was required to redeem in specie upon
presentation. This requirement gained for the bank the confidence of
the people, and capitalists availed themselves of it for the investment of
their money. Morris used the bank freely in his public operations, and




IHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


at the same time used it so wisely that he was able to secure all the aid it
was capable of bestowing without subjecting it to too severe a stramin
He raised the credit of the government higher than it had ever stood
before, and was able to do much towards paying the soldiers and supplying them with food and clothing. As often as the public funds failed, he
pledged his own credit to supply the deficiency. - No man.did more to
contribute to the success of the cause than Robert Morris; and no man


SCENE IN THE HIGHLANDS OF THE HUDSON.


received moro ingratitude from the government and people of the UnioA
than he.
In July Washington was joined, in the Highlands, by the French army
under Count de Rochambeau, and preparations were made to attack New
York. An intercepted letter informed Sir Henry Clinton of this design;
and he exerted himself to put the city in a state of defence. In the
midst of his preparations Washington received a letter from the Count de,Grasse, stating that he would sail for the Chesapeake instead of Newport,
This decision of the French admiral compelled an entire change of plan
on the part of the Americans. As De Grasse would not co6perate with
them, they must abandon the attack upon New York, and attempt the




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


capture of Cornwallis at Yorktown. No time was to be lost in making
the attempt, for it was now the month of August. By a series of.skilful
movements Sir Henry Clinton was induced to believe that an attack upon
New York would soon be made, and at the same time the American
army was marched ral)idly across New Jersey, followed by the French.
Lafayette, who was in Virginia, was ordered to l)revent at all hazards a
retreat of Cornwallis' arnmyv to North Carolina, and was directed to ask
assistance of General Greene, if necessary  The plan of Washi1grton was
to blockade Cornwallis in the York river by means of the French fleet,
and at the same time to besiege him in Yorktown with thle army  The
troops were somewhat unwilling to undlertakle a southern campaign in
August, but their good humor was restored at Philadelphia, whee- they
received a part of their pay in specie, and a supply of clothing, arms,
and ammunition, which had just arrived from   France. From Philadelphia the combined armies proceeded to Elkton, at the head of the
Chesapeake, where they found transports, sent by the French admiral
and by Lafayette, to convey them to the James river
The first intimation Sir Henry Clinton had of a change in the Americanl
plans \Vas the sudden sailing of the French fleet from Newport on the
28th of August. Suppoling that Dc Barras's object was to unite with
another fleet in the Chesapeake, Clinton sent Admiral Graves to p)revent
the junction. Upon reaching thle capcs the British admiral was astonished to find the fleet of the Count de Gras.se, consisting of twenty shipsof-the-line, anchored within the bay  De Gras.se at once put to sea as if
to engage the enemy, but in reality to draw them off and allow Dc Barras
to enter the Chesapeake. For five days he amused the English by constant skirmishing. De Barras at length appeared and passed within the
capes and De Grasse at once followed him. Admiral Graves was unwilling to attack;his combined force and returned to New York.
The movement of the American army to the south was known to
Clinton, but he supposed it was only a manceuvre to draw him off of Manhattan island into the open country  When the Americans were beyond
the Delaware and the French fleets had effected their junction in tlhe
Chesapeake, he recognized his mistake and saw that the object of Washington was the capture of Cornwallis. It was too late to prevent it; but
in the hope of compelling Washington to send back a part of his force to
defend New England, Clinton sent the traitor Arnold with a large body
of troops to attack New London in Connecticut. On the 6th of SeptemIer Arnold captured that town and burned the shipping and a large part
of the town. He then took Fort Griswold, on the opposite side of the
Thames, by storm, and basely massacred Colonel Ledyard, the commander,
36




IHISTOR Y 0 F TIJE UNITED STATES.


an(l sixty of the garrison after the surrender of the fort. The militia of
the State were summoned to take up arms for its defence, and responded
in such numbers that Arnold became alarmed for his safety and returned
to New York. The object of his expedition failed most sirgnally  Washington left New England to defend herself and continued his movement
against Cornwallis.
Cornwallis was very slow to realize his danler. He believed tlio small
force under Lafayette the only command opposed to him, and on the 10th
of September wrote to Clinton tlhat he could spare him twelve hundred
mrnc for the defence of New York. He did not perceive his error until
the French fleet had anchored in the Chesapeake and cut off his escape
BURNING OF NEW LONDON, CONNECTICUT, BY ARN'OLD.
by water. He then attempted to retreat to North Carolina, as Washington had foreseen, but Lafayette, who had been reinforced by three thousand French troops under the Marquis de St. Simon, from the fleet of
De Grasse, was too active for him, and finding his retreat impossible,
Cornwallis sent urgent appeals to Clinton for assistance and strengthened
his fortifications.
In the meantime the American and French armies descended the
Chesapeake, and took position before Yorktown, while the French fleet
closed the mouth of York river. The siege was begun on the 28th of
September   Sixteen thousand men were present under Washington's
orders. Works were erected completely enclosing those of the British,
and on the 9th of October the cannonade was begun. It was continued




TIHE (CLOSE OF THIE WAR.


563


for four days, and the British outworks were greatly damaged, and
several of their vessels in the river were burned by means of red hot shot
thrown into theni by the French vessels. On the 14th two of tlh
advanced redoubts of the enemy were stormed and taken, one by tlic
Americans, the other by the French. From the positions thus gained a
very destructive fire was maintained upon the English lines, which were
broken in many places, while many of their guns were dismounted and
rendered useless. On the 15th Cornwallis found himself almost out of
ammunition, and unable to maintain his position but for a few days
longer.
In this strait the British commander resolved upon tlhe desperate
alternative of crossing the York to Gloucester, abandoning his sick
and wounded and baggage, and endeavoring to force his way northward by extraordinary  marches    to \:
Newfrom York. It wasto
a hopeless undertaking, but Cornwalthsudde storm delaed the passae of te river     te secon     iision
until after daylight, when it was useless to make the attempt. The first
night of ttoe 16th ofots                                        ere
Oc   toberies hile crossed
a par    t of h    is armyca itulation, as his works were
infrom  Yorktown to withstand an a STORsaul IN THE REDOUBT AT YORKity to is men.
Gloucester, but a
sudden storm delayed the   passage of th    e river 9y the second division
until after dayli ght, when   it was useless to makethe attemt.s  The first
division was with difficulty brought back to Yorktownallied ar, as the boats ippiere
expose d to the fire of  the AmerCouan batteries while crossin t he r iver.
Nothing was left to Cornallis now but a capitulation, as Frais nce.orks were
in no condition to withstand an assault, and simple humanity to his men
demanded th   at the c ontest should cease. He sent to  Washinga ton an offer
to surrender and t    he t erms were soon  arranged. On the 19th of October
Cornwallis surrendered his army of seven thousand men as prisoners of
war to Washington, as commander of the allied army, and his shipping,
seamen, and naval stores to the Count de Grasse, as the representative
of the king of France.
Washington despatched one of his aids to Philadelphia to communicate
the good news to Congress. The officer pushed forward with all speed,
and reached Philadelphia at midnight, and delivered his message. Soon
the peals of the State-house bell roused the citizens, and the watchmen




HIIS'OR Y OF ITHE UNIT'IED STA TES.


took up the cry, "Cornwallis is taken! Cornwallis is taken! "  The people poured out into the streets il throngs, and no one slept in Philadelpllia that night. The next (lay Congress proceeded in a body to a church
and gave thanks for the great victory   A national thanksgiving was
ordered, and througlout the whole land rejoicings went up to God for
the success which all men felt was (lecisive of the war.
On the 19th of October, the day of the surrender of Cornwallis, Sir
Henry Clinton sailed from ~NW(w York to his assistance with a force of
seven thousand men. Off tile capes hle learned of tlle surrender of the
British army at Yorktown, and as his fleet was not strong enough to meet
that of the French he returned at once to New York.
The neCws of the surrender of Cornwallis was received in England with
- -
SURRENDER OF CORNWALLIS.
astonishment and mortification. It was the second time England had
lost an entire army by capture, and her efforts to subdue the United
States were no nearer success than they had been at the opening of the
war. The English people had never regarded the attempt to conquer
America with favor, and they now became more open and energetic in
their demands for peace. " Lord North, the prime minister," says an
English writer, " received the intelligence of the capture of Cornwallis as
he would have done a cannon ball in his breast; he paced tie room, and
throwing his arms wildly about, kept exclaiming, 'O God! it is all over!
it is all over! ' "  The king and the aristocracy, however, had no thought
of yielding yet to the popular pressure, and were resolved to carry on
the war.
After the surrender at Yorktown, Washington urged the Count de




THE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


Grasse to cooperate with General Greene in an attack upon Charleston.
The French admiral declined to comply with his request, alleging tile
necessity of his immediate return to the West Indies. The French troops
were quartered for the winter at Williamsburg, Virginia, and the American army returned northward and resumed its old positions on the
Hudson. Washington, though convinced that peace was close at hand,
did not relax his vigilance, and urged upon Congress the necessity of
preparing for a vigorous campaign the next year; but so thoroughly was
Congress carried away by the prospect of peace that his recommendations
were unheeded.
In the south the British and Tories were so disheartened by the surrender of Cornwallis that they ceased active operations and evacuated all
their posts but Savannah and Charleston. General Greene at once disposed his army in such a manner as to confine them closely to Charleston.
In the Northern States the only place held by the British was New York.
Though active operations had ceased on the part of the two armies, a
cruel and destructive warfare was continued by the Indian allies of the
British against the border settlements of Pennsylvania and Virginia, and
a similar warfare was maintained by the Tories and Indians along the
frontier of New York. These outrages involved the Christian Delaware
Indians in the punishment of the guilty savages. The Delawares had
become converted to Christianity under the influence of the Moravian
missionaries, and had removed from the Susquehanna to the Muskingum.
They were suspected by the Americans of the crimes of their heathen
brethren, and in the spring and summer of 1782 their towns were
destroyed and numbers of them were slain. The war was carried into
the country of the Wyandottes by the whites, but with less success. On
the 6th of June a force of Pennsylvanians under Colonel Crawford was
defeated by the Wyandottes. In the same summer a band of northern
Indians led by Simon Girty, a Tory of infamous character, invaded
Kentucky They were met by the Kentuckians under Boone, Todd,
and other leaders. A severe battle was fought at the Big Blue Lick,
and the Kentuckians were defeated with the loss of nearly half their
force.
In the meantime the desire of the English people for the close of the
war had grown too strong to be resisted, and the kino and his ministers
were at length forced to yield. The impossibility of conquering America
had become so apparent to the continental nations that in the spring of
1782 the Dutch republic recognized the independence of the United
States, and received John Adams as envoy from that government. The
king of England maintained his obstinate opposition to the wishes of his




566


HISTORY OF TIHE UNITED STATES.


people to the last moment. On the 22d of February, 1782, a resolution
was introduced into the House of Commons to put an end to the American war, and was supported by the leaders of the Whig party  It was
defeated by a majority of one, but on the 27th of February a similar
resolution was introduced and was carried by a majority of nineteen.
On the 20th of March Lord North and his colleagues were forced
to rclinquisll their offices, and a new ministry was formed under the
Marquis of Rockingham. Sir Henry Clinton was removed from his
command in America, and was succeeded by Sir Guy Carleton, whose
humane conduct of the war while governor of Canada we have related.
Carleton arrived in New York in May, 1782, with full powers to open
negotiations for peace. He at once put a stop to the savage warfare of
the Tories and Indians on the borders of western New York, and opened
a correspondence with Washington pro posing a cessation of hostilities
until a definite treaty of peace could be arranled.
Five commissioners were appointed by Congress to conclude a treaty
with Great Britain. They were John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, John
Jay, Henry Laurens, who had just been released from the tower of London, where he had been kept a prisoner for about a year, and Thomas
Jefferson. Mr Jeffersol was unable to leave America. Five commissioners were appointed by Great Britain to treat with "certain colonies"
named in their instructions. The commissioners from the two countries
met at Paris, but the American commissioners refused to open the negotiations except in the name of the " United States of America."  This
right was acknowledged by Great Britain, and on the 30th of November,
1782, a preliminary treaty was signed, which was ratified by Congress in
April, 1783. This treaty could not be final because by the terms of the
alliance between the United States and France neither party could make
a separate treaty of peace with England. In January, 1783, France and
Great Britain agreed upon terms of peace, and on the 3d of September,
1783, a final treaty of peace was signed by all the nations who had
engaged in the war-by the United States, France, Spain, and Holland
on the one side, and Great Britain on the other. Great Britain acknowledged the independence of the States of the Union in the following
words: " His Britannic Majesty acknowledges the said United States, viz.:
New Hampshire, Massachusetts Bay, Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware,
Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia, to be
free, sovereign, and independent States; that he treats with them as such;
and for himself, his heirs, and successors, relinquishes all claim to the
government, propriety, and territorial rights of the same, and every part




TIE CLOSE OF THE WAR.


567


thereof."  It should be observed that the treaty acknowledged the indepen4ence and sovereignty of each of the thirteen States, and not of the
United States as a single nation. The independence of the States had
already been recognized by several of the European powers: by Sweden,
on the 5th of February, 1783; by Denmark, on the 25th of February,
1783; by Spain, on the 24th of March; and by Russia, in July, 1783.


TIUE BOWERY, NE V YORK, IN 1o75.


Treaties of friendship and commerce were entered into between the
United States and these powers.
During the year 1782 the greater part of the American army was
enPcnped at Newburg, on the Hudson. The troops were unpaid, and
were neglected by Congress and by the various States. Washington
warned the government of the danger of further neglect of the army,
but his warning was unheeded1 and in March the patience of the army
was so far exhausted that it was seriously proposed to march to Philadel



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


phia and compel Congress to do justice to the troops. Washington
appealed to the officers to remain patient a little longer, and pled:.ed himself to ul.cS his illflluence with Colngress to fulfil its neglected promises to
the army   llis appeal quieted the trouble for a time. Congress shortly
after agreed to advance full pay to the soldiers for four months, and to
pan in one gro..s sum the full pay of the officers for five years.
The (con(lition of the country was a subject of the gravest apprehension. It was plain that the articles of confederation were not capable of
continuing the Union much longer, and many persons believed that the
only hope of preserving a regular government, and a permanent union
to the country, lay in the establishment of a monarchy  In May, 1782,
WASHINGTON RESIGNING HIS COMMISSION.
Colonel Nicola, of the Pennsylvania line, at the instance of a number of
officers, wrote a letter to Washington proposing the creation of a monarchy, and offering him the crown. Washington indignantly refused to
entertain the proposition, and severely rebuked the writer of the letter.
In the spring of 1783 the news of the signing of the preliminary
treaty of peace was received in America, and was officially communicated
to the nation in a proclamation by Congress. On the 19th of April, 1783,
just eight years from the commencement of the war at Lexington, the
close of hostilities Nwas proclaimed, in general orders, to the army at Newburg. A general exchange of prisoners followed, and large numbers of
Tories were obliged to leave the country, as they feared to remain after
the protection of the British forces was withdrawn. They emigrated
chiefly to Canada, Nova Scotia, and the West Indies. The final treaty




THE CLOSE OF THE.WAR.                    659
having been signed, the army was disbanded on the 3d of November,
and the troops, with the exception of a small force, returned to their
homes to enjoy their well-earned honors and the thanks of their grateful
countrymen. On the 25th of November the British evacuated New
York, which was at once occupied by a small force of Americans, under
General Knox. In December Charleston was also evacuated by the
British.
On the 2d of December Washington issued a farewell address to the
arnmy, and on the 4th of that month took leave of the officers at New
York. He then proceeded to Annapolis, where Congress was in session,
and on the 23d of December, under circumstances of great solemnity,
resigned his commission to that body, and after receiving the thanks of
Congress for the able and faithful manner in whicl lie had discharrled
the task intrusted to him, retired to his home at Mount Vernon, wlhich
he had not visited for eight years, except for a few hours, while on his
way to attack Cornwallis at Yorktown.




CHAPTER XXXI.


THE ADOPTION OF TILE CONSTITUTION-WASHINGTON'S
ADMINISTRATION.
Unsettled Condition of the Country-Failure of the Articles of Confederation-Depire for
Reform-fMeeting of the Federal Convention at Philadelphia-The Constitution of the
United States-Adoption of a Decimal Currency-The Northwest Territory-Washington Elected President-His Journey to New York-Establishment of the New Government-The First Cabinet-Financial Measures-Removal of the Capital agreed upon
-The Government at Philadelphia-The First Census-The Indians of the Northwest
Conquered-Re6lection of Washington-Division of Parties-The French Revolution
-The United States Neutral-Citizen Genet-Efforts to Commit the United States to
the French Alliance-Genet's Riecall Demanded-The "Whiskey Insurrection "-Jay's
Treaty with England-Opposition to it-Negotiations with Algiers-Political Disputes
-Hostility to Washington-His Farewell Address-Its Effect upon the Country-Election of John Adamns to the Presidency-Admission of Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee-Retirement of Washington-Results of his Administration.
B(:')HE   long war was over, and independence had been achieved; but.()    the condition of the country was such as to excite the gravest
fp >, apprehension. The country was exhausted by the sacrifices and
tc-9   burdens of the war, and its debts amounted to the enormous
suml of one hundred and seventy millions of dollars, a sum
vastly out of proportion to its resources.  Two-thirds of these debts had
been contracted by Congress; the remainder by the States. The articles of
confederation were found inadequate to the task of enforcing the authority
of the general government, and the States treated the orders of Congress
with neglect.   Commerce was sadly deranged for the want of a uniform
system.   The States entered into competition with each other for the
trade of foreign nations, and articles which were required to pay heavy
duties in some of the States were admitted free of duty in others. Many
of the States were unable to enforce the collection of taxes within their
own limits.   The British merchants, at the close of the war, flooded the
American    markets with    their manufactures at reduced prices. The
result was that the domestic manufactures of the States were ruined; the
country was drained of its specie, and the merchants and people of the
Union were involved in heavy debts.       A general poverty ensued in the
Eastern States, wlhich gave rise to much discontent.     In Massachusetts,
670




THE ADOPT'0I. OF THE CONSTITUTION.


in December, 1786, a body of a thousand men, under Daniel Shays,
assembled at Worcester and compelled the supreme court to adjourn, in
order to prevent it from issuing writs for the collection of debts. TlIe
militia was called out, and "Shays' Rebellion" was put down; but it
was evident tlhat the sympathies of the people were largely with the
insurgents. These troubles brought home to the whole country the
necessity of a more perfect system of government, and measures were
begun for bringing about the changes needed.
In September, 1783, delegates from five of the States met at Annapolis
to deliberate upon a plan for the improvement of commerce and the
revenue. They recommended the assembling of a convention to revise
the articles of confederation; and, accordingly, delegates from all the
States met for this purpose, at Philadelphia, in May, 1787  George
Washington, who was one of the delegates from Virginia, was unanimously chosen president of the convention. The sessions of this bs)dy
lasted four months, and the convention, instead of revising the articles
of confederation, adopted an entirely new constitution. Ea:ch article of
this constitution was discussed with care and minuteness, and with great
feeling. The sessions of the convention were held with closed doors;
but its proceedings were so far from harmonious that there were several
occasions when it seemed likely the convention would break up in confusion, and leave its work unfinished. At length, however, through the
patriotism and forbearance of its members, tlhe convention brought its
work to a close, and presented the constitution to Congress. It was submitted by that body to the several States for their approval. The State
governments summoned conventions of their respective people, and submitted the constitution to them for their acceptance or rejection. By tlhe
end of 1788 it was ratified by eleven States. North Carolina did not
ratify it until November, 1789; and Rhode Island held aloof from the
Union until May, 1790. The right of these States to reject the constitution, and to continue their separate existence as independent States, was
not questioned by any one.
Tlhe new constitution was not entirely satisfactory to any partv, and
represented the sacrifices made by all to achieve the great end of' a central
government, strong enough to carry out.the objects of the Union. It
was a document of compromises, three of which were of especial importance. The first was a concession to the smaller States, which had
feared the loss of their independence; they were placed on the same footing as the larger States by being given an equal representation in the
Senate. The second was a concession to the slave-holding States of the
south, and guaranteed that in apportioning their representation in Con



5*72


HIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


gress three-fifths of the slaves were to be included with the white population. 'rlhe third was a concession to Georgia and South Carolina, and
granted them permission to continue the African slave-trade until 1808.
The delegates from  those States refused to sign the constitution except
upon this condition.
In the meantime Congress llad taken a step of the highest importance
in adopting the plan, presented by Mr Jefferson, for a decimal currency
Until now the use of the English currency had been general in all the
States.  In August, 1786, our present system of dollars and cents was
adopted by Congress, and a mint was established somewhat later. Tlle
government was so poor, however, that it could only coin a small quantity
of copper cents.
The sessions of Congress were held at New York. In the session of
1787 a measure was adopted, which had the most important influence
GREAT SEAL OF TIFE UNITED STATES.
upon the subsequent history of the country  The treaty of Paris fixed
the Mississippi river as the western boundary of the United States.
Tllis river consequently became the western limit of Virginia, Connecticut, and Massachusetts. In 1784 Virginia ceded to the general
government of the United States her claim to the vast region owned by
her beyond the Ohio. Massachusetts and Connecticut soon followed her
example, and New York also ceded her western territory to the government. In July, 1787, Congress organized this vast region as the territory of the northwest.  It was provided that slavery should never be
permitted to exist in this territory, or in any of the States which might
afterwards be formed out of it. This wise provision, which was the basis
of the wonderful prosperity of this great region, was (lue to the foresight
of Thomas Jefferson. The nortlwest being secured to freedom, einigra



WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION.


573


t.ion soon set in, and it beganl its great career of prosperity which hIas
since known no slackening.
It was provided by the constitution that when it should have been
ratified by two-thirds of the States, it should go into operation on the 4th of
March, 1789. Eleven of the States having ratified the constitution, elections were held for President and Vice-President of the United States,
and for members of Congress. New York was named as the scat of the
new government. The 4th of March, 1789, was ushered in with a
public demonstration at New York; but a sufficient number of members
'f Congress to form a quorum for the transaction of busine.ss did not
arrive until the 30th of March. On the 6th of April the electoral votes
were counted, and it was found that George Washington had been
unanimously chosen first President of the United States, and John
Adams Vice- Presison the oldest seeretary of Conigress, wasi                  ldl  l   stre.        e
sent to Mount Ver-                       a    notet      s  apo
nion to notify Wash-                                v
ington of his election,                                    w
and a messen er was                     t
despatched to Boston
on asimilar errand to
Mr. Adams. Wash-      WASI-GTON RECEIVING THE INTELLIGENCE OF llS
ELECTIO.
ington promptly signified his acceptalice of the office, and, two days later, started for New
York. It was his desire to travel as quietly and unostentatiously as possille, but the people of the States through which le passed would not
permit him to do so. His journey was a constant ovation. Crowds
greeted him at every town wvith the most enthusiastic demonstrations of
affection and confidence; triumphal arches were erected; his way was
strewn wvith flowers by young girls; and maidens and mothers greeted
him vith songs composed in his honor  In consequence of these demnonstrations his progress was so much retarded that he did not reachi New
York until the latter part of April.
On the 30th of April Washington appeared on the balcony of Federal
Hall, New York, on the site of which the United states Treasury now
stands, and took the oath of office in the presence of the Senate and
House of Representatives, and a large crowd of citizens assembled in the
streets below. He then repaired to the Senate chamber, and there deliv



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ered an addrc(.s to both houses of Congress. The organization of the
government being now complete, Congress proceeded to arrange the
executive department by the creation of the departments of state, the
treasury, and war. President Washington appointed Thomas Jefferson, secretary of state, Alexander Hamilton, secretary of the treasury,
and General Henry Knox, secretary of war   John Jay was made chief
justice of the United    States, and  Edmund    Randolph, attorneygeneral.
The new government found itself face to face with many difficulties,
the principal of which was the payment of the national debt. This debt
was in the form of notes of the government, or promises to pay for value
received. These notes had been issued by the States as well as by Congress during the revolution, and had been given in payment for services
rendered the general and State governments, and for supplies. In JanXr   ulary, 1790, Alexander Hamilton pro0   posed to pay all these debts in full,
-                         and  that the general government
should assume the war debts of the
~' r  B y / States. This plan met with consider-. a ble opposition at first, but was at
A,  length adopted. It was also arranged
';,;,-ifB....      that the revenue of the country should
V       7\y/^         _^_     be divided as follows: As the control,:!./ i \^^.^ '~;.j         of commerce had passed into the hands
of Congress the revenue derived from
PRESIDENT WASHINGTON.     the duties levied upon imported merchandise was to be applied to the uses
of the general government. The proceeds of the direct taxes upon real
estate and other property, which could be levied only by the respective
States, were to be used for the expenses of those States.
It had been for some time considered desirable to remove the seat of
the federal government to some point more central than New York, and
which could be brought under the supreme control of Congress. In
1790 it was resolved that the seat of government be fixed at Philadelphia
for ten years, and at the end of that time be removed to a new city to be
built on the banks of the Potomac. A federal district, ten miles square,
was obtained by cession from Virginia and Maryland, and was placed
under the sole control of the United States. The foundations of a new
city, named Washington, in honor of the " Father of his Country," were
laid on the left bank of the Potomac, a short distance below the falls of




WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION.


575


that river, and buildings for the accommodation of the general government were begun and pushed forward as rapidly as possible.
The general government was removed to Philadelphlia in 1791, and in
December of that year the second Congress begal its sessions in tlhat city.
The principal measure of this session was the establishment of the Bank
of the United States, in accordance with the recommendations of Alexander Hamilton. The bank was chartered for twenty years, and its
capital was ten millions of dollars, of which the government took two
millions, and private individuals the remainder  The measure was
carried in the face of considerable opposition in Congress, but w.as very
beneficial to the government, as well as to the general business of tile
country. The notes of the bank were payable in gold and silver upon
presentation at its counters.
Commerce now began to show signs of a great revival from the stagnation and loss caused by the war. The duties levied upon foreign gools
gave to domestic manufactures an opportunity to place themselves upon a
firmer foundation. Very great improvements were. made in the character
of American manufactures. In New England the weaving of cotton and
woollen goods was begun, in a feeble way it is true, but the foundatio,
was laid of that great industry which has since been a constant and growing source of wealth to that section.
In 1790, the first census of the United States was taken, and showed
the population to be 3,929,827 souls.
The Indians of the northwest had been very troublesome for some time.
The British agents in that region incited them to hostility against the
United States, and urged them to claim the Ohio as their southern an(
eastern boundary. They committed innumerable outrages along this river,
and almost put a stop to the trade upon its waters by attacking and plundering the flatboats of the emigrants and traders which were constantly descending the river. The general government resolved to put a stop to their
outrages, and General Harmer was sent against them in 1790, but was defeated with great loss. In 1791 General St. Clair, the governor of the northwest territory, was placed in command of an expedition against the sava.ges.
He set out from Fort Washington, now Cincinnati, about the middle of
September, with a force of two thousand men, but near the head waters
of the Wabash was surprised and defeated by an Indian force under Little
Turtle, a famous chief' of the Miamis. The wreck of his army fled to
Fort Washington, and the frontier was once more defenceless.
President Washington now placed General Anthony Wayne in command of the forces destined to operate against the Indians. With his
usual energy Wayne assembled his army at Fort Washington, and in the




HIISTOR Y OF TIE UNITED STATES.


summer of 1794 marcled into the Indian country, laid it waste, and
dlefated tlhe In(lian tribes in the battle of the Maumee on the 20th of
August. In the sumlner of 1795, the Indians, cowed by their defeat, and
alarmed by the withdrawal of the British from the frontier posts, met
General 'Wayne at his camp on the Miami, and entered into a treaty with
the United States by whichI they ceded all the eastern and southern part
of Ohio to thle whites, and withdrcw farther westward.
In the elections of 1792 Washington and Adams were chosen President
and Vice-President of the United States for a second term of four years.
The disputes which had been begun by the adoption of the constitution
liad been continued during the first term of Washington's presidency, and
had given rise to two political parties-the Federalists, or those who favor
BATTLE OF THE MAUMTEE.
a strong national government, and who supported the administration; and
the Anti-Federalists, wllo opposed the policy of the administration. Among
the leaders of the Federalist party were Washington, Adams, Hamilton,
and Jay; among the Anti-Federalist leaders were Jefferson, Madison, and
Monroe. The differences between Jefferson and Hamilton increased with
time, and soon assumed the character of a personal hostility, a circumstance
which was productive of great trouble to the president, since it prevented
his cabinet from  acting harmoniously. As the quarrel deepened, the
Anti-Federalist party repudiated that title, and took the name of Republican, as it better expressed their principles.  The political questions
c:ltered largely into the second election, and prevented Mr. Adams from
receiving the unanimous vote which was given to Washington.




WASHINGTON'S A DMINISTRA TIO.


Shortly after the commencement of Washington's first term of o'ce, the
French revolution broke out, and drew upon France the attention of the
whole world. The events of this great struggle were watched with the
deepest interest in America, for the nation cherished the warmest senti —
nients of gratitude to France for her aid in the revolution. The Republican party urgently favored an alliance with the French republic, but
Washington and the greater part of his cabinet were resolved to maintain
a strict neutrality as to all European quarrels. The excesses of the
revolutionists shocked the public sentiment of America, and the events
of the reign of terror cooled the zeal of many of the most ardent friends
of the French republic. Still party feeling ran high upon the subject,
and the disputes were yet very bitter when Mr. Edmond Charle.s Genet,
or "Citizen Genet," as he was generally styled, arrived in the United
States, in 1793, as minister from the French republic. He brought thi
news that France had declared war against Great Britain. He was well
received by the Republicans, who were anxious that the United States
should become the ally of France and thus engage in a new war with
Great Britain. Washington and his cabinet were unmoved by this
clamor, and a proclamation was issued declaring the neutrality of the
United States in the war between Great Britain and France, and warning
the American people to refrain from the commission of acts inconsistent
with this neutrality  The firmness of the president in resisting the
demand for an alliance with France saved the country from innumerable
losses, perhaps from the destruction of the work of the revolution.
Genet, encouraged by the sympathy of the R/epublican party, was
determined to embroil the United States with Great Britain to such an
extent that they would be compelled to make common cause with France.
He therefore began to fit out privateers from American ports against the
commerce of England. He was warned by the government that he was
transcending his privileges as the minister of a friendly power, but paid
no attention to this rebuke. The Republican party now took a more
active stand in favor of the French alliance, and its more ultra members
assumed the name of Democrats, while others styled themselves Democratic Republicans. The determination of President Washington not to
interfere in the quarrels of Europe was vehemently assailed, and the newspapers of this party went so far as to denounce the president and his supporters as the enemies of France and the friends and secret supporters of
their old oppressor, the king of England.
Genet was greatly deceived by these clamors, which he mistook for the
sentiment of the American people. He took a step further, and authorized
the French consuls in the American ports to receive and sell vessels cap>
37




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


tured by French cruisers from the English, with whom the United States
were at peace. He also contemplated raising a force in Georgia and the
Carolinas for the purpose of seizing Florida, and another in Kentucky for
the conquest of Louisiana, both of which regions were then held by Spain,
a power friendly to the United States. The patience of the president
having been exhausted by Genet's insolent conduct, Washington requested
the French government to recall him, which it did in 1794, much to the
astonishment of citizen Genet. M. Fauchet was appointed in his place.
Genet did not return home, bl:t became a citizen of the United States.
The impunity with which Genet had braved the federal government
gave rise to fears that it was not strong enough to enforce its authority.
Advantage was taken of this feeling in an unexpected quarter. The
fertile region of western Pennsylvania, watered by the Monongahela and
its tributaries, had been settled by a hardy population, chiefly of ScotchIrish Presbyterians, who had with great labor and amid constant exposure
to the attacks of the Indians, redeemed the land from the wilderness, and
covered it with thriving farms and orchards. Grain and apples and
peaches were their staple products; the grain was distilled into whiskey,;and the fruits were made into brandies. One of Hamilton's favorite
measures for the raising of a revenue was the imposition of an excise or
Iduty upon whiskey. This tax was generally unpopular throughout the
country, but especially so in the four western counties of Pennsylvania.
The settlers of this region organized themselves in secret societies for the
purpose of resisting this tax, and at length, in 1 792, rose in rebellion
against the government, refised to pay the tax, and drove off the excise
officers. The best men in this section were engaged in the rebellion, and
it was openly proposed to separate from Pennsylvania and form a new
State. Nearly seven thousand armed men assembled, and declared their
intention to resist the authority of the State and federal governments.
Matters remained in this condition for about two years, and at length
Washington, finding it necessary to employ force for the suppression of,the revolt, sent a strong body of troops to compel the rebels to submit.
Upon the appearance of the troops, the leaders of the movement fled, and
the " Whiskey Insurrection" suddenly came to an end. This vigorous
action of the federal government greatly added to its strength.
The fidelity with which Washington sought to discharge his duty
towards England, as a neutral, was but little appreciated by the government of that country, which conducted itself towards the United States
in a manner that seemed likely to result in another war. By the treaty.of Paris England had agreed to surrender the frontier posts held by her
forces within the limits of the United States. These were still retained,




WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION.


579


and were made by the British agents so many centres for stirring up the
Indians to acts of hostility against the Americans. Orders were issued
to the British naval officers to seize and detain all vessels laden with
French goods, or with provisions for any of the French colonies. As the
American ships were largely engaged in trade with France and her
colonies, this order threatened the commenrce of the States with ruin.
The feeling of indignation against England, caused by these outrages,
was increasing throughout the Union, and the country was rapidly drifting into a war with that kingdom. Tlie interests of the United States
demanded peace with all the world, as the country was yet too weak and
unsettled to endure another war with safety. This necessity was recognized by Washington and his advisers, and the constant aim of the president was to avoid, as far as possible, all complications which might lead
to war. The conduct of Great Britain could not be passed by, and if a
settlement of the matter, consistent with tle honor and interests of the
republic could not be arranged, war was inevitable.
Anxious to exhaust all peaceful means of settlement, President Washington sent John Jay, the chief justice, to England to enter into negotiations with the British government for the settlement of all matters in
dispute between the two countries. Mr. Jay was eminently qualified for
the task, both by his remarkable abilities and his great and honorable
services to the country since the outbreak of the revolution. He was
received in England with great respect, and in the course of a few
months concluded a treaty, which was submitted to the Senate of the
United States for ratification. By the terms of thils treaty Great Britain
agreed to give up the western posts within two years, to grant to American vessels the privilege of trading with the West Indies upon certain
conditions, and to admit American. ships free of restrictions to the ports
of Great Britain and the English East Indian possessions. On the other
hand provision was made by the United States for the collection of debts
due British merchants hy American citizens.
This treaty did not please any party entirely, not even Mr, Jay himself; hut it was the best that could be obtained from Great Britain at the
time, and as such was accepted by the administration, which threw all its
influence in favor of its adoption.  It met with very great opposition in
the Senate, and subjected the president to a great deal of adverse criticism
throughout the country  After a fortnight's debate in secret session the
Senate advised the ratification of the treaty.  The acceptance of this
treaty, imperfect and unsatisfactory as it was, secured peace to the United
States for a number of years at this most critical period of its history.
In 1795 treaties were also negotiated with Spain, by which the bounda



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ries between the United States and Louisiana and Florida were definitely
settled. The navigation of the Mississippi was made free to both parties,
and the Americans were granted the privilege of making New Orleans,
for three years, pt place of deposit for their trade.
The commerce of the United States, which was increasing rapidly, was
confined chiefly to the New England States. A lucrative trade with the
countries of Europe bordering the Mediterranean had grown up, but was
greatly interfered with by the Algerine pirates, who sallied out from their
harbors on the African coast and captured many of the vessels engaged
in this trade, and sold the crews into slavery The European powers had
purchased exemption from these outrages by paying an annual tribute to
the Dcy of Algiers. The United States for the present thought it best
to follow the universal custom, and ransomed the captive American
sailors by the payment of nearly a million of dollars. At the same
time the more sensible policy of establishing a navy for the protection of
American commerce was resolved upon, and in 1795 a bill was passed by
Congress for the construction of
s. -six first-class frigates. This was
the beginning of the United
6o P W       Mr. Jefferson had retired from.-M                      the cabinet at the close of 1793,
'       and after his withdrawal party
COAT OF ARMS OF VE3RMONT.
quarrels ran higher than ever.
The motives and conduct of the president were denounced with great bitterness by his opponents, and he was slbjected to considerable annoyance
by these attacks. He continued, with firmness, the course he had marked
out for himself, trusting to time and the good sense of his countrymen for
his vindication. In September, 1796, he issued a farewell address to the
people of the United States, in which he announced his purpose to retire
from public life at the close of his second term, and delivered to his
countrymen such counsels and admonitions as he deemed suited to their
future guidance. It was the warning of a father to his children engaged
in a difficult and all-important undertaking. It had a most happy effect.
It brought up the memory of the great and unselfish services of Washington, and enabled his countrymen to see him in his true light. The
gratitude of the nation, which had been long obscured by party passion,
burst forth in a mighty stream, and from every quarter came evidences
of the affection and veneration of the American people for their great
leader. Congress adopted a reply to the farewell address, expressing
the highest confidence in the wisdom and integrity of Washington, and




WASHINGTON'S ADMINISTRATION.


during the winter of 1796-97 nearly all the State legislatures adopted
similar resolutions.
At the elections held in the fall of 1796 the Federalists put forward
John Adams as their candidate, while the Republicans supported Thomas
Jefferson. The contest was very bitter, and resulted in the election of
Mr. Adams. Mr. Jefferson, receiving the next highest number of votes,
was declared Vice-President, in accordance with the law as it then stood.
During the administration of President Washington three new States
were admitted into the Union, making the whole number of States six

MOUNT VERNON.


teen. They were Vermont, which was admitted on the 4th of March,
1791, making the first new State under the constitution; Kentucky,
which was admitted in 1792; and Tennessee, admitted on the 1st of
June, 1796.
At the close of his term of office, Washington withdrew to his home
at Mount Vernon, to enjoy the repose he had so well earned, and which
was so grateful to him. His administration had been eminently successful. When he entered upon the duties of the presidency the government
was new and untried, and its best friends doubted its ability to exist long;




6582


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the finances were in confusion and the country was burdened with debt;
the disputtes with Great Britain threatened to involve the country in a
new war; and the authority of the general government was uncertain
and scarcely recognized. When he left office the state of affairs was
changed.   The government had been severely tested and had been
found equal to any demand upon it; the finances had been placed upon
a safe and healthy footing, and the debt of the country had been
adjusted to the satisfaction of all parties concerned in it. The disputes with England had been arranged, and the country, no longer
threatened with war, was free to devote its energies to its improvement.
Industry and commerce were growing rapidly    The exports from the
United States had risen from nineteen millions to over fifty-six millions
of dollars, and the imports had increased in nearly the same proportion.
The rule of non-interference in European quarrels, and of cultivating
friendly relations with all the world, had become the.settled policy of
the republic, and its wisdom had been amply vindicated. The progress
of the republic during the eight years of Washington's administration
was indeed gratifying, and gave promise of a brilliant future.




CHAPTER XXXII


THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JOHN ADAMS AND THOMAS JEFFERSON
Inauguration of John Adams-Aggressions of France upon the United States-The
American Commissioners Insulted by the French Government-The Alien and Sedition
Laws-The United States Prepare for War with France-France Signifies her Willingness to Treat-New Commissioners appointed-Settlement of the Dispute-Hostilities
at Sea-Capture of the "Insurgente" and " Vengeance "-Death of Washlington-Removal
of the Capital to Washington City-The Second Census-Inauguration of Thomas Jeflerson-The President's Message-His First Measures-Admission of Ohio-Louisiana
Purchased by the United States-War with the Barbary Powers-Burning of the " Philadelphia"-Re-election of Mr. Jefferson-Aaron Burr Kills Alexander Hamilton in a Duel
-Burr's Subsequent Career-Fulton's Steamboat-Outrages of England and France
upon American Commerce-American Vessels Searched and American Seamen Impressed by England-Efforts to Settle these Questions-Affair of the "Chesapeake " and
"Leopard "-The Embargo-Results of this Measure-Losses of the Eastern StatesElection of James Madison to the Presidency-Repeal of the Embargo-Retirement of
Mr. Jefferson.
gjN the 4th of March, 1797, John Adams was inaugurated President
of the United States, and Thomas Jefferson took the oath of
office as Vice-President.   Mr. Adams was in the sixty-second
year of his age, and in the full vigor of health and intellect.
He made no changes in the cabinet left by President Washington, and the policy of his administration corresponded throughout with
that of his great predecessor. He came into office at a time when this
policy was to be subjected to the severest test, and was to be triumphantly vindicated by the trial. Mr. Adams began his official career with
the declaration of his "determination to maintain peace and inviolate
faith with all nations, and neutrality and impartiality with the belligerent
powers of Europe."
The relations of the United States with France had been of an unfriendly nature for some time. Jay's treaty had greatly offended the French
government, and the insolent conduct of M. Adet, the French minister
to the United States, had led to a suspension of diplomatic intercourse
between the two republics. The French Directory now proceeded to
manifest its disregard of the rights of America by ordering the seizure of
all American vessels in its ports laden with English manufactured goods.
583




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


At the same time the American minister to France, Charles C. Pinckney,
w:s treated with such studied insult that he demanded his passports and
withlrew to Holland. Privateers were sent out from French ports, which
captured American merclantmen and treated their crews as prisoners of
war. France also exerted her influence witl Spain and Holland to induce them to treat the United States with hostility because of the alleged
partiality of Jay's treaty with Great Britain. All this while there was a
considerable party in the United States which was anxious for the conclusion of an alliance with France, and which either could not, or would not,
see the deliberate purpose of that country to treat with the American
republic only as a dependent.
In May, 1797, President Adams called a special session of Congress and
laid before it a statement of the relations with France. The announcement
of the insults received by the American minister at the hands of the
Directory and the increased aggressions upon American commerce, aroused
a feeling of deep indignation throughout the
-       country, and drew upon the partisans of France
in America a considerable amount of deserved
odium.
In the hope that a peaceful and honorable
->          settlement might yet be had, John Marshall and
0  Elbridge Gerry, the former a Federalist and the
latter a Republican, were appointed special commissioners, and were ordered to proceed to Paris
and unite with Mr. Pinckney in the negotiation
of a treaty which should not conflict with those
JolI ADAMS.     existing with other nations, and which should
place beyond question the right of the United
States to maintain their neutrality Marshall and Gerry joined Pinckney
in Paris in October, 1798, and made their business known to the French
minister of foreign affairs, the famous Talleyrand. He at first refused
to receive the American envoys in an official capacity, and afterwards
employed unknown agents to communicate with them, in order that he
might be free to disavow any engagement entered into with them. It soon
transpired that the object of these secret interviews was to extort money
from the commissioners. They were given to understand that if they
would pay Talleyrand a certain sum of money for the use of himself
and his friends, and would pledge the United States to make a loan to
France, negotiations would be begun without delay The answer of the
American commissioners was well expressed in the indignant words of
Pinckney: "Millions for defence, not one cent for tribute." Marshall




ADMINIS2'RATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.


and Pinckney were ordered to quit France at once, but Mr Gerry was
invited to remain and negotiate a treaty. He was nevertheless unable
to accomplish anything. The correspondence between the commissioners
and Talleyrand's agents was published in the United States, and aroused
such a storm of indignation that the French party disappeared. It never
dared to make its appearance again.
About thirty thousand French exiles were residing in the United States
at this time, and it was believed by the government that some of these
had acted as spies for the Directory  It was known that many had
abused the hospitality extended to them by seeking to induce the people
of the south and west to join them in an effort to wrest Louisiana and
Florida from Spain, and by endeavoring to strengthen the opposition to
the efforts of the government to discharge its duty of neutrality towards
the European powers. In the spring of 1798, in order to remedy this
trouble, Congress passed the measures known as the "alien and sedition
acts," by the first of which the president was empowered to order out
of the country "any foreigner whom he might believe to be dangerous
to the peace and safety of the United States." By the sedition act it
was made a crime with a very heavy penalty for any one to " write, utter,
or publish" any "false, scandalous, and malicious writing" against
" either House of the Congress of the United States or the president of
the United States, with intent to defame, or to bring them, or either of
them, into contempt and disrepute." These acts met with great opposition
throughout the country, and the latter especially was regarded as an
effort on the part of the government to destroy the freedom of the press.
The alien act was not executed, but a large number of foreigners left
the country soon after its passage. Several persons were prosecuted under
the sedition act for their severe criticisms of the Government, and the
result was invariably to increase the ranks of the Republican party, which
steadfastly opposed the laws as unconstitutional and violative of the freedom of the people of the Union.
In the summer of 1798 Mr. Marshall returned from France, and his
report confirmed the statements that had been made respecting the hostile
intentions of the government of that country  The president submitted
to Congress a statement of the disputes between the two republics, and
Congress, recognizing the danger of war, began to prepare for it.  It
was resolved to create a navy, and the three frigates just completed were
fitted 'for sea. The president was authorized to have built, or to purchase
or hire twelve ships of war of twenty guns each. An army was ordered
to be raised, and the prominent points on the coast were to be placed in
a state of defence. Washington was made commander-in-chief of the




586




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.


587


army, with the rank of Lieutenant-General. He accepted the position,
and applied himself with energy to the task of preparing the country for
defence. He gave a hearty support to the measures of the president, and
used his great influence to secure for them a similar approval on the part
of the people.  In the winter of 1798-99 Congress appropriated a
million of dollars to defray the expense of the military preparations, and
authorized the construction of six ships of war of seventy-four guns each,
and six sloops of war of eighteen guns each.
The energy and enthusiasm with which the Americans prepared for
war opened the eyes of Talleyrand. He had not supposed they would
fight, and now that he found they would, he was not willing to add to the
difficulties of France by engaging in a new war. He therefore signified
in an informal manner to Mr. Van Murray, the United States minister
in Holland, that the French government was willing to renew diplomatic intercourse with the United States. Mr, Adams, upon being informed of this, resolved to make one more effort to secu(re a peaceful
settlement of the quarrel. He sent Oliver Ellsworth, Chief Justice of
the United States, William R. Davie, and William Van Murray, minister
to Holland, as commissioners to treat with the French republic for a
settlement of all differences between the two countries. In taking this
step he greatly offended many of the leaders of his party, who insisted
that overtures for peace should come from France. The most rational
and probable solution of Mr. Adams' course, in the absence of direct
proof, says the Hon. A. H. Stephens, " is that he acted under the urgent
private advice of Washington. Be that as it may, it proved to be one of
the wisest and most beneficent deeds of his life." The commissioners
were ordered by the president not to enter France unless they were
assured that they would be received in a "manner befitting the commissioners of an independent nation."
Upon reaching Paris the commissioners found that a great change had
taken place in the affairs of France. A revolution had unseated the
Directory, and Napoleon Bonaparte was at the head of the government
as first consul. Commissioners were appointed to meet the American
envoys, and negotiations were begun and carried forward with such success that on the 30th of November, 1800, a treaty of peace was signed
between the United States and France.
In the meantime, though war was not actually declared, hostilities had
begun. More than three hundred merchant vessels were licensed to carry
arms for their defence. On the 9th of February, 1799, the American
frigate " Constellation " captured the French frigate " L' Insurgente," of
about equal force, after a severe engagement of an hour and a quarter,




IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


inflicting upon her a severe loss in killed and wounded. Somewhat later
the "Constellation" encountered the French frigate " La Vengeance," of
suplerior force, and in an engagement of about five hours duration silenced
her fire and inflicted upon her a loss of one hundred and fifty-six men in
killed and wounded. The French vessel succeeded in making her escape.
These successes were very gratifying to the Americans, as they showed
what their navy could accomplish if given a fair trial. The news of the
conclusion of peace put a stop to hostilities. The army was disbanded,
but the navy was kept afloat, and the coast defences were maintained.
Before the arrival of the news of the treaty the country was called


THE SUSQUEHANNA ABOVE HARRISBURG, PENNSYLVANIA.


upon to mourn the loss of its most illustrious citizen, George Washington.
He took cold while riding over his estate at Mount Vernon, and was
seized with a violent sore throat, from the effects of which he died on the
14th of December, 1799, in the sixty-eighth year of his age. He was
buried in his family vault at Mount Vernon, where his ashes still lie.
The highest honors were paid to his memory by Congress, and by the
various State governments, and in all parts of the Union a universal
mourning was held for the Father of his Country  Not less sincere were
the tributes paid in foreign lands to the memory of the illustrious dead.
Upon the receipt of the sad news the flags of the Channel fleet of Great




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS ANAD JEFFERSON.


589


Britain were placed at half-mast by order of the Admiral Lord Bridport.
Napoleon, then first consul of France, caused the standards of the
French army to be draped in mourning for ten days, and announced the
news to the army in the orders of the day  The proudest tribute of all
to the grandeur and purity of the character of Washington is tie unceasing and ever increasing love and veneration with which his memory is
cherished by his countrymen.
During the summer of the year 1800 the seat of the general government was removed from Philadelphia to the new federal city of Washington, in the District of Columbia. On the 22d of November, the
session of Congress was opened in the unfinished capitol at Washington.
The elections for
president and  vicepresident were  held
in the autumn of 1800.
Mr, Adams was the                   i\
Federalist  candidate
for the presidency, and               -
Ch ar I e s Cotesorth
PiTckney the candidate of that party for
vice-president.  The
Relublican or Demo- \:
cratic party nominated
Thomas Jefferson for
the presidency, and -
Colonel Aaron Burr,
of New York, for the
vice-presidency  The              THOMAS JEFFERSON.
alien and sedition laws
had rendered the Federalist party so unpopular that the electors
chosen at the polls failed to make a choice, and the election was thrown
upon the House of Representatives, according to the terms of the Constitution. On the 17th of February, 1801, after thirty-six ballots, the
House elected Thomas Jefferson President, and Aaron Burr Vice-President, of the United States, for a term of four years from and after the
4th of March, 1801.
The second census of the United States, taken in 1800, showed the
population of the country to be 5,319,762 souls.
Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States, was
inaugurated at the new capitol, in the city of Washington, on the 4th of




THE WHITE HOUSE, W ASHIINGTON CITY.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.


591


March, 1801. He was in his fifty-eighth year, and had long been regarded
as one of the most illustrious men in America. He was the author of
the Declaration of Independence, had represented the country as minister
to France, had served in the cabinet of General Waslington as secretary
of state, and had filled the high office of vice-president during the
administration of Mr Adams. He was the founder of the Democratic
party, and was regarded by it with an enthusiastic devotion which could
see no flaw in his character. By the Federalists he was denounced with
intense bitterness as a Jacobin, and an enemy of organized government.
He was unquestionably a believer in the largest freedom possible to man,
but lie was too deeply versed in the lessons of statesmanship, and was too
pure a patriot to entertain for a moment the levelling lrinciples with
which his enemies charged him. Under him the government of the
republic suffered no diminution of strength, but his administration was
a gain to the country
Mr. Jefferson began his administration by seeking to undo as far as
possible the evil effects of the sedition act of 1798. A number of persons were in prison in consequence of sentences under this act at the time
of his inauguration. These were at once pardoned by the president and
released from prison.
At the meeting of the seventh Congress, in December, 1801, President
Jefferson, in pursuance of an announcement made some time before,
inaugurated the custom which has since prevailed of sending a written
message to each House of Congress, giving his views on public affairs and
the situation of the country  Previous to this the president had always
met the two houses upon their assembling, and had addressed them in person. A strong Democratic majority controlled this Congress, and gave a
hearty support to the president. The obnoxious measures of the last
administration, such as the internal taxes, the taxes on stills, distilled
spirits, refined sugars, carriages, stamped paper, etc., were repealed. In
accordance with a suggestion of the president the period of naturalization
was reduced from fourteen to five years. Measures were also set on foot
for the redemption of the public debt, and it was provided that seven
millions three hundred thousand dollars should be annually appropriated
as a sinking fund for that purpose. Another act, of which the wisdom
was not so apparent, was passed for the reduction of the army.
During the interval which had elapsed since the organization of the
Territory of the Northwest, emigrants had been pouring into the southern
and eastern part of it with great rapidity. In one year twenty thousand
new settlers were added to the population of the Territory of Ohio. The
population had now become so large tlat the eastern part of thle North



592


IIISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


west Territory applied for admission into the Union as a separate State.
Its request was granted, and on the 19th of February it was admitted
into the Union as the State of Ohio, with a population of seventy
thousand.
In 1801 France by a secret treaty received back from Spain the Territory of Louisiana. The French did not occupy the country, but left it
under Spanish rule. In 1803 thle Spanish governor of New Orleans, in
violation of the treaty of 1795, closed the port of New Orleans to
American commerce. This act aroused the most intense indignation
among the people along the tributaries of the Mississippi, who were thus
cut off from the sea, and it was with difficulty that they could be restrained from an attempt to take possession of Louisiana.
Mr. Jefferson had long been anxious to obtain for the United States
the country bordering the lower Mississippi, as he was convinced that the
power holding the mouth of that river must of necessity control the great
valley through which it flows. Accordingly, Robert R. Livingston, the
American minister at Paris, was:-        G::_-            ordered to open negotiations with
the French government for the
r     ~ ', --        purchase of Louisiana. He found
m '           'this an easier task than le had exMM~~t.   MPO     pected, for Napoleon, who was. on
the eve of a great European war,
COAT OF ARDMS OF 01110.  was much in need of money, and
was by no means anxious to add to his troubles by being obliged to defend Louisiana. A bargain was soon concluded by which the United
States became the possessors of the whole region of Louisiana, from the
Mississippi to the Pacific, embracing over a million of square miles. The
United States paid to France the sum of $15,000,000 for this immense
region, and guaranteed to the then inhabitants all the rights of American
citizens. " This accession of territory," said Napoleon, upon the completion of the purchase, "strengthens forever the power of the United States,
and I have just given to England a maritime rival that will sooner or
later humble her pride."
Thllis purchase was of the highest importance. It about doubled the
area of the United States, and placed the whole valley of the Mississippi
within the territory of the republic. It was naturally a most popular
act, and was approved by the entire nation, with the exception of a small
number of the old Federalist leaders. Congress divided this great regior
into two territories-the Territory of Orleans, corresponding to the present State of Louisiana, and the District of Louisiana, comprising the
remainder of the purchase.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS ANP JEFFERSON.


593


Mention has been made.of the payment of tribute to the dey of Algiers
by the United States during the administration of Washington. Previous
to 1801 the United States expended nearly two million dollars in purchasing exemption from capture for its merchant vessels in the Mediterranean. These payments were made to all the Barbary powers, Tunis,
Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco. As the American republic lay at the
other side of the Atlantic, and its ships of war were not often seen in the
Mediterranean, the African pirates did not trouble themselves to comply
with their agreements, and continued their outrages upon American ships
in spite of the tribute paid them.
In 1801 the bey of Tripoli, dissatisfied with the tribute paid him, deLAFAYETTE SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS.
dared war against the United States, and a number of American war
vessels were sent to the Mediterranean to protect the commerce of their
country in that sea.  In 1803 Commodore Preble was sent to the
Mediterranean with a fleet. The frigate "Philadelphia" was stationed
to blockade Tripoli, while Preble, with the remainder of the vessels,
'ought to punish the emperor of Morocco by an attack on Tangiers.
While thus engaged the "Plfil-delphia" ran ashore in chasing an
Algerine cruiser. In this helpless condition she was surrounded by
Tripolitan gunboats and captured after a fight which lasted the entire
day. Captain Bainbridge, her commander, and three hundred of her
crew were made prisoners. The officers were held for ransom, but the
Seamen were reduced to slavery. On the 5th of February, 1801, Lieu38




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES


tenant Stephen Decatur, with a picked crew of seventy-six men, entered
the harbor of Tripoli in a small schooner named the " Intrepid." Placing
his vessel alongside of the "Philadelphia" by night, he boarded the
frigate as she lay under the guns of the castle and the Tripolitan fleet,
drove the Turkish crew into the sea, set fire to the frigate in every part,
and retreated from the harbor without the loss of a man. During the
yrear 1804 the American fleet repeatedly bombarded Tripoli and did considerable dama(ge to it. The war went on until the summer of 1805,
when the bey of Tripoli asked for peace, and a treaty was made by
whicdi the Tripolitan pirates surrendered their captives on payment of a
ransom, and agreed to refrain from aggressions upon the commerce of the
United States in future without payment of further tribute. For some
years the American vessels were safe from the outrages of the Barbary
pirates.
In the fall of 1804 Mr. Jefferson was elected president for a second
term, but this time Colonel Burr was dropped by his party, who nominated and elected George Clinton, of New York, vice-president in his
place. Burr had at last experienced the reward of his insincerity: both
parties had come to distrust him. After his defeat for the vice-presilcency lie had been nominated by his party as their candidate for governor
of New York. He was warmly opposed by Alexander Hamilton, who
was mainly instrumental in bringing about his defeat. Burr never forgave Hamilton for his course in this election, and took advantage of the
flt t opportunity to challenge him to a duel. They met at Weelrawken,
on the banks of the Hudson Opposite New York, on the 11th of July,
1804. Hamilton, who had accepted the challenge in opposition to his
better judgment, and who had exprrssed his intention not to fire at Burr,
was mortally wounded, and died within twenty-four hours. In him perished one of the brightest intellects and most earnest patriots of the
republic. His loss was regarded as second only to that of Washington,
and the sad news of his death was received in all parts of the country
with profound and unaffected sorrow. A feeling of deep and general indignation was aroused against Burr, who found it expedient to withdraw
from New York and retire to Georgia until the excitement had subsided.
The murder of Hamilton, for it was nothing else, closed Burr's political career. His remaining years were passed in restless intrigue. In
1805 he went west, and there undertook the organization of a military
movement of some sort, which from the secrecy with which it was conducted, was generally regarded as treasonable, and intended for his own
aggrandizement. In 1806 he was arrested by the United States, and after
a prolonged trial, during which he defended himself with great ability,




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.


695


he was acquitted of the charge of treason. His subsequent career was
obscure, and he died in 1836, friendless and alone. He was a man of
great ability; but he failed to put his great talents to an honest use.
In the year 1807 a great change was made in the system of navigation
by Robert Fulton, a native of Pennsylvania, who built and successfully
navigated the first steamboat. He named it the "Clermolnt," anld lade
the voyage from New York to Albany, a distance of about one hundred
and fifty miles, in thirty-six hours. From this time steam navigation
rapidly superseded the old system of sailing vessels in the waters of the
United States, and exercised a powerful influence in the development of
the wealth and prosperity of the country.
Since the beginning of the century France and England had been at
war with each other, and their quarrels had drawn the wh.jle European
world into the struggle. The administration of Mr. Jefferson had continued the neutrality of its predecessors, but in a fit of mistaken economy
had exhibited the greatest hostility to the navy, whlich had been reduced
to the most inefficient state possible. The commerce of the Union had
grown with remarkable rapidity, and the need of a l:vy for its protection
was now greater than ever. The administration could not be blroullht to
recognize this fact, however, and it regarded the navy as of no other use
than to enforce the revenue laws in its home waters.
The general character of the European war had thrown the commerce
of the old world into the hands of the few nations which were not engaged in the struggle. The United States Tbtained the largest share of
this trade, but were not left long to enjoy it in peace. The efforts of
Great Britain and France to injure ealch other caused them to extend
their attacks to neutral nations. The British government, by its "orders
in council," declared all vessels engaged in conveying West India produce from the United States to Europe legal prizes. This measure was
intended to cripple France, and at the same time to injure the United
States, which had become too successful a commercial rival to England.
A number of American vessels were seized and condemned upon this pretext. Great indignation was expressed throughout the United States,
but the government did nothing to remedy the trouble. In May, 1806,
Great Britain declared the European coast, from Brest to the mouth of
the river Elbe, in a state of blockade, thus forbidding neutral vessels to
trade with any port within these prescribed limits, on pain of capture and
confiscation. This high-handed measure was a direct blow to the United
States., It was met on the part of France by an act equally unjustifiable.
Napoleon issued his famous "Berlin decree," by which he declared tlle
whole coast of Great Britain in a state of blockade, and forbade the intro



HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


duction of Englishl goods into France,,nd the admission into French
ports of any neutral vessel tlhat should first touch at an English port.
In answer to this decree Great Britain forbade all trade with France by
neutral nations.  Napoleon thereupon issued his " Milan decree," confisCeating not only tlhe vessels and cargoes that should violate the " Berlin
decree," but also such as should submit to be searched by the English.
Thus the cominemrce of tlhe world was placed at the mercy of' these two
nations. Thle ITnited States were tlhe chief sufferers by tlhese arbitrary
measures. Their ships were captured by both Brit,.-!i and(l French crtii.:ers,
and their remnonstrance.s lroduced no cessation of tlhe outrages. It was
not possible to (lo anythlilng for the protection of the comm:lerce of tilhe
country, as tile mistakren policy of the administration had ('eprived it of
an efficient navy  Thle whlole Atlantic seaboard demanded a chlange in
this rCpl)cct, and pletitions poured in upon Congress asking for the construction of' more vessels of war, and for protection f'rom tile aggressions
of tle European powelrs. The only result of these petitions was a recomnen(lation from tlhe president to Congress to build more gunboats. It
was not possible to go to war with both England and France, and the
American government was left to make a choice as to which power it
would undertake to settle the question with. The popular feeling was
stronger agailnst England, which, being the nIost active power at sea, was
the princilpal azcrcessor, and thle events to be related finally turned the
scale against England.
The British government maintained the doctrine that no subject could
expatriate himself, or become a citizen of anothler country  This was
the opposite of the view held )by the United States, which welcomed
emig(rants from: otler countries, bestowed upon them the rights of citizenship, and in their new character of adopted citizens protected them. The
commanders of the British men-of-war were accustomed to stop American
vessels on thle high seas and search them for deserters. Under this head
they included all persons born within the dominions of Great Britain,
whether naturalized \American citizens or not. When found on American
vessels, these persons were removed by force and compelled to serve on
board English ships of war, The British officers did not confine these
impressmcnts to "ldeserters," but seized and forced into their service
great numbers of native-born Americans, who were thus torn from their
homes and consigned to a slavery which was bitter and cruel to them.
The goverinment of the United States addressed urgent remonstrances
to that of Great Britain against these outrages, and finally, in the spring
of 1806, sent William Pinckney as joint commissioner with James Monroe, then minister to England, for the purpose of negotiating a treatN




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.              597
which should put a stop to the acts complained of. The commissioners
appointed by Great Britain expressed the desire of their country not to
impress American seamen, and their willingness to redress as promptlv as
possible any mistake of the kind. They declined to relinquish the right
to search for deserters, as it would be ruinous to the English navy  The
truth is Great Britain treated her seamen with such cruelty that they
would have deserted by the thousand had they been assured of protection
from arrest. The British commissioners declared that while their country
would not relinquish the right of search and impressment, strict orders
would be issued to their naval commanders to use the right with caution


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and moderation. The British government itself was sincerely desirous
of conciliating the United States, but its naval commanders, tempted by
the weakness of the Ameirican navy, paid no attention to its orders and
conducted themselves wvith hlaughlty insolence towards American vc.CSscls,
seizing and searching them, and forcing men from their decks with the
same activity as before, and rarely missing aln occasion to insult tile flag
)f the republic. Meanwhile tlle commissioners concluded a treaty for:en years between the United States and Great Britain. It was on t)he,vhole more advantageous than Jay's treaty, but the president was not




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


satisfied with it, and assumed the responsibility of rejecting it, in the
spring of 1807, without submitting it to the Senate.
A British naval commander now ventured upon an act which threw
the relations between the two countries into a more hopeless state than
ever   The United States frigate " Chesapeake," 38, under the command
of Commodore Barron, was about to sail for a European station. Strict
orders were issued to her officers not to enlist any British subject, knowing him to be such; but it was said that four of her crew were deserters
from the British frigate " Melampus."  Several British war vessels were
lying in the Chesapeake bay, and one of these, the " Leopard," a fiftygun frigate, put to sea a few hours before the "Chesapeake" sailed. The
latter vessel sailed before she was fully ready for sea, and the work of
getting the ship in order was still in progress, when she was hailed off the
capes by the " Leopard," under the pretence of sending despatches to
Europe. A    lieutenant of the British frigate came on board and demanded the surrender of the four men we have mentioned. Commodore
Barron refused the demand on the ground that there were no such men
on board. The lieutenant then returned to his ship, and the "Leopard"
opened fire upon the "Chesapeake" and killed three of her men and
wounded eighteen others. The "Chesapeake" was utterly uniprepared
for resistance, and Barron -struck his colors after a single gun had been
fired. The four men were taken from the " Chesapeake," the " Leopard"
sailed for Halifax, and the American frigate returned to Norfolk.
The news of this outrage excited the profoundest indignation throughout the country  On the 2d of July, 1807, the president issued a proclamation ordering all British vessels of war to depart from American
waters, and the people were warned against holding any intercourse with
them. A   special session of Congress was called, and the American
minister at London was ordered to demand satisfaction for the outrage.
The British government had received information of the affiir before the
arrival of the American demand. The action of the commander of the
" Leopard " was disavowed, and a special messenger was sent to the
United States to arrange the matter. Great Britain disclaimed the right
to search vessels of war, and the excitement was quieted for a time.
In December, 1806, as the outrages upon American commerce were
continued, Congress, at the recommendation of the president, passed the
" Embargo Act," by which all merchant vessels of the United States
were prevented from leaving the ports of this country. This measure
entirely put an end to the intercourse between the United States and the
European nations. It was hoped by the president and the friends of the
measure that it would compel Great Britain and France, by the loss of




ADMINISTRATIONS OF ADAMS AND JEFFERSON.


599


our trade, to put a stop to their arbitrary measures. Its only effects
were to cause very heavy loss to the mercantile interests of this country,
and to produce a general discontent throughout the Eastern and Middle
States. Thousands of persons were thrown out of employment by the
enforced idleness of the ships, and many of these turned their attention
to manufacturing pursuits, which received a decided impetus; so that
some good grew out of the embargo, after all.
In the election of 1808 Mr. Jefferson, following the example of Washington, declined to be a candidate for a third term, and the Democratic
or administration party supported James Madison for the presidency,
and George Clinton for the vice-presidency  They were elected by large
majorities; but the effect of the embargo was seen in the casting of the
electoral votes of the five New England States against the administration.
The disaffection of the New England States induced Mr Jefferson, just
before the expiration of his term of office, to recommend to Congress the
repeal of the embargo act. His opinion was unchanged as to the propriety of the embargo, but he recommended its repeal as a measure of
peace and conciliation.  The law was repealed on the 1st of March, 1809, and in
the same month Congress passed an act prohibiting trade with France and England.......
At the close of his term of office Mr.
Jefferson withdrew  from  public life, and
retired to his home at Monticello, in Vir-    i           v!
ginia.  The wisdom   and success of the
general policy of his administration had
far outweighed his mistakes, and he retired
from office with undiminished popularity,
and with the respect and confidence of the
nation. Indeed his popularity was greater at
the close of his administration than at the
beginning-a rare and gratifying reward to    ^
a public servant. His great services in the      AARON BURR.
revolution, his draft of the Declaration of
Independence, his acquisition of Louisiana, and the purity and grandeur
of his character, placed him, in the public estimation, next to Washington.. - =,.
OF




CHAPTER XXXIII


TIlE ADMINISTRATION        OF JAMES MADISON-THE            SECOND WAR
WITH    ENGLAND.
Inauguration of Mr, Madison-Negotiations with Mr. Erskine-Their Failure-Seizure of
American Vessels in France-Sufferings of American Ship-Owner s-Great Britain Stations Iler Ships of War off American Ports-Affair of the " President" and " Little Belt"
-Trouble with the Nortlwestern Indians-Tecuinseh-Battle of Tippecanoe —Meeting
of tlhe Twelfth C(')ngress —Measulres for Defence-Admission of Louisiana into the Union.
-Death of George Clinton-The British Ultimnatu ni-War Declared against Great
Britain-Opposition to the War-The British Offer of Settlement Rejec ed-The War
for "Free Trade and the Sailors' Rights"-M-r. Madi-onl Re-elected-Campaign of 1812
-Preparations for the Invasion of Canada-General hIull Surrenders Detroit to the
British-Los of the Northwestern Frontier-Failure of the Attack on QueenstownExlloits of tile Navy-Capture of tile "Guerriere" by the "Constitution "-The Privateersl-Russia ofiers to Mediate between the United States and England-Financial
Aftiir —Ilarrison s Campaign —Massacre at the River Raisin-Defence of Forts Meigs
and Stephenson-l1-Prry's Victory on Lake Erie-Battle of the Thames —Ilath of
Teeimnsch-Recovery of the Northwest-Capture of York-British Attack on Sackett's
Harbor Repulsed —Removal of General Dearborn-Failure of the Campaign on the
Lower Iakes-The Creek lWar-Jackson's Victories-Naval Affairs-Tlhe British Outrages in Chesapeake Bay-Negotiations for Peace-Capture of Fort Eric-.PIttles of
Chippewa and Lundy's Lane-Siege of Fort Erie-Successes of the Americans-Aldvanlce
of Prevost-Battle of Plattsbrgh — Macdonough's Victory on Lake Chan llaii; —.ittle
of Bladensburg-Capture of Washington-Destruction of the Public Buildings by the
British-Attack on Baltimore-Death of General Ross- "The Star-Spangled Imanner"
-Tle British Attack on the New England Coast-Opposition of New England to the
War-The Hartford Convention-Thle British in Florida-General Jackson txpels
then —Jackson at New Orleans-Arrival of the British Expedition off the ( oast-Vigorous Measures of Jackson-Battle of New Orleans-Defeat of the British-N-;aval
Affairs-Tlhe Treaty of Peace-The Barbary Powers Humbled-The Tariff-Thi. Bank
of the United States-Admission of Indiana-James Monroe elected President.
C   AMES MADISON, the fourth president of the United States,
w as inaugturated at Washington on the 4th of March, 1809.:   He was in the fifty-eighth year of Ilis age, and had long been
one of the most prominent men in the Union.           He had borne a
distinguished    part in the    convention   of 1787, and     was the
author of the Virginia resolutions of 1786, which brought about the
assembling of this convention.       He had entered the convention as one,of the most prominent leaders of the national party, which favored the
600




THE ADMIVISTRATION OF JAMES MA I)ISON.


601


consolidation of tile States into one distinct and supreme nation, and had
acted with Randolph, Hamilton, Wilson, Morris, and King, in seeking
to bring about such a result. When it was found impossible to carry out
this plan lMr, Madison gave his cordial support to tile systemn which was
finally adopted by the convention; and while the constitution was under
discussion by the States, he united with Hamilton and Jay in earnestly
recommending the adoption of the con:;titution by tile States, in a series
of able articles, to which the general title of the " Federalist" was given.
After the organization of the government Mr. Madison was a memler of
the House of Representatives, and was regarded as one of the leaders of
the Federalist p1arty, and gave to Hamilton his cordial support in the
finance measures of that minister, Towards the lo   of Washington's
adiministratioll, however, Mr Madison's political views underwent a great
change. He was a near neighbor and w^arm friend of Mr. Jefferson, and
w\as greatly influenced by the opinions anl the
strong personal character of that great statesman. As the political controversies of tlhe       -,
time deepened, he became more and more in-.      S::?   -
dined towards the Relpublican or " Strict Con-;    g i
struction )partv, and in Mr. Adalms admlin-                    9 ^
istration tool k his position as one of tle leaders of that party  At tle time of his election,BI! [~   'k
to the presidency, Mr. Jefferson lhaving withdrawn fiom 1)ublic life, Mir Madison was the '
recomgnized leader of the Democratic party, as
the Re)ublican party had come to be called. In N E
1799 his famous report upon the \Vilrginia      JAMIES MADISON.
resolutions of 1798 stamped himn as one of tlhe
first statesmen in America; and this report has always been regarded by
succeeding generations as the most masterly exl)osition of tlhc true principles of the constitution ever penned. During the whole of Mr Jefferson's administration Mr. Madison served as secretary of state, and not
only added to his great famne by his eminlent services in that capacity, but
prepared himself for the difficult duties of tlhe presidency
Mr, Madison had opposed the embargo, while sustaining the generil
foreign policy of Mr. Jefferson, but was in favor of the non-intercourse
act, which forbade the country to tradle witl England and France.  This
act contained a clause, which provided that it should cease to apply to
either or both of them as soon as they should repeal the r "decrees," or
" rders in council," affecting the commerce of the United States.
Mr. Erskine, the British minister to the United States, a man of noble




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THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON.


603


and generous character, was anxious that the differences between the two
countries should be settled amicably, and he entered heartily into negotiations with the American government for this purpose. In accordance with
the instructions he had received from England, he believed himself authorized to inform the American government that the " orders in council " of
Great Britain would be revoked by that government, as far as they applied
to the commerce of the United States, and to offer " a suitable provision for
the vidows and orphans of those who were killed on board the ' Chesapeake."' Upon these assurances the president, on the. 19th of April,
1810, issued a proclamation suspending the non-intercourse act, as to
SUPERIOR STREET, CLEVELAND, OHIO.
England, after the 10th of June following. The news was received with
joy all over the country, and in the course of a few weeks over one
thousand vessels sailed from the United States, laden with American
products, for foreign ports. They had hardly gotten to sea when the
president was informed by the British government that Mr. Erskine had
exceeded his powers in promising the withdrawal of the "orders in
council."  The president immediately issued a second proclamation, withdrawing his first, and matters resumed their old footing. Mr. Erskine
was recalled, and a Mr Jackson was appointed in his place. The failure
of the negotiation with Erskine had greatly mortified not only the president and his cabinet, but the whole nation, and Mr. Jackson was coldly




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


received. That gentleman adopted a tone and style in his correspondence
with the secretary of state, which were so offensive that the president
refused to hlold communication with him, and demanded his recall. All
diplomatic intercourse between the two countries thus came to an end.
The outrages upon American      commerce continued.    Danish privateers almost drove the American     merchantmen from   the Baltic.
American ship-owners asked permission to arm their vessels for their
own defence, an the government had not a navy sufficient to protect them;
but their petition was refused by Congress on the ground that such a
state of affairs would be equivalent to war. The sentiment of the people
of the country was rapidly settling in favor of war, and they could see
little difference between the existing state of affairs and open hostilities.
France was equally guilty with Great Britain. In the sl)ring of 1810
Napoleon issued a decree by which any American vessel entering any
port of France, or of any country under French control, was made liable
to seizure and confiscation. The decree was held back for six weeks
after its date, with the deliberate design of involving as many American
ships as possible in the ruin intended for them. The first intimation
given to the United States of its existence was the seizure of one hundred and thirty-two American ships in the French ports. They were
shortly afterwards sold with their cargoes, and added the sum of eight
mill'ions of dollars to the French treasury  The government of the
United States remonstrated against this high-handed outrage; but to no
purpose, until Napoleon's want of money induced him to adopt a more
honest course.
About the middle of the year 1810 the American minister at Paris
was informed that the Berlin and Milan decrees were revoked, and
would cease to have effect after the 1st of November of that year. In
accordance with this information the president, on the 1st of November,
1810(, issued a proclamation suspending the non-intercourse act with
respect to France, and announcing that the provisions of tlhe act would
be continued with res)pect to Great Britain unless her " orders in council"
should be revoked withlin three months from that date. The president
also called the attention of the British government to the repeal of tlle
French' decrees, and as the " orders in council " were based upon these
decrees, urged their repeal. Great Britain replied that the evidence of
the revocation of the Berlin and Milan decrees was insufficient, and that
the non-intercourse acts of Congress and the president's proclamation
were l)artial and unjust. This answer was regarded in the United States
as evidence of Great Britain's deliberate intention to continue her outrages upon this codintry, and very greatly increased the popular desire for




THE,ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES MADISON.


war. England persisted in her determination to enforce her "orders in
council," and evell went to the inexcusable length of stationing her war
vessels off the principal harbors of the United States for the purpose of
intercepting our  erchantmenll.
While matters wcrc in this unsettled condition the American frigate
"President," on the evening of tle 16tlh of Mav, 1811, encountered a
strange vessel off the mouth of the Delaware. As the dusk of the eveoling
was too deep for Commodore Rodgersl to distinguish the stranger's nationality, lie hailed her, and was insolently answeredl byl a gun from her, He replied with a broadside, anld after an action of tvwenty minutecs tile stranger
was disabled. Rodgers then lhailed again, an(l was answered that the disabled vessel was the British sloop of war " Little Belt." She was greatly
damaged, and had thirty-two of her crew killed and wounded. The
"President" was scarcely injured, and had but one man slightly wounded.
A different statement of thle:ffair was rendered to his goverCnment by each
of the commanding officers, and was accepted by each government. In tlis
conflict of testimony, the matter was suffered to pass by  The news of
the prompt chastisement of the insolence of the British commander was
received with delight in the United States, and the affair was generally
regarded as, in some measure, an atonement for the disgrace of the surrender of the "Chesapeake " to the " Leopard."
The Indians of tlhe northwest were becoming very troublesome, and
their aggressions were attributed to the instigation of the British in
Canada. Teciimseh, a S:hawnee clief of unusual abilities, attempted to
unite the Indians of the continent in a frtand effort against the Americans,
and for this purpose passed( from tribe to tribe, from the great lakes to
tlhe Gulf of Mexico, and urged tlheml to take up the iatchet.  IIe was
assisted by his twin brother Elskwatawa, generally called "the Prophet,"
who appealed to the superstitious fears of the savages by his jugglery.
The federal government determined to strike a blow at the savages
before their plans for union could be brouglt to a successful issue. In
the autumn of 1811, Major-General William     Ienry Harrison, then
governor of Indiana Territory, was sent to operate against the tribes on
the Wabash.   He took with him a body of Kentucky and Indiana
militia, and one regiment of regular troops. On the 6th of November
he arrived at the junction of the Tippecanoe and Wabash rivers near the
town of the Prophet, the brother of Tecumseh. The Prophet sent several
of the principal Indian chiefs to meet Harrison with offers of submission.
They informed him that the Prophet would come into camp the next day,
and make a treaty with him. Harrison suspected that the purpose of the
Indians was simply to gain time, and that they would probably seek to




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


surprise him during the night, and accordingly caused his men to bivouac
on their arms that night. His precautions were well taken. About
four o'clock on the morning of November 7th the savages made a furious
attack on the American camp. They were promptly received, and after
a severe conflict of several hours were put to flight. Tecumseh was not
present in this engagement. General Harrisgn followed up his victory
by destroying the Prophet's town, and building some forts for the protection of the country. The battle of Tippecanoe quieted the Indians of
the northwest for a while, but greatly increased the desire of the people
of that region for war with England.
In view of the threatening condition of affairs the president by his  J
~ ---—.-~                      -,
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OSWEGO, N. Y., N 1875.
proclamation convened the twelfth Congress in session a month earlier
than usual, and that body met on the 4th of November, 1811. It was
remarkable, as was also its successor, the thirteenth Congress, for the
number of its members who afterwards took their places among the great
men of the republic. The public men of the revolutionary period were
dropping out of political life, and new men, with new ideas, were taking
their places in the councils of the nation. Among the new members of
Congress were Henry Clay, a native of Virginia, but a representative from '
Kentucky, John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, John Randolph of Virginia, Felix Grtndy of Tennessee Josiah Quincy of Massachus^tW t.m




THlE ADMINISTRATION OF JAL liES MADIS(5./.


GC07


Langdon Cheeves and William Lowndes of South Carolina. Tliere was
a large administration majority in both Houses, and the prevailing senltiment of Congress was in favor of war with England,. In this respect
Congress fairly reflected the feeling of the country.
Under the influence of this feeling, Congress during this session voted
to increase the regular army to thirty-five thousand men, and authorized
the president to accept the services of fifty thousand volunteers, and to
call out the militia whenever occasion might require. The vessels of the
navy were ordered to be fitted for sea, and new ships were to be constructed. There was need for these measures, as the army at the time
consisted of but three thousand men, and the navy of less than twenty
frigates and sloops of war in commission, and about one hundred and fifty
gunboats for harbor defence. The third census, taken in 1810, showed
the population of the country to be 7,239,903.
During this winter the government detected and laid before Congress
an effort of Great Britain to produce disaffection in the New England
States, with a view to secure their
withdrawal from the Union. The -      B      y    de
closed bv the president's message         COS      OUSIN
"~                                COAT OF ARMS OF LOUISIANA.
presents to the mind of the committee
conclusive evidence that the British government, at a period of peace, and
during the most friendly professions, have been deliberately and perfidiously pursuing measures to divide these States, and to involve our citizens
in all the guilt of treason and the horrors of civil war."
Amid these troubles the State of Louisiana was admitted into the Union
on the 8th of April, 1812. Shortly afterwards that portion of the
Louisiana purchase lying outside of the limits of the State of Louisiana
was organized into the Territory of Missouri.
On the 20th of April, 1805, George Clinton, the vice-president of the
United States, died at Washington, at the age of seventy-three. His
place was filled by William H. Crawford, of Georgia, the president pro
tempore of the Senate.
On the 30th of May, 1812, the British minister at Washington delivered to the government of the United States the final reply of his government to the demands of this country in the questions at issue between
them. This ultimatum was submitted to Congress by the president on
the 1st of June, accompanied by a message in which he recapitulated the






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608




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


609


wrongs inflicted by Great Britain upon this country, her violations of the
rights of neutrals, her impressment of American seamen, her seizures of
American ships, and her refusal to enter into any equitable arrangement
for the settlement of these questions. The determination of Great Britain
to drive American commerce from the seas was evident, and the question
was submitted to Congress whether the United States should continue to
submit to these outrages, or should resort to war to protect their rights.
After a debate of several days, an act declaring war against Great Britain
was passed by Congress, and was approved by the president on the 18th
of June, 1812. On the 19th the president issued a proclamation declaring that war existed between the United States and Great Britain and her
dependencies. Congress authorized the president to enlist twenty-five
thousand men for the regular army, to raise a force of fifty thousand
volunteers, and to call out one hundred thousand militia for garrison
duty. General Henry Dearborn, of Massachusetts, was appointed to the
chief command of the army.
The war measures of Congress were not passed without considerable
opposition. A large party, composed of some of the ablest and best men
in that body, was opposed to the war, and resented the effort to go to war
with England alone. They claimed that France had given as good cause
for war, but that nothing was said of punishing her  This was true, but
this party lost sight of the fact that the United States could not go to
war with both powers, and were compelled to direct their efforts against
the principal offender, which was clearly England. The war was regarded as an administration measure, and though it was sustained by a
large majority of the American people, there was still a strong and
respectable party, especially in the New England States, which opposed
it, and which claimed that all peaceful means of settlement had not yet
been exhausted. John Randolph, of Virginia, opposed the declaration
of war in a speech in the House of Representatives remarkable for its
boldness and vigor, and declared that he had no hesitation in saying that
he should prefer a contest with France to one with England.
Soon after the declaration of war England made an effort to settle the
controversy with the United States by negotiation. In September, 1812,
Admiral Warren, commanding the British fleet at Halifax, addressed a
letter to Mr. Monroe, the secretary of state, informing him that he was
authorized by his government to enter into negotiations for a cessation of
hostilities upon the basis of a revocation of the " orders in council." Mr.
Monroe replied that the president was willing to enter into an armistice
provided Admiral Warren had power and was willing to include in the
negotiations measures for the discontinuance of the practices of seizing
39




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and searching American vessels and impressing American sailors from
their decks, as experience had shown that no peace between the two
countries could be lasting which did not include a settlement of these
questions. As Admiral VWarren had no authority to enter into these
questions the president declined to proceed further, and the effort at
negotiation came to an end. It has been held by many that the rejection
by the president of the British overture was a grave error. John Randolph thought that all the questions at issue, save the right of a British
subject to expatriate himself and receive American protection, could be
settled by negotiation. That point be did not believe England would
ever concede. His opinion was to some extent vindicated by the unconditional revocation of the French decrees, and the immediate repeal of
the British "orders in council" upon the receipt of the news of this
revocation. These measures were repealed within a month after the
declaration of war by the United States. The only cause of the war
remaining unsettled was the impressment question. Tle war thus became
a struggle for the personal freedom of American sailors; and in a better
cause no nation ever drew the sword.
The weakness of the American navy made it impossible for this country to attempt any distant enterprise against Great Britain, and it was
not believed by even the most enthusiastic Americans that we could contend with her upon terms of equality at sea. The only means by
which she could be crippled by this country was by the invasion and
conquest of Can:ida, and to this end the efforts of the United States were
directed during the war. It was also believed that the commerce of
England could be seriously injured by the efforts of American privateers,
and from the commencement of hostilities great activity was displayed in
getting vessels of this class to sea.
In the autumn of 1812 Mr, Madison was reelected to the presidency
by a large majority  Elbridge Gerry, of Connecticut, was chosen vicepresident. Mr. Madison entered upon lis second term on the 4th of
March, 1813, some months after the war had begun.
At the outset of the war the American forces were stationed along the
Canadian frontier as follows: General Dearborn, the commander-in-chie,
held the right, or eastern part of the line; the centre was commanded by
General Stephen Van Rensselaer; and the left was held by General
William  Hull, then governor of Michigan Territory.     The forces
under these commanders were to cooperate with each other in their movements, and were to converge upon Montreal as the objective point of the
campaign.
Early in July General Hull, who had seen service in the war of the




THE SPOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


tevolution, collected a force of about two thousand men at Detroit. IIis
position was very much exposed, Detroit being at that time separated
from the other settlements by about two hundred miles of unbroken
forest. He urged upon the government to increase his force to three
thousand men, and to secure the command of Lake Erie before the
British should obtain possession of it. His requests could not be complied with, and he was obliged to depend upon the force at Detroit.
Immediately upon the declaration of war the British commanders in
Canada displayed great activity, seizing the most important points along
the frontier. In less than a month Fort Mackinaw and other points
were in their possession, and Hull's position at Detroit was surrounded
~-~ --- —i7 ---- --- -7I
- -
_-. __   __:-:-:       _-. — "_.- _-_-_ ~: -: % _,: — -— =-~ —: —
WOODWARD AVENUE, DETROIT, MICHIGAN.
and his communications with the States cut off. Hull thereupon fortified
his position, and endeavored, but without success, to open communication
with the country in his rear, In the meantime a strong British force
assembled at Fort Maiden, in Canada, opposite Detroit, under the command of General Brock, the governor of Upper Canada; and the British
agents set to work to arouse the Indians of the northwest against the
Americans. In these efforts they were successful. Brock erected batteries on the Canadian side of the river, in a position to command Detroit,
and demanded of Hull the surrender of that place. The demand being
refused, Brock crossed his forces to the American shore, about three miles




612


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


below the position occupied by General Hull, on the 16th ot August, and
advanced to attack him. As the British army drew near the America,,
lines they were astounded to see a white flag flying from them. An officer rode up to inquire the cause. The flag was the signal for a parley.
Negotiations were begun, and later in the day Detroit, with its garrison
and stores, and the whole of Michigan Territory, was surrendered to the
British by General Hull. The American troops were overcome witlh
astonishment andl mortification at this shameful surrender; for the force
of the enemy, to whom they were betrayed by their commander, consisted
of but seven hundred British and Canadians, and six hundred Indians.
By the surrender of Detroit the whole northwestern frontier was exposed
to the British and their Indian allies. Great Britain, unmindful of the
shame she had incurred by her employment of the savages during the
revolution, did not hesitate once more to devote the American frontier
to the horrors of a savage war. The west was greatly alarmed, and ten
thousand volunteers offered their services to the government for the
defence of the frontier, They were accepted, and were placed under the
command of General Harrison, who was appointed to succeed Hull.
Two years later, after being exchanged, General Hull was brought to
trial by a court-martial for his surrender of Detroit and his army  He
was found guilty of cowardice and neglect of duty, and was sentenced to
be shot. He was pardoned by the president in consideration of his
services during the revolution.
This was a sorry beginning for the war, and was followed by another
disaster, General Van Rensselaer, the commander of the centre of the
American line, had collected a force, principally New York militia, at
Lewiston, on the Niagara river   At Quecnstown, on the opposite side
of the river, General Brock had stationed himself with a British force.
On the 13th of October General Van Rensselaer crossed a force, under
Colonel YVan Rensselaer, and attacked the British fort and captured it.
General Brock now arrived with a reinforcement of 3ix hundred men,
and endeavored to regain the fort, but was defeated and killed. General
Van Rensselaer hastened back to the American side to bring over more
troops, but lis men refused to obey his orders, alleging that they could
not be ordered out of their own State without their consent. The British
wcrc heavily reinforced, and the Americans were attacked and defeated;
all who had crossed to the Canada side being killed or captured. Among
the prisoners was Lieutenant-Colonel Winfield Scott, afterwards commander-in-chief of the American army, then a young man, who had
crossed over as a volunteer to aid the force on the Canada side. Utterly
dis.-ist:d witli the conduct of his troops, General Yan Rensselaer




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENVGLAND.


G13


esigned his command after the battle of Queenstown. General Smyth,
of Virginia, was appointed to succeed him. He made one or two efforts
to enter Canada, but being each time prevented by his council of war,
resigned his command.
Thus closed the year 1812, and the first campaign of the war. Its
results were disastrous and disheartening. The attempt to invade Canada
had ended with the surrender of Detroit and the defeat at Queenstown.
A large part of tlhe frontier was lost, and over twenty-five hundred Imen
had been captured by the enemy  These failures had aroused the discontent of a considerable portion of the people of the Union, and the
opposition of the New England States to the war was greatly increased.
Matters would have seemed hopeless had not the navv, which hlad been
the most neglected branch of the public service, redeemed the national
honor by a series of brilliant succese.s.
It was the intention of the government at the outset of the war to
retain the vessels of the navy in the ports of tlhe country to assist in the
defence of the harbors of tlhe United States. The fear was openly expressed that if these vessels should venture to put to sea tlhey would
certainly be captured by the British cruisers. The officers of the navy
were indignant at these insinuations, and as soon as tlhe news of the
declaration of war was received at New York, several of the vessels of
war in that port put to sea at once to avoid the orders which their coinmanders feared were on the way to detain them in port, and also for the
purpose of making a dashl at the Jamaica fleet, which was on its way to
England. They followed this fleet to the entrance to the BritiLh channel,
but without overtaking it.
A British squadron sailed from Halifax to cruise off thle port of New
York. The American frigate " Constitution," Captain Hull, while endeavoring to enter New York harbor, fell in with this squadron, and vas
chased by it for four days. Her escape was due entirely to the superior
skill of her officers and the energy of her crew  The chase was one of
the most remarkable in historv, and the escape of the American frigate
won great credit for Captain Hull. Failing to reach New York, Hu'.
sailed for Boston, and reached that port in safety  Remaining there a:
few days, he put to sea again, just in time to avoid orders from Wathington to remain in port.
In July the American frigate " Essex" captured a transport filled with
British soldiers, and a few days later encountered the British sloop of war
"Alert," which mistook her for a merchantman. The "Essex" suffered
her to approach, and then opened a rapid fire upon her, which soon disabled her, and forced her to surrender.




614


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


The " Constitution" sailed from Boston to the northeast. On the 19th
of August, while cruising off the mouth of the St. Lawrence, she fell inl
with the British frigate " GucrriXre," Captain Dacres, one of the vessels
that had chased her during the previous month. The "GuerriEre" immediately stood towards her, and both vessels prepared for action. Tihe
English commander opened his fire at long range, but Captain Hull
refused to reply until he had gotten his ship into a favorable position,
and for an hour and a half he manceuvred in silence, under a heavy fire
from the British frigate. At length, having gotten within pistol shot! I
j ---                                              r —..
- -- -
-   -                                        III,
-1401.X


6:7
I 11
A ~


COMIMODORE HULL.
of her advers:ar, the " Constitution" opened a terrible fire upon her, and
poured in her broadsides with such effect that the "Guerriere" struck
her colors within thirty minutes.  The "Guerriire" lost seventy-nine
men killed and wounded, while. the loss of the "Constitution" was hut
seven men. The " CGuerribre" was so much injured in the fight that slle
could not be carried into port, and Hull had her burned. The "Constitution" then returned to Boston with her prisoners, and was received
with an ovation. It was the first time in half a century that a Britihl
frigate had struck her flag in a fair fight, and the victory was hailed with
delight in all parts of the country.




THE SECOND WAR WIT'171 ENGLAND.


615


On the 18th of October the American sloop of war "Wasp," 18,
Captain Jones, met the British brig " Frolic," 22, convoying six merchantmen. In order to give her convoy a chance to escape, the "Frolic"
shortened sail, and awaited the approach of the " Wasp."  Thle "Wasp"
poured a raking fire into her antagonist, and then boarded. The boarders found the (leck of the "Frolic " covered with the dead. Only one
man remained unhurt, and he stood gallantly at his post at the wheel.
Before the pvize could be secured the British frigate " Poictiers," 74, hoxe
in sight, and captured both vessels. The " Wasp" lost eight men in the
engagement; the "Frolic" eighty
On the 25th of October the frigate "United States," 44, Captain Decatur, encountered the British fri-gate " Macedonian," 49, off the Azores,
and after a running fight of an hour and a lialf forced her to strike her
colors. The "United States" lost seven killed andl five wounded; the
"Macedonian," thirty-six  killed  and
tixty-eight wounded, out of a crew of
llree hundred men. Decatur succeeded             s.n bringing his prize into New York.          ~       I ~S.
On the 29th of December the "Con- "     -     i
dtitution, now under the command of f:
Captain Bainbridge, captured the Britishi..
frigate "Java," 38, off the coast of Brazil, after an action of three hours. The
"Java" was reduced to a wreck, and as
he was not able to get her into a friendly
port, Captain Bainbridge caused her to
be burned. The "Java" lost one hundred and sixty-one men out of a crew of four hundred; the " Constitution" lost thirty-four in killed and wounded. Among the wounded was
Captain Bainbridge.
These victories aroused the greatest enthusiasm, in the United States.
The great disparity in the losses sustained by the respective comnbatants
made it evident to both nations that the American ships had been better
handled in every engagement. The British endeavored to account for the
American successes by declaring that the United States vessels were
seventy-fours in disguise, or that they carried heavier guns than their
adversaries; but the thinking men of' both countries saw that they had
been won by the superior skill of the American officers, and that they
were the plain announcement of the fact that England had found a rival
capable of contesting her supremacy on the ocean.
The American privateers inflicted great damage upon the commerce of




HISTORY OF THE UNI[TED STATES.


Great Britain. During the year 1812 these vessels captured about five
hundred British nmerchantmni, and made lrisoners of three thousand
British seamen. The cargoes of the captured vessels amounted to an
enormous sum.
On the 8th of March, 1813, the Russian minister at Washington conmmunicated to President Madison an offer from the Emperor Alexander
of llis mediation between the United States and Great Britain, for the
purpose of bringing about a peace between them. The president at once
accepted the Russian offer, and sent Albert Gallatin and James A. Bayard
to St. Petersburg to join John Quincy Adams, then minister to Russia,
as conmmissio.,~:r's to negotiate a treaty. The British government declined
the hRus..ian mediation, and the matter was dropped.
The thirteenth Congress met on the 24th of May, 1813, and entered
upon the task of providing the means of carrying on the war    The
principal measure resorted to was the imposition of direct taxes and internal duties. The financial situation of the government was disheartening. The expenses of the war had greatly exceeded the estimates, and a
he(avy deficit lad to be provided for  To meet the necessities of the
occasion new loans vwere authorized, but they were generally paid in the
depreciated treasury notes, which had been issued according to act of
(ongrress, and did not yield much to the government. The business of
the country was in a state of confusion. All the banks, save a few in
New England, had suspended specie payments, and the war spirit was
dying out in many parts of the Union. New England had entered into
the war with great reluctance, and was a heavy loser by it. Her opposition to it was increasing daily
The government opened the campaign of 1813 with the determination
to make another effort to conquer Canada.  The army of the west, under
General Harrison, was stationed at the upper end of Lake Erie; that of
the centre, under General Dearborn, the commander-in-chief, was posted
along the Niagara river; and that of the east, under General Wade
Hampton, was at Lake Champlain. Simultaneous movements were to
be made from these points against the British in Canada. To oppose
these forces tlhe British stationed their armies along their frontier as follows: General Proctor was stationed with a considerable force near
Detroit; General Slheaf with another force covered Montreal and the
approaches from thie United States by way of Lake Champlain and the
Sorel river; and Sir George Prevost, the commander-in-chief, held the
line of the Niagara river,
General Harrison was charged with the duty of recovering the territory
lost by General Hull. Volunteers flocked to him from all parts of the




THE SECOND WAR WITI ENGLAND.


617


west, and especially from Kentucky  A part of his force, under General
Winchester, held a fort on the Maumee. In January, 1813, the British
made a demonstration against Frenchtown, on the river Raisin, and
Winchester sent a detachment to its relief, which compelled the British
to retreat. A little later Winchester followed with the rest of his troops
and took position in tle open country. His whole force anlmounted to
scarcely one thousand men. Hearing of Winchllester's exposed position,
General Proctor marched from Fort Malden, opposite Detroit, withl ifteen
hundred British and Indians, and, crossing the lake on the ice, attacked
Winchester on the 22d of January, and after a desperate encounter forced
him to surrender. Proctor promised Winchester that his men should be
treated as prisoners of war, but in violation of his pledge set out at once
DEFENCE OF FORT MEIGS
on his retreat to Maiden, leaving the wounded Americans behind. The
In(lians of Proctor's command fell upon the helpless wounldel  men,
massacred the majority of them, and carried the remaindler to Detroit.
Some of these they offered to release on payment of heavy ransoms; the
others they held for torture. Proctor made no effort to save his reputation by protecting his prisoners, and his inhuman conduct in leaving
them to the fury of the savages, in violation of his pledge, met, as it deserved, the unqualified denunciation of every honorable man. It roused
a fierce spirit of revenge throughout the west.
Harrison was on his march to Winchester's assistance when he learned
of his surrender. He halted at the rapids of the Maumee, and built a
fort which he named Fort Meigs, in honor of the governor of Ohio.




618


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


Proctor advanced in the spring to attack this fort, and on the 1st of May
opened his batteries upon it. A force of twelve hundred Kentuckians,
under General Green Clay, of Kentucky, advanced to the relief of tlle
fort, and the British and Indians were obliged to raise the siege and
retreat.
General Clay was placed in command of Fort Meigs. In July Proctor again advanced and laid siege to it, but was unable to capture it.
Hearing that Fort Stephenson, on the Sandusky, had a small garrison,
Proctor withdrew from Fort MAeigs and attacked Fort Stephenson. This
fort lhad a garrison of one hundred and sixty men, and was commanded
by Major George Croghan, a young man in his twenty-second year. He
--  k~ 't'Z vI,j        \
DEFENCE OF FORT STEPHENSON.
was summoned to surrender, but answered that he should lhold the fort to
the last man. On the 2d(1 of August Proctor made a determined assault
upon the fort, and his regulars gained the ditch into which they crowded
preparatory to attempting to scale the parapet. At this moment the only
cannon in the fort, which had been doubly charged with musket-balls,
opened upon them from a masked port-hole. The British were cut down;by the score, and retreated in confusion. That nilght, fearing that Harrison would come to Croghan's relief, Proctor abandoned the siege, and
retreated towards Malden.
It was clear that nothing of importance could be accomplished in this
quarter as long as the British held Lake Erie. Oliver Hazard Perrn, a
young lieutenant of the United States navy, volunteered to win back the
U\
jel
~ X k




THE SECOND WAR WTITIT ENGLAND.


619


lake from the enemy, who held it with a small squadron under Captain
Barclay  By extraordinary exertions Perry built and( equipped a Ileet at
Presque Isle, now Eric. It consisted of nirle vessels of various sizes,
from one which carried twenty-five guns downll to one which carried olne
gun. Its total armament amounted to fifty-five guns. It was manned
by a small force of sailors from the east, and by a large number of volunteers from General Harrison's army  As soon as his fleet was in pLroper
condition Perry stood out into the lake to seek the enemy  The British
squadron consisted of six vessels, carrying sixty-three guns.  Each fleet
carried about five hundred men. The two squadrons soon encountered
each other, and on the 10th of September a severe battle was fought
between them  at the western end of the lake. Perry at the open



ing of the fight
displayed a flag
from his vessel
bearing the words
of the brave Lawrence, "Don't give
up the ship."  It
was greeted with
clheers  from  the
men. During the
battle the American flag ship, the
"Lawrence," was
disabled, and
Perry passed in an
open boat, under a


E AT OF TEC E.
1)EATH OF TECl2IS' EI1.


heavy fire, to the "Niagara," the next largest ship, and transferred his
flag to her  The result was that the British fleet was defeated and forced
to surrender. Perry announced hlis victory to General Harrison in thel
following characteristic message: "We have met the enemy and they are
ours. Two ships, one brig, a schooner, and a sloop."
This victory was of the highest importance to the Americans. It,'aV1e
them  the command of Lake Erie, and opened the way to Canada.
Harrison hastened to profit by it, and advanced rapidly towards Detroit
and Malden. Proctor abandoned those places and retreated with his own
forces and Tecumseh and his Indians into Canada. At Detroit Harrison
was joined by thirty-five hundred mounted Kentuckians, under the aged
Governor Shelby, one of the heroes of Kinrg' Mountain, an( Colonel
Richard M. Johnson. He at once entered Canada in pursuit of Proctor,




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.


and by a forced march of sixty miles came up with him on the banks of
the Thaines, on the 5th of October, A short but desperate battle ensued,
in wlvich Tecumseh was killed and his Indians put to flight. The British
were routed, and Proctor saved himself only by thle tpeed of his horse.
By these successes the Americans won back Michigan Territory, and
for the present gave peace and security to tlhe northwestern frontier.
The Kentuckians returned home, and Colonel Lewis Cass, who was soon
after appointed governor of Michigan, was left to garrison Detroit with
llis brigade. With fifteen hundred regulars Harrison embarked on Lake
Erie and sailed for Buffalo to assist in the invasion of Canada from that
quarter.
A small fleet of armed vessels was maintained in Lake Ontario by
DEATH OF GENERAL PIKE.
each of the combatants. The American fleet was commanded by Commodore Chauncey   In April General Dearborn embarked a force of seventeen hundred picked men in these vessels an(l Failed across Lake Ontario
to attack York, now Toronto, the capita] of Upper Canada. The Americans landed a short distance below the town, and advanced upon it. On
the 27th of April the place was carried by assault. The British fired the
magazine of one of the works from which they were driven, and General
Pike, the commander of the storming party, and one or two hundred of
his troops were killed by the explosion. A large amount of military
stores fell into the hands of the captors. They were transferred to
Sackett's Harbor.
As it was not a part of the plan of General Dearborn to hold York,




TIIE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


the place was evacuated. Just before the withdrawal of the Americans
a small building, known as the Parliament House, was burned. The
British attributed this act to the Americans, who disclaimed it. The
American officers believed that the house was set on fire by the disaffected
Canadians, who had threatened to burn it. The burning of this building was made by the British the pretext for the destruction of the capitol
and other public buildings, at Washington, the next year.
From York General Dearborn sailed to the Niagara to attack Fort
George. The commander of this work, on the approach of the Americans, blew up his magazines and retreated to Burlington Heights, near
the western end of the lake. Dearborn followed them in pursuit, but
AI
7i-:~~~-~:-T.._ _-    -    _.     __
ATTACK UPON SACKETT S HARBOR.
was attacked and driven back by the British on the night of the 6th of
June.  Two American generals, Winder and Chandler, were lmade
prisoners in this engagement. Dearborn fell back in haste to Fort
George.
In the meantime General Prevost, having learned of Dearborn's
absence from Sackett's Harbor, attacked that place, on the 29th of May,
with one thousand men. He was repulsed with such vigor by the garrison, under General Brown, that he retreated to his ships, leaving his
wounded behind.
Soon after this General Dearborn suffered another reverse at Fort
George, and allowed a detachment of six hundred men of his army to be




1hISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


cut off by the British. In consequence of these failures General Dearborn was removed by the president, who appointed General WVillkinson,
the commander of the troops at New Orleans, as his successor,
It was proposed that General Wilkinson should enter Canada with his
troops and advance upon Montreal, and that General Hampton, commanding the forees on Lake Champlain, should join him on the St.
Lawrence. Wilkinson and Hampton were not on friendly terms, and
neither of thenI were possessed of sufficient patriotism to overlook their
personal differences for the good of their country. Wilkinson advanced
as far as the rapids of the St. Lawrence, and sent a body of troops,
under General Brown, to cover the deseent of the rapids by the army.
An engagement occurred at Chrysler's Farm, on the 11th of November;
the British were driven back; but the Americans lost more than three
hundred men. Wilkinson now sent word to Hampton to move forward
to llis support, I,ut the latter answered that he had abandoned the expedition, and was going into winter quarters. Under these circumstances
Wilkinson fell back to French Mills, about nine miles from St. Regis,
where he went into winter quarters.   Hampton prepared to pass tho
winter at Plattsburg on Lake Champlain.    Thus the expedition was
ruined by the quarrels of its commanders.
In December the Americans abandoned Fort George, and retreated
across the Niagara river. Before doing so General McClure, the commanding officer, burned the village of Newark, in order to prevent the
enemy from   using it as quarters for their troops during the winter.
There was no necessity and no excuse for the destruction of this village,
and it was speedily avenged by the enemy  About the middle of December the British crossed the Niagara river, surprised Fort Niagara, and
put the garrison to the sword. In retaliation for the burning of Newark they burned every town and     house that could be reached on
the American side of the river, including Lewistown, Youngstown,
Manchester, Black Rock, and Buffalo.
The war was not confined to the northern frontier. In the spring of
1813 Tecumseh had visited the Creek tribes in the southwest and aroused
their war spirit. In August seven hundred Creeks attacked and captured Fort Mims, on the west bank of the Alabama river, near the
mouth of the Tombigbee. Between three and four hundred settlers, who
had taken refuge in the fort, were massacred.
The south was soon aroused by the news of this massacre, and in a
short while a force of seven thousand volunteers was marching into the
Indian country in four divisions. One division, under General Andrew
Jackson, of Tennessee, moved southward from Nashville; another from
I




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


623


East Tennessee, under General Cocke; a third from Georgia, under General Floyd; and a fourth from Mississippi Territory. In addition to
these forces the lower Creeks took up arms against their brethren, and
the Cherokees and Choctaws joined the Americans. The principal villages of the hostile Creeks lay on and near the Coosa and Tallapoosa
rivers, and their hunting-grounds extended much farther north. The
Tennessee forces, under General Jackson, were the first to enter the Indian country, and a number of unimportant encounters occurred. On
the 3d of November the Indians were defeated in a bloody battle at Tallasehatche, and on the 8th of the same month at Talladega. These were
hard-won victories for the Americans, and terrible blows to the savages.
On the 29th of November the Georgia volunteers, under General
Floyd, attacked the Creek town of Autossee, and killed two hundred
warriors.
The Creeks were badly armed, but their spirit was unbroken by their
reverses. Early in the year 1814 they assumed the offensive, and on the
22d of January attacked General Jackson at Emuefau. Jackson succeeded in repulsing them, but in spite of his victory deemed it best to fall
back to Fort Strother. On the 25th the Indians again attacked him,
and were again defeated. Soon after this Jackson, being largely reinforced, advanced into the Indian country with an army of four thousand
Tennesseeans. At the Horse-Shoe Bend of the Tallapoosa the Creeks had
their principal settlement, an intrenched camp, in which they had collected their women and children, under the protection of one thousand
warriors. They were attacked here on the 27th of March, 1814, by
Jackson's army, and their camp was carried after a desperate fight, in
which six hundred warriors were killed, and two hundred and fifty
women and children were made prisoners. This terrible blow put an
end to the resistance of the Creeks. They sought peace, and were compelled to purchase it by the surrender of more than two-thirds of their
hunting-grounds.
The year 1813 was eventful and important in the naval history of the
republic, and once more the navy sustained the spirits of the country,
which had been cast down by the failure- of the army  On the 25th of
February the American sloop of war " Hornet," Captain Lawrence, captured the British brig " Peacock," off the mouth of the Demerara river,
after an action of fifteen minutes. The " Peacock " was so terribly cut
up by her adversary's fire that she sank in a few minutes after she struck
her flag. Captain Lawrence returned to the United States, and was promoted to the command of the frigate " Chesapeake," which was lying in
Boston harbor preparing for sea. While there Lawrence was challenged




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


by Captain Broke, of the British frigate "Shannon," which was cruising
off Boston harbor, Although his ship was badly manned, and his crew
undisciplined, Lawrence accepted the challenge, and put to sea on the 1st
of June to meet the "Shannon."  The action was begun about thirty
miles east of Boston Light, and lasted but fifteen minutes. The "Shannon" was in every way superior to the "Chesapeake," and the latter ship
was forced to strike her flag, with a loss of one hundred and forty-six of
her crew. Calptain Lawrence was mortally wounded. As he was being
carried below his last words were: " Don't give up the ship!"-words
which have since become the watchword of the service of which he was
one of the brightest ornaments.
The rejoicings in England over the capture of the "Chesapeake" were
very great. They were highly gratifying to the Americans, and especially to the little navy of the Union, whose splendid services had won
the respect of " the mistress of the seas."
In the summer of 1813 the "United States," "Macedonian," and
"Hornet," while attempting to get to sea from New York through Long
Island sound, were driven into the harbor of New London, and blockaded there,b a British squadron. In August the American sloop of war
"Argus" was captured while cruising in the English channel by the " Pelican."  In September the American brig "Enterprise," 12 guns, Captain
Burrows, captured the British brig "Boxer," Captain Blythe, off the
coast of Maine. Both commanders fell in the engagement, and were
buried with equal honors.
During the summer of 1813 the British fleet of Sir George Cockburn
entered the Chesapeake repeatedly and ravaged its shores. All the shipping that could be reached by the enemy was destroyed, and the towns
of Frenchtown, Georgetown, Havre de Grace, and Fredericktown were
plundered and burned. An attack was made on Norfolk, but was
repulsed with heavy loss. Cockburn then plundered the town of Hampton, and sailed to the southward. The barbarities committed by this fleet
along the Chesapeake and its tributaries were horrible. Neither age nor
sex was spared by the British sailors and marines, and women were ravished, and old men and little children murdered, with the knowledge of
the admiral, who made no effort to stop the outrages.
During the winter of 1813-14 a communication was received from the
British government, stating that although Great Britain had declined the
Russian mediation, she was willing to enter into direct negotiations with
the United States, either at London or Gottenburg, in Sweden. The
president at once accepted the English offer, and Henry Clay and Jonathan Russell were added to the commissioners already in Europe. Got



THE SECOND WAK W1'n         -wv..'...'
nburg was at first selected as the place of meeting, which was afterwards
langed to Ghent.
At this time the opposition to the war was very great in many parts of


NIAGARA FALLS.


the Union. The New England States continued bitterly hostile to it,
and the legislature of Massachusetts, in a remonstrance addressed to Congress, denounced the war as unreasonable, and urged the conclusion of a
40




626


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


pjeace. Congress itself was more divided upon the support of the war
than it had ever been. It contained many new men, some of them destined to play prominent parts in the future history of the country.
Pre-eminent among these was Daniel Webster, of New Hampshire, who
fron the first took a high position as one of the most gifted men in
Con,ress.
Hostilities were resumed by the Americans on the Niagara frontier
with the beginning of the spring of 1814. Early in May General
Brown, whose force had been increased to five thousand men, crossed the
Niagara. Fort Erie surrendered to him, without a
blow, on the 3d of July.
On the 4th General Scott,
with the advanced guard
of the army, moved towards the British, who
had taken position, under
General Riall, at Chippewa, fifteen miles distant.
e  th                      Scott was joined by Gen7i                       eral Brown, with the rest
i                      of the army, on the night
_ = -=                       of the 4th, and the next.                  day a severe engagement
occurred, in which the
British were defeated,
with a loss of five hun'__                                   ~   dred men. The loss of the
Americans was three hundred.
GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT IN 1814.       e      eea   a Ci
pewa General Riall fell
back to Burlington Heights, and the Americans advanced to Queenstown,
but soon after withdrew to Chippewa. Being strongly reinforced by a
body of troops, under General Drummond, Riall advanced from Burlington
Heights to attack the Americans, followed by General Drummond's command; and at the same time General Brown, who had heard of Drunmmond's arrival, set out from Chippewa to attack the British. The advanced
forces of the Americans were commanded by General Scott. The two
armies unexpectedly met at Bridgewater, or Lundy's Lane, immediately
opposite Niagara Falls, at sunset, on the 25th of July  The British occu



THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


627


pied a strong position, and notwithstanding the lateness of the hour Scott
resolved to attack them. The main body of the Americans, under General Brown, soon arrived, and the battle became general. The British
had posted a battery ou a hill which commanded the field, and were
doing great execution in the American ranks. It was captured by the
regiment of Colonel James Miller, and General Drulmmond, wllo had
arrived on the field and had taken command in place of' General Riall,
who had been wounded and captured by the Americans, advanced to
recover it. Drummond made three determined efforts to retake the battery, but was driven back each time. It was now midnight, and about
eight hundred men had fallen on each side. The Americans had ex-— ~~-I
BATTLE OF LTJNDY', LANE.
hausted their ammunition and were dependent now upon the cartridges
they obtained from the boxes of the fallen British. Finding all their
efforts vain the British sullenly withdrew and left the field to the Americans. The latter were so exhausted by their hard march of fifteen miles,
and five hours of constant fighting, that they made no effort at pursuit,
and soon withdrew from the hill to their camp. As they had no means
of hauling off the captured guns they were obliged to leave them on the
field. Generals Brown and Scott were both wounded during the battle,
as were nearly all of the field officers.
The victory of Lundy's Lane was particularly gratifying to the Americans. It was won, not over Canadian militia, but over veteran troops




628


HI,'l'OR Y OF THE UNITED ST'.EI 'S'.


who had served under Wellington in the wars with Napoleon. It broke
the long series of defeats sustained by the Americans since the opening
of the war, and showed what could be accomplished by American soldiers
under competent and determined commanders and in anything like a
lair fight.
General Brown wvithd~rew to Fort Erie after the battle, and being disabled by his wounds, relinquished the command to General Gaines.
General Druminmond moved forward, and on the 4th of August laid siege
to Fort Erie. On the 15th he attempted to carry the fort by an assault
at midnight, but was repulsed with a loss of one thousand men. In spite
of this reverse he pressed the siege with vigor, and in the meantime Gen_A.
SIEGE OF FORT ERIE.
eral Brown recovered from his wounds and resumed the command of the
fort. On the 17th of September the Americans made a sortie against
the batteries of the British, which were two miles in advance of their
camp. By a sudden dash from the fort, they stormed and carried the
batteries, spiked the guns, set fire to the magazines, inflicted a loss of six
hundred in killed and wounded upon the enemy, and retreated into the
fort, carrying with them four hundred prisoners. The American loss in
this brilliant sally was three hundred men. Drummond immediately raised
the siege and retreated across the Chippewa. In October a reinforcement
of four thousand men arrived from Lake Champlain under General Izard,
who assumed the command of the American army on the Niagara. He
was one of the old-style commanders, and at once proceeded to neutralize




7HIE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


629


the gallant achievements of Brown and Scott. He did nothing until
November, when, fearing that Drummond would be reinforced, he blew
up Fort Erie, and retreated across the Niagara, leaving the entire Canadian shore in the possession of the British.
General Izard had succeeded General Hampton in the command of the
army on Lake Champlain. Upon his withdrawal to the Niagara, Gen

SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF LAKE CHAMPLAIN.
eral Macomb took command of the troops that remained on Lake Champlain, and held Plattsburg with a force of about three thousand men.
Hearing that General Prevost was advancing to attack him, Macomb
called on the militia of New York and Vermont to come to his aid, and
about three thousand of them joined him, bringing his force to six thousand men. General Prevost having been reinforced from England,
advanced against Plattsburg with a force of twelve thousand veteran
troops, for the purpose of invading the State of New York. Upon the




630


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATMS.


approach of this force Macomb fell back behind the Saranac, a deep and
rapid stream which empties into the lake at Plattsburg, and the small
American squadron, under Commodore Macdonough, was moored across
the entrance of Plattsburg bay. This squadron carried eighty-six guns,
and was manned by eight hundred and fifty-six men. The British army
was accompanied by a s(lIuadron superior in strength to that of the Americans, and upon vwhich they depended for the control of Lake Champlain.
It was commanded by Captain Downie, mounted ninety-five guns, and was
manned by one thousand men.
Prevost arrived before Plattsburg on the 7th of September, and proceeded to erect lbatteries to cover his passage of the Saranac. On the
-i
MAC'1ON(NoUCLI  VJ(ITORY O)N LAKE CHAIMPLAI:.
lth of September he made a combined attack by land and water upon
the American position.  The British squadron advanced to force an
entrance into Plattsburg bay, and the British army at the same time
attempted to force a passage of the Saranac. As the enemy's fleet
advanced Macdonough called the crew of his flag-ship around him, and
kneeling on the quarter-deck of his vessel prayed God to crown the
American arms with victory that day  After a severe engagement of
two hours and a quarter the British fleet was defeated and forced to
surrender, with the exception of a few gunboats which escaped. While
this battle was going on, Prevost tried repeatedly to cross the Saranac,
but was each time driven back with heavy loss. During the night the




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


631


British army retreated in disorder, abandoning their sick andL wounded
and a large quantity of military stores; having lost twenty-five hundred
men in the engagement.
The country had ample cause to regret the weakness of its navy during
this war. The exploits of those vessels which had managed to get to sea
had shown what could be accomplished by this branch of the public
service, and our deficiency in this respect enabled the enemy to blockade
the ports of the Union, and to use the Chesapeake bay with as much
freedom as if it were one of their own harbors. In the summer of 1814
a fleet of sixty British ships under Admirals Cockburn and Cochrane,
having on board a land-force of five thousand men under General Ross,
assembled in the Chesapeake. Admiral Cochrane endeavored to induce
the slaves of Virginia and Maryland to desert their masters, and offered
them free transportation to the West Indies and Canada. As it was not
known at what point General Ross would land his troops, General Winder of Maryland was ordered to collect a force of fifteen thousand militia
from the neighboring States. He proposed to occupy a central position
from which he could cover Washington City, Annapolis, and Baltimore,
and was anxious to call out the militia at once; but General Armstrong,
the secretary of war, decided that it would be time enough to call out the
militia when the British had revealed their designs more plainly  He
did not believe the British had any idea of advancing upon Washington,
and thought Baltimore could defend itself. Mr, Madison submitted to
the decision of the secretary of war, and the national capital was left
defenceless.
In the meantime, the British commanders, learning the exposed condition of the city of Washington, determined to attack it. They divided
their fleet for this purpose, one portion ascending the Potomac, and
another the Patuxent. The latter division conveyed the troops of General Ross, and landed them at Benedict, on the Patuxent, about fifty
miles from Washington. General Ross at once set out for AWaslington,
advancing slowly and meeting with no resistance. As lie had no horses,
his troops were obliged to drag their three or four cannon by hand, and
the British made but about ten miles a day. A few determined troops
might have driven them back, and the roads might at least have been
obstructed and the progress of the enemy impeded.
General Winder gathered a small force of militia, and took position at
Bladensburg, on the east branch of the Potomac, about three miles from
Washington. He was joined here by Commodore Barney with five hundred sailors and marines from the gunboat flotilla in the Patuxent, which
Barney, unable to offer any resistance, had burned upon the approach of




VIEW ON THE GREENE RIVER AT THE CROSSING OF THE UNION PACIFIC RAILROAD, WYOMG TERRITORY.




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


633


the British fleet. On the 24th of August the British reached Bladensburg, and attacked the force under General Winder. The militia fled
at the first fire, but Barney and his sailors and marines stood their ground,
and served their guns with vigor until their position was turned on both
flanks by the superior force of the enemy, when they retreated, leaving
their guns and wounded in the hands of the victors. The so-called battle
of Bladensburg was little more than a skirmish.
General Ross halted to rest his men, who were worn out with the
heat, and towards sunset resumed his march, and entered Washington
a little before dark. The government had abandoned the city some
hours before, and had removed the greater part of its papers and archives,
and such public property as could be carried away, and only a few
frightened citizens remained in the town. Admiral Cochrane had some
time before announced that the British forces were ordered " to destroy
and lay waste all towns and districts of the United States found accessible to the attack of British armaments," and the army of General Ross
now proceeded to carry out these infamous instructions. They burned
the capitol, and with it the library of Congress, the buildings occupied
by the treasury and state departments, and plundered the president's
mansion and set it on fire. A number of stores and private dwellings
were also pillaged and set on fire. The navy yard, with all its contents
and several vessels on the stocks, was entirely destroyed. The British
afterwards attempted to excuse their shameful conduct in Washingtoll
by alleging that it was in retaliation for the burning of the parliament
house at York in Canada, an act which had been disclaimed by the
Americans and which the British had not been able to prove was their
work. General Ross occupied Washington during the night of the 24th,
and until dark on the 25th. Then fearing lest the Americans would
assemble in such force as to intercept him, he retreated stealthily from
Washington on the night of the 25th, and on the 29th reached Benedict
and reembarked his troops. The English vessels sent up the Potomac
succeeded in passing Fort Waslhington, which made little or no effort to
stop them, and on the 28th anchored off Alexandria. Twenty-one vessels
were captured, and the town saved itself from bombardment by paying
a ransom of sixteen thousand barrels of flour and one thousand hogsheads of tobacco.
After resting his men, General Ross ascended the Chesapeake to the
Patapsco, for the purpose of attacking Baltimore, which was defended
by Fort McHenry at the mouth of the harbor, and a force of Maryland
militia and some volunteers from Pennsylvania. A force of eight thousand men was landed at the mouth of the Patapsco, under General Ross,




Oill
Jaii
a-Mr
4:R ii


634




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


636


and on the 12th of September advanced towards the city, while the fleet
ascended the river to capture Fort McHenry and force its way into the
harbor. A small party of Americans contested the advance of the British
army, and a skirmish ensued in which General Ross was killed. A sharp
encounter followed, each side losing about two hundred and fifty men.
The American militia retired in good order, and on the morning of the
13th the British resumed their march towards Baltimore. The Americans were discovered in considerable force, occupying a line of intrenchmeats defended by artillery, and commanded by General Samuel Smith,


BATTLE MONUMENT, BALTIMORE, ERECTED IN MEMORY OF THOSE WHO
FELL AT NORTH POINT.
an officer of the revolution. The British commander now deemed it best
to await the result of the engagement between the fleet and Fort McHenry,
which was in progress at the time. The British fleet maintained a heavy
fire upon the fort, which replied with vigor, and soon made it apparent
to the enemy that they could not silence it or pass it. The attack on the
fort proving a failure, the British withdrew to North Point on the night
of the 13th, and reembarked on their ships. During this cannonade
Francis S. Key of Baltimore, who had visited the British fleet to obtain
the release of certain prisoners, and who was detained by the admiral




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


during the bombardment, wrote the famous song oT " The Star-Spangled
Banner," which has since become the national song of America.
Tihe Chesapeake was not tle only part of the coast that suffered from
the ravages of the British. The shores of Maine were ravaged with great
barbarity  Stonington, Connecticut, was subjected to a four days' bombardment by a Britihl fleet, but the militia repulsed every attempt of the
enemy to land. The foreign commerce of the country was completely
destroyed. The superior naval strength of the British enabled them to
blockade the Atlantic ports so thoroughly, that the government ordered
the lights along the coast to be destroyed, as they only served as guides
to British cruisers.
The opposition of the New England States to the war, which had
caus(ld them such severe loss, increased daily, and at length the legislature
of Massachusetts recommended a convention of delegates from the seaboard States to devise amendments to the Constitution for the purpose
of securing them from a recurrence of such evils as they were suffering
from.  The convention met at Hartford, Connecticut, on the 14th of
December, 1814, and was composed of delegates from the New England
States.  The convention was bitterly opposed by the advocates of the
war, who charged it with the intention to make a separate peace with
Great Britain, which would have been a practical secession from the
Union. The convention continued in session for twenty days, and
adopted an address to the country very moderate in its tone. It proposed to amend the Constitution by making the representation in the
lower House of Congress equal by lasingl it upon the free population
only; 1b forbidding embargo and non-intercourse laws; and by making
the President ineligible for a second term. The convention was for many
years exposed to the bitterest denunciation of the great mass of the
American people. One of the results of the opposition to the war was
the complete destruction of the old Federalist party which had opposed
the war.
Previous to the assembling of the convention, the president, in hope
of relieving the embarrassments occasioned by the opposition of New
England to the war, advised the repeal of the embargo and non-intercourse acts and the abandonment of the entire restrictive system. His
recommendations were carried out by Congress.
In the meantime stirring events were transpiring in the south. At
this time Florida was a possession of Spain, which was supposed to be a
neutral power   Great Britain had laid Spain under heavy obligations
in her struggle against Napoleon, and the British had now no difficulty
in entering Florida, and using it as a base of operations against the




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


637


south. Their fleet entered Pensacola harbor, and obtained possession of
the forts. From this point they began to stir up the Creek Indians to
make war on the Americans, and fitted out an expedition against Fort
Bowyer, commanded by Major Lawrence, which defended the harbor of
Mobile. On the 15th of September an attack was made upon this fort,
and was repulsed with the loss to the enemy of a vessel and a number of
men. General Jackson, having collected a force of three thousand Tennesseeans, marched to Pensacola, entered the town on the 7th of November, demanded that the British should leave the place at once, and notified the Spanish governor that he should hold him responsible for the
1 -— I ---! —1   I
- -                    -      -..- -                 RI
JACKSON SQUARE, NEW ORLEANS.
occupation of the town or the forts by the British for purposes of hostility
towards the United States. The British immediately blew up a fort
which they had erected seven miles below the town, and embarked in
their ships.
Confident that New Orleans would be the next object of attack by the
British, and knowing that the city was poorly prepared to resist, General
Jackson at once sent General Coffee with the mounted Tennesseeans to
that city, and followed with the rest of his troops as rapidly as possible.
New Orleans was at this time a city of about twenty thousand inhabitants, less than one-half of whom were whites. The whites were principally of French birth or parentage, and cared little for the United States.
They could not be relied upon to hold the city against the British. The




638


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TEES.


defences were in a miserable state, and the people were demoralized and
insubordinate. Jackson set to work with vigor. He proclaimed martial law, and put down the opposition to his measures for the safety of
the city with a firm hand. He called for volunteers to defend the city,
and urged the free men of color t() come forward and enroll themselves.
They responded in considerable numbers. The prisons were emptied, and
the prisoners enrolled in the ranks of the army  The services of Lafitte,
a noted smuggler-chief of Barataria bay, and of his band, were accepted.
The British had endeavored to secure the aid of this band as pilots, as
they knew the coast thoroughly, but Lafitte and his men had refused to
hold any communication with them.
While Jackson was thus engaged, the British fleet arrived on the coast
of Louisiana and cast anchor off the mouth of Lake Borgne, the shortest
passage by water to New Orleans. It had on board a force of twelve
thousand veteran troops, just released from the wars against Napoleon, and
four thousand marines and sailors. The British army was commanded
by Sir Edward Pakenham, the brother-in-law of the Duke of Wellington, and an officer of tried ability, and under him were Generals Gibbs,
Keene, and Lambert, veterans of the peninsular war.
The Americans had a small flotilla in Lake Borgne, and by extraordinary exertions, Jackson managed to collect a force of five thousand troops,
only one thousand of whom were regulars. On the 14th of December
the British sent their boats into Lake Borgne, and after a severe engagement captured the American flotilla, and opened the way to the city.
On the 22d of December the British landed twenty-four hundred men
under General Keene, who advanced to a point on the bank of the
Mississippi, about nine miles below New Orleans. Jackson attacked this
party on the night of the 23d with the regulars and Coffee's Tennesseeans
dismounted, and drove them to take shelter behind a levee. The success
of the Americans in this engagement greatly encouraged them to hope
for a similar issue to the final conflict.
The next day Jackson took position on solid ground behind a broad
and deep trench that extended across the plain of Chalmette from the
Mississippi to an impassable swamp, and covered his position with a line
of intrenchments.  The British, believing Jackson's force to be much
stronger than it really was, made no attempt to interfere with him for
several days, and he employed this delay in strengthening his line with
bales of cotton. The British on the 28th of December opened a heavy
cannonade upon the American line. Jackson replied with energy with his
five pieces of artillery, and the firing was continued without accomplishing anything definite for several hours. On the 1st of January, 1815, they




YTHE ISEC.O(ND WAR WITH IEN'(LAND.


639


attempted a second cannonade, but the American guns soo  ilecled their
fire.  On the 4th of January, a body of twenty-two hundred Kentucky riflemen, who had descended the Mississippi to his assistance,
reached Jackson's camp. Only one-half of them were armed. Jaclkson
could not supply the remainder with arms, but set them to work to construct a second line of intrenchments in the rear of his first.
Having finished their preparations, the British erected a battery of six


THE PLAIN OF CHALMETTE-SCENE OF THE BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.


eighteen pounders on the night of the 7th of January, andl on the morning
of the 8th advanced to carry the American line by storm. Their centre
was led by General Pakenham in person, and other columns under Generals Gibbs and Keene moved against the right and left wings of the
Americans. The open space over which the enemy were obliged to pass
was nearly a mile in width, and was completely commanded by Jaclkson's
guns. The British advanced in splendid style, and were soon within




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


range of the American artillery, which opened on them with terrible
effect. They never wavered, but closing up their ranks firmly pressed
on. As they came within musket shot the Kentucky and Tennessee
riflemen opened a fatal fire upon them which literally mowed them down.
They wavered and broke. General Pakenham attempted to rally them,
and was shot down. Generals Gibbs and Keene were wounded while
engaged in the same attempt, the latter mortally- The command devolved
upon General Lambert, who made two more attempts to carry the line
by storm. Each time the fatal fire of the American riflemen drove
back the tried veterans of Wellington's campaigns, and at last they broke
and fled in confusion. General Lambert continued the retreat to the
BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS.
shore of the gulf, where the British fleet lay, and about a fortnight later
embarked his troops and withdrew
The American loss in the battle of New Orleans was seven killed and
six wounded. The British lost two thousand in killed and wounded.
The victory was of the highest importance. It saved not only New
Orleans but the mouth of the Mississippi from British control. Had
the army of General Pakenham been successful, there is good reason to
believe that England would have refused to relinquish the Mississippi,
and the war would have gone on, or peace would have been made with
the mouth of the great river under the control of England. The victory
closed the war, and was won as we shall sea three weeks after the treaty
of peace was signed.




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


641


At sea the war was carried on by the few American cruisers that managed to elude the blockade of our coast. The frigate " Essex," Commodore
Porter, went to sea in 1813, and made a number of captures in the
Atlantic. Learning that the British whalers, which had been armed for
the purpose of capturing American vessels engaged in the same trade,
were doing considerable damage in the Pacific, Commodore Porter sailed
around Cape Horn and entered that ocean. He captured twelve armed
British whalers in the course of a few months, and then learning that the
British frigate "Phoebe" had been sent in pursuit of him, Porter sailed to
Valparaiso to look for her. While he lay there the " Phoebe," accompanied
by the English sloop of war " Cherub," arrived off the harbor  The
"Phoebe" was herself a full match for the " Essex," but Porter resolved to.
fight both vessels. As he was leaving the harbor a sudden squall carried
away his main topmast, and left him at the mercy of his enemies, which at
once attacked him. His defence was one of the most gallant and desperate
in history, but he was forced to surrender, but not until he had lost fifty ---
eight of his crew killed, and sixty-six wounded.
In. January, 1815, the frigate "President," Commodore Decatur, managed to elude the blockade of New York and get to sea. She was chased
by a British squadron of five vessels, and a running fight ensued. Being
entirely disabled, the " President " was forced to surrender.
In February, 1815, while cruising off the port of Lisbon, one fine
moonlight night, the " Constitution," Captain Stewart, encountered two,
British sloops of war, the "Cyane," 24, and the "Levant," 18, and captured both of them after a short engagement. These vessels were captured
after peace was signed, and were restored to the British. On the 23d of
March, the "Hornet," Captain Biddle, captured the British brig "Penguin"
off the Cape of Good Hope. The " Penguin " was so much injured that
Biddle was forced to destroy her, On the 30th of June the " Peacock,"
Captain Warrington, ignorant of the close of the war, captured the
"Nautilus" in the East Indies. The latter vessel was restored to the
British. Thus the war, which opened so gloomily for the Americans,
closed with a series of brilliant successes for them.
In the meantime negotiations for peace had been conducted between the
American and British commissioners at Ghent, in Belgium. The American commissioners had been instructed to demand the settlement of the
impressment question, and at the same time to give assurance that upon
the relinquishment of that claim by England Congress would enact a law.
forbidding the enlistment of English sailors in either the navy or mer —
chant service of the United States. On the 14th of December, 1814, the
labors of the commissioners were brought to a close, and a treaty of peace
41




642


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


between the United States and Great Britain was signed. The treaty
provided that all places captured by either party during the war should
be restored to their rightful possessors. Arrangements were made for
determining the northwest boundary of the United States, and for settling matters of minor importance. The treaty was silent on the subject
of impressments, the cause of the war. Nevertheless Great Britain
ceased to exercise her claim to this right as regarded the United States,
and has not since attempted to revive it, so that the object of the war, the
protection of American sailors from impressment by England, was attained after all. The treaty was unanimously ratified by the Senate, and
on the 18th of February peace was proclaimed by the president. A few
TILE "HORNET" AND THIE " I'iNGL'iN."
days later the president recommended to Congress the passage of a law
forbidding the enlistment of foreign seamen in American vessels.
The proclamation of peace was hailed with delight in all parts of the
country, especially in the Atlantic cities, which had suffered heavily by
the war, and the national rejoicings were intensified by the news which
arrived a few days later of the brilliant victory of New Orleans.
Soon after the conclusion of peace with Great Britain, the United
States were called upon to punish the insolence of the dey of Algiers.
That ruler, thinking that the United States were too much crippled by
their recent conflict with Great Britain to punish his insolence, suddenly
made war upon them. He threatened to reduce Mr. Lear, the American




THE SECOND IIWAR WITH ENGLAND.


643


consul, to slavery, and compelled him to purchase his liberty and that of
his family by the payment of a large ransom. Several American merchantmen were captured by the Algerine pirates, and their crews reduced
to slavery  The excuse offered by the dey for these outrages was that
the presents of the American government were not satisfactory
The government of the United States determined to compel the Barbary powers to make a definite settlement of the questions at issue
between them and this country, and in May, 1815, Conmodore Decatur
was despatched to the Mediterranean with a fleet of ten vessels, three of
which were frigates. He was ordered to compel the dey to make satisCOMMODORE DECATUR.
faction for his past outrages, and to give a guarantee for his future good
conduct. On the voyage out Decatur fell in with the largest frigate in
the Algerine service, near Gibraltar, on the 17th of June, and captured
her after a fight of thirty minutes. On the 19th another Algerine cruiser
was taken. The fleet then proceeded to Algiers, but upon its arrival
found the dey in a very humble frame of mind. The loss of his two
best ships, and the determined aspect of the Americans, terrified him into
submission, and he humbly sued for peace. He was required to come on
board of Decatur's flag-ship, and there sign a humiliating treaty with the
United States, by which he bound himself to indemnify the Americans
from whom he had extorted ransoms, to surrender all his prisoners uncon



644


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


ditionally, to renounce all claim to tribute from the American govern.
ment, and to cease from molesting American vessels in future.
The difficulty with Algiers having been satisfactorily settled, Decatut
sailed to Tunis and Tripoli, and demanded of the government of each of
those countries indemnity for some American vessels which had been cap.
tured by the British in their harbors with their connivance. The demand
was coupled in each case with a threat of bombardment, and was complied with. About the middle of the summer Commodore Bainbridge
joined Decatur with the " Independence," 74, the "Congress," and several other vessels, but the energetic Decatur had settled all the difficulties,
arid had so humbled the Barbary powers that they never again renewed
their aggressions upon American commerce. The American fleet then
visited the principal ports of the Mediterranean. The brilliant record
made by the navy during the war with England secured it a flattering
reception everywhere.
In the autumn of 1815 the Indian tribes deprived of the support of
Great Britain made peace with each other and with the United States.
The northwestern frontier was thus secured against the further hostility
of the savages.
The finances of the country were in a wretched condition at the close
of the war. All the banks but those of New England had suspended
specie payments, and none were now in a condition to return to a specie
basis. The public debt was over $100,000,000, and there was a general
lack of confidence throughout the country  Mr. A. J. Dallas, the secretary of the treasury, in view of the general distress, proposed to abolish
a number of the internal taxes which had been levied for the support of
the war. In their place he advised the imposition upon imports from
foreign countries of duties sufficiently high not only to afford a revenue,
but also to protect the manufactures which had sprung up during the
war, and which were threatened with ruin by the competition of European
goods. The president, in his annual message, warmly recommended such
a course. Another important measure was also enacted. The charter of
the first Bank of the United States expired in 1811. Efforts had been
made, without success, to obtain its renewal, and Mr. Madison, in January, 1814, had vetoed a bill for this purpose which had passed both
Houses of Congress. In the spring of 1816 a bill was passed by Congress chartering a new Bank of the United States for twenty years, with
a capital of $35,000,000, and received the president's signature on the
10th of April. It was located in Philadelphia, but had branches in
other States. It gave the people a uniform currency, good in all parts
of the country, and redeemable on demand in gold and silver, and thus




THE SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND.


645


did much to remedy the financial difficulties of the times. Somewhat later a law was passed requiring that all sums of money due
the United States should be paid in gold or silver coin, "in treasury
notes, in notes of the Bank of the United States, or in notes of banks
payable, and paid on demand, in
specie.")
On the 19th of April, 1816, the
Territory of Indiana was admitted
into the Union as a State, making
the nineteenth member of the Confederacy.                               COAT OF ARMS OF INDIANA.
The presidential election took
place in the fall of 1816. Mr. Madison having declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic party nominated James Monroe, of
Virginia, for President, and Daniel D. Tompkins, of New York, for
Vice-President, and elected them by large majorities over the Federal
candidates, who were: For President, Rufus King, of New York; for
Vice-President, John Howard, of Maryland.




CHAPTER XXXIV.
THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF JAMES MONROE AND JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.
Inauguration of Mr. Monroe-His Tour through the Eastern States-Admission of Mississippi into the Union-Troubles with the Indians —General Jackson's Vigorous
Measures against the Spaniards in Florida-Purchase of Florida by the United StatesIllinois becomes a Stat —The First Steamship-Maine admitted into the Union-The
Slavery Question-The Missouri Compromise-Admission of Missouri as a State-The
Fourth Census-Re-election of Mr. Monroe-The Tariff-Protective Policy of the Government-Recognition of the Spanish Republics-The Monroe Doctrine-Visit of
Lafayette to the United States-Retirement of Mr. Monroe-John Quincy Adams
elected President-His Inauguration-Rapid Improvement of the Country-Increase
of Wealth and Prosperity-Internal Improvements-lThe Creek Lands in Georgia
ceded to the United States-Death of Thomas Jefferson and John Adams-The AntiMasons-The Tariff of 1828-Andrew Jackson elected President of the United States.
( T  AMES     MONROE        was inaugurated    President of the United
~Ic1    States, at Washington, on the 4th of March, 1817.       He had?       served during the revolution in the army of the United States,. ts   and had entered Congress soon after the formation of the government as a representative from Virginia, and had won great credit
by his services in that body     He had been secretary of state during
the eight years of Mr. Madison's c(mi ':tlrtion, and had greatly increased his fame by his discharge of the difficult and delicate duties of this position. He
was a man of amiable and conciliatory charL_..~, '       acter, and was popular with both parties. In
'"..             his inaugural address he declared his inten*'WiS,., ':    -   ttion to administer the government in accordi  >S     ance with the principles of Washington, and
B l                  '," the sentiments of this document were warmly
applauded throughout the country by FederE~8           alists as well as Democrats. The' administra~ tion of Mr Monroe covered a period generally known in our political history as "the
JAMES MONROE.        era of good feeling."  Party lines were almost
blotted out, and the people of the country
were mxore united than at any previous or subsequent qeriod in the
support of national measures.
646




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


641


A few months after his inauguration President Monroe made a tour
through the Eastern States. He was received with marked attention
everywhere, and the Federalist city of Boston entertained him with the
cordial hospitality which is one of her characteristics.
On the 10th of December, 1817, the western portion of the Territory of
Mississippi was admitted into the Union as the State of Mississippi. Thc
eastern portion of the former Territory was erected into the Territory of
Alabama, for which a government was provided by Congress.
Towards the close of the year 1817 the Seminole Indians, whose
lands lay within the Spanish province of Florida, began to commit
depredations along the borders of Georgia and Alabama Territory.
They were joined by the Creeks, and their operations:-oon became so important as to demand the immediate action of the federal government.
General Gaines, commanding the federal troops in Alabama, attempted to
check the Indians, but his forces were inadequate to the task, and lie was
compelled to ask assistance of the
government. General Jackson, com-                 -s
manding the southern department,
was ordered to call out the militia
and take the field against the In-  i   -
dians. He collected a force of one
thousand  mounted  Tennesseeans, Co OF ARMS OF MISSISSIPPI
and in March, 1818, invaded the
Indian country, and in a few weeks laid it waste; the villages and cornfields were burned, and the cattle captured or killed.
Being satisfied that the Spaniards in Florida had incited the Indians
to make war on the United States, General Jackson, as soon as he had
punished the Indians, marched into Florida and seized St. Marks, on
Appalachee bay, the only fortified town of the Spaniards in that part of
Florida. An armed American vessel; cruising off the Florida coast,
hoisted the British colors, and txo prominent hostile Creek chiefs were
decoyed on board, and were summarily hanged by order of Jackson. In
one of his forays against the Indians Jackson captured two British
traders, Robert C. Ambrister, or Ambuster, and Alexander Arbuthnot.
They were accused of aiding the Indians, were tried and found guilty by
a court-martial, and were promptly hanged. The Spanish governor in'
dignantly protested against the invasion of Florida, but Jackson, unmoved
by this protest, advanced in May to Pensacola, the seat of the S'ani
provincial government, which place was immediately surrendered to him.
The Spanish governor fled to Fort Barra.n.is, below the town. Jack~onr
attacked the fort and compelled it to surrender after a brief resistance,




648


IIIS'ORY OF THE UNITE'v TATES.


whereupon the governor continued his flight to Havana. The invasion
of Florida by Jackson drew forth an indignant protest from the Spanisl
government, but his conduct was sustained by a decisive majority in both
Houses of Congress. The Spanish government did not press the matter,
as negotiations were soon entered upon which brought about an amicable
settlement of the difficulty.
The Spanish kingdom was indebted to certain citizens of the United
States in sums amounting in the aggregate to $5,000,000. Spain instructed her minister at Washington to conclude a treaty with the United
States ceding Florida to them as an equivalent for these claims. The
treaty was arranged in 1819. Spain ceded to the United States all her
claims to East and West Florida, and to the territory claimed by her on
the Pacific coast north of 42 degrees of north latitude, and the federal
government assumed the Spanish debt to the citizens of this countryTwo years later this treaty was ratified by Spain, and on the 22d of
April, 1821, the president formally announced the acquisition of Florida
by the United States. This pur_NT                    chase also included the territory in
1        i      _,_-_ -b  Oregon claimed by Spain, and emI       braced an area of 367,320 square
miles. Florida was at once organib     ized as a Territory, and General
__                           Jackson was appointed its first
COAT OF ARMS OF ILLINOIS.  governor.
On the 3d of December, 1818, the Territory of Illinois was admitted
into the Union as a State.
The year 1819 was marked by an event of great importance in the
history of the world. Steam had been used for some time in the inland
navigation of the Union, but it was not generally believed it could be
applied to sea-going vessels. The steamship " Savannah," built in New
York, but owned in the city from which she was named, made a successful voyage from New York to Savannah in the early part of 1819. In
May of that year she sailed from Savannah for Liverpool, and reached
that port in safety  From Liverpool she subsequently made a voyage to
St. Petersburg. She was the first steam vessel that ever crossed the
Atlantic, and, wherever she went, was an object of the greatest interest.
The question of steam navigation on the ocean was thus satisfactorily
settled by America.
On the 14th of December, 1819, Alabama was admitted into the Union
as a State, making the total number of States twenty-two.
On the 15th of March, 1820, Maine, which had formed a part of




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


649


MaXsachusetts, but had been ceded by that State to the general government, was admitted into the Union as a State. The object of the erection
of this new State was to offset the growing power of the Southern States
by the creation of a new member of the Union in New England. The
number of the New England States was thus increased to six.
For some years past the question of African slavery in the States had
been assuming an important and alarming position in the public mind.
The States of the northi and west had gotten rid of such negro slaves as
they had originally possessed, and
had forbidden their citizens to own. ';                     i
or bring within their limits for purposes of labor any persons of this ~!             S A t   o,
class. The Southern States, on the -i
other hand, comprised a region inll
which slave labor was particularly
profitable, and it was believed by the    COAT OF ABMS OF ALABAMA.
people of this region that the industry of many parts of the south could
not be properly developed by white men, as the climate was more unsuited to them than to the negroes.  The production of cotton,,rice,
sugar, and tobacco depended on the labor of the negro, and in the States
where those great staples were raised slavery was regarded as a necessity
At the period we are now considering slavery existed in the States of
Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia,
Alabama, Louisiana, Mississippi, Tennessee, and  Kentucky.   Being
regarded by these States as necessary to their prosperity, they con-,                      sidered any and all plans for its
i(.    ~     S  ^,removal as attacks upon their chief
source of wealth.
H                         In the non-slaveholding States
the feeling that slavery was sinful
had been gradually gaining ground,
and there were many persons in the south who held the same views.
Certain religious bodies in the country had distinctly expressed their belief that it was contrary to the teachings of Christianity to own slaves,
and memorials had been presented to the legislatures of some of the
States, and to the Congress of the United States, praying for the abolition
of slavery
The law for the organization of the Northwest Territory forbade the
admission of slavery into the States to be formed out of that Territory,
and thus secured them for free labor. Though Congress did not hesitate




HISTOIY OF THE UNITED STATES.


to legislate upon the subject of slavery in this case, it steadily refused to
comply with the demands of the petitions presented to it praying it to
take measures for the abolition of slavery throughout the nation. The
existence of slavery within the individual States was recognized and protected by the Constitution, and Congress held that it had no right to
interfere with the domestic relations of those States in which slavery,
thus recognized and protected, was established.
In February, 1819, the Territory of Missouri, which was formed out


COTTON PLANTATION.


of a iart of the Louisiana purchase, asked permission to form a constitution preparatory to being admitted into the Union as a State. When the
bill for this purpose was presented to the House of Representatives on
the 13th -f February, Mr. Tallmadge, of New York, proposed to insert
a clause providing " that the further introduction of slavery, or involuntarv servitude, be prohibited, except for the punishment of crimes whereof
the party shall have been duly convicted; and that all children born




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


in said State, after the admission thereof into the Union, shall be free at
the age of twenty-five years."
The announcement of this amendment produced a great sensation in
the House, and throughout the country  It was believed by the advocates of slavery that the resolutions of the House of Representatives of
1790, in reply to the first petition presented to it for the abolition of
slavery, had settled the question of the powers of the federal government
respecting slavery  No effort had been made to revive the subject in the
admission of Kentucky, Tennessee, Louisiana, Mississippi, or Alabama,
in each of which States negro slavery existed. Many of the most determined opponents of slavery believed that, under the constitution and
the Louisiana treaty with France, Congress had no right to adopt the
proposed restriction upon the admission of Missouri as a State. Among
these were Mr. Jefferson, then living in retirement at Monticello, and
John Quincy Adams, the secretary of state in Mr Monroe's cabinet.
Both of these gentlemen were sincerely desirous of the abolition of
slavery  Mr. Jefferson believed that the States alone had power to legislate upon the subject within their respective limits. The opponents of
slavery, on the other hand, contended that while Congress had no power
to interfere with slavery in the thirteen original States, it had full power
to legislate concerning it in the Territories, which were the common property of the States north and south. The advocates of slavery contended
that, as the treaty under which the Louisiana purchase was madle contained a pledge to the inhabitants of that Territory that they should enjoy
"all the privileges of citizens of the United States," such a restriction as
that proposed by Mr Tallmadge would be a violation of this pledge.
They claimed also that as slaves were property, and the Territories the
common possession of the States, the citizens of the slaveholding States
had the right to carry their property into the Territories; and that the
prohibition of slavery in the Territories would be to deprive the south of
her share in their enjoyment. The anti-slavery advocates replied to this,
that slave and free labor could not coexist on the same soil, and that to
allow slavery in the Territories would be to drive free labor out of them;
and that it would be a great wrong to allow the introduction of a few
hundred thousand slaves at the cost of driving millions of free men from
the Territories.
The discussion of this question produced intense feeling between the
Northern and Southern States, and the sectional division of the country
was drawn too deep to be effaced while the cause of it remained. It was
very clear to thinking men that the feelings aroused by this controversy
could not be quieted until the institution of slavery should be abolished




652


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


throughout the country, or should be introduced into every new State
formed out of the Territories remaining to the republic. The excitement
deepened daily, and at one time became so intense as to threaten the
existence of the Union. Good men of all parties gave their best efforts
to the task of effecting a settlement of the difficulty, but amid the storm
of passion which was aroused by the debate in Congress it was hard to
accomplish anything.
The bill allowing the people of Missouri to form a State constitution
passed the House of Representatives with Mr. Tallmadge's amendment
by a small majority. It was defeated in the Senate. When Congress
met again in December, 1819, the debate was renewed upon the Missouri
question. The House again passed the bill forbidding the existence of
slavery in Missouri. The Senate struck out Mr. Tallmadge's amendment, and added to the House bill, as a substitute for it, a proviso offered
by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, that slavery should not exist in any part of
the Louisiana Territory north of 36 degrees and 30 minutes north latitude, and west of the proposed State of Missouri, or in any State to be
formed out of this Territory  The House refused to accept the Senate's
amendment, and in order to adjust their differences a committee of conference was appointed by the two Houses.
Maine, whose admission we have related, was an applicant for admission into the Union at this time, and it was contended by the south that
it was unjust to admit her without any restriction as to her domestic
institutions, and yet to impose upon Missouri a restriction which would
deprive a large part of her population of their property, and close the
State against emigration from the south. The result of the committee
of conference was that after long and exciting debates the amendment
offered by Mr. Thomas, of Illinois, was accepted. Maine was admitted
as a free State. It was enacted by Congress that slavery should never
exist north of the line of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude; and that
Missouri should be admitted into the Union as a slave State upon the
adoption of a constitution by her people. This was regarded as an
equitable settlement of the difficulty, and the measure is known as the
Missouri Compromise. The act for the admission of Maine received
the president's approval on the 3d of March, 1820, and the State was
admitted into the Union under it on the 15th of March. The separate
act in relation to Missouri was approved by the president on the 8th of
March, 1820. Its title shows its object. It was, "An act to authorize
the people of Missouri Territory to form a constitution and State
government, and for the admission of such State into the Union on an
equal footing with the original States, and to prohibit slavery in certain




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


653


Territories." As we shall see the State of Missouri was not admitted into
the Union under the famous Missouri Compromise.
When Congress met in December, 1820, the constitution adopted by
Missouri was presented to that body. It contained a clause which prevented free people of color from settling in the State. "This clause,"
says Colonel Benton, " was adopted for the sake of peace-for the sake
of internal tranquillity-and to prevent the agitation of the slave question." * It was objected to in Congress by the party that had previously
opposed the admission of Missouri as a slave State. This party argued
that the constitution required that the citizens of one State should be entitled to the privileges of citizens in the other States; and that as some
of the States recognized free people of color as citizens, this provision of
the Missouri constitution was in open hostility to the constitution of the
United States, since it deprived the citizens of some of the States of their
rights. The friends of the compromise measure were astoundcd, as they
had supposed that it had removed all obstacles to the admission of
Missouri, which had already exercised the privileges of a State in electing
senators and representatives to Congress, and in taking part in the presidential election of 1820. The subject was reopened in Congress in all
its bitterness, and the country again plunged into profound agitation.
At this juncture Henry Clay exerted himself with great energy to
bring about a settlement of the dispute. He induced the House to commit the matter to a committee of thirteen, of which he was made chairman. This committee advised the admission of Missouri upon the condition that the obnoxious clause in her constitution should be withdrawn
and that her legislature should pass no law violative of the rights of
citizens of other States. Mr. Clay supposed that as this recommendation
amply met the objection to the admission of Missouri, it would remove
the last obstacle to the accomplishment of that object. To his astonishment it was defeated by a vote of eighty for it and eighty-three against
it. The struggle now became more bitter than ever. The anti-slavery
party, which had by this time obtained a definite existence, were determined that the right of the general government to control the slavery question should be acknowledged. The pro-slavery party were determined
to resist the exercise of that claim. Threats were freely indulged to destroy the Union by the withdrawal of the States. Mr. Clay, undaunted
by his failure, renewed his patriotic efforts to bring about a settlement of
the dispute, and at length secured the passage of measures substantially
the same as those advised by his first committee. The act of Congress
for this purpose was approved by the president on the 2d of March, 1821
* Benton's Thirty Years' View, vol. i., p. 8.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The Missouri legislature on the 26th of June expunged the obnoxious
artidle from the constitution of the State, and on the 10th of August the
president issued his proclamation admitting Missouri into the Union.*
The slavery question was quieted for a time by the admission of Missouri, but it was not settled. We shall encounter it again and again in
the remaining chapters of this work.
Iii 1820 the fourth census of the United States placed the population
of the republic at 9,638,191 souls.
In the fall of 1820 Mr. Monroe and Governor Tompkins were reelected president and vice-president of the United States.     Mr. Monroe
received at the polls a majority of the votes of every State in the Union,
and every electoral vote but one, which was one in the college of New
Hampshire, and was cast for John Quincy Adams. Mr. Monroe entered
upon his second term on the 4th of March, 1821.
Next in importance to the slavery question was that of the tariff, or
the imposition of a protective duty in favor of home manufactures.      In
his inaugural address the president
had recommended the imposition of
S5        such a system  of duties.   During
the war the non-intercourse laws of
J ~Congress and the rigid blockade,-' O]l                              maintained by the British fleet entirely cut the United States off from
COAT OF ARMS OF MISSOURI.
commercial intercourse with the rest
of the world, and compelled the States to depend upon their own exertions
for the supply of their wants. During this period numerous manufacturing
enterprises had sprung up, especially in New England, where capital was
idle, and labor abundant. At the close of the war the country was flooded
with European goods, which were sold at reduced prices for the especial
purpose of ruining American manufactures.       In their weak and helpless
condition the American enterprises could not endure this competition, and
* "A general idea prevails very extensively that Missouri was admitted as a slave State
in 1820, under an agreement with the Restrictionists, or Centralists, proposed by Mr. Clay,
that she should be so admitted upon condition that negro slavery should be forever prohibited in the public domain north of 36 degrees 30 minutes north latitude. No great< r
error on any important historical event ever existed. The truth is, Mr. Clay was not tlhe
author of the territorial line of 36 degrees 30 minutes, incorporated in the act of 1820;
nor was Missouri admitted under the provisions of that act. On the contrary, she was admitted on the 10th of August, 1821, by presidential proclamation, upon the 'Fundamlenal
Condition,' in substance, that the State government, in all its departments, should be subject to the constitution of the United States, as all the State governments were, and are."
-A Compendium of the History of the United States. By Hon. Alexander H. Stephens
p. 329.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


655


the tariff was proposed as the only means of saving them from ruin. The
first measure of this kind was passed by Congress in 1816, and was opposed by the New England States, which were then largely engaged in
commerce, and was supported by the south. In 1820 the tariff was revised. The New England States, which had directed the chief efforts to
manufactures since 1816, had felt the beneficial effects of protective duties,
and now became the warm supporters of the tariff. The south being an
agricultural section had found that its interests demanded free trade, had
changed its position and resolutely opposed the tariff. In spite of the
opposition to the measure, however, the duties were increased in the tariff
of 1820.
For some years past Mexico and the States of South America formerly
held by Spain as provinces had been struggling to achieve their independence of the mother country. Henry Clay had exerted himself with enthusiasm to obtain from Congress a recognition of their independence, but
such a step had been considered premature. In March, 1822, however,
his efforts were crowned with success, and a bill was passed by Congress,
in accordance with the recommendation of the president, recognizing the
independence of Mexico and the South American republics, and providing
for the establishment of diplomatic relations with them. The next year
President Monroe declared in a message to Congress that, " as a principle,
the American continents, by the free and independent position they have
assumed and maintained, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects
for future colonization by any European power"    This claim that
America belongs to republicanism, and is not to be the scene of European
schemes for territorial aggrandizement, has since been known as the
" Monroe doctrine," and has been regarded as one of the cardinal points
of the policy of the government of the United States.
The last year of Mr. Monroe's administration was marked by an event
of the deepest interest to the whole country.  In 1824 the venerable
Marquis de Lafayette came to the United States at the express invitation
of Congress, to visit the nation whose freedom he had helped to achieve.
He reached New York on the 13th of August, and was received with
enthusiasm. He travelled through all the States, and was everywhere received with demonstrations of respect and affection, and he was given
abundant evidence in all parts of the country that the nation cherished
with love and pride the memory of the generous stranger who came to
its aid in its darkest hour of trial. Returning to Washington during the
session of Congress, Lafayette spent several weeks there. Congress, as a
token of the gratitude of the nation for his services, voted him a township
of land, and the sum of two hundred thousand dollars.  The frigate




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


"Brandywine," just finished, was appointed to convey him  back to
France-a delicate compliment, as the vessel was named after the stream
on whose banks Lafayette fought his first battle, and was wounded, in
the cause of American independence. At the time of his visit to the
United States Lafayette was nearly seventy years old.
In the fall of 1824 the presidential election was held amid great
political excitement. The "era of good feeling" was at an end, and
party spirit ran high. There were four candidates in the field, Mr
Monroe having declined a third term; Andrew Jackson, John Quincy
Adams, William H. Crawford, and Henry Clay. None of these received
a popular majority, and the election was thrown into the House of Representatives in Congress, and resulted in the choice of John Quincy
Adams, of Massachusetts, as President of the United States. John C.
Calhoun, of South Carolina, had been chosen
Vice-President by the popular vote.: '           On the 4th of March, 1825, John Quincy:-.-.       Adams was inaugurated President of the!.    United States. He was the son of John
Adams, the second president of the republic,
and was in his fifty-eighth year. He was a
l   man of great natural ability, of strong personal character, and of unbending integrity
He had been carefully educated, and was. 'one of the most learned men in the Union.
Apart from his general education he had
received a special training in statesmanship.
JOHN QUINCY ADAMS.    He had served as minister to the Netherlands, and in the same capacity at the courts
of Portugal, Prussia, Russia, and England, where he had maintained a
high reputation. He had represented the State of Massachusetts in the
Federal Senate, and had been secretary of state, in the cabinet of Mr.
Monroe, during the last administration. He was, therefore, thoroughly
qualified for the duties of the high office upon which he now entered.
He called to his cabinet men of marked ability, at the head of which
was Henry Clay, who became secretary of state. The administration of
Mr, Adams was one of remarkable prosperity. The country was growing wealthier by the rapid increase of its agriculture, manufactures, and
commerce; and abroad it commanded the respect of the world. Still
party spirit raged with great violence during the whole of this period.
The invention of the cotton gin, by Eli Whitney, in 1793, by which
the seed was separated from the cotton, had so cheapened the cost of pro



ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


ducing that great staple, that it had become the principal article of
export from the United States, and a source of great and growing wealth
to the whole country.
Several important undertakings were prosecuted with vigor, or were
completed (luring Mr Adams' term of office. The National Road, a
splendidly constructed highway, built by the general government, from
Cumberland, Maryland, across the mountains, was completed to Wheeling, on the Ohio, in 1820, and was carried beyond that stream (luring
Mr. Adams' administration, the design being to extend it to the Mississippi. It furnished a broad and well-built thoroughfare between the
seaboard and the west, and exerted a marked influence upon the internal
trade of the country  The road from Cumberland to Wheeling cost
$1,700,000.
The Erie canal, extending from Buffalo on Lake Erie to the Hudson
at Albany, was projected by De Witt Clinton. The plan was at first
pronounced impracticable, but Clinton succeeded in inducing the State of
New York to undertake the scheme, and in 1825 the great work was
completed, and the waters of the lakes and the Hudson were united.
The completion of this canal secured to the city of New York the control of the western trade, and added to its wealth and importance in a
marked degree.
Steam had been for some years in use as the motive power in the navigation of the rivers of the Union, and it now began to be applied to
purposes of land transportation. The first railroad in this country was a
mere tramway, for the transportation of granite from the quarries at
Quincy to the Neponsett river, in Massachusetts, and was constructed in.the year 1826. This was followed by the Mauch Chunk railway, from
the coal mines to the Lehigh river, in Pennsylvania, in 1827  These
were merely local works, and of but little importance, except in so far as
they helped to demonstrate to the public mind the possibility and the
usefulness of such enterprises upon a larger scale. Charters for roads of,more importance were soon obtained in several of the States. In 1828
work was begun on the Baltimore and Ohio railroad, and in 1829 on the.
South Carolina railroad. In the year 1827 there were three miles of
railroad in operation in the United States. In 1875 the number of miles
in operation is a little over seventy thousand.
For some time previous to the entrance of Mr, Adams upon office,
Georgia had been involved in a dispute with the general government and
with the Creek Indians concerning the lands of the latter, which the
United States had agreed to purchase for the benefit of Georgia. Twentyfive years passed after the promise was made, and the lands remainedi
42




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


unpurchased because the Indians would not sell them. A treaty was
finally made in 1825 by which some of the chiefs ceded to the general
government the lands in question. The majority of the Indians declared
the chiefs had no authority to enter into this treaty, and called upon the
United States to repudiate it. It was cancelled by the general government, but the State of Georgia determined to enforce it. The general
government took the side of the Indians, and for a while it seemed that
an open conflict would ensue between the State and federal authorities.
The matter was settled by the Creeks consenting to sell their lands and to
accept new homes in the west. The Indian lands were purchased by the
United States, and the Creeks emigrated beyond the Mississippi.
On the 4th of July, 1826, died, within a few hours of each other, two
ex-presidents of the republic: John Adams and Thomas Jefferson; the,latter the author of the Declaration of Independence, and the former its
most efficient supporter  Mr. Adams died at his home at Quincy, Massachusetts, at the ripe old age of ninety years; Mr. Jefferson at Monticello, his beautiful Virginian home, at the age of eighty-two. Both had
filled the highest stations in the republic, and both had lived to see the
country they loved take rank among the first nations of the globe. They
died on the fiftieth anniversary of American independence.
In the year 1826 a new party made its appearance in our politics. A
man named William Morgan, residing in the western part of New York,
published a book purporting to reveal the secrets of the order of Freemasons. He suddenly disappeared, and it was charged that he had been
seized and murdered by the Freemasons in revenge for his exposures.
The affair caused great excitement in the Northern and some of the
Western States, and gave rise to a political party known as the AntiMasons, whose avowed object was the exclusion of Masons from office.
It acquired considerable strength in some of the States, but in a few years
died out.
The tariff question now engaged the attention of the country once
more. The manufacturing interests were still struggling against foreign
competition, and it was the opinion of the Eastern and Middle States
that the general government should protect them by the imposition of,high duties upon products of foreign countries imported into the Union.
The south was almost a unit in its opposition to a high tariff. Being, as
we have said, an agricultural section, its interests demanded a free
market, and it wished to avail itself of the privilege of purchasing where
it could buy cheapest. The south and the west were the markets of the
east, and the interests of that section demanded the exclusion of foreign
competition in supplying these markets.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF MONROE AND J. Q. ADAMS.


In July, 1827, a convention of manufacturers was held at Harrisburg,
Pennsylvania, and a memorial was adopted praying Congress to increase
the duties on ftreign goods to an extent which would protect American
industry. When Congress met in December, 1827, the protective policy
was the most important topic of the day  It was warmly discussed in
Congress and throughout the country. The interests of New England
were championed by the matchless eloquence of Daniel Webster, who
claimed that as the adoption of the protective policy by the government
had forced New England to turn her energies to
manufacturers, the government was bound to protect her against competition. The southern representatives argued that a protective tariff was
unconstitutional, and was injurious in its operations
to the interests of the people of the Southern States, a
who, being producers of staples for export, ought to
have liberty to purchase such articles as they needed
wherever they could find them cheapest. They declared that "duties under the protective policy were  D. NIL RWELSTr.
not only bounties to manufacturers, but a heavy tax
levied upon their constituents and a great majority of the conslimers in
all the States, which never went into the public treasury "  The tariff
bill was passed by the House on the 15th of April, 1828, and was
approved by the president a little later. It was termed by its opponents the "Bill of Abominations."
In the midst of this excitement the presidential election occurred. Mr
Adams was a candidate for re-election, but was overwhelmingly defeated
by Andrew Jackson, of Tennessee. John C. Calhoun was chosen V icePresident. The election of Jackson was regarded as a popular condemnation of the protective policy of the government.




CHAPTER XXXV.
THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF ANDREW JACKSON AND MARTIN
VAN BUREN.
Character of Andrew Jackson-Indian Policy of this Administration-The Pr.sident
Vetoes the Bill to Renew the Charter of the United States Bank-Debate between
Hayne and Webster-Jackson's Quarrel with Calhoun-Death f ex-Presidert Monroe
-The Cholera-Black Hawk's War-Re-election of President Jackson-The TariffAction of South Carolina-The Nullification Ordinance-Firmness of the PresidentThe Matter settled by Compromise-Patriotism of Henry Clay-The Removal of the
Deposits-The Seminole War begun-Great Fire in New York —Settlement of the
French Claims-Arkansas admitted into the Union-The National Debt Paid-Death
of ex-President Madison-Martin Van Buren elected President-Michigan admitted
into the Union-The Panic of 1837-Causes of it-Suspension of Specie PaymentsGreat Distress throughout the Union-The Sub-Treasury-Repudiation of State Debts
-Tle Canadian Rebellion-The President's Course-The Seminole War ended-The
Anti-Slavery Party —Resolutions of Congress respecting Slavery-William Henry
Harrison elected President-The Sixth Census.
(0 NDREW          JACKSON, the seventh president of the United States,
iX  was inaugurated at Washington, on the 4th of March, 1829.
President Jackson was in many respects one of the most re)-     markable men of his day.    He was of Scotch-Irish descent, and
was born in North Carolina during the controversy between the
colonies and Great Britain, which preceded the revolution.   He was left
fatherless at an early age, and his youth was passed amid the stirring
scenes of the war for independence.   At the age of thirteen he began his
c'treer by taking part in the fight at Hanging Rock, under General
Sumter,   The home of the Jacksons was broken up and pillaged by the
Tories, and the mother and her two sons became wanderers.       The sons
were shortly after made prisoners by the Tories, and the day after his
capture Andrew Jackson was ordered by a British officer to clean his
boots. He indignantly refused, and the officer struck him with the flat
of his sword. The boys were at length exchanged through the exertions
of their mother. Both had contracted the small-pox during their captivity, and the elder son soon died of his disease. Not long afterwards
Mrs. Jackson, with some other ladies, went to Charleston to minister to
the wants of the American prisoners of war confined there by the British
660




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


661


A fever was raging among these unfortunates at the time, and Mrs. Jackson was soon numbered among its victims. Thus, at the age of fifteen,
Andrew Jackson was left alone in the world without a relative. Though
young in years, he had been greatly matured in character by his trials.
Even at this early age he was generous to a fault to his friends, and
immovable in his resolutions when once formed.
A few years later he removed to Tennessee, then a Territory, and upon
the admission of the State into the Union was elected as her first relpreeentative in Congress. His services during the war of 1812-15 have
been related. His brilliant victory over the British at New Orleans
made him one of the most noted men of the day, and his prompt and
decisive measures against the Spaniards in Florida during Mr Monroe's
administration greatly added to his reputation.
During the administration of John Adams General Jackson occupied
a seat in the United States Senate, and
gave a cordial support to the principles of
Mr. Jefferson. Resigning his seat in the
Senate before the close of his term, he
was elected one of the judges of the
supreme court of Tennessee.             ~     v:....?
The election of General Jackson to the:?.
presidency was regarded with some anxiety, -  t.... —:
for though his merits as a soldier were.:.
conceded, it was feared by many that his '     |
known imperiousness of will and his inflexibility of purpose would seriously disqualify him for the delicate duties of the   ANDREW JACKSON.
presidency  Nature had made him a ruler,
however, and his administration was marked by the fearless energy that
characterized every act of his life, and was on the whole successful and
satisfactory to the great majority of his countrymen.
General Jackson began his administration by appointing a new cabinet,
at the head of which he placed Martin Van Buren, of New York, as
secretary of state.  Until now the postmaster-general had not been
regarded as a cabinet officer. General Jackson now invited that officer
to a seat in his cabinet and a share in its deliberations, and -his course has
since been pursued by each and all of his successors.
The first important act of the new president was to recommend to
Congress the removal of all the Indian tribes remaining east of the
Mississippi to new homes west of that stream. Such a measure, he cown
tended, would give to them a broader range, and one more suited to their




GG2


HISTOR' Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


wants, and would relieve the States east of the Mississippi from all
further apprehension of Indian wars. This removal involved considerable loss and hardship to the Creeks in Georgia, who had made an
encouraging advance in civilization. A bill was passed by the Twentyfirst Congress in May, 1830, for the purpose of carrying this policy into
effect; but the removal of the Indians was not completed for some years
afterwards.
In his first annual message to Congress, in 1829, the president took
strong ground against the renewal of the charter of the Bank of the


STATE-HOUSE, AT RALEIGH, NORTH CAROLINA.


United States, which was about to expire. This was a bold step, as the
bank was the most powerful institution in the United States, and had
warm friends in every part of the country. The stockholders of the
bank applied to the Twenty-second Congress during its first session,
which began in December, 1831, for a renewal of their charter, and in
the late spring of 1832 a bill renewing this charter was passed by both
Houses of Congress. The president refused to sign the bill, and returned
it to Congress with his objections. He held that Congress had no constitutional power to charter such a bank, and regarded it as inexpedient




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


663


to continue its existence. An effort was made by the friends of the bill
to pass it over the president's veto, but it failed to obtain the necessary
two-thirds vote, and consequently did not become a law. The bank was
therefore obliged to suspend its operations at the expiration of its charter
in 1836.
In 1830 Senator Foot, of Connecticut, submitted a resolution of
inquiry to the Senate concerning the disposal of the public lands. The
debate upon the resolution extended far beyond the subject embraced in
that document, and in the course of it Senator Robert Y. Hayne, of


STATE-HOUSE, CONCORD,


South Carolina, a brilliant orator, declared that any State had the right,
in the exercise of its sovereign power, to declare null and void any act of
Congress which it should consider unconstitutional. This was a plain
statement of the doctrine that the Union was simply a compact between
the States, from which any of the States could secede at pleasure, and it
was the first time such a sentiment had been expressed on the floor of
Congress. Mr. Webster, of Massachusetts, replied to Mr. Hayne, in an
oration of superb eloquence. He denied the doctrine that the Union was
a comrnpact of sovereign, independent States, from which any one of them




664


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


could withdraw at pleasure; and argued that the constitution was the
work of the people themselves, not as separate States, but as members of
a great nation, and was designed to make the Union perpetual; that the
controversies between the States and the general government were to be
decided by tile supreme court, the tribunal created for that purpose by
the constitution, and not by the States themselves; and that any attempt
on the part of the people of a State to withdraw from the Union was
treason. The debate added greatly to the fame of both senators, and the
sentiments of Air Webster were unatimously re-echoed by the north, and


SCENE~ IN THE MAMMOTH CAVE, KEANTUCKY.


by a large majority at the south. The effect of the debate was to direct
the attention of the people to a study of the principles of the constitution
Different views were maintained. The Northern and Western States
regarded the Union as indissoluble, while the Southern' States held that
it was a compact of sovereign States, and that any State could withdraw
from the Union for just cause.
During the session of the Twenty-first Congress a breach occurred
between President Jackson and Mr. Calhoun, the vice-president. The
former was told for the first time that Mr. Calhoun, while a member of




ADMIY(ST2RATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


665


Mr. Monroe's cabinet, had endeavored to prevent the government from
sustaining him in his invasion of Florida in 1818. General Jackson
deeply resented this, and the breach between himself and Mr. Calhoun
widened daily. Shortly afterwards Mr. Calhoun resigned the vice-presidency, and was elected to the Senate by the legislature of South Carolina
in 1831. In the same year Mr. Clay was elected to the Senate from
Kentucky.
On the 4th of July, 1831, ex-President Monroe died in New York, in
the 74th year of his age.
In June, 1832, the Asiatic cholera made its first appearance in the
United States, and swept with fearful rapidity over the whole country
Thousands of persons of all ages and conditions died of it within a few
months, and a feeling of general terror pervaded the country  Its prinVI        i'1
GENERAL ATKINSON'S DEFEAT OFk L1,.v I AWK.
cipal ravages occurred in the Northern States and in the valley of th
Mississippi.
In the spring of 1832 the Sacs and Foxes, and some other tribes of
Indians, inhabiting the region now known as Wisconsin, made incursions
against the frontier settlements of Illinois. General Atkinson was sent
by the general government with a force of troops to crush them, and
with the assistance of the militia, after a series of skirmishes, drove then
beyond the Mississippi. Black Hawk, a chief of the Sac nation, and the
leader of the movement, was taken prisoner. He was kindly treated, and
to impress him with the folly of attacking a great nation, he was taken
to Washington, and then to the principal eastern cities, that he might see
for himself the power of the whites.
Early in 1831 General Jackson was nominated for a re-election to the




666


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


presidency by the legislature of Pennsylvania. The presidential election
took place in the fall of 1832. General Jackson was supported by the
Democratic party, and Mr. Clay by the Whigs, for the presidency. The
contest was marked by intense bitterness, for Jackson's veto of the
charter of the Bank of the United States, his other vetoes of public improvement bills, and his attitude in the "Nullification" controversy
between the United States and South Carolina, had created a powerful
opposition to him in all parts of the country  In spite of this opposition
lie was re-elected by a triumphant majority, and Martin Van Buren, of
New York, the Democratic nominee, was chosen vice-president.
In the meantime serious trouble had arisen between the general government and the State of South Carolina. During the year 1832 the
tariff was revised by Congress, and that body, instead of diminishing the
duties, increased many of them. This action gave great offence to the
Southern States, \which regarded the denial of free trade as a great wrong
to them. They were willing to submit to a tariff sufficient for a revenue,
but were utterly opposed to a protective tariff for the reasons we have
already stated. The States of Virginia, Georgia, and South Carolina
were the most energetic in their opposition to the measure, but the first
two, upon its passage, submitted to it, hoping to carry out their wishes
by constitutional means at some future time.
The State of South Carolina, holding the views advocated by Mr.
Hayne in the Senate, in his debate with Mr. Webster, resolved to "nullify " the law within its own limits. A convention of the people of the
State was held, which adopted a measure known as the "Nullification
Ordinance."  This ordinance declared that the tariff act of 1832, being
based upon the principle of protection, and not upon the principle of
raising revenue, was unconstitutional, and was therefore null and void.
Provision was made by another clause for testing the constitutionality of
the law before the courts of the State. The State assumed the right to
forbid the collection of the duties imposed by the tariff within its limits;
and if the general government should resist the course of the State by
force, the State of South Carolina was declared to be no longer a member
of the Union. This ordinance was to take effect on the 12th of February,
1833, unless in the meantime the general government should abandon its
policy of protection and return to a tariff for revenue only
Matters had reached this state when the presidential election occurred
in the fall of 1832. The country at large was utterly opposed to the
course of South Carolina, and denied its right to nullify a law of Congress, or to withdraw from the Union in support of this right. Intense
excitement prevailed, and the course of the president was watched with




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


667


the gravest anxiety  He was known to be opposed to the protective
policy; but it was generally believed that he was firm in his intention to
enforce the laws, however he might disapprove of them.
Congress met in December, 1832, and in his annual message President
Jackson urged upon that body a reduction of the tariff. The message
gave great satisfaction to the opponents of the tariff. A few days later
the president issued a proclamation against nullification, moderate in language, but firm in tone. He expressed his opinion that the course of
South Carolina was unlawful and wrong, and intimated that he would
exert the power intrusted to him to compel obedience to the constitution
and laws of the Union. He appealed to the people of South Carolina
not to persist in the enforcement of their ordinance, as such a course on
their part must inevitably bring them in collision with the forces of the
federal government; and told theIn plainly that any citizen of any of
the States who should take up arms against the United States in ullch a
conflict would be guilty of treason against the United
States. Referring to the action of the convention, lhe
said: "This ordinance is founded, not on the indefeasible right of resisting acts which are plainly unconstitutional, and too oppressive to be endured; but
on the strange position that any one State may no., <:
only declare an act of Congress void, but prohi!ht <!
its execution; that they may do this consistcnt'\
with the constitution; that the true construction of.RV
that instrument permits a State to retain its place  JOIiN c. CALHOUN.
in the Union, and yet be bound by no other of
its laws than those it may choose to consider as constitutional."
The leaders of the South Carolina movement were Governor IHayne
and John C. Calhoun, then a senator of the United States from South
Carolina. Governor Hayne replied to the president with a counter proclamation, in which he warned the people of the State against " the dangerous and pernicious doctrines" of the president's proclamation, and
called upon them to disregard "those vain menaces" of military force,
and " to be fully prepared to sustain the dignity and protect the liberties
of the State, if need be, with their lives and fortunes." The State prepared to maintain its position by force. Troops were organized, and
arms and military stores were collected.
The president, on his part, took measures promptly to enforce the law.
He ordered a large body of troops to assemble at Charleston, under
General Scott, and a ship of war was sent to that port to assist the federal officers in collecting the duties on imports. Civil war seemed for a




668


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


time inevitable. The president was firmly resolved to compel the submission of South Carolina, and to cause the arrest of Mr. Calhoun and
the other leading nullifiers, and bring them to trial for treason. The
issue of such a conflict could not be doubtful.
Fortunately a peaceful settlement of the trouble was effected. Mr.
Verplanck, of New York, a supporter of the administration, introduced
a bill into Congress for a reduction of the tariff, and the State of Virginia sent Benjamin Watkins Leigh, a distinguished citizen, as commissioner to South Carolina, to urge her to suspend the execution of her
ordinance until March 4th, as there was a probability that a peaceful
settlement of the difficulty would be arranged before that time. South
Carolina consented to be guided by this appeal.
Henry Clay, with his usual patriotic self-sacrifice, now came forward
in the Senate with a compromise which he hoped would put an end to
the trouble.  He was an ardent advocate of the protective system, but he
was prepared to sacrifice it to the welfare of the
country.  He introduced a bill providing for the
gradual reduction in ten years of all duties then
above the revenue standard.    "One-tenth of onehalf of all the duties for protection above that stan(. d(lard was to be taken off annually for ten years, at
the end of which period the whole of the other half
'as to be taken off, and thereafter all duties were,) cK levied mainly] with a view to revenue and not
HENs' CLAY,or protection."     This measure withl some modifications was adopted by both Houses of Congress, and
was approved by the president on the 2d of March, 1833. The people
of South Carolina rescinded their "Nullification Ordinance," and the
trouble was brought to an end.*
It was generally believed that the Union had escaped from a grave
peril.  The firmness of the president received the approval of the nation,
except in South Carolina. The action of that State was generally condemned, and the result was looked upon as a decided triumph of the
national authority
* " Mr. Clay, on this occasion," says Hon. Alexander H. Stephens, " had to break with
his old political friends, while he was offering up the darling system of his heart upon the
altar of his country  Whatever else may be said of him, no one can deny that Henry Clay
was a patriot-every inch of him-a patriot of the highest standard. It was said that when
he was importuned not to take the course he had resolved upon, for the reason amongS
others that it would lessen his chances for the presidency, his reply was, 'I would rather
be right than be president.' This showed the material he was made of. It was worthy a
Marcellus or Cato."-The War Between the States, vol. i, p. 438.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON 1AND VAN BUREN.


669


On the 4th of March, 1833, General Jackson entered upon his second
term of office. The troubles which had disquieted the country had been
satisfactorily settled, and the president took advantage of the peaceful
condition of affairs to visit New York and the New England States.
He was received everywhere with enthusiasm.
Upon his return to the capital, the president took a step which plunged
the country into great excitement once more. The charter of the Bank
of the United States made that institution the legal depository of the
funds of the United States. The secretary of the treasury, with the
sanction of Congress, alone had authority to remove them. Tlhe president
was of the opinion that the public funds were not safe in the keeping of
the bank, and announced his intention to remove them from the Bank
of the United States and deposit them with certain State banks. The
majority of the cabinet were opposed to the measure, and the secretary
of the treasury, William J Duane, when ordered by the president to
withdraw the funds, refused to obey him, as he considered the president's
course "unnecessary, unwise, arbitrary, and unjust."  He was at once
removed from his position by President Jackson, who appointed Roger
B. Taney, of Maryland, in his place. Mr. Taney issued an order to the
collectors, forbidding them to deposit the public moneys paid to them in
the Bank of the United States. As for the funds already in the possession
of the bank, it was decided to withdraw them as they were needed for the
payment of the current expenses of the government. This measure was
productive of great financial distress throughout the Union, which continued for some time.
The president's course also produced open war between himself and
the Senate, in which body he was opposed by Clay, Calhoun, and Webster, its foremost members. He was defended by Benton, of Missouri,
and Forsyth, of Georgia, but in spite of their efforts a resolution declaring the president's course unconstitutional, and severely censuring him
for it, was adopted by the Senate. The president remained firm, however. He submitted an able protest against the action of the Senate, and
by the help of the House of Representatives defeated the bank on every
point. The Senate subsequently recognized the propriety of the president's action, and of its own motion expunged the resolution of censure
from its journal.
In pursuance of its policy towards the Indians, the government
attempted in 1835 to remove the Seminoles from Florida beyond the
Mississippi. They were unwilling to relinquish their lands; and under
the leadership of their great chief, Osceola, opposed a determined resistance to the efforts of the general government. Major Dade, with one




670


HISTORY OF THE UNVITED STATES.


hundred and seventeen men, was sent from Tampa bay to the assistance
of General Clinch at Fort Drane, which was threatened by the Indians.
He was attacked on the 28th of December, 1835, while on the march,
and he and all but four of his men were massacred. On the same dav
another blow was struck at Fort King, many miles away from the scene
of this massacre. Mr. Thompson, the Indian commissioner, and a party
of his friends, while dining outside of the walls of the fort, were attacked
by a band of Seminoles, led by Osceola in person, and killed and scalped.


GREAT FIRE IN NEW YORK.


General Clinch at once took the field against the savages, and on the 31st
of December defeated themi at Withlacooche, ninety miles north of
Tampa bay. In February, 1836, General Gaines won an important
vict;iry over the savages near the same place.
The Creeks joined the Seminoles in May, 1836, and the war spread
into Georgia. The former were soon crushed by the United States troops,
and were sent west of the Mississippi. The Seminoles continued the war,
and as often as they were defeated in the open field would take refuge in
the swamps and everglades, where it was difficult for the whites to follow




ADMINISTRPATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


671


them, and from which they maintained a constant and effective warfare
upon their enemies. Osceola was always ready to make a treaty, and
never hesitated to break it. At last he was conquered by his own weapon
of deceit. In October, 1837, he came into the American camp under a
flag of truce. He was at once seized, with all his followers, by General
Jessup, the American commander   Osceola was sent as a prisoner to
Fort Moultrie, in South Carolina, where he died of a fever. The war
went on for several years longer.
The winter of 1834-35 was one of the coldest ever known in America.
The Chesapeake bay was frozen from its head to the Capes, and on the
8th of February, 1835, the mercury stood at eight degrees below zero as
far south as Charleston. On the 4th of January the mercury congealed
at Lebanon, New York. On the night of December 16, 1835, a fire broke
out in the city of New York, and in fourteen hours consumed the
greater part of the business portion,,,
of the city, and destroyed over.    t_      _ _ -,\:. v
$17,000,000 worth of property.  _:     /[.ntgq>
In the last years of his adminis- '   7, —;i
tration President Jackson brought  -&4'^-ll' '           /J
to a successful close a vexatious dispute with France, which had long         COAT OF ARMS OF ARKANSAS.
been a source of annoyance to the
cuntry. -American merchants lield claims to the amount of $5,000,000
against France for the "unlawful seizures, captures, and destruction of
vessels and cargoes" during the wars of Napoleon. The government of
Louis Philippe acknowledged the justice of these claims, and in 1831 a
treaty was negotiated between the United States and France for their
payment. The Chamber of Deputies refused three times during as many
years to appropriate the money for the payment of these claims, and in
1834 President Jackson ordered the United States minister at Paris to
demand his passports, and advised Congress to make reprisals on French
vessels. This vigorous course brought France to her senses, and at this
juncture Great Britain offered her mediation for the settlement of the
difficulty. The Chamber of Deputies appropriated the necessary sum,
and the American claims were paid and the matter settled to the satisfaction of all parties.
Claims for similar seizures were brought against Spain, Naples, and
Denmark, and were satisfactorily settled through the firmness of the
president. Treaties of friendship and commerce were negotiated with
Russia and Turkey.
On the 15th of June, 1836, Arkansas was admitted into the Union as
a State.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


One of the most important acts of General Jackson's administration
was the payment of the national debt. He not only left the nation free
from debt, but handed over to his successor a surplus of forty millions
of dollars in the national treasury
On the 28th of June, 1836, ex-President James Madison died at
Montpelier, his home, in Virginia, in the eighty-sixth year of his age.
The presidential election was held in the fall of 1836. General Jackson having declined to be a candidate for a third term, the Democratic
l,                         party supported Martin Van Buren
z  v                   for President, and Richard M.
— ~           T/'?     ~    \;-_  Johnson, of Kentucky, for VicePresident. Mr. Van Buren was
elected by a large majority; but
-         -  _ - the electors having failed to make
COAT OF ARNIS OF MICHAN.  a choice of a candidate for vicepresident, that task devolved upon
the Senate, which elected Colonel Richard M. Johnson by a majority of
seventeen votes.
On the 26th of January, 1837, Michigan was admitted into the Union
as a State, making the twenty-sixth member of the confederacy  The original thirteen States had been doubled in number,
and the Union was strong at home, and
respected albroad.
At the close of his term General Jack-  0  A
son retired from public life, and passed the 'A ia |
remainder of his days at his beautiful g?   -       '      ':
home, near Nashville, in Tennessee, which l
he had named the "Hermitage."  He la1d.
conducted one of the most remarkable
administrations in our history, and one
of the most successful, and had shown
himself to be an earnest, incorruptible,    MARTIN VABU.
and self-sacrificing patriot, and a man of
unbending honesty and of extraordinary energy and inflexibility of
purpose.
Martin Van Buren, the new president, entered upon the duties of his
office on the 4th of March, 1837  He was in his fifty-fifth year, and
had occupied many distinguished positions in public life. He had represented the State of New York in the Senate of the United States, and
had been governor of that State. He had been minister to England, had




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


673


been made secretary of state at the commencelnent of General Jackson's
first term, and had been elected vice-president of the United States at
the period of Jackson's re-election.
The extraordinary prosperity which had prevailed throughout the
nation during the last year of Jackson's term came to a;sudd(lell end
almost immediately after the inauguration of Mr. \an Buren. IFor solme
time past a reckless spirit of speculation had1 engrossed the nation, and
had led to excessive banking, and the issuing of paper money to an
extent far beyond the necessities of the country. The State banks, with
which the public funds had been deposited by President Jackson, supposed they would. be able to control these funds for an indefinite period:
MILWAUKEE, Wi-,ON  IN, IN 1:).
as the revenue of the government was largely in excess of its exlpnses,
and they made loans freely, and upon not the best securities, in all ase,-,.
Few of the new banks which sprang into existence had enough,o11 and
silver in their vatults to redeem the notes with which they floi(led the
country  Fictitious values prevailed in every dlepartment of trade, and
the banks vied with each other in affording the means for the wi](lest
speculations.
In the midst of this excitement two acts of the general government
brought matters to a crisis. The speculation mania had extended to the
public lands, and in order to restrain it within manageable bounds President Jackson caused the secretary of the treasury to issue an order to the


43




674


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


collectors at the local offices to receive only gold and silver in payments
for land. This order was generally known as the "Specie Circular." In
the summer of 1836 a law was passed by Congress requiring the president
to distribute among the States the funds on deposit in the banks. This
was an unexpected measure to the banks, and forced them to call in their
loans to meet the withdrawal of the government funds. The operations
of the "Specie Circular" at the same time sent large quantities of their
notes back to them to be redeemed in coin. This complication of difficulties brought them at once to the end of their resources, and they were
rendered powerless to extend their usual facilities to their customers.
The result was that the business of the country was thrown into a state
of hopeless confusion, and by the spring of 1837 the failures in New
York alone amounted to one hundred million dollars. All parts of the
country were affected by the financial troubles, and in New Orleans the
failures amounted to twenty-seven million dollars.
Petitions were addressed to the president from all parts of the Union,
praying him to take some steps to relieve the general distress, and in
MIy a deputation of merchants and bankers from New York waited
upon President Van Buren, and urged him to postpone the immediate
collection of duties for which merchants had given bonds, to withdraw
the treasury orders requiring sums due the United. States to be paid in
gold and silver, alid to convene Congress in extra session for the purpose
of devising measures of relief. The presidlent complied with their request
to suspend the collection of duties for which bonds had been given, but
dclined to take the other steps asked of him. Within a few days after
his answer was known the banks of New York suspended specie payments, and their example was followed by the rest of the banks
throughout the 1lTnion.
The distress of the country was very great. Hundreds of thousands
of laborers were thrown out of employment, and business of all kinds
was at a standstill. The government, which, a few months before, had
been out of debt, and in possession of a surplus of forty millions, now
found itself unable to provide funds for its ordinary expenses. The
president was compelled to summon an extra session of Congress, which
met on the 4th of September, 1837    The president in his message
attributed the embarrassed condition of the country to the excessive issues
of bank notes, the great fire in New York in 1835, and the reckless
speculations of the people for several years past. He suggested no special
legislation for the relief of these troubles, as he regarded such a course
as beyond the constitutional authority of the general government. Indeed
the government could do but little to restore public confidence; that was




ADMIINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


675


the task of the people themselves, and it was not accomplished for several
years. To meet the necessities of the government, and provide a leg:l
currency, Congress, at the recommendation of the president, issued treasury notes to the amount of ten millions of dollars. Another recommendation of the president did not give such general satisfaction. The
president advised the creation of an independent treasury for the public
funds, as a means of avoiding the risks assumed by the government in
depositing its funds in the banks. These treasuries were to be located at
certain central points, and the sub-treasurers were to be appointed by the
president, and were to give bonds for the proper fulfilment of their


EASTON, PENNSYLVANIA.


duties. The president believed that the adoption of this measure would
withdraw large sums of money from active circulation and so put a ')top
to speculation. The bill for the creation of the independent treasury
was warmly opposed in and out of Congress, as it was feared by manthat the withdrawal of so much gold and silver from circulation wouldl
seriously injure the business of the country  Mr. Calhoiun support -I
the measure with all his great abilities, and Mr, Clay and Mr. Webster
opposed it. The measure failed at the extra session, but became a law




676


HIS'TORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


in 1840. In 1841 it was repealed, and in 1846 was re-enacted. It is
still in force, and its wisdom and usefulness are now generally admitted.
The spirit of speculation had extended to the State governments as well
as to private individuals, and State bonds had been issued to the amount
of one hundred million dollars. The pretext for this excessive increase
of debt was the necessity of raising funds to carry out their system of internal improvements. The panic involved the States in its effects, and
eicrht of them found themselves unable in 1838 to pay the interest on
their bonds. In course of time they made good their obligations, but the
State of Mississippi and the Territory of Florida not only refused to pay
the interest on their bonds, but repudiated their debts. The sale of their
bonds, had been made principally in Europe, and their repudiation of
their debts aroused great indignation on the other side of the Atlantic,
and brought disgrace up)on the whole nation. The effects of this were
s;en a few years later, when the United States sought to negotiate a
national loan in Europe. Not a bond could be sold or a dollar obtained
there.
In 1837 a movement was made by the people of Canada to throw off
their connection with Great Britain, and to establish their independence.
It aroused the sympathies of a large number of the people of the United
States, and in northern  New   York   associations called "Hunters'
Lodges " were formed for the purpose of aiding the Canadian patriots.
The president of the United States and the governor of New York
endeavored to suppress these illegal associations, but without success.
A body of seven hundred Canadians and American sympathizers took
possession of Navy island in the Niagara river. The island is a part of
Canada, and lies near the shore of that country  The force on the island
employed the steamboat " Caroline " to convey men and provisions from
the town of Schlosser on the American shore to the island. The British
authorities in Canada determined to destroy the boat. One dark night
in December, 1837, a detachment from Canada was sent to Navy island
for this purpose. Not finding the " Caroline " there, they went over to
Sehlosser, where she was moored at her dock. The boat was captured
after a short struggle in which one American was killed, and was carried
'out into the stream and set on fire. She drifted down to the falls, and
plunged over them in a blaze. The British minister at Washington at
once declared the responsibility of his government for the capture of the
boat, and justified it on the ground of self-defence.
In the meantime the president had sent General Wool with a strong
force to the Canadian border with orders to prevent any expedition from
leaving this country to aid the Canadians. He compelled the force on




ADMINISTRATIOSS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


677


Navy island to surrender, but the border war continued until the close
of 1838, when it was put down.
In 1840 the question was to some extent revived. Alexander McLeod,
a British subject residing in Canada, boasted that le had been engaged in
the capture of the "Caroline," and had killed the American who fell in


RAFTING LUMBER IN MAINE.


that conflict. Shortly afterwards he yisited the New York side of the
river, and was at once arrested upon a charge of murder by the authorities of that State. The British government demanded his unconditional
release on the ground that he had simply obeyed the orders of his rgovernment, which was alone responsible for his act. The general government of the United States also demanded the surrender of McLeod to the
Federal authorities. The State of New York, however, held that the
offence with which McLeod was charged had been committed on her
soil, and brought the prisoner to trial. As he succeeded in proving that




C78


I7HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


lce wvas not engaged in, or present at the attack, he was acquitted. This
conflict between the federal and State authority led to the passage 1y
Congress of a law requiring similar offences to be tried before the United
States courts.
In the midst of the Canadian controversy a quarrel sprang up between
the State of Maine and the British province of New Brunswick, concerning the northeast boundary of the United States. Both parties prepared
for a conflict, but the president sent General Scott to the scene of danger,
and he, by his moderation and firmness, succeeded in maintaining peace
until the matter could be settled by treaty
The war with the Seminole Indians in Florida continued through the
BATTLE OF OEECIIOBEE.
whole of this administration. The capture and death of Osceola, which
we have related, though a severe blow to his followers, did not dishearten
them. On the 25th of December, 1838, Colonel Zachary Taylor inflicted a severe defeat upon the Indians at Lake Okeechobee. The war
was at length brought to an end in 1842, but not until it had lasted seven
years, and had cost many valuable lives and the enormous sum of nearly
forty million dollars. The Seminoles were subdued, and were removed
from Florida to new homes beyond the Mississippi.
The Missouri Compromise did not quiet the agitation of the slavery
question. It gave to the country only a momentary respite. The Antislavery or-Abolition party had now become one of the recognized political
organizations of the country  Its avowed object was the abolition of




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JACKSON AND VAN BUREN.


679


slavery in every State in which it existed. It was argued in opposition
to their principles that the constitution recognized and protected slavery
in the States in which it existed; but they met this assertion by the bold
declaration that they would continue their agitation until they had destroyed either slavery or the Union.   They did not wish to live under a
constitution which protected slavery, and which one of their principal
leaders denounced as "a covenant with death, and an agreement with
hell." The body embraced the extreme Anti-slavery men of the north.
Among its adversaries were some of the sincerest opponents of slavery,
who hoped to accomplish their ends by constitutional means and by the
influences of a better and more enlightened public opinion, and who
deprecated and opposed the violence of the extreme Abolitionists. The
leader of the ultra party in Congress was John Quincy Adams, who had
been returned to the House of Representatives from      Massachusetts in
1831. Memorials were presented to Congress praying the abolition of
slavery in the District of Columbia, and gave rise to exciting debates in
that body, which affected the whole country profoundly, and did much to
widen the breach between the Northern and Southern States.          This
agitation continued through the whole of IMr Van Buren's term of
office. Early in the session of 1838-39, Mr. Atherton, of New Hainpshire, offered a series of resolutions expressing the relations of the general
government towards the States, and declaring the inability of Congress to
interfere with slavery in those States in which it already existed, or in
the District of Columbia, or the Territories.    These resolutions were
adopted by the House by decisive majorities, and were regarded bv AIr.
Clay and by the leading public men of the country as effectually disposing of the troublesome question as far as the general government was
concerned. The resolutions were as follows:
"Resolved, That this government is a government of limited powers, and that by the
constitution of the United States, Congress has no jurisdiction whatever over the institution
of slavery in the several States of the confederacy."
The vote upon this resolution stood: 196 for it, and 6 against it.
The second resolution was in these words:
"Resolved, That petitions for the abolition of slavery in the District of Columbia and
the Territories of the United States, and against the removal of slaves from one State to
another, are a part of a plan of operations set on foot to affect the institution of slavery
in the Southern States, and thus indirectly to destroy that institution within their
limits."
On this resolution the vote stood: 136 for it, and 65 against it.
The third resolution was in these words:
"Resolved, That Congress has no right to (ldo that indirectly which it cannot do directly;




HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES


and that the agitation of the subject of slavery in the District of Columbia, or the Territo.
ries, as a means, and with a view, of disturbing or overthrowing that institution in the
several States, is against the true spirit and meaning of the constitution, an infringement
of the rights of the States affected, and a breach of the public faith upon which they
entered into the confederacy."
The vote on this resolution was: 164 in favor of it, and 40 against it.
The fourth of this series was in these words:
"Resolved, That the constitution rests on the broad principle of equality among the
members of this confederacy, and that Congress, in the exercise of its acknowledged
powers, has no right to discriminate between the institutions of one portion of thz States
and another, with a view of abolishing the one and promoting the other."
The vote on this resolution was: 174 in favor of it, and 24 against it.
The fifth and last of Mr Atherton's resolutions was in these words:
"Resolved, That all attempts on the part of Congress to abolish slavery in the District
of Columbia, or the Territories, or to prohibit the removal of slaves from State to State, or to
discriminate between the institutions of one portion of the confederacy and anotler, with the
view aforesaid, are in violation of the constitution, destructive of the fundamental principle
on wlich the union of these States rests, and beyond the jurisdiction of Congress; and that
every letition, memorial, resolution, proposition, or paljer, touching or relating in any way,
or to a;ny extent whatever, to slavery, as aforesaid, or the abolition thereof, shall, on the
presentation theredf, without any further action thereon, be laid upon the table, without
being debated, printed, or referred."
The vote on the first branch of this resolution was, 146 in favor, and
52 against it; on the second branch of the resolution the vote stood, 126
for it, and 78 against it.
As we shall see, this declaration of Congress was far from quieting the
agitation upon this troublesome question.       The slavery conflict had in
reality just begun.
In the fall of 1.40 the presidential election was held.         MIr Van
Buren and 'ice-President Johnson were nominated for re-election by
the Democratic party, and the Whigs supported General William Henry
Harrison, of Ohio, for president, and John Tyler, of Virginia, for viccpresident.   The financial distress of the country had been but slightly
relieved, and was generally attributed by the people to the interference
of the government with the currency       This feeling made the Democratic
nolminees exceedingly ulnpopular, and the political campaign, which was
one of the most exciting ever conducted in this country, resulted in the
election of Ilarrison and Tyler by overwhelming majorities.
In 1840 the sixth census showed the population of the United States
to be 17,069,4 53




CHAPTER XXXVI.


THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF WILLIAM         HENRY HARRISON AND JOHN
TYLER.
An Extra Session of Congress Summoned-Death of President Harrison-John Tyler
becomes President of tile United States-Meeting of Congress-The Bankrupt LawPresident Tyler Vetoes the Bills to Revive the United States Bank-His Quarrel with
his Party-The " Tyler Whigs "-.The Tariff of 1842-The Treaty of Washington-The
United States will not Tolerate the Exercise of the Right of Search-Dorr's Rebellion
-The Mormons-Invention of the Electric Telegraph-Explosion on the ' Princeton"
-Efforts to Secure the Annexation of Texas-Early History of Texas-The Texan War
of Independence-Battle of San Jacinto-Texan Independence Established-Texas
Applies for Admission into the Union-Opposition to the Measure-Significance of the
Vote at the Presidential Election-James K. Pulk Elected President-Texas admitted
into the Union-Iowa and Florida become States.
N the 4th of March, 1841, William    Henry Harrison was inaugurated president of the United States at Washington in the presence of an immense concourse of citizens from   all parts of the
Union.   He was in his sixty-ninth year, and had spent forty
years of his life in the public service. His services during the
Indian hostilities which preceded the war of 1812-15, and his exploits
during that war, have been related. He had served as governor of Indiana Territory, and had been both a member
of Congress and a senator of the United States.
He was a man of pure life and earnest character, and the certainty of a change of policy in
the measures of the federal government had
caused the people of the country to look forward At \     f:: HiKf
to his administration with hope and confidence.      W  -,
He began by calling to seats in his cabinet men...    -;     ~
of prominence and ability   At the head of the         /   -
cabinet he placed Daniel Webster, as secretary     / /
of state. The president issued a proclamation
convening Congress in special session on the WILLIAM HENRY HARRISsoi.
31st of May, 1841. He was not destined to fulfil the hoines of his friends,
however.   He was suddenly seized with pneumonia, and died on the 4th
of April, 1841-just one month after his inauguration.


I81




ILSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


It was the first time that a president of the United %States had died in
office, and a gloom was cast over the nation by the sad event. The
mourning of the people was sincere, for in General Harrison the nation
lost a faithful, upright, and able citizen. He had spent forty years in
prominent public positions, and had discharged every duty confided to
him with ability and integrity, and went to his grave a poor man.
" Brave old Cincinnatus I! he left but his plow."
Upon the assembling of Congress, that body, " out of consideration of
his expenses in removing to the seat of government, and the limited
means he had left behind," appropriated the equivalent of one year's
presidential salary-twenty-five thousand dollars-to Mrs. Harrison.
According to the terms of the constitution, upon the death of General
Harrison, the office of president of the
United States devolved upon the vice-presi(lent, John Tyler, of Virginia. Mr. Tyler
as not in the city of Washington at the
time of the death of his predecessor, but reopaired to that city without loss of time, upon
being notified of the need of his presence,
^      and on the 6th of April took the oath of
-..-                office before Judge Cranch, chief justice of
the District of Columbia.   Mr, Tyler was
<-  in his fifty-second year, and had served as
governor of Virginia, and as representative
and senator in Congress from that State. On
x\:,~,'i  ~            the 9th of April President Tyler issued an
JOHN TYLER.        address to the people of the United Stat(s, in
which there was no indication of a departure
from the policy announced in the inaugural of General Harrison. He
retained the cabinet ministers of his predecessors in their respective
positions.
On the 31st of May the Twenty-seventh Congress convened in extra
session. It was known as the " Whig Congress," as a large majority of
its members were of that party  Had this party remained united they
could have controlled the action of Congress to suit themselves, but as
we shall see the policy of the executive soon divided them. The first act
of this Congress was to repeal the sub-treasury bill which had been passed
in 1840. The effects of the commercial crisis had involved thousands
of merchants in hopeless bankruptcy, and under the old laws they had
no means of recovering their lost position, as they were crushed down by
their debts. Neither their creditors nor the country at large derived any




ADMIVISTRATI.NS OF HARRISON AND TYLER.


683


benefit from this state of affairs, and Congress at once passed a general
bankrupt law for the relief of persons thus situated. It was highly beneficial to the country, and was repealed, in 1843, when the necessity for it
had ceased to exist.
Efforts were made to revive the Bank of the United States, and a bill
was passed establishing an institution known as "The Fiscal Bank of the
United States."  Mr. Tyler, who was a member of the strict constructionist school, now found himself at variance with a majority of his
party in both Houses of Congress. As he did not believe that Congress
could constitutionally charter such an institution, he vetoed this bill.
The advocates of the measure could not command the requisite two-thirds
__-~ — ~_~ --- ~ — ~ --- --— _.  — ~:
_ —                          _ --- -_ —
W
---        - = ---
DAVENPORT, IOWA.             /
majority for the passage of the bill over the president's veto, and his
action was sustained. Another bill was passed by Congress, of a similar
character, establishing " The Fiscal Corporation of the United States,"
but this also was vetoed by the president for the same reasons. His veto
was sustained by Congress in this instance also. The vetoes of these
measures were generally approved by the strict constructionists throughout the Union, without regard to party; but they were bitterly denounced
by the majority of the Whigs, who charged the president with having
violated the implied pledges upon which he was elected, and with having
betrayed his party  The Whigs were for the time forgetful of the fact
that at the time of his nomination to the vice-presidency Mr. Tyler was
known to be opposed to the Bank of the United States. The members




684


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of the cabinet, with the single exception of the secretary of state, resigned
their positions in consequence of Mr. Tyler's course. Mr. Webster
retained his position in order to complete the important negotiations he
was at the time conducting with England. The places of the other niembers of the cabinet were filled by the president with prominent members
of tihe strict constructionist school of the Whig party, who sustained the
president.
The second session of the Twenty-seventh Congress met in December,
1841, and continued its sittings until August, 1842. It was noted as tlhe
longest session ever held( up to this time. It found the Whig party
divided, and the opposing factions bitterly hostile to each other. The
majority, led by Mr. (Clay, opposed the administration. The minority,
because of their support of the president, received the name of " Tyler
Whigs."   Thle principal question agitated during this session was the
tariffl. According to the compromise act of 1833, the duties this year
were to be regulated acording to a revenue standard. The majority in
Congress., howvever, paid no regard to the pledge given in this comprom1ise, and a newv tariff bill was passed by both Houses of Congress, regulating< the duties on a strongly protective basis, and with the avowed
object of reviving the protective policy. It was vetoed by the president.
Another measure of a similar though slightly modified character wvas
p1assed, and this was vetoed also. Congress then passed the tariff of 1842,
in whichl the principles of the compromise of 1833 were altogether set
aside, an(l the duties made strictly protective. It required a sharp struggle in Congress to secure the passage of this bill; which received the
executive signature on the 30th of August.
In the meantime Mr Webster succeeded in bringing the negotiations
with Great Britain to a successful close. These negotiations had grown
out of the revolutionary disturbances in Canada, and the controversy
respecting the northeast boundary of the United States, during the
administration of Mr. Van Buren, which we have related. The boundary question was of older origin than the former controversy, and had
been pending between the United States and England for fifty years.
Mr WAebster, immediately upon his entrance upon the office of secretary
of state, had, with the approval of the president, signified the desire of
this country to terminate the controversy, and Lord Ashburton had been
sent by the British government as special minister to the United States,
with full power to settle all the controversies between the two countries.
The treaty of Washington was concluded in 1842, and was accepted by
both countries as a settlement of the questions at issue between them.
By the terms of this treaty the northeastern boundary was arranged as




ADMINIST'RATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER.


685


it exists at present; the United States obtained the free navigation of the
St. John's river to the sea; and gained possession of the important military position of Rouse's Point, at the outlet of Lake Champlain.  Tile
t\,wo countries mutually agreed to surrender lupon proper demand all
fui:itives from justice escaping from tlle territory ot' one into tllat of tlc
other; andl to maintain a certain number of ships of war on thie African
coast to aid in suppressing the slave trade.
When the treaty was completed two subjects prcscntd( themselves to
the negotiators.  One of these was the right cl:.imed,y (; reat Britain for
ler cruisers to stop and if necessary to search merchant vessels belonging
to other nations on the high seas; the other was tll inl)ressment of seamen from American merchant vessels by British cruisers.  Mr. Webster,
in a paper of great ability, addressed to the American minister at ILondon,
but intended for the British foreign minister, denied the right of search,
and sustained his position by arguments that were simply irrefutable.
In a letter to Lord Ashburton Mr, Webster refusedl to consider the impressmnent question, as the United States could in no case aidmlit such a
claim on the part of Great Britain, and declared that every case of inmpressment would be considered an act of hostility and would be repelled
as such..He declared as the unalterable policy of this country the doctrine that "Every merchant vessel on the high seas is rightfully considered as a part of the territory to which it belongs," that "in every
regularly documented American merchant vessel the crew who navi rate
it will find their protection in tlhe flag which is over them;" and that
"the American government, then, is prepared to say that the practice of




686


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


impressing seamen from American vessels cannot hereafter be allowed to
take place." The tone of the secretary of state, though firm, was courteous and conciliatory, and the negotiations were conducted in the same
spirit of conciliation by the British minister.
With this treaty the United States formally took their position as one
of the great powers of the world. The negotiations being completed, Mr.
Webster resigned his place in the cabinet in May, 1843, and was succeeded by Abel P. Upshur, of Virginia.
In 1842 an insurrection broke out in the State of Rhode Island, which
required the intervention of the United States for its suppression. It is
known as the Dorr rebellion. The old charter of the colony, granted by
Charles II., in 1663, had up to this time served as the constitution of the
State. It was found to be unsuited to the requirements of the people in
their more prosperous condition, and an effort was made to change it.
Two parties were formed, one in favor of the proposed changes, the other
opposed to them. Each party nominated its candidate for the office of
governor and elected him. The "suffrage party," which favored the
changes, elected Thomas W Dorr governor, took up arms, and attacked
the State arsenal for the purpose of arming their followers. They were
repulsed by the State militia assisted by the United States troops. Dorr
was arrested, tried for treason, and sentenced to imprisonment for life.
He was released in 1845. The opponents of the " suffrage party " deemed
it best to yield to the popular wish, however, and in November, 1842, a
new constitution, embracing the desired changes, was adopted by the
legislature.
About the same time a series of disturbances occurred in the State of
Illinois, which were but the forerunners of a more serious embarrassment
to the general government at a later period. A new religious sect had
sprung up some years before in the western part of New York. They
called themselves Mormons, and were founded by a cunning impostor
named Joseph Smith, who professed to have received a new revelation
from God, written on plates of gold. Among the articles of the Mormon
faith is one which teaches the doctrine of a plurality of wives. Feeling
that the east was not favorable to their growth, the Mormons at an early
day removed to the west.    They settled at first in Missouri, but so
exasperated the people of that State by their conduct, that they were soon
driven out of Missouri.
Crossing the Mississippi, they settled in Illinois, and founded a city
which they called Nauvoo, and built a temple. Their numbers increased
rapidly from emigration from nearly every country in Europe. The newcomers were mainly persons of low position and without education.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF HARRISON AND TYLER.


687


Conscious of their strengthey raised troops, and set the authority of
the State of Illinois at defiance. The State endeavored to reduce tlhem to
obedience, and their conduct, as ill Missouri, turned the 1,)people against
them. Several conflicts ensued between the Mormons and the, authorities.
In one of these Joe Smith, the prophet, and( his brother were seized and
put in jail; and while lying there were murdered by the mob in July,
1844. This brought matters to a crisis, and the peopl)e of Illinois determined to drive the Mormons across the Mississippi. Nauvoo, was attacked
in 1845, and the Mormons were compelled to leave the State. In 1846
they bent their steps westward, and after a long and painfull journ ey across
the plains, reached the valley of Salt Lake, and established a settlement
there. Out of this settlement grew the Territory of Utah.
MADION, WICONZIN
In 1844 occurred one of the most important events in the history of
the world. In 1832 Samuel F     B. Morse, a native of Massachusetts,
invented the electric telegraph. He spent some years in perfecting his invention, and in 1838 applied to Congress for a small appropriation to assist
him in building a line of wire to demonstrate the usefulness of his discovery  He was obliged to wait five years for a favorable answer, and it
was not until he bad given up all hope of receiving aid from Congress
that that body, on the last day of the session of 1843, appropriated the sum
of thirty thousand dollars to construct a telegraph line between Washington City and Baltimore, a distance of forty miles. The line was completed
*  =7 -  I'j
3IDION                   -I(_ONl.




688


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


in 1844, and was successfully operated by Professor Morse. This was the
first line established in the world. In the thirty-one years which have
elapsed since then the use of the telegraph has become general throughout
the civilized world, and in the United States alone over sixty thousand
miles of telegraph lines are in operation at the present time.
On the 28th of February, 1844, the president, accompanied by the
members of his cabinetahnd a number of distinguished citizens, officers of'
the army and navy, and ladies, went on board the new steam frigate
" Princeton," lying in the Potomac, to witness the experimental firings
of a new cannon of unusual size on board that ship, to which the name
of "The Peacemaker" had been given. At one of the discharges the
gun exploded, causing the instant death of Messrs. Upshur and Gilmer,
the secretaries of state and of the navy, and several other spectators.
This sad event was greatly lamented throughout the country  Judge
Upshur was succeeded as secretary of state by John C. Calhoun, then a
senator from South Carolina.
The last years of Mr. Tyler's administration were devoted to the effort
to secure the annexation of the republic of Texas to the United States.
The territory embraced within the limits of Texas constituted a part of
the Spanish-American possessions, and was generally regarded as a part
of Mexico. During the last century a number of forts had been erected
in Texas by the Spaniards as a means of holding the province against the
French, and each fort was made a missionary station, from Wvhich efforts
were made to convert the Indians, but without success. The United
States were, in the early part of the present century, inclined to regard
Texas as rightfully a part of the Louisiana purchase, but this claim was
waived when Florida was purchased.
Early in the present century pioneers from the United States began to
find their way to Texas, which was then a wild country, inhabited only
by roving Indians, and the garrisons of the few Spanish forts within its
limits. One of these emigrants, Moses Austin, of Durham, Connecticut,
conceived the plan of colonizing Texas with settlers from the United
States. For this purpose he obtained from the Spanish government, in
1820, the grant of an extensive tract of land; but before he could put
his plans in execution he died. His son, Stephen F Austin, inherited
the rights of his father under this grant, and went to Texas with a number
of emigrants from this country, and explored that region for the purpose
of locating his grant. He selected as the most desirable site for his
colony the country between the Brazos and Colorado rivers, and founded
a city, which he named Austin in honor of the originator of the colony,
to whom Texas owes its existence as an American commonwealth. Hav



ADMINISTRATION~S OF HARRISON AzND TYLLER.


689


ing seen the settlers established in their new homes, Mr. Austin returned
to the United States to collect other emigrants for his colony,
During his absence Mexico and tile other Spanish provinces rose in
revolt against Spain, and succeeded in establishing their indeplendence.
Texas, being regarded as a part of the Mexican territory, shared the fortunes of that country  Upon his return to Texas, Austin, ill consideration of the altered state of affairs, went to the city of Mexico and obtained
from the Mexican government a confirmation of the grant made to his
father. Such a confirmation was necessary in order to enable lhim to give
the settlers valid titles to the lands of his colony Mexico at first exercised
but a nominal authority over the new settlements, and the colonists were
--  --    ____________ / —~=-        ~      __
OLD FORT BENTON, MONTANA.
allowed to live under their own laws, subject to the rules drawn up by
Austin. In order to encourage settlements in Texas, the Mexican Congress, on the 2d of May, 1824, enacted the following law, declaring,
"That Texas is to be annexed to the Mexican province of Cohahuila,
until it is of sufficient importance to form a separate State, when it is to
become an independent State of the Mexican republic, equal to the other
States of which the same is composed, free, sovereign, and independent
in whatever exclusively relates to its internal government and administration."
~sF = m —WEE
Encouraged by this decree, large numbers of Americans emigrated to
44




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Texas, and to these were added emigrants from all the countries of
Europe.   The population grew  rapidly, new towns sprang up, and
Austin's colony prospered in a marked degree, until 1830, when Bustamente having made himself by violence and intrigue president of the socalled Mexican republic, prohibited the emigration of foreigners to the
Mexican territory, and issued a number of decrees very oppressive to the
people, and in violation of the constitution of 1824. In order to enforce
these measures in Texas, he occupied that province with his troops, and
placed Texas under military rule. The Texans resented this interference
with their rights, and finally compelled the Mexican troops to withdraw
from the province. In 1832 another revolution in Mexico drove Bustamente from power, and placed Santa Anna at the head of affairs as president or dictator,
Texas took no part in the disturbances of Mexico, but after the accession of Santa Anna to power, formed a constitution, and applied for
admission into the Mexican republic as a State, in accordance with the
constitution of 1824, and the act of the Mexican Congress which we have
quoted. Stephen F Austin was sent to the city of Mexico to present the
petition of Texas for this purpose. He was refused an answer to this
petition for over a year, and at last wrote to the authorities of Texas,
advising them to organize a State government without waiting for the
action of the Mexican Congress. For this recommendation, which the
Mexican government regarded as treasonable, Santa Anna caused the
arrest of Austin, and kept him in prison for over a year. Texas now
began to manifest the most determined opposition to the usurpation of
Santa Anna, and measures were taken to maintain the rights of the
province under the constitution of 1824. Troops were organized, and
preparatidns made to resist the force which it was certain Mexico would
send against them.
Santa Anna did not allow them to remain long in suspense, but at once
despatched a force under General Cos, to disarm the Texans. On. the
2d of October, 1835, Cos attacked the town of Gonzalez, which was held
by a Texan force, but was repulsed with heavy loss. A week later, on
the 9th of October, the Texans captured the town of Goliad, and a little
later gained possession of the mission house of the Alamo. Both places
were garrisoned, and the Texan army, which was under the command of
Austin, in the course of a few months succeeded in driving the Mexicans
out of Texas.
On the 12th of November, 1835, a convention of the people of Texas
met at the city of Austin, and organized a regular State government.
Prominent among the members was General Sam Houston, a settler




ADMINISTRATIONS OF JIARRISON AND TYLER.


691


from the United States. Soon after the meeting of the convention General Austin resigned the command of the army, and was sent to the United
States as the commissioner of that State to this government, and was
succeeded as commander-in-chief by General Sam Houston. Henry
Smith was elected governor of Texas by tile people.
As soon as Santa Anna learned that his troops had been driven out of
Texas, and that the Texans had set up a State government, he set out for
that country with an army of seventy-five hundred men. He issued
orders to his troops to shoot every prisoner taken, and intended to make
the struggle a war of extermination. He arrived before the Alamo Jate
in February, 1836. This fort was very strong, and was held by a force
of one hundred and forty Texans under Colonel Travis. It was besieged
FORT ALAMO-SAN ANTONIO, TEXAS
by the whole Mexican army, and was subjected to a bombardment of
eleven days. At last, on the 6th of March, the garrison being worn out
with fatigue, the fort was carried by assault, and the whole garrison was
put to the sword. Among the heroes who fell at the Texan Thermopyle
was the eccentric but chivalrous Colonel Davy Crockett of Tennessee, who
had generously come to aid the Texans in their struggle for liberty The
capture of the Alamo cost the Mexicans a loss of sixteen hundred men,
or over eleven men for every one of its defenders.
On the 17th of March, 1836, the convention adopted a constitution for
an independent republic, and formally proclaimed the independence of
Texas. David G. Burnett was elected president of the republic.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Tlhe fort at Goliad was lheld by a force of three hundred and thirty
Texans, under Colonel Fanning, a native of Georgia. On the 27th of
AMarch it was attacked by the Mexican army  The garrison maintained
a gallant defence, but their resources being exhausted, ant the Mexicans
being reinforced during the night, Fanning decided to surrender his force,
if he could obtain honorable terms. He proposed to Santa Anna to lay
down his armns, and surrender tlhe post on condition that he and his men
should be allowed and assisted to return to the United States. The proposition was accepted by Santa Anna, and the terms of the surrender were
formally drawn up and were signed by eaclh commander, As soon as the
surrender was made, however, and the arms of the Texans were delivered,
Santa Anna, in base violation of his pledge, caused Fanning and the
survivors of the garrison, to the number of three hundred men, to be put
to d(eath.
Tlie massacres of the Alamo and Goliad, and the steady advance of
the Mexican army under Santa Anna, caused a feeling of profound alarm
throughout the new republic. The government was removed temporarily
to (;alveston, and General Houston retreated behind the San Jacinto.
Santa Anna pursued the Texan forces, and at length came up with them
on the banks of that stream. Houston had but seven hundred and fifty
men with him, and these were imperfectly armed, and without discipline.
With tllis force he surprised the Mexican caml)P, on the 21st of April,
and rout(ed the Mexican army, inflicting upon it a loss of over six hundredl killed, and taking more than eight hundred prisoners. Santa Anna
hinmsclf was among the prisoners. Houston at once entered into negotiations with him for the withdrawal of the Mexican forces'from Texas.
This was done at once, and the independence of Texas was achieved.
Santa Anna also recognized the independence of the new republic, but
the Mexican Congress refused to confirm this act.
Houston was now the idol of the Texan people, as the deliverer of
their country from the hated Mexicans. At the next general election he
was chosen president of the republic, and was inaugurated on the 22d of
October, 1836. General Mirabeau B. Lamar was the third president of
the republic of Texas, and entered upon his office in 1838. He was
succeeded in 1844 by Anson Jones, the fourth president. The territory
of the republic was sufficiently large to make five States the size of New
York, and its climate and soil were among the most delightful and fertile
in the world. It contained a population of about two hundred thousand,
and was increasing rapidly in inhabitants and in prosperity
On the 3d of March, 1837, the independence of the republic of Texas
was acknowledged by the United States, and in 1839 by France and




ADMINISTRA4TIONS OF HARRISON AND T'YLER.


England. Being young and feeble, and being settled almost entirely by
Americans, the l)eople of Texas at an early (ay came to the conclusion
that their best interests required them to seek a union with.the United
States, and as early as August, 1837, a proposition was submitted to Mr.
Van Buren looking to such a union. It was declined by him, but the
question was taken up by the press and people of the Union, and wlas
discussed with the greatest interest and activity  The south was unanimously in favor of the annexation of Texas, as it was a region in which
slave labor would be particularly profitable; and a strong party in the
north opposed the annexation for the reason that it would inevitably
extend the area of slavery  An additional argument against annexation was that it would involve a war with Mexico, which had never
acknowledged the independence of Texas.
In April, 1844, Texas formally applied for admission into tl-c United
States, and a treaty for that purpose was negotiated with her by the
government of this country  It was
rejected by the Senate.
In the fall of 1844 the presidential  -
election took place.  Tie reading  i
political question of the day was the
annexation of Texas. It was advocated by the administration of Prcsi-      T OF A
COAKT OF ARMS OF TEXAS.
dent Tyler and by the Democratic
party  This party also made the claim of the United States to Oregon
one of the leading issues of the campaign. Its candidates were James
K. Polk, of Tennessee, and George M. Dallas, of Pennsylvania. The
Whig party supported   Henry Clay, of Kentucky, and Theodore
Frelinghuysen, of New Jersey, and opposed the annexation of Texas.
During this campaign, which was one of unusual excitement, the
Anti-slavery party made its appearance for the first time as a distinct
political organization, and nominated James G. Birney as its candidate
for the presidency.
The result of the campaign was a decisive victory for the Democrats.
This success was generally regarded as an emphatic expression of the
popular will respecting the Texas and Oregon questions. Mr Birney did
not receive a single electoral vote, and of the popular vote only sixty-four
thousand six hundred and fifty-three ballots were cast for him.
When Congress met in December, 1864, the efforts for the annexation
of Texas were renewed. A proposition was made to receive Texas into
the Union by a joint resolution of Congress. A bill for this purpose
passed the House of Representatives, but the Senate added an amend



HIST'ORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


inent app)ointing commissioners to negotiate with Mexico for the annexation of Texas, which she still claimed as a part of her territory  The
president was authorized by a clause in these resolutions to adopt either
the House or the Senate plan of annexation, and on the 2d of March,
1845, the resolutions were adopted. Senator Benton, of Missouri, the
author of the Senate plan, was of the opinion that the matter would be
left to Mr Polk, the president-elect, to be conducted by him; and that
gentleman had expressed his intention to carry out the Senate plan, as he


COAT OF ARMS OF IOWA.


hoped an amicable arrangement
could be made with Mexic6. Mr.
Tyler, however, determined not to
leave the annexation of Texas to his
successor, and at once adopted the
plan proposed in the House resolutions, and on the night of Sunday,
March 3d, a messenger was des

patched with all speed to Texas to lay the proposition before the authorities of that State. It was accepted by them, and on the 4th of July,
1845, Texas became one of the United States.
The area thus added to the territory of the Union comprised two hundred and thirty-seven thousand five hundred and four square miles. It
was provided by the act of admission that four additional States might be
formed out of the territory of Texas, when the population should increase
to an extent which should make such a step desirable. Those States
lying north of the Missouri Compromise line-36~ 30' north latitude

were to be free States; those south of
that line were to be free or slaveholding, "as the people of each State
asking admission may desire."  To
Texas was reserved the' right to refuse to allow the division of her
territory
On the 3d of March, 1845, the


-1 -        c.-         =:_   ____
COAT OF ARMS OF FLORIDA.


president approved an act of Congress admitting the Territories of Iowa
and Florida into the Union as States.
No president has ever been more unpopular during his administration
than Mr Tyler. His administration speaks for itself, however, and bears
out the truth of his memorable words: " I appeal from the vituperation
of the present day to the pen of impartial history, in the full confidence
that neither my motives nor my acts will bear the interpretation which
has, for sinister purposes, been placed upon them."




CHAPTER XXXVII


TUE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK-THE WAR WITH                  MEXICO.
The Oregon Question-Position of President Polk respecting it-The Question SettledTreaty for Settlement of Claims against Mexico-Mexico Resents the Annexation of
Texas-General Taylor Ordered to Texas-He Advances to the Rio Grande-Battles of
Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma-The War with Mexico Begun-Invasion of Mexico
-Occupation of Matanioras-Action of the United States Government-Taylor Advances
into the Interior-The Storming and Capture of Monterey-The Armistice-Return of
Santa Anna to Mexico-President Polk Duped-Santa Anna Seizes the Mexican Government-General Wool Joins General Taylor-Troops Taken from Taylor's Army-Advance of the Mexicans-Battle of Buena Vista-Conquest of California by Fremont
and Stockton-Occupation of Santa Fe-New Mexico Conquered-Doniphan's March
-Occupation of Chihuahua-Sailing of Scott's Expedition-Reduction of Vera CruzSanta Anna Collects a New Army-Battle of Cerro Gordo-Occupation of Puebla by
Scott-Trouble with Mr. Trist-Vigorous Measures of Santa Anna-Scott Advances upon
the City of Mexico-El Pefion Turned-Battles of Contreras and Churubusco-Capture
of Molino del Rey-Storming of Chapultepec-Capture of the City of Mexico- Siege
of Puebla Raised-Flight of Santa Anna-Treaty of Peace Negotiated-Close of the
War-Acquisition of California and New Mexico-Discovery of Gold in CaliforniaRapid Emigration to the Pacific-Death of John Quincy Adams-The Wilmot Proviso
-Revival of the Slavery Question-General Taylor elected President.
AdHE      inauguration of James K. Polk, as president of the United
e)( t      States, took place on the 4th of March, 1845.    He hlad served
the country as governor of the State of Tennessee, and for fourteen years had been a member of the House of Representatives
in Congress from that State, and had been several times chosen
speaker of that body. His cabinet was selected from the first men of his
party   James Buchanan was secretary of state; Robert J Walker was
secretary of the treasury; William L. Marcy, secretary of war; and George
Bancroft, the historian, secretary of the navv
Two important questions presented themselves to the new administration
for settlement: the troubles with Mexico growing out of the annexation
of Texas, and the arrangement of the northwestern boundary of the United
States.
The question of the northwestern boundary had been left unsettled by
the treaty of Washington in 1842. Great Britain was anxious to arrange
the matter, and late in'the year 1842 'Mr.'Fox, the British minister at
69)




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Washington, proposed to Mr Webster, then secretary of state, to.open
negotiations. The British proposition was accepted, but nothing further
was done' until February, 1844, when Sir Richard ])ackenham, the British
minister at Washington, proposed to take up the question of the Oregon
boundary and settle it. Mr Upshur, the secretary of state, accepted the
offer, but was killed a few (lays later by the explosion on board the
"Princeton."  Six months later, Sir Richard Packenham renewed the
proplsal to Air. Calhoun, who had become secretary of state, and negotiations were entered upon in earnest.
The territory of Oregon lay between the forty-second and fifty-fourth
parallels of north latitude, and extended fronm'the Rocky mountains on
the east to the Pacific ocean on the west.  This region was originally
claimed by Spain, by whose subljects it was first discovered. At the cession of Florida, Spain ceded to the United States all her territory north
of the forty-second parallel of north latitude, from the headwaters of the Arkansas
~ ^- ^   to the Pacific. Mexico, upon achieving her
F  9    independence, had acknowledged by a treaty
^       '     with the United States the validity of this
- B             boundary  The line of fifty-four degrees
--:                    forty minutes north latitude was established:  s-: i by treaty between the United States, Great
N   Britain, and Russia as the southern boun-                        ^darv of the Russian possessions in America.
The United States claimed the entire re\-.__~; gion of Oregon in virtue of the cession of
Spain in the Florida treaty; the discoveries
JAMES K. roi.K.     of Captain Gray, of Boston, who circumnavigated the globe, and in 1792 discovered to a
certain extent and explored the Columbia river; the explorations of
Lewis and Clarke in 1805 and 1806 of the southern main branch of the
Columbia, and of the river itself from the mouth of that branch to the
sea; and the settlement of Astoria planted at the mouth of the Columbia
in 1811 by John Jacob Astor, of New York. Oregon was also claimed
by England, who also rested her pretensions on discovery, and on the
settlement made by the Northwest Company on Fraser's river, in 1806,
and on another near the headwaters of the north branch of the Columbia.
In 1818 the United States and Great Britain had agreed upon the
forty-ninth degree of north latitude, as the boundary between the United
States and British America from the Lake of-the Woods to the summit
of the Rocky mountains. Mr Calhoun now opened the negotiations by




ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK.


697


proposing to continue this line to the Pacific. The British minister would
not consent to this, but proposed to extend the forty-ninth parallel from
the mountains to the north branch of the Columbia, and then to make
the boundary follow that stream from this point of intersection to the sea.
Mr. Calhoun at once declined to accept this boundary, and the further consideration of the subject.was postponed until Packenham could receive
additional instructions from his government.
During the presidential campaign of 1844 the Democratic party adopted
as its watchword, "all of Oregon or none," and the excitement upon the
question ran high. The election of Mr Polk showed that the American
people were resolved to insist upon their claim to Oregon, and when the
new president in his inaugural address took the bold ground that the
-  -
POR'r].AND, OREGON, IN 1875-FROMI EAST SIDE OF WILLAMETTE.
American title to " Oregon territory " " was dear and indisputable," and
declared his intention to maintain it at the cost of war with England, the
matter assumed a serious aspect, and for a while it seemed that party passion would involve the two countries in hostilities. President Polk, upon
a calmer consideration of the subject, caused the secretary of state to
reopen the negotiations by proposing to Great Britain the forty-ninth
parallel of latitude as a boundary  The British minister declined the
proposition, and the matter was dropped.
According to the treaties of 1818 and 1828, the joint occupation of
Oregon could be terminated by either party by giving the other twelve
months notice. The president now proposed to give the required notice,
which was done by a resolution of Congress. This put an end to the old
arrangement, and compelled the two countries to make a new settlement




698


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of the difficulty; and this was the object of the president in terminating
the joint occupation.
The subject was brought to the notice of the British Parliament by Sir
Robert Peel, who expressed his regret that the last offer of the United
States had been declined. The British ministry decided at length to reopen negotiations, and Sir Richard Packenham shortly after communicated
to Mr. Buchanan the willingness of his government to accept the fortyninth parallel as a boundary
The time at which the joint occupation would terminate was rapidly
drawing to a close, and the president was anxious to settle the matter, but
at the same time was not willing to assume the responsibility of accept-!-  - m —
--
the suggestion of Senator Benton of Missouri, he asked the advice of the
Senate as to the propriety of accepting the British offer, and pledged himself to be guided by its decision. The Senate advised him to accept it,
and when the treaty was sent to it, ratified it after a warm debate eptending over two days. Thus the matter was brought to a close. By the
treaty, which was concluded in 1846, the forty-ninth parallel of north
latitude was made the boundary between the United States and the British possessions, from the summit of the Rocky mountains to the middle
of the channel between Vancouver's island and the mainland, and thence
southerly through the middle of the Straits of San Juan de Fuca to the




ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES K. POLK.


699


Pacific. The navigation of the Columbia river and its main northern
branch was made free to both parties.
In the meantime the Mexican difficulty had been found much harder
of settlement. Mexico had never acknowledged the independence of
Texas, and since the defeat at San Jacinto had repeatedly threatened to
restore her authority over the Texans by force of arms. She warmly
resented the annexation of Texas by the United States, and a few days
after that event was completed, General Almonte, the Mexican minister
at Washington, entered a formal protest against the course of the United
States, demanded his passports and left the country
Some years before this a number of American ships trading with Mexican ports had been seized and plundered by the Mexican authorities, who
also confiscated the property of a number of American residents in that
country. The sufferers by these outrages appealed for redress to the government of the United States, which. had repeatedly tried to negotiate
with Mexico for the collection of these claims, which amounted to six
millions of dollars. Mexico made several promises of settlement, but
failed to comply with them. In 1840, however, a new treaty was made
between that country and the United States, and Mexico pledged herself
to pay the American claims in twenty annual instalments of three hundred thousand dollars each. Three of these instalments had been paid
at the time of the annexation of Texas; but Mexico now refused to malke
any further payment.
Mexico claimed that the limits of Texas properly ended at the Neuces
river, while the Texans insisted that their boundary was the Rio Grande.
Thus the region between these two rivers became a debatable land, claimed
by both parties, and a source of great and immediate danger. It was
evident that Mexico was about to occupy this region with her troops, and
the legislature of Texas, alarmed by the threatening attitude of that country, called upon the United States government to protect its territory
The president at once sent General Zachary Taylor with a force of fifteen
hundred regular troops, called the " army of occupation," to "take position in the country between the Neuces and the Rio Grande, and to repel
any invasion of the Texan territory." General Taylor accordingly took
position at Corpus Christi, at the mouth of the Neuces, in September,
1845, and remained there until the spring of 1846. At the same time
a squadron of war vessels under Commodore Conner was despatched to
the Gulf to cooperate with General Taylor Both of these officers " were
ordered to commit no act of hostility against Mexico unless she declared
war, or was herself the aggressor by striking the first blow"
At the commencement of the dispute between the two countries, Her



700


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


rera was president of Mexico.   Although diplomatic communications
had ceased between the United States and Mexico, he was anxious to settle
the quarrel by negotiation, but at the presidential election held about this
time Herrera was defeated, and Paredes, who was bitterly hostile to the
United States, was chosen president of the Mexican republic. Paredes
openly avowed his determination to drive the Americans beyond the
Neuces.
In February, 1846, General Taylor was ordered by President Polk to
advance from the Neuces to a point on the Rio Grande, opposite the
Mexican town of Matamoras, and establish there a fortified post, in order
to check the Mexican forces which were assembling there in large nunmbers for the purpose of invading Texas. Taylor at once set out, and
leaving the greater part of his stores at Point Isabel, on the Gulf, advanced to the Rio Grande, and built a fort and established a camp opposite and within cannon shot of Matamoras. General Ampudia, commanding the Mexican forces at Matamoras, immediately notified General
Taylor that this was an act of war upon Mexican soil, and demanded that
he should "break up his camp and retire beyond the Neuces " within
twenty-four hours. Taylor replied that he was acting in accordance with
the orders of his government, which was alone responsible for his conduct,
and that he should maintain the position he had chosen. He pushed
forward the work on his fortifications with energy, and kept a close
watch upon. the Mexicans. Neither commander was willing to take the
responsibility of beginning the war, and Ampudia, notwithstanding his
threat, remained inactive. His course did not satisfy his government,
and lie was removed, and General Arista appointed in his place. Arista
at once began hostilities by interposing detachments of his army between
Taylor's force and his depot of supplies at Point Isabel. On the 26th of
April Taylor sent a party of sixty dragoons under Captain Thornton to
reconnoitre the Mexican lines. The dragoons were surprised with a loss
of sixteen killed. The remainder were made prisoners, and Thornton
alone escaped. This was the first blood shed in the war with Mexico.
A day or two later, being informed by Captain Walker, who with liis
Texan Rangers was guarding the line of communication with Point
Isabel, that the Mexicans were threatening the latter place in heavv
force, General Taylor left Major Brown with three hundred men to hold
the fort, and marched to Point Isabel to relieve that place. He agreed
with Major Brown that if the fort should be attacked or hard pressed, the
latter should notify him of his danger by firing heavy signal guns at certain intervals. He reached Point Isabel, twenty miles distant, on the
2d of May without meeting any opposition on the march.




THE WAR W[ITH MEXICO.


701


General Arista, attributing Taylor's withdrawal to fear, determined to
capture the fortification on the opposite side of the river. On the 3d of
May he opened fire upon it from a heavy battery at Matamoras, and sent
a large force across the Rio Grande, which took position in the rear of the
fort and intrenched themselves there. In the face of this double attack
the little garrison defended themselves bravely, but at length Major
Brown'fell mortally wounded. The command devolved upon Captain
Hawkins, who now felt himself justified in warning Taylor of his danger,
and began to fire the signal guns agreed upon.
Taylor was joined at Point Isabel by a small detachment, and his force
BATTLE OF PALO ALTO.
was increased to twenty-three hundred men. He listened anxiously for
the booming of the signal guns from the fort on the Rio Grande, and at
length they were heard. He knew that the need of assistance must be
great, as the little band in the fort had held out so long without calling
for help, and he at once-set out to join them. He left Point Isabel on
the 7th of May, taking with him a heavy supply train. The steady firing
of the signal guns from Fort Brown (for so the work was afterwards
named in honor of its gallant commander) urged the army to its greatest
exertions.
On the 8th of May the Mexican army, six thousand strong, was discovered holding a strong position in front of a chaparral, near the small
stream called the Palo Alto, intending to dispute the advance of the
Americans. Taylor promptly made his dispositions to attack them. His




IISTOR Y OF THE UNITED S1A4T'S.


coops were ordered to drink from the little stream and to fill their can-,ens. The train was closed up, and the line was formed with Major
tinggold's light battery on the right, Duncan's battery on the left, and a!attery of eighteen-pounders in the centre. The artillery was thrown
vell in front of the.infntry, and the order was given to advance. The
Mexicans at once opened fire with their batteries, but the distance was too
Treat to accomplish anything. The American batteries did not reply
intil they had gotten within easy range, when they opened a fire the
iccuracy and rapidity of which astonished the Mexicans. Their lines
were broken, and they fell back, and the Americans advanced steadily
-- -        -X                          e.        /,         t,_= —
ffought
DETII OF MIAJOR ~IINGGOLD.
through the chaparral, which had been set on fire by the discharge of
cannon, until a new position within close range was reached. Paying no
attention to the Mexican artillery, the American guns directed their fire
upon the enemy's infantry and cavalry, and broke them again and again.
The battle lasted five hours and ceased at nightfall. It was fought
entirely by the artillery of the two armies, and was won by the superior
handling and precision of the American guns. The loss of the Mexicans
was four hundred killed and wounded; that of the Americans nine killed
and forty-four wounded. Early in the battle Major Ringgold was mortally wounded, and died a little later. He was regarded as one of the
most gifted officers of the army, and to him was chiefly due the precision




THE WAR WITH MlEXICO


703


and rapidity of movement acquired by the "flying artillery" of the
American army, which were so successfully tested during this war
The American army encamped on the battle-field, and the next morning,
May 9th, as the Mexicans had retreated, leaving their dead unburied,
resumed its advance. In the afternoon the Mexicans were discovered
occupying a much stronger position than they had held at Palo Alto.
Their line was formed behind a ravine, called Resaca de la Palma, or the
Dry River of Palms. Their flanks were protected by the thick chaparral,
and their artillery was thrown forward beyond the ravine and protected
by an intrenchment, and swept the road by which the Americans must
advance. During the night fresh troops had joined the Mexican army,
and had increased their force to seven thousand men.
Taylor formed his line with his artillery in the centre. The artillery
was ordered to advance along the road commanded by the Mexican battery, and the infantry were directed to move as rapidly as possible
through the chaparral, and drive out the Mexican sharpshooters. The
infantry executed this order in handsome style, but the chaparral was so
dense that each man was obliged to act for himself as he forced, his way
through it. The Mexican battery was handled with great skill and coolness, and held the centre in check until some time after the infantry
had forced their way close to the edge of the ravine. At this juncture.
Captain May was ordered to charge the Mexican guns, and started down
the road at a trot. As he reached the position of the American artillery,
Lieutenant Ridgely suggested that May should halt and allow him to
draw the Mexican fire. Ridgely opened a rapid fire on the Mexican
guns, which answered immediately. At the same moment May dashed
at the Mexican battery with his dragoons, and reached it before the
cannoneers could reload their pieces. They were sabred at their guns,
and the battery was carried. Captain May himself made a prisoner of
General La Vega, as the latter was in the act of discharging one of the
guns. Leaving the battery to the American infantry which now hurried
forward to secure it, the dragoons charged the Mexican centre and broke
it. The whole American line then advanced rapidly; the Mexicans gave
way, and were soon flying in utter confusion towards the Rio Grande,
which they crossed in such haste that many of them were drowned in the
attempt to reach the Mexican shore.
General Arista, the Mexican commander, fled alone from the field,
leaving all his private and official papers behind him. The Americans
lost one hundred and twenty-two men killed and wounded; the Mexicans
twelve hundred. All the Mexican artillery, two thousand stand of arms,
and six hundred mules were captured by the Americans.




704


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


General Taylor advanced from the battle-field to Fort Brown, the garrison of which had heard the distant roar of the battle, and had seen the
flight of the Mexicans across the Rio Grande.
The defeat of the Mexicans at Palo Alto and Resaca de la Palma had
greatly disheartened them. They not only abandoned their intention to
invade Texas, but gave up all hope of holding the Rio Grande frontier.
On the night of the 1 7th of May their army evacuated Matamoras, and
retreated upon Monterey. On the 18th the American army crossed ihe
Rio Grande, and occupied Matamoras. General Taylor scrupulously
respected the municipal laws of the town, and protected the citizens in the
exercise of ~heir civil and religious privileges. All supplies needed by
the troops were purchased at a liberal price, and no plundering or disorder
was allowed or attempted.
In the meantime the news of the attack upon the dragoons under Captain Thornton had reached the United States, and with it the rumor that
the American army was confronted on the Texan side of the Rio Grande
by a vastly superior force of Mexicans, and that its destruction was
almost certain. The president sent a special message to Congress on the
lth of May, in which he informed that body that "war existed by the
act of Mexico," and called upon Congress to recognize the state of war,
and to provide for its support by appropriating the necessary funds, and
to authorize him to call for volunteers. Under the impression that
the perilous situation of Taylor's army made instant action necessary,
Congress appropriated ten millions of dollars for the prosecution of the
war, and authorized the president to accept the services of fifty thousand
volunteers. One-half of this force was to be mustered into the service;
the remainder held as a reserve. The president's call was responded to
with enthusiasm all over the land, and in the course of a few weeks two
hundred thousand volunteers offered their services. General Wool was
ordered to muster the volunteers accepted by the president into the
service.
Preparations were made by the American government to prosecute the
war with vigor  At the suggestion of General Scott a comprehensive plan
of operations was adopted. Two separate expeditions were to be organized. One, called the "Army of the West," was to assemble at Fort
Leavenworth, on the Missouri, to cross the plains and the Rocky moun-.
tains, and to invade and conquer the northern provinces of Mexico. A
powerful fleet was to be sent around Cape Horn to attack the Mexican
ports on the Pacific and cooperate with the Army of the West. A
second force, called the "Army of the Centre," was to advance from
Texas to the city of Mexico, and, if it was thought best, was to co



THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


705


operate with the "Army of Occupation " under General Taylor. As we
shall see, the plan was afterwards modified, and the advance upon the
Mexican capital was made from Vera Cruz on the Gulf of Mexico.
Towards the last of May the news of the brilliant victories on the Rio
Grande was received at Washington, and was hailed with rejoicings
throughout the Union. On the 30th of May Congress conferred upon
Geeral Taylor the rank of major-general by brevet as a reward for his
victories.
On the 23d of May the Mexican Congress formally declared war
against the United States, and the call of the Mexican government for
ST. JOEPII, MISSOLRI.__ -----.-.-. -.............
volunteers for the defence of that country was responded' to with
enthusiasm.
Thanks to the energy of General Wool, twelve thousand volunteers
were mustered into the service of the United States in six weeks. Nine
thousand of these were sent forward rapidly to reinforce General Taylor,
and with the remainder Wool marched to San Antonio, in Texas, to
await further orders.
w     General Taylor had been delayed at Matamoras for three months by
the weakness of his force; but as soon as reinforcements reached him, he
prepared to advance into the interior. His first movement was directed
against the city of Monterey, the capital of the State of New Leon, where
the Mexicans had collected an army His army numbered about nine
thousand men of all arms, and of these a little over twenty-three hundred
men were detached for garrisons, leaving an active force of six thousand
45




706


HISTORY OF THE UNITITD STATES.


six hundred and seventy men. On the 20th of August General Worth's
division marched from  Matamoras, and a fortnight later General Taylor
set out from the Rio Grande with the main army. On the 9th of September the American forces encamped within three miles of Monterey.
Monterey is an old Spanish city, nearly three hundred years old. It
lies in a beautiful valley, and is about two miles in length by one mile in
breadth. The mountains approach close to it, and protect it on all sides
but two. On one of these sides it is approached from the northeast by
the road from Matamoras, and on the other by a rocky gorge through
which runs the road connecting the city with Saltillo. The city has three
large plazas or public squares, and is built like the towns of old Spain,
with narrow streets, and houses of stone one story in height, with strong
walls of masonry rising about three feet above the flat roofs. The city
itself is enclosed with strong walls, intended for artillery. Every means
of defence had been exhausted by the Mexicans. Forty-two heavy cannon
were mounted on the city walls, the streets were barricaded, and the flat
roofs and stone walls of the houses were arranged for infantry  Each
house was a separate fortress. A strongly fortified building of heavy
stone, called the Bishop's palace, stood on the side of a hill without the
city walls, and on the opposite side of the city were redoubts held by infantry and artillery  The command of Monterey and its defences was
held by General Ampudia, and the garrison consisted of ten thousand
veteran troops.
Ten days were passed by the American army in reconnoitring the
town, its peculiar situation rendering such movements very difficult. On
the afternoon of the 20th of September General Worth was ordered to
turn the hill on which stood the Bishop's palace, gain the Saltillo road,
and carry the works in that direction. This movement was successfully
accomplished; but in order to gain the desired position Worth was
obliged to cut a new road across the mountain. His troops bivouacked
for the night just out of range of the enemy's guns. During the night
the Americans built a battery to command the Mexican citadel.
On the morning of the 21st of September the American artillery
opened fire upon Monterey, and the infantry advanced to carry the Mexican works. The brigade of General Quitman carried a strong work in
the lower part of the town, and at the same time General Butler, Iwith a
part of his division, forced his way into the town on the right. While
these operations were in progress General Worth's division seized the
Saltillo road, and secured the enemy's line of retreat. Several fortified
positions along the heights were also carried, and their guns turned upon
the Bishop's palace.




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


707'


During the night of the 21st the Mexicans evacuated the lower part
of the city, but kept their hold upon tile citadel and the upper town,
from which they maintained a vigorous fire upon the American positions.
At daybreak, on tile 22d, Worth's division, advancing in the midst of a
fog and rain, carried the crest commanding the Bishop's palace, and by
noon had captured the palace itself. The guns of the captured works
were now directed upon the enemy in the city below
The enemy had fortified the city so thoroughly that the Americans
were not only forced to carry the various barricades in su(ccession, but
were compelled to break through the walls of the fortified houlses, and
advance from house to house in this way  One or two field-pieces were
drawn up to the flat roofs, and the Mexicans were driven from point to
point during the 22d and 23d, until they were cnfined to the citadel and
plaza. On the night of the 23d General Ampudia opened negotiations,
and on the morning of the 24th surrendered the town and garrison to
General Taylor  The Mexican soldiers were allowed to mrich out with
the honors of war. General Taylor was induced to grant this concession
by his generous desire to spare the people of the city the sufferings which
would have been caused by a prolonged dlefence.
The Mexican commander represented to General Taylor that the
Mexican government was sincerely anxious for peace, and that it would
respond favorably to any fair propositions upon this sul)ject that might
be laid before it. In order to afford an opportunity for such an arrangement of the war, and influenced by the scarcitv of provisions-the
American army having at the time but ten days' rations-Taylor agreed
to a cessation of hostilities for eight weeks, subject to the cinsent of his
government. The Mexican army withdrew     from  Monterey, and an
American garrison, under General Worth, as governor, occupied the city
The main body of Taylor's army then went into camp at Walnut Sprinrs,
three miles distant from Mionterey  The Americans lost four hundred
and eighty-eight men, killed and wounded, in the storming of Monterey.
The Mexican loss was much greater
In the meantime the government of the United States had been led
into a terrible blunder by its desire to bring the war to a speedy close.
Santa Anna, who had been driven out of Mexico by one of the numerous revolutions in that country, was living in exile at Havana. He
declared that if he were allowed to return to Mexico he would use his
influence in favor of peace, and would secure a treaty for the accomplishment of that end. He was sure he could carry out this scheme, and only
needed to be sustained by the United States government with the sum of
three or four millions of dollars to enable him to get control of the




708


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Mexican government. President Polk was completely duped by the
"illustrious exile," and not olly urged Congress to appropriate the sum
of two millions of dollars to assist Santa Anna, but issued an order to
Commodore Conner, commanding the American fleet in the Gulf, to permit Santa Anna to pass through his lines and return to Mekico. Santa
Anna at once availed himself of this order, and landing at Vera Cruz
hastened into the interior,
Once in Mexico Santa Anna thought no more of his promises to Preside nt Polk. He set to work to gain possession of the government, but
not with a view to making peace. He issued a manifesto, in which he
called on his countrymen to rally under his banner for the defence of their
homes and country    He assured them of his undying hatred of the
" perfidious Yankees," pointed to the reverses of the government of
Paredes, and declared that lie alone could save the country  His appeals
were successful. The Mexican people rose at his call, deposed Paredes,
atid elected Santa Anna president. The repeated defeats of their armies
were forgotten in the new enthusiasm which Santa Anna's presence and
proclamiations aroused, and in the course of a few months that leader
found himself at the head of a well-equipped army of twenty thousand
men, which was being steadily increased by the arrival of fresh recruits.
In the meantime General Wool, with a reinforcement of three thousand
troops, hlad marched from San Antonio to join General Taylor. He had
reached l  onclova, about seventy miles from Monterey, when he heard
of the capture of the latter place by Taylor  His route had lain across
an uninhabited and desert region, in which the troops suffered greatly for
want of water. He was directed by General Taylor to take position in a
fertile district in the province of Durango, where he could obtain supp'ies for lhis own command as well as for the army at Monterey  General
Wool conciliated the people of the region occupied by him by protecting
them in their liberties and property, and paying fair prices for all the
supplies furnished by them. The Mexicans were far better treated by
the conquering army than they had been by their own rulers.
In accordance with orders received from Washington General Taylor
Iput an end to the armistice on the 13th of November. On the 15th
General Worth, with seven hundred men, occupied Saltillo, the capital of
the State of Coahuila. Leaving a garrison in Monterey, under General
Butler, Taylor moved towards the coast to attack Tanipico. Upon reaching Victoria, the capital of the State of Tamaulipas, he learned that
Tampico had surrendered to the United States squadron, under Commodore Conner, on the 14th of November. Victoria was occupied on the
29th of December, The troops under General Wool were now ordered




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


to join General Worth at Saltillo, and General Taylor preparcd to resume
his forward movement into the heart of Mexico. At this juncture his
offensive operations were suddenly brought to a close.
The plan of the invasion adopted by the government of the United
States hlad been so far modified that the "Army of the Centre," undler
General Winfield Scott, was ordered to capture Vera Cruz, the principal
Mexican port on the Gulf, and advance upon the city of Mexico from
that point. Troops in sufficient numbers could not be drawn fi,mi the
United States, and General Scott, as commander-in-chief, decided to draw
the desired number of men from Taylor's army  The order for the withdrawal of these troops reached General Taylor just as lie wa-s about to
resume active operations. Taylor was keenly disappointed at )being thus
condemned to inactivity, but like the true soldier that he was at once
obeyed the orders sent him. Generals Worth and Quitman with their
divisions, and the greater portion of the volunteers who lhad come out
with General Wool, were at once despatched to the Gulf coast to join the
expedition against Vcra Cruz.  The withdrawal of these troops left
General Taylor with a very small force. During the month of January
and the early part of February, 1847, reinforcements from the United
States increased his army to about six thousand men. A portion of thcese
was placed in garrison at Monterey and Saltillo, leaving General Taylor
about forty-seven hundred effective troops, of whom but six hundred
were regulars.
Early in January, 1847, General Scott sent Lieutenant Richey with
an escort of cavalry to convey a despatch to General Taylor. Lieutenant
Richey was killed by the Mexicans on the way, and his despatcllhes were
forwarded to Santa Anna, who learned from them the American plan for
the invasion of Mexico. He at once resolved upon his own course.
Relying upon the strength of Vera Cruz to hold Scott's army in check,
he determined to attack General Taylor at once, and crush him. By the
most energetic and despotic measures he silenced the opposition which
prevailed in the city of Mexico, and obtained both men and money for
his attempt. On the 26th of January he began his march upon Saltillo
with twenty-three thousand well-armed and equipped men, and twenty
pieces of artillery
The Mexican army had reached San Louis Potosi, about sixty miles
south of Saltillo, when General Wool, commanding at the latter place,
learned of their approach. He at once notified General Taylor, who
advanced with his whole effective force from Monterey to Saltillo. As
the enemy continued to approach, Taylor left his stores at Saltillo, and
moved rapidly to Agua"Nueva, eighteen miles beyond Saltillo, on the




710


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


road to San Louis Potosi. His design was to secure the southern end of
the pass through the Sierra Nevada. With this pass in the possession of
the Americans the Mexican army would be compelled to fight at once, as
the country in their rear was incapable of supplying them with provisioln. The reports of the reconnoitring parties made it evident that the
Mexican force was vastly superior to that of the Americans, and General
Taylor also learned that a strong body of Mexican cavalry, under General Minon, was some distance to the left of his position, which could be
turned. A daring reconnoissance was made by Major M'Culloch, of the
Texan Rangers. He entered the Mexican camp, passed through it, and
obtained accurate information of their numbers, and regained his own
lines in safety
Upon receipt of M'Culloch's intelligence, and the report of the effort
of the Mexican cavalry to turn his left, General Taylor fell back from
Arua Nueva to a new position, eleven miles higher up the valley, on the
21st of February.
The withdrawal of the American army was made in good time. Santa
Anna had sent Minon with the cavalry to gain the rear of Taylor's
army, and at the same time endeavored, by a forced march of fifty miles,
to surprise General Taylor at Agua Nueva. Upon arriving in front of
that place, he found to his astonishment and disappointment that Taylor
had abandoned his position. Interpreting this movement as a flight, the
Mexican commander pushed on in pursuit of his adversary, and came up
with him on the morning of the 22d of February
The position chosen by General Taylor was at the north end of the
valley known as Las Angosturas, or the Narrows, and near the hacienda
or plantation known as Buena Vista, from which latter place th6 battle
took its name. It was one of great strength. Its flanks were protected
by the mountains which rose abruptly from the defile, and the ground in
front was broken by numerous ravines and gullies. The American forces
were disposed so as to secure every advantage afforded by the nature of
the ground, and the road through the pass-the key to the whole position
-was swept by the fire of the artillery. The troops were in high spirits.
It was Washington's birthday, and this incident was generally commented upon as a good omen.
About noon a Mexican officer brought a note to General Taylor, in
which Santa Anna demanded the surrender of the American army  This
demand was refused, and skirmishing at once began. During the afternoon Santa Anna sent a force under General Ampudia to ascend the
mountains and turn the American left. This brought on severe skirmishing in this quarter, but nothing definite was accomplished during the




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


afternoon. Late in the afternoon the Mexican cavalry under General
Miuon, which had passed the mountains, appeared in the plains north of
Saltillo. Minon was ordered to halt in the position he had gained and
await the result of the battle of the next day at Buena Vista. His
appearance caused great anxiety to General Taylor, who hastened to
Saltillo with reinforcements after nightfall, as hle feared Minon would
seek to cap)ture that place.
During the night of the 22d Santa Anna reinforced the column under
Ampudia, and opened the battle at daybreak on the 23(1 of February, by
endeavoring to turn the American left. A little later lie opened fire from
his artillery, and moved forward three powerful columns of attack against
the American centre. The movement of the column of Ampudia was
successful, the left of the American line was completely turned, but the
attack upon the centre was repulsed by the splendid fire of the American
batteries.
At this moment General Taylor arrived upon the field from Saltillo,
bringing with him May's dragoons, several companies of Mississippi
riflemen, and a portion of the Arkansas cavalry, embracing every man
that could be spared from Saltillo. He had come at a critical moment,
for the turning of his left flank by Ampudia had neutralized the natural
advantage of the position. Many of the troops were in full retreat upon
Buena Vista, and nothing but the courage and constancy of those who
yet remained firm  could save the day   By great exertions Colonel
Jefferson Davis rallied the greater part of his owvn regimnent-the Mississippi rifles-and a part of the Second Indiana, and by a rapid advance
drove back a strong Mexican column in his front. He had scarcely
accomplished this when he was assailed by a body of one thousand
splendid Mexican lancers. Davis quickly formed his owvn men and the
Second and Third Indiana in the shape of the letter V, with the opening
towvards the enemy, and posted Sherman's battery on his left. The line
thus formed awaited in silence the approach of the Mexican cavalry,
which came on at a gallop. As they drew near the opening of this
terrible V the Mexicans, who had expected the Americans to fire, when
they intended to dash in upon them before the men could reload, were
astonished at the silence with which they were received, and slackened
their pace until they came to a walk within eighty yards of the opening
of the angle. In an instant. Davis gave the command, and his men took
deliberate aim. Then a volley flashed from the rifles and swept away the
head of the Mexican column. The next moment Sherman's guns
opened upon the cavalry with grape and canister. Under this combined
fire horses and lancers fell in great numbers, forming a barricade over




712


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


which the enemy could not pass, and the Mexicans, seized with a panic,
wheeled about and fled in confusion.
While this attack was in progress the Mexicans sent a body of cavalry
under Torrejon to seize the plantation of Buena Vista. Torrejon made
his attack with vigor, but was driven back by the Kentucky and
Arkansas volunteers, assisted by Colonel May's dragoons. Colonel
Yell, of ~he Arkansas regiment, was killed and Torrejon was wounded in
this part of the engagement.
During all this while a steady cannonade had been in progress along
the centre of the American line. The Mexicans endeavored to silence
the American batteries, but without success.
Santa Anna now sent a strong force to pass around the American left
" -
— 7&
DEFEAT OF THE MEXICAN RIGHT WING AT BUENA VISTA.
and gain the rear of Taylor's line; and this force was joined by a part
of Torrejon's command, which was retreating from Buena Vista. The
movement was detected by Colonel May, who met it with his cavalry
and several companies of Illinois and Indiana volunteers.   General
Taylor sent to his assistance all the cavalry he could spare and Bragg's
battery  The retreat of the Mexicans, who had passed beyond the
American left, was cut off, and they were driven in confusion to the base
of the mountain, while Bragg's guns showered canister upon them and
increased the panic which had set in among them. It seemed that the
whole Mexican column, numbering five thousand men, must surrender




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


or be exterminated. In this emergency the Mexican cimmander raised
the white flag, and asked for a parley, professing to hav-1  a message from
Santa Anna to General Taylor, and the American guns ceased firing.
Before the trick was discovered the Mexican right escaped under the
cover of the flag of truce by passing along the base of the mountain to a
point from which they rejoined their main army
Santa Anna now brought up his reserves, and late in the afternoon
made a determined attack upon the American right, which had been
greatly weakened to assist the troops engaged in repelling the attackl
on the left.  The Mexican column, twelve thousand strong, easily
drove back the few scattered volunteers that disputed their advance,
--                   /  ~ ~
GENERAL TAYLOR THANKING CAPTAIN BRAGG AT BUENA VISTA.
and captured O'Brien's battery, which was without infantry support, but
not until every man had been killed or wounded. Washington's guns
now opened upon the enemy, and succeeded in holding their cavalry in
check for a moment. The Mexican infantry pushed on, firing as they
advanced, and it was evident that the crisis of the battle was at hand.
The battle had been going on for eight hours, and the American troops
were greatly exhausted by the unusual exertions they had been subjected
to; while the Mexican column, consisting mainly of their reserves, was
fresh, and four times as strong as the whole American army  Keenly
alive to his danger Taylor exerted himself in every possible way to bring
up his scattered regiments in time to save the position. The flying
artillery of Captain Bragg was the first to reach the field. There was




714


Il7STOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


not an, infantry soldier near to support him, and the salvation of the armn
depended upon Bragg's efforts. He unlimbered his guns within a few
yards of the rapidly advancing Mexicans, and poured in discharge after
discilarge with a rapidity which seemed wonderful.   The Mexican
advance was checked, and Sherman now came up and opened fire from
his guns upon them. Washington's battery a little later joined in the
fire. The Mississippi and Indiana volunteers now reached the field,
and made a spirited attack upon the enemy's right flank. Under this
terrible fire the Mexicans wavered for a few moments, and then broke in
confusion and fled from the field.
The Mexicans made no further attack during the day, and that night
Santa Anna, abandoning his wounded, and leaving his dead unburied,
retreated rapidly towards Agua Nueva. The American loss in the battle
of Buena Vista was two hundred and sixtyseven killed, and four hundred and fifty-six
wounded. That of the Mexicans was over
t             two thousand killed and wounded, including
4 ^c L   many officers of high rank. Taylor followed
~              -:.~ A   the Mexican army on the 24th as far as
Agua Nueva, and collecting their wounded,
removed them to Saltillo, where they were
attended by the American surgeons.
_ -        The victory of Buena Vista was decisive
FREMONT.        of the war  It saved the valley of the Rio
Grande from invasion bv a victorious Mexican
army, and enabled the expedition of General Scott against Vera Cruz
to proceed without delay to the acconmplishment of its objects. It also
greatly disheartened the Mexican people, and during the remainder
of the year Taylor's army had nothing to do but to hold the country
it occupied.
General Taylor remained at Agua Nueva until he was satisfied that no
further trouble was to be apprehended from the Mexican army, and then
returned by easy stages to his camp at Walnut Springs, near Monterey,
which he reached by the last of March. In the summer of 1847, leaving
General Wool in command of the army, General Taylor returned to the
United States, where he was received with distinguished honor.
While these events were going on in Mexico Captain John C. Fremont,
of the United States army, had been engaged in prosecuting the discoveries
in the Rocky mountain region, which he had begun in 1843, in which
year he had explored the valley known as the Great Basin, the region
of the Great Salt lake, and the valleys of the Sacramento and San




THE WAB WITH MEXICO.


Joaquin, on the Pacific coast. In May, 1845, Fremont set out on his
third expedition, and passed the winter in the valley of the San Joaquin,
then Mexican territory. In May, 1846, he received orders from Washington to move into California and counteract any foreign scheme for
securing that Territory, and to conciliate the good-will of the inhabitants
toward the United States. Fremont had but sixty men with him, but
he at once moved into the valley of the Sacramento. The Mexican


POINT ARENA LIGHTHOL E-COAMt' 01 CA.FI'uiiA.


inhabitants were seriously considering at this time whether they should
massacre the American settlers, or whether, in the event of a war between
Mexico and the United States, they should place California under the
protection of Great Britain. Fremont was informed of these plots, and,
though no war existed as yet between the two republics, he also learned
that the Mexican General De Castro was advancing to drive him out of
California. The American settlers flocked to Fremont's camp, with their
arms gn4 horse% and he soon found himself at the head of a considerable




716


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


force. He was thus enabled to repulse De Castro's attack, and, after a
few conflicts, to drive him from Upper California. By July, 1846, the
Mexican authority was entirely overthrown in Upper California, and the
flag of independence was raised by the settlers.
The American squadron in the Pacific was commanded by Commodore
Sloat, who was ordered by the secretary of the navy to seize the port of
San Francisco as soon as he was reliably informed of the existence of war
between the two countries, and to occupy or blockade such other Mexican
ports as his force would permit. In the early summer of 1846 the
American,squadron was lying at Mazatlan. A British squadron under
Admiral Seymour also lay in the harbor, and the American commodore
became convinced that the British admiral was watching him for the
purpose of interfering with his designs upon California. He therefore
resolved to get rid of him, and put to sea and sailed to the westward, as
if making for the Sandwich islands. The British fleet followed him
promptly, but in the night the commodore tacked and sailed up the coast
to Monterey, while the Britisl continued their course to the islands.
Sloat was coldly received at Monterey by the authorities. Hearing of
the action of Fremont and the American settlers, the comtnodore a few
days later took possession of the town, and sent a courier to Fremont,
who at once joined him with his mounted men. California was now
taken possession of in the name of the United States.
About the middle of July Commodore Stockton arrived in the harbor,
and succeeded Commodore Sloat, who returned home, in the command
of the squadron. The next day Admiral Seymour arrived at Monterey
He saw he was too late, and quietly submitted to what he could not prevent, though he was greatly astonished to find the town in possession of
the American forces. On the 17th of August Fremont and Stockton
occupied Los Angeles, the capital of Upper California.
In June, 1846, General Kearney, with the "Army of the West," nunmbering eighteen hundred men, marched from Fort Leavenworth, on the
Missouri, across the plains to Santa F6, the capital of the Mexican province of New Mexico. After a march of nearly one thousand miles, lie
occupied Santa Fe on the 18th of August. Leaving a garrison at Santa
F6, Kearney pushed on towards California, intending to conquer that
province also; but upon reaching the Gila river, he was met by the
famous hunter Kit Carson, who informed him of the conquest of California by Fremont and Stockton. Kearney thereupon sent two companies of dragoons under Major Sumner back to Santa FA, and with the
remainder continued his march to the Pacific coast.
Upon leaving Santa Fe, Kearney had instructed Colonel Doniphan to




rTHE WAR WITH' MEXICO.


717


invade the country of the Navajoe Indians and compel them to make
peace with the Americans. Doniphan set out in November, 1846, and
crossing the mounthins, which were covered with snow, succeeded in
making a treaty with the Navajoes, by which they agreed to refrain from
hostilities against the people of New Mexico. He then marched to the
southeast to meet General Wool at Chihuahua.
The inhabitants of New Mexico, encouraged by the absence.of Donii:;han with so large a force, rose in revolt against the American forces,::-id murdered the American governor of the territory and several other
officials on the 14th of January, 1847. Colonel Sterling Price, comnanding the troops at Santa F6, at once marched against the insurgents,
SOUTHWEST FROM SANTA FE.
defeated t'lecn in two ei:gagcements, though they greatly outntu::l)bered his
fore,,, and suppressed the rebellion. The insurgents obtained peace only
hy surrendering their leaders, several of whom were hanged by the
Americans.
Colonel Doniphan, in the meantime, had continued his march. His
route lay through a barren region destitute of water or grass called the
Jornado del Muerto-" The Journey of Death." He pressed forward
with firmness through this terrible region, his men and animals suffering
greatly on the march, and in the latter part of December entered the
valley of the Rio Grande. With a force of eight hundred and fifty-six
men he defeated over twelve hundred Mexicans at Brazito, on the 26th




718


HI1STORY OF THE UNITED STATE,.


of December, 1846, and inflicted upon them a loss of nearly two hundred
men; losing only seven men himself. On the 28th he occupied El Paso,
and there waited until his artillery could join hiim from Santa F6. It
arrived in the course of a month, and on the 8th of February he resumed
his march to Chihuahua. On the 28th he encountered and defeated a
Mexican force of over fifteen hundred men with ten pieces of artillery, at
a pass of' the Sacramento river, a tributary of the Rio Grande. The
Mexicans lost over three hundred killed and a number wounded. The
Americans lost two killed and several wounded. The Mexicans were


EAST SIDE OF PLAZA-SANTA FE.


completely routed, and left their artillery and all their train in the hands
of the Americans.
On the 1st of March, 1847, Doniphan entered Chihuahua, and raising
the American flag on the citadel, took possession of the pr*ovim' inthe name of the United States. Chihuahua was one of -the largest cities
in Mexico, and contained nearly thirty thousand inhabitants.' Doni:phan's force was less than one thousand men. He had expected to find
General Wool here, and failing to meet him was in utter ignorance of
the positions of the American forces. His own position, in the midot of
a hostile population, was perilous indeed, but by his firm and just




DONIPHAN MAKING~ A TREATY WITIU TILE NAVAJOES.




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


measures he conciliated the inhabitants. He remained at Chihuahua for
six weeks vainly expecting the arrival of General Wool, and on the 27th
of April evacuated that place, and set out for Saltillo, three hundred and
fifty miles distant.  He reached that place on the 22d of May  Remaining there but three days, he continued his march to Monterey, from
which he proceeded to Matamoras. The enlistments of his men being
over, they were transported to New Orleans, and there mustered out of
the service.
Thltiu ended the most remarkable expedition on record. In less than
one year a corps of volunteers, unused to the hardships of war, had
marched over snow-covered mountains and across burning deserts, a distance of over five thousand miles, over three thousand of which lay
through an unknown and hostile country, abounding in enemies who
might have crushed them at any moment had they rallied in sufficient
In the meantime there had been new troubles in California. In
August, 1847, Commodore Stockton appointed Captain Fremont military
commandant of California, and soon after sailed from San Francisco to
Montercv, from,lwhich place he continued his voyage to San Diego.
Soon af'tr the departure of the fleet, Fremont learned of a conspiracy to
overthrow his government. By a forced march of one hundred and fifty
miles lie surlrised and captured the insurgent leader, Don J Pico. A
court-martial sentenced him to death, but Fremont wisely spared his life,
alll Pico, in gratitude for this clemency, gave him his powerful aid in his
efforts to tranquillize the country
General Kearney had continued his march from New Mexico, encountering great difficulties along the route, and suffering considerably from
the repeated attacks of superior parties of the enemy  In December,
1847, he reachld Sanl Pasqual, where he was obliged to halt. His situatio: was desperate indeed; his provisions were exhausted; his horses had
(lied on the m:arch; his mules were disabled; a large number of his men
were sick; and his camp was surrounded by the enemy, who held every
road by which he could escape. In this situation three men-Kit Carson, Lieutenant Beales of the navy, and an Indian whose name is unfortinately unknown-volunteered to make their way through the enemy's
lines to San Diego, thirty miles distant, and inform Commodore Stockton
of Kearney's need of assistance. They succeeded in reaching San Diego,
and the commodore promptly sent reinforcements to Kearnev, which
enabled him to drive off the enemy and reach San Diego in safety
Commodore Stockton now directed his attention to suppressing the insurrection of the Mexican inhabitants of California, who had gotten posses



K7 -

" THE JOURNEY OF DEATH "-CROSSED BY DONIPHAN'S COMMAND.




722


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


sion of Los Angeles. Driven to extremities they surrendered the town
on condition that the Americans should respect the rights and property
of the citizens.
Commodore Stockton having been relieved of his civil functions by
orders from Washington, General Kearney claimed the governorship of
the territory by virtue of his rank. Fremont refused to recognize his
authority, and was brought to trial before a court-martial, which found
him guilty of disobedience of orders and mutiny, and 'sentenced him to
be dismissed from the service. The sentence was remitted by the president on account of Fremont's meritorious and valuable services, but
Fremont refused to accept the clemency of the president, and thus admit
i=.: ---
SACRAMENTO, CALIFORNIA, IN 1875.
the justice of the sentence of the court, and resigned his commission.
General Kearney remained in California as governor of that territory
The expedition under General Scott sailed from New Orleans late in
November, 1846, and rendezvoused at the island of Lobos, about one
hundred and twenty-five miles north of Vera Cruz. The plan of operations for this army was very simple-to capture Vera Cruz and march
to the city of Mexico by the most direct route. At length everything
being in readiness, the expedition sailed from  Lobos island, and on the
morning of the 9th of March, 1847, the army, thirteen thousand strong,
landed without opposition at a point selected by General Scott and Conmmodore Conner a few days before. The city and vicinity had been
thoroughly reconnoitred, and the troops were at once marched to the
positions assigned them by the commander-in-chief.
Vera Cruz is the principal seaport of Mexico, and contained at the




THE WAR WITH MEXICO


723


time of the siege about fifteen thousand inhabitants. It was strongly
fortified on the land side, and towards the Gulf was defended by the
Castle of San Juan de Ulloa, the strongest fortress in America, with the
exception of Quebec.
On the 10th of March the investment of the city was begun by General
Worth, and the American lines were definitely established around the
city for a distance of six miles. During the day, and for several days
thereafter, bodies of Mexicans attempted to harass the besiegers, and a
steady fire was maintained upon them by the guns of the castle and the
city as they worked at their batteries. The American works being completed, and their guns in position, General Scott summoned the city of
Vera Cruz to surrender, stipulating that no batteries should be placed in the
city to attack the castle unless the city should be fired upon by that work.
The demand was refused by General Morales, who commanded both the
city and the castle, and at 4 o'clock on the
afternoon of the 22d of March, the American battdries opened fire upon the town.,
The bombardment was continued for five
days, and the fleet joined in the attack upon.
the castle. The city suffered terribly, a           /A  ft
number of the inhabitants were killed, And
many buildings were set on fire by the
shells. On the 27th the city and castle  -   -
surrendered, and were promptly occupied
by the Americans. Over five thousand
prisoners and five hundred pieces of artil-  GENERAL WINFIELD SCOTT.
lery fell into the hands of the victors.
The garrison were required to march out, lay down their arms, and were
then dismissed upon their parole. The inhabitants were protected in
their civil and religious rights. The surrender was completed on the
morning of the 29th.
Having secured the city and the castle, General Scott placed a strong
garrison in each, and appointed General Worth governor of Vera Cruz.
He then prepared to march upon the city of Mexico, and on the 8th of
April the advance division, under General Twiggs, set out from Vera
Cruz towards Jalapa. Deducting the force left to garrison Vera Cruz,
Scott's whole army amounted to but eighty-five hundred men.
Santa Anna had not found the consequences to himself of the battle of
Buena Vista as bad as he had expected. He had succeeded in persuading his countrymen that he had not been defeated in that battle, but had
simply retreated for want of provisions, and they had agreed to give him




7'24


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


another trial. He had pledged himself to prevent the advance of the
Americans to the capital, in the event of the fall of Vcra Cruz, and with
the aid of those of hlis countrymen who were willing to support him had
quelled an insurrection at the capital, and had strengthened his power to
a greater degree than ever  With a force of twelve thousand men he
lhad taken position at Cerro Gordo, a mountain pass at the eastern edge
of the ('ordilleras, to hold the American army in check, and had fortified
hlis position with great skill and care.
General Twiggs halted before the Mexican position to await the arrival
of General Scott, who soon joined hlim with the main army  The Mexican lines were carefully reconnoitred, and on the 18th of April General
_            _  _                7
t'-'-            -
BATTLE OF CERRO GORDO.
Scott, avoiding a direct attack, turned the enemy's left, seized the heights
commanding their position, and drove them from their works with a loss
of three thousand prisoners and forty-three pieces of artillery  Santa
Anna mounted a mule, taken from his carriage, and fled, leaving the
carriage and his private papers in the hands of the Americans. Besides
their prisoners, the Mexicans lost over one thousand men in killed and
wounded. Scott's loss was four hundred and thirty-one killed and
wounded.
The brilliant victory of Cerro Gordo opened the way for the American
army to Jalapa, which was occupied on the 19th of April. Continuing
his advance, General Scott captured the strong fortress of Perote, situated




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


725


on a peak of the Eastern Cordilleras, which was abandoned almost without a blow by its defenders, on the 22d of April. On the 15th of May
Puebla, the second city of Mexico, containing eighty thousand inllabitants, was occupied. General Scott established his head-quarters at Puebla,
and awaited reinforcements. The terms of the volunteers would expire
in June, and they refused to re-enlist, as they were afraid to encounter
the yellow fever, the scourge of the Mexican climate, the season for which
was close at hand. They were returned to the United States, and General Scott was forced to spend three months at Puebla in inactivity  The
force he had with him was greatly weakened by sickness, and eighteen
hundred men were in the hospitals of Puebla alone.
~-~ ~ —~ --- —~_~~.
AMERICAN ARMY ENTERING PUEBLA.
While at Puebla, General Scott was ordered by the secretary of war
to collect duties on merchandise entering the Mexican ports, and to apply
the money thus obtained to the needs of the army  He was also ordered
to levy contributions upon the Mexican people for the use of the troops.
He refused to obey this order, declaring that the country through which
he was moving was too poor to warrant impressments, and that such a
measure would exasperate the Mexicans and cause them to refuse to
supply the army at all. "Not a ration for man or horse," he said,
"woild be brought in except by the bayonet, which would oblige the
troops to spread themselves out many leagues to the right and left in search




HIISTORY OF THE UNITED S TA lTES.


of subsistence, and stop all military operations."  He continued to buy
provisions for his army at tile regular prices of the country, and by so
doing greatly allayed the bitterness of feeling with which the Mexicans
regarded the Americans.
Another annoyance to which the commander-in-chief was subjected
arose from the ill-advised action of Mr. N  P Trist, who had been sent
out to Mexico in the quality of peace commissioner     Soon after the
capture of Vera Cruz, General Scott had suggested to thle president the
propriety of sending out commissioners to his head-quarters, who should
be empowered to treat for peace when a suitable occasion should offer itself. Thle president selected for this purpose Mr N  P. Trist, who had
been United States (onsul at Havana, and who was acquainted with the
Sl)anish language-a singular selection.  Mr. Trist was furnished with
the draft of a treaty carefully prepared in the state department at Washington, and was intrusted with a despatch from Mr. Buchanan, the secretary of state,  the Mexican minister of foreign relations. He was
instructedl to communicate confidentially to General Scott and Commodore
Perry both the treaty and his instructions. General Scott was informed
of Trist's mission I)v the secretary of war, and was directed to suspend
military operations until further orders, unless attacked.
Mr Trist reached Vera Cruz in due time, but instead of explaining
hi mission, as directed, to Ge(neral Scott, lie sent a note to the commander-in-chiTf from Vera Cruz, enclosing the letter of the secretary of
war, and the sealed despatch to the Mexican minister, which lie requested
tlhe general to forward to its destination. The letter of the secretary of
war could not be understoodl by General Scott without the explanations
Mr Trist was directed to give, but failed to make. General Scott very
properly resentcd the conduct of Trist as an attempt to degrade him by
making him sublordinate to that personage, and( in his reply to him declared that the suspension of hostilities belonged to the commander in
the field and not to the secretary of war a thousand miles away  Trist
thereupon wrote to General Scott, giving a full explanation of his mission, but did so in disrespectful terms. In conclusion he claimed to be
the aid-de-eamp of the president, and as such to possess the right to issue
orders to the commander-in-ioief. Scott referred the matter to the government at Washington, maintaining in the meantime his independence
of action as commanding general. In due time explanations came from
Washington satisfactory to the general; and Mr, Trist was sharply reprimanded bv the secretary of state "for his presuming to command the
general-in-chief."
After his defeat at Cerro Gordo, Santa Anna repaired to Orizaba,




TIHE WAR WITH MEXICO.


727


where he organized a number of guerrilla bands to attack the American
trains on the road between Vera Cruz and Scott's army  He then returned to the city of Mexico, where he was coldly received by the people.
The affairs of the Mexican nation were in the most hopeless confusion,
and the people were utterly disheartened. Their army on which they
had depended for the defence of the road to the capital had been routed
at Cerro Gordo, and there was no force in existence with which to stay
tie advance of the victorious Americans.  Had General Scott been able
to advance upon Mexico immediately after his occupation of Puebla, the
city would have fallen at once, and the war have lbeell brought to an
immediate clo:se. A number of leaders contestedl the sulremalcy at the
capital, and the quarrels of these factions paralyzed the efforts of the
government. The most capable of these leaders was Santa Anna, and
his strong qualities naturally attracted to himn the larrgst following.  By
his extraorlinary energy he suppressed the opposition to him, secured the
money lie needed by forced loans from the people, and raised an army of
twenty-five thousand men and sixty pieces of artillery, and fortified the
city of IMexico. The three months' enforccld delay of General Scott's
army at Puebla gave him time to carry out these measures, and he endeavored to, gain still further advantages by opening negotiations secretly
with Mr. Trist, and pretending to be anxious for peace. He declared
that he needed money to enable him to act with freedom in arranging a
treaty, and succeeded( in getting about ten thousand dlollars from  the
secret service fund at the disposal of General Scott; but his (lesigns were
soon detected by the American commander, and the supply of money
was discontinued.
Reinforcemelnts from the United States arrived at Puebla in July, and
on the 7th of August General Scott resumed his advance on the city of
Mexico, with a force increased to ten thousand men. The route lay
through a beautiful upland country, abounding in water, and rich in the
most picturesque scenery  The troops pressed on with enthusiasm, and on
the 10th of August the summit of the Cordilleras was passe(l, and then
almost from the very spot from which, more than three centuries before,
the followers of Cortez looked down upon the halls of the Montezumas,
the American army beheld the beautiful valley of Mexico stretching out
for miles before them, with the city of Mexico lying in the midst, encircled by the strong works that had been erected for its defence.
The passes on the direct road to the city had been well fortified and
garrisoned by the Mexicans, but the country upon the flanks had been
left unprotected, because Santa Anna deemed it utterly impossible for
any troops to pass over it and turn his position. El Peflon, the most




728


IHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


formidable of these defences, was reconnoitred by the engineers, who reported that it would cost at least three thousand lives to carry it. Scott
thereupon determined to turn El Pefion, instead of attacking it. The city
and its defences were carefully reconnoitred, and it was discovered that the
works on the south and west were weaker than those at any other points.
General Scott now moved to the left, passed El Peflon on the south, and
by the aid of a corps of skilful engineers moved his army across ravines
and chasms which the Mexican commander had pronounced impassable,
and had left unguarded. General Twiggs led the advance, and halted
and encamped at Chalco, on the lake of the same name. Worth followed,
and, passing Twiggs, encamped at the town of San Augustin, eight miles
from the capital.
As s,(on as Santa Anna found that the Americans had turned El
Peilon, and had advanced to the south side of the city, he left that fortress
and took position in the strong fort of San Antonio, which lay directly in
front of Worth's new position. Northwest of San Antonio, and four
miles from the city, lay the little village of Churubusco, which had been
strongly fortified by the Mexicans.  A little to the west of San Augustin
was the fortifiedl camp of Contreras, with a garrison of about six thousand
men. In the rear, between the camp and the city, was a reserve force of
twelve thousand men. The whole number of Mexicans manning these
defences was about thirty-five thousand, with at least one hundred pieces
of artillery of various sizes.
General Scott lost no time in moving against the enemy's works.
General Persifer F Smith was ordered to attack the entrenched camp at
Contreras, while Shields and Pierce should move between the camp and
Santa Anna at San Antonio, and prevent him from going to the assistance
of the force at Contreras. At three o'clock on the morning of August
20th, in the midst of a cold rain, Smith began his march, his men holding on to each other, to avoid being separated in the darkness. He made
his attack at sunrise, and in fifteen minutes had possession of the camp.
He took three thousand prisoners and thirty-three pieces of cannon.
The camp at Contreras having fallen, General Scott attacked the fortified village of Churubusco an hour or two later, and carried it after a
desperate struggle of several hours. General Worth's division stormed
and carried the strong fort of San Antonio, and General Twiggs captured another important work. The Mexicans outnumbered their assailants three to one, and fought bravely- Their efforts were in vain,
however, and late in the afternoon they were driven from their defences,
and pursued by the American cavalry to the gates of the city
These two victories had been won over a force of thirty thousand'




THE WAR WITH MEXICO


729


Mexicans by less than ten thousand Americans, and a loss of four thousand killed and wounded and three thousand prisoners had been inflicted
upon the Mexican army  The American loss was eleven hundred men.
Santa Anna retreated within the city, and on the 21st of August the
American army advanced to within three miles of the city of Mexico. On
the same day Santa Anna sent a flag of truce to General Scott, asking for
a suspension of hostilities, in order to arrange the terms of a peace. The
request was granted, and Mr. Trist was despatclhed to the city, and began
negotiations with the Mexican commissioners. After protracted delays,
designed to gain time, the Mexican commissioners declined the American
J
STORMING OF CHAPULTEPEC.
conditions, and proposed others which they knew would not lbe accepted.
Thoroughly disgusted, Mr Trist returned to the American camp, and
brought with him the intelligence that Santa Anna had violated the
armistice by using the time accorded him by it in strengthening his defences. Indignant at such treachery, General Scott at once resumed his
advance upon the city                    0
The Mexican capital was still defended by two powerful works. One
of these was Molino del Rey, "The King's Mill," a foundry, where it
was said the church bells were being cast into cannon; the other was the
strong castle of Chapultepec. General Scott resolved to make his first
attack upon Molino del Rey, which was held by fourteen thousand




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Mexicans. It was stormed and carried on the 8th of September, after a
severe contest by Worth's division, four thousand strong. This was regarded as the hardest won victory of the war. The Mexicans were nearly
four times as numerous as the Americans, and their position was one of
very great strength. The Americans fought principally with their rifles
and muskets, their artillery being of but little use to them, owing to the
nature of the position. Their loss was seven hundred and eighty-seven
killedand wounded-nearly one-fourth of the force engaged.
The castle of Chapultepec stood on a steep and lofty hill, and could
not be turned. If won at all, it must be by a direct assault. On the
12th of September the American artillery opened fire upon it, and reduced it almost to ruins. On the morning of the 13th a determined
assault was made by the Americans, and the castle was carried after a
sharp struggle.
The fugitives from Chapultepec retreated to the city by the causeway
leading to the Bel n gate, closely followed by Quitman's division.
Worth's division was moved forward to attack the San Cosmo gate,
while Quitman assailed the Belen gate. The defences of the causeways
were taken in succession, and by nightfall the Belen and San Cosmo
gates were in possession of the Americans after a hard fight for them.
The troops slept on the ground they had won.
During the night of the 13thl Santa Anna, with the remains of his
army, retreated from the city, leaving the authorities to make the best
terms they could with the conquerors. The city officials presented themselves before General Scott before daybreak, and proposed terms of
capitulation. The general replied that the city was already in his power,
and that he would enter it on his own terms. The next day, Septembel
14th, 1847, the American army entered the city of Mexico, occupied the
grand square, and hoisted the stars and stripes over the government
buildings.
Santa Anna retreated with four or five thousand men from the capital
to the vicinity of Puebla, which was besieged by a Mexican force. The
city contained eighteen hundred sick Americans, and was held by a
garrison of five hundred men under Colonel Childs. This little force
held out bravely until the arrival of a brigade from Vera Cruz, under
General Lane, on its way to reinforce General Scott. Lane drove off
Santa Anna's army, and relieved Puebla on the 8th of October. Ten
days later Santa Anna was reported to be collecting another force at
Alixo. Lane set out immediately for that place, reached it by a forced
march, and dispersed the Mexicans beyond all hope of reunion.
Immediately after the capture of the city of Mexico Santa Anna resigned




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


731


the presidency of the republic in favor of Senor Pefia y Pefia, president
of the Supreme Court of Justice, but retained his position as commanderin-chief of the army. The fall of the city was followed by the inauguration of a new government, one of the first acts of which was to dismiss
Santa Anna from the command of the army   He at once left the country, and fled to the West Indies.
The Mexican government was removed to the city of Queretaro, and
a new congress was elected, which began its sessions in that city  Negotiations for peace had been opened in the meantime, and the meetings of
the Mexican commissioners and Mr Trist were held at the town of Guadaloupe Hidalgo, where, on the 2d of February, 1848, a treaty of peace
I  1
CAPTURE OF THE BELEN GATE.
was signed by Nicholas P Trist, on the part of the United States, and
Senors Couto, Atristain and Cuevas, on the part of Mexico. Though
Mr. Trist's powers had been withdrawn by President Polk some time
before, he ventured to continue his authority on the ground that the
opportunity for bringing the war to a close was too favorable to be lost.
The commissioners appointed by the president to supersede him reached
Mexico a little later, but found the treaty signed and sealed. It was
forwarded to Washington, and was laid by the president before the
Senate, which body after a brief discussion ratified it. On the 4th of
July, 1848, President Polk issued a proclamation announcing the return
of peace.




732


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


By the terms of the treaty the Rio Grande was accepted by Mexico as
the western boundary of the United States and of Texas, and that republic
ceded to the United States the provinces of New Mexico and Upper California. For this immense territory the government of the United States
agreed to pay to Mexico the sum of fifteen millions of dollars, and to
assume the debts due by Mexico to citizens of the United States, amounting to the sum of three and a half millions of dollars.
The treaty having been ratified, the American forces were promptly
withdrawn fron Mexico.
By the cession of California and New Mexico, regions as yet unknown,


-HYIA-LIC MI,   ING.
HYDRAULIC MINING.


a territory four times as large as France was added to the dominions of
the United States. California bordered the Pacific coast for about six
hundred and fifty miles, and extended inland for about the same distance. It emlraced an area of about 450,000 square miles, comprising
what is now known as California, Nevada, Arizona, Utah, and parts of
Colorado and New Mexico. At the close of the war it contained about
15,000 inhabitants.
In February, 1848, occurred an event destined to change the whole
history of the Pacific coast. A laborer on the plantation of Captain




THE WAR WITH MEXICO.


Sutter, situated in Coloma county, California, on a branch or the Sacramento river, while working on a mill race, discovered gold in the sands
of the little stream. The precious metal was soon found to be in abundance in the neighborhood, and the news spread rapidly  It reacled the
United States about the time of the ratification of' the treaty, and produced the most intense excitement. In the course of a few months thousands of emigrants were on their way to California to dig gold. Some
went in steamers and sailing vessels around (ape Horn; some cr(ssed the
isthmus of Panama, and worked their way up the Pacific coast; and
others, and by far the greater number, undertook the long and dangerous
journey across the plains and the Rocky mountains, travelling generally
in caravans. In a short time multitudes came flocking from every counTHE EMIGRANTS' CAMP ON THE PLAINS EN ROUTE TO CALIFORXIA.
-try in Europe to join the throng in search of the precious metal. San
Francisco was the central point of this vast emigration, and that place
soon grew from a village of a few miserable huts to a city of over fifteen
thousand inhabitants. Within two years after the discovery of gold the
population of California had increased to nearly 100,000; two years
later, in 1852, it numbered 264,000.
The influence of the discovery of gold in California was not limited to
this country  It gave an impetus to the commerce and industry of the
whole world.
On the 21st of February, 1848, ex-President John Quincy Adams,




734


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


then a member of the House of Representatives in Congress, was stricken
with paralysis in his seat in the House. He was carried into the speaker's
roomn, where hle (lied two days later, at the age of eighty.
On the 29th of May, 1848, Wisconsin was admitted into the Union as
a State, making the thirtieth member of the confederacy
Before the return of peace with Mexico the slavery question had been
revived in the United States, and had been the cause of an agitation full
of trouble to both sections. On the 8th of August, 1q46, President Polk
sent a message to Congress asking an appropriation of three millions of
dollars to enable him to negotiate a treaty of peace with Mexico, based
upon the policy of obtaining a cession of territory outside the existing
limits of Texas. During the debate upon a bill to grant this appropriation, AMr. David WVilmnot, a representative from Pennsylvania, made the
following amendment, known as the "Wilmot Proviso:" " Provided,
That there shall be neither slavery nor involuntary servitude in any territory which shall hereafter be acquired, or be annexed to the United
States, otherwise than in the pun^  if  H       i        ishment of crimes, whereof the
lm                ~    party shall have been duly conav2S^                r    victed: Provided always, That any
i           person escaping into the same, from
— A g ^^^       l-       w whom labor or service is lawfully
claimed in any one of the United
COAT OF ARMS OF WISCONTSIN.  a,     *.
States   such fugitive may be
lawfully reclaimed and conveyed out of said territory to the person
claiming his or her labor or service."  This amendment took no notice
of the Missouri Compromise line, and was opposed with great warmth
by the southern   members, who declared it an   attempt to rob the
Southern States in advance of their fair share of the territory that
might be won by the joint efforts of the States. The bill failed in the
Senate; but the announcement of the WVilmot Proviso reopened the
slavery question in all its bitterness, and plunged the country into a
state of profound excitement.
The agitation was renewed in January, 1847, when a bill for the organization of a territorial government for Oregon was reported to the
House with the Wilmot Proviso incorporated in it. Mr Burt, of South
Carolina, moved to amend the bill by inserting before the restrictive
clause the words: " Inasmuch as the whole of said territory lies north of
36~ 30' north latitude." This was an effort to apply to the Oregon bill
the principles of the Missouri Compromise; but the friends of the restriction rejected the amendment. The bill passed the House, but was de



THE WAR WITH MEXICO.                        735
feated in the Senate. During the next session the measure was revived,
and a territorial government was organized for Oregon with an unqualified
restriction upon slavery
In the fall of 1848 the presidential election occurred. The Democratic party supported Senator Lewis Cass, of Michigan, for the presidency, and General William 0. Butler, of Kentucky, for the vice-presidency   The Whig     party  nominated  General Zachary Taylor, of
Louisiana, for the presidency, and Millard Fillmore, of New York, for
the vice-presidency  The Anti-slavery or Free Soil party put in nomination for the presidency Martin Van Buren, of New York, and for the
vice-presidency Charles Francis Adams, of Massachusetts. In the election which followed the political campaign, the candidates of the Whig
party were elected by decisive majorities. The Free Soil party failed to
receive a single electoral vote, but out of the popular vote of nearly three
millions, nearly three hundred thousand ballots were cast for its candidates, showing a remarkable gain in strength in the past four years.




CHAPTER XXXVIII.


THE ADMINISTRATIONS OF ZACHARY TAYLOR AND MILLARD FILLMORE.
Character of General Taylor-Department of the Interior-Death of ex-President PolkThe Slavery Agitation-Views of Clay and Webster-California asks admission into the
Union-M1essage of President Taylor —The Omnibus Bill-Efforts of Henry Clay-A
Memorable Debate-Webster's " Great Union Speech "-Death of John C. CalhounDeath of President Taylor-Millard Fillmore becomes President-Passage of the Compromise Measures of 1850-Death of Henry Clay-Dissatisfaction with the Compromise
-Thle Fugitive Slave Law Nullified by the Northern States-The Nashville Convention
-Organization of Utah Territory-The Seventh Census-The Expedition of Lopez
against Cubai-The Search for Sir John Franklin-The Grinnel Expedition-Dr. Kane's
Voyages-Inauguration of Cheap Postage-Laying the Corner-stone of the new Capitol
-Death of Daniel Webster-Arrival of Kossuth-The President Rejects the Tripartite
Treaty-Franklin Pierce elected President-Death of William R. King.
T HE    4th of March, 1849, fell on Sunday, and the inauguration of
General Taylor as president of the United States took place on,'  Monday, March 5th.
The new president was a native of Virginia, but had removed
with his parents to Kentucky at an early age, and had grown up
to manhood on the frontiers of that State. In 1808, at the age of twentyfour, he was commissioned a lieutenant in the army by President Jefferson,
and had spent forty years in the military service of the country        His
exploits in the Florida war and the war with Mexico have been related.
His brilliant victories in Mexico had made him the most popular man in
the United States, and had won him the high office of the presidency at
the hands of his grateful fellow-citizens.  He was without political experience, but he was a man of pure and stainless integrity, of great firmness,
a sincere patriot, and possessed of strong good sense. He had received a
majority of the electoral votes of both the Northern and Southern States,
and was free from party or sectional ties of any kind. His inaugural
address was brief, and was confined to a statement of general principles.
His cabinet was composed of the leaders of the Whig party, with John
M. Clayton, of Delaware, as secretary of state.     The last Congress had
created a new executive department-that of the interior-to relieve the
secretary of the treasury of a part of his duties, and President Taylor was
called upon to appoint the first secretary of the interior, which he did in
736




ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FiLLMORE.              737
the person of Thomas Ewing, of Ohio. The new department was charged
with the management of the public lands, the Indian tribes, and the
issuing of patents to inventors.
A few months after the opening of President Taylor's administration,
ex-President Polk died at his home in Nashville, Tennessee, on the 15th
of June, 1849, in the fifty-fourth year of his age.
Since the announcement of the Wilmot Proviso, the agitation of the
slavery question had been incessant, and had increased instead of diminishing with each succeeding year. It was one of the chief topics of discussion in the newspaper press of the country, and entered largely into
every political controversy, however local or insignificant in its nature.
The opponents of slavery regarded the annexation of Texas and the
Mexican war as efforts to extend that institution, and were resolved to
put an end to its existence at any cost. The
advocates of slavery claimed that the Southern States had an equal right to the com-:
mon property of the States, and were entitled  -
to protection for their slaves in any of the  X:'"..
Territories then owned by the States or that
might afterwards be acquired  by them.
The Missouri Compromise forbade the exist- <
ence of slavery north of the line of 36~ 30'  i
north latitude, and left the inhabitants south
of that line free to decide upon their own
institutions.  The Anti-slavery party was
resolved that slavery should be excluded
from the territory acquired from Mexico, and  ZACHARY TAYLOR,
in the Wilmot Proviso struck their first blow for the accomplishment of
this purpose. We have seen that they succeeded in prohibiting slavery,
F by a special act of Congress, in Oregon, although the terms of the Missouri
Compromise would have excluded the institution from that Territory.
Their object was fully understood by the southern people, and was bitterly resented by them. The agitation of the subject aroused a storm of
passion throughout the country, and produced a very bitter feeling
between the Northern and Southern States. In his last message to Congress President Polk had recommended that the line of 360 30' north
latitude be extended to the Pacific, and thus leave it to the people south
of that line to decide whether they would have slavery or not. This
proposition was acceptable to the south; but it was rejected by the Antislavery party  The Missouri Compromise line had been limited to the
Louisiana purchase, which was entirely slaveholding, and had made more
47




738


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


than one-half of it free. To extend the line to the Pacific would be to
give the south a chance to establish slavery in territory which was free.at the time of its acquisition by the United States. The north would not
listen to such a proposition.
During the last session of Congress in Mr. Polk's administration, an
effort had been made to establish territorial governments for Utah and
New Mexico, but had failed in consequence of the inability of Congress
to agree upon the question of slavery in these Territories. In the debate
in the Senate upon these measures, Mr. Calhoun and Mr Webster took
an active part, and each presented in a masterly manner the views of the
section he represented upon this great question. Mr. Calhoun, speaking
for the south, argued that the constitution recognized slavery; that as it
was the supreme law of the land it was superior to any territorial law or
act of Congress abolishing slavery; and that the constitution clearly and
unequivocally established and protected slavery in the Territories.
Mr. Webster, speaking for the north, declared that the constitution
was designed for the government of the States, and not for the Territories.  Congress, he said, had the right to govern the Territories
independently of the constitution, and he maintained that it often exercised this right contrary to the constitution, as it did things in the Territories which it could not do in the States. He added: "When new
territory has been acquired it has always been subject to the laws of
Congress-to such laws as Congress thought proper to pass for its immediate government and preparatory state in which it was to remain until
it was ready to come into the Union as one of the family of States." He
quoted in support of his position the clause of the constitution which
declares that the "constitution and the laws of the United States which
shall be made in pursuance thereof,..  shall be the supreme law of
the land."
Congress having failed to make any provision for territorial governments for Utah and New Mexico, those Territories were left in a condition of anarchy. One of the first duties devolving upon the new administration was the alleviation of this evil until it could be definitely settled
by Congress. President Taylor instructed the federal officers in those
Territories to encourage the people to organize temporary governments
for themselves.
California in the meantime had grown with such rapidity, and had
experienced so much trouble from its sudden increase of population and
the lack of a definite government, that its leading citizens determined to
seek admission into the Union. In the autumn of 1849 a convention of
the people was held, a constitution formed, and a State government




TP3
739




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATEFA


organized. The action of the convention was promptly ratified by the
people. iUpon the assembly of the Thirty-first Congress in the winter of
1849, California applied for admission into the Union as a State, with
a constitution forbidding slavery within her limits.
The organization of the Thirty-first Congress was delayed -for three
weeks. Parties were about evenly divided, and sixty ballots were taken
before a speaker could be chosen. The choice at last fell upon Howell
Cobb of Georgia, who was elected by a plurality. Partisan bitterness ran
high during this struggle.
Upon the organization of the House President Taylor sent in his first
and only message. He recognized the danger with which the sectional
controversy threatened the country, expressed his views of the situation
in moderate terms, and intimated that he should faithfully discharge his
duties to the whole country He recommended the admission of California
with the constitution she had chosen; and advised that Utah and New
Mexico should be organized as Territories, with liberty to decide the
question of slavery for themselves when they were ready to enter the
Union as States.  A dispute having arisen between Texas and New
Mexico concerning the proper boundary between them, the president
recommended that it should be settled by the courts of the United States.
The other questions which demanded immediate settlement were slavery
in the District of Columbia, and the d4mand of the Southern States for a
more faithful execution of the provision of the constitution which required
the arrest and return of fugitive slaves.
The south opposed the admission of California with a free constitution,
and the north demanded the abolition of the slave trade in the District
of Columbia, and the Northern States were unwilling to allow their officers
to exec.ute the Fugitive Slave Law within their limits. The excitement became intense, and threats to dissolve the Union of the States
were freely indulged in by the extremists of both the north and the
soutlh.
On the 29th of January, 1850, Henry Clay introduced into the Senate
a serics of resolutions designed to settle all the points in dispute by a
general compromise. The resolutions were referred, to a committee of
thirteen, of which Mr, Clay was made chairman. In due time the committee reported a bill known as the " Omnibus Bill" from its embracing
in one measure all Mr Clay's propositions. It provided for the admission
of California as a free State; the organization of the Territories of Utah
and New Mexico, without reference to slavery; the adjustment of the
boundary between Texas and New Mexico by paying to the former ten
millions of dollars; the abolition of the slave trade in the Distr'it of




ADMINLSTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE.


741


Columbia; and the enactment by Congress of a more stringent and effective
law tbr the rendition of fugitive slaves.
The Omnibus bill was warmly opposed in Congress and in the country
at larg9. The debate in the Senate brought out the views of the leading
statesmen of the country  Senator Jefferson Davis declared the bill in no
sense a compromise, because it was unequal in its provisions. The south
he declared gained nothing by the measure, as the constitution already
required the rendition of fugitive slaves. He proposed, therefore, that the
Missouri Compromise line should be extended to the Pacific, " with the
specific recognition of the right to hold slaves in the territory below that
line."
Mr. Clay replied to this that "no earthly power could induce him to
vote for a specific measure for the introduction of slavery where it had not
existed, either north or south of that line.. I am unwilling that the
posterity of the present inhabitants of California and of New Mexico
should reproach us for doing just what we reproach Great Britain for
doing to us..     If the citizens of those Territories come here with
constitutions establishing slavery, I am for admitting them into the Union;
but then it will be their own work and not ours, and their posterity will
have to reproach them and not us."
Mr. Calhoun was too ill to take part in the debate in person, but he
prepared a speech of great ability which was read for him in the Senate
by Senator Mason of Virginia. He declared that the Union could be
preserved only by maintaining an equal number of free and slave States,
in order that the representation of the two sections of the country might
be equal in the Senate.
Mr. Webster also took part in the debate, and on this occasion delivered
what is known as his "great Union speech of the 7th of March," which
occupied three days in its delivery  He expressed substantially the same
views as those advocated by Mr. Clay  He opposed restriction of slavery
in the Territories, and declared he would vote against the Wilmot Proviso.
His speech created a profound sensation throughout the country, and did
much to secure the final acceptance of the compromise measures.
In the midst of this discussion John C. Calhoun died, on the 31st of
March, 1850. He had entered Congress in 1811, and had been in public
life from that time until the day of his death. He had filled many high
offices, both State and national, and had discharged the duties of each and
all with disinterested fidelity and admitted ability  He was one of the
first statesmen this country has ever produced, and was the acknowledged
leader of the south in the; sectional controversy with the north. His
character was above reproach, and he was a sincere and disinterested




- —
r —
--— _       — - ---    -- --    -I --- —
--- ----
— L5


BIRt9S-EYE VIEW OF SAN FRANCISCO.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE.


743


patriot. His death was generally lamented throughout the country, and
his political adversaries joined heartily in the tributes of the nation to his
many virtues and great abilities.
A few months later President Taylor was suddenly stricken down with
a fever, which in a few days terminated fatally  Ile died on the 9th of
July, 1850, amid the grief of the whole country, which felt that it had
lost a faithful and upright chief magistrate. Though the successful
candidate of one political party, his administration h]ad received the
earnest support of the best men of the country without regard to p:arty,
and his death was a national calamity  IlHe had held office only sixteen
months, but had shown himself equal to his difficult and delicate position.
He was sixty-six years old at the time of hlis death.
By the terms of the constitution the office of president devolved upon
Millard Fillmore, vice-president of the United States. On the 10th of
July he took the oath of office before Chief
Justice Cranch of the District of Columbia,
and at once entered upon the duties of his new
position.
Mr. Fillmore was a native of New York,
and was born in that State in the year 1800.  0:B;-:       i
He had served his State in Congress, and as
governor, and was personally one of the most j  '.
popular of the Presidents. The cabinet of
General Taylor resigned their offices immediately after his death, and the new president  /y/
filled their places by appointing a new cabinet  MILLARD FILLMORE.
with Daniel Webster at its head as secretary
of state. Mr. Fillmore was in active sympathy with Mr. Clay in his
efforts to secure the passage of the compromise measures, as he deemed
them the best adjustment of the trouble possible under the circumstances.
The compromise measures were warmly debated in Congress, the sessions
of which extended through the summer into the latter part of September.
The bill was then taken up and passed, article by article, by the House
of Representatives, it having previously passed the Senate. The bill at
once received the executive approval, and became a law
The clause admitting California into the Union as a State was adopted
on the 9th of September, 1850.
The course of Mr. Clay in securing the passage of the compromise
measures of 1850 was justly regarded as the crowning glory of his life.
It won for him the love and confidence of the whole country without
regard to party, and the man who " had rather be right than be president "




744


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


bad the proud satisfaction of seeing all the faults and mistakes of his
earlier years forgotten in the confidence and gratitude with which his
countrymen regarded him. He ceased now to take an active part in the
questions of the day, for it was fitting that his life should close with this
great service to his country. His health failed rapidly, but he continued
to hold his seat in the Senate until the 29th of June, 1852, when he died
at the age of seventy-five years.  Honors were showered upon his memory
in all parts of the Union, and he was laid to his rest amid a nation's
unaffected mourning.
There were still many extremists both north and south, to whom the
eompromise measures failed to give satisfaction. The Fugitive Slave
Law was bitterly denounced by the Anti-slavery party in the north. As
the Supreme Court of the United States had decided that the justices of
the peace in the respective States could not be called upon to execute the
law for the rendition of fugitive slaves, a clause was inserted in the
Fugitive Slave Law of 1850, providing for the appointment of United
States commit.ionicrs, before whom
La  s  such cases could be tried.   The
t.,*                          Northern States successively enacted
Y^               1 1 laws for the nullification of the provisions of this law  All their jails
and  other State buildings were
refused to the federal officers for the
COAT OF ARMS OF CALIFORNIA.  securing of fugitive slaves, and all
State, county, and city officers were forbidden to arrest or assist in arresting or detaining any fugitive slave. In many of the States severe punishments were denounced against masters coming within their limits to claim
their slaves, and such fugitives entering these States were declared free.
These laws were denounced by the slaveholding States as violative of the
constitution of the United States, and gave rise to great bitterness of feeling towards the north. It was maintained that these laws were direct
evidence of the intention of the northern people to rob the south of its
property in negro slaves.
The extremists of the south were equally dissatisfied with the compromise. They declared that the South had sacrificed everything and gained
nothing by it, and boldly avowed their intention to bring about the secession of the Southern States from the Union. In the summer of 1850 a
southern convention was held at Nashville, Tennessee. Its real end was
the dissolution of the Union, and for that purpose it urged the Southern
States to appoint delegates to a "Southern Congress."  The legislatures
of South Carolina and Mississippi alone responded to this invitation, but




ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FILLMORE.


745


the great mass of the southern people turned a deaf ear to the appeals of
the disunionists, and the convention failed to accomplish its object.
In the inauguration of a territorial government for Utah, the Mormons,
whose settlement in that Territory while it was yet a possession of Mexico
we have related, endeavored to frame their own government, and gave to
the Territory the name of Deseret, which they declared was a word of their
peculiar language meaning "The Land of the Honey Bee."  President
Fillmore set aside this name and carried out the act ot' Congress by which
the Territory received its present name. Brighaml  oung, the Mormon
leader or prophet, was appointed governor of the Territory
In 1850 the seventh census showed
the population of the United States
to be 23,191,876 souls.
In the early part of President
Taylor's administration, General
Lopez, a Spaniard, began to enlist  -
men in the United States ostensibly  AM
for the purpose of aiding the people      |
of the island of Cuba to throw off                 -
their allegiance to Spain and establish their independence, but really  4
for the purpose of driving out the:
Spaniards and securing the annexa-                           (
tion of Cuba to the United States.
He succeeded in inducing a number        BRIGHAM YOUNG
of adventurous persons to join him.
President Taylor, upon learning of the movement, issued a proclamation forbidding citizens of the United States to engage in it. In
spite of this warning, Lopez collected a force of six hundred men,
and eluding the vigilance of the United States officers, sailed for Cuba.
He landed at Cardenas, but received so little encouragement that the
party sailed for Key West. In 1851, Lopez again entered Cuba, this
time at the head of four hundred and fifty men. His party was captured
almost immediately, and he and a number of his men were put to death
by the Spanish authorities at Havana.
In May, 1850, an expedition of a different character sailed from the
United States. The fate of Sir John Franklin, who sailed from England
in 1845, in search of the northwest passage, had long enlisted the sympathy of humane and generous souls. It was thought that the daring
navigator might be confined to the Arctic regions by the loss of his ships,
and that a well-executed search might either result in the discovery and




746


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


relief of Franklin or settle the question as to his fate. Mr. Henry
Grinnell, a wealthy merchant of New York, fitted out an expedition at
his own expense, and placing it under the command of Lieutenant De
Haven, of the United States navy, despatched it to the Arctic regions to
search for Franklin and his men, in May, 1850. De Haven was accompanied by Dr E. K. Kane, in the capacity of surgeon and naturalist.
After a year's absence the vessels returned, the search having been unsuccessful. The general government despatched another expedition in 1851
on the same errand, and placed it under command of IDr. Kane. This
expedition was absent four years, and the government, becoming apprehensive of its fate, sent two vessels to search for Kane and his companions.
They were found at the isle of Disco, in Greenland, having been forced to
abandon their vessel in the ice. Nothing was learned by Dr. Kane concerning the fate of Sir John Franklin; but the expedition resulted in the
discovery of the open Polar Sea.*
In the early part of 1851 Congress reduced the postage on prepaid
letters to three cents to all parts of the United States, prepayment being
made by means of stamps provided by the government. The result was
a rapid and immense increase of the postal revenue of the countryOn the 4th of July, 1851, the corner-stone of the extension of the capitol at Washington was laid by President Fillmore with appropriate ceremonies. The orator of the day was Daniel Webster, His address was
one of his best efforts, but was delivered under great disadvantages. His
health had been failing for some time past, and his weakness was so great
that he could speak only with difficulty
This oration was one of the last public acts of the great statesman. On
the 24th of October, 1852, he died at his home at Marshfield, Massachusetts, aged seventy years, and in him  perished the first statesman of
America. He was large and stout in frame, of swarthy complexion, and
slow and heavy in movement-a man of noble and commanding appearance. His intellect was cast in the same gigantic mould as his bodyHis language was simple and chaste, and his arguments irresistible.
His patriotism knew no sectional limits. "I am     as ready," he once
said, " to fight and  to fall for the constitutional rights of Virginia as I am   for those of Massachusetts."   Alexander H. Stephens
has said of him: "He was too great a man and had too great an in* Nothing definite was learned of the fate of Sir John Franklin until 1859, when the
steamer "Fox," despatched by Lady Franklin, made the melancholy discovery that
Sir John Franklin died on the 11th of June, 1847, and in 1848 the "Erebus" and
"Terror" were abandoned in the ice. The survivors of these disasters, one hundred and
five in number, died one by one from cold and exhaustion on King William's island.




ADMINISTRATIONS OF TAYLOR AND FLLLMORE.


747


tellect not to see the truth when it was presented, and lie was too
honest and too patriotic a man not to proclaim the truth when he saw it,
even to an unwilling people. In this quality of moral greatness I often
thought Mr. Webster had the advantage of his great contemporaries,
Messrs. Clay and Calloun. Not that I would be understood as saying
that they were not men of great moral courage, for both of them showed
this high quality in many instances, but they never gave the world such
striking exhibitions of it as he did... Webster.,  often passed this
ordeal, and that he passed it with unflinching firmness is one of the
grandest features in the general grandeur of his character  Even his
detractors have been constrained to render him unwilling homage in this
respect." *  His imemory was honored by appropriate demonstrations in
all parts of the country, and it is said that the popular tributes on this
occasion were equalled only by those of the nation at the death of
Washington.
In December, 1851, Louis Kossuth, the chief of the Hungarian insurrection of 1848, visited the United States. His avowed object was to
promote the cause of his countrymen, and he made frequent addresses in
various parts of the Union, which were listened to by vast multitudes
who were charmed with his eloquence.  He visited Washington, and
was granted a public reception by Congress. The Austrian minister at
Washington, the Chevalier Hulseman, protested against this reception, and
his protest being unheeded, he withdrew from Washington for a while.
The attempt of Lopez upon Cuba had greatly alarmed Spain for the
safety of that island. England and France, sympathizing with her, and
anxious to render the acquisition of Cuba by the United States impossible, proposed to the American government to join them in a " tripartite
treaty," in which each should disclaim any intention to seize that island,
and should guarantee Spain in her possession of it. In December, 1852,
Edward Everett, who had succeeded Mr, Webster as secretary of state,
by the direction of the president, replied to the proposition of England
and France, declining to accept it. "The President," he said, "does not
covet the acquisition of Cuba for the United States," but "could not see
with indifference that island fall into the possession of any European government than Spain." He stated that the situation of the island rendered
it peculiarly interesting to this country by reason of its proximity to our
coast, and its commanding the approach to the Gulf of Mexico and the
mouth of the Mississippi. The European powers were thus given to
understand that the United States would not tolerate their interference in
a question purely American.
* The War Between the States, vol. i., pp. 405, 406.




748


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The year 1852 was marked by intense excitement consequent on the
political campaign which terminated in the fall in the presidential election. The Democratic party made a strong and successful effort to recover its lost power, and nominated Franklin Pierce, of New Hampshire,
for president, and William R. King, of Alabama, for vice-president. The
Whig party nominated General Winfield Scott for president, and William
A. Graham, of North Carolina, for vice-president. The Anti-slavery
party put in nomination John P. Hale, of New Hampshire, and George
W. Julian, of Indiana. The election resulted in the choice of the candidates of the Democratic party by an overwhelming majority  The Antislavery party on this occasion polled but 155,825 votes, or a little more
than half of the strength it had shown at the previous election.
Mr, King, the vice-president elect, did not long survive his triumph.
His health had been delicate for many years, and he was obliged to pass
the winter succeeding the election in Cuba. Being unable to. return
home, he took the oath of office before the American consul, at Havana,
on the 4th of March, 1853. He then returned to the United States, and
died at his home in Alabama on the 18th of April, 1853.




CHAPTER XXXIX


THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE.
Dispute with Mexico-The Gadsden Purchase-Surveys for a Pacific Railway-The
Japan Expedition-Treaty with Japan-The Koszta Affair-The "Black Warrior"
seized by the Cuban Officials-The "Ostend Conference "-Dismissal of the British
Minister-The Kansas-Nebraska Bill-History of the Bill-Its Passage by CongressHistory of the Struggle in Kansas-Conflict between the Pro-Slavery and Free Soil
Settlers-Lawrence Sacked-Civil War-The Presidential Campaign of 1856-James
Buchanan elected President of the United States-Rapid increase of the Republican
Party.
S RESIDENT PIERCE took the oath of office at the capitol at
Washington on the 4th of March, 1853, in the presence of an
immense throng. He was in his forty-ninth year, and had won
an enviable name by his previous services to the country    He
was a native of New Hampshire, and had represented that
State for four years in the lower House of Congress, and for nearly a full
term in the Senate of the United States. He had also served with distinction during the Mexican war as brigadier-general.  He placed William L. Marcy,
of New York, at the head of his cabinet as
secretary of state.
The first question of importance the new.J]l,
president was called upon to settle grew out          M
of a dispute with   Mexico concerning the.N%    x,,,&
boundary between that country and the Territory of New Mexico. At the time of the?,
treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo the maps were
so imperfect that the boundary line had not
been drawn with sufficient exactness. Both                   \:
countries claimed the Mesilla valley, which
J         FRANKLIN PIERCE.
was said to be very fertile, but which was
more important to the United States as affording what was generally regarded as the most practicable route to California. Santa Anna was now
president of the Mexican republic again, and sent a force of Mexican
troops to occupy the region in dispute.  The matter was settled by nego749




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


tiation, however, and the United States obtained the Mesilla valley and
the free navigation of the Gulf of California and of the Colorado to the
American frontier. For these concessions the federal government paid
Mexico the sum of ten millions of dollars. The district thus acquired
was known as the "Gadsden Purchase," and was subsequently erected
into the Territory of Arizona.
The necessity of more rapid and certain communication with California
had brought the nation to regard a railway between the Mississippi and
the Pacific as a necessity, and as such an undertaking was considered beyond the resources of a private corporation, it was believed that it should
be built by the general government, or at least that the general governinent should bear a part of the expense. The year 1853 witnessed the
first step)s towards the construction of this great work. Two expeditions
were despatched under the orders of the war department to explore the
best routes for a Pacific railway
The acquisition of California brought the United States into new relations with the nations of the eastern world, as it secured for them a I)ase
upon the Pacific from which a direct trade could be conducted with China
and Japan. The empire of Japan, however, was closed to foreigners, and
it was very desirable to open commercial relations with it. Towards the
close of Mr. Fillmore's term of office, Commodore Perry, a brother of the
hero of Lake Erie, was despatched to China with a fleet of seven war
steamers to negotiate a treaty with the Japanese government. He arrived
in the bay of Jeddo in the summer of 1853. The natives were greatly
astonished at the appearance of his steamers, the first that had ever been
seen in those waters, and at his boldness in venturing into their harbors.
The Japanese officials ordered him to depart, but he refused, and insisted
on seeing the emperor, and making known to him the object of his
friendly visit.  They at length decided to lay the matter before the
emperor, who consented to grant an interview to the commodore, and
named the 14th of July for that purpose. On the day appointed the
commodore landed, accompanied by a strong body of marines. He was
received with great ceremony by the Japanese, and delivered the president's letter, to which an answer was promised. The answer of the
emperor was submitted to him several months later, and was favorable.
A treaty was concluded between the United States and Japan, by which
the former were allowed to trade in two specified ports-Simodi and
Hokadadi. American citizens were permitted to reside at these ports, and
consuls were accepted for them. Thus the United States had the honor
of being the first to open the rich markets of the island empire to the
commerce of the civilized world. Since then the relations between the




THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANIKLIN PIERCE.


761


two countries havesteadily grown more cordial, and Japan has shown a
remarkable rapidity and facility for adopting the civilization of the
west.
In July, 1853, occurred an event which did much to increase the respect for our navy among the powers of the world. Martin Koszta, a
Hungarian, who had taken the preliminary steps to be naturalized in the
United States, happening to be in Smyrna, in Asia Minor, on business, was
seized as a rebel and a refugee by order of the Austrian consul-general,
and taken on board an Austrian brig. The United States sloop-of-war
"St. Louis," Captain Ingraham, was lying in the harbor at the time,
and Ingraham was appealed to for protection for Koszta. He at once
demanded his release as an American citizen. The (demand was refused
by the authorities, and Ingraham at once called his crew to quarters and
threatened to fire upon the Austrian ship if Koszta was not immediately
released. The Austrians at once surrendered their prisoner, and he was
placed in custody of the French consul to await the action of the government of the United States. The matter was settled by negotiation between this country and Austria, and Koszta was released. Austria
addressed to the government at Washington a remonstrance against the
conduct of Captain Ingraham, but his course was warmly applauded by
his countrymen and by disinterested persons in Europe.
In February, 1854, the American merchant steamer " Black Warrior"
was seized by the Spanish authorities at Havana, on the pretext that she
had evaded or violated some uncertain revenue law, and the ship and her
cargo were declared confiscated. This action of the Havana officials was
regarded in the United States as unjust, and aroused a great deal of feeling against the Spaniards, and gave a sudden impetus to the national
sentiment in favor of the acquisition of Cuba. The affair of the " Black
Warrior" was satisfactorily settled by the Spanish government.
While the feeling aroused by the affair was at its height a conference
of some of the American ministers in Europe, including Mr. Buchanan,
minister to England, Mr, Mason, minister to France, and Mr Soul6,
minister to Spain, and some others, was held at Ostend, in Belgium, and
a circular was adopted recommending the acquisition of Cuba by the
United States. This measure attracted much attention, and elicited considerable European criticism of the alleged ambitious designs of the United
States. Mr. Soul6, on his return to Madrid, was stopped at Calais by
order of the emperor of the French, who had personal reasons for disliking him. The emperor, however, reconsidered his action, and allowed
Soul] to pass through France to the Spanish frontier.
In 1855 Great Britain, France, Sardinia, and Turkey being engaged in




752


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


a war with Russia, the agents of the British government undertook to
enlist recruits for their army within the limits of the United States in
defiance of the neutrality laws of this country. The matter being brought
to the attention of the United States government, it was found that the
British minister at Washington and the British consuls in some of the
principal cities of the Union had encouraged, if they had not authorized,
these enlistments. The government of the United States thereupon called
the attention of Great Britain to the conduct of her minister, and requested
her to recall him. The queen declined to comply with this request, and
the minister and the consuls were promptly dismissed by the president.
The matter caused considerable irritation in England for a while, but the
good sense of the English people at length perceived the propriety of
the course of the American government, and cordial relations were
re-established between the two countries.
The most important measure of Mr. Pierce's administration was the
bill to organize the Territories of Kansas and Nebraska. The region
embraced in these Territories formed a part of the Louisiana purchase,
and extended from the borders of Missouri, Iowa, and Minnesota to the
summit of the Rocky mountains, and from the parallel of 36~ 30' north
latitude to the border of British America. The whole region by the
terms of the Missouri Compromise had been secured to free labor by the
exclusion of slavery  Until the year 1850 this vast area was called by
the general and somewhat indefinite name of the " Platte Country," from
the Platte river, which flows through it. Little was known concerning
it save that it was a region of great fertility  It was mainly occupied by
the reservations of the Indian tribes, which had been removed from the
other States to make way for the whites. Across it swept the grand
trails of the overland route to Utah and the Pacific. The people of the
New England States were very anxious that the Indian reservations
whilch covered the eastern part should be bought up by the general government and the country thrown open to emigration. Petitions to this
effect were presented to the Thirty-second Congress, but no action was
taken upon them until December, 1852, when Mr Hall, of Missouri,
introduced a bill into the House to organize the " Territory of Platte."
It was referred to the Committee on Territories, which in February,
1853, reported- a bill organizing the "Territory of Nebraska."  The bill
was opposed in the House of Representatives by the full strength of the
south, and in the Senate the only southern senators who voted for it were
those from Missouri. The Missouri Compromise, as has been stated,
secured the entire Nebraska region to free labor; but notwithstanding
this the southern members of Congress were resolved to oppose the




THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE.


753


organization of a new free Territory, and to endeavor to obtain a footing
for slavery in at least a part of it.
The matter was revived in the Senate on the 16th of January, 1854,
by Senator Dixon, of Kentuoky, who gave notice that whenever the
Nebraska bill should be called u.p he would move the following amendment: "That so much of the eighth section of an act approved March
6, 1820, entitled 'An act to authorize the people of the Missouri
Territory to form a constitution and State government, and for the admission of such State into the Union on an equal footing with the original
States, and to prohibit slavery in certain Territories,' as declares 'That,
in all the territory ceded by France to the United States, under the name
of Louisiana, which lies north of 36~ 30' north latitude, slavery and
involuntary servitude, otherwise than in the punishment of crimes;
whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall be forever pro,hibited,' shall not be so construted as to apply to the Territory contemplaked"
by this act, or to any other Territory of the United States; but that the
citizens of the several States or Territories shall be at liberty to talke and
hold their slaves within any of the Territories or States to be formed
therefrom, as if the said act, entitled as aforesaid, had never been
passed."
The announcement of this amendment startled the country as much as
the Wilmot Proviso had done years before, and produced. much angry
excitement. It was a clear repudiation of the Missouri Compromise,
which it did not even seek to repeal.
Senator Douglas, of Illinois, chairman of the Committee on Territories,
on the 23d of January, 1854, reported a bill which provided for the
organization of the Platte country into two Territories. The southern
portion, which lay directly west of Missouri, stretching to the Rocky
mountains on the west, and extending from the thirty-seventh to the
fortieth parallel of north latitude, was to be organized int6 a distinct Territory to be called Kansas. The remainder was to be called Nebraska,
having the line of 43~ 30' for its northern boundary  Senator Douglas,
in an evil hour for the country, incorporated in the bill the main features of Mr. Dixon's amendment. The bill contained the following
provisions:
"SECTION 21 And be it further enacted, That, in order'to avoid misconstruction, it is hereby declared to be the true intent and meaning of
this act, so far as the question of slavery is concerned, to carry into practical operation the following propositions and principles, established by
the compromise measures of one thousand eight hundred and fifty, to
wit:
48




754             HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.,-         ".'.
"First. That all questions pertaining to slavery in the Territory s
and in the new/States to be formed therefrom, are to -be left to the
decision of the people residing therein, through their appropriate reprentatives.,                                  '
"Second. That all cases involving title to slaves, and questions of personal freedom, are referred to the adjudication of the local tribunals, with.
the right of appeal to the Supreme Court of the United States.;..
"Third. That the provisions of the constitution and laws of the
United States, in respect to fugitives from service, are to be carried into:
faithful execution in all the 'organized Territories,' the same as in the '
States."                                                ( -
The section of the bill which prescribed the qualifications and mode o
of election of a delegate from each of the Territories was as followr:
"The constitution, and all laws of the United States which are not.;
locally inapplicable, shall have the same force and effect within the said
Territory as elsewhere in the United States, except the section of the act
preparatory to the admission of Missouri into the Union, approved March
6, 1820, which was superseded. by the principles of the legislation of:
1850, commonly called the compromise measures, and is declar 4
inoperative."                                        A.
Mr. Dixon declared that the bill, as reported by Senator Douglas, met
-with his hearty approval, and that he would support it with all his ability
The debate on the bill began in the Senate on the 24th of January, ail
continued through several weeks. It was conducted with great ability on
both sides, and engaged the earnest attention of the whole country. The ]
Free Soil senators unanimously opposed the bill, which they denounced,
as a violation of the Missouri Compromise, by which the faith of the J
nation was pledged to the settlement 'then effected. ' The southier
senators supported it with equal unanimity, as they held that the Missuri
Compromise had been superseded by the compromise of 1850.
On the 6th of February Mr. Chase, of Ohio,'moved to strike out so!
much ot the bill as declared the Missouri Compromise " superseded" by:
the compromise of 1850, but the motion was defeated. Whereupon Mr..
Douglas, on the 15th of. February, moved to strike out the clause objected
to by Mr. Chase, and insert the following:                    s.
"Which being inconsistent with the principle of non-7intervention by
Congress with slavery in the States and Territories, as recogniWedv by the
legislation of 1850 (commonly called the compromise meastu*), js
hereby declared inoperative and void; it being the true intent ap4: meating of this act not to legislate slavery into any Territory or State,.nor to
exclude it therefrom, but to leave the people thereofperfectly f.. tform!.




TIHE ADMVINST.RATION OF FRANKLIN PIER('E.


and regulate their domestic institutions ill their own way, subject only to
the colnstitution of the United Statets."
Alr'Douglas' amendmentw was at,onc       d adol)t(d(, alnl seeimcedl fair eni uglh
on its face. Mr. Chase exposed the hollowiiess of' it b1y prloposing to add
to it the following clause, which was promptly voted(1 ( down  l,icr
which the people of the Territories, througth their (pproprli(fte r'',re.scdtatiels, maty, if they see fit, pr)ohibit th/ e.i.stencc of s/(lrry thcrci^''
The bill was adopted bv the Scnate by a \vte,tof thirty-seven yeas to
fourteen nays, and by the Heuse by a vote of one hundred/l alnd thirte( n
yeas to one hundred nays, and on the 31st of May, 1854, received tlhe
approval of the president and became a law
The whole country engag(,ed warmly in the disclussion arotusc(l by the
reopening of the question of slavery in the Tcrritorics. Tlce north
resented the repeal of the Missouri Compromise, and in thle south a large
and respectable party sincerely regretted the repeal of that settleiument.
By the passage of tlhe Kansas-Nebraska bill the Thirty-third (oengress
assumed a grave responsibility, and opened tli(, door to a bloody and
bitter conflict in the Territories between slavery and free labor  The
events now to be related were the logical consUeiuences of the repeal of
the Missouri Compromise
A few months before the final vote upon the Kansas-Nebraska bill the
general government succeeded in purchasing the Indian reservations in
those Territories, and removed the Indian tribes to new homies farther
west. - This action at once threw Kansas and Nelraska open to white
settlers, and measures were set on loot in the New England States to
encourage emigration thither.  Kansas being a more fertile country than
Nebraska naturally attracted the greater number of settlers. Pefore
anything could be done by the Free Soil mnen the people living on the
border of Missouri passed over into Kansas, and selectinI. the 1best lands,
put their mark upon them, hoping in this way to establish a pre-i:emption
claim to them. Their object was to organize an(l hold the Territorv in
the interest of slavery, but very few of them removed to Kansas, or lhad
any wish to do so.
In the meantime societies had been formed in the New England States
for the promotion of emigration to Kansas. As the Pro-slavery settlers
had come into the Territory so slowly, and in su1( l small numlbers. it
seemed certain that the northern people could secure Kansas to free labor
by sending out settlers to occupy the Territory in good faith. Tlhe Proslavery party in Missouri determined to prevent this. In July, 1.S54, a
meeting was held at Westport in that State, at which it was resolved that
the persons taking part in thle meeting wtuld, " whenever called upon by




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


any of the citizens of Kansas Territory, hold 'themselves' in readinea
together to resist and remove any and all emigrants who go there under
the auspices of the Northern Emigrant Aid Societies."
The first party sent out by the New England Aid Societies reached a
point on the Kaw river, in Kansas, about the middle of July. There
they pitched their tents and began the building of a town, which they
named Lawrence, in honor of Amos A. Lawrence, of Boston. By the'
last of the month they were joined by seventy more emigrants, and the
wvork of founding their town was pushed forward with energy- There
was not a drone in the little community. They were all honest, intelli

FIRST HOTEL IN LAW.ENCE.
gent, God-fearing men and women, and they meant to succeed in the-..
ulndertaking they had begun. They were in legal and peaceable po- -
session of their settlement, and thus far had molested or wronged
no one.
They were not to live in peace, however. Before they had finished
building their houses, they were startled by the announcement that two
hundred and fifty armed Missourians had encamped within a short dis'tance of them for the purpose of driving them out of the Territory.
The next morning the Missourians sent them a formal notice that "the
Abolitionists must leave the Tergitory, never more to return to it." They




THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE'.


757


declared their desire to avoid bloodshed; but notified the settlers that
they must be ready to leave the Territory, with all their efftcts, at one
o'clock that day  'This the settlers refused to do, and prepared to defend
their homes. The messengers of the Missourians found tllm drilling
behind their tents, and reported this fact to their leaders. The firm but
quiet attitude of the people of Lawrence had a lhappy effect.  The Missouriaus made no effort to carry out their threat, but broke up thdir campll


THE PEOPLE OF LAWRENCE DETERMINED TO RESIST.


that night, and withdrew across the border, leaving the settlers in peace.
Meanwhile the town of Lawrence grew and prospered, and the New
England Societies continuing to send other emigrants into the Territory
other towns were founded. Settlers from the Southern States came into
the Territory very slowly
The general government threw its influence as far as possible in favor
of the Pro-slavery party, in the organization of the Territory, by appoint



IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


ing a majority of the territorial officers from the slaveholding States.
A 11. 1H ec(her was t appointed governor by President Pierce. He endeavred1(l to execute the laws faithfllully, and ordered an election for members
of a territorial legislatulre, to be held,on the 30th of March, 1855. On
that ~day large nulmnlers of armed Missoitrians crossed the border, and,
taking plss ssion of the polling-place.s in Kansas, succeeded in returning
a Pr( -slavery legislature.
Six districts at 4once fo\rwarded protests to the governor against the
elections, showing beyond all reasonable doublt that thev had been controlled by citizens of Missouri. The governor, who was anxious to (do
justice to all parllties, orderel a lnei  e(lectilon in these districts, each of
wh]ichl, with the exception of Lec,(((m)pton, returned a Free S()il delegate.
The new dcleL''atts, ]I\evr, were r'efused their seats uplon the as-embling
of the lcgislature, and the suiccessful e.andlidates at the original election
w'ere admitted.
The governor had sumnmoned the legi.slature to meet at Pawnee City,
on the Kansas river, a tovwn nearly one hundred miles (istant from the
border, and suplposed to 1e Ihr enough awav to be free from intimidation
by the Missourians; but the legislature, immediately upon assembling,
adjouirned to Sha-wnee 5Mission, on the 5Missoturi border, The resolution
for this purpose was vetoed by the governor, but was passed over his
veto aned was at once carried into effect.  Upon reassenmblingr at Shawnee
MAission the legislature pro(eeded to adolpt the laws of Missouri as the
laws of Kansas, and to frame a s(ries of statutes designedly cruel and
oppressive. Thlcse laws were vetoed by Governor Reeder, who was remN(ve1d bv the president. WVilson Shannon, of Ohio, was then appointed
governor of Kansas.
In the meantime the Free Soil settlers had increased so rapidly that
thcv at lengrth lal rgly] outnumbered tlhe Pro-slavery settlers. They now
felt themselves strong enough to resist the outrages of the Missourians,
and a1cordliglv, on the 5th of September, 1ls55, held a convention, in
which theyv dlistinctlv repudiated the government that hlad been forced
l)pon them 1;v men who were not residents of the Territory   They anp(ouncedl their intention not to take part i: the election of a delegate to
(onress, whilch the territorial authorities had ordered to be held on the
'Ist of Octolber, and called upon the actual resildents of the Territory to
send delegates to a convention to meet at Topeka on the 19th of September    This convention organized an executive committee for the
Territory, and ordered an election to be held for the purpose of choosing
I delegate to Congress. Governor Reeder was nominated and elected to
Colngre;ss. On the 23d of October the convention adopted a Free State




'THE ADMINISTRATION OF FRANKLIN PIERCE.


759


constitution, and forwarded it to Congress with a petition for the admission of Kansas into the Union as a State.
The struggle for the possession of the Territory now passed out of the
area of politics. As we have said, the repeal of the Missouri Compromise opened the way for, and was the direct cause of, the conflict
between the Free and Pro-slavery settlers of Kansas. The outrages of
the Pro-slavery men had forced the Free-Soilers into an attitude of
direct and uncompromising resistance; and after the action of the latter,
at Topeka, the struggle which had hitherto been comparatively bloodless
changed its character and became an open and sanguinary war between
the two parties.  In this struggle the Pro-slavery men were the
aggressors. Bands of young men, armed and regularly organized into
companies and regiments, came into the Territory from South Carolina,
Georgia and the extreme Southern Sta-tes, with the avowed design of
making Kansas a slaveholding State at all hazards. On the morning of
May 21st, 1856, under the pretest of aiding tle United States marshal
to serve certain processes upon citizens of Lawrence, they captured that
town, sacked it, burned several houses and inflicted a loss upon it
amounting to 8150,000. From this time the war went on in a series of
desultory but bloody encounters, some of which assumed the proportions
of battles.
In the summer of 1856 Governor Shannon was removed, and John W.
Geary, of Pennsylvania, was appointed in his place. He exerted himself honestly to restore peace and execute the laws, and ordered "all
bodies of men combined, armed and equipped with munitions of war,
without authority of the government, instantly to disband and quit the
Territory" In obedience to this order the Free Soil companies nearly
all disbanded, but the Pro-slavery party paid scarcely any attention to it.
They concentrated a force of two thousand men and advanced upon
Lawrence to attack it. Governor Geary at once placed himself at the
head of the United States dragoons stationed in the Territory, and by a
rapid march threw himself with these troops between the town of Lawrence and the hostile force, and prevented another conflict.
Matters had reached this stage when the presidential campaign opened
in 1856. /The struggle in the Territories had greatly weakened the
Democratic party, and had given rise to a new party which called itself
Republican, and which was based upon an avowed hostility to the extension of slavery  A third party, called the American, or Know
Nothing, also took part in the campaign, and was based upon the doctrine that the political offices of the country should be held only by
persons of American birth. The Democratic party nominated James




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Buchanan, of Pennsylvania, for the presidency, and John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, for the vice-presidency. The Republican nominee
for the presidency was John C. Fremont, of California; for the vicepresidency William L. Dayton, of New Jersey. The American party
supported Millard Fillmore, of New York, for the presidency, and
Andrew J. Donelson, of Tennessee, for the vice-presidency  The Whig
party had been broken to pieces by its defeat in 1852, and had now
entirely disappeared.
The canvass was unusually excited. Slavery was the principal question in dispute. Party ties had little influence upon men. The sentiment
of the nation at large had been outraged by the repeal of the Missouri
Compromise, and thousands of Democrats, desiring to rebuke their party
for its course in bringing about this repeal, united with the Republican
party, which declared as its leading principle that it was " both the right
and the duty of Congress to prohibit in the Territories those twin relics
of barbarism-polygamy and slavery ".
The elections resulted in the triumph of James Buchanan, the candidate of the Democratic party   Mr. Buchanan received 174 electoral
votes to 114 cast for Fremont. Though a majority of the American
people sustained the action of the Democratic party, the significant fact
remained that 1,341,264 of the voters of the country had recorded their
condemnation of it by casting their votes for Fremont and Dayton.




CHAPTER XL.


THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.
Inauguration of Mr. Buchanan ---The Mormon Rebellion-The Financial Crisis of 1857 -Laying of the Atlantic Telegraphic Cable-Minnesota admitted into the Union-The
San Juan Affair-Admission of Oregon into the Union-The Kansas question-The
Lecompton Constitution-Its defeat-The Wyandotte Constitution-Admission of Kansas into the Union —The John Brown Raid-Prompt action of the 'Government-Brown
and his Companions surrendered to the State of Virginia-Their Trial and Execution —
Presidential Campaign of 1860-Rupture of the Democratic party-Abraham Lincoln
elected President of the United States-Secession of South Carolina-Reasons for this
Act-Secession of the other Cotton States-Major Anderson occupies Fort SumterTrying position of the General Government-Course of Mr. Buchanan-The "Star of
the West" fired upon by the South Carolina Batteries-Organization of the Confederate
States of America-Jefferson Davis elected President of the Southern Republic-The
Peace Congress-Its Failure.
AMES       BUCHANAN, the fifteenth President of the United
States, was -inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March,
1857.   He was in his sixty-sixth year, and was a statesman
of great accomplishments and ripe experience. He was born in
Pennsylvania, in 1791, and was by profession a lawyer. He
had served his State in Congress as a representative and a senator, had
been minister to Russia under President Jackson, and had been a member of the cabinet of President Polk as secretary of state. During the
four years previous to his election to the presidency he had resided
abroad as the minister of the United States to Great Britain, and in that
capacity had greatly added to his reputation as a statesman.  He avowed
the object of his administration to. be "to destroy any sectional party,.
whether, North or South, and to restore, if possible, that national fraternal feeling between the different States that had existed during the early
days of the republic."  The intense sectional feeling which the discussion
of the slavery question had aroused had alarmed patriotic men in all
parts of the Union, and it was earnestly hoped that Mr. Buchanan's administration would be able to effect a peaceful settlement of the quarrel.
Mr. Buchanan selected his cabinet from the leading men of the Democratic party, and placed at its head as secretary of state Lewis Cass,
of Michigan.




762


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


We have in a previous portion,of this work noticed the rise and
growth of the Mormon sect, and their settlement in the region of the
Great Salt lake, then a part of the Mexican republic. They were not at
all pleased with their transfer to the United States by the cession of the
territory occupied by them by the treaty of Guadaloupe Hidalgo. Their
object in emigrating to Utah had been to place themselves beyond the
limits of the United States, where they could enjoy without molestation
their religious practices, and especially the gross and immoral institution
of polygany, to which they were attached as the foundation of their
faith. They were not disturbed by the Mexican government, which was
indeed sc;arcely aware of their existence, and thus unnoticed devoted
their energies to building up the country they had occupied. Their
missionaries were sent into the various countries of Europe, and converts
were made with extraordinary success and
rapidity  They built up a thriving town
on the borders of the great lake, to which,,",       they gave the name of Salt Lake City, and:  l        founded other towns in various parts of the
Territory  By the year 1850 the population.E     of the Territory had increased to 11,380.
a   Being on the highway to California, the
~l             greater part of the overland traffic and
a travel to the Pacific passed through Salt
X.,              Lake City, and was a source 9f considerable
I       d         profit to the Mormons.
JAMES BUCHANAN.       In 1850 the Territory of Utah was organized, and Brigham Young, who had succeeded Joe Smith as the prophet or leader of the Mormons, was
appointed by President Fillmore governor of the Territory. His appointment was renewed by President Pierce, and the Mormons were lIft
during these two administrations to manage their affairs very much in
their own way. Relying-.upon -the immense distance which separated
them from the States, they paid but little regard to the authority of the
United States, and finally ventured openly to resist the officers of the
general government, and expelled the federal judge from the Territory.
President Buchanan thereuppn removed Brigham Young from his office
of governor, and appointed a Mr. Cumming his successor. The Mormons having declared that the new governor should not enter the
Territory, General Harney was ordered to accompany him with a large
body of troops and compel the submission of the people of Utah to the
authority of the federal government.




C                                              r
Muc                  itAIUNCE  ~)~~kN  OS  N  U  ITNE




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Under the leadership of Brigham Young the Mormons took up arms
and prepared to dispute the entrance of the troops into the Territory.
They declared that their settlement and civilization of Utah had given
them the Ale right to the Territory, and that they owed no allegiance to
the United States.  Their resistance was so formidable that the force
under General Harney was largely increased, and the command was
conferred upon,Brigadier-General Albert Sidney Johnston, who was
considered the most efficient officer in the service. General Johnston
joined his troops at Fort Bridger, about one hundred miles from Salt
Lake City, in September, 1857  The Mormons in heavy force occupied


SALT LAKE CITY (FROM THE NORTH).


the passes leading to the valley of the Great Salt lake. The season was
so far advanced at the time of his arrival that General Johnston
concluded to pass the winter at Fort Bridger. The Mormons were
very active during the winter in cutting off the trains of the federal
troops.
It was General Johnston's intention to iliove upon Salt Lake City immediately upon the opening of the spring, but before that season arrived
the matterwas settled through the efforts of a Mr. Kane, of Philadelphia.
He was sent out to Salt Lake City by the government, and succeeded in
inducing the Mormons to lay down their arms and submit. Governor




THE ADMINVISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.


765


Cumming and the federal officers then entered Salt Lake City an(l
assumed the offices to which they had been appointed, and a force of
federal troops was encamped near the city to render them such assistance
as should be found necessary  President Buchanan then issuWl a proclamation granting a free pardon "to all, for the seditions and treasons by
them committed."
In the fall of 1857 the general business of the country was thrown
iuto confusion by a sudden financial panic, which seriously embarrassed
all commercial and industrial enterprises and caused general distress.
On the 26th'of September the banks of Philadelphia suspended specie
payments; and their example was followed by the banks of New York
on the 13th of October, and by those of Boston on the 14th. The
<      BRIGHAM YOUNG'S RESIDENCES, SALT LAKE CITY
failures in the United States for the year ending December 6th, 1857,
are said to have reached the enormous aggregate of $291,750,000. The
Western States suffered in a marked degree from the effects of this
"crisis;" but the south was comparatively unharmed by it. Various
causes were assigned for the panic, the principal of which were the large
speculations in western lands and a heavy fall in the value of railway
stocks. The New York banks resumed specie payments on the 12th
of December, 1857; the Boston banks on the 14th of December of that
year; and those of Philadelphia in April, 1858. Specie payments were
gradually resumed in other parts of the country, but the depression of
business continued until during the course of the year 1859.
In 1858 occurred an event second only in importance to the invention
of the electric telegraph. For some years it had been believed possible to




766


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


connect the shores of Europe with those of America by means of a submarine telegraphic cable across the Atlantic. In 1857 an unsuccessful
effort was made by a company of American and English capitalists to
accomplish this object. The attempt was renewed in 1858. Two war
steamers were furnished for the work of laying the cable-the " Niagara " by
the United States, and the "Agamemnon " by Great Britain. The two
vessels met in mid ocean, and sailed each to its own country, paying out
the cable as they proceeded on their way  On the 5th of August, 1858,
the "Niagara" entered Trinity bay, in Newfoundland, and made fast her
end of the cable to the shore, and on the same day the "Agamemnon " reached
Valentia bay in Ireland, having successfully accomplished her part of the
work. The great work was thus ended, and on the 16th of August a
message was received through the' wires from the queen of Great Britain
and Ireland addressed to the president of the United States, who at once
returned a suitable reply  Other messages were exchanged between the
two continents, and the practicability of the scheme was fully demonstrated.
On the first of September the laying of the cable was celebrated with
^Eo                  imposing ceremonies in New York,
~                      and rejoicings were held in other
-~ ~cities. The hopes aroused by the
' r' successful accomplishment of the
-i     -; great enterprise were soon disap-.-:^-~                           pointed, for after a short time the
wires ceased to work, and no effort
COAT OF ARMS OF MINNESOTA.
could re-establish the communication, between the two ends of the line. The feasibility of the undertaking
had been practically demonstrated, however, and the determined men who
had carried it through to success were convinced that a new effort would
be attended with more satisfactory results.
On the 11th of May, 1858, the Territory of Minnesota was admitted
into the Union as a State.
In the autumn of 1859 a dispute arose between the United States and
Great Britain as to the ownership of the large island of Stn Juan lying
in the strait which separates Vancouver's island from the territory of the
United States. General Harney, commanding the American troops in
the northwest, took possession of the island. Governor Douglass of
British Columbia protested against this occupation, and for a while there
was danger that the two parties would come to blows.,The general
government despatched General Scott to the scene of the controversy, and
he succeeded in bringing about an adjustment of the quarrel.
On the 14th of February, 1859, Oregon was admitted into the Union
as a State, the Territory of Washington being separated from it.




THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.


During the whole of Mr. Buchanan's administration the question of
slavery in the Territories continued to engross the attention of the people.
The struggle in Kansas went on with increased bitterness.  In the summer of 1857 an election was ordered by the legislature of Kansas for
delegates to a convention for the purpose of framing a constitution, and
care was taken to arrange the matter so that a majority of Pro-slavery
delegates should be chosen. For this reason, and others of equal force,
the Free Soil men refused to take any part in the election, which consequently resulted in the choice of a Pro-slavery convention. The Free
Soil party thereupon issued an address to the people of the United States,
relating the wrongs they had suffered, and were still enduring.
Governor Geary now resigned his position, and President Buchanan
appointed, as governor of Kansas, Robert J Walker, a man of great
eminence and ability, who was in sentiment opposed to slavery  Mr.
Walker sincerely desired to effect a settlement of the quarrel, and succeeded in inducing the Free Soil party to vote at the coming election for
members of the territorial legislature and a delegate to Congress. They
did so, and a fair election was held,
which resulted in the choice of the
Free Soil candidates by overwhelm-.A.                          -
ing majorities.,,
In the autumn of 1857 the conven-        '
tion elected, as we have seen, assem-            A
bled at Lecompton, and framed a                18 -
COAT OF ARM8 OF OREGON.
State constitution. This instrument
contained a clause adopting slavery, and the convention submitted this
clause only to the people of the Territory for ratification or rejection at
the polls. The remainder of the constitution was withheld from the
popular vote. The convention also ordered that all whose votes were
challenged at the polls should be required "to take an oath to support
the constitution if adopted," before being allowed to deposit their ballot.
The Free State men refused to take part in the vote on the ratification
of this constitution, and consequently all the votes cast were in favor of
it. It was declared adopted, and was sent to Congress for the approval
of that body
The discussion of the Lecompton constitution in Congress was marked
by great bitterness. It was supported by the Democratic party and the
administration, and was opposed with determination by the Republicans.
The latter took the strong ground that the Lecompton constitution was
not the work of the people of Kansas, but of a mere faction, and was
distasteful to the majority of the citizens of that Territory, who were




768


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


opl)osed to slavery. Finally, on the 30th of April, 1858, a bill was
passed to submit the Lecompton constitution to the people of Kansas.
This bill declared that if they ratified the constitution, they should be
given certain public lands for State purposes; but that if they failed to
ratify it, Kansas should not be permitted to enter the Union until it had a
population of ninety-three thousand. With these strange conditions, the
constitution was submitted to the people of Kansasoon the 2d of August,
1858, and was rejected by them by a vote of eleven thousand three hundred against it, to seventeen hundred and eighty-eight votes in its favor.
In January, 1859, the civil strife having subs'ded in the Territory, and
the Free Soil men having a majority in the legislature, a convention was
summoned at Wyandotte.    It met in July, and adopted a free State
constitution, which was submitted to the people and ratified by a large
majority  The " Wyandotte Constitution" was then laid before Congress,
and a bill admitting Kansas into the Union as a State was passed by the
lower House early in 1860. The Senate however failed to act upon the
bill. At the next session the measure was revived, and on the 30th of
south having ceased by reason of the
withdrawal of a large number of
the  southern  representatives and
senators from Congress, Kansas was
i              admitted into the Union as a free
S tate.
CO\T OF.,.r~  OF KANSAS.
On the night of the 16th of October,
1859, John Brown, who had acquired a considerable notoriety as the leader
of a Free Soil company during the war in Kansas, entered the State of
Virginia, at Harper's Ferry, with a party of twenty-one companions, and
seized the United States arsenal at that place. He then sent out parties
to arrest the leading citizens of the vicinity, as hostages, and to induce the
negro slaves to join him, his avowed object being to put an end to slavery
in Virginia by exciting an insurrection of the slaves. Several citizens
were kidnapped by these parties, but the slaves refused to join Brown, or
to take any part in the insurrection. At daylight on the 17th of October
the alarm was given, and during the morning the militia of the surrounding country was ordered under arms to put down the outbreak. Brown's
force was unknown, and was greatly exaggerated.
The news of the seizure of the arsenal was telegraphed to Washington,
and the government decided to recover it at once and confine the trouble
to the spot on which it had originated. General Scott was absent from
the capital at the time, and the president and secretary of war summoned




THE ADMINISTRA TI 0 N 0 F JAMES B UCHA NAN.


769


Colonel Robert E. Lee, a distinguished officer of the army, to consult with
them as to the best course to pursue. The interview resulted in the
despatching of a battalion of marines to Harper's Ferry, under the cormmand of Colonel Lee. Orders were telegraphed to that point to suspend
all operations there until Colonel Lee's arrival. He reached Harper's
Ferry on the night of the 17tih.
In the meantime, upon the appearance of the militia, Brown and his
companions retreated to the fire-engine house in the arsenal yard. This
was a strong stone building, and they barricaded the doors, and (luring
the day maintained a desultory fire upon the town. They had taken
Colonel Washington, iMrt Dangerfield, and the other citizens kidnapped
by them, into the engine house with them, where they held them, in the
hope that the presence of these gentlemen would prevent the troops from
firing upon them.
As soon as Colonel Lee arrived at Harper's Ferry, lie proceeded to.
surround the engine house with the marines to prevent the escape of'
Brown and his men, and deferred his attack upon them until the next
morning, lest in a night assault some of the captive citizens might be
injured. At daylight on the 18th, wishing, if possible, to accomplish the
ob)ject in view without bloodshed, Colonel Lee sent his aid, Lieutenant
J. E. B. Stuart, to denland the surrender of the insurgents, promising to
protect them from violence at the hands of the citizens, and to hold them.
subject to the orders of the president. Brown refused the terms offered,.
and demanded to be permitted to march out with his men- and prisoners,
with the arms of the former, to be allowed to proceed, without being
followed, to a point at a certain distance from Harper's Ferry, where he
would free his prisoners. He was then willing that the troops should
pursue him, and to fight if he could not escape. This proposition was
inadmissible, but as a last resort, Colonel Lee directed Lieutenant Stuart
to remonstrate with the insurgents upon the folly of their course. This
duty Stuart performed, remaining before the engine house until his personal danger compelled him to withdrawFinding that nothing but force would avail, Colonel Lee gave the order
for the assault, and the marines made a dash at the engine house, broke
in the doors, and captured its inmates. Several of the insurgents were
killed and wounded, Brown himself being desperately hurt. The marines
lost one man killed, and one wounded. Fortunately none of the citizens
captured by Brown were injured.
Colonel Lee.took care to protect his prisoners, and there is little doubt
that but for his precautions in their behalf they would have been shot
down by the excited civilians. He telegraphed to Washington for
49




770


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


instructions, and was directed to deliver the prisoners to Mr. Ould, the
attorney for the District of Columbia, who was ordered by the government to take charge of them and bring them to trial. As soon as Mr.
Ould arrived Colonel Lee turned over the prisoners to him, and being
satisfied that the danger was over, went back to Washington.
As Brown and his companions had committed their chief crime against
the United States, by seizing the federal arsenal and resisting the troops
sent to reduce them to submission, it seemed proper that they should be
tried for their offences by the general government.   The attempt to
excite an insurrection of the slaves, however, was a crime against the
laws of the State of Virginia, and the governor of that State demanded
of the federal authorities the surrender of Brown and his fellow-prisoners
for trial by the State courts. The demand was complied with, and the
prisoners were arraigned in the court of the county of Jefferson, the
county in which their offence was committed. They were given a fair
trial, and were defended by able counsel from the free States, wlho came
to Charlestown for that purpose. Brown frankly confessed that his object
was to produce an insurrection among the slaves, and then carry them off
to the free States. The prisoners were found guilty of treason, murder,
and an attempt to excite insurrection, and were sentenced to be hanged.
Brown was executed at Charlestown on the 2d of December, 1859, and six
of his companions met the same fate a few weeks later,
During his trial Brown steadily denied that he had been aided or
encouraged by.any persons in the north.    His denial was generally
doubted at the time, and it is now known that he was assisted with money
and advice by some of the most respectable leaders of the extreme Antislavery party, and that several persons high in position knew of the designs
of Brown, but failed to warn either the general government or the State
of Virginia of the intended attack.*
The execution of Brown and his companions drew upon the south a
storm of furious denunciation from the Anti-slavery men. Brown was
regarded as a martyr to the cause of freedom, and the day of his execution
was observed in many of the towns of the Northern States by the tolling
of bells, prayer in the churches, the firing of minute-guns, and other
public demonstrations of sorrow and respect. The conservative class in
tile north, however, and in this number were included some of the firmest
opponents of slavery, sincerely deplored Brown's course, and acknowledged
his punishment as merited.   Brown was d man of many good qualities,
* Mr. F B. Sanborn, one of Brown's confederates, in a series of papers published in The
Atlantic Monthly (vol. xxxv.) gives the details of this conspiracy, together with many
interesting incidents connected with it. which sustain the view of the case presented above.




THE ADMIN'ISTRA TION OF JAMES B UC'IlANA;N.


771


but the undertaking in which he met his fate was criminal in the extreme
Not even the intention of rescuing the slaves of Virginia from  tleil
bondage can excuse him for seeking to excite a servile war, in which mllrder and violence would hnve been inevitable, and in which the aged and
the helpless, the defenceless women and children, would have been the
chief sufferers.
The effect of Brown's attempt upon the southern people was most
unfortunate. They regarded it as unanswerable evidence of the intention
of the people of the north to make war upon them under the cover of the
Union. Regarding this view of the case as true, they came to listen with
more favor to the arguments of the extreme class which openly favored a
dissolution of the Union, and which asserted that the only safety of the
south lay in pursuing such a course. The John Brown raid was the most
powerful argument that had ever been placed in the hands of the disunionists, and in the alarm and excitement produced by that event the
southern people lost sight of the fact that the great mass of the northern
people sincerely deplored and condemned the action of Brown and his
supporters. The voice of reason was drowned in the storm of passionate
excitement which swept over the land, and the extremists on both sides
were able to prosecute their unpatriotic work to gre:.t advantage.
While the excitement was at its height the presidential campaign opened
in the spring of 1860. The slavery question was the chief issue in this
strurle. The convention of the Democratic party met at Charleston, in
April, but being unal~le to effect an organization adjourned to Baltimore,
and reassembled in t!hat city in June. The extreme southern delelates
were resolved that the convention should be committed to the protection
of slavery in tile Territories l)v Congress, and failing to control it withdrew from it in a body, N;and organized a separate convention, which the\declared represented the Democratic party, but which, in reality, as the
vote subsequently provedl, represented but a minority of that party  Tlle
new convention was joined by a number of delegates from the northern
and western state.;.
The original convention, after the withdrawal of these delegates, nominated for the presidency Stephen A. Douglas, of Illinois, and for the viccpresidency Herschell V  Johnson, of Georgia.  It then proceeded to
adopt the platform put forward by the entire party four years before at
Cincinnati, upon the nomination of Mr Buchanan, with this additional
declaration: " That as differences of opinion exist in the Democlratic
party as to the nature and extent of the powers of a territorial legislature,
and as to tlhe powers and duties of Congress under the constitution of tlle
United States over tle institution of slavery within the Territories,..




772


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the party will abide by the decisions of the Supreme Court of the United
States on the questions of constitutional law."
The "Seceders' Convention," as it was commonly called, also adopted
the Cincinnati platform, and pledged themselves to non-interference by
Congress with slavery in the Territories or the District of Columbia.
This party held to the doctrine that the constitution recognized slavery
as existing in the Territories, and sanctioned and protected it there, and
tlhat neither Congress nor the people of the Territories could frame any
law against slavery until the admission of such Territories into the Union
as States. The regular convention held that Congress had no right to
interfere with slavery in the Territories, to legislate either for or against
it; that the regulation of that question belonged entirely to the people of
the respective Territories acting through their legislatures. This doctrine
was popularly known as "Squatter Sovereignty," and was credited to
Mr Douglas. The " Seceders' Convention" put forward as its candidate
for the presidency John C. Breckenridge, of Kentucky, and for the vicepresidency Joseph Lane, of Oregon.
The Republican party took issue with both wings of the Democratic
party  Its convention was held at Chicago, Illinois, and its candidates
were, for president Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, and for vice-president
Hannibal Hamlin, of Maine. The platform of principles adopted by the
Chicamo Convention declared that "the maintenance of the principles
promulgated in the Declaration of Independence and embodied in the
federal constitution is essential to the preservation of our republican
institutions.. That all men are created equal; that they are endowed
by their Creator with certain inalienable rights..  That the federal
constitution, the rights of the States and the union of the States must and
shall be preserved."  The platform also declared that the rights of the
States should be Inmintained inviolate, "especially the right of each State
to order and control its own domestic institutions according to its own
jud-nlmellt exclusively "  It asserted " that the normal condition of all
the territory of the United States is that of freedom," and denied the
ri,'ght or "authority of Congress, of a territorial legislature, or of indiXviduals, to give legal existence to slavery in any Territory of the United
States."
A fourth party, known as the "Constitutional Union Party," proclaimedl as its platform the following vague sentence: "The constitution
of the country, the union of thlc States, and the enforcement of the laws."
The convention of this party met at Baltimore, and nominated for the
presidency John Bell, of Tennessee, and for the vice-presidency Edward
Everett, of Massachusetts.                                  I




THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.


773


The contest between these parties was bitter beyond all precedent. When
the election took place in November, the result was as follows:
Popular vote for Lincoln,.                     1,866,452
i     "  Douglas,...          1,375,157
t     "  Breckenridge,.                        847,953
"     "  Bell,..            590,631
The electoral vote stood as follows: For Lincoln, 180; for Breckenridge,
72; for Bell, 39; for Douglas, 12.
Mr. Lincoln was thus elected by a plurality of the popular vote, which
secured for him the electoral votes of eighteen States. These States were
entirely north of the sectional line, and he received not a single electoral
vote from a Southern State. The States which cast their electoral votes
for Breckenridge, Bell, and Douglas, were entirely slaveholding. The
division thus made was alarming. It was the first time in the history of
the republic that a president had been elected by the votes of a single
section of the Union.
The state in which the presidential election left the country was most
alarming. The excitement was higher than it had been before the struggle at the polls. The Gulf States had declared at an early period of the
political campaign that they would withdraw from the Union in the event
of the election of a Republican president. The people of the south generally regarded the result of the election as an evidence of the determination of the Northern States to use the power of the federal government
to destroy the institution of slavery. The disunion leaders exerted themselves to deepen this conviction, and to arouse the fears oA the south. On
the other hand, the Republican leaders took little pains to allay the excitement by declaring their intentions to execute faithfully the constitution
and laws of the Union. Their declarations of fidelity to the Union were
abundant, and were generally accompanied by equally plain assertions
of their determination to oppose by force the withdrawal of the Southern
States-declarations which were ill-suited to calm the fears of the south,
or to encourage the party in that section which desired a perpetuation of
the Union. A statesman of the Henry Clay school was needed at this
crisis of our country's history as he had never been needed before; but,
alas! statesmanship of any kind was painfully wanting.
As soon as the election of Mr. Lincoln was definitely ascertained, the
legislature of South Carolina summoned a sovereign convention of the
people of that State, which met on the 17th of December, 1860. This
convention adopted an ordinance of secession on the 20th of December,
and cdeclared the State no longer a member of the Union. The reasons
assigned for this action were thus stated by the convention:




774


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


"An increasing hostility on the part of the non-slaveholding States to
the institution of slavery has led to a disregard of their obligations, and
the laws of the general government have ceased to eflict the objects of the
constitution. The States of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, New York, Pennsylvania, Illinois,
Indiana, Michigan, Wisconsin, and Iowa, have enacted laws which either
nullify the acts of Congress or render useless any attempt to execute
them. In many of these States the fugitive is discharged from the service or labor claimed, and in none of them has the State government complied with the stipulations made.n the constitution.... Thus the
constitutional compact has been deliberately broken and disregarded by
these non-slaveholding States, and the consequence follows that South
Carolina is released from her obligation.
" We affirm that these ends for which this government was instituted
have been defeated, and the government itself has been made destructive
of them by the action of non-slaveholding States. Those States have
assumed the right of deciding upon the propriety of our domestic institutions; and have denied the rights of property established in fifteen of the
State~s and recognized by Lhe constitution; they have denounced as sinful
the institution of slavery; they have permitted the open establishment
among them of societies whose avowed, object is to disturb the peace and
to eloigne the property of citizens of other States.  rhey,.have encouraged
and assisted thousands of our slaves to leave their homes; and those who
remain have been incited by emissaries, books, and pictures to servile
insurrection.
" For twenty-five years this agitation has been steadily increasing, until
it has now secured to its aid the power of the common government.
Observing the forms of the constitution, a sectional party has found
within that article establishing the executive department the means of
subverting the constitution itself. A geographical line has been drawn
across the Union, and all the States north of that line have united in the
election of a man to the high office of president of the United States whose
opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery. He is to be intrusted with
the administration of the common government because he has declared
that that 'government cannot endure permanently half slave, half free,'
and that the public mind must rest in the belief that slavery is in the
course of ultimate extinction.
"This sectional combination for the subversion of the constitution has
been aided in some of the States by elevating to citizenship persons rho,
by the supreme law of the land, are incapable of becoming citizens; and




THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHANAN.


775


their votes have been used to inaugurate a new policy, hostile to the
south, and destructive of its peace and safety
" On the 4th of March next this party will take possession of the government. It has announced that the south shall be excluded from the
common territory; that the judicial tribunals shall be made sectional, and
that a war must be waged against slavery until it shall cease throughout
the United States.
"The guarantees of the constitution will then no longer exist; the
equal rights of the States will be lost. The slaveholding States will no
longer have the powei of self-government or self-protection, and the
federal government will become their enemy "
These reasons were substantially the same as those avowed by the other
Southern States in support of their action, and therefore we have quoted
them at length.
The example of South Carolina was followed by the other States of the
far south, which summoned conventions and adopted ordinances of secession. Mississippi withdrew from the Union on the 9th of January, 1861;
Florida on the 10th of January; Alabama on the 11th of January; Georgia on the 19th of January; Louisiana on the 26th of January; and
Texas on the 1st of February. The forts, arsenals, and other public
property of the United States within the limits of these States were seized
by the authorities of the States in which they were situated, and were
held by their troops, with the exception of Forts Moultrie and Sumter, in
Charleston harbor, and Fort Pickens, at Pensacola.
Fort Moultrie was occupied by Major Robert Anderson, of the United
States army, with a garrison of eighty men. Becoming alarmed at the
rapid concentration of troops in Charleston, Major Anderson evacuated
the fort on the night of December 25th, 1860, and threw himself with
his command into Fort Sumter, which was built in the bay at some distance from either shore. The State troops at once occupied Fort Moultrie, and began to erect batteries of heavy guns at different points along
the harbor for the reduction of Fort Sumter.
Fort Pickens was held by a garrison under Lieutenant Slemmer. The
State of Florida occupied the navy yard at Pensacola and the other forts
in that harbor with her troops.
The property of the general government seized by the seceded States
amounted to over twenty millions of dollars in value.
The position of the general government was one of great difficulty. The
president was called upon either to recognizethe lawfulness of the acts of the
seceded States, and thus to join in the work of dissolving the Union, or to
maintain the authority of the federal government, and compel the submission




HISTORY OF TIIE UNITED STATES.


of tie Southern States to the constitution and laws of the land. The
government was almost powerless to enforce its authority  The army,
but sixteen thousand strong, was stationed upon the remote frontier, and
the available vessels of the navy were nearly all absent on foreign service. Many of the most prominent federal officials, including several of
the cabinet ministers, were in open sympathy with the seceded States.
The president's position was unquestionably embarrassing, but he made
no use of the means at his command. General Scott, the veteran commander of the army, believed that prompt action on the part of the general government would confine the evil to the six cotton States, and urged
the president to act with vigor: Mr. Buchanan was sorely perplexed,
and seemed chiefly anxious to postpone all definite action until the inauir,  = =
E.l  ' _. =5X===THE CAPITOL AT MONTGO)tERY, ALABAMA, PLACE OF MEETING OF THE FIRST
CONFEDERATE CONGRESS.
guration of his successor. He was in favor of conceding everything out
separate independence to the south, failing to perceive that the leaders of
the secession movement would accept nothing but separation; and by his
timidity lost the advantages which the government would have gained by
a bold, firm course.
As Major Anderson was short of supplies and needed reinforcements,
the steamship " Star of the West " was despatched by the government to
Charleston with provisions and a detachment of two hundred and fifty
men to his assistance. She reached Charleston on the 9th of January,
1861, and attempted to enter the harbor, but was fired upon by the South
Carolina batteries, and turned back.




THE ADMINISTRATION OF JAMES BUCHIIAAN.


777


The president was urged by the friends of the south to order Major
Anderson to evacuate Fort Sumter and return to Fort Moultrie, but refused to do so. South Carolina then offered to purchase Fort Sumter
from the general government for its full value, but the president refused
to make the sale.
Immediately upon their withdrawal from the Union the six seceded
States began to concert measures for their common protection. Delegates
were elected to a convention which met at Montgomery, Alabama, on the
4th of February, 1861, to devise a plan for this purpose. The convention at once proceeded to organize a new republic, for which they adopted
the name of The Confederate States of America.  On the 8th of February,
a provisional constitution having been adopted, the convention elected
Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, president, and Alexander H. Stephens, of
Georgia, vice-prasident of the Confederate
States. The action of the convention was
sustained by all the States comprising the
new confederacy, and the provisional government at once entered upon its duties.
Jefferson Davis was a native of Kentucky, and was born on the 3d of June,;   d
1808. His father had removed to Mississippi during his early childhood, and he
had grown up to manhood in that State.
He was educated at the West Point Military Academy, from which he was gradated in 1828, and passed the next seven      JEFFERSON DAVIS.
years of his life in  the  army.   He
served with distinction during the Black Hawk war and against the
Indian tribes on the frontier. Entering into politics after his withdrawal
from the army, he was soon sent to represent his State in Congress, in
which body he served until the commencement of the Mexican war.
During that struggle he commanded the Mississippi Rifles, and distinguished himself greatly in the battles of General Taylor's army, and
especially at.Buena Vista.
Upon his return home he was chosen to represent Mississippi in the
Senate of the United States. Upon the inauguration of President Pierce
he accepted a seat in the cabinet as secretary of war  Returning to the
Senate after the close of Mr. Pierce's administration, he remained in that
body until the secession of Mississippi, when he resigned his seat and returned home. He was now in his fifty-third year, and was regarded as
one of the most brilliant public men in America. His election was gen



778


IHISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


erally looked upon in the south as a concession to the more conservative
portion of the southern people, for he had not been considered as one of
the original or most ultra secession leaders.
The conservative elements of both sections made great efforts to bring
about a reconciliation. The State of Virginia called upon all the States
to send delegates to an informal peace congress to meet in Washington.
This body assembled in February   Twenty States were represented in
it-thirteen northern and seven southernand the venerable ex-President Tyler was
chosen to preside over its deliberations.
Various plans of settlement were proposed,
e..           and a committee, consisting of one member
-  '*  from each State, was appointed to prepare
a plan upon which the congress could unite.,         In due time it made its report to the con-B     gress, and after a careful and elaborate
A                discussion the resolutions were adopted,
i and were ordered to be laid before the rival
governments.   The congress then adA. H. STEPhENS.     journed. The plan proposed by this body
pleased neither side. The Southern States
were not satisfied with the guarantees it offered for the protection of their
rights in the matter of slavery; and the Northern States were unwilling
to sanction a more rigid enforcement of the constitutional provision for
the rendition of fugitive slaves. The effort to close the breach between
the States only served to widen it.
Matters were in this unhappy and excited condition when the administration of Mr, Buchanan came to a close. After the inauguration of his
successor, he retired to his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania.




CHAPTER XLI.


THE ADMINISTRATION       OF ABRAHAM       LINCOLN-THE CIVIL WAR.
Inauguration of President Lincoln-His History-The Confederate Commissioners at
Washington-Attack upon Fort Sumter by the Confederates-The President calls for
Troops-Response of the North and West-Secession of the Border States-Opening
Events of the War in Virginia-Withdrawal of West Virginia-Admitted into the
Union as a separate State-Meeting of Congress-The West Virginia C ampaign-Battle of Bull Run-The War in Missouri-Kentucky Occupied-The Blockade-Capture
of Port Royal-The " Trent " Affar-Insurrection in East Tennessee-State of Affairs at
the Opening of the Year 1862-Edwin M. Stanton made Secretary of War-Capture of
Forts Henry and Donelson-The Confederates fall back from Kentucky-Battle of
Shiloh-Capture of Island No. 10-Evacuation of Corinth-Capture of MemphisBragg's Kentucky Campaign-His Retreat into Tennessee-Battles of luka and Corinth
-Battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone River-Grant's Campaign against Vicksbiirg-Its
Failure-The War beyond the Mississippi-Battle of Pea Ridge-xCapture of Roanoke
Island-Capture of New Orleans-Surrender of Fort Pulaski-The War in VirginiaJohnston's Retreat from Centreville-Battle between the "Monitor" and " Virginia"-The
Move to the Peninsula-Johnston Retreats to the Chickahominy-Battle of Seven Pines
-Jackson's Successes in the Valley of Virginia-The Seven Days' Battles before Richmond-Battle of Cedar Mountain -Defeat of General Pope's Army-Lee Invades
Maryland-Capture of Harper's Ferry-Battles of South Mountain and AntietamRetreat of Lee into Virginia —McClellan Removed-Battle of Fredericksburg.
9i^BRAHAM LINCOLN, the sixteenth president of the United
States, was inaugurated at Washington on the 4th of March,
-     1861.   As it was feared that an attempt would be made to prevent the inauguration, the city was held by a strong body of
regular troops, under General Scott, and the president-elect was
escorted from his hotel to the capitol by a military force.    No effort was
made to interfere with the ceremonies, and the inauguration passed off
quietly.
The new president was in his fifty-third year, and was a native of
Kentucky     When he was but eight years old         his father removed to
Indiana, and the boyhood of the future preiderit was spent in hard labor
upon the farm. Untii he reached manhood he continued to lead this
life, and during this entire period attended school for only a year. At
the age of twenty-one he removed to Illinois, where be began life as a
storekeeper.  Being anxious to rise above his humble position, he determined to study law. He was too poor to buy the necessary books, and
779




780


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


so borrowed them from a neighboring lawyer, read them at night,
and returned them in the morning. His genial character, great good
nature, and love of humor, won him the friendship of the people among
whom he resided, and they elected him to the lower house of the legislature of Illinois. He now abandoned his mercantile pursuits, and began
the practice of the law, and was subsequently elected a representative tco
Congress from the Springfield district. He took an active part in the
politics of his State, and in 1858 was the candidate of the Republican
party for United States senator,  In this capacity he engaged in a series
of debates in various parts of the State with Senator Douglas, the Democratic candidate for re-election to the same position. This debate was
remarkable for its brilliancy and intellectual vigor, and brought him
prominently before the whole country, and opened the way to his nomination for the presidency  In person he was tall and ungainly, and in manner he was rough and awkward, little versed in the
refinements of society  He was a man, however,
of great natural vigor of intellect, and was possessed of a fund of strong common sense, which
enabled him to see at a glance through the
G ii: - -  shams by which he was surrounded, and to pur-:-           'Xsue his own aims with singleness of heart and
~'~~:'            directness of purpose. He had sprung from the
^  ranks of the people, and he was never false to
them. He was a simple, unaffected, kind-hearted
man; anxious to do his duty to the whole
ABRAIHAM LINCOLN.  country; domestic in his tastes and habits; and
incorruptible in every relation of life. He was
fond of humor, and overflowed with it; finding in his "little stories"
the only relaxation he ever sought from the heavy cares of the trying
position upon which he was now entering. He selected his cabinet from
the leading men of the Republican party, and placed William H. Seward,
of New York, at its head as secretary of state.
Mr Lincoln was sincerely anxious to avoid everything which might
precipitate the civilstrife; but at the same time was determined to maintain the authority of the general government over the seceded States. In
his inaugural address he declared his purpose to collect the public revenues at the ports of the seceded States, and to "hold, occupy, and
possess" the forts, arsenals, and other public property seized by those
States. At the time of his entrance upon the duties of his office Fort
Sumter and Fort Pickens were still held by the federal forces.
The Confederate government was convinced that war was inevitable;




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN.


781


and since its inauguration had been preparing for the coming struggle.
Nearly all the officers of the arnmy and navy of the United States, who
were natives of the seceded States, resigned their commissions in the old
service, and were given similar positions in the army of the Confederate
States. The forces collected at Charleston and Pensacola were reinforced


4             I I
111                                 I     I
I             I
I,    I,           "'i!


ARRIVAL OF PRESIDENT LINCOLN AT THE CAPITOL.


by troops from other States, and the command at the former place was
conferred upon General Pierre G, T Beauregard, and at the latter upon
General Braxton Bragg, both of whom had been distinguished officers of
the old army.
Just before the close of Mr. Buchanan's term of office the Confederate
government despatched John Forsyth, of Alabama, Martin J Crawford,




782


HIlSTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of Georgia, and A. B. Roman, of Louisiana, to Washington as commissioners to endeavor to effect a peaceable adjustment of the matters at issue
between the two governments, and to treat for an equitable division of
the public property of the United States. Mr Buchanan refused to
receive the commissioners in their official capacity, and after the inauguration of the new administration they addressed a note to Mr. Seward, the
new secretary of state, setting forth the objects of their mission, and
soliciting an official interview with the president. Mr. Seward declined
t:, receive them in their official capacity, but answered them verbally
through AMr Justice John A. Campbell, of the Supreme Court of the
United States, that he was in favor of a peaceful settlement of the difficulty, and that the troops would be withdrawn from Fort Sumter in less
than ten days. Mr Seward's objcet appears to have been to deceive the,~                                -    -    - =
F                            JMM
STATE-HOUSE, SPRINGFIELD, ILLINOIS.
commissioners, and lull their suspicions, in order to gain time for the
preparations which had been determined upon for the relief of Fort
Sumter
In the meantime, the government having resolved to reinforce and
provision Fort Sumter at all hazards, every nerve was strained to carry
out this design before it should become known to the Confederates. An
expedition consisting of seven ships, carrying two hundred and eightyfive guns and twenty-four hundred men, was prepared at New York and
Norfolk. The southern commissioners, whose suspicions had been allayed
by Mr. Seward's message, were alarmed by the rumors of these preparations, which they suspected were for the relief of Fort Sumter. They




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ABRAHAM LINCOLN.


783


waited.upon Judge Campbell to ask an explanation, and that gentleman,
on the 7th of April, addressed a note to Mr Seward asking if the assurances he had given were well or ill founded. Mr. Seward replied as
follows: " Faith as to Sumter fully kept; wait and see."
In the meantime the expedition had sailed from New York and Norfolk, and was on its way to Charleston harbor. On the 8th of April,
1861, Governor Pickens, of South Carolina, was notified by the general
government of its intention to relieve Fort Sumter at all hazards, and of
the sailing of the fleet for that purpose.  Governor Pickens at once
informed General Beauregard of this notification, and the news was
telegraphed by him to the Confederate government at Montgomery
The Confederate secretary of war thereupon ordered General Beauregard to demand the immediate surrender of Fort Sumter; "and if this
should be refused to proceed to reduce it."  On the 11th of April General Beauregard demanded of Major Anderson the surrender of the fort.
FORT SUMTER.
The demand was refused in writing; but Major Anderson added verbally
to the messenger, " I will await the first shot, and if you do not batter us
to pieces, we will be starved out in a few days." Beauregard telegraphed
this remark with Anderson's reply to his government, and was answered,
" Do not desire needlessly to bombard Fort Sumter  If Major Anderson
will state the time at which, as indicated by himself, he will evacuate, and
agree that, in the meantime, he will not use his guns against us unless
ours should be employed against Fort Sumter, you are authorized thus
to avoid the effusion of blood. If this or its equivalent be refused, reduce
the fort, as your judgment decides most practicable."  The federal
fleet was on its way to Charleston, and if the attack of the Confederates
was to be made at all, no time was to be lost. General Beauregard,
therefore, gave Major Anderson warning that he should open fire upon
Fort Sumter at half-past four o'clock the next morning.
At the designated hour on the morning of April 12th, the Confederate




784


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


batteries opened fire upon Fort Sumter, which replied to them with spirit.
The bombardment lasted over thirty-two hoprs, and the fort was greatly
damaged, and many of the guns were dismounted. The fleet arrived off
the harbor during the bombardment, but remained in the offing, and took
no part in the engagement. Not a single life was lost in this memorable
battle. Late in the afternoon of the 13th, Major Anderson agreed to
capitulate, and the firing ceased. The victors granted liberal terms to
Anderson and his men, whose heroism had aroused their warmest admiration, and on the morning of Sunday, April 14th, the fort was surrendered to the Confederate forces, and Major Anderson and the garrison
embarked in one of the vessels of the fleet, which at once sailed for New
York.
The attack upon Fort Sumter put an end to the last hope of peace,
and aroused the most intense excitement in both sections of the country
On the 15th of April President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling
upon the States to furnish seventy-five thousand troops for the suppression of the rebellion, and convening Congress in extra session on the 4th
of July   Thel Northern and Western States responded with enthusiasm
to tlh  president's call for troops, and at once began to forward their
quotas to the points designated by the war department.
The enthusiasm in the south was fully equal to that of the north. The
Confederate government issued a call for volunteers to repel the threatened invasion of the federal forces, and it was responded to with alacrity
Until now the States of Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Arkansas and Missouri, generally known as the Border
States, had remained in the Union, hoping to be able to effect a peaceable
settlement of the quarrel. Their sympathies were with the Southern
States, and it was generally believed that in the event of war they would
cast their lots with those States. Each of these States was included in the
call of President Lincoln for troops. The governors of most of them replied by refilsing to furnish the quotas required of them, and by denouncing the president's demand as illegal. Conventions of the people
were held, and all but Maryland, Kentucky and Missouri withdrew from
the Union. The secession of Virginia took place on the 17th of April;
that of Arkansas on the 6th of May; that of North Carolina on the 20th
of May; and that of Tennessee on the 8th of June. These States subsequently ratified the constitution of the Confederate States, and became
members of the new republic. Kentucky and Missouri remained neutral.
The passage of the act of secession by the Virginia convention was
kept secret for a day or two in order to give the authorities of that State
an opportunity to seize the United States arsenal at Harper's Ferry, and




THE CIVIL WAR.


785


the navy yard at Portsmouth. The officer in command of the arsenal,
upon hearing of the approach of a force of Virginia troops, destroyed a
number of the muskets stored there, set fire to the buildings, and retreated into Pennsylvania. The Virginians extinguished the flames and
secured a large quantity of arms and equipments and the valuable machinery for the manufacture of arms. The commandant of the navy yard
at Portsmouth, upon the approach of the Virginians, made no attempt to
defend his post, but spiked the cannon, burned or sunk the war vessels
lying in the harbor, set fire to the buildings, and retreated with two war


HARPER'S FERRY.


steamers. The navy yard was at once occupied by the Virginians, who
secured nearly two thousand pieces of cannon, and an immense quantity
of stores and munitions of all kinds. The governors of the seceded
Border States issued calls for volunteers immediately upon the withdrawal
of their States. Men came forward in such large numbers that arms
could not be provided for all of them. The prominent points of danger
in Virginia were occupied and fortified by the State troops; but the control of the military affairs in all the Border States soon passed into the
hands of the Confederate government.
As it was certain that the first operations of the war would take place
upon the borders of Virginia, the city of Richmond was made the capital
50




786


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of the Confederate States, and on the 21st of May the Confederate government was removed to that city
The western part of the State of Virginia refused to join the remainder
of the State in its withdrawal from the Union. On the 11th of June,
1861, the peop)le of the western counties met in convention at Wheeling,
declared their independence of the old State, organized a State government, and proclaimed their intention to remain faithful to the Union.
The action of this convention was sustained by the federal government
and on the 26th of November, 1861, another convention met at Wheeling,
and 'adopted a constitution for the new State of \Vest Virginia. This
constitution was ratified by the people at the polls on the 3(1 of May
1862, and application was made for the admission of West Virginia into
the Union as a State, which wvas accomplished by act of Congress on the
20th of June, 1863.
In the meantime the federal government set to work with energy to
prepare for the struggle before it. The call of President Lincoln for
troops had been answered by three hundred thousand volunteers. On
the 17th of April, two days after the
t~9 -;            president's proclamation, the Sixth
-     B    Massachusetts regiment left Boston
for Washington. In passing through
*      *     p    Baltimore it was attacked by a crowd
-A; of citizens who sympathized with
the south, and three soldiers were
COAT OF ARMS OP WEST VIRGINIA.
killed and eight wounded. Several
citizens were killed and wounded. The regiment reached Washington
the same day, and was soon joined by other troops from the Northern
States. In a short time the force at the capital was sufficient to put an
end to all fears for its safety  Alexandria and the Virginia shore opposite Washington were seized and fortified. Baltimore was occupied by a
force under General Butler, and the communications of Washington with
the north and west were made sure. On the 19th of April the president
issued a proclamation declaring all the southern ports in a state of blockade; and on the 3d of May hle put forth another proclamation ordering
the regular army of the United States to be increased to sixty-four thousand seven hundred and forty-eight men, and the navy to eighteen thousand seamen. On the 10th of May he issued a fourth proclamation,
suspending the writ of habeas corpus in certain localities, and authority to
suspend this privilege was conferred upon the commanders of military
departments soon afterward.
Under the instructions of the government these commanders now pro



THE CIVIL WAR.


787


ceeded to arrest great numbers of persons in various parts of the country
who were suspected of sympathizing with the south. They were imprisoned at the military posts, and were denied trial by the civil courts.
John Merryman, a citizen of Maryland, was one of the persons so arrested. His friends applied for redress to the chief-justice of the United
States, who held the suspension of the habeas corpus act by the president
to be unconstitutional, and ordered the discharge of the prisoner. The
government paid no attention to this decision, and held the prisoner in
confinement. A  little later the legislature of Maryland, which was'
strongly southern in its sympathies, was prevented from meeting by the
sudden arrest and imprisonment of a large number of its members by
order of the secretary of war,
On the 4th of July, 1861, Congress convened in extra session at
Washington, in accordance with the president's proclamation. This body
proceeded to give to the government a prompt and effectual support.
Resolutions were introduced to legalize the extraordinary acts of the president in setting aside the writ of habeas corpus, in ordering the arbitrary
arrest and confinement of citizens, and in assuming certain other powers
which belonged to Congress. Congress refused to throw over these acts,
however necessary, the sanction of the law; but in view of the necessity
of prompt and vigorous action on the part of the president excused his
acts oil the distinct ground of the "necessities of war "  Measures were
adopted without delay for putting in the field an army of five hundred
and twenty-five thousand men, and for equipping a powerful navv; and
the sum of five hundred millions of dollars was appropriated for the
prosecution of the war. During this session Congress also adopted a
solemn resolution declaring " that this war is not prosecuted on our part
in any spirit of oppression, nor for any purpose of conquest or subjugation, nor for the purpose of overthrowing or interfering with the rights or
established institutions of those [the seceded] States; hut to defend and
maintain the supremacy of the constitution and all laws made in pursuance thereof, and to preserve the Union with all the dignity, equality andl
rights of the several States unimpaired; that as soon as these objects are
accomplished the war ought to cease."
In the meantime the Confederates had collected troops at important
points to resist the advance of the federal troops into Virginia. A force
under Brigadier-General Garnett was stationed in West Virginia to cover
the approaches from that direction; Harper's Ferry, which commanded
the entrance into the valley of Virginia, was held by an army of seven
thousand or eight thousand men, under General Joseph E. Johnston; a
much larger force, under General Beauregard, took position near Manas



788


sIS 11OR1 Y OF THE JUNITED STATES.


sas Junction, about thirty miles from Waslington; and'a column of several
thousand men, under General John B. Magruder, was stationed at Yorktown, on the peninsula between the York and James rivers, to cover
Richmond from the direction of Fortress Monroe at the mouth of Hampton Roads, which was still held by the federal troops. Norfolk was also
held by a strong force. With the exception of that occupied by General
Garnett's command, all these positions were carefully fortified.
The Union army at Fortress Monroe numbered about twelve thousand
men, and was commanded by General B. F Butler. Early in June,
Magruder moved a force of eighteen hundred men and several pieces of
artillery from Yorktown, and took position at Bethel Church, about half
- --------. _ --- -=
STATE HOUSE, COLUMBUS, OHIO.
way between Yorktown and Hampton. On the 10th of June he was:attacked by a force of four thousand troops under General Pierce, of
Massachusetts, but succeeded in repulsing the attack and maintaining his
position.
In the opposite quarter of the State, the Union forces were more successful. In order to prevent the Confederates from overrunning West
Virginia, a strong body of Ohio and Indiana troops under General
George B. McClellan was sent into that region. McClellan set to work
at once to drive the Confederates out of West Virginia, and on the 3d of
June a portion of his command under General Kelley defeated General




THE CIVIL WAR.


789


Garnett at Philippi. McClellan now advanced against the main body of
Garnett's forces. On the 11th of July he attacked the command of
Colonel Pegram at Rich Mountain, and defeated it. This defeat conmpelled General Garnett to fall back towards the valley of Virginia. He
was pursued by McClellan and overtaken at Carrick's ford, on the Cheat
river. In the battle which ensued here Garnett was killed, and the
remnant of his command was driven beyond the mountains.
The United States had assembled a considerable army of volunteers
and regulars at Washington under Major-General Irwin McDowell. On
the 24th of May Alexandria, on the Virginia side of the Potomac, nine
miles below Washington, was seized by a detachment from this army
Its commander, Colonel Ellsworth, was killed by a citizen. Strong defences were erected on the Virginia shore between Washington and Alexandria, and the army was encamped within these lines. Two months
were passed in organizing and disciplining this force, and in the meantime
the people of the Northern and Western States became impatient of the
delay, and demanded an immediate advance upon the southern army and
Richmond.
Preparatory to his own advance General MeDowell sent General.Patterson with twenty thousand men to cross the Potomac at Williamsport,
and prevent General Johnston from leaving the valley and joining Beauregard at Manassas. Upon the arrival of Patterson on the upper Potomac, General Johnston evacuated Harper's Ferry and took position at
Winchester. Patterson made a considerable show of force in the valley,
but refrained from attacking Johnston, although the latter sought to induce him to do so. He took position about nine miles from Winchester,
and remained inactive there.
In the meantime the preparations for the advance of McDowell's army
were completed, and on the 17th of July he began his march from the
Potomac towards Bull Run, on the banks of which the Confederates were
posted. His army numbered over fifty thousand men, and forty-nine
pieces of artillery  As soon as the advance of this army was known to
him, General Beauregard informed General Johnston of it, and begged
him to come to his assistance. Johnston skilfully eluded Patterson's
army, and hastened to Bull Run, arriving there with a part of his command in time to take part in the battle.
The Confederate army had taken position behind Bull Run, and in
advance of Manassas Junction. Including the force brought by General
Johnston, who assumed, the chief command by virtue of his rank, it
consisted of thirty-one thousand four hundred and thirty-one men and
fifty-five guns.




790


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


On the 18th of July General McDowell attempted to force a passage
of Bull Run at Blackburn's ford, but was repulsed. On the morning of
tile 21st, tile Union army advanced in force, and endeavored to turn the
left of the southern line. An obstinately-contested battle ensued, which
lasted from sunrise until nearly sunset. It resulted in the total defeat of
the federal army, which was driven back in utter rout upon Alexandria
and Washington, withl a loss of between four and five thousand men in
killed, wounded and prisoners, and twenty-eight pieces of artillery
For a wlile the effects of this disaster upon the federal army were so
great that Washington was almost defenceless; but the Confederates
made no effort to follow up their victory  They were almost as badly
demoralized by their success as the Union army by its defeat.
Recovering( from the dismay of its first great reverse, the government
went to work with vigor to repair the disaster. The levy of five hundred thousand men ordered by Congress was
raised promptly and without difficulty, so eager
was the desire of the people to wipe out the disI  -  grace of Bull Run. At his own request General
"', I  -  X  Scott, whose bodily infirmities were so great as to
4    render him unable to discharge the duties of his
-      $      ^ ~ ~  position, was relieved of the command of the
army    Major-General George B. McClellan was
givet the chief command of the armies of the
GEN. P. G. T. BEAUREGARD. Union, and ordered to take charge of the force
assembling before Washington, which was named
the Army of the Potomac. He devoted himself with success to the task
of organizing and disciplining the recruits which came pouring in during
the fall and winter
The remainder of the year 1861 passed away quietly on the Potomac,
with the single exception of the battle of Leesburg. Colonel Baker with
a force of two thousand men was sent by General Stone to cross the
Potomac at Edward's ferry, and drive back the Confederate force under
General Evans from its position near Leesburg. He made his attack on
the 21st of October, but was repulsed with the loss of eight hundred
killed and wounded, being himself among the slain. The Confederate
army held its position at Centreville through the fall and winter, and at
one time its outposts were pushed forward within view of the city of
Washington.
In the fall of 1861 an army of ten thousand men was sent by the Confederate government into the valley of Virginia to prevent its occupation
by the federal forces. The command of these troops was conferred upon




THE CIVIL WAR.


791


General T J. Jackson, whose conspicuous gallantry at Bull Run had won
him the sobriquet of " Stonevall Jackson," by which he was afterwards
known by both armies. He established his head-quarters at Winchester.
In the meantime the war had been goiln   on ill wvestern Virginia.
After the transfer of General McClellan to Washington the command of
the Union forces passed to Brigadier-General Rosecranz, an able officer,
He had several indecisive encounters with the commands of Generals
Floyd and Wise in the region of the Gauley and New rivers. General
Robert E. Lee was sent by the Confederate government to assume the
chief command in the west. He attacked the brigade of General Reynolds at Cheat mountain on the 14th of September, but was repulsed and
obliged to retreat. On the 4th of October General Reynolds attacked a
Confederate force under General Henry R. Jackson on the Grecnbrier
river, but was repulsed.
The State of Missouri took no part in the secession movements of the
spring of 1861. Her people were divided; a large party sympathized
with the south; but a still larger party was determined that the State
should remain in the Union. These parties soon came in conflict. The
governor and leading officials of the State were in favor of secession, and
used all their influence to bring about the withdrawal of Missouri from
the Union. A camp of the State militia was formed near St. Louis, and
was called Camp Jackson in honor of the governor It was known that
the force assembled at this camp was intended to serve as a nucleus
around which an army hostile to the federal government might assemble.
By extraordinary exertions Colonel Francis P Blair, Jr., a member of
Congress from St. Louis, and Captain Nathaniel Lyon, commanding the
troops at the Jefferson barracks, near St. Louis, succeeded in collecting a
force of five regiments of Union volunteers. On the 10th of May, 1861,
Lyon with these five regiments suddenly surrounded Camp Jackson, and
compelled General Frost, the commanding officer, to surrender his whole
force, camp and equipments. By this prompt action the State forces were
prevented from carrying out their plan for seizing the United States
arsenal at St. Louis, which contained sixty thousand stand of arms of the
latest patterns, and a number of cannon, and a large quantity of ammunition. For this decisive action Captain Lyon was commissioned a brigadier-general by the president.
Satisfied that the desire of the southern party in Missouri to remain
neutral was but a pretext to gain time to arm the State for a union with
the Confederates, President Lincoln determined to compel all the State
forces not in the federal service to disband. An interview was held at
St. Louis on the 11th of June between Governor Jackson and General




MOW-,         14MICIL
- -or
-IC!f —
=- - — =7L —
W-0-00 —:7 -

— 4
Aft A


1'.


ST LOUIS, 18715.




TIHE CIVIL WAR.


'793


Lyon, now commanding the federal troops in Missouri. Governor Jack9
son demanded that no United States forces should be quartered il or
marched through Missouri. General Lyon refused to comply with this
demand, and insisted that the State forces should be disbanded, pledging
himself to respect the rights and privileges of the State. At the close of
the interview the governor returned to Jefferson City, the capital of the
State, and the next day, the 12th, issued his proclamation calling fifty thousand of the State
militia into active service for the purpose of    ii
driving the federal troops from the State, and
protecting the " lives, liberty and property of the  ^
citizens."  General Lyon at once marched upon
Jefferson City, and occup)ied it on the 15th, the
governor and his supporters having retired to the
interior of the State. On the 17th Lyon pro-  "
ceeded to Booneville and defeated the State troops  GEN. STERLING( PlICE.
stationed there under General Price.
The southwestern part of Missouri is rich in deposits of lead, and vuluable mines of this mineral are worked there. The State authorities
were anxious to hold this region, as it was of the highest importance to
them to obtain the use of these mines to supply their army with lead. A
column of federal troops under General Sigel was sent by General Lyon
to intercept the retreat of the State troops. On the 5th of July Si(cl
attacked the State troops under Governor Jack-,ll
at Carthage, but was repulsed.
The next day, July 6th, Governor Jackson was
S.;3. joined at Carthage by General Sterling Price, of
Xm-:    the Missouri State Guard, and General Ben
McCulloch, of the Confederate army, with scveral thousand men. The command of the whole
force was conferred upon General lMcCulloch,
MAJOR-GENERAL F. SIGEL. who had been ordered by his government to
advance into Missouri.   The soutlern  rl:ty,
according to General McCulloch's statement, numbered fifty-three lhundred infantry, six thousand mounted men, and fifteen pieces of artillery
It advanced rapidly into the interior of the State, and on the 9th of
August reached Wilson's creek, near Springfield. General Lyon had
taken position there with a force somewhat smaller than that of the Confederates. On the morning of the 10th he attacked the southern army
The battle lasted six hours, and was hotly contested. General Lyon was
killed at the head of his troops while endeavoring to turn the left flank




794


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


of the Confederates, and his army was forced back. His body was left
in the hands of the Confederates, who treated it withl becoming respect.
Springfield was occupied by the Confederates the day after the battle;
but McCulloch and Price being unable to agree upon the plan of the
calmpaign, they soon witlhdrew  to the Arkansas border  The Union
army after the battle withdrew to Rolla, near the centre of the State.
A few weeks later General Price with a force of over five thousand
Confedlerates laid siege to Lexington, on the Missouri river, which was
held by about three thousand men under Colonel Mulligan. After a
gallant defence Mulligan was forced to surrender on the 20th of September,
Major-General John C. Fremont was now appointed by President Lincoln to take command of the western army  He forced Price's command
ba(k into the southwestern part of the State. Arriving near Springfield,
Fremont prepared to bring tihe Confederates to a decisive engagement, but
on the 2d of November was removed from his command. He was succeeded by General Hunter, who
abandloned the pursuit, and fell back to St. Louis. On
the 18th of November Hunter was superseded by
*   Major-General Halleck, who by a rapid advance
drove Price onl(e more towards the Arkansas border.
This movemenllt closed the campaign of 1861 in
Missouri. The Union army had not only saved the
MAJ.-oEN. N. LYON.  State to the Union, but had confined the Confederates to the Arkansas border.
In the meantime Governor Jackson had summoned the legislature of
Missouri to meet at Neosho. It assembled at that place in October,
passed an ordinance of secession, and elected delegates and senators to the
Confederate Congress. Though this action was merely formal, and re'cived the support of but a small part of the people of Missouri, it was
re, ornized as valid by the Confederate government, and Missouri was
proclaimed one of the Confederate States.
The governor and State authorities of Kentucky attempted at the outset of the war to hold the position of armed neutrality between the parties to the contest; but as in the case of Missouri, this effort failed.
Neither the federal government nor that of the Southern Confederacy
could, in the nature of tbhings, respect this neutrality. The federal troops
were poured into Kentucky, and the Confederates seized Columbus, on
the Mississippi, Bowling Green, in the centre of the State, and other
p:)sitions in the western part. The southern party in Kentucky, within
the protection of the Confederate lines, organized a provisional govern



THE CIVIL W AR.


795


ment for the State, sent senators and representatives to the Congress at
Richmond, which formally recognized Kentucky as one of the Confederate
States.
The force at Columbus was commanded by General Polk of the Confederate army  At Belmont, on the Missouri shore of the river, immediately opposite Columbus, a body of Confederate troops was stationed.
On the 7th of November, General U    S. Grant having descended the
Mississippi from Cairo, attacked the force at Belmont with his command
of three thousand men. After a sharp struggle he was repulsed, and
forced to retreat to Cairo.
At the outset of the war the Confederates occupied the principal ports
of the south, and a number of prominent points on the Atlantic coast.
STATE HOUSE, INDIANAPOLIS, INDIANA.
These were fortified by them as well as the means at hand would permit.
The general government resolved to capture these as rapidly as possible,
as their reduction was necessary in order to render the blockade of the
southern coast effectual.  The first expedition was despatched from
Fortress Monroe in August, 1861, under Commodore Stringham and
General Butler, and was directed against the Confederate works at
Hatteras inlet, which commanded the entrance to Albemarle and Pamlico
sounds. These works were captured on the 29th of August.
The great extent of the coast to be blockaded by the navy made it
necessary that a good harbor at some central point should be secured,
where supplies could be stored for the fleet, and where vessels could refill
without returning to the northern ports. Port Royal Harbor in South




796


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Carolina was selected as the best place for this purpose. It was defended by
Fort Walker on Hilton Head and Fort Beauregard on the opposite side of
the harbor, A powerful naval and military expedition under Commodore
Dupont and General Thomas W     Sherman attacked these works on the
7th of November, and reduced them after a terrible bombardment by the
fleet. Port Royal was at once occupied by the expedition, and (luring
the war was the principal depot on the southern
coast for the fleets and armies of the Union.
It was njot possible, however, to render the
blockade effective. Great efforts were made to
-- '     increase the number of vessels employed in this
duty, but the Confederates succeeded in eluding
the Union cruisers almost at pleasure, and a
steady communication was maintained between
the southern ports and England by way of the
Hi West Indies. A number of armed vessels in
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL POLK. the service of the confederacy succeeded in
getting to sea. By the close of the year they
had inflicted severe dain-l-( up)on the commerce of the Northern States,
and had almost driven the foreign trade of the United States from the
ocean.
During the early part of the war the southern government was encouraged to hope that the governments of England and France would recognize
the independence of the Confederate States, and:n
in the fall of 1861, James M. Mason of Virginia
and John Slidell of Louisiana were ordered to   i:     A
proceed to Europe, as commissioners from the
Confederate States, to secure this recognition.  d       j
They sailed from Charleston on the 12th of
October, and reached Cuba in safety  There
they took passage for England on board the
British mail-steamer "Trent."   Hearing of    ri
this, Captain Wilkes, of the United States warsteamer " San Jacinto," overhauled the " Trent"  JAMES,r. MASON.
upon the high seas, boarded her, and seized the
two commissioners and their secretaries and sailed with them to Bostoa
harbor, where they were imprisoned in one of the forts.
The " Trent" in the meantime proceeded on her voyage, and upon reaching
England her commander informed the British government of the outrage
that had been committed upon its flag. The English government at once
demanded of President Lincoln the immediate and unconditional release




THE CI VIL WAR.


797


of the Confederate commissioners and satisfaction for the insult to its flag.
It was understood that France was prepared to sustain England in her
demands. The Federal government disavowed the action of Captain
Wilkes in seizing the commissioners, and those gentlemen were released
and allowed to continue their voyage. They reached England in due
time. Mr. Mason proceeded to London and Mr, Slidell to France.
Neither the English nor the French governments would receive the
commissioners officially It was understood that the United States would
regard the interference of either in the American quarrel as a cause of war,
and neither power cared to join in the struggle.
Tennessee seceded from the Union, as we have related, in the spring of
1861. The western and central portions of the State were unanimously
in favor of joining the Southern States and gave a hearty support to the
confederacy during the war, but East Tennessee, inhabited by a race of
hardy mountaineers, was devoted to the Union,
and was unwilling to leave it. In the autumn
of 1861 the East Tennesseeans took up arms                 /
against the Confederate government, and began
to destroy the railway bridges in that part of
the State. This movement was full of danger   -'..
to the confederacy, as the principall line of communication between Virginia and the Mississippi passed through East Tennessee. A con-       /,
siderable force of Confederate troops was sent
into East Tennessee to hold the people in sub-  JOHN SLIDELL.
jection and protect the railroads, but throughout
the war the hostility of the people of this region was a constant source of
danger and of weakness to the Confederates.
When the year 1862 opened, the war had assumed colossal proportions.
The military operations extended almost across the continent, and engaged
a number of powerful armies, and a formidable navy  The call of President Lincoln for troops had been cheerfully responded to, and the opening
of the year found the United States provided with a force of over half a
million of men, splendidly armed and equipped, and supplied with every —
thing necessary for the successful prosecution of the war  The north had
profited by its first reverses, and was resolved that its next effort, which
was to be made at the opening of the season for active operations, should
find it thoroughly prepared for the task it had undertaken. A cordial
support was given to the measures of the government by the people. Its
wants were supplied by means of a heavy loan which was readily negotiated with the capitalists of the Eastern States. From the moment that




798


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


the despondency caused by the reverse at Bull Run had subsided sufficiently to enable the people of the loyal States to face the situation calmly,
every one saw that the work of preparation must all be done over from
the beginning, and it was done bravely and thoroughly. During the fall
and winter the army was rapidly increased; vessels were purchased and
built for the navy
Thle southern armies, on the other hand, had grown steadily weaker.
The first successes of the Confederate troops had greatly demoralized the
southern people. Volunteering soon ceased almost entirely  Even the
heaviest bounties failed to bring recruits.  There was a widespread
delusion throughout the south that the war was practically ended. The
measures of the Confederate Congress steadily thinned, instead of filling
up the ranks of the southern armies, and when the new year dawned there
was grave reason to fear that the spring campaign would find the south
without an adequate army unless more vigorous measures were resorted to.
It was exceedingly doubtful whether the troops already in the service
would renew their enlistments, which expired in the spring of 1862.
During tire winter the Southern Congress adopted a law granting a furlough and a heavy bounty to every soldier who would re-enlist for the
wvar  The furlough was to be granted during the winter; the bounty to
be paid at a later period. Many of those who went home on these furl)ughs did so with the intention of remaining there; and the practical
effect of the measure was to diminish the strength of the Confederate
armies. At length the Confederate Congress was driven by the necessities of the situation to adopt a most stringent and sweeping measure.
On the 16th of April, 1862, a conscription act was passed, giving to the
president of the confederacy the power to call into the military service the
entire male population of the various States between the ages of eighteen
and thirty-five years. In September, 1862, a second act was passed
extending the conscript age to forty-five years.  The measure was
acquiesced in by the southern people, but was never popular with them.
It served the purpose for which it was intended, however, and enabled
the Confederate government to collect a force of several hundred thousand
men in the spring of 1862, and thus to fill up the ranks of its armies in
the field, and to retain the regiments already in the service.
When the spring opened, General Halleck, whose head-quarters were at
St. Louis, held Missouri against the Confederates with a powerful army
General Buell, withl a considerable force, was stationed in central Kentucky.
In his front an inferior force of Confederates, under General Albert Sidney
Johnston, held Bowling Green and covered Nashville and the Tennessee
and Cumberland rivers. They also held Columbus and other prominent




THE CIVIL tW'AR.


799


points on the Mississippi.  The army of the Potomac, under General
McClellan, lay along the Potomac, confronting the Confederate army of
Northern Virginia, which held Centreville. A considerable force was
collected at Fortress Monroe; and an army of about ten tlousand Confederates, under Magruder, held a strongly fortified line extending from
Yorktown across the peninsula to the James river. In addition to these
forces, the Federal government had collected a powerful flotilla of steamers
and gunboats at Cairo, the junction of the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, to
assist in the operations of the western armies. The capture of New Orleans
had been resolved upon, and a combined naval and military exedlition
under Commodore Farragut and General Butler was assembled fir that
purpose; and another expedition was organized in the Chesapelake for tile
reduction of Roanoke island and the forts on the North (Carolina ('east.
Soon after the opening of the new year, Mr. Cameron, whose administration of the war department had failed to give satisfaction to the country,
was removed by President Lincoln, and sent to Russia as minister from
the United States. The president on the 13th of January appointed
Edwin M. Stanton, of Ohio, secretary of war. The new secretary was
confessedly one of the ablest men in America, and his accession to the
control of the war department infused new life into the military preparations of the government. During the remainder of the war he occupied
this position, and it is not too much to say that his vigorous administration of his department was one of the chief causes of the final success of
the Union arms.
Active operations were resumed earlier in the west than in the -.east.
On the 19th of January General George H. Thomas drove the Confederates under General Zollicoffer from  Mill Spring in Kentucky  The
defeated force had held the right of the Confederate line in Kentucky,
the centre of which was at Bowling Green, and the left at Columbus, and
its reverse was a serious disaster to the Confederates.
The department of General Halleck embraced Kentucky in addition to
the country west of the Mississippi. In order to hold the Cumberland
and Tennessee rivers, which afforded water communication far back into
the country in the rear of their line, the Confederates had built a work,
known as Fort Henry, on the Tennessee, a little south of the Kentucky
border, and another and a stronger work, known as Fort Donelson, on
the Cumberland and a little below Nashville. At the solicitation of
Brigadier-General U  S. Grant, commanding at Cairo, General Halleck
determined to capture these forts, and so break the Confederate line, and
compel their army to fall back from Kentucky  Fort Henry was to be
first attacked. The fleet of gunboats under Commodore Foote and Grant's




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


troops from Cairo were sent against Fort Henry, which was captured on
the 6th of February after a severe bombardment by the gunboats which
had ascended the Tennessee. The garrison escaped to Fort Donelson,
twelve miles distant across the country.
The loss of Fort Henry compelled the Confederates to evacuate all their
positions in Kentucky  General Beauregard fell back from Columbus to
Corinth, Mississippi, and General Sidney Johnston slowly retired from
BNowling Green upon Nashville, followed by General Buell with a vastly.u1perior force.
After the capture of Fort Henry the gunboats returned to Cairo, and,
taking on board supplies and reinforcemnents for the army, ascended the
Ohio and entered the Cumberland, up which they passed to Fort Donelson. Grant in the meantime marched across the country from Fort Henry
to Fort Donelson, and invested the latter work. The roads were so
difficult that although the distance between the two forts was but twelve
miles, Grant spent six days in marching it. This
delay gave General Johnston an opportunity to
l            reinforce Fort Donelson. He halted at Nash-:              ville with his main army to await the result of
e            Grant's attack on the fort. The gunboats did
L.':i     K   not join Grant until the 14th of February, and
Hi  the investment was not begun until their arrival.
Fort Donelson was a stronger work than Fort
~x\. O,.~     Henry, and was held by a force of about thirteen
ADMIRAL FOOTE.   thousand men, commanded by General John B.
Floyd. On the 14th of February the gunboats
op)ened fire upon the fort, and at the same time the army of General Grant,
reinforced to about thirty thousand men, began to occupy the positions
a.s.signed it in the investment. The operations of the 14th ended with the
repulse of the fleet, Commodore Foote being severely wounded in the
engagement. Satisfied of his inability to hold the fort against the overwhelming force of the Federal army, General Floyd resolved to cut his
way through, and retreat upon Nashville. On the 15th he made a gallant
attempt to break through Grant's lines, but was driven back, and a portion of the southern intrenchments remained in the hands of the Union
nrmy    On the night of the 15th a council of war was held by the Confederate commanders. It was evident that escape was impossible and a
surrender inevitable. General Floyd refused to surrender, and retreated
from the fort with a considerable force of infantry and cavalry, with which
he succeeded in reaching Nashville. General Pillow, who was left by
Floyd in command, turned over the command to General Buckner, the




THE CIVIL WAR.


801


next in rank, and joined Floyd in his flight.  Being unable to offer
further resistance, General Buckner, on the morning of the 16th, surrendered the fort and his troops unconditionally to the Federal army.
The capture of Fort Donelson was by far the most important success
that had yet been won by the Union armies, and was hailed with rejoicings throughout the north and west. By this capture over five thousand
prisoners, besides the Confederate wounded, fell into the hands of the
Union forces. The Confederates also lost heavily in killed and wounded.
General Johnston, upon learning of the fall of Fort Donelson, fell back
from Nashville to Murfreesboro', from which place he subsequently continued his retreat across the State, and eventually joined General Beaure-----
NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE.
gard, who had taken position at Corinth, at the junction of two importantrailway lines on the northern border of Mississippi.  Beauregard, in
falling back from Columbus, had left a force at Island No. 10, which had
been strongly fortified, to hold the Mississippi against the efforts of the
Federal fleet and army to obtain the control of the river
Nashville was occupied by the army of General Buell, and Grant's
army was moved up the Tennessee as far as Pittsburg Landing. General
Buell was ordered to march across the country from Nashville to the
Tennessee, to unite his forces with Grant's, and attack the Confederates
at Corinth.
General Johnston, the Confederate commander, had feared this concen51




HISTORY OF' THE UNITED STATES.


tration, which would make the Federal power in this quarter irresistible,
and had determined to attack Grant's army and crush it before Buell
could arrive, after which he would be free to engage Buell. His plan
was ably conceived, but his march was delayed by the fearful state of the
roads, and he did not arrive opposite the Federal position until two days
after the time fixed for his attack. Grant was encamped at Shiloh Church,
near Pittsburg  Landing, with the Tennessee
river in his rear. On the morning of Sunday,
April 6th, his army was suddenly attacked by
Johnston, and was driven steadily from its original position to the banks of the Tennessee, where,1   it was sheltered by the fire of the gunboats. The
battle was stubbornly contested, and the losses on
both sides were very heavy. Late in the afternoon General Johnston was mortally wounded,
and died soon afterwards. The command passed
GEN. ALBERT S. JOHNSTON. to General Beauregard, who failed to follow up
his advantage. During the night the army of
General Buell arrived, and reinforced Grant. On the morning of the 7th,
Grant attacked the Confederates and after a sharp fight drove them back.
They retreated slowly, and returned to Corinth.
While these operations were in progress, the gunboats under Commodore
Foote and a strong force of western troops under General Pope laid siege
to Island No. 10, on the Mississippi. After a
bombardment of twenty-three days, the Confederate works were captured, together with five
thousand prisoners, on the morning of the 7th of  -
April, the day on which Beauregard was driven
back from Shiloh. The Confederates still held  _gj    -
Fort Pillow, a strong work a short distance above
Memphis. If this could be captured, the Federal
forces would obtain the control of the river as far
south as Vicksburg. General Pope was anxious
to move against it at once, but his army was ordered  MAJ.-GEN. D. c. BUELL.
tojoin General Halleck. Commodore Foote being
disabled by his wound received at Fort Donelson was succeeded by
Captain Davis, who descended the river and took position above Fort
PillowGeneral Halleck now repaired to the Tennessee, and took command of
the Union armies there, amounting to more than one hundred thousand
men. He moved forward leisurely towards Corinth, and laid siege to




THE CIVIL WARl.


803


that place. Beauregard, seeing that it was impossible to hold Corinth
against this greatly superior force, evacuated it on the night of the 29th
of May, and retreated to Tupelo, Mississippi. The next day General
Halleck occupied Corinth. The loss of Corinth compelled the evacuation
of Fort Pillow, which was abandoned by the Confederates on the 4th of
June. On the 6th the Union gunboats descended the river to Memphis
and defeated the Confederate flotilla above that city  Memphis at once
surrendered, and was occupied by the Union forces. All West Kentucky
and West Tennessee were now under the control of the Union armies,
which now occupied a line extending from Memphis, through Corinth,
almost to Chattanooga.
The Confederates still held East Tennessee in heavy force. Shortly: -    -
MEMPHIS, TENNESSEE.
after the evacuation of Corinth General Beauregard was removed from
his command, and was succeeded by General Braxton Bragg. Bragg was
strongly reinforced, and it was determined to make a bold effort to drive
back the Federal advance and regain West Tennessee and, if possible,
Kentucky   Bragg's army was concentrated at Chattanooga, and General
Kirby Smith at Knoxville was strongly reinforced. Smith was to move
from Knoxville, while Bragg was to advance from Chattanooga, and the
two armies were to unite in the centre of the State of Kentucky  Their
combined forces amounted to over fifty thousand men, and it was hoped
that this movement would compel the Federal army to abandon its advance,




s80


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


and fall back into Kentucky to protect that State and Ohio from the
Confederates. Then by a decisive victory Bragg expected to be able to
overrun and hold Kentucky and even to invade Ohio.
The division of General Smith moved forward about the middle of
August, and on the 30th of August defeated a Union force under General
Manson at Richmond, Kentucky, inflicting upon it a loss of six thousand
men. Smith then occupied Lexington and Frankfort, and advanced towards Cincinnati; but ascertaining that a strong force was assembling at that
city, under General Lewis Wallace, he fell back,- ^  -'  to Frankfort, where he joined General Bragg on.               the 4th of October.
-     Bragg had begun his march as soon as Kirby.Smith had gotten fairly started. His objective
~      B         point was Louisville, and he hoped to be able to
elude the army of General Buell which was at
MAJa.-GEN. H. w HALLECK. Nashville, and by a rapid advance seize Louisville
before Buell's arrival. By the 17th of September
1he was at Munfordsville, Kentucky, which he captured after several slight
encounters, taking forty-five hundred prisoners. Buell in the meantime
had divined Bragg's purpose, and had set out from Nashville for the Ohio
by forced marches.  He reached Louisville before the arrival of the
Confederates, and being heavily reinforced advanced to attack Bragg, who
had turned aside and occupied Frankfort on the
4th of October. Bragg fell back slowly, ravaging
the country along his route; and was followed
by Buell with equal deliberation. On the 8th of
October an indecisive battle was fought between
the two armies at Perryville. After this conflict,
in which both sides lost heavily, Buell refrained
from attacking Bragg again, and the latter con- a
tinned his retreat leisurely into Tennessee, taking
with him a wagon train forty miles in length,
loaded with plunder captured in Kentucky       GENERAL B. BRAGG.
During this campaign the Federal army under
General Grant had held its line in West Tennessee, extending from
Corinth to Memphis. A Confederate army under Generals Price and
Van Dorn was assembled in Mississippi in front of the Union position.
Grant, who was now in command of the Federal forces in West Tennessee
(Halleck having been summoned to Washington as commanding General).
ordered General Rosecrans to his assistance. Upon the arrival of this




CINCINNATI, iN 1875.




IIISTOR Y OF  HIE UNITED STATES.


commander with his troops, Grant advanced upon Price at luka, and
defeated him on the 19th of September. lie then repaired to Jackson,
Tennessee, leaving Rosecrans with nineteen thousand men to hold Corinth
against the Confederates.
After his defeat at Iuka Price was joined by Van Dorn, whose troops,brought the strength of the Confederate army to eighteen thousand men.
They at once advanced upon Corinth, and on the 4th of October attacked
that place. The battle which ensued was noted for the obstinacy with
which it was contested by both sides. The Confederates were defeated


LANDING AT LOUISVILLE, KENTUCKY.


with a loss of about three thousand killed and wounded, and were pursued
for about thirty miles southward. The Union loss was about five hundred
and eighteen killed, wounded, and missing.
The Federal government was greatly dissatisfied with Buell's failure
to intercept Bragg, and upon his arrival at Nashville he was removed
from the command of his army, which was conferred upon General Rosecrans, as a reward for his victory at Corinth. Bragg had taken position
near Murfreesboro', about thirty miles distant from Nashville, and Rosecrans, towards the last of December, moved upon that place to attack




THE CIVIL WAR.


807


him. Bragg had at the same time completed his preparations to resume
the offensive, and had begun his advance upon Nashville, and the two
armies encountered each other at Stone river, near Murfreesboro', on the
31st of December. They were about equal in strength, each numbering
about forty thousand men. The battle was fiercely disputed, but at nightfall Rosecrans was driven back with heavy loss, and Bragg telegraphed
to Richmond news of a great victory  Rosecrans, however, had merely
fallen back to a new and stronger position. On the 2d of January, 1863,
Bragg renewed his attack, but was repulsed with terrible slaughter, On
the 3d a heavy rain fell and prevented all military operations, and that
night Bragg retreated from the field. He retired in good order to Tullahoma, about thirty miles from Murfreesboro'  The losses on both sides
in this battle were heavy, ranging from ten thousand to twelve thousand
men in each army.
The Confederates, having lost the upper
and lower Mississippi, had fortified Vicksburg and Port Hudson, in order to main-::. ~
tain their hold upon that stream, and to
keep open their communications with the;.
country west of the Mississippi.  Vicksburg had been made a post of extraordinary  l
strength, and was garrisoned by a considerable force of Confederate troops. Towards
the last of the year General Grant determined to undertake an expedition against it. IMAJO.-GENERAL M I:OSECr.NS.
He sent General Sherman, with forty thousand men, and a fleet of gunboats, under Commodore Porter, to
descend the Mississippi and attack the southern works above the
city; and advanced southward from Corinth with the main army by
land.  Grant had accomplished fully half the distance whlen a strong
body of Confederate cavalry, under General Van Dorn, made a dash into
his rear, and on the 20th of December captured Holly Springs, Grant's
principal depot of supplies. This movement compelled Grant to abandon
his advance upon Vicksburg, and to fall back and re-establish his communications with his base.  Sherman, ignorant of this disaster, left
Memphis on the 20th of December, and a few days later landed his
troops on the banks of the Yazoo, from which he advanced upon the
Confederate works at Chickasaw bayou, on the north of Vicksburg. On
the 29th of December he made a spirited attack upon them, but was
repulsed. He withdrew his troops to the boats, and retired to Young's
Point, on the Louisiana shore, a short distance above Vicksburg.




808


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The Confederates were driven out of Missouri at the close of 1861, as
we have seen, and retired into.Arkansas. General Van Dorn was now
sent by the Confederate government to take command of the forces of
Price and McCulloch, which numbered about sixteen thousand men. He
reached the head-quarters of this force on the 3d of March, 1862. The
Federal army, under General Curtis, with General Sigel as his second in
command, had taken position on the heights of Pea Ridge, around Sugar
creek, in the northwestern part of Arkansas. It numbered about eleven
thousand men. On the 7th of March Van Dorn attacked the Union
army in this position, and after a bloody fight, which lasted for about
seven or eight hours, drove it back. Curtis took up a new position duri     s    -~ ----  ----
LITTLE ROCK, ARKANSAS.
ing the night, and the next morning the Confederates renewed the attack,
wand were repulsed. After the battle of Shiloh the troops of Price and
Van Dorn were Nwithdrawn across the Mississippi to reinforce General,Beauregard at Corinth. We have seen them bearing the brunt of the
campaign in northern Mississippi against Grant's army. Towards the
close of the summer, it being necessary to make a vigorous effort to hold
the trans-Mississippi region against the efforts of the Union forces, the
Confederate government sent Lieutenant-General Hiolmes to take command of it. The operations in this region during the remainder of the
year were of an unimportant character.
The plan of the Federal government for seizing the prominent points
on the coast was carried forward with great energy during the year 1862.




THE CIVIL WAR.


809


Between Albemarle and Pamlico sounds, on the coast of North Carolina,
lies Roanoke island, famous as the scene of Sir Walter Raleigh's unfortunate attempts to colonize America, and commanding the entrance to
Albemarle sound. The possession of this island by the Federal forces
would give them the command of the rivers entering into the sounds,
place the rear defences of Norfolk at their mercy, and afford them a safe
base from which to attack the towns on the North Carolina coast. The
Federal government having determined to obtain possession of Roanoke
island, a powerful expedition against it was fitted out early in the year,
under the command of Major-General Ambrose E. Burnside. The
expedition sailed from Hampton Roads on the 11th of January, 1862,
and after narrowly escaping being scattered by a severe storm passed
through Hatteras inlet, and anchored in Pamlico sound on the 28th. On
the 6th of February the fleet took position off Roanoke island, and on
the 7th opened fire upon the Confederate works. Under the cover of
this fire a force of over ten thousand troops was landed upon the island.
On the 8th General Burnside attacked the Confederate intrenchments
and carried them after a sharp contest. The entire Confederate force,
numbering about twenty-five hundred men, fell into his hands as
prisoners of war. On the 10th the Confederate squadron in Albemarle
sound was attacked and destroyed, or captured.
Having established himself firmly on Roanoke island, General Burnside prepared to reduce the towns along the coast of North Carolina.
On the 14th of March Newberne surrendered to him, and on the 25th
of April Fort Macon, at the entrance of Beaufort harbor, one of the
strongest works on the coast, capitulated.
Some important successes were won on the coast of Florida during the
spring of this year. An expedition from Port Royal captured Fernandina and Fort Clinch on the 28th of February, and a little later Jacksonville, on the St. John's river, and St. Augustine passed into the hands
of the Federal troops. Brunswick and Darien, important places on the
coast of Georgia, were captured about the same time.
The most important naval expedition of the year was that which
resulted in the capture of New Orleans. The Federal governnlent had
recognized from the first the importance of regaining possession of the
Mississippi, and, as we have seen, a large fleet of gunboats had been prepared on the upper waters of that stream to co-operate with the army in
its efforts to capture the fortified posts along the river. All these efforts,
however, were usele9s, as long as the Confederates retained possession of
the lower river or of the important city of New Orleans, the commercial metropolis of the south. It was resolved at an early period of the




810


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


struggle to wrest New Orleans from the Confederates, and a fleet of fortyfive vessels of war and mortar-boats was assembled for this purpose, and
placed under command of Commodore Farragut, an able and experienced
officer. To the fleet was added a force of fifteen thousand troops, under
General B. F. Butler. The expedition rendezvoused at Ship island,
near the mouth of the Mississippi, in the early part of March.
About twenty miles above the head of the passes of the Mississippi,
and about seventy miles below New Orleans, the entrance to the river is
defended by two strong works-Fort Jackson on the right bank of the
stream, and Fort St. Philip on the left-both built before the war. The
Confederates had further strengthened their position by stretching six
heavy chains, supported on a series of dismasted schooners, across the
river, from shore to shore, to prevent the passage of ships. Early in
April the fleet sailed from Ship island, leaving the troops there to await
the result of its operations, and entering
the Mississippi took position below the
forts. On the 18th the bombardment of
the forts was begun by the ships and the
^     l       mortar-boats, and was continued with
great vigor until the 24th. The results of
i    this bombardment were most discouraging, and Farragut became convinced that
the forts could not be reduced by the fire
'if                        of the fleet. He therefore determined to
pass them with his vessels and so neutralize them.
ADMIRAL FARRAGUT.        The chain and raft barricade across
the river had been broken by a severe
storm, and Farragut sent a party to enlarge the gap made in it, so
as to admit the passage of the fleet. This task was accomplished with
great gallantry  At three o'clock, on the morning of the 24th of April,
the fleet got under headway and began to ascend the river, the commodore in his flag-ship, the " Hartford," leading the way  The fleet consisted of seventeen vessels, carrying two hundred and ninety-four guns.
As the vessels came abreast of the forts the Confederates opened a heavy
fire upon them; to which they responded with vigor. The forts were
passed in safety at length, and a short distance above them Farragut
encountered the Confederate fleet, consisting of sixteen vessels, but eight
of which were armed. Two of these were iron-clads, however. A desperate battle ensued, which resulted in the total destruction of the
southern fleet. When the sun rose on the morning of the 24th the forts




THE CIVIL WAR.


811


had been passed, and the resistance of the Confederate vessels had been
overcome.
There was nothing now between the Federal fleet and New Orleans,
and Farragut, ascending the river slowly and cautiously, anchored in the
stream, in front of the city, on the morning of the 25th. He at once
demanded the capitulation of New Orleans, which had been evacuated by
the Confederate troops on the previous day, and the city was surrendered


VIEW IN ST. CHARLES STREET NEW ORLEANS.
VIEW IN ST. CHARLES STREET, NEW ORLEANS.


to him by the municipal authorities. On the 28th Forts Jackson and St.
Philip surrendered to Captain Porter, the commander of the mortar
fleet. New Orleans being taken word was sent to General Butler, at
Ship island, to hasten forward with his troops to occupy it. He arrived
on the 1st of May, and at once took possession of the city. Baton
Rouge, the capital of Louisiana, was occupied by the Federal forces, and
Ferragut pushed on up the river, and, passing the Confederate batteries at




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


Grand Gulf and Vicksburg, joined the fleet of Commodore Davis at
Memphis.
The capture of New Orleans was a terrible blow to the south. It
deprived the confederacy,of the largest and wealthiest city within its
limits, and wrested from it the whole of the lower Mississippi.
Another success was gained by the Union arms on the southern coast.
An expedition from Port Royal, under General Hunter, laid siege to
Fort Pulaski, near the mouth of the Savannah river. This fort was constructed by the Federal government previous to the war, and constituted
one of the principal defences of the city of Savannah. On the 11th of
April, after a bombardment of fifteen days, it surrendered to General
Hunter   Its capture closed the Savannah river to the entrance of the
class of vessels known as blockade runners, and deprived the south of
the use of one of its principal ports.
The events of this year in Virginia were of the highest importance.
The army of the Potomac, nearly two lhun-,           dred thousand strong, was ready for active
MlCO X       operations with the early spring.  General
T  ll O      McClellan was anxious to avail himself of the
-          superior naval strength of the United States
to transport his army to a point on the Chesa-               peake bay, from which it could easily interpose
-              between the Confederate army, under General
Johnston, and Richmond. Suspecting such a
MAJOR-GENERAL B. F. BUTLER. design on the part of McClellan Johnston
abandoned his position at Centreville on the
8th of March, and fell back to the Rappahannock, and a little later
moved back still farther to the line of the Rapidan. McClellan advanced
to Centreville as soon as informed of Johnston's withdrawal, but was too
late to interfere with the movements of the Confederate army.
Simultaneous with Johnston's withdrawal from Centreville occurred an
incident whlich forms one of the most striking episodes of the war, and
led to results of world-wide importance. Upon the evacuation of the
Norfolk navy yard by the Federal forces, at the outset of the war, the
splendid steam frigate " Merrimac " was scuttled and sunk. This vessel
was subsequently raised by the Confederates, and rebuilt by them. Her
upper deck was removed, and she was covered with a slanting roof. Both
the roof and her sides were heavily plated with iron, and a long, stout
bow was fitted to her to enable her to act as a ranm. She was then armed
with ten heavy guns, and named the " Virginia."  Thus prepared she
was the most powerful vessel afloat.




THE CIVIL WAR.


813


As soon as the "Virginia" was ready for service the Confederate
authorities determined to test her efficiency by attempting to destroy the
Federal fleet in Hampton Roads. On the 8th of March the "Virginia,"
accompanied by two small vessels, left Norfolk and steamed down the
Elizabeth river into Hampton Roads. Her appearance took the Federal
fleet by surprise, and a heavy fire was concentrated upon her from the
fleet and the batteries on shore at Newport's News, at the mouth of the
James river. Shot and shell flew harmlessly from her iron sides, and,
firing slowly as she advanced, she aimed straight for the sloop of war
"Cumberland "-the most formidable vessel of her class in the navyand sunk her with a blow of her iron prow  The frigate " Congress,"
lying near by, was chased into shoal water and compelled to surrender,
after which she was set on fire. The ram then endeavored to inflict a
similar fate upon the frigate " Minnesota," but that vessel escaped into
water too shallow for the iron-clad to venture into. At sunset the "Virginia" drew
off, and returned to the Elizabeth river.
She had destroyed two of the finest vessels   -        E
in the Federal navy, and inflicted upon her
adversaries a loss of two hundred and fifty
officers and men. She was herself unin-                   WV ~::
jured, and had but two men killed and
eight wounded.
The success of the "Virginia" struck
terror to the fleet in Hampton Roads, and
it was by no means certain that the victorious vessel would not the next day   MAJ.-C.EN. GEO. B. M'CLELLAN.
either attack Fortress Monroe, or pass by it
and ascend the Chesapeake, in which case both Washington and Baltimore
would be at her mercy. During the night, however, a most unlooked-for
assistance arrived. The " Monitor," an iron-clad vessel of a new plan,
invented by Captain John Ericsson, entered Hampton Roads on her trial
trip from New York. Upon learning the state of affairs her commander,
Lieutenant Worden, determined to engage the "Virginia" the next day.,
On the morning of the 9th the "Virginia" again steamed out of the Elizabeth river into Hampton Roads. The "Monitor," though her inferior
in size, and carrying but a single gun, at once moved forward to meet
her. An engagement of several hours' duration ensued, in which both
vessels were fought with great gallantry; and at the end of this time the
"Virginia" drew off, and returned to Norfolk severely injured. The
arrival of the" Monitor" was most fortunate. It saved the Federal fleet in




HIlSTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


Hampton Roads from total destruction, and prevented the "Virginia"
from extending her ravages to the ports of the Union. The battle
between the " Monitor" and the " Virginia" will ever be famous as the
first engagement between iron-clad vessels. It inaugurated a new era in
naval warfare. In spite of the result of the battle, however, the presence
of the " Virginia" at Norfolk deterred the Federal forces from risking an
attack on that place, and prevented them from making any effort to ascend
the James river with their fleet.
In the meantime the army of General McClellan had returned to its
position near Alexandria, after the retreat of the Confederates to the
Rapidan. General McClellan now proposed to move the bulkof his army
td Fortress Monroe, and to advance from that point upon Richmond by
way of the peninsula between the York and James rivers. About seventyfive thousand men were left on the Potomac to cover Washington, and
the remainder, about one hundred and twenty thousand in number, were
transported by water to Fortress Monroe. This movement was accomplished by the 2d of April. On the 4th the army of the Potomac began
its march towards the lines of Yorktown, which were held by about
eleven thousand five hundred men, under General Magruder. The Confederate commander had passed the first year of the war in fortifying his
position, and had constructed a series of powerful works which enabled
him, with his small force, to hold McClellan's whole army in check. On
the 5th and Gth of April McClellan made repeated attempts to force the
southern lines, and failing in these decided to lay siege to them. The
time thus gained by Magruder enabled General Johnston to move his
army from the Rapidan to the peninsula. It was in position on the lines
of Yorktown by the 17th of April, making the force opposed to McClellan about fifty-eight thousand strong. The Confederates did not expect
to hold their position on the peninsula, but from the first intended to
move back nearer to Richmond, and occupy the line of the Chickahominy
When their preparations were completed they fell back from the lines of
Yorktown, on the night of the 3d of May, just as McClellan was about
to begin hbs bombardment of their position.
The Federal army discovered the retreat on the morning of the 4th of
May, and moved forward promptly in the hope of intercepting the
southern army. On the morning of the 5th the advanced forces attacked
the rear-guard of Johnston's army at Williamsburg. The Confederate
commander held his ground until his trains had gotten off in safety, and
then resumed his retreat, and reached the Chickahominy about the 10th
of May without further molestation from the Union forces. General
McClellan, following leisurely, took position on the left bank of the
Chickahominy, with the river between the two armies.




T'HE CIVIL WAR.


816


In accordance with General McClellan's urgent request, President
Lincoln decided to order the force left to cover Washington to join the
army of the Potomac, before Richmond, by way of Fredericksburg.
With his force thus augmented the Union commander had no doubt of
his ability to capture Richmond. Alive to this danger General Johnston
directed General Jackson, who had been left to hold the valley of Virginia, to manoeuvre his army so as to threaten Washington, and compel
the Federal government to retain the force intended for McClellan for the
defence of Washington.  While awaiting the arrival of this force'
McClellan threw his left wing across the Chickahominy, and lodged it in
a position nearer to Richmond. The Federal lines now extended from
Bottom's Bridge, on the Chickahominy, to Mechanicsville, north of that
stream.
The evacuation of the peninsula compelled the Confederates to abandon
Norfolk also. They withdrew their troops from that city on the 9th of
May, and sent them to reinforce General Johnston. On the 10th Norfolk
and Portsmouth were occupied by the Federal forces under General Wool.
Before leaving the Confederates had set fire to the navy yard, which was
destroyed. The iron-clad steamer "Virginia" was taken into the James
river, and on the 11th was abandoned and blown up. The loss of this
steamer, which could have held the James against the whole Union fleet,
left the river open to within eight miles of Richmond. The gunboats, including the "Monitor," were sent up to try to force their way to Richmond,
but on the 15th of May were driven back by a battery of heavy guns
located on the heights at Drewry's bluff, eight miles below Richmond.
They were badly injured by the plunging fire of the Confederates. The
river was securely obstructed at this point to prevent a passage of the
batteries by the Federal fleet.
Having been heavily reinforced, General Johnston determined to attack
McClellan's exposed left wing, and on the 31st of May fell upon it at
Seven Pines, and drove it back with heavy loss. General Johnston was
severely wounded towards the close of the day, and was unable to carry
out the plan upon which he had begun the battle. The next day there
was heavy skirmishing until about ten o'clock in the morning, but
nothing of a more serious nature was attempted by either side. General
McClellan, warned by the narrow escape of his left wing, now proceeded
to fortify his position on the south bank of the Chickahominy.
While these events were in progress on the Chickahominy, General
Jackson carried out with brilliant success the movements assigned him in
the valley of Virginia. His task required the exercise of the greatest
skill and determination. He was to neutralize the forces of Fremont,




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


Banks and McDowell, and prevent them from rendering any assistance
to McClellan. Jackson's army fell back from Winchester on the 11th of
March, and retired as far as Mount Jackson. Then rapidly retracing its
steps it attacked Banks' forces at Kernstown, near Winchester. Though
repulsed in this engagement, it succeeded in alarming the Federal government for the safety of Washington. Banks' command was therefore retained in the valley to watch Jackson, and the
^ -        force under McDowell was not allowed to go to
/  fi       McClellan's assistance on the peninsula, lest by
is *            so doing it should uncover Washington. After
a: '^ ^the Ibattle of Kcrnstown, Jackson retired up
the valley, and a season of comparative quietude
/            <-K- $  ensued. The Federal government even believed
l            Ethat his troops had been sent to Richmond.
^i            Fremont's army was ordered to move from
LIEUT.-GEN. T. J. JACKSON. western Virginia into the valley; Banks was
directed to mnarch to Manassas and cover
Washington; while McDowell, with forty thousand men, was ordered
to move to Fredericksburg, from which he was to march across the
country and unite with McClellan's left wing, which was thrown out far
to the north of Richmond to meet him. These orders were in process of
execution when Jackson, who had been reinforced by a division under
General Ewell, destroyed the whole Federal plan of campaign.
Knowing that he could not possibly resist the combined forces of Fremont and Banks, Jackson determined to beat
them in detail. Marching rapidly westward  ed, he
crossed the mountains, fell upon the advance          A
guard of Fremont's army at McDowell, on the
8th of May, defeated it, and drove it back into             -
western Virginia. Then retracing his steps with
remarkable speed, he returned to the valley, and     -
on the 23d of May attacked Banks' outlying force
at Front Royal, and drove it in upon the
main  body   at Strasburg.   Banks  at once   MAJ.-GEN. N. P. BANKS.
broke up his camp, and fell back down the
valley, pursued by Jackson, who dealt him a terrible blow at Winchester on the 25th. By extraordinary exertions Banks succeeded in
escaping across the Potomac, but left about three thousand prisoners, several pieces of artillery, nine thousand stand of arms, and the greater part
of his stores in the hands of the Confederates.
This bold advance greatly alarmed the government at Washington, and




THE CIVIL WAR.


the president ordered Fremont to move with speed into the valley, and
directed General McDowell to suspend his movement to the assistance of
McClellan, and send a force of twenty thousand men to gain Jackson's
rear, and prevent his return up the valley-  McDowell sent the required
force under General Shields, and Fremont hurried on to gain the upper
valley in advance of Jackson. These movements entirely prevented
McClellan from receiving the assistance of McDowell's corps, and saved
Richmond from capture.
Jackson was too good a general to be caught in the trap so skilfully
laid for him. He retired up the valley with the greatest speed, and having
interposed his army between Fremont and Shields, turned upon the former,
and with a part of his force attacked him at Cross Keys on the 8th of
June, and checked his advance. Then reuniting his forces he fell upon
Shields at Port Republic on the 9th of June, and drove him back with
heavy loss after one of the hardest-fought battles
of the war. Having thus put an end to the
pursuit of his antagonists, Jackson withdrew to
a safe position, from which he could hold them
in check or go to the aid of the army defending
Richmond.   The latter move being decided    -    '^
upon, he eluded the Federal forces in the valley,
and marched rapidly to the Chickahominy  Before his absence from the valley was suspected,
he had joined General- Lee. His campaign in
the valley is justly regarded as one of the most BRTG.-GN..s..TTLD.
brilliant of the war.  With less than twenty
thousand men he had neutralized a force of sixty thousand Union troops,
and prevented the execution of McClellan's carefully laid plans for the
capture of Richmond.
Upon the fall of General Johnston the command of the Confederate
army before Richmond was conferred upon General Robert E. Lee,
whom subsequent events proved to be the ablest of the southern leaders.
Troops were drawn from every possible point to reinforce General Lee's
army, and by the middle of June his forces, including Jackson's army,
amounted to ninety thousand men. The Federal army was one hundred
and fifteen thousand strong. Both armies were in fine condition. General McClellan, finding it impossible to obtain the assistance of McDowell's
corps, and fearing for the safety of his communications with his base of
supplies, which was at West Point, at the head of the York river, prepared to move his army to the south side of the Chickahominy, and
establish a new and more secure base upon the James river  Before ho
52




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


could put this design in operation he was attacked by General Lee, who,
on the 25th of June, fell upon the right of the Union line at Mechanicsville, and forced it back upon the centre at Cold Harbor. On the 26th
the position at Cold Harbor was attacked and carried by the Confederates
after a desperate struggle. With great difficulty McClellan secured his
retreat to the south side of the Chickahominy, and destroyed the bridges
in his rear.
Having decided to retreat to the James river rather than attempt to


RICHMOND, VIRGINIA.


retain his communications with West Point, McClellan destroyed his
'stores, and on the 28th began his retreat from the Chickahominy by way
of White Oak swamp. As soon as his movement was discovered pursuit
was made by the Confederates, who attacked his rear guard under General
Sumner at Savage Station late in the afternoon of the 29th. Sumner held
his ground until the darkness put an end to the action, and during the
night of the 29th withdrew across White Oak swamp, destroying all the




THE CIVIL WAR.


819


bridges after him. On the 30th General Lee made a last effort to prevent McClellan from reaching the James, and towards the close of the
afternoon the bloody battle of Frazier's Farm was fought. It was continued until nine o'clock. The Federal force at Frazier's Farm held its
ground until the remainder of McClellan's army had safely traversed
White Oak swamp. The object of the battle having been accomplished,
McClellan resumed his retreat to the James river, and took position upon
Malvern hill, within a short distance of that stream. Here he massed
his artillery, and the gunboats in the James river moved up to a point
from which they could throw their shells into the Confederate lines. On
the afternoon of the 1st of July the Confederates made a gallant attempt
to carry Malvern hill, but were repulsed with severe loss. The next
morning the Federal army withdrew to Harrison's Landing on the James
river. Thus ended the " Seven Days' Battles," during which the Federal
army lost about twenty thousand men in killed, wounded and prisoners,
fifty-two pieces of artillery, thirty-five thousand
stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of
stores of all kinds. The Confederate loss was      /
nineteen thousand five hundred and thirty-three
killed, wounded and missing.
The retreat of McClellan's army threw the   |
north into the deepest despondency  On the 2d   A    ft —
of July President Lincoln issued a call for three:
hundred thousand fresh troops. The necessities
of the struggle, however, made this force insuffi- MAJ.-GEN. E. v. SUMNER.
cient, and on the 4th of August the president ordered that a draft of three hundred thousand militia should be made and
placed in the service of the United States for a period of nine months
unless sooner discharged. The States complied with the requisitions upon
them, and in the brief period of three months the enormous mass of six
hundred thousand fresh troops was raised, armed, and placed in the
field.
For the protection of Washington the Federal government now collected
the commands of Banks, Fremont and McDowell in one army, and
placed it under command of Major-General John Pope, whose capture of
Island No. 10 and other points in the west had given him a fair reputation. He assumed his new command with a profusion of boasts, and
promised to succeed where McClellan had failed. According to General
Pope the capture of Richmond was the easiest undertaking in the world.
His army towards the latter part of July advanced to the Rapidan.
To watch this force General Lee, late in July, sent General Jackson's




820


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


corps to the Rapidan. On the 9th of August Jackson attacked the advanced corps of Pope's army at Cedar mountain, and defeated it. This
defeat suspended General Pope's forward movement. General McClellan
now received orders from Washington to evacuate Harrison's Landing and
to reinforce General Pope with his army. He at once put this order in
execution. The withdrawal of his troops was detected by General Lee,
who rapidly reinforced Jackson, and finally moved with his whole army.
to the Rapidan. About the same time Burnside's corps, which had been
withdrawn from the southern coast, and was awaiting orders in Hampton
Roads, was directed to move into the Potomac and reinforce Pope. General
Pope had now under his command a force of over one hundred thousand
men. The Confederate army, which was concentrated upon the Rapidan
by the 18th of August, numbered about seventy thousand men. Its
strength was greatly overestimated by General Pope, who deemed it most
prudent to retire behind the Rappahannock, which he did on the 18th
and 19th of August. His new position was well chosen. His right was
at Rappahannock Station, and his left at Kelley's ford, some distance
lower down the river.
General Lee now resolved to attack Pope before he could be joined by
McClellan's troops. He divided his army into two columns, and sent
Jackson's corps by a circuitous.route, by way of Thoroughfare gap, to
gain the rear of the Federal army  This daring flank march was accomplished by Jackson, and on the 26th of August he captured Manassas
Junction, Pope's main depot of supplies, with an enormous quantity of
stores of all kinds, and several railroad trains loaded with supplies.
Upon learning of this movement Pope at once fell back from the Rappahannock, intending to crush the isolated corps of Jackson, and at the
same time Lee set off rapidly by way of Thoroughfare gap to join his
endangered lieutenant. Pope's army had been reinforced by the corps
of Porter and Heintzelman, and Reynolds' division of McClellan's army,
and was at least one hundred and twenty thousand strong. He moved
back rapidly to attack Jackson, and encountered Ewell's division near
Manassas Junction on the 27th. Ewell held his ground, and at night
rejoined Jackson, who moved swiftly from Manassas to a new position
near the old Bull Run battle-field. This brought him nearer to Lee, and
secured his retreat in case of a defeat. Ewell's resistance deceived General Pope, who had posted McDowell's and Porter's corps to hold the
road from Thoroughfare gap, by which Lee must advance to Jackson's
assistance. Supposing that Jackson meant to make a stand at Manassls.
Pope ordered these troops to move from the positions they had taken and
to advance upon Manassas Junction. Manassas was reached at noon on




THE CIVIL WAR.


821


the 28th, and then General Pope saw for the first time how he had been
deceived by Jackson, and how he had blundered in leaving the road
from Thoroughfare gap open to Lee. He endeavored to repair his
error by attacking Jackson at once.  He did attack that general in
his new position late in the afternoon of the 28th, but was repulsed
with severe  loss.  On the same afternoon
General Lee with   Longstreet's corps forced
the passage of Thoroughfare gap, and bivouacked
that night in the open country beyond it. On the
morning of the 29th he pushed forward with
speed, and by noon his advanced division reached
Jackson's position. By four o'clock in the afternoon the Confederate army was reunited under
the command of General Lee.     About three
o'clock in the afternoon General Pope made a
heavy attack upon Lee's position, but was repulsed. On the 30th, having reunited all the   GENERAL. R. E. LEE.
corps of his army, General Pope determined
to risk the fate of the campaign upon a decisive engagement. The
Confederates held a large part of the old battle-field of Bull Run, and the
conflict which ensued is usually known as the second battle of Bull Run.
It resulted in the defeat of General Pope, who was driven back to the
heights of Centreville with heavy loss. On the 31st Jackson attacked
the Federal rear-guard at Chantilly  A spirited encounter took place,
and the Federal troops were slowly forced back, losing General Phil
Kearney, one of the most accomplished officers
in the service. General Pope now withdrew his
army within the lines of Washington. He had
l ost since the opening of the campaign over thirty
thousand men, including eight generals killed,
thirty pieces of artillery, over twenty thousand,      j          stand of arms, and an enormous quantity of stores.
The Confederate loss was nine thousand one hun-.        -    dred and twelve, including five generals.
MAJ.-GEN. PHIL KEARNEY.  The defeat of the Union army and the
presence of the Confederates on the Potomac
placed the city of Washington in great danger.    The government
acted with vigor and decision in this emergency  The losses of Pope's
army were made up by reinforcements. General Pope was relieved of
his command, and General McClellan was restored to the command of
the army of the Potomac. He set to work with energy to reorganize
the broken masses of Pope's army into an effective force.




822


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


General Lee now crossed the Potomac and invaded Maryland, hoping
to be able not only to remove the war from the soil of Virginia, but also
to obtain large reinforcements from the southern sympathizers in Maryland. In thils lie was disappointed, as scarcely any one joined him. On
the 5th of September lie crossed the Potomac, and on the 6th occupied
Frederick City. Harper's Ferry was held by a force of eleven thousand
men under Colonel Miles, and it was necessary to reduce this post in
order to preserve the communications of the Confederate army with its
own country   General Jackson was despatched with his corps to capture
Harper's Ferry  He promptly carried the heights overlooking the town,
and on the 15th of September the town and garrison surrendered to him
after a feeble resistance.
General Lee in the meantime had taken position at South mountain to
await the issue of Jackson's attack upon Harper's Ferry  McClellan,
advancing slowly from Washington, reached Frederick on the 12th of
September. There he found a copy of General
Lee's confidential order to his corps commanders,
which had been lost by someone. This document gave the Confederate plan of operations,
and enabled McClellan to act with certainty in!~-:-     f  directing his own movements. Hastening forward he attacked General Lee at South mountain on the 14th of September, and after a stubborn fight Lee fell back behind Antietam creek,
and on the morning of the 17th was joined there
MAJ.-GEN. JOHN A. DIX. by the troops of Jackson, who had made a forced
march from Harper's Ferry
The Confederate army numbered about forty thousand men, having
been terribly reduced by the straggling of the men on the march through
Virginia. The Federal army numbered over eighty thousand men, and
was eager for a contest. The prolonged resistance of Harper's Ferry, and
the losses of his army by straggling, had defeated Lee's plan of campaign.
He was now compelled to retire across the Potomac, and he halted on the
Antietam only to secure the reunion of Jackson's corps with his army and
a safe passage of the Potomac. On the morning of the 17th of September General McClellan attacked the Confederate army in force, but it
held its ground during the day, both armies at nightfall occupying about
the same positions they had held in the morning. The Federal loss was
twelve thousand four hundred and sixty-nine, including thirteen generals
wounded, one mortally; that of the Confederates eight thousand seven
hundred and ninety, including three generals killed, five wounded.




THE CIVIL WAR.


823


The 18th passed quietly away, and that night Lee silently withdrew from
his position and retreated across the Potomac. He retired up the valley
to Winchester. The Federal army moved to the vicinity of Harper's
Ferry, and did not cross the Potomac until the 2d of November.
Upon entering Virginia General McClellan moved towards the Rappahannock with the design of interposing his army between Lee and
Richmond. General Lee at once left the valley where he had been detained by the necessity of watching McClellan, and by a rapid march to
Warrenton placed his army between Richmond and McClellan. The
Federal army continuing to advance, he fell back to Culpeppcr Courthouse, and McClellan moved forward to the vicinitv of AVarrenton. On
the 7th of November, when about to resume his advance, McClellan,
whose conduct of the campaign had not pleased either President Lincolrn
or the people of the north, was removed from the command of the army
of the Potomac, which was conferred upon
General Ambrose E. Burnside.
Burnside at once advanced to the banks of
the Rappahannock opposite Fredericksburg,
intending to pass the river at that place and
move upon Richmond. Upon his arrival at.                    M Ml  t
Falmouth, opposite Fredericksburg, he found!    " M
the Confederate army strongly posted on the
heights in the rear of the latter place, prepared
to dispute his advance. He crossed the Rappahannock on the 11th and 12th of December,
and on the 13th attacked the Confederate posi- MAJ.-GEN. A. E. BUMNSIDE.
tion, which had been strongly intrenched. He
was repulsed with a loss of eleven thousand men, and compelled to retreat
across the Rappahannock. This terrible reverse greatly disheartened the
army of the Potomac, and destroyed its faith in its commander; and so
the year closed gloomily for the Union cause in the east.
In the fall of 1862 President Lincoln took the bold step of issuing a
proclamation announcing that if the seceded States did not return to theii
allegiance to the Union he would declare all the negro slaves within
their limits free from the 1st of January next. This proclamation was
issued on the 22d of September, immediately after the battle of Antietam.
The army and navy of the United States were to enforce the terms of this
proclamation, and from the new year there was to be no more slavery
within the limits of the Union. The proclamation was avowedly a war
measure, but it was sustained by Congress by appropriate legislation
during the ensuing winter.




824             HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.
When the year 1862 closed the Federal government, in spite of its reverses in Virginia, had great cause for hope. It had effected lodgments
of its forces at important points on the southern coast, had captured New
Orleans, the largest and wealthiest city of the south, and had opened the
Mississippi as far as Vicksburg. West Tennessee, Kentucky and northern
Missouri were overrun and held by the Union forces. A decided gain
had been made, and there was reason to hope that the next year would
bring more favorable results. The Confederates were greatly elated,
however, by their succesess in the east, which they regarded as counterbalancing their disasters in the west, and were more than ever resolved
to continue the war "to the bitter end."




CHAPTER XLII


THE ADMINISTRATION        OF ABRAHAM      LINCOLN-THE       CIVIL WARCONCLUDED.
The Emancipation Proclamation-Battle of Chancellorsville-Death of Stonewall Jackson
-Invasion of the North by Lee's Army-Battle of Gettysburg-Retreat of Lee into
Virginia-Grant's Army crosses the Mississippi-Battle of Champion Hills-Investment
of Vicksburg-Surrender of Vicksburg and Port Hudson-Battle of ChickamaugaRosecrans shut up in Chattanooga-Grant in command of the Western Armies-Battles
of Lookout Mountain and Mission Ridge-Defeat of Bragg's Army-The Campaign in
East Tennessee-Retreat of Longstreet-Capture of Galveston-Attack on CharlestonCapture of Fort Wagner-Charleston Bombarded-State of Affairs in the Spring of 186.4
-The Red River Expedition-Grant made Lieutenant-General-Advance of the Army
of the Potomac-Battles of the Wilderness, Spottsylvania, and Cold Harbor-Sheridan's
Raid-Death of General J E. B. Stuart-Battle of New Market-Early sent into the
Valley of Virginia-Butler's Army at Bermuda Hundreds-Grant crosses the James
River-The Siege of Petersburg begun-Early's Raid upon Waslington-Sheridan
defeats Early at Winchester and Fisher's Hill-Battle of Cedar Creek-The final Defeat
of Early's Army-Sherman's Advance to Atlanta-Johnston removed-Defeat of Hood
before Atlanta-Evacuation of Atlanta-Hood's Invasion of Tennessee-Battle of
Franklin-Siege of Nashville-Hood defeated at Nashville-His Retreat-Sherman's
"March to the Sear"-Capture of Savannah-Battle of Mobile Bay-Attack on Fort
Fisher-The Confederate Cruisers-Sinking of the "Alabama" by the "Kearsarge"Re-election of President Lincoln-Admission of Nevada into the Union-The Hampton
Roads Peace Conference-Capture of Fort Fisher-Occupation of Wilmington-Sherman advances through South Carolina-Evacuation of Charleston-Battles of Averasboro' and Bentonville-Sherman at Goldsboro'-Critical situation of Lee's ArmyAttack on Fort Steadman -Sheridan joins Grant-Advance of Grant's Army-Battle of
Five Forks-Attack on Petersburg-Evacuation of Richmond and Petersburg-Retreat of
Lee's Army-Richmond occupied —SURRENDER of General Lee's Army-Rejoicings in
the North-Assassination of President Lincoln-Death of Booth-Execution of the Conspirators-Johnston Surrenders-Surrender of the other Confederate Forces-Capture of
Jefferson Davis-Close of the War.
'N        accordance  with  his proclamation of September 22d, 1862,
President Lincoln, on the 1st of January, 1863, issued his proclamation of emancipation, in which lie declared all the slaves within
the limits of the Confederate States free from that day
The plan of campaign adopted by the Federal government for
1863 was very much like that of the previous year. In the east the
army of the Potomac was to push forward towards Richmond; and in
825




826


HISTOR Y OF TLHE UNITED STATES.


the west the army of General Grant was to capture Vicksburg, and thus
open the Mississippi, after which it was to march eastward, unite with the
forces of General l-,osec.rans and occupy East Tennessee, thus cutting the
communlication between the Border and the Gulf States. In addition to
these operations lan expedition against Charleston, South Carolina, was to
be attempted.
The army of the Potomac was greatly disheartened by its defeat at
Fredericksburg, and had lost confidence in General Burnside.  That
conmmander, at his own request, was removed from the command, and was
succeeded by General Joseph Hooker on the 25th of January  Hooker
at once began the reorganization of his army, and soon brought it to a
splendid state of efficiency  By the opening of the spring it numbered
one hundred and twenty thousand men and four hundred pieces of artillery  General Lee had remained in his position back of Fredericksburg
all winter, and his army had been weakened by the witlldrawal of General Longstreet's corps, twenty-four thousand
strong, by the Confederate government, leaving
him about fifty thousand men.
General Hooker, upon learning of Lee's weakened condition, determined to attack him. He
X.   r              divided his army into two columns. One of these,
-;   consisting of the Second, Fifth, Eleventh, and
Twelfth army corps, under his own command, was
to cross the Rappahannock above Fredericksburg
MAJ.-GEN. JOS. HOOKER. and turn the Confederate position. The other
column, consisting of the First, Third, and Sixth
corps, under General Sedgwick, was to cross the river at Fredericksburg
and attack the heights. Between these forces it was believed that Lee's
army would be crushed. On the 27th of April Hooker moved off with the
first column, crossed the river on the 28th and 29th at Kelley's ford, and
on the 30th took position at Chancellorsville, on the left and in the rear
of Lee's fortified line. On the 29th General Sedgwick crossed his column
about three miles below Fredericksburg, and during that day and the
30th made demonstrations as though he intended to assault the southern
position in the rear of the town.
General Lee's situation was now critical, and demanded the most extraordinary exertions of him. Leaving a small force to hold the heights in
the rear of Fredericksburg, he moved with his main body towards Chancellorsville, where Hooker had intrenched himself with about eighty
thousand men. His only hope of safety lay in defeating this force before
Sedgwick's column could arrive to its assistance. On the 2d of May he




THE CIVIL WAR.


8'27


sent Jackson's corps to turn the Federal right, and with the remainder of
his force deceived Hooker into the belief that he meant to storm the intrenched position of the Federal army  Jackson performed his flank
march with success, and on the afternoon of the 2d of May made a fierce
attack uponl the Federal right, and drove it in upon its centre. In this
attack he received a mortal wound, of which he died on the 10th of May
The next day, the 3d, having reunited Jackson's corps with his main
force, Lee attacked Hooker at Chancellorsville, and drove him back to
the junction of the Rappahannock and Rapidan rivers. He was preparing to storm this new position when he learned that Sedgwick had
defeated the force left to hold the heights of Fredericksburg on the 3d of
May, and was marching against him. His danger was now greater than
ever, Leaving a part of his army to hold Hooker in check, he marched
rapidly to meet Sedgwick. He encountered him at Salem heights on
the 4th of May, and compelled him to recross the Rappahannock at
Banks' ford.   Then  moving   back  towards
Hooker's position  Lee prepared to storm  it.
General Hooker, however, disheartened by Sedgwick's defeat, withdrew his army across the Rappahannock on the night of the 5th, and returned.-..
to his old position on the north side of that
stream, having lost twelve thousand men and   '
fourteen pieces of artillery in the battle of Chancellorsville.  The Confederate loss was also
heavy   Out of an army of about fifty thousand  MAJ.-GEN. J. SEDGWICK.
men, ten thousand two hundred and eighty-one
were killed, wounded and captured. The victory was dearly bought by
the Confederates by the death of Stonewall Jackson, who was worth fully
fifty thousand men to their cause. At the moment of his success against
the Federal right, he was shot down by his own men, who mistook his
escort for a party of Federal cavalry
The success of the Confederates in Virginia was more than counterbalanced by their reverses in the west and southwest. The southern government, anxious to change the course of the war by a bold stroke, decided to follow up the victory at Chancellorsville by an invasion of the
north by Lee's army  This army was reinforced heavily, and by the last
of May numbered seventy thousand infantry and artillery, and ten thousand cavalry  General Hooker's army on the other hand had been reduced by desertions and expirations of enlistments to about eighty thousand
men, making the two forces about equal.
On the 3d of June, 1863, Lee began his forward movement, and




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


marching through the valley of Virginia, captured Winchester, which was
held by General Milroy's command, on the 14th, taking four thousand
prisoners, and twenty-nine pieces of cannon. On the 22d of June the
Potomac was crossed at Williamsport, and the Confederate army moved
towards Hagerstown, Maryland. General Hooker had followed Lee'
from the Rappahannock, and had manoeuvred his army so as to interpose
it between the Confederates and Washington.
-           O)On the 23d the advanced corps of Lee's army
under General Ewell occupied Chambersburg,
N   Pennsylvania, and on the 25th and 26th General
N   Hooker crossed the Potomac at Edward's Ferry,
'o.   l:          and marched to Frederick, Maryland. He was
anxious to withdraw the garrison of Harper's
Ferry, which had retired from that place to the
Maryland heights, opposite the town, but the
LIEUT.-GEN. R.. EWELL. war department refused to allow him to do so.
Hooker thereupon relinquished the command of
the army, and was succeeded by Major-General George G. Meade, the
senior corps commander, and a soldier of genuine ability  General Lee
now moved his army east of the mountains, and directed his advance
towards Gettysburg. In ignorance of his adversary's design, General
Meade hastened forward to occupy the same point.
The invasion of Pennsylvania by the Confederate army aroused the
most intense excitement in the north.
President Lincoln called out one hundred
thousand militia to serve for six months,
unless sooner discharged, and as far north as
New York preparations were made to re-          if%
ceive the Confederate army with a stubborn
resistance should it succeed in penetrating so.           I
far. Every effort was made to raise troops
and forward them to General Meade in time        i
to be of service to him.
On the morning of the 1st of July the
left wing of the army of the Potomac under  MAJ.-GEN. GEO. O. MEADE.
General Reynolds and the advanced corps
of Lee's army under Generals A. P Hill and Ewell encountered each
other at Gettysburg. General Reynolds was forced back and killed.
General Hancock was at once sent by General Meade to assume the comn
mand of the left wing, and upon his arrival he at once recognized the
importance of the position at Gettysburg, and occupied it. He was




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830


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


promptly reinforced by General Meade, and by the afternoon of the 2d
of July the army of the Potomac was securely posted on the heights
known as Cemetery Ridge. The Confederate army took position on the
opposite hills known as Seminary Ridge. Between the two armies lay
the battle-field on which the engagement of the 1st of July was fought.
Heavy skirmishing prevailed throughout the day on the 2d, the advantage
being with the Confederates. On the 3d of July General Lee made a
general attack upon the Federal position on Cemetery Ridge, which, very
strong by nature, had been rendered impregnable by intrenchments. His
attack was made with deternlination, and was a splendid exhibition of
American courage, which won for his troops the generous admiration of
their adversaries; but it was unsuccessful. The grand charge of the Confederates was made in the afternoon, and was repulsed with terrible
slaughter. Still Lee's position was so strong, and the morale of his army
so unimpaired, that General Meade deemed it best to remain satisfied with
his victory, and not to risk its fruits by an attack
upon the Confederate lines. The victory was decisive. It put an end to the Confederate invasion. On the night of the 4th of July General
t          Lee withdrew from Seminary Ridge and retreated
-             to the Potomac, which he crossed on the 13th and
14th witaout serious opposition from the Federal
-   army. On the 15th Lee moved back to Winchester. The Federal loss at Gettysburg was
MAJ.-GEN. J. F. REYNOLDS. twenty-three thousand, and that of the Confederates about the same.
On the 17th and 18th of July General Meade crossed the Potomac
below Harper's Ferry, and moving east of the Blue Ridge, endeavored to
place his army between Lee and Richmond. The Confederate commander
by rapid marches reached Culpepper Court-house in advance of him, however, and about the 1st of August occupied the line of the Rappahannock.
The remainder of the year witnessed but one important operation by the
armies in Virginia. In October General Lee made a sudden forward
movement for the purpose of throwing his army between Meade and
Washington, but the latter eluded him and reached Centreville in safety
Lee then withdrew to the Rapidan, and the army of the Potomac took
position on the north side of that stream. Both armies passed the winter
there.
In the west and southwest success crowned the Federal arms. At the
opening of the year the army of General Grant lay on the Mississippi
above Vicksburg, assisted by the fleet of gunboats under Admiral Porter.




j  i.
p4I  -
K1~l
i K   2
1ii


831




832


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The first three months of the year were passed by the Federal army in a
series of movements along the Yazoo river, the result of which was to
convince General Graht that Vicksburg could not be taken from that
quarter. He therefore determined upon a new and more daring plan of
operations. He decided to march his army across the Louisiana shore
from Milliken's bend, above Vicksburg, to New Carthage, below that
city, and to run his gunboats and transports by the batteries. Should
the boats succeed in passing he meant to cross his command to the Mississippi shore, and attack Vicksburg from the rear, By investing the
city from the land side his flanks would rest upon and be covered by the
Mississippi, and he could re-establish communication between his right
wing and his base of supplies at Milliken's bend. The plan was daring
in the highest degree, and required the
greatest skill and resolution in its execution.
In order to retain their hold upon the
Lg           Mississippi the Confederates had fortified
Vicksburg with great care. Port Hudson,
K%" /  A about two hundred and forty miles lower
down the river, had also been fortified, but
-not so strongly as Vicksburg. As long as
the Confederates held these points they were
able to keep a considerable extent of the
river open to themselves and closed to the
MAJOR-GENERAL J. A. LOGAN. Union gunboats. Thus they were enabled
to.cross in safety the enormous herds of beef
cattle which they drew from the rich pastures of Texas for their armies
east of the Mississippi. A strong force held the works at Port Hudson.
Vicksburg was occupied by a large garrison, and was under the command
of Lieutenant-General John C. Pemberton, who, with an army of about
thirty thousand men, independent of the garrison of Vicksburg, held the
country in the rear of that city. Appreciating the importance of defeating the Federal army in this quarter the Confederate government, in the
spring of 1863, sent General Joseph E. Johnston to take command of all
the forces in Mississippi. It failed to supply him with a proper force
of troops, and General Pemberton treated his orders with open defiance.
Grant having completed his preparations moved his army from Milliken's bend to a point on the Louisiana shore, opposite Grand Gulf. On
the night of the 16th of April a division of gunboats and transports ran
by the Vickshurg batteries, suffering severely from the heavy fire to
which they were exposed for a distance of eight miles. On the night of
the 22d a second division passed the batteries with similar loss. Once




TlHE C( I "IL IWA R.


below Vicksburg, however, the boats were safe. They then proceeded to
Grant's position on the river below  On the 29th of April the gunboats
attacked the batteries at Grand Gulf, but were repulsedl. The trool)s
were then marched to a point opposite Bruinsburg, Mississippi, and the
gunboats and transports were run by the Grand Gulf batteries. On the
1st of May the Federal army was ferried across to the Mississippi shore,
and at once began its march into the interior  Near Port Gibson a part
of Pemberton's army was encountered and defeated on the same day
This success compelled the evacuation of Grand Gulf by the C lonfedl(rates.
Grant now boldly threw his army between Johnston's forces at Jackson
and Pemberton's army, intending to hold the former in cheek, and drive
the latter within the defences of Vicksburg. On the 14th of Maly he
JACKSON, MISSISSIPPI.
attacked Johnston at Jackson, the capital of Mississippi, and forced him
to retreat northward towards Canton. Then turning upon Pemberton he
attacked him at Champion Hills, or Baker's creek, on the 16th, and
inflicted a severe defeat upon him. Pemberton withdrew towards the
Big Black river, and the next day met a second defeat there. He now
retreated within the defences of Vicksburg, which place was promptly
invested by Grant's army   On the 19th of May Grant attempted to
carry the Confederate position by assault, but was repulsed with heavy
loss. The assault was repeated with a like result on the 22d1. There
remained then nothing but a regular siege. This was pressed with vigor,
and the city was subjected to a terrible bombardment, which caused great
suffering to the people. While the siege was carried on Johnston's army
was held back, and prevented from undertaking any movement for the
53




HISTORY OF THE UN.ITED STATES.


relie   f Vf icksllbrg.  At length, reduced to despair by the steady
applroacll of tile tillion tri'll]l es, IPeinberton surrendered the city and his
army to GCweneral Grant on the 4th of July    By this surrender thirty
thllols:Illl prisonlc)rls, tw\o hundred and fifty cannon, and sixty thousand
sta:nd,of arins, together withl a large qualltit of military stores, fell into
the hands of the Union forces.    It was justly esteemed the greatest
victory,f the war
lWhile tle siege of Vicksburg was in progress General Banks ascended
the Mississilppi i'(fro  N'ew Orleans an(l laid siegec to Port Hudson. Upon
]Ilearing of the fall of Vicksbur',, the Confederate commander surrendered tle pjos,t and Ilis armyn  ' f sixtv-two hundred and thirty-three men
to General B1an1ksl,,1o tfl,.tll of July
Tlise victories wrested from the ( onfederates their last hold upon the
Mississippi. lThey createl tle most intense rejoicing in the Northern and
Western States, and a correspornding depression in the soutlh. Being
simultaneous with the defelat of the southern army at Gettysburg, they
were regarded as decisive of the war: as indeed they were.  From this
time -w shall tr;ac( the dleclining fortunes of the southern confederacy
and the gradual but stcaldy re-establishment of the authority of the Union
over the Southern States.
After the battle of Murfreesboro', or Stone river, the army of General
lIRoscclrans remained quietly in winter quarters at Nashville and Murfreesboro'  Bragg's army passed the winter at Chattanooga. Towards
the last of June Rosecrans moved forward from Nashville, and advancing
slowly threatened Bragg's communications with Richmond. The Confederate commander had no wish to emulate the example of Pemberton at
Vicksburg, and at once evacuated C'hattanooga, on tlhe 8th of September,
and retired towards Dalton, Georgia. This movement, which was interpreted 1)y Rlosecrans as a retreat, was designed to secure the union with
Bragg's army of Longstreet's corps, which had been detached from Lee's
army and sent to join Bragg.  This junction was effected on the 18tlh,
and other reinforcements arrived from Mississippi.  Thus strengthened
Bra,', suddenly W-heeled upon Rosecrans, and on the 19th of September
attacked him at Chickamauga. The battle was severe, but indecisive,
and was renewed the next day    Towards noon, on the 20th, Rosecrans
having greatly weakened the other parts of his line to help the left, which
was hard pressed, Longstreet made a furious dash at the weakened part,
and in an irresistible attack swept the Federal right and centre from the
field.  Rosecrans endeavored to stop the retreat, but was borne along in
the dense crowd of fugitives. Only the left wing, under the command
of General George H. Thomas, remained firm. Had that given way the




TIHE ('I'VIL WAR.11L.


xS,35


rout would have been complete; but all through the long afternoon
'Thomas held on to his position with a grill resolution which nothing
could shake. After nightfall he withdrew his corps in good order and
retired upon Chattanooga.  The Union loss at Chickamlauga was sixteen thousand men and fifty-one guns; Bragg's about eighteen tlhou.sand
men.
Bragg advanced at once upon the defeated army of Rosecrans, which
had taken refilge in Chattanooga, occupied the heights coimmanding the
city, and seized the communications of the Federal army with Nashville.
Thus closely besieged the Union forces suffered c(onsiderably from  a
scarcity of provisiols.
General Rosecrans was now removed from the command of the army
of the Cumberland, and General Grant was al)pointed to the chicf command of all the western armies. He att once set to work to extricate the
army of the Cumberland, to the command of which General Thomas
had succeeded, from its perilous situation. Hooker was sent with twentythree thousand men from Mleade's army to his assistance, and Sllerman
was ordered to march with the force which had taken Vicksburg along
the line of the railway from Memphis to Chattanooga. The arrival of
these reinforcements soon changed the aspect of affairs. On the 23d of
November the army of the Cumberland made a vigor ous sortie and drove
the Confederates from the important position of Orchard Knob. On the
24th Hooker stormed Lookout mountain, the left of the Confederate line,
and carried it after a hard fight. The investment was now thoroughly
broken, and the Confederates were confined to Mission Ridge, which had
formerly constituted the right of their line. On the 25th this i-))sitin
was assaulted by the whole strength of the Federal army, and wa; carried
after a stubborn fight. Bragg, beaten at all points, with hcavy loss,
retreated into Georgia, where he was soon after removed from his colllmand
and succeeded by General Joseph E. Johnston.
During the progress of this campaign General Burnsidlc had moved
from Kentucky with a force of about twenty-five thousand men, labout
the time that Ro.ecrans began his advance from Nashville in June. The
strong position of Cumberland gap was surrendered to himl witl scarcely
an effort for its defence by the Confederates, and lie moved into East
Tennessee. Driving back the Confederate forces, which souiht to stop
his march, he occupied Knoxville. The object of his expedition was to
afford a rallying point for the Union men of East Tennessee. After the
battle of Chickamauga, and the investment of Chlattanoo-a, i'resid(ent
Jefferson Davis visited Bragg's army, and bleing convinced tlhat tle capture of Rosecrans' ibrce was inevitable, decided to withdraw General




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THE CI VIL WA IR.


Longstreet's corps from Bragg, and to send it to drive Burnside out of
East Tennessee. Longstreet's men were in no condition to undertake
such a campaign, but under their Snergetic commander succeeded in confining Burnside's army to the defences of Knoxville. The siege of that
place was formed, and several assaults were made upon the Union works,
but were each repulsed with heavy loss. Burnside's men were reduced
almost to starvation, but held out with unshaken
resolution. After the defeat of Bragg at Mission
Ridge Grant ordered Sherman to march with his
corps to the relief of Knoxville.  Upon the        '     1t
approach of this force Longstreet, on the 4th of.::t~
December, raised the siege and retreated into;:?
Virginia.
Beyond the Mississippi the war was carried on
with varying success throughout the year 1863,
but to the general advantage of the Federal
forces. On the 3d of July the Confederates, LIEUT.-,(EN. J. LONGSTREET.
under General Holmes, attacked Helena, Arkansas, but were repulsed. By the close of the year the Confederate forces
had been pressed back as far as'the Red river
On the 1st of January, 1863, Galveston, Texas, which had surrendered
to the Federal forces in the fall of 1862, was recaptured by the Confederates, under General Magruder. B v the capture of this place the Confederates obtained one more port from which
they could maintain communications with and
receive supplies from Europe.
|  >In the spring of 1S63 a powerful naval
l4      expedition, under Admiral Dupont, was dese      patched against Charleston. On the 7th of
April Dupont attempted to force his way into
-   the harbor, but was driven back by the forts
and batteries, and nine of his iron-clads were
A d!severely injured. Early in July a force of land
ADMIRAL DUPONT.    troops, under General Gilmore, effected a lodgment on the south end of Morris' island, and
secured their position by intrenchments. The Union parallels were
pushed forward steadily towards Fort Wagner at the north end of the
island, and a final assault of that work was ordered. Before the order
could be executed Fort Wagner was evacuated on the night of the 6th
of September. The Federal batteries on Morris' island now maintained
a heavy and constant fire upon Fort Sumter, and reduced it to a shapeless




HISTORY OF TIlE UNITED STATES.:mass of rubllbish on the( land side. Yet in this condition it was stronger
tlhan at first, the nlmss of rulbbish offering a more effectual resistance to.ishot and shell thall thie w\lls.  Thle rong-range guns on Morris' island
tllrew.shells illto the city of (Charlteton, which was regularly bombarded
from, this time until its fill, in l18;5. The capture of Fort Wagner
enabled the,F(lderal forces to close the harbor of Charleston effectually
aLalist b )lock:d(l runners.
In slpite oft the victories of (Chancellorsville and Chilcklmauga, and
the invatsion of the north, the close (,f the year found the south fairly on
the downward road to final failure. 5Missolri was freed from     the
presence of the Confederate army, and the greater part of Arkansas was
lichl 1,b the Federal troops. The Mississippi was lost to the south, and
-               --  -   =  -- = -~ =,
=  X   -   = ---
- 2   -              -    L
GALA VETON, TEXAS.
the immense supplies from the trans-Mississippi region were no longer
available to the Confederate forces east of the great river. Tennessee
was occupied by the Federal forces, and the invasion of the north had
ended in disaster. The resources of the south were gradually becoming
exhausted, and the supply of men was falling off. The north on the
other hand was increasing in determination. The war had opened new
channels of industry, and these had more than repaid the losses of the
first period of the struggle. The north was growing richer, in spite of
the war, while the south w:as growing poorer because of it. At the end of
1863 the Federal debt had reached the enormous total of $1,300,000,000,
with the certainty of a heavy increase during the coming year. Still the
people of the loyal States responded with heartiness to the heavv
demands of the Federal government for men and money       Specie had




THE'    'I VIL   I11 I.


8:39.


long since disappeared froml circulation, but a systenm of trea(sury lot(s,
which were made a legal tenllder, had replaced. (coin as a circulating
medium. The new paper llnlC    was\; abundant, and the nortlh a:Ive i;w
outward signs of dlistress. Everlytling sp-oke of prosperity  The cntrust )etween tie con(lition of the I'nion and tlic (conIfei(lracl(  was
striking and most sug'estiv e.
Early in the spring of' s)64 an expedition
was sent into that part of Louisiana known as
the Red riv\r country  It consisted (o' a force
of ten thousand troops, und er (;ellcral Smith,,
from Vicksburo, and a fleet of' unbolll ts, undler
Admiral Porter,  On the 1-1th of MIarh ll'ort   \..:
de Russy was c:apturcd 1,) the troops, and on
the 21st Natchitches was occupied.  (Ieneral
Banks now arrived witl a strong reinforcemenl t
of troops from  New Orleans, and took coin- BnIG.-(;EN'. A... (;ILMOR:.
mand of the expedition.   About the 1st of
April he set out for Shreveport, at the head of navigation on the lRed
river, his army marching along the shore, and thl( gunboats ascending thec
stream. The Confederates gathered in heavy force, under the command
of General Kirlby Smith, to oppose hlis advance.  On the Sth of April
the Confederate army attacked Banks at Sahine Cross-hRoal, near Mansfield, and inflicted a stinging defeat upon him.
k^%:         The Union forces were rallied at Pleaslant Hill,
w-here they were attacked by the Cont fedlrates
onI the 9th. The Confederates were repulsed,
"but Banks continued his retreat, and reached..  "     Alexandria on the 25th of April. The expedition then returned to the M\ississippi. Banks
was relieved of the command at Ne w Orleans,
and was succeeded by General Canbv
General Steele, commanding    the Vlnion
MAJOR-GENERAL E. ' ANBY. forces in Arkansas, had moved from Little
Rock, on the 23d of March, towards Shreveport, to co-operate with General Banks. He was attacled by the Confedlerates and driven back to Little Rock, which lie reached on the 2l of
May
The Red river expedition was thus a total failure, and was a source of
great mortification, as well as serious loss, to the Federal government.
Early in March General Grant was raised to the grade of lieutenantgeneral, that rank having been revived by act of Congress to reward him




HISTORY OF THE' UNITED STATES.


for his great services during the war. It had been held only by Washington, General Scott having been given only the brevet rank. He was
also appointed commander of all the armies of the United States. He
(lecided to assume the immediate direction of the campaign in Virginia,
and established his head-quarters with the army of the Potomac. At
the same time General WV T Sherman was appointed to the command of
the military division of the Mississippi, in which were included the armies
of the Cumberland, of the Ohio, and of the Tennessee. The supreme
control of. the military operations both east and west was vested in Gener.al Grant-a great gain, inasmuch as the operations in the two quarters,of the Union could nOw be made to assist each other. The plan of the
campaign embraced a simultaneous advance of both armies; the army of
the Potomac was charged with the task of defeating Lee and capturing
Richmond; the western army, under Sherman, was to force Johnston
back into Georgia.
The army of the Potomac numbered one hundred and forty thousand
men on the 1st of May, 1864; the Confederate army, under General
Lee, about fifty thousand. General Meade retained the immedia.te command of the army of the Potomac, but General Grant accompanied it,
and( directed its movements. On the morning of May 4th-just three
(lays before Sherman moved from Chattanooga-the Federal army crossed
the Rapidan, and, turning the right of Lee's position, entered the region
known as the Wilderness. General Lee determined to attack this force
and prevent it from reaching the open country beyond the Wilderness.
On the 5th of May he encountered the army of the Potomac in the
Wilderness, near the old battle-field of Chancellorsville. The attack was
made by the Federal forces, which endeavored to drive off Lee's army,
which blocked the route by which they were advancing. Lee held his
ground during the day, and that night both armies bivouacked upon the
fiell. The battle was renewed on the 6th, but Grant failed to force the
Confederate position. The fighting during these two days was carried on
in a thickly-wooded region, in which the artillery of the two armies could
not be used to advantage. On the 6th the Confederates suffered a serious
loss in the person of General Longstreet, who was severely wounded.
The losses in killed and wounded were very heavy on both sides, as the
fighting was of a desperate character,
On the 7th General Grant moved his army around Lee's- right, and
marched rapidly to seize the strong position of Spottsylvania Courthouse, which would have placed him between the. Confederatps and
Richmond. Lee at once divined his purpose, and fell back rapidly to
the heights around Spottsylvania Court-house, which he occupied on the




THE CIVIL WAR.


841


48th. Upon arriving before this position Grant found his enemy strongly
intrenched in it, and at once resolved to drive him from it. On the 10th
of May he made a determined attack upon the Confederate line, but
failed to carry it. At daybreak on the 12th a furious assault was made
by Hancock's corps upon the right centre of Lee's line, which was carried
in handsome style. Grant at once followed up Hancock's success by
vigorous attacks upon the other part of the southern line; but Hancock
was unable to advance beyond the works lie had captured in his first
attack, and the other assaults were repulsed by the Confederates. It was
evident that the Confederates could not be dislodged from their position
without a still heavier loss to the Union army, and General Grant determined to draw them from  the heights of Spottsylvania by another
flank march to the right. The losses of the Union army since the opening
of the campaign had been enormous, blut undisnlayeld by them, General
Grant wrote to the war department, after the battle of the 12th of May:
" We have now ended the sixth day of very heavy fighting. The result
to this time is very much in our favor,  I propose to fight it out on
this line, if it takes all summer "
On the.21st of May the army of the Potomac moved from Spottsylvania to the banks of the North Anna river, and reached that stream on
the 23d. Lee had marched rapidly by a shorter route, and his army was
in position on the south side of the river when Grant reached the northern
shore. Lee had chosen a position of very great strength in front of
Hanover Junction, and had covered it with earthworks. On the 25th
Grant crossed a large part of his force to the south side of the North
Anna, and endeavored to force the Confederate lines, but discovering its
remarkable strength, withdrew his troops to the north shore, and on the
26th moved around Lee's right in the direction of the Chickahominy
Lee followed him promptly and took position at Cold Harbor, on the
north side of the Chickahominy, and within nine miles of Richmond, occupying very much the same position held by McClellan's army in the
battle of Cold Harbor, on the 27th of June, 1862. He covered his
entire line with strong earthworks. On the 1st of June a sharp encounter occurred between the Federal right and the Confederate left wings,
and on the morning of the 3d of June Grant made a general assault upon
the Confederate works. The attack was made with great gallantry, but
was repulsed with a loss to the Federal army of thirteen thousand men.
The losses of the army of the Potomac since the passage of the Rapidan
had reached the enormous total of over sixty thousand men. The Confederate loss during the same period was about twenty thousand. Failing
to force the Confederate line at Cold Harbor, General Grant drew off




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BATTLE OF SPOTTSYLVANIA COURT-HOUSE.


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THE CI I 711, I


843


leisurely towards the James river at \ilcox's Landing, intendlingr to cross
that river andl attack Richmond ftroi the south s-ide of the Jame.s.
In the meantime, upon reaching Spottsylva\ni:a (_'(irt-housc, General
Grant had sent General Sheritdan, witlh tel thousand cavalry, to destlroy
the railroads connecting Richmond witl Lee's army an1l tile valley of
Virginia. Sheridan executed his orders with complete success, and went
within sevell miles,f Richmond. On the 10th of' i1\v hle reached Ashlland. He was attacked there by the Confederate cavalry under General
Stuart, and moved off towards Riclhmond. Stuart, marching by a shorter
route, threw his cavalry Ietween Sheridan and Richmlond, and aga;in encountered him at the Yellow Tavern, on the LBrok turnpike, seven miles
from the city  Stuart was mortally wounded, and Sheridan secured his
retreat across the Chickahominv and down the peninsula. In General
Stuart the Confederates lost their only (reat
cavalry leader. Iad Sheridan, instead of
halting at Ashland, pushed straight on to
Richmond, the Confederate capital must           'W,
have fallen into his hands. On the 25th
of June he rejoined General Grant.
At the opening of the campaign General:
Butler, with a force of about thirty thousand
men, known as the army of the James, was
sent up the James river to attack the defences of Richmond on the south side of that
river. He occupied City Point and Ber- MAJOR-GENERAL w- S. HAICOCK.
muda Hundreds on the 5th of May, and
a few days later advanced up the neck of land lying between the
James and the Appomattox rivers. To oppose him the Confederates
collected a force of about eighteen thousand men under General Beauregard, and posted them in a fortified line extending from the James to the
Appomattox, in front of the Richmond and Petersburg railroad. On
the 16th of May Butler's army, having.advanced within a short distance
of this line, was attacked by the Confederates and driven back to Bermuda Hundreds. The Confederates then formed their lines across the
narrow peninsula, and kept Butler's force enclosed between their works
and the two rivers until the crossing of the James river by the army of
the Potomac.
The Federal plan of campaign also included the seizure of the vallev
of Virginia, and of the railway connecting Virginia with East Tennessee
and Georgia. On the 1st of May General Sigel, with an army of ten
thousand men, advanced up the valley towards Staunton. On the 15th




844


HISTOR Y OF' TIE UNITED S'TA TES.


lie was defeated with considerable loss by the Confederates under General
Breckenridge at New Market, and was driven back down the valley
General Hunter was appointed in Sigel's place, and succeeded in forcing
his way to the vicinity of Lynchburg. Lee, becoming alarmed for the
safety of that place, sent General Early, with twelve thousand men, to its
assistance. Early at once attacked Hunter, and
forced him to retreat by a circuitous route into
West Virginia.
if    In the meantime General Grant had reached
^'     af           the James river, where his army was reinforced to
' -. ~!,     one hundred and fifty thousand men. On the... i..   15th and 16th of June he crossed his troops near
City Point, and advanced upon Petersburg. At
the same time General Butler moved forward
with the army of the James against the southern
MAJ.-GEN. BRECKENRIDGE. works between the James and Appomattox. On
the 16th, 17th, and 18th, Grant made repeated
attempts to storm the Confederate works before Petersburg and south
of the James, but was repulsed with a total loss of nine thousand six
hundred and sixty-five men.    Being unable to carry the southern
works by storm, he began the siege of Petersburg. His right rested on
the James above Bermuda Hundreds, and from this point his line extended across the Appomattox, with his left thrown out towards the
Weldon railroad. During the summer and fall he continued to extend
his left until lie had seized the Weldon road.
From this point he sought to extend his left still
farther and to seize the South Side railroad, Lee's
only remaining line of communication with the
south and southwest. Frequent encounters occurred between the two armies during the summer
and fall, a number of which attained the pro- _    I-(:
portions of battles, but we have not space to Mrelate them all. On the 30th of July a mine
was sprung under one of the principal works of         o
Lee's line, and the explosion was followed by an MAJOR-GENERAL HUNTER.
assault by Burnside's corps. The attack was repulsed with a loss of over five thousand men to the Union troops. During
the early autumn General Grant extended his lines across the James river,
and established a force on the north side of that river to lay siege to the
defences of Richmond. The right of this force was extended as far as
the Williamsburg road. This was the situation of the two armies at the
close of the year




THE CIVIL I2WAR.


845


In the meantime Early had advanced into the valley of Virginia
after the defeat of Hunter. The retreat of that commander into West
Virginia had left the Potomac unguarded, and Washingtonll City exposed
to attack. General Lee at once reinforced Early to fifteen thousand men,
and ordered him to cross the Potomac and threaten Washington, hoping
by this bold movement to compel Grant to weaken his army for the protection of the capital, if not to raise the siege of Petersburg. Early
moved rapidly, crossed the Potomac near Martinsburg on the 5tlh of July,
and on the 7th occupied Frederick City in Maryland. On the 9th lie
defeated a small force under General Lewis Wallace at Monocacy Bridge,
and advanced upon Washington. The Nineteenth army corps of the Federal army was at Fortress Monroe, where it had just arrived from New
Orleans, en route to join Grant's army  It was at once or(ered to Washington, which, until its arrival, was held by a small garrison, and Grant
at the same time embarked the Sixth corps, and
sent it with all speed around to the Potomac.
These troops reached Washington before the arrival of Early, who appeared before the defences    ^
of that city on the 11th of July  He found the
works too strongly manned to be attacked by his "
force. After skirmishing for several days before.",'.
them, he withdrew across the Potomac on the
14th, and retreated to the neighborhood of
Winchester.
Early's movement so alarmed the Federal MAJ.-GEN. LEW WAd LAC E.
government for the safety of Washington that a
force of forty thousand men, ten thousand of which were the splendid
cavalry of Sheridan, was stationed in the valley, and Major-General
Sheridan was appointed to the command of this army. Had Grant
been able to retain these troops with his own army, it is safe to say that
Lee would have been forced to abandon his position at Petersburg in the
autumn of 1864. Their absence in the valley enabled the Confederate
leader to prolong his defence through the winter.
As soon as he had gotten his forces well in hand, Sheridan advanced
upon Early, and on the 19th defeated him at Winchester, and drove him
back to Fisher's Hill, where, on the 22d, he again defeated him and
drove him out of the valley, pursuing him as far as Staunton. By the
orders of General Grant, General Sheridan now laid waste the entire valley of the Shenandoah, destroying all the crops, mills, barns, and farming
implements, and driving off the cattle with his army as he moved back.
Early was reinforced after his retreat to the upper valley, and about




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STA TES.


the middle of October advanced down the valley towards the Federal
position with a force of nine thousand men anid forty pieces of cannon,
The Union army lay at Cedar creek, and was under the temporary corn.
mand of General Wright (Iuring the absence of General Slheridan. On
the 19th of October Early attacked this force, and drove it back for several miles.  Instead of continuing the
pursuit, his troops stopped to plunder the
Federal camp, which had fallen into their
H~:~ ~ ^9  hands.  General Wright rallied his men!i  +X           and re-formed them in a new position, and
~~.i;'       ['^ii^    at tllis moment General Sheridan arrived on
the field. He had heard the firing at Win-!   chester, " twenty miles away," and had
V-IM-'                   ridden at full speed from that place to rejoin
his army   He at once ordered it to ad-.'"\\ N              vance upon Early, whose men, laden with
MAJ.-GE.N. PHIL SHERIDAN.  the plunder of the captured camp, were
driven back with terrible force and pursued
up the valley f or thirty miles. This success cleared the valley of the
Confederate foirces, for Early was not able after this to collect more than
a handful of men, and Lee had no troops to spare him.   Sheridan's
brilliant victories cost him a total loss of seventeen thousand men.
The western army under General Sherman
was increased to one hundred thousand
men, 'nd was concentrated in and around
ChattanooLa about the last of April. Opposed to this force General Joseph E. John-      1^
ston had collected an army of fifty thousand  A  i
men at Dalton, Georgia.    The objective
point of Sherman was Atlanta, Georgia, the (
key to the railroad system of the south.
On the 7th of May the Federal army began
its advance. The position at Dalton being
too strong to be assaulted, Sherman turned
it by a flank movement upon Resaca, to       GEN. W. T. SHERMAN.
which place Johnston fell back. On the 14th
and 15th of May Sherman endeavored to force the Confederate lines near
Resaca, but without success. He therefore moved around Johnston's left
again, and compelled him to fall back to Dallas. Severe fighting occurred on the 25th at New Hope Church, but Johnston maintained his
position.  Heavy skirmishing ensued until the 28th, when Sherman




TIlE   CIVIL    1WA'.R..s47


having turned Allatoona pass, Johnston occupied a new position, embracing Pine, Lost, and Kenesaw mountains.  Between the 15th of
June and the 2d of July Sherman made several attemplts to force this
position, which was one of the strongest yet occupied by the Confederates,
and failing to carry it, again moved to the left and turned it. Johnstonl
at once fell back across the Chattahoochee and within the lines of Atlanta.
He had prepared this city for a siege, and had
strongly fortified it. He had his army well in
hand, and he was determined as soon as the
Federal army had passed the Chattahoochee to     '         i
attack Sherman and force him to a decisive en-  1    m?
counter.  He hoped to defeat him, and had
purposely avoided a general battle until now               'VI /!! 1
Should he succeed in his attempt the defeat of the
Federal army at such a great distance from its  e    '
base might result in its ruin, and at all events
-would be decisive of the campaign.  At this
juncture, however, he was removed from his com-  GEN. Jos. E. JOHNSTON.
mand on the 17th of July by the Confederate
president, who was greatly dissatisfied with the results of the campaign,
and who, it was generally believed, was influenced by his personal hostility to Johnston. General John B. Hood, a gallant soldier, but unfit
for the great task imposed upon him, was appointed to succeed General
Johnston. In Johnston General Sherman had recognized an antagonist.of the first rank, and had conducted the campaign accordingly  He regarded the appointment of General Hood as
greatly simplifying the task before him. The
Federal army had already paid the heavy price
of over thirty thousand men for its advance to
i            Atlanta, while Johnston had lost less than eight
Ad~ Bthousand men. The conditions were now to be
~; reversed.
-       I        On the 17th of July the Union army crossed the
Chattahoochee, and advanced towards Atlanta.
MAJ.-GEN. M' PHERSON.  On the 20th and 22d Hood attacked the Federal
lines on Peach Tree creek, but only to be beaten
back with a loss of over eight thousand men, without inflicting any serious
injury upon the Union army, which, however, lost General McPherson,
-one of its ablest commanders. Sherman now drew in his lines closer to
Atlanta, and by a skilful movement thrust his army between the two
'wings of Hood's forces, thus exposing them to the danger of being beaten




848


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


in detail. This movement sealed the fate of Atlanta, which was evacuated by the Confederates on the 31st of August. On the 2d of September Sherman occupied the city. Hood retreated towards Macon. The
loss of' Atlanta was a serious blow to the south. It placed the Federal
army in the heart of Georgia, and destroyed the principal source from
which the Confelerate armies were supplied with military stores, which
had been manufactured in great quantities at
Atlanta. Rome, Georgia, which was captured
by Sherman's army during the campaign, was
also largely engaged in the manufacture of arms
and ammunition.
General Sherman was now anxious to march
his army through Georgia, and unite with the
Union forces on the coast, but he was unable as
yet to undertake this movement, as Hood with
GEN. JOHN B. HOOD.  an army of thirty-five thousand men lay in his
front, and his communications with Chattanooga
and Knoxville were exposed to the raids of the Confederate cavalry  He
now learned that the Confederate government had ordered General Hood
to invade Tennessee for the purpose of drawing his army out of Georgia,
and concluded to make no effort to prevent this movement. The task of
watching Hood was confided to the army of
the Tennessee, under General George H.
Thomas, who was given a sufficient force to
hold Tennessee, and Sherman set about preparing his army for his march to the sea.
Thomas was heavily reinforced from  the
north.
Hood began his forward movement tow- -- 'J
ards the last of October, and on the 31st of  -
that month crossed the Tennessee near Florence. He remained on this river until the
middle of November, and on the 19th
marched northward, forcing back the command of General Schofield, and effecting a  MAJ.-GEN. GEO. H. THOMAS.
passage of Duck river on the 29th. Schofield fell back to Franklin, eighteen miles south of Nashville. He was
attacked on the 30th by the Confederates and forced back to Nashville,
within the defences of which city General Thomas had collected an army
of about forty thousand men. Hood invested the city, and hastened forward his preparations to assault the Federal works. General Thomas,




THE CIVIL I'AR.


849


however, anticipated him, and on the 15th of December attacked the
Confederate army and forced it back at all points. Thile next day, the
16th, the battle was renewed, and Hood was completely routed. On the
17th the Union army set out in pursuit of Hood's broken columns, and
followed them for over fifty miles. But for the gallantry of a small rearguard, which preserved its discipline and covered the retreat to the last,
the Confederate army would have been scattered bvond all hope of reunion. Hood recrossed the Tennessee with barely twenty thousand men
out of the thirty-five thousand with which le had begun the campaign.
He had lost half of his generals, and nearly all of his artillery  He fell


SAVANNAH, GEORGIA.
back lo Tupelo, Mississippi, and on the 23d of January, 1865, was, at his
own request, relieved of his command.
In the meantime General Sherman, leaving Thomas to deal with Hood,
had begun his march through the State of Georgia. Satisfied that the
war was practically decided in the southwest, he proposed to march to the
sea near Savannah, and thence through the confederacy to the position
of General Grant's army. This movement would compel the Confederates to mass their forces in his front, and would confine the decisive opera64




850


HISTORY OF THE UNITED ST'ATES.


tions of the war to the country between his own and Grant's armies,
between which it was believed the southern forces could be crushed.
Everything being in readiness, Sherman cut loose from his communications with Chattanooga and set fire to Atlanta. On the 14th of November
he set out on his "March to the Sea," at the lhead of a splendid army of
sixty thousand men. Hle ravaged the country
as he went, leaving behind him a broad belt
of desolation, sixty miles in width and three
hundred in length. The Confederates had not
' l [      ssufficient force to offer serious opposition to his. & *^|^..march, and in about four weeks he reached the.coast near the mouth of the Savannah river.
On tlhe 13th of December he stormed and captured Fort MhecAllister, which commanded that
river, The city of Savannah was thus left at
--           Slhernan's mercy, and was occupied by his
MAJ.-GEN. o. 0. HOWARD. army on the 22d of December  By this successful march to the sea, General Sherman had
not only gotten lis Iarnlv in a position to co-operate with Grant in the final
struggle of the war, but had struckl terror to the south. The most hopeful
Confederate now saw that the triumph of the Union cause was inevitable
and close at hand.
During the year important operations had been undertaken by the
Federal forces on the co,.ast. In July a powerful fleet under Admiral
Farragilt, aC'oIplI)anied 1) a strong tforce of troops under General Granger,
was sent against AMobile. This city was one of
the principal ports of tlhe confedleracy and was
strongly fortified. Thle entrance to the bay was
commanded 1ly Forts Morgan and Gaines, two.
powerful works built before the war, and a number of l)atteries, and a Confederate fleet under
Admiral Buchanan-who had commanded thle         -
"Vir(inia " in her fight with tle " Monitor "-lav
l)evond the forts ready to contest the possession
of the bay   On tlhe 5th of August Farragut      ADMIRAL PORTER.
passed the forts with his fleet with the loss of but
one iron-clad, and entered Mobile bay  He immediately attacked the
Confederate fleet, the flag-ship of which was a powerful iron-clad ramthe " Tennessee."  After one of the most desperate fights in naval annals,
the entire fleet was destroyed or captured by the Union vessels. Fort
Powell was evacuated and blown up by its garrison on the same day On




THE CIVIL WAR.


851


the 7th of August Fort Gaines surrendered to General Granger, and on
the 23d Fort Morgan also capitulated. These successes made the Federal
forces masters of Mobile bay, and closed the port to blockade runners;
but the city, which was strongly fortified, was not taken until the next, year.
i.-  Wilmington, on the Cape Fear river, was now the only port in the
confederacy remaining open to blockade runners. It was defended by
Fort Fisher, an unusually formidable work near the mouth of the Cape
Fear. A larger fleet than had yet been employed during the war was
assembled in Hampton Roads under Admiral Porter. A force of eight


THE LANDING AT MOBILE, ALABAMA.


thousand troops under General Butler was embarked, and the expedition
^sailed to the Cape Fear. Fort Fisher was subjected to a vigorous bom-?, bardment, which was begun on the 24th of December, and the troops
were landed; but at the last moment General Butler decided that the fort
was too strong to be assaulted, and the expedition returned to Hampton: Roads..
Since the opening of the war the Confederate cruisers had nearly driven
the commerce of the Northern States from the ocean. These vessels were:s built in EBgland, and were usually manned by crews of English seamen
under Confederate naval officers. One of these, the " Florida," put to




HIS''TOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


csea in the summer of 1862, and succeeded in reaching Mobile in August
of that year. In January, 1863, she ran the blockade, and in three
months capltured and destroyed fifteen merchant vessels. She was at
length seized in the harbor of Bahia, in Brazil, by a Federal man-of-war,
and taken to Hampton Roads. The Brazilian government, resenting this
breach of its neutrality, demanded the release of the " Florida," but while
the negotiations were in progress, she was sunk in Hampton Roads by a
collision with another vessel.
The most famous of all the Confederate cruisers was the "Alabama."
Slhe was built at Liverpool, and was suffered to go to sea in spite of the
protest of the American minister at London. She was commanded by
(Captain Raplh:iel Sermmes, and during her long career captured sixty-five
mllecllhant vessels, and destloyed over ten millions of dollars worth of
prol)erty  I)urin lher entire career she never entered a Confederate port.
In the summer of 1864 she put into the harbor of Cherbourg, in France,
and was blockaded there by the United States
war-steamer "Kearsarge," Captain Winslow.
The French government ordered the " Alabama"
to leave Cherbourg, and she went to sea on the
19th of June. She was at once attacked by the
Af           "Kearsarge," and was sunk by the guns of that
steamer after an engagement of an hour and a
quarter. Semmes was saved from drowning by an
s              English yacht that had witnessed the battle and
ADMIR AL A'INSLOW  was set ashore. The destruction of the "Alabama"
was hailed with delight throughout the north.
In the fall of 1864 the presidential election was held in the States
remaining faithful to the Union. The Republican party nominated
President Lincoln for re-election, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee, for
the vice-presidency  The Democratic party supported General George
B. McClellan for the presidency, and George H. Pendleton, of Ohio,
for the vice-presidency  Mr Lincoln received at the polls 2,213,665
votes to 1,802,237 cast for McClellan; and the electoral votes of every
State save those of New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky, were cast
for him.
On the 31st of October, 1864, Nevada was admitted into the Union as
a separate State.
The year 1864 closed brilliantly for the Union cause. Though the
Confederates had gained a number of important victories during the year,
they had, on the whole, steadily lost ground.  Virginia, Tennessee,
Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi, and Florida were overrun by the Federal




TIlE CIVIL WAR.


853


armies, and on the coast there was not a single port remaining open to
the Confederacy save that of Wilmington, which was blockaded by a
powerful fleet. It was evident that the coming spring canpaign would
end the war. The Federal forces had been increased to the enormous
total of one million of men. The Confederates could bring into the field
scarcely two hundred thousand men, and for these it was difficult to find
subsistence.  The vicious financial system adopted by the Confederate
government had run its appointed course, and the notes of the Confederate
treasury were worth scarcely three or four cents in the dollar,
The year 1865 opened with an effort to secure the return of peace
without further bloodshed. In January Mr F P Blair, Sr., cameu from
Washington to Richmond, and on his own responsibility proposed
to the Confederate government the appointment of commnissiolers to
negotiate with the Federal government for the close of the war. The
following commissioners were appointed by the Confederate government:
Alexander H. Stephens, vice-president of the Confederate States; R. MI.T Hunter, senator from Virginia iu the Confederate Congress, and John A.
Campbell, assistant secretary of war, They proceeded to City Point under a safe conduct from
General Grant, and were conveyed from that place
to Hampton Roads in a government steamer  On
the 3d of February President Lincoln and Secretary  N
Seward having reached Hampton Roads, an informal
conference was held between the president and tlhe
commissioners. The president refused to entertain  BRIG.-GEN. A. TERRY.
any propositions which were not based upon the
unconditional submission of the Southern States to the authority of the
Union, and as the commissioners had no authority from their government
to enter into any such arrangement, the conference acc,,mplished nothing.
In the meantime, however, Admiral Porter, undaunted by the failure
of Butler to take Fort Fisher, had remained off the fort with his fleet and
had asked for troops to renew the attempt. The same force that Butler
had commanded, with fifteen hundred additional men, was placed under
General Terry's command and ordered to join Porter. This force arrived
off Fort Fisher on the 12thpof January, and on the morning of the 13th
accomplished its landing with success. A terrible fire was rained upon
the fort by the fleet during the 13th and 14th, and on the 14th a daring
reconnoissance of the Union force revealed the fact that the fort had been
severely damaged by this bombardment. The trenches of the Union
army were pushed rapidly through the sand to within t wo, hundred yards




854


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


of Fort Fisher in order to attract the attention of the garrison, and on the
15th a feint was made by a force of sailors and marines from the fleet in
this direction. At the same time the troops under General Terry stormed
the fort from the land side, and after a hard hand-to-hand struggle of
about five hours, during which each traverse was carried in succession by
a separate fight, Fort Fisher was captured. On the 16th and 17th the
Confederates blew up their other works at the
mouth of the Cape Fear and retreated towards
Wilmington. The mouth of the river was now
in tlhe possession of the Federal forces, and the!     last port of the south was closed. A number of
~:~    blockade runners, ignorant of the capture, ran into
the river and fell into the hands of the victors.
Later in the month, General J. M. Schofield was
p1lacecl in command of the department of North
Carolina, and on the 22d1 f February occupied the
BRIG. (;EN. SOFIELD. city of Wilmington witli his troops.
Sherman, after the capture of Savannah, allowed
his arlmy a month's rest on the coxast, and tEowarnls the end of January
moved northward through South Carolina towards Virginia. His force
was sixty thousand strong and moved in four columns covering a front
of fifty miles. His route was marked by the same desolation he had spread
through (Georgia. The roads were in a horrible condition, and in many
places the men were forced to wade through the icy waters up to the armpits. Still lihe pressedl on right into the heart of the
confederacy  On the 17th of February he reached
Columbia, South Carolina, having destroyed the        -
railroad leading north from Charleston. General.,
Hardee, commanding    the Confederate forces at       i::
Charleston, apprehensive of being shut up in that.
city, which was utterly unprepared for a siege,   ji
evacuated Charleston and its defences on the 1 7th
of February and retreated northward to join (General.     2.
Johnston in   North  Carolina.   The next (d v LIEVT.-GEN. W- HARDEE.
Charleston was occupied by the Fcileral i>)rees.
Fort Sumter was also taken possession of at the same time. The fort
was a mass of ruins; the city was not muclh better off. It had suffered
severely from  the bombardment to which it had been subjected since
the fall of Fort Wagner, and the Confederates upon their withdrawal had
set fire to a considerable part of it.
From Columbia, Sherman moved towards Fayetteville, North Carolina,




THE CIVIL WAR.


855


driving back the Confederate forces that resisted his progress, and entered
that place on the 12th of March. From Fayetteville he moved towards
Goldsboro'
The Confederate government, in the emergency to which it was reduced,
was obliged to reappoint General Joseph E. Johnston to the commiand of'
the force assembling in Sherman's front.
Johnston succeeded in collecting about thirty-   ^   -
five thousand troops, with which he attacked    ~      ^
Sherman at Averasboro' on the 16th of March,.     '
and again at Bentonville on the 19th. The      '.,
Confeiderates fought with their old enthusiasm in these encounters, but were unable to
stay the progress of the Federal army, and on i     ^l
the 23d of March Sherman occupied Goldsboro'  Johnston withdrew towards Raleigh.
At Goldsboro' Sherman was joined by the       \v   -
forces of Generals Schofield and Terry which MAJOR-GENERAL H. G. WIIGHIT.
had come up from the coast.
The armies of Grant and Lee had lain confronting ea.lch other during
the winter, General Lee had little hope of maintaining his pl,_,sition after
the opening of hostilities. His army was growing weaker from sickness
and desertion, and no more men could be obtained. The Confederate
Congress made a feeble effort during the winter to enlist negro troops in
its service, but with a singular recklessness refused to offer the boon of
freedom to such of the blacks as would take
up arms. That body believed that the negroes
would fight for their own enslavement.
Early having been driven out of the valley,
General Sheridan was ordered to start from. V'.                  Winchester with a column of ten thousand.... cavalry, and cut the communications of Lee's
army by railroad and telegraph north and east
of Richmond. He left Winchester on the
27th of February, and defeating Earlyv's small
MAJOR-GENERAL WARREN.  force at Waynesboro', broke the Virginia
Central railroad at that point and moved to
Charlottesville, which surrendered to him. He then divided his force
into two columns and resumed his "rid(e" on the 6th of March. He
thoroughly destroyed the railroad between Charlottesville and Lynchburg for about forty miles, and the canal between Richmond and
Lynchburg shared the same fate for a considerable distance.  Being




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


unable to cross the James above Richmond on account of the high water,
he moved around the north of Richmond, crossed the river at Deep
Bottom, and joined (Grant before Petersburg on the 26th of March. IIe
had utterly laid waste the country along his route. The arrival of this
splendid fbrce of cavalry was of the greatest service to Grant, as we
shall see.
Tile situation of General Lee's army was growing more critical every
day   He had less than forty thousand troops. He was fully convinced
of the necessity of abandoning Richmond and Petersburg, and was anxious
to do so at once, and unite his army with that of General Johnston and
occupy a new position in the interior of the south. In order to secure
the withdrawal of his army he determined to make a vigorous attack upon
Grant's right, hoping to compel him, in order to help his right, to draw
back his left wing, which was in dangerous proximity to the road by which
Lee wished to retreat. Could he succeed in this effort, he meant to evacuate his position at Petersburg and retire towards
Danville, where he hoped to unite with General
X fl  *^U Johnston. On the 25th of March he made a heavy
H  f           attack upon Fort Steadman on the right of Grant's
line, and captured it. The Federal forces rallied,. however, and drove the Confederates from               the
(captured works back to their own line, inflicting
upon them a loss of three thousand men. Lee had
now no alternative but to await the movements
LIEUT.-GEN. A. r. HILL. of General Grant, as he could not afford to make
the sacrifice of men which a renewal of his
efforts would require of him.
General Grant lost no time in taking the field. By the last of March
his army, numbering about.one hundred and seventy thousand men,
including Sheridan's magnificent cavalry division, was in readiness to
begin the campaign. On the 29th of March the advance of the Federal
army was be un. Leaving the bulk of his army before Petersburg, Grant
sent a column of twenty-five thousand men to turn the Confederate right
and seize the Southside railroad, Lee's only means of communication with
Johnston's army and the country in his rear. By the morning of the 30th
the Federal left had gotten fairly to the right of the Confederates. On
the 30th a heavy storm prevented a further advance, and Lee took
advantage of the delay to reinforce his right wing with all the troops he
could spare. On the 31st he attempted to drive back the Federal left,
but without success. While this battle was going on, Sheridan swung
around the Confederate right and seized the important position of Five




THE CIVIL WAR.


857


Forks. Lee then sent Pickett's and Johnston's divisions to recover thi.
point, and they drove off the cavalry, and occupied Five Forks at nightfall on the 31st. Being joined by the Fifth corps, Sheridan attacked the
Confederates on the morning of the 1st of April, and defeated them after
a determined encounter, taking over five thousand prisoners.
As soon as Sheridan had secured Five Forks, Grant opened a heavy
artillery fire upon the lines of Petersburg along his whole front, ald continued the bombardment through the night. On the morning of t he 2d
of April he made a determined attack upon Lee's line, anll broke it at
several points. General Lee was now forced to assume a new and shorter
line immediately around Petersburg. The Federal army made a vigorous
effort to force its way into the city, but was unsuccessful.
The fate of Petersburg was now decided. It was impossible to hold it
longer, On the night of the 212 of April General Lee withdrew his army
from Richmond and Petersburg, and retreated in the direction of Amelia
Court-house. His intention was to move towards
Danville, and endeavor to join Johnston. His
retreat was discovered on the morning of the d:
of April, and the Federal army, leaving a small
force to occupy Petersburg, set off in pursuit, fol-.;
lowing the line of the Southside railroad.  '
On the morning of the 3d the withdrawal of'
the Confederates from the lines of Richmond was
discovered by General Weitzel, commanding the
Federal forces on the north side of the James. MAJOR-GENERAL E.,. URD.
He at once advanced and occupied the city of
Richmond, a large part of which was in flames as he entered it, having
been set on fire by the Confederates upon their evacuation of it. Thus
fell the Confederate capital after four long years of bloody war for its
possession.
Upon reaching Amelia Court-house, General Lee found that the supplies he had ordered to be sent there from Danville were not to be had.
The trains sent from Danville by his instructions had been ordered to
Richmond to remove the property of the Confederate government, and
had not been allowed to unload their stores at Amelia Court-house. This
was a terrible blow to Lee, who was now unable to furnish food to his
troops, who had eaten nothing since the commencement of the retreat.
Parties were sent into the surrounding country to obtain supplies, and
this consumed the whole of the 4th and 5th of April, which Lee had
hoped to spend in pushing on beyond his pursuers. The delay enabled
Sheridan, with eighteen thousand mounted men, to seize the Confederate




HISTORY OF THE UVNITED STATES.


line of retreat at Jctersville. This movement put an end to Lee's hope
of reaching Danville and joining Johnston. A battle was impossible, for
Sheridan had a force nearly equal to his own, and Grant was hurrying on
with the rest of the Federal army  General Lee therefore turned off and
retreated towards Farmville, hoping to be able to reach Lynchburg, but
Sheridan, after passing Farmville, pushed forward again, and by a forced
march reached Appomattox Station, on the Southside railroad, on the
night of the 8th, and planted his force squarely across the Confederate
line of retreat. The next morning Lee, when near Appomattox Courthouse, discovered this obstacle in his way, and about the same time
Sheridan was joined by the army of the James, under General Ord, while
the army of the Potomac, under General Meade, was closing in fast upon
Lees' rear  General Lee had now but eight thousand men with arms in
their hands. The bulk of his forces, being too much broken down by
fatigue and hunger to keep their places in the ranks, accompanied the
regiments in a disorganized mass. As soon as he discovered Sheridan in
his front, Lee attempted to cut his way through his lines, but failing in
this effort, and being convinced that further resistance would merely be a
useless sacrifice of his men, he asked for a suspension of hostilities, and
went to meet General Grant.
The two commanders met at a house near Appomattox Court-house,
and after a brief interview arranged the terms of the surrender  General
Grant treated the beaten army with great liberality  The hungry Confederates were fed by the victors, and after laying down their arms were
permitted to return to their homes. In order that the men might betake
themselves as soon as possible to the cultivation of the soil, and so avoid
the s.rfferino which the failure of the harvest would entail upon the
south, General Grant released all captured horses which were identified
as the property of the soldiers surrendering them. The terms of the
surrender were arranged on the 9th of April. On the 12th the army of
northern Virginia formed in divisions for the last time, and marching to
a designated spot near Appomattox Court-house, laid down its arms, and
disbanded.   About seventy-five hundred men with arms, and about
eighlteen thousand unarmed stragglers, took part in the surrender. The
Federal troops treated their vanquished opponents with true soldierly
kindness, and carefully refrained from everything which might seem to
insult the valor that had won their earnest admiration.
The news of the capture of Richmond and Petersburg and the surrender of Lee's army was received in the north with the greatest rejoicing.
Bells were rung, cannon fired, and illuminations flashed from every town
and village, for it was understood that these great successes were decisive
of the war.




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860


IIISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STA TES.


In the midst of these rejoicings occurred a terrible tragedy, which
plunged the country into mourning. President Lncoln, whose re-election we have related, entered upon his second term on the 4th of March,
1865, amid the congratulations of the country  On the evening of the
14th of April lie attended a performance at Ford's theatre, in the city
of Washington. During the midst of the performance the report of a
pistol rang through the house, and the next moment a man leaped from
the president's box upon the stage, and waving a pistol over his head,
shoutedl " Sic selmp(' tyrannis " (Thus always with tyrants), and disappeared behind the scenes. The cry was raised that the president had
been killed, and in the commotion which ensued the assassin escaped.
The murderer had entered the lobby of the theatre, and had fired from
the door of the privatc box upon the unsuspicious president, who was
sitting with his back to him. Mr. Lincoln fell heavily forward and
never spoke again. He was conveyed to a house on the opposite side of
the street, and the highest skill was exerted to save him; but all in vain.
He died on the morning of the 15th, surrounded by his family and the
leading men of the nation. Appropriate funeral services were held on
the 19th, and the body of the martyred president was conveyed through
the principal cities of the north and west to Springfield, Illinois, where
it was buried. Along the entire route it was received with the evidences
of the nation's grief. Cities were draped in mourning, and dense crowds
poured out to greet the funeral cortege and testify their love and sorrow
for the dead man. Even in the south, which had made the election of
Abraham Lincoln the occasion of the dissolution of the Union, the unaffected and manly virtues of this simply great man had conquered the
people, who had come to regard him as their best and truest friend. His
death was sincerely lamented there, and in the lamentation of the south
Abraham Lincoln had his proudest triumph. His death was a crushing
misfortune to the whole country  He was the only man capable of carrying out a policy of generous conciliation towards the south, and he had
resolved upon such a course. He was sincerely desirous to heal the
wounds of the war as soon as possible, and was strong enough to put
down all opposition to his policy  His untimely death, as well as the
manner of it, threw back the settlement of our national troubles fully
five years.
As he leaped from  the president's box to the stage the assassin's foot
caught in an American flag with which the box was draped, and he fell
heavily, breaking his leg. He managed to escape, however. It was immediately ascertained that the assassin was John Wilkes Booth, a younger
son of the famous actor Junius Brutus Booth. Almost at the same time




THIE  CIVIL   WVA R.


861


MONUMENT TO ABRAHAM LINCOLN IN FAIRMOUNT PARE, PHILADELPHIA.


-that the president was shot, another assassin, one Payne alias Powell,
entered the residence of Secretary Seward. Proceeding to the chamber
where the secretary was confined to a sick-bed, he attacked the two attendants of the invalid, and his son, Frederick W Seward, and injured them
severely, and then attempted to cut Mr Seward's throat. He succeeded
in gashing the face of his intended victim, but fled before further harm
could be done.
Booth, who was most probably insane, had drawn quite a number of
persons into a conspiracy, which had for its object the murder of the
president and vice-president, Secretaries Seward and Stanton, and Chief
Justice Chase. The plot failed through unexpected movements of some
of the intended victims and the cowardice of some of the conspirators.
Booth and a young man named Harold fled into lower Maryland, from
which they crossed the Potomac into Virginia. They were pursued by
the government detectives and a squadron of cavalry, and were tracked
to a barn in Caroline county, Virginia, between Bowling Green and Port
Royal. Here they were surrounded on the 26th of April. Harold surrendered himself, but Booth, refusing to yield, was shot by Sergeant
Boston Corbett, and died a few hours later, after suffering intensely His




862


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


accomplices were arrested, and were brought to trial before a military
commission at Washington. Payne or Powell, Atzerot, Harold, and
Mrs. Surratt were condemned to death, and were hanged on the 7th of
July, 1865, for complicity in the plot. Dr Mudd, O'Laughlin and
Arnold were imprisoned in the
"D 2Dry Tortugas for life, and Spangler
for six years. What Booth exl, pccted to accomplish by his horrible deed yet remains a mystery. It.                    is now generally believed that he
was insane; rendered so perhaps by
his dissipated habits-and in this
-       state of mind had conceived the'lea
that Mr 'Lincoln was a tyrant, and
as sht.hll oulght to be put to death.
^      I-I le had no accomplices in the south,
and his blood' deed ivas regarded
with horror 1y the southern people.
HON. W H. SEWARD.           We must now return to Sherman's army, which we left resting at
Goldsboro'  Johnston's army was in the vicinitv of Raleigh, and after
the fall of Richmond was joined by Mr. Davis and the various officers of
the Confederate government. On the 10th of April Sherman advanced
from Goldsboro' towards Johnston's position, and steadily pressed the
Confederate army back. On the 13th Sherman entered Raleigh. Being
convinced that further resistance was hopeless, and having learned of the
surrender of General Lee's army, General Johnston now opened negotiations with General Sherman for the surrender of his army to the Federal
commander The result of these negotiations was
an agreement signed by the two commanders on
the 18th of April. As this agreement provided iE?;~
for the restoration of the States of the Confederacy to their lost places in the Union, it was disapproved by the Federal government, and Sherman was ordered to resume hostilities. General LIEUT.-GEN. E. KIRBY SMITH.
Johnston was at once notified by General Sherman
of this order, and on the 26th of April entered into an agreement with
him by which he surrendered to General Sherman all the Confederate
forces under his command, on terms similar to those granted to General
Lee by General Grant.




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863




864


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


The example of Generals Lee and Johnston was followed by the other
Confederate commanders throughout the south. The last to surrender
was General E. Kirby Smith, in Texas, on the 26th of May On the
29th of May President Johnson issued a proclamation announcing the
close of the war, and offering amnesty to all who had participated in it
o n the Confederate side, with the exception of
i             fourteen specified classes.
^              Upon the surrender of Johnston's army, Mr.!  ^w          Davis and the members of his former cabinet
r =           endeavored to make their way to the coast of; gfe |Florida, from which they hoped to be able to
reach the West Indies. Some of them suc-                ~ceeded in doing so, but Mr, Davis was captured,S  i   R    V      at Irwinsvi]le, Georgia, on the 10th of May,
4                 and was sent as a prisoner to Fortress Monroe,
JrTDAH P. BENJAMIN.  where he was held in confinement until May,
1867
The civil war was over. It had cost the country one million of men
in the killed and crippled for life of the two armies. In money the north
and the south had expended probably the enormous sum of $5,000,000,000. The exact amount will never be known, as the Confederate debt
perished with the government which created it.




CHAPTER XLIII.


THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON
The New President-Return of the Army to Civil Life-The Public Debt-The Reconstruction Question-Action of the President-He declares the Southern States Readmitted into the Union-The Fifteenth Amendment-Meeting of Congress-The
President's Acts Annulled-Reconstruction Policy of Congress-The Fourteenth
Amendment-The Freedman's Bureau and Civil Rights Bills-The Tenure of Office
Act-Admission of Nebraska into the Union-The Southern States Organized as Mili —
tary Districts-Admission of Southern States into the Union-The Fourteenth Amend —
ment Ratified-President Johnson's Quarrel with Secretary Stanton-Impeachment ofthe President-His Acquittal-Release of Jefferson Davis-Indian War-The FrencB,
in Mexico-Fall of the Mexican Empire-Laying of the Atlantic Telegraph-Purchase
of Alaska-Naturalization Treaty with Germany-Treaty with China-Death of General Scott-Death of ex-President Buchanan-General Grant Elected President-The.
Fifteenth Amendment.
PON   the death of Mr. Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, the viee-presi —
dent, by the terms of the Constitution, became president of the
United States.  He took the oath of office on the 15th of April,
and at once entered upon the discharge of his duties. His first
act was to retain all the members of the cabinet appointed by
Mr Lincoln.
Mr Johnson was a native of North Carolina, having been born in.
Raleigh on the 29th of December, 1808. At the age of ten he was bound
as an apprentice to a tailor of that city  He was at this time unable to.
read or write.  Some years later, being determined to acquire an education, he learned the alphabet from a fellow-workman, and a friend taught
him spelling. He was soon able to read, and pursued his studies steadily,
working ten or twelve hours a day at his trade, and studying two or three
more.  In 1826 he removed to Greenville, Tennessee, carrying with him
his mother, who was dependent upon him for support. Upon attaining
manhood he married, and continued his studies under the direction of his
wife, supporting his family in the meantime by his trade. He was subsequently chosen alderman of his town, and with this election entered'
upon his political career  Studying law he abandoned tailoring, and devoted himself to legal pursuits and politics.  He was successively chosen
mayor, member of the legislature, presidential elector, and' Stete senator.
He was twice elected governor of Tennessee, and three times a senator of
55                                                     865




866


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES


the United States from that State. Upon the secession of Tennessee from
the Union he refused to relinquish his seat in the Senate, and remained
faithful to the cause of the Union throughout the war, winning considerable reputation during the struggle by his services in behalf of the national cause. He was an earnest, honest-hearted man, who sincerely
desired to do his duty to the country. His mistakes were due to his temperament, and proceeded from no desire to serve his own interests or those
of any party. In his public life he was incorruptible. A man of ardent
nature, strong convictions, and indomitable will, it was not possible that
he should avoid errors, or fail to stir up a warm and determined opposition to his policy.
The first duty devolving upon the new administration was the disbanding of the army, which at the close of the war numbered over a million
of men. It was prophesied by foreign nations and feared by many persons at home that the sudden return of such
a large body of men to the pursuits of civil
life would be attended with serious evils, buit
m         both the Union and the Confederate soldiers
Bwent back quietly and readily to their old,8,.,~a^         ~ avocations. Thus did these citizen-soldiers
give to the world a splendid exhibition of
the triumph of law and order in a free
-H     -      <   country, and a proof of the stability of our:7/,A      -     institutions.
AdI'         l       -   Two questions-both difficult and deli7! cate-presented themselves for settlement by
/             the government. In June, 1865, the war
ANDREW JOHNSON.      debt amounted to $2,700,000,000. The interest on this sum was $133,000,000, and
was nearly all payable in gold. The government was called upon to
raise the latter amount to pay the interest on its bonds, and at the same
time to take measures to strengthen the confidence of the bondholders in
the security of their investments. The latter object was accomplished by
a solemn resolution of the House of Representatives, adopted with but
one dissenting voice on the 5th of December, 1865, pledging the faith of
the nation to the payment of the public debt, " principal and interest."
In order to provide for the immediate wants of the government Congress
levied additional duties on imported articles, and imposed taxes upon
manufactured articles, incomes, etc. These burdensome imposts were
cheerfully submitted to by the people, and a revenue of over $300,000,000
was raised, providing not only for the payment of the interest on the




THE ADMI.NISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON.


867


debt, and of the current expenses of the government, but also leaving a
large surplus, which was applied to the reduction of the national debt.
In the year 1866, " before all the extra troops called out by the war had
been discharged, the debt had been diminished more than thirty-one
millions of dollars "-a striking proof of the ability as well as the willingness of the nation to discharge its financial 'obligations. During the
remainder of Mr. Johnson's term this policy was faithfully adhered tc
under the able guidalice of Hugh McCulloch, secretary of the treasury.
The other question demanding immediate attention was the adjustment
of the relations of the States of the south to the Union. The president


CITY HALL, PORTLAND, MATIE.


held that they had never been out of the Union, but had simply been in
insurrection, and had been brought back to the acknowledgment of thecr
allegiance to the constitution and laws of the United States, which lhe
claimed they had no power to renounce. Now that they had submitted
to the authority they had formerly endeavored to reject, he claimed that
they were entitled to immediate restoration to their old places in the
Union. In support of his position he quoted the solemn declaration of
Congress in the summer of 1861, and the asslrances of Mr. Lincoln's




HISTORY OF' THE UMVITED STATES.


administration that the war was fought for the restoration of the Union,
and not for purposes of conquest. In accordance with these declarations,
provisional governments had been formed in some of the Southern States
and their representatives had been admitted to Congress during the progress of the war. A considerable party in the north supported President
Johnson in this position; but the Republican party, now the dominant.
political organization of the United States, opposed his views with great
determination. The Republicans insisted that the results of the war
should be secured by stringent laws, and that the Southern States, before
their admission into the Union, should be compelled to give guarantees for
the perpetuation of these results. The Republican party, moreover, claimed
that the work of reconstructing the Union properly belonged to the legislative branch of the government and not to the president. Had the
president summoned Congress in extra session and sought the aid of that
body in the task before him, a conciliatory policy might have been agreed
upon, and the work of reconstruction have been completed without
delay
President Johnson, however, proceeded alone and without delay to the
work of restoring the Southern States to their places in the Union. On
the 29th of May, 1865, he issued a proclamation appointing a provisional
governor for the State of North Carolina, and providing for the assembling of a convention in that State for the purpose of forming a new constitution, under which the State would be recognized by him as a member
of the Federal Union. In the meantime North Carolina was kept under
military rule. A similar course was pursued by the president towards the
States of Virginia, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Ar'ansas, Louisiana and Texas. The people of the ten Southern
States held conventions in accordance with the president's requirements,
annulled their ordinances of secession, renewed their obligations to the
Federal Union, adopted new State constitutions, and ratified the thirteenth amendment to the constitution of the United States prohibiting
slavery forever in all the States of the Union. They also elected senators.;:l representatives to Congress, and were recognized by the president as
iormally restored to their places in the Federal Union.
On the 1st of February, 1865, Congress passed a resolution submitting
to the legislatures of the various States the following amendment to the
constitution:
"ARTICLE XIII. Section 1. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall exist within the
United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction.
"Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation."




THE ADMIINISTRAT7ION OF ANDREWI JOHNSON.


869


On the 18th of December, William H. Seward, secretary of state, firmally announced that this, the thirteenth amendment, had been duly
ratified by the States, and had become a -part of the constitution of the
United States.   The ratification of this amendment had been required of
the Southern States by the president as a condition of their readmission
into the Union.
The Thirty-ninth Congress met in December, 1865, and at once took
measures to neutralize the reconstruction policy of the president. Tile
Republican party had a large majority in each house, and was thoroughly
united in its opposition to the president. The senators and representatives
of the Southern States were refused admission to seats in Congress, and
the reconstruction measures of the president were treated as null and void.
Congress insisted that the Union should not be "restored" as it was before the war, but "reconstructed" upon an entirely new          basis.  The
measures of the president had made no change in the political status of
the black population of the south. The negroes were secured in their
freedom  by the thirteenth amendment.        Congress now     proceeded   to
make the negro a citizen of the United States, and to reconstruct the
Union upon this basis. The following, known as the fourteenth amenlment to the constitution, was adopted by Congress and proposed to the
States for ratification:
"ARTICLE XIV   Section 1. All persons born or naturalized in the United States, and
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States, and of the States
wherein they reside. No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the
privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States: nor shall any State dcprive any
person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law, nor deny to any person
within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.
"Section 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several States according to
their respective numbers, counting the whole number of persons in each State, excluding
Indians not taxed; but when the right to vote at any election, for the choice of electors for
president and vice-president of the United States, representatives in Congress, the executive
and judicial officers of a State or the members of the legislature thereof, is denied to any
of the male inhabitants of such State (being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the
United States), or in any way abridged except for participation in rebellion or other crime,
the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number
of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of
age, in said State.
" Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Congress, or elector of president and vice-president, or hold any office, civil or military, under the United States, or
under any State, who, having previously taken an oath as a member of Congress, or as an
officer of the United States, or as a member of any State legislature, or as an executive or
judicial officer of any State, to support the constitution of the United States, shall have
engaged in insurrection or rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the
enemies thereof; but Congress may, by a vote of two-thirds of-each House, remove such
disability.




HISTORY OF THIE UNITED STATES.
J


"Secron 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and bounties for services in suppressing
insurrection or rebellion, shall not be questioned; but neither the United States nor any
State shall assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or rebellion
against the United States, or any claim for the loss or emancipation of any slave; but all
such dibts, obligations and claims shall be held illegal and void.
"Section 5. Thi Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate legislation, the
provisions of this article."
This amendment was rejected by all the Southern States except Tennlessee, and by several of the Northern States.    Tennessee ratified the
amendlment, and was adlllitted by Congress into the Union.    Congress at
-f
JI
CIHESTNUT STREET BRIDGE OVER THE SCHUYLKILL, PHILADELPHIA.
this session enacted what is known as the " Freedman's Bureau Bill,"
creatinl a department under the Federal government for the care and protection of the newlv emancipated negroes and the destitute whites of the
south.  This measure was vetoed by the president as unconstitutional,
and was passed over his veto. It was immediately put in operation
throughout the south.   While the freedman's bureau did much to assist
the negro in adapting himself to the duties of his new position, it was
productive of an immense amount of corruption and fraud.
Another measure of Congress which was vetoed by the president upon
constitutional grounds, and was passed over his veto, was the " Civil Rights
Bill," which secured to the negro the rights of a citizen.




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON.


871


As the quarrel between the president and Congress deepened, various
efforts were made by the latter to hamper the executive and impair his
powers. The Thirty-ninth Congress adopted for this purpose a measure
known as the " Tenure of Office Act," by the terms of which the president was forbidden to remove any person from a civil office under the
government without the consent of the Senate. This bill was promptly
vetoed by the president, but was passed over his veto by Congress.
On the 1st of March, 1867, a new State was added to the Union by the
admission of Nebraska on an equality with the original thirteen Statesfour of which were at that time undergoing the process of reconstruction.
In February, 1867, Congress proceeded to take extreme measures with
the Southern States that lhad refused to ratify the fourteenth amendment. The State governments were abolished, the State officers removed,
and the Southern States were organized as military districts, and placed
under absolute martial lawv  The writ of habeas corpus was suspended,
and the civil law was made to give place to the will of a military commander. This was done with the avowed intention of compelling the
Southern States to ratify the fourteenth amendment and seek admission
into the Union upon the terms prescribed by Congress. The effect of the
measures of Congress was to disfranchise the better class of the southern
people, and to confer the unrestricted right of suffrage upon the negroes.
The intelligence of the Southern States was denied any voice in their government, which was intrusted to the most ignorant and degraded part of
their population. The measures of Congress were regarded with bitter
hostility by the south, and there were very many of the more thoughtful
Republicans of the north who seriously doubted the wisdom of this
method of reconstruction. The measures of Congress were vetoed by the
president, but were passed over his veto, March 2d, 1867
Upon the organization of the military districts, the commanding generals, who, as a rule, exercised their power with moderation and forbearance, caused a registry of voters to be made, and ordered elections to be
held for conventions to form State governments. The conventions so
elected could not in any case be said to represent the white people of the
south. After a bitter and protracted struggle, some of the conventions
ratified the fourteenth amendment, and organized State governments.
On the 24th of June, 1868, Congress passed a bill over the president's
veto admitting the States of Arkansas, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, Louisiana, North Carolina, and South Carolina into the Union. Virginia,
Mississippi, and Texas, having refused to ratify the amendment, were
denied admission into the Union.
The fourteenth amendmeht having been adopted by the requisite






7
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TIE PA~rENT OFFICE. WASH INUTON CITY






THlE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON.


873


number of States, was formally declared a part of the constitution on the
28th of July, 1868.
In the meantime the quarrel between the president and Congress came
to a decisive issue.  The extreme or radical wing of the Republi.a:x
party, comprising the majority in Congress, was anxious to remove Mr
Johnson from his position. Could it succeed in doing so, Benjaminl
Wade, of Ohio, the president of tile Senate, would, by virtue of his offic(,
become president of the United States. As Mr. Wade was one of the extreme radical leaders, this would place the whole power of the govern

LAKE STREET, CHICAGO.


ment in the hands of that party. A quarrel between the president and
Mr. Stanton, the secretary of war, furnished the occasion for this effort.
On the 12th of August, 1867, Secretary Stanton was removed from the
war department by President Johnson, who appointed General Grant
secretary of war ad interim. Upon the meeting of Congress, in Decenmher, 1867, the president's course was denounced as a violation of the
tenure of office act, and on the 12th of January, 1868, the Senate refused to sanction the removal of Mr. Stanton. Mr. Stanton thereupon
demanded of General Grant the surrender of the war department, and the




8741-              hISTOR Y   OF THE     UNITED STA TES.
latter at once complied with the demand. On tbe 21st of February,
Presidlent Johnson again removed Mr, Stanton, and appointed General
Lorcnzo Thomas, adjutant-general oof the United States, secretary of war
ad intcrim, lie held the tenure of' office act to be unconstitutional, and
an invasion of his lawful powers as chief' magistrate of the republic.
This second removal of Mr, Stanton brought matters to a crisis, and on
thre 24th of February, 1868, the House of Representatives, by a strict
party vote, ordered the president to be impeached of high crimes and misdemeanors.* The Senate, sitting as a high court of impeachment, met
on the 5th of March, 1868, under the presidency of Chief-Justice Chase.
The impeachment was conducted by managers appointed by the House,
and the president was defended by able counsel. On the 26th of May,
the case being closed, the vote was taken, with the following result: For
conviction, 34; for acquittal, 19. There not being the requisite twa..
thirds vote for conviction, the president was acquitted.
Jefferson Davis had been confined in Fortress Monroe since his capture
by the Federal forces, in May, 1865. All the Confederate officials taken
by the Union forces had been released within a year after their capture
on giving their parole to answer any prosecution that might be brought
against them by the Federal authorities. Mr. Davis was excepted from
this clemency, and remained in prison for two years. A prosecution for
*The charges against the president may be summed up as follows: 1. Unlawfully ordering the removal of Mr. Stanton from the office of secretary of war, in violation of the provisions of the tenure of office act. 2. The unlawful appointment of General Lorenzo
Thomas as secrctary of war ad interim. 3. Conspiring with General Thomas and other
persons to prevent Edwin AL Stanton, the lawfully appointed secretary of war, from holding, that office. 5. Conspiring -with General Thomas and other persons to hinder the
operation of the tenure of office act; and in rpursuance of this oonspiracy attempting to
prevent Mr. Stanton from acting as secretary of war. 6. Conspiring with General Thomas
and others to take forcible possession of the property in the war department. 7. The
president was charged with having called hefore him. the commander of the troops in the
department of Washington, and declaring to him that a law passed on the 30th of June,
1867, directing that " all orders and instructions relating to military operations, issued by
the president or secretary of war, shall be issued through the general of the army, and in
case of his inability t~irough the next in rank," was unconstitutional, and not binding upon
the commander of the department of Washington, the design being to induce that commander to violate the law, and obey orders issued directly from the president. 8. That
in a number of public speeches the president had attempted to set aside the authority, of
Congress, to bring it into disgrace, and to excite the hatred and resentment of the people
against Congress and the laws enacted by it. 9. That in August, 1866, in a public speech
in Washington, the 'president had declared that Congress was not a body authorized by the
constitution to exercise legislative powers. Then followed a specification of alleged attempts on the part of the president to prevent the execution of the laws of Congress. The
impeachment articles were eleven in number. The other two were simply repetitions of
some of the above charges.




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHINSOV.


875


treason was instituted against him in the district court of Virginia, but
he was not brought to trial. A number of prominent citizens of the north
who had been so active in their support of the war that their motives
could not be suspected, exerted themselves to procure his release on bail,
and became his sureties. He was accordingly released on bail on the 13th
of May, 1867. During the following year the indictment against him
was quashed by the government.
During the latter part of the civil war a vexatious and.bloody warfare
with the Indians broke out on the frontier, It began in 1864, and extended through 1865 and 1866, and until the fall of 1868 its ravages were
spread along the frontier through Southern Colorado into the Indian Territory, causing severe suffering to the settlers of this region. By the
winter of 1865-'66 the war had assumed such formidable proportions
that General Sheridan was sent with a considerable force against the
savages. The vigorous measures of Sheridan,
and General Custer's victory over the band of
Black Kettle at Wacheta, brought the war to
a close in the fall of 1868.
While the civil war was at its height,
France, England and Spain be(ame involved
in a quarrel with Mexico concerning the non-  ^.
payment of certain claims due citizens of those,
countries by the Mexican republic, and a joint,
expedition was despatched to Mexico in the
fall of 1861. Discovering that France was MAJ.-GEN. GEO. w ClSTER.
seeking to use the expedition to destroy the independence of Mexico, England and Spain settled their claims with the
republic by the convention of Solidad, on the 4th of March, 1862, and
withdrew their forces. The French, however, continued the war, and
after a hard struggle, during which the Mexicans fought gallantly for
their country, Mexico was conquered, and early in June, 1863, the
French army entered the capital. The emperor of the French now proceeded to overthrow the republic, it being his intention to replace it with
an empire which should be dependent upon France. An election was
held, and under the intimidation of the French, resulted in a majority in
favor of the abolition of the republic and the erection of the empire.
Through the same influence the Mexicans chose Maximilian, archduke
of Austria, emperor of Mexico, and in an evil hour for himself that
amiable and high-souled prince accepted the crown.
The government of the United States had viewed the interference of
France in Mexican affairs with marked displeasure, but being too much




876


HISTOR Y OF THE UNITED STATES.


engaged in its efforts to bring the civil war to a successful close to undertake any new difficulty, simply entered its protest against the action of
France. The civil war having been brought to a close, however, it took
a bolder stand, and denlanded of the French emperor the withdrawal of
his troops from Mexico. The action of the government was sustained by
the great mass of the American people, and it was believed by many that
a foreign war would be a sure and speedy way of bringing about the
restoration of the Union. The Emperor Napoleon hesitated for a while,
but finally acceded to the American demand. The French troops were
recalled at the close of the year 1866, and the Emperor Maximilian was
left to face the Mexican people alone. They at once rose against him, defeated his forces, and took him prisoner, On the 19th of June, 1867,
he wvas shot by order of the Mexican government, in spite of the efforts
of the United States to save him. Thus ended the hope of reviving the
dominion of France on the American continent.
The efforts of the gentlemen interested in the laying of a telegraphic
t cable across the Atlantic did not end with their failures in 1858. In
1865 the same company succeeded in laying a cable for about fourteen
hundred miles from the Irish coast, when it suddenly parted and sank
into the sea. The expedition then returned to England. Undismayed
by this failure, Mr. Cyrus W  Field, of New York, to whose courage
and determination the final success of the scheme was due, succeeded in
persuading capitalists to make one more effort, and in July, 1866, a cable
was laid from Valentia bay, in Ireland, to Heart's Content, in Newfoundland, a distance of eighteen hundred and sixty-four miles. It was found
to work to the entire satisfaction of all parties, and the great enterprise
was now an accomplished fact. The fleet then sailed from Newfoundland
to the spot where the cable of 1865 had parted in mid-ocean, and proceeded to grapple for it. It was recovered and raised from a depth of
over two miles, and was then spliced to the coil on board the "Great
Eastern," the ship employed in the undertaking. The huge steamer then
put about, and completed the laying of the cable to Heart's Content, thus
giving the company two working lines. The completion of the work
was hailed with rejoicings in both America and Europe.
On the 29th of March, 1867, a treaty was concluded between the United
States and Russia, by which the latter power sold to the United States for
the sum of seven million two hundred thousand dollars, all of the region
in the extreme northwestern part of the American continent known as
Russian America. The treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 9th of
April. The new territory added to the area of the United States a district of about five hundred and seventy-seven thousand three hundred




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ANDREW JOHNSON.


877


and ninety square miles. In July, 1868, Congress extended over this
region the laws of the United States relating to customs, commerce and
navigation, and established a collection district. In August, 1868, the
military district of ALASKA was organized, and attached to the department
of California. With the exception of about ten thousand whites, the inhabitants were, at the time of the purchase of Alaska, all Indians. The
region is chiefly valuable for its furs and fisheries, and for its harbors,
which afford a safe retreat for the American whalers in the Pacific.
In 1868 a treaty was negotiated between the United States and the
North German Confederation, by which the latter power recognized the
right of German emigrants to the United States to renounce their allegiance to the countries of their birth, i.nd become citizens of the United
States by naturalization.
In the same year a treaty was negotiated with China, through an embassy from that country, which visited the United States under the charge
of Anson Burlingame, formerly the American minister to China. It was
the first instance in which that exclusive nation had ever sought to negotiate a treaty of commerce and friendship with a foreign nation. Liberty
of conscience to Americans residing in China, protection of their property
and persons, and important commercial privileges were secured by this
treaty
In 1866 the Fenians, a secret society organized for the purpose of delivering Ireland from British rule, invaded Canada in large numbers
from Buffalo, New York, and St. Albans, Vermont. President Johnson
at once issued his proclamation declaring the Fenian movement a violation
of the neutrality of thil United States, and sent General Meade with a
sufficient force to the border to execute the laws. This decisive action
put an end to the hopes of the Fenians of embroiling this country in
hostilities with Great Britain, and after some slight encounters with the
British troops in Canada they abandoned the expedition.
During President Johnson's administration, two distinguished public
servants passed away. On the 29th of May, 1866, Lieutenant-General
Winfield Scott, the veteran conqueror of Mexico, died at the age of eighty
years. On the 1st of June, 1868, ex-President James Bhchanan died at
his home at Wheatland, near Lancaster, Pennsylvania, in the seventyeighth year of his age.
In the fall of 1868 the presidential election was held. The Republican
party nominated General Ulysses S. Grant, the commanding-general of
the army, for the presidency, and Schuyler Colfax, of Indiana, for the vicepresidency. The Democratic party nominated Horatio Seymour, of New
York, for the presidency, and Frank P Blair, of Missouri, for the vice



878             HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.
presidency  The election resulted in the choice of General Grant by
a popular vote of 2,985,031 to 2,648,830 votes cast for Mr. Seymour.
In the electoral college Grant received two hundred and seventeen votes
and Seymour seventy-seven. The States of Virginia, Mississippi and
Texas were not allowed to take part in this election, being still out of
the Union.
In February, 1869, the two houses of Congress adopted the fifteenth
amendment to the constitution of the United States, and submitted it to
the various States for ratification by them.  It was in the following
words: " The right of the citizens of the United States to vote shall not
be denied or abridged by the United States, or any State, on account of
race, color, or previous condition of servitude."




CHAPTER XLIV.


THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT.
Early Life of President Grant-Completion of the Pacific Railway-Death of ex-President
Pierce-The Fifteenth Amendment Ratified-Prosperity of the Country-The Enforcement Act-The Test-oath Abolished-The Constitutionality of the Legal Tender Act
Affirmed-Death of Admiral Farrogut-Death of General Lee-The Income Tax Repealed-The Alabama Claims-Treaty of Washington-The Geneva Conference-Award
in favor of the United States-The San Juan Boundary Question settled-Efforts to
annex St. Domingo-Burning of Chicago-Forest Fires-The Civil Disabilities removed from the Southern People-Re-election of General Grant-Death of Horace
Greeley-Great FirQ at Boston-The Modoc War-Murder of General Canby and the
Peace Commissioners-Execution of the Modoc Chiefs-The Cuban Revolution-Capture of the "Virgir'{us"-Execution of the Prisoners-Action of the Federal Government
-The Panic of )J73-Bill for the Resumption of Specie Payments-Preparations for
the Centennial Fxhibition.
I    LYSSES S. GRANT, the eighteenth president of the United States,
was inaugurated at Washington with imposing ceremonies on the
4th )f March, 1869.    He was born at Mount Pleasant, Ohio, on
the 27th of April, 1822.   His father was a tanner, and wished
him to follow his trade, but the boy had more ambitious hopes,
and at the age of seventeen a friend secured for him an appointment as
a cadet at West Point, where he was educated. Upon graduating he
entered the army.    Two years later he was sent to Mexico, and served
through the war with that country with distinction. He was specially
noticed by his commanders, and was promoted for gallant conduct. Soon
after the close of the war he resigned his commission, and remained in
civil life and obscurity until the breaking out of the civil war, when he
volunteered his services, and was commissioned by Governor Yates
colonel of the twenty-first Illinois regiment. He was soon made a brigadier-general, and fought his first battle at Belmont. His subsequent
career has already been related in these pages. He selected the members
of his cabinet more because of his personal friendship for them than for
their weight and influence in the party that had elected him. Hamilton
Fish of New York was made secretary of state.
The most important event of the year 1869 was the opening of the
Pacific railway from the Missouri river to the Pacific ocean. The eastern
879




HISTORY OF TIE UNITED STATES.


division of this road is known as the Union Pacific railway, and was
begun at Omaha, Nebraska, in December, 1863, and carried westward.
But little progress was made in the work until 1865, when it was pushed
rapidly forward. The western division, known as the Central Pacific
railway, was begun at San Francisco near about the same time, and carried eastward across the Sierra Nevada. The two roads unite at Ogden,
near Salt Lake City, in Utah, and the union was accomplished on the
10th of May, 1869, on which day the last rail was laid. The Union
Pacific railway, from Omaha to Ogden, is one thousand and thirty-two
miles in length; the Central Pacific, from Ogden to San Francisco, eight
hundred and eighty-two miles; making a total line of nineteen hundred
and fourteen miles, and constituting by far the most important railway
enterprise in the world. By the completion of this great road, to the
construction of which the general government contributed liberally in
money and lands, Portland, Maine, and San
Francisco, the extremes of the continent, are
brought within a week's travel. The long and
difficult journey across the plains has been dispensed with, and the traveller may now pass
over this once terrible and dangerous route
with speed and safety, enjoying all the while
the highest comforts of the most advanced civilization. The east and the west are no longer
separated, and the rapid development of the
resources of the rich Pacific slope has more
ULYSSES S. GRANT.   than repaid the enormous cost of the road. A
ULYSSES S. GRANT.
direct trade with China and Japan has been
opened, and the wealth of the Orient is beginning to pour into America
through the portals of the Golden Gate. The shortest route to Indiathe dream of Columbus and the old mariners-has indeed been found.
On the 8th of October, 1869, ex-President Franklin Pierce died, at
the age of sixty-five years.
The fifteenth amendment, having been ratified by the necessary number
of States, was formally proclaimed by Hamilton Fish, secretary of state,
a part of the constitution of the United States, on the 30th of March,
1870.
In the year 1870 the ninth census of the United States was taken, and
showed the population of the country to be 38,558,371 souls.
The country had now attained a marked degree of prosperity. Gold
fell to 110, and during the first two years of President Grant's administration, $204,000,000 of the national debt were paid. The effects of the




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES 6. G-..i1V:.         881
war were being rapidly overcome, and the bitter feelings engendered by
the struggle were giving way to a more friendly intercourse between the
north and the south. The manufacturing industries of the country had
nearly doubled since 1860, and the five years that had elapsed since the
war had witnessed a marked improvement in the condition of the south,


'
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I
PRESIDENT


GRANT LEAVING THE WHITE HOUSE TO BE INAUGURATED.
GRANT LEA\ ING THSE WHITE HOUSE TO BE INAUGURATED.


which was gradually adjusting her industry upon the basis of free labor,
and entering upon new and profitable enterprises of manufacture and
commerce.
The work of reconstruction was concluded in the year 1870. On'the
8th of October, 1869, the State of Virginia ratified the fourteenth and
fifteenth amendments, and on the 26th of January, 1870, was readmitted
56




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THE ADMINISTRATION OF UL Yl,','ES S.. (;RAXT.


883


into the Union. On the 11th of January, 1870, MIississippi ratified these
amendments, and was readmitted into the Union on the 17th of Feb'ruary, 1870. Texas was the last to return to the Union, but came in
during the year, having ratified the amendments to the constitution.
The political troubles in the south, however, did not end with the
return of the States to the Union. A great deal of' lawlessness prevailed
in many of the Southern States, and considerable suffering was experienced by the negroes, whose sudden endowment with the rights and privileges of citizenship was resented by a lawless class of white men. The
Federal government undertook to remedy these troubles rather than
leave them to be dealt with by the States. In the spring of 1871 ('Congress passed a measure known as the " Enforcement Act," or the "Kuklux Act of 1871," which gave to the Federal officials absolutc power
over the liberties of the citizens of the States in which these troubles
occurred. The president carried out the terms of the act with promptness, and on the 17th of October issued a proclamation suspending the
writ of habeas corpus in nine counties in South Carolina, ih order that
the law might be enforced without the interference of the courts of the
State. The evils which these severe measures were intended to remedy
were unquestionably very great, but the enforcement bill was nevertheless a dangerous departure from the principles of free government as
understood in this country  A free people cannot too jealously guard
their liberties.
On the 31st of January, 1871, Congress repealed the test oath law,
which required all applicants for civil offices to swear that they had not
participated in the secession movement. As few southern men could
take this oath, this law excluded the genuine inhabitants of the Southern
States from office under the general government, and threw the political
power of those States into the hands of a class of adventurers, who had
been drawn to the south since the war by the hope of obtaining office.
The repeal of this law by Congress restored the control of the Southern
States to the legitimate citizens and tax-payers thereof.
In 1870 the Supreme Court of the United States decided that the act
of Congress making " greenbacks," or the notes of the Federal treasury,
a legal tender, was unconstitutional as regarded the payment of debts
contracted prior to the passage of that act. As this decision had been
given by a majority of but one justice, Mr. Hoar, the attorney-general,
moved to reconsider it. The case was heard again, and the decision of
the court was reversed by a vote of five to four, on the 18th of January,
1871. Thus the constitutionality of the legal tender act was affirmed.
In 1870 died Admiral David G Farragut, on the 14th of August,




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THE ADlMINISTRA TION OF UL I',ES S. GRA4NT


aged sixty-nine; General George H. Tlhomas, " the Rock of Chickamauga," and the defender of Nashville, on the 28th of December, ag(ed
fifty-three; and General Robert E. Lee, the commander of the Confederate army of northern Virginia during the civil war, on the 12th of
October, aged sixty-three.
On the 26th of January, 1871, Congress repealed the income tax. It
had been retained long after the necessity for it had passed away, and
had become odious to the nation, which had only submitted to it at first
because of the urgency of the need for it.
Immediately upon the,pening of President Lincoln's second term of
office, Mr. Charles Francis Adams, the American minister at the court
of St. James, was instructed to call the attention of tile British government to the depredations committed upon American commerce by
Confederate cruisers, built, equipped,:and manned in England, and to
insist upon the responsibility of Great Britain for the losses thus incurred
by American ship-owners. Mr. Adams discharged this duty in a communication addressed to the British government, on the 7th of April,
1865. This led to a correspondence which continued through the summer
of that year, Great Britain refused to admit the validity of the American claim, or to submit the question to the arbitration of any foreign
government. The "Alabama question" remained unsettled for several
years, and occasioned a considerable amount of ill-feeling between the two
countries. Both governments regarded it as full of dalnger, but to Great
Britain it was especially so, as in the event of a war between that country
and any foreign power, the United States, follwing the example of England, might and doubtless would allow cruisers to be sent out from their
ports which would seriously cripple, if they did not destrov, the British
commerce. After Mr. Adams' return from     England, his successor,
Reverdy Johnson, was directed by the president to reopen the matter,
He negotiated a treaty with the Earl of Clarendon on behalf of the
British government, in 1869, but this arrangement was uns;atisfactory to
the Senate, which body refused to ratify it. Two years later the matter
was revived, and in 1871 a joint high commission, composed of a number
of distinguished public men, appointed by the American and British
governments, met at Washington, and arranged a settlement known as
the treaty of Washington, which was ratified by both governments.
This treaty was ratified by the Senate on the 24th of May, and provided
for the settlement not only of the Alabama claims, but of all other questions at issue between the United States and Great Britain.
The Alabama claims were referred by the treaty of Washington to a
board of arbitration composed of five commissioners selected from the




HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


neutral nations. This board met at Geneva, in Switzerland, on the 15th
of April, 1872, and the American and English representatives presented
to it their respective cases, which had been prepared by the most learned
counsel in both countries. On the 27th of June, the board announced
its decision. The claims of the United States were admitted, and the
damages awarded to that government were $16,250,000. These were
paid in due time.
In our account of the administration of Mr. Buchanan we have related
the dispute between the United States and Great Britain concerning the
possession of the island of San Juan, growing out of the uncertainty as
to the true course of the nortllwestcrn boundary of the Union. This had
been an open question all through the civil war, By the thirty-fourth
article of the treaty (,f Washington the two countries agreed to refer this
dispute to the friendly arbitration of the emperor of Germany  Soon
after the award of the Geneva conference was made, the boundary question was decided by the Emperor William in favor of the United States,
into the possession of which the island of San Juan accordingly passed.
Thus were these delicate and dangerous questions satisfactorily adjusted
by peaceful methods, and not by the sword.
In 1870 the republic of St. Domingo, comprising a large part of the
island of Havti, applied for annexation to the United States. President
Grant was very anxious to secuire the annexation of this island, and to
accomplish it went to the very verge of' his constitutional powers-going
farther, indeed, than many of his friends believed he had the right
Measures were introduced into Congress for the purpose of securing this
union, but were warmly opposed. A commission of eminent gentlemen
was appointed by the president to visit the island and examine into its
condition. They reported favorably, but after a warm debate in Congress the measures for the annexation of the Dominican republic were
defeated by a decisive majority
On the night of Sunday, October 8th, 1871, a fire broke out in the
city of Chicago, and raged with tremendous violence for two days, laying
the greater part of the city in ashes. It was the most destructive conflagration of modern times. The total area of the city burned over was
2124 acres, or very nearly three and one-third square miles. The number of buildings destroyed was 17,450. About 250 persons died from
various causes during the conflagration, and 98,000 persons were rendered homeless by it. The entire business quarter was destroyed. The
actual loss will never be known. As far as it can be ascertained, it was
about $196,000,000.
Almost simultaneous with this disaster, extensive forest fires swept




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H8ISTORY OF THE U NITED STATES.


over the woods of Wisc('onsin, Minnesota, and Michigan. Whole villages
were destroyed by the flames, which travelled with such speed that it was
often impossible for the fleetest horse to escape from them. Over fifteen
hunlllrel d l   ople perished in Wlisconsin alone.
Thcse terrible calamities aroused the generous sympathy of the rest of
the country, al(l aid in money, clothing, and the necessities of life was
lilerally extended to the sufferers in Chicago and the other afflicted communities. The telegraph flashed the news across the Atlantic, and in an
almost incredibly
-                        short time liberal
contributions                          in
' -          money came pour-:.                    ing in from  England and continental Europe,
h  d b  T            and even from the
far-off c i t i e s of
'  "'                 India.
On the 29th of
g.               May, 1872, Congress passed an
act removing the
disabilities  imposed upon the
southern people
by the third secIn te                               tion of the fourO                                 teenth amendment
to the constitu/'        tion.  From  this...         general exemption
HORACE GaREELEr,                   I
were excepted all
persons who had been members of Congress, officers of the army or
navy, heads of depaitments under the general government, or ministers
to foreign countries, who had resigned their positions and joined the
secession movement.  By this act at least one hundred and fifty thousand men of capacity and experience, whose services were greatly needed
by the south, were restored to political'life.
In the fall of 1872 the presidential election occurred. The& canvass
was marked by the most intense partisan bitterness. The Republican
party renominated General Grant for the presidency, and supported




THE ADMINISTtRA 'ION OF ULYSSES S. (G;RAXNT


8 1


Henry \\ilson fbr the vice-presidency. The meas:ures of the administration had arrayc d a large number of Republicans against it. Tlhese
now organized themselves as the Liberal Republican party, and nollinated Horace Greeley of New York for the preside(ncyy, and 1. Gratz
Brown of Missouri for the vice-presidency   The Democratic party
made no nominations, and its convention indorsed the candidlates of the
Liberal Republican party  The elcetion resulted in the triumph of the
Republican candidates by overwhelming 1majorities.
The elections were scarcely over when tlhe c(,untrv was saddened by
the death of Horace Greeley  He had been one of the founders of the
Republican part-, and had been closely identified with the political history of the country for over thirty years.. He was the " Founder of tile
New York Tribune," and had done good service with his journal in
behalf of the cause he believed to be founded in right. He iwas a man
of simple and childlike character, utterly unaffected, and generous to a
fault. In his manner and dress he was eccentric, but nature had made
him a true gentleman at heart. His intellectual ability was conceded
by all. His experience in public life and his natural disposition induced
him to favor a policy of conciliation in the settlement of the reconstruction question, and, influenced by these convictions, he signed the bail-bond
of Jefferson Davis and secured the release of the fallen leader of the
south from his imprisonment. This act cost him a large part of his
popularity in the north. He accepted the presidential nomination of
the Liberal party in the belief that his election would aid in bringing
about a better state of feeling between the north and the south. He
was attacked by his political opponents with a bitterness which caused
him much suffering, and many of his old friends deserted him and joined
in the warfare upon him. Just before the clse of the canvass, his wife,
to whom he was tenderly attached, died, and his grief for her and the
excitement and sorrow caused him by the political contest broke down
his firmness and unsettled his mind. fIe wa.s cnllveyed l)1, his friends
to a private asylum, where he died on the 29th of November, 1872,
in the sixty-second year of his age. The country could ill afford to
spare him.
On the 9th of November, 1872, a fire occurred in Boston, and burned
until late on the 10th, sweeping over an area of sixty-five acres in the
centre of the wholesale trade of the city, and destrovilng property to the
amount of seventy-eight million dollars. As this fire was confined to the
business quarter of the city, comparatively few persons were deprived of
their homes.
On the 4th of March, 1873, President Grant was inaugurated a second




890


HI~STOBY O~F THE UNWITED STATES.


\,
time at Washington with great pomp. Twelve thousand troops took Art
in the procession which escorted him to, the capitol.
Early in 1873 a troublesome war began with the Modoo Indian tribe
on the Pacific coast. These Indians had been removed by the government
from their old homes in California to reservations in the northern part
of Oregon. They at length became dissatisfied with their new location,
which they declared was unable to afford them a support, and bega.. a
series of depredations upon the settlements of the whites, which soon drew
upon them the vengeance of the Federal government. Troops were sent
against them, but they retreated to their fastnesses in the lava beds, whe |*.
they maintained a successful resistance for several months. The govern.^
ment at length reinforced the troops operating against them, and Generaj
Canby, commanding the department of the Pacific, assumed the imm
command of the troops in the field. At. the same time a commission was
appointed by the government to endeavor to settle the quarrel with the
Indians peaceably. This commission held several conferences with Capt i.
Jack, the head chief of the Modots, and the other Indian leadeI sbut
accomplished nothing. At length the commissioners and General Canby
agreed to meet the Indians in the lava beds a short distance in advance
of the lines of the troops., They went unarmed and without an escort
While the conference was in progress the Indians suddenly rose upota;^
the commissioners, and killed all but one, who managed.to escapewith
severe wounds. General Canby was shot down at the same time, and -
died instantly.
The Indians at once fled to their strongholds amid the rocks., The
troops, infuriated by the murder of their commander, closed in upon them
from all sides, and shut them in the lava beds. Their position was one
which a handful of men might defend against an army, and they held it
with a desperate determination.  They were dislodged, finally by, the
shells of the American guns, and such as were not killed were ca.tti.
Captain Jack and his associates in the murder of General Canby and the d
commissioners were tried by a court-martial and sentenced to death. The1y 4
were hanged in the presence of their countrymen and of the, troops on the
3d of October, 187 3.                                     '    i
For many years Cuba had been growing dissatisfied with the rule of
Spain. In 1868 a revolution broke out in that islands, having for, its
object the expulsion of the Spaniards and the establishm e>of the independence of Cuba. The patriot army was able to win nuierous suocesses
over the Spanish troops, and -for several yearq maintained itq position
against every effort to dislodge it. Very great sympathy was manifested
for the Cuban patriots by the people. of the United States, and, repeated




IL


IV I 
I,



892


HISTO'l Y OF T1 E  l\NIT 1'ED ST. 1 TEAS.


efforts were made to induce the government of. this country to recognize
the independenc{e of Cuba and assist thle patriots, or at least to acknowledge
tl ir rights as 1bell igerents. The government, however, faithfully observed
its obligations as a neutral power, and forbade the organization or departure
of all expeditions from this country for the assistance of the Cubans. The
Cubanh agents wre lrcvented from shipping arms or military supplies to
thelir forces, and several vessels intended to serve as cruisers against the
Spanish (commerce were seized and detained by the Federal authorities.
In spite of the precautions of the government, however, several expeditions did succeed l in getting to sea and reaching Cuba. One of these
embarked on the steamer "Virginius," in the fall of 1873. When off the
coast of Jamaica, the Spanish war-steamer " Tornado" was sighted. She
at once gave chase, and thougrh the " Virginius" was on the high seas
and was flving' the American flag, overhauled her and took possession of
her on tlhe 31st of October  The " Tornado " then carried her prize into
the port of Santiago de Culba, which was reached the next day  Captain
Fry, the commander of the "Virginius," and the crew and passengers of
the vessel, werc thrown into prison. After a mock trial, in which the
simplest formls of decency were disregarded, Captain Fry and a number
of the crew and passengers of the "Virginius," about thirty-five or forty
in all, were shot by order of the military authorities. Tlie other prisoners
were held in a most cruel captivity to await the pleasure of the Spanish
officials at Havana. The consul of the United States at Santiago de Cuba
made great exertions to save Fry and those condemned to die with him.
He was treated with great indignity by the Spanish officials, and was not
allowed to communicate with Havana, from which point he could consult
his government by telegraph.
When the news of the seizure of the "Virginius " at sea under the
American flag reached the United States, it aroused a storm of indignation.
Meetings were held in all the principal cities, and the press unanimously
sustained the popular demand that the government should require satisfaction for the outrage upon its flag. The general sentiment of the people
was in favor of instant war, and it was openly declared that a better
opportunity would never arise to drive the Spaniards out of Cuba and
obtain possession of the island.
The government acted with firmness and prudence. Several vessels of
war were sent to Santiago de Cuba to prevent the execution of thle surviving prisoners taken with the " Virginius; " the fleet in the West Indies
was reinforced as rapidly as possible; and the navy was at once put on a
war-footing in order to be ready for any emergency  The president was
urged to convene Congress in extra session, but Lhe declined to do so,




rEgIld"Ir"    "
/1.1 I
I I




lk,.i - A-,


S 98




894


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


knowing that that body would be most likely to yield to the popular
demand for war, and he was anxious to settle the difficulty by peaceful
means if possible. General Sickles, the American minister at Madrid,
was ordered to demand of the Spanish government the arrest and
punishment of the officials implicated in the massacre of Captain Fry and
his associates, a suitable indemnity in money for the families of the murdlered men, an apology to the United States for the outrage upon their
flag', and the surrender of the " Virginius " to the naval authorities of the
United States. These demands were at once submitted to Sefior Castellar,
the president of the Spanish republic. In the critical situation in which
Spain was then placed by her internal dissensions, Castellar had no choice
but to submit to the American demands. Orders were at once transmitted
to Cul)a to surrender the "Virginius" and all the prisoners to the
American naval forces.
The orders of the Spanish government were at first disregarded by the
officials at Havana, who blustered a great deal, and declared their willingness to go to war with the United States. They were brought to
their senses, however, by the warning of Captain General Jovellar, who
told them that their refusal to obey the orders of the Madrid government
would certainly involve them in a war with the United States, in which
Spain would leave them to fight that power without aid from her. The
Havana officials therefore yielded an ungracious obedience to the orders
of the home government. The survivors of the " Virginius " expedition,
who were in a most pitiable condition in consequence of the cruelty with
which they had been treated during their imprisonment, were released,
and delivered on board of an American man-of-war in the harbor of
Havana. On the 12th of December the "Virginius," which had been
taken to Havana by her captors some time before, was towed out of that
harbor and delivered to an American vessel sent to receive her. She was
carried to Key West, from which port she was ordered to New York. On
the voyage she foundered at sea in a gale off Cape Fear, on the 26th of
December At a later period the Spanish government paid the indemnity
demanded by the United States. -
In the fall of 1873 a severe commercial crisis known as the "Railroad
Panic" burst upon the country  It was caused by excessive speculation
in railway stocks and the reckless construction of railways in portions of
the country where they were not yet needed and which could not support
them. The excitement began on the 17th of September, and on the 18th,
19th and 20th several of the principal banking firms of New York and
Philadelphia suspended payment. The failure of these houses involved
hundreds of other firms in all parts of the country in their ruin. The




I q F, I 5   -I-!I
-                   I-         1,4     1"I                      I       J  l
Ili       I               $  0      I,    Jl ([
I              1 1
I                           I     I  1:   I           I
I,     11,11ill             11       "I   - - I,  Ill.  ' '....   I!,,   1-1   


SCENE IN THE NEW YORK STOCK EXA(HANGIE DURING THE PANIC (-) 1 S7 13.




118TIOR Y OF THE UNITED 8TATES.


excitement became so intense that on the 20th thle New York Stock
Exchange closced its dloors -and put a stop to all sales of stocks in order to
prevent a general destruction of the values of all securities. The banks
were obliged to resort to the most
stringent measures to avoid being
- -.                      _- -    dlrawn into thie common ruin.
_ —_                               President Grant and the secre--:tarv of tlhe treasury hastened to
'  TCE      ANew York to consult the eapitalists of that city as to the proper
measures to be taken for the relief
of the business of the country
Various measures were urged upon
flthem. A strong appeal was made
to the president to lend the whole
or the greater part of the treasury
l              of greenbacks to the banks to furThe- pa  -           -.      nish the Aall street brokers with
finds to settle their losses and reslime business. He at once declined
to take so grave a step, and, thanks
'.:~      to his firmness, the credit of the
'  gUnited States was not placed at the
r  -        mercy of the reckless men who had
_ —_i                         caused the trouble. The govern-!ment as a measure of relief consented to purchase a number of its
price, and thus enable the holders
~                '~~/  lwho were in need of money to
obtain it without sacrificing their
_                '     securities. On the 22d the exciteNEW YORK STOCK EXCHAN-GE.     ment in New York and the eastern
cities began to subside. The trouble
was not over, however. The stringenev of the money market which
followed the first excitement prevailed for fill]y a year, and affected all
branches of the industry of the country, and caused severe suffering from
loss of employment and lowering of wages to the working classes.
The panic showed the extent to whlich railroad gambling had demoralized the business and the l)eol)le of the country  It showed that some of




THE ADMINISTRATION OF ULYSSES S. GRANT.


897


the strongest and most trusted firms in the Union had lent themselves to
the task of inducing people to invest their money in the securities of
enterprises the success of which was, to say the least, doubtful. It showed
that the banks, the depositories of the people's money, had to an alarming
extent crippled themselves by neglecting their legitimate business and
making advances on securities which in the hour of trial proved worthless
in many cases, uncertain in most. The money needed for the use of the
legitimate business of the country had been placed at the mercy of the
railroad gamblers and had been used by them. The funds of helpless
and dependent persons, of widows and orphan children, had been used to
pay fictitious dividends and advance schemes which had been stamped
with the disapproval of the public. An amount of recklessness and
demoralization was revealed in the management of the financial interests
of the country that startled even the most hardened. The lesson was
severe, but it was needed. The panic was followed by a better and more
healthful state of affairs. The business of the country slowly settled
down within proper channels. Recklessness was succeeded by prudence;
Q,  extravagance by economy in all quard        A:/~^^a\-L^      ^ ters.  The American people took
_-( J:.~W[                -     their severe lesson to heart, and reso-:i' ",   _-____                 lutely set to work to secure the good
"4',:j-|j.r --  ~       results that came to them from this
harv est of misfortune.
In January, 1875, Congress passed
COAT OF ARMS OF COLORADO.
an act providing for the resumption
~of specie payments, and requiring that on and after January 1st, 1879, the
legal tender notes of the government shall be redeemed in specie. In the
meantime silver coin is to be substituted for the fractional paper currency
On the 4th of March, 1875, the Territory of Colorado was admitted
into the Union as a State, making the thirty-eighth member of the confederacy
The political troubles in Louisiana and Arkansas assumed a most
serious character during the year 1873, amounting to civil war in both
States. The president in view of the serious nature of the disturbances
intervened with force in each State, and compelled the rival parties to
refrain from additional hostilities, and the quarrels were settled in the
course of the year without further bloodshed.
The year 1875 completed the period of one hundred years from the
opening of the revolution, and the events of 1775 were celebrated with
appropriate commemorative ceremonies in the places where they occurred.
The centennial anniversary of the battles at Lexington and Concord
57




898


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


was celebrated at those places on the 19th of April with great rejoicings.
On the 17th of June the centennial of Bunker Hill was celebrated at
Charlestown. Vast crowds were present from all parts of the country.
One of the most gratifying features of the celebration was the presence
and hearty participation in the ceremonies of a large number of troops
from the Southern States. Nearly all of these had served in the Confederate army, and their presence in the metropolis of New England was
an emphatic proof that the Union has indeed been restored. The memory
of the common glory won by the fathers of the republic has already done
much to heal the wounds and obliterate the scars of the civil war. May
the good work go on.
As early as 1872 measures were set on foot for the proper observance
of the one hundredth anniversary of the independence of the United $Sttes.
It was resolved to commemorate it by a national exposition to be held at
Philadelphia, in 1876, in which all the world was invited to take part.
As these pages are passing through the press, the preparations for this
great celebration are being carried forward with success. The exhibition
will undoubtedly be one of the most notable events of the century




CHAPTER XLV


CONCLUSION
Ij E have now traced the history of the republic from its settlement
1d' l  through the first century of its national existence, and from the
<l?    point we have reached may look back over the long period we
Y)L 9 have traversed, and mark the results accomplished by the nation
and the lessons which our history teaches.
In material growth our country has surpassed every nation upon the
globe. At the beginning of the Revolution, nearly two centuries after
the settlement at Jamestown, the population of the thirteen colonies was a
little more than three millions. By 1790, the year after the inauguration
of the republic, it was 3,929,827  In 18s70 it had reached the enormous
figure of 38,547,229. In 1776 the area of the States comprising the
Union was less than one million square miles, embracing only a narrow
strip of country along the Atlantic from Georgia to Canada. It has grown
by successive additions until it is now nearly four millions of square miles,
and stretches from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from the Gulf of
Mexico to the Arctic ocean.
In 1776 but a few wretched roads connected the distant parts of the
country. Now all points are brought into close and intimate relations
with each other by lines of railway and canals. Splendid steamers navigate our 1)ays, lakes and rivers, and the feeble and precarious trade of
colonial days has expanded into a mighty and growing system of commerce which is rapidly enriching the country  In 1872 there were about
sixty thousand eight hundred and fifty-two miles of railway in operation
in the United States. The telegraph was unknown at the commencement
of our existence. Over sixty thousand miles of wire are now in operation in this country
In 1776 the manufactures of the country were few, and were limited
to one or two necessary artceles. In 1870 there were 252,148 establishments in the United States, employing a capital of $2,118,208,769, and
producing manufactured articles to the value of $4,232,325,442 annually.
In 1790 the tonnage of the United States enaged in foreign trade was
only a little over half a million. In 1860 it exceeded six millions. It
X                             899




900


HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.


fell off during the war, in consequence of the depredations of the AngloConfederate cruisers, but it is now rapidly reviving, and ranks next to
that of Great Britain. In 1870 the total value of goods imported into
the United States from foreign countries was $315,200,022; the total
value of exports for the same year was $254,137,208.
In 1790 the cultivation of cotton was just being introduced in the
south. In 1860 the cotton crop amounted to 5,198,077 bales, and constituted the principal article of export at that period. In 1870 the crop
amounted to 3,011,996 bales.
Besides the larger crops, the value of orchard and market garden pro

SCENE ON THE HUDSON RIVER IN 1875.


ducts in 1870 was $68,054,418. In the same year the value of homemade articles was $23,433,332; the value of slaughtered animals, $398,956,376; the cash value of farms, $9,2.62,803,861; and the value of
farming implements and machinery, $336,878,429.
The inventive genius of the country has supplied every demand which
its rapid development has created. To Americans the world owes the
application of steam to navigation, the invention of the electric telegraph,
the sewing machine, the cotton gin, the reaping machine, the discovery
of the use of ether as an anesthetic, and the great improvements in the
steam-engine and the printing-press. "The States were behind us in
l




CONCL USION.


901


invention," says Mr. Charles Reade. "They soon advanced upon us,
and caught us, and now they head us far... Europe teems with the
material products of American genius. American patents print English
newspapers, and sew Englishmen's shirts. A Briton goes to his wvork by
American clocks, and is warmed by American stoves, and cleaned by
American dust-collectors.. In a word America is the leading nation
in all matters of material invention and construction, and no other nation
rivals nor approaches her."
Nor is it only in material wealth that the improvement of our country


ST. PAUIL, MINNESOTA.


has been so remarkable. In the higher departments of intellectual effort
it has kept pace with its growth in riches.
In 1800 there were but two hundred newspapers published in the
United States. In 1870 the number of newspapers and periodicals was
five thousand seven hundred and seventy-five, and their circulation
amounted to 28,492,655 copies.
At the opening of the century there were few libraries in this country,
and these were chiefly in the hands of private individuals. In 1870
there were in the United States 164,815 public and private libraries, containing 45,528,938 volumes.




02


BHISTORY QOF T0HE UNITED STATES.


In 1790 there were not more than a dozen colleges in the Union, and
the common schools were confined to the New England States. In 1870
there were 2454 colleges and professional and scientific schools in the
United States, with an attendance of 255,190 pupils. The private schools
in the same year numbered 14,025, with 726,688 pupils, and the free
public schools 125,059, with an attendance of 6,228,060 pupils. The
total income of all these establishments in 1870 was $95,402,726. In
the same year there were but 748,970 white males and 1,145,718 white
females, of twenty-one years and over, who could not read, among the
inhabitants of the United States. The public schools exist now in every
State, and liberal provision is made for their support, in order that the
blessings of education may be diffused among the entire population.
At the beginning of the century the number of churches was limited,
and in many communities there was not a single religious establishment.
In 1870 there were 63,082 religious edifices in the Union, with sittings
for 21,665,0(632 worshippers. In this year the value of church property
was $354,483,581.
Such are some of the results of a century of free government. Few
persons, one hundred years ago, would have believed them possible. The
American republic was an experiment, and its establishment and first
stel)s were watched with the keenest anxiety by the friends of human
freedom in all parts of the world. Even the founders of our system of
government were painfully apprehensive of the future, while from monarchical Europe came hosts of predictions of failure. The wisest statesmen of Europe had grave doubts whether a nation established upon principles such as ours could long endure. They predicted that in a short
time we would be involved in wars with foreign powers; that our government, unable to give security to life and property would end in
anarchy, and that we would at last be driven into monarchy as the only
solution of the troubles that would afflict us before the end of the centuryTime, the great solver of all problems, has demonstrated the wisdom
of the fathers of the republic, and has confounded the predictions of their
opponents. Republican institutions have been tested, and have been
found sufficient to all the wants of a free people.
Let us compare the predictions of our adversaries at the commencement
of our existence with the actual facts as they have occurred.
It was predicted that we would be involved in ruinous foreign wars,
as our weakness would tempt stronger nations to acts of aggression. We
have had but two foreign wars-one with England and the other wNith
Mexico-from both of which we have emerged successfully and with increased strength. In the same period England has engaged in four




VIEW O1; THE COLORAIDO 'RIVER.W




904


HIIS'TOR Y OF THE UNITED STA7TES.


foreign wars, besides her wars in India, China and Persia. France has
had ten, Prussia six, Russia ten, Austria five, and Italy six foreign wars
in the same period of time. With the exception of England every one
of these nations has been beaten in some of its wars. Thus it appears
that republican institutions have not only given us success in war, but
have secured for us a longer period of unbroken peace than any European
power has enjoyed.
It was predicted that we would be torn by internal dissensions, and
that our government would end in anarchy  During the entire period of
our national existence we have had but one serious internal disturbancethe civil war-which has been happily overcome, and the wounds of
which are being healed by the virtues of our free institutions. During
this same period England has had two insurrections, Prussia one, Austria
two of great severity, Russia one, France seven revolutions, each of which
las been accompanied by a change in the form of government, and Italy
and Spain an indefinite number. Our government has been strong
enough to put down the most formidable civil war of history, and vet at
the same time to preserve the institutions of the republic unimpaired.
The result has shown that we are less inclined to civil wars and revolutions than monarchical Europe.
Our government has never been overthrown, while those of many
European states have been overturned by revolutions since the establishment of our own. France has never been able to maintain a system of
government for a quarter of a century since the great Revolution. In
Austria, Bavaria and Greece, the sovereign has been forced to abdicate,
and in France he has several times been lriven from the throne and
country  Even Prussia has been forced to submit to the demands of the
revolutionary spirit, as when, in 1848, she changed her form of government from an absolute to a constitutional monarchy.
Our confederation of States has never been broken up. Germany has
witnessed the destruction of the Holy Roman Empire, the downfall of
the system established by Napoleon, and the destruction of the German
confederation. The Austrian state has been several times overthrown.
Italy has been changed from a kingdom to a collection of detached states,
and then to a kingdom again. France has lost her possessions of Holland
and Belgium and the Rhine provinces. During this period our government has prospered and grown great, and at the same time the various
States, as many in number as all the countries of Europe, have retained
their independence and the sole management of their internal affairs.
We have gained ground steadily Our territory has increased rapidly
l)y conquest, purchase, or cession, and we have never at any time parted




CONCL USION.


905


'v th a foot of land belonging to the republic. During this period scarcely
a state of Europe has failed at some time or other to lose a material part
of itself. Thus republican institutions have enabled us not only to retain
our original possessions, but to aggrandize ourselves beyond the wildest
dreams of any European monarchy
Our growth in material wealth and in the higher departments of civilization has been shown. It was argued at the commencement of our
existence that our republican ideas would lead us to run into licentiousness and infidelity  To-day we have more churches than any nation in
Europe, and our people are a more practically religious people than any
European nation. Foreign writers often admit that this is the only
country whose civilization is based on personal religion. Yet we have
no state religion or religious laws, but leave matters of conscience to be
settled between the man and his Creator. Our benevolent institutions
are equal to those of any European country in number, efficiency and the
liberality with which they are supported. Crime is not more frequent
here than in other lands; and it is a notorious fact that our criminal and
pauper classes are almost entirely composed of foreigners.
Thus we have proved to, the world that republican institutions can
make a country as great, as strong at home and respected abroad, as prosperous and as stable, as enlightened and as virtuous as the most powerful
monarchy, and by far freer and happier.
Such a destiny could not be worked out by any but a free people. The
supremacy of the law in this country leaves the citizen free and untrammelled. We have dispensed with large standing armies, which eat up
the life of states, and 'the safety of the republic and our institutions is
intrusted to the whole body of citizens, each of whom is vitally interested
in maintaining it. We have no class interests to array our people in
hostile divisions. Church and state are separate; neither intrudes upon
the domain of the other; and the result is to the advantage of each. All
men are equal before the law, and personal merit is the only badge of
distinction among us. Men are trained to regard themselves as free citizens of a free land, a title more precious than all princely rank.
Such a state of society can exist only among an educated people. An
ignorant man can never be a good citizen. This was the deep conviction
of the Pilgrim fathers, and it led them to undertake the great experiment of educating the people at the expense of the state, in order that
they might properly discharge their obligations of citizenship. Their descendants have continued their work, and have extended the work begun
by them throughout the entire country, and have wisely made the free
school the basis of our whole political system. There, free from sectarian




906             HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES.
influence or teachings, the young citizen receives the training which fits
him to appreciate and enjoy in after years the blessings secured to him,
and to labor for their perpetuity  If any man seek the reason of the
remarkable prosperity of our country, he will find it in the general intelligence of our people. As a whole our people are more intelligent
than those of European states. The education of our women is higher
than that of any other nation. For this we are indebted to the free
school.
If, then, the story of our first hundred years teaches us any lesson, or
conveys any warning, it is that we should guard with jealous care our
system of free public education, and resist any and all efforts to impair its
usefulness, or to give to it a sectarian character. It is the most precious
heritage that has come down to us from our fathers-the corner-stone of
republican liberty  It is worth fighting for, worth dying for, if need be.




APPENDIX.
THE CENTENNIAL EXHIBITION.
V S the close of the first century of the independence of the United
States drew near, it was generally regarded as the duty of the
nation to celebrate it in a manner worthy of the great fame and
wealth of the republic. Various plans for accomplishing this
object were suggested, but none met with a national approval.
In 1866, a number of gentlemen conceived the idea of celebrating the
great event by an exhibition of the progress, wealth, and general condition of the republic, in which all the nations of the world should be
invited to participate. The honor of originating and urging this plan
upon the public belongs to the Hon. John Bigelow, formerly minister
from the United States to France; General Charles B. Norton, who had
served as a commissioner of the United States at the Paris exposition of
1867; Professor John L. Campbell, of Wabash College, Indiana, and
Colonel M. Richards Muckl6, of Philadelphia. The plan proposed by
these gentlemen was not generally received with favor at first. It was
argued in opposition to it that the great exhibitions of Europe were the
work of the governments of the countries in which they were held; that
under our peculiar system the government could not take the same part
in our exhibition; and that it would thus be thrown into the hands of
private parties and would result in failure. The city of Philadelphia
was designated as the place at which the exhibition should be held.
This feature of the plan aroused considerable opposition growing out of
local jealousies. It was argued by the friends of the scheme that Philadelphia was fairly entitled to the honor, inasmuch as it had been the
scene of the signing of the declaration of independence; and that the city
was also admirably located for such an exhibition, being easily accessible
from all parts of the Union and from Europe.
The friends of the scheme labored hard to overcome the objections
urged against it, and had the satisfaction of seeing their plans become
more popular every day. The matter was ably discussed in the press of
the country, and at length was taken in hand by the Franklin Institute
907




A-,l tCULTURAL HALL.   HORTICULTURAL HtLL.       hMEItoli TL HA.LL OR ART,.AI.I.FRY.  MAIN EXHIBITION BUILDIN'..    MACHINERY BUILDIQG.
BIRDSEYE VIEW OF THE CENTENNIAL BUILDINGS, FAIRMOUNT PARK, PHILADELPIII&.




APPENDIX.


909


of Philadelphia, which body petitioned the municipal authorities to grant
the use of a portion of Fairmount Park for the purposes of a centennial
celebration. This petition was laid before the select council by Mr. John
L. Shoemaker, one of that body, who offered a resolution providing for
the appointment of a joint commission of seven members from each
chamber to take the subject into consideration.    The resolution was
adopted, and Mr. Shoemaker was appointed president of the joint commission.
After a careful consideration of the subject, the commission decided to
lay the plan before Congress. The legislature of Pennsylvania now came
to the assistance.of the commission, and adopted a resolution requesting
the Congress of the United States to take such action as in its judgment
should seem wise in favor of an international celebration in the city of
Philadelphia of the one hundredth anniversary of American independence. The legislature also appointed a committee of ten to accompany
the Philadelphia commission to Washington to present a memorial upon
the subject to Congress. The memorial of the committees was presented
to Congress by the Hon. W. D. Kelley, a representative from Pennsylvania, who urged its adoption by that body, and the selection of Philadelphia as the scene of the celebration, as that city had witnessed the
adoption, signing, and proclamation of the declaration of independence.
Early in March, 1870, Mr. Daniel J Morrell, of Pennsylvania, presented a bill in the lower House of Congress, making provision for the
proposed exhibition. The bill was several times amended, and was
finally adopted by Congress on the 3d of March, 1871. It provided for
the appointment by the president of the United States of a commissioner
and alternate commissioner from each State and Territory of the Union,
who were to be nominated by the governors of the States and Territories
from which they were appointed. Philadelphia was selected as the place
at which the exhibition should be held; and it was expressly declared that
the United States should not be liable for any of the expenses attending
the exhibition.  In the preamble to this act, the following reasons were
given for the selection of Philadelphia as the place, and of an International exhibition as the means, of celebrating the centennial of our
national existence:
"Whereas, The declaration of independence of the United States of America was prepared, signed, and promulgated in the year 1776, in the city of Philadelphia; and
"Whereas, It behooves the people of the United States to celebrate, by appropriate ceremonies, the centennial anniversary of this memorable and decisive event, which constituted
the fouth day of July, 1776, the birthday of the nation; and
" Whereas, It is deemed fitting that the completion of the first century of our national
existence shall be commemorated by an exhibition of the national resources of the country




APPENDIX.


and their development, and of its progress in those arts which benefit mankind in comparison with those of older nations; and
" Whereas, No place is so appropriate for such exhibition as the city in which occurred
the event it is designed to commemorate; and
"Whereas, As the exhibition should be a national celebration, in which the people of
the whole country should participate, it should have the sanction of the Congress of the
United States; therefore," etc.
The president having approved the bill, it became a law.    During the
year 1871 he appointed the commissioners provided for by the act of
(Cngress.  They were invited to assemble at Philadelphia on the 4th of
March, 1872; and on that day commissioners from twenty-four States,
three Territories and the District of Columbia met at the Continental
Hotel, in Philadelphia.   A temporary organization was effected by the
election of David Atwood, of Wisconsin, as chairman, and J N      Baxter,
of Vermont, as secretary    The commissioners then repaired in a body
to Independence Hall, where they were officially received and welcomed
by Mayor Stoklev    General Joseph R. Hawley, of Connecticut, responded
to this address on behalf of the commissioners, who then repaired to the
chall ber of the common council.   After a prayer by the Rev Dr. Hutter,
the commissioners proceeded to business.      On the 5th, a permanent
organization was effected, officers were elected, nine standing committees
were appointed, and the United Staftes Centennial Commission was definitely organized.
Several changes have been made since 1872, and at present the commLission is constituted as follows:
PRESIDENT-Hon. Joseph R. Hawlev
VIcE-PREsIDENTS-lIon. Alfred T. Goshorn, Hon. Orestes Cleveland, Hon. John Dunbar Crei-h, Hon. Robert Lowry, and Hon. Robert Mallory
SEcRETARY-Professor John L. Campbell.
DIRECTOR-GENERAL-Hon. Alfred T. Goshorn.
COUNSELLOR AND SOLICITOR-John L. Shoemaker.
The members of the Centennial Commission for 1875 are:
ALABAMA —James L. Cooper.
ARIZONA-Richard C. McCormick, John Wasson.
ARKANSAS-George WV Lawrence, Alexander McDonald.
CALIFORNIA-John Dunbar Creigh, Benjamin P Kooser.
COLORADO — T Marshal Paul, N C Meeker.
CONNECTICUT-Joseph R. Hawley, William Phipps Blake.
DAKOTAH-.J A. Burbank, Solomon L. Spink.
DELAWARE-Henry F Askew, John H. Rodney.
DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA-James E. Dexter, Lawrence A. Gobright.
FLORIDA-John S. Adams, J T. Bernard.
GEORGIA-George Hillyer, Richard Peters, Jr.
IDAHo-Thomas Donaldson, C. W  Moore.
ILLINOIS-Frederick L. Mathews, Lawrence Weldon.




APPENDIX.


911


INDIANA —John L. Campbell, Franklin C. Johnson.
IowA-Robert Lowry, Coker F. Clarkson.
KANSAs-John A. Martin, George A. Crawford.
KENTUCKY- Robert Mallory, Smith M. Hobbs.
LOUISIANA-John Lynch, Edward Pennington.
MAINE-Joshua Nye, Charles P Kimball.
MARYLAND-James T. Earle, S. M. Shoemaker.
MAssACXuSETTS-George B. Loring, William B. Spooner.
MICHIGAN-James Birney, Claudius B. Grant.
MINNESOTA-J. Fletcher Williams, W W. Folwell.
MIssIssIPPI-O. C. French.
MIssoumR-John McNeil, Samuel Hayes., MONTANA-J. P Woolman, Patrick A. Largey.
NEBRASKA-Henry S. Moody, R. W  Furnas.
NEVADA-William Wirt McCoy, James W, Haines.
NEW HAMPSHIRE-Ezekiel A. Straw, Asa P Cate.
NEW JERSEY-Orestes Cleveland, John G. Stevens.
NEW MEXIco-Eldridge W   Little, Stephen B. Elkins.
NEW YORK-N. M. Beckwith, Charles H. Marshall.
NORTH CAROLINA-Samuel F. Phillips, Jonathan W. Albertson.
OHIo-Alfred T. Goshorn, Wilson W Griffith.
OREGON-James W   Virtue, Andrew J. Dufur.
PENNSYLVANIA-Daniel J. Morrell, Asa Packer.
RHODE IsLAND-George H. Corliss, Samuel Powell.
SOUTH CANOLINA-William Gurney, Archibald Cameron.
ENNESSEE ---Thomas H. Coldwell, William F Prosser.
TEXAs-William H. Parsons, John C. Chew.
UTAH-John H. Wickizer, William Haydon.
VERMONT-Middleton Goldsmith, Henry Chase.
VIRGINIA-Walter W Wood, Edmund R. Bogwell.
WASHINGTON TERRITORY-Ellwood Evans, Alexander S. Abernethy.
WEST VIRGINIA-Alexander R. Boteler, Andrew J Sweeney,
WISCONSIN-David Atwood, Edward D. Holton.
WYoMING-Joseph M. Carey, Robert H. Lamborn.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE-Daniel J. Morrell, Pennsylvania; Alfred T. Goshorn, Ohio;
E. A. Straw, New Hampshire; N. M. Beckwith, New York; James T. Earle, Maryland;
George H. Corliss, Rhode Island; John G. Stevens, New Jersey; Alexander R. Boteler,
West Virginia; Richard C. McCormick, Arizona; John Lynch, Louisiana; James Birney,
Michigan; Charles P Kimball, Maine; Samuel F Phillips, North Carolina.
In order to provide the necessary funds for the exhibition, Congress,
on the 1st of June, 1872, adopted a bill creating a " Centennial Board of
Finance," who were authorized to issue stock in shares of ten dollars
each, the whole amount issued not to exceed ten millions of dollars.
The commissioners adopted rules.for the organization and government
of this board, and directed that the books for subscriptions to the stock
should be opened on the 21st of November, 1872, and should remain
open for one hundred days. At the same time the president and secretary of the Centennial Commission issued an address to the people of the




APPENDIX.


United States, setting forth the objects of the exhibition, and asking their
support and assistance in carrying the enterprise through to success.
The Centennial Board of Finance is at present (1875) composed of
the following gentlemen:
'PRESIDENT-John Welsh, Philadelphia.
VICE-PREsIDENTs-William Sellers, Philadelphia, and John S. Barbour, Virginia.
DIRECTORS-Samuel M. Felton, Daniel M. Fox, Thomas Cochran, Clement M. Biddle,
N. Parker Shortridge, James M. Robb, Edward T. Steel, John Wanamaker, John Price
Wetherill, Henry Winsor, Henry Lewis, Amos R. Little, John Baird, all of Philadelphia.
Thomas H. Dudley, New Jersey; A. S. Hewitt, New York; John Cummings, Massachusetts; John Gorham, Rhode Island; Charles W Cooper, and William Bigler, Pennsylvania;
Robert M. Patton, Alabama; J. B. Drake, Illinois; George Bain, Missouri.
SECRETARY AND TREASURER-Frederick Fraley, Philadelphia.
ENGINEERS AND ARCHITECTs-Henry Pettit, Joseph M. Wilson, H. J. Schwarzmann.
The members of the Centennial Board of Finance were appointed by
the stockholders at a meeting held in April, 1873. A majority of the
members of the board were chosen from Philadelphia in order that, these
gentlemen being residents of the city, there might always be a quorum
for the transaction of business present at the meetings of the board. The
board was authorized to issue bonds to an amount not to exceed the
capital, to be secured upon the exhibition buildings and other property
in possession of the commission, and upon its prospective revenues. The
board was also ordered to begin at once the work of preparing the
grounds and erecting the necessary buildings for the exhibition.
On the 4th of July, 1873, the commissioners of Fairmount Park
formally surrendered to the Centennial Commission the area of four
hundred and fifty acres that had been set apart by the city government
for the purposes of the exhibition. The transfer was made in presence
of an immense throng of citizens, and with imposing ceremonies in which
the military and civic organizations of Philadelphia took part. The
ceremonies were opened with a prayer by Bishop Simpson of the Methodist Episcopal Church, after which Hon. Morton McMichael, president
of the Park Commission, formally surrendered the grounds to General
J R. Hawley, president of the Centennial Commission, who accepted
them in an appropriate address. As he closed his address, General
Hawley exclaimed, " In token that the United States Centennial Commission now takes possession of these grounds for the purpose we have
described, let the flag be unfurled and duly saluted." The stars and
stripes were then raised, and at the same moment the trumpeter of the
City Troop gave a signal which was answered by a salute of thirteen guns
from the Keystone Battery  A grand military review succeeded these ceremonies, and the festivities were closed by a display of fireworks at night.
On the 3d of July, 1873, the president of the United States issued a




APPENDIX.


913


proclamation in which, after stating the action of Congress with reference
to the exhibition, and declaring that he had received official notice that
the grounds had been secured and that the buildings would be imlnediately commenced, he declared: "Now, therefore, I, Ulysses S. Grant,
President of the United States, in conformity with the provisions of the
Act of Congress aforesaid, do hereby declare and proclaim that there will
be held, at the City of Philadelphia, in the State of Pennsylvania, an
International Exhibition of Arts, Manufactures, and Products of the
Soil and Mine, to be opened on the 19th day of April, Anno Domini
eighteen hundred and seventy-six, and to be closed on the 19th day of
October in the same year.
"And, in the interest of peace, civilization and domestic and international friendship and intercourse, I commend the celebration and
exhibition to the people of the United States; and in behalf of the government and people, I cordially commend them to all nations who may
be pleased to take part therein."
On the 5th of July, the secretary of state of the United States forwarded the president's proclamation to the various foreign ministers residing in the United States, together with an official note, from which we
make the following extract:
" The president indulges the hope that the government of  will
be pleased to notice the subject, and may deem it proper to bring the
exhibition and its objects to the attention of the people of that country,
and thus encourage their co-operation in the proposed celebration. And
he further hopes that the opportunity afforded by the exhibition for the
interchange of national sentiment and friendly intercourse between the
people of both nations may result in new and still greater advantages to
science and industry, and at the same time serve to strengthen the bonds
of peace and friendship which already happily subsist between the government and people of      and those of the United States."
In order that the,Federal government shall be fully represented in the
exhibition, the president of the United States, on the 23d of January,
1874, issued an order that there should be displayed in the exhilition
such objects appertaining to the executive departments of the goverlnment
as should "illustrate the functions and administrative faculties of the
government in time of peace andits resources as a war power, and thereby
serve to demonstrate the nature of our institutions, and their adaptations
to the wants of the people."  To carry out the requirements of this order
the president directed that each of the departments participating in the
exhibition should appoint one person to take charge of its property and
arrange for its proper display and safe-keeping.
58




APPENDIX.


On thp 5th of June, 1874, Congress adopted a resolution requesting
the president to extend, in the name of the United States, "a respectful
and cordial invitation to the governments of other nations to be represented and take part in the Centennial Exposition." In accordance with this resolution the inO nOn the 16th of June Congress
passed a bill authorizing the Cen/               tennial Commission to cause to be
prepared and struck at thle Mint
\_    -     at Philadelphia, medals commemorating the one hundredth anniversary of the declaration of indeCENTENNIAL MEDAL-OBVERSE.    pendence. The said medals were
to be furnished to the commission
by the Mint " upon the payment of a sum not less than the cost thereof.'"
On the 18th of June, 1874, Congress passed an act for the admission,
free of duties, of all articles from foreign countries intended for the International Exhibition.
The work upon the buildings
and grounds of the exhibition was
begun immediately after the transfer of the grounds to the Centennial Commission, and has been
pushed forward steadily since then.
The enterprise has received the
cordial indorsement and hearty
support of the people of the United
States, and ample funds have been
provided to insure its success.
The grounds appropriated to the
exhibition comprise four hundred
and fifty acres situated within the  CENTENNIAL MEDAL-REVERSL
well-known and beautiful Fairmount Park, the total area of which is three thousand acres. They
extend from the foot of George's Hill almost to the Schuylkill river, and
north to Columbia bridge and Belmont mansion. The principal build



PPENDIX.


915


ings are located on the level space known as the Landsdowne plateau, at
the intersection of Elm and Belmont avenues. From this spot a noble
view can be had of the city and surrounding country, with the beautiful
Schuylkill winding through the landscape. The site is commanding and
in the midst of a region famed for its beauty
The principal buildings are five in number, and consist of the Main
Hall of the exhibition, the Memorial Hall or Art Gallery, the Agricultural Hall, the Horticultural Hall, and the Machinery Hall. These cover
a total area of about forty-eight acres, and constitute the principal edifices
only. Besides these there will be a large number of smaller edifices
devoted to the exhibition of special departments of industry, and to the
use of the commissions from the various States and Territories of the
Union and from foreign countries.  The largest of these will be the
building devoted to the uses of the government of the United States.
The Main Exhibition Buildilg is a parallelogram in shape, 1880 fept
in length by 464 feet in width and 70 feet in height, waith central towers
120 feet high. Including its towers and projections, it covers an area of
twenty-one and a half acres. At the centre of the longer sides are projections 416 feet in length, and in the centre of the shorter sides or ends
of the building are projections 216 feet in length. In these projections,
in the centre of the four sides, are located the main entrances, which are
provided with arcades upon the ground floor, and central fagades extending to the height of 90 feet. The building is of iron and glass, and in
the interior shows a grand hall 70 feet in height, with a central pavilion
rising to a height of 96 feet. A magnificent central avenue 120 feet wide
extends through the entire length of the building, and there are two side
aisles of equal length and 100 feet wide. Three transepts or cross avenues
intercept the three long avenues, and divide the plan into nine open spaces,
free from supporting columns. A number of lesser aisles traverse the
building. The latter are 48 feet in width.
In this building will be displayed the greater part of the articles comprising the exhibition. The arrangement is simple, and is based upon
common sense, but is a departure from the strictly scientific method which
has prevailed in other exhibitions. "Each country occupies a compact
space. Within the territory of each the objects displayed will be grouped
so as to make the most attractive appearance, keeping the different classes
together as much as possible, but there will be no attempt to form belts
of like objects extending from country to country throughout the building.
The most advantageous positions are assigned to the four leading nations,
the United States, England, France, and Germany These nations will.divide equally the lofty central pavilion, and each possess one of the four




APPENDIX.


towers.   The proximity to each other of these great competitors for the
trade of the world will stimulate rivalry and make the portion of the
building where their territory is exceedingly attractive.    Here the most
costly and beautiful articles will be displayed, and here will be the central
point of attraction of the whole exhibition.
" Tile area assigned to the United States is more than one-fourth of the
entire floor space, stretching from the centre to the west portal of the building. That this space will be filled is not doubted. England, Germany, and
France have all applied for additional space since the first allotment, and
will crowd their enlarged areas with their best products. The self-interest,
if not the patriotism of the American manufacturers, ought to induce them
to make great efforts to equal if not surpass their foreign rivals.
" Several weeks ago the system of classification adopted last year was
materially modified in order to have each of the principal exhibition
buildings contain one or more complete departments.          This departure
from a strictly scientific system to a more practical and convenient one
reduced the number of departnments from ten to seven, only three of which
go into the Main Building. These, with their subordinate groups and the:
number of classes composed in each, are as follows:
I.-MINING AND METALLURGY.
Classes.                     Groups.
100-109.........Minerals, Ores, Stone, Mining Products.
110-119.........Metallurgical Products.
120-129.........ining Engineering.
1 I.-MANUFACTURES.
200-205......... Chemical Manufactures.
206-216.........Ceramics, Pottery, Porcelain, Glass, etc.
217-227......... Furniture, etc.
228-234.........Yarns and Woven Goods of Vegetable or Mineral Materials.
235-241......... Woven and Felted Goods of Wool, etc.
242-249.........Silk and Silk Fabrics.
250-257......... Clothing, Jewelry, etc.
258-264......... Paper, Blank-Books, Stationery.
265-271......... Weapons, etc.
272-279......... Medicine, Surgery, Prothesis.
280-284.........Hardware, Edge Tools, Cutlery and Metallic Products.
285-291.........Fabrics of Vegetable, Animal, or Mineral Materials.
292-296......... Carriages, Vehicles, and Accessories.
III.-EDUCATION AND SCIENCE.
300-309.........Educational Systems, Methods, and Libraries.
310-319.........Institutions and Organizations.
320-329........Scientific and Philosophical Instruments and Methodsa
330-339.........Engineering, Architecture, Maps, etc.
340-349.........Physical, Social, and Moral Condition of Man.




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APPENDIX.


" This arrangement leaves for the Art Hall not only sculpture and painting, but also engraving and lithography, photography, ceramic decorations, mosaics, etc. At Vienna most of the articles in these classes were
)lut in the Industrial Palace. The limited capacity of the Art Hall will
probably,make it necessary to erect two wooden annexes-one for photographs and the other for engravings. The character of the exhibit that
will be made by foreign countries in the Main Building can already be pretty
definitely ascertained from information in possession of the commissioners
representing them here, and of the Centennial Commission. England
will show a full representation of her textile fabrics and of her multiform
iron and steel products. The Wedgewood, Minton, and other potteries,
that have for years excelled the French establishments in producing
graceful forms and beautiful ornamentation, will make striking displays,
and one may expect specimens of the London silversmiths and jewellers.
So of the 'Brummagem' bronze foundries, that it is said turn out
heathen gods for the Chinese, antique statues for the Italian venders of
vertu, and church ornaments for home use with equal readiness.
" In the German section one may expect to see an immense variety
of articles, of which the ruling characteristic will be utility and cheapness
rather than beauty  Unique displays will be made by the toymakers of
Nuremburg, the clockmakers of the Black Forest, by Krupp's Cannon
Foundry, and by several other special industries, and the educational
department will be of great interest. In the department of mining and
metallurgy it is thought that the German exhibit will far surpass that of
any other European nation. It will include not only specimens of ores
and metals, but a large collection of models, charts, and engravings, showing the methods of working mines and of smelting, refining, etc., the
various metallic products of the empire.
" The French section will, no doubt, as at previous exhibitions, surpass
all others in systematic and tasteful arrangement, and in the profusion of
rich and beautiful objects displayed. Sevres porcelain, Gobelin tapestry,
Paris bronzes and jewelry, the silks and velvets of Lyons, costly furniture
of rare inlaid woods, and a countless multitude of other objects to delight
the eye, will assert the supremacy of French taste.
" The special feature of the Austrian section will be Bohemian glassware, Moravian cloths, and the many manufactures of Russian leather,
amber, meerschaum, and ivory, for which Vienna is famous. In the
variety of fancy goods shown Austria will probably be second only to
France, and she will be pretty sure to display also, and with some pride,
the results of the protected iron industries recently developed in the
provinces of Styria and Carinthia. Hungary will have a separate section,




APPENDIX.


919


and make the most of the young industries of Buda-Pesth and Presburgindustries not peculiarly distinctive, except when producing the curious
semi-Asiatic costumes and ornaments of the peasantry of the country, but
of growing importance.
" Belgium, next-door neighbor to France in the exlibition as on the
map, will show, as the most prominent features in her section, the most
delicate and the most substantial qf manufactures-the laces of' Brussels
and  lechlin and the iron products of Liege and Namur. A clmplecte
catalogue of the contributions of this busy little country to all departments
of the fair has already been published. In the Main Building her dliplay
will include glass, wood, marble, steel, iron, cotton, linen, and woollen
wares, perfumeries, toys, military goods, paper-hangings, sacred vestments,
precious stones, hair ornaments, etc.
"Holland's principal products will go into the Agricultural Hall, but
she will have a variety of manufactured articles to put in the Main Building of no striking merit, perhaps, but serving to illustrate her diversified
industry  The curious and often beautiful fabrics of her vast East Indian
possessions will also be exhibited.  It is to be hoped that we shall also
have an opportunity of studying by the help of models the remarkable
system of engineering by which the water of innumerable canals and rivers
is kept in circulation above the general level of the land and below the
level of the sea.
"Italy will be officially represented, the cabinet at Rome reconsidered its determination, and it is likely.that a number of Italian
manufacturers will be permitted to exhibit their goods in a corner of the
space reserved. If so, one may look for a goodly array of Venetian
glass, Naples and Genoa coral work, and mosaics from Florence and
Rome.
"Switzerland will excel in watches, mathematical and surgical instru'ments, laces, and carved wood work. Denmark will show a variety of
excellent domestic manufactures little known outside of her own borders.
Sweden's chief export products, and consequently those which will be
most prominently exhibited, are iron and steel, furs, and friction matelies.
Her educational exhibit will be made in a model school-house, and if she
makes an exhibit of her fisheries it will probably be in the Agricultural
Hall, which is to be the grand receptacle for all food products. Russia
has.not yet consented to take part in the fair. Greece also will not se(nd
articles. Spain and Portugal will both be represented. Neither manufactures extensively; but their fabrics of cotton, woollen, and silk, and
their tools, pottery, and domestic utensils, will be all the more interesting
from the fact that they are rarely seen in the markets of the world. Cuba




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APPENDIX.


921


and the other Spanish colonies will exhibit with the mother country; but
most of the articles they send will go into Agricultural Hall.
" The Turkish and Egyptian sections promise to be among the most
attractive in the exhibition. By their display of costumes, arms, household
furniture, equipages, etc., they will afford a vivid picture of oriental life,
and on the part of Egypt this characteristic view of the manners of
Mohammedan countries will be contrasted with evidences of the remarkable enterprise and progress introduced by the wise and vigorous policy of
the Khedive. The quaint and ingenious wares of Japan and China will
fill a good deal of space. Siam and Persia have not yet signified an
intention of being represented, but if they should come in at the last
moment room will be made for them if possible.
11 Most of the nations on the American continent will make their best
display in the Agricultural Hall, their products being chiefly those of
the soil. Canada will fill a large space in the Main Building with general
manufactures; but with the exception of the products of the Mexican and
Peruvian mines and a few rude fabrics, it is not easy to see, under the
classification adopted, what the lands to the south of the United States
will have to display in this building. As they will want to be represented
there, they may obtain such a modification of the rules as will enable them
to duplicate the display of national products which they will make in the
Agricultural Hall. It is to be hoped, however, that whatever articles they
do make will be shown, even if crude and imperfect, to illustrate, if not
in a way flattering to themselves, the condition of the industrial arts
among them."
The Art Gallery or Memorial Hall is located north of the Main Exhibition Building. It is situated on the most commanding portion of the
Landsdowne plateau, 116 feet above the Schaylkill river, and looks down
over the lower park and the city. It is built in the style of the modern
renaissance. It is intended to remain as a permanent art gallery after
the exhibition is closed, and is therefore constructed in the most substantial manner. The materials are granite, iron, and glass, no wood being
used, in order that the edifice may be as nearly fire-proof as possible. The
building is 365 feet long, 210 feet wide, and 59 feet high. From the
central portion of the roof a graceful dome rises to a height of 150 feet.
The dome is surmounted by a colossal ball upon which stands a figure of
Columbia with protecting hands. At each corner of the base of the dome
stands a gigantic figure typifying one of the four quarters of the globe.
In the centre of the south or principal front of the edifice is situated
the main entrance, consisting of three colossal arched doorways of equal
proportions. At each end is a pavilion connected with the centre by




922


APPENDIX.


arcades. The main entrance is approached by thirteen massive steps 70
feet wide. The entrance is by three arched doorways, each 40 feet high
and 15 feet wide, opening into a hall. Between the arches of the doorways are clusters of columns terminating in emblematic designs illustrative
of science anal art. The doors are of iron, and are relieved by panels
of bronze having the coats of arms of all the States and Territories of the
Union. The (oat of arms of the United States is in the centre of the
main frieze. The cornice is handsome in design, and is surmounted by a
balustrade with candelabra. At each end is an allegorical figure representing science and art. In the front of each pavilion is a window 30
feet high and 12 feet wide. Each pavilion is also ornamented with tile
work, wrcaths of oak and laurel, thirteen stars in the frieze, and a colossal
eagle at each corner. The arcades are designed to screen the long walls
in each gallery, and give an air of lightness and grace to the front. They
consist of five wgroined arches and four promenades looking outward over
the grounds and inwards over open gardens which extend back to the
main wall of the building. These garden flats are each 90 feet long, 36
feet deep, and are ornamented in the centre with fountains. They are
designed for the display of statuary  From the gardens a stairway leads
to the upper line of the arcades, where there is a magnificent promenade
35 feet above the ground. It is protected by a balustrade ornamented
with vases and designs for statues. The building covers an acre and a
half of ground.
The main entrance opens into a hall decorated in the renaissance style,
80 feet long ly 60 feet wide. The sides form two long galleries over 200
feet in length. The cost of this superb edifice will be $1,500,000. The
hall will be seen to most advantage after the exhibition is over, when the
other structures are cleared away, and its main front is seen across a broad
level lawn covered with verdure and flowers.
The Machinery Hall is west of the intersection of Belmont and Elm
avenues, on a line with the principal building and 542 feet from it. The
building consists of the Main Hall 1402 feet long by 360 feet wide, and
an annex of 208 by 210 feet. It contains about fourteen acres of
floor space. The principal portion of the edifice is one story in height.
The main cornice is 40 feet from the ground. The aisles are 40 feet in
height in the interior, and the height of the central avenue is 70 feet
from tha floor to the ventilators. The main entrances are finished with
handsome fag9aes rising to a height of seventy feet. The building is
constructed of glass and iron. Along the south side is the boiler-house
and other buildings. A special room is set apart for the display of steam
and rotary pumps and turbine water-wheels. " There will be eight lines




MACHINERY HALL-INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION.
1402 feet in length and 360 feet in width.




924


APPENDIX.


of shafting extending lengthwise, seven to have a speed of 120 revolutions
and one of 240 revolutions per minute. Steam and water power will be
supplied gratuitously to exhibitors. They will be required, however,
to furnish siclh pulleys, counter-shafts and belts as they need at their
own cost, and to pay for erecting foundations for their machines. The
latter must be finished by the 1st of March, 1876. A space will be
reserved for steam-hammers in operation, and for heating and working
metals."
The Horticultural Hall is the property of the city of Philadelphia, at
the cost of which it was built. It will remain as a permanent ornament
of the park. It is situated on the Landsdowne plateau, a short distance
north of the Main Building and Art Gallery, and is built in the style of
architecture of the twelfth century, and chiefly of iron and glass. Its
length is 383 feet; its width 193 feet; and its height to the top of the
lantern 72 feet. Flights of steps of blue marble lead to the east and west
entrances from terraces 80 by 20 feet, in the centre of which stands an
open kiosk or summer house 20 feet in diameter, The angles of the main
conservatory are adorned with eight ornamental fountains. The central
conservatorN occupies the main floor. It is 230 feet long by 80 feet in
width and 55 feet in height, and is surmounted by a lantern 170 feet
long, 20 feet wide, and 14 feet high. A gallery five feet in width runs
entirely around this conservatory at a height of 20 feet from the floor.
The Agricultutral Hall lies north of the Horticultural Building, on the
eastern side of Belmont avenue. It is constructed chiefly of wood and
glass, and consists of a long nave crossed by three transepts; nave and
transepts being all composed of truss arches of Gothic form. The length
of the nave is 820 feet; its width 125; and its height from the floor to
the point of the arch 75 feet.   The central transept is of the same
height and is 100 feet wide. The two end transepts are 70 feet high
and 80 feet wide.
" It has not yet been decided whether the exhibitions of horses, cattle,
sheep, and swine will be held on the restricted grounds near the Agricultural Building or in some ampler area outside of the park. The date for
opening the show of horned cattle is fixed for September 20, 1876, and
it will last fifteen days. From a circular issued by the chief of the Bureau
of Agriculture I learn that it is assumed that 700 head will cover all
desirable entries, and upon that basis will be calculated the number of
stalls which will be apportioned each breed. The scale divides the aggregate number into ten parts, and of these four-tenths are assigned to Shorthorns, two-tenths to Channel Islands, one-tenth to Devons, one-tenth to
Holsteins, one-tenth to Ayrshires, and one'tenth to animals of other pure




APPENDIX.


breeds. The exhibition in each breed will comprehend animals of various
ages, as well as of both sexes. Draft and fat cattle will be admitted
irrespective of breed.
"Ground for the competitive trial of reapers and mowers has been
secured on the line of the Pennsylvania railroad, between Philadelphia
and Trenton, near Schenck's Station, an excellent site on account of direct
rail communication with the Centennial grounds. American reapers and
mowers have excelled at all competitive trials in Europe, and have control of the markets of the world; it is therefore scarcely probable that
foreign machines will be sent here to compete with them on their own
ground. In the steam-plowing matches, however, the English will have
the field to themselves. Three or four prominent manufacturers are
expected to make the most of this opportunity to introduce their machines,
which are admirably adapted for western prairies."
The arrangements for transporting visitors to the Centennial grounds
are of the amplest and most satisfactory character. Horse railways from
the city will extend to the main entrance; and the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company will prolong their line to the same point, where they will
establish a depot, thus enabling them to convey travellers from all parts
of the Union to the doors of the exhibition. This connection is in the
form of a circle, by which all trains from the north, east, south, and west,
arriving over their road and carrying visitors to the exhibition, are run
at once into the Centennial depot, in which there are four tracks. Passengers can be arriving and departing at the same time without confusion,
and the arrangement is such that a train can be received and despatched
every three minutes, furnishing transit facilities at this depot alone for
sixteen thousand people per day  The other railroads entering Philadelphia will make similar connections.


THE END.




1..1
I
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PATHWAYS OF
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PALESTINE AND SYRIA.:BEI3rNC3 -A FULL DESCRIPTION OF THOSE COUNTRIES, THEIR HISTORY,
ANTIQUITIES, INHABITANTS AND CUSTOMS,
ACCORDING TO THE
GREAT DISCOVERIES RECENTLY MADE BY THE
PALESTINE EXPLORING EXPEDITIONS.
Illustrated with 242 Fine Engravings and Maps.
INCE the establishment of Christianity throughout the civilized world
Ai the country known as Palestine, or the Holy Land, has been the most
interesting portion of the globe in the eyes of every race professing faith
in Jesus Christ. Not only is it the scene of the events recorded in the Old
Testament, but it witnessed the birth, the labors, the great sacrifice, and
the triumphant resurrection of the Redeemer of the world.
For the past ten years there has been a constant and successful effort
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have been made, all tending to strengthen and confirm the faith of the
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The book opens with the Exodus of the Israelites from Egypt; and
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their wanderings in the Desert, and their final march to the Promised
Land. Then follows a clear and concise history of Palestine from the
earliest times to the present dayFrom this brief outline of the character of the work it will be seen that
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31HZ                N             NAAN4T 1IYYR
A WORK DESCRIPTIVE OF THE
CITY OF NEW YORK IN ALL ITS VARIOUS PHASES,
Its Splendors and Wretchedness; Its High and Low Life; Its Marble Palaces and
Dark Dens; Its Attractions and Dangers; Its Rings and Frauds; Its Leading
Men and Politicians; Its Adventurers; Its Mysteries and Crimes.
ILLIUSTRATED WITH NEARLY 200 FINE ENGRAVINGS.
New York is the most wonderful of all the mnany wonderful sights of this great country, and is always
a theme of inexhaustible interest to the other portions of the Uniou. It is constantly changing, arid growIng more magnificent and interesting every year. Thousands who con-ider themselves well acquiainted
with the Great City, by reason of their numerous visits to it, find, upon returniog after an absence of but
a few years, that it has changed to an extent which makes it almost s uvw city to them.
The ~tuthor of this work needs no endorsement; hiis long residence iin New Yoik, and very intimate
acquaintance with metropolitan life in all its varied phases, p~eculiarly fit him for the preparation of such
a book; and lie has produced in this work a vivid and life-like picture of the Great City, lpainiting its
Lights and Shadows with a bold and skilful band, and reproducing its brilliant Sights and wonderful Sensations with a graphicness which renders It the most absorbing and fascinnating book that has ever been
written upon the subject.
IX rZ    ~      t30ikWI
Of the City of New York; giving a concise and interesting account of its growth and pnrogress
from its first settlement.
Of the magnificent public and private buildings of the city; of its gardens, park.,
marble palaces, prisons, and public works.
Of Broadway; the most beautiful and wonderful street in the world, with full accounts of its sights
by day and nighit.
Of New York Society; showing of what it is composed, and revealing a fearful story of fashionable fol 4cs, and dissipations.
Of the Rings ' of New York; showing how the city is plundered by a few unscrnpulous men.
Of Fifth Avenue, with its miles of palaces, its people, and its sights; showing the interior of one of
the most fa~shionable mansions.
Of Wall Street; with vivid sketches of the men and mysteries of Wall Street; how fortunes arG
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Of the Hotels; showing how these magniticeiit establishmnnets are conducted.
Of the Central Park, its lawns, lakes, rambles, statuary, museums, aind sunnrmer ani winter sports.
Of the Detectives, with absorbing accounts of some of their most celebrated cases.
Of Fashionable Stores, with a complete description of Stewart's great retail store, its attachds,
customers, amount of sales, etc.
Of the Five Points and its History, a fearful account of misery, suffering, and crime; of the
dark dens anid funnhy lanes of the Five Points; and of the dwellers in this section..Of Crime and 9riminals, with sketches of the Pr'feesionial Thieves; the Pick-pockets, Female
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Of the Theatres; of act ins, netresses, ballet girls and their mode of life; Muxsic and Beer Gardens.
Of the Social Evil; of thre Lost Sisterhood; of Houses of Assignation; of Street Walkers, Concert
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Of the Poor of New York; of death in the cellars, and suffering in its niost appalling form.
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HUMAN SCIENCE:
PHRENOLOGY:
ITS PRINCIPLES, PROOFS, ORGANS, TEMPERAMENTS, COMBINATIONS, TEACHINGS, ETC.,
HEALTH, INTELLECT, MENTAL PHILOSOPHY, Etc.
BY PROF. O. S. FOWLER.
Ever since man began to think, or to regard himself as a reasonable and responsible
being the greatest of all questions to him has been, and still is, how to live, how to regulate the life given to him by the Creator, so as not only to fulfil the high destiny of an
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THE WORK TREATS
OF THE NATURAL LAWS which govern man, showing that nearly all pain and
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OF THE MIND and its organ, THE BRAIN, showing the wonderful sympathy
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OF THE MENTAL TEMPERAMENT, showing which is the best organization; how
bad qualities may be improved, and good ones developed into controlling powers. Parents
will find here the real secret of instilling sound moral principles into their children.
OF CHARACTER IN INDIVIDUALS, showing how to recognize and read it; what
traits of character are indicated by various forms, complexions, eyes, intonations, modes
of walking, speaking, &c.
OF THE NATURAL PROCLIVITIES OF MAN, showing how abnormal physical
conditions create sinful proclivities;-a chapter of the highest importance.
OF HEALTH, the value of good, sound constitutional health; showing that all may
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OF CONSUMPTION showing how a tendency to it may be averted, and how the
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OF THE SIIN, its structure and offices with rules for bathing, &c.
OF SLEEP; " Nature's sweet restorer;" its necessity and duration; showing how to
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OF SICKNESS AND DISEASE, describing fully the various " ills that flesh is heir
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portion enables mothers to have a competent medical adviser always at hand.
OF THE MENTAL FACULTIES, their nature and offices, with rules for the cultivation of each. A complete guide for the proper regulation of the mental character.
Yid OF SUCCESS IN LIFE; how to deserve and how to win it; showing what
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cause failure; and how each one may know for what he is best suited.
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of all individuals, all communities, throughout all ages and climes; and its scientific
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In one large royal octavo volume, of 1211 pages, illustrated with over 200 Fine Engravings, prepared under the personal supervision of the Author, and furnished to subscribers
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S. A cein plete and ltratical lhiushold Dictionarv i of tie Bible, comprising its Antiquities, Biography, (; eoraphy and Natural llistory, lv the -reat Biblical scholar, William
Smith, LI,. D. Expounding every sulj,- t mentioned I in the Bible.
4ttM Special atttnition is called ti the great valute,,f tli.s fe;ature. Dr. Smith's is everywhere conceded
to be the nin-,t c- iiiprwheh sive  ittdl valuable Bible Dictiotniry ever published.
0. t )\ver 10}.O ) tine Scriplture Illustr itions, accurately showing the Manners and Customs
of the Periol, Biblical Antiquities adil Se'nierv Natural HIistory, etc., etc.
1t. Top)(graphical Sketch of the Holy Land, with Maps and Panoramic views of the
country as occulpied by the different triles.
11. Illustratious of Jerusaleim and its environs, showing the HIly ('ity as it appeared in
the time of Davil and a-gain in the tim oif Christ. The,Mount of Olives, Mount Zion, etc.
12. The xViandlerings in the Wilderness, with Mal1 and Illustrations showing the Wilderniess of Sinai, the 'iamp of the lsraelites, Standards of the Twelve Tribes, etc.
l:. Illustrations of the Tabernacle andl Solomon s Temple, with plans, altars, ark, golden
candlesti, k, brazen laver, breastplate, mnlteti sea, and the hliih priest in his various offices.
14. 1llustrations of scenes and iii, le nts in the Life of Christ.
15. The ('ities and Towns,f the Bible, showinl, all the imlportant places in Palestine.
1G. Sc enes in the Lives of the Patriarc hs, Priplilets andl Kinos of tlie Old Testament.
17 Illistratiolns of the Animals, Birds, Ilsects. Leptiles, etc., mentioned in the Bible.
1S. Illustrations of the plrominent events in the Life of St. Paul.
19!. Illustratiins of the trees, llants and flower's of the Bible.
20. FaIe-similes of Ancient C(oins, with a description of each, including the Hebrew,
Greek ainl Roman c,(ins, with tlheir valti in gold.
21. tA 1arion of the Four t;,spels, and Analysis of the Bible.
22. A Table ft contents of the t< 1d and New Testaments, so arranged that any subject
or ocurren,t,_ mentioned in the Bible can he readily referre d to.
'.2. A Plan showing how the Bible mav be read through in a year.
24. A Table showin r h,ow the earth was repeopled l 1 the descendants of Noah.
2.'). Nearly O<n e ltindredl Thousandl Marginal References and Rtadings.
2"i. A  'hronole,,ical Table, showing the principal events otf Jewish andt contemporaneous
History, fronm the creation of the world to, the present time.
27 A Table if the Kings and Prophets of Judah and Israel, arranged in parallels.
The following are specimens of letters that we have received from
Clergymen and from      Agents who are selling our Bible:
REV. W S. BLACK, of Moiiro, Uninn Co., N. C., writes:-" Every person is delighted with your Bible.
It is the nm st cinipl!te. atiinl  ives more entire satifaitction than aty otielr Biblo I ever saw.  I sold 11 copies
in one day, 1.3 in another,;tal 17 in another, nostly in tlie finest style of binding."
REv. J. G. MONFORT. D. D., of Cincinnati. O., writes:-'"This Family Bible is of inestimable value. Its
picturi.s impr-ess si:rel l, r;i:ters;tla sties iupon the imagination, and its map%, tables and marginal references make it tlie 1hist,f all 'aoinlm ntari,-s Let 1ni faitily tihat c:t> afloid it be without thi-hairLre. well



REV. H. N. HIBBARD, of Point Abino, Ontario, Canada, who has sold over 300 copies of our Bible, writes:"The latest edition of your Bible is superior to any Bible that I ever saw for the uame money. Subscribers
are kighly delighted with it."
MR. J. BAICNES, our Agent at St. James, Phelps Co., Mo., writes:-" The Bibles you sent me surprise the
people. They pronounce them the finest ever brought into this ouuntry."
C. A. TEMPLE, of Reading, Middlesex Co., MaS"., writes: —" There is a man selling a $20. Bilble here. It
is not near as fine as your $15. Bible in any respect; binding, paper, type, and engravings are all inferior, and
so considered by those who have seen and compared the two."
J. L. MuRlrlsoN, of Eldorado, Preble Co., O., writes:-" Your Bible is the best selling book I ever tried.
I sold 115 copies in Adams Township, Darke Co., U., and 75 copies in New berry T'ln slill. lilani Co., 0. I
have been engaged in selling books by subscription for the past fifteen years, and your Bible gives better
satisfaction than any book I ever sold."    _
AARON Josu.zs, our Agent at Keysville, Charlotte Co., Va., writes:-" Your Bible is a perfect geni in beauty,
and a wonder to all in cheapness. Nothing like it has ever been sold in this cuutlty."
G. W. ELLIS, of Linton, Green Co., Ind., writes:-" I have sold.,'2 Bibles; 38 of thenm il one small township. My subscribers are well pleased with them. One man says lie would nuot take,$5. for his $15. Bible
and do without one of the kind. Others say they would not take S2u."
J. C. BILLINOHAM, of Gloversville, N. Y., writes:-" 1 have sold 71 Bibles in this town, and have not yet
canvassed more than half of it."
WE APPEND THE FOLLOWING REPORTS FROM AGENTS.
W. L. SWIFT, of Fayette Co., Tenn., sold 93 Bibles in eight days.
Mis. H. VANSIZE, of Ada, Mich., sold 140 Bibles in four weeks.
H. G. CONsER, of Rebersburgh, Centre Co., Pa., sold 20 Bibles in two days.
Mr. J. ZIMMERMAN, a student from the Theological Seminary of Gettysburg, Pa., sold 105 Bibles in Carroll
Co., Md., in fourteeh days; 12 of these Bibles were sold in one day.
WILLIAM K. STILES sold 79 Bibles in Lee Township, Platte Co., Mo.
REV. A. J. McGowN, of Huntsville, Texas, writes:-" I sold 197 Bibles last month, and hope to do better
next month. In one day I sold 26 Bibles."
Mr. GEORGE STEVENS, our Agent at Corning, Steuben Co.. N Y., writes:-" I leave f)ounTl more than twenty
different styles of Family Bibles while canvassing, but I find none that are equal to yours."
CONDITIONS:
It is printed from large, clear, new type, on fine white paper, made expressly for this
Bible, and bound in the most handsome and substantial manner; contains 1400 pages,
and over 1000 Fine Scripture Illustrations, on steel and wood, by Gustave Doir,, and
other celebrated Artists, and will be furnished to subscribers at the following Prices,
payable on delivery:
Bound in American Morocco, Panelled Sides, Marbled Edges......... at $8.50
Bound in American Morocco, Panelled Sides, Gilt Edges..................at 10.00
Elegantly bound in Turkey Morocco, Full Gilt, Raised Panels.at 15.00
Also, a cheap edition, without the Dictionary and illustrated matter. at       6.50
_      There is no other Bible published for the price that will at all compare with it.
The binding is of the most handsome and substantial kind, being very heavy and durable.
The price of our Bible is full 20 per cent. lower than other publislhers sell similar Bibles.
Compare our $15. Bible with any other one that sells to subscrib)ers ftr $18. or $20.-examine
the binding, engravings, paper, etc., carefully, and you will be convinced of its superiority.
*  l.        K  - Inferior Family Bibles nre being circulated.-See that the copy
you buy is printed on Fine Paper, and that it contains over
1000 Fine Scripture Illustrations, and Dr. SMITH'S Complete
Dictionary of the Bible.
Published in both English and German, at the same prices.
Bibles are always in demand, and you can often sell a reatlly xra                       ' l ble,
handsome and cheap one to persons who will buy no otlihei hoo,.
niENTS WlANTE-S-Send for circulars containing terms to Agents, and a
A  t N      0    w AN   I     Tu    fuller description of our Bible.
Address, NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO.,.            1a *  1 —1., 'D,-, ODE lh,,.,-          o-            -1 *  -




THE UNDEVELOPED WEST;
0,,
FIVE YEARS IN THE TERRITORIES.
Being    a  Complete     History    of that JVast Region        Between     the
JMisssissippi and     the Pacific; its Resources, Climate,
Inhabitants, Natural Curiosities, Etc.
LIFE ANTD AD.%VENT'IRE
ON
PRAIRIES, MOUNTAINS, AND THE PACIFIC COAST.
WITH 240 FINE ILLUSTRATIONS, FROM ORIGINAL SKETCHES AND PHOTOGRAPHIC VIEWS
OF THE SCENERY, LANDS, MINES, PEOPLE, AND CURIOSITIES OF THE GREAT WEST.
BY J. HI BEADLE,
Western Correspondent of the Cincinnati C('mrl,,  cial, and author of " Life in Utah," etc.
* *- * —.     ---
Mr. Beadle spent five years in the Great West, for the especial purpose of exploring
the country. Setting out on foot, he traversed the States of Iowa, Minnesota, Nebraska,
and Kansas, as well as Dakotah and the Indian Territory; visiting in person all that
was worth seeing; examining the lands, living and conversing with the people, and
gaining for himself a fund of information, based upon his own observations and discoveries, more extensive than one man in a million can obtain.
He visited the rich mines of Colorado, Utah, Nevada, and Idaho; spent months with
the Indians, both friendly and hostile, studying their character and habits; explored
the various routes of the (Ireat Pacific Railways; passed into California and  ('recon, and
there enjoyed peculiar advantages for seeing and investigating the resources and curiosities of those remarkable States. He spent considerable time in New Mexico, Arizona
and Texas, and his accunt of his observations and discoveries in those strange and
deeply interesting portions of our country will commend his book to the careful consideration of the scholar as well as to all who seek practical information or amusement.
His only companions in his travels in Arizona were Indian guides, and for weeks during
his explorations in that Territory he never saw the face of a white man.
The book is full of information and facts of the greatest importance, such as could be
obtained only by going after them, as this indefatigable explorer did.
All sorts of people figure in this work: the hardy frontier farmer; the wary hunter
and trapper; the reckless miner; the cruel and degraded savage; the hard-working
" Heathen Chinee; " the "much-married" Mormon; the strange remnants of the oncepowerful Aztec race-all these figure with the naturalness of life in this remarkable book.
These new States and Territories contain incomparably the grandest scenery in the
world, and some of the richest resources of the American Continent. Probably no other
man has ever journeyed so extensively among them as Mr. Beadle-certainly no one so
competent to describe what he has seen.
4W To prospective emigrants and settlers in the " Far West," this history of that vast region
will prove an invaluable assistance, supplying, as it does, a want long felt of a full, authentic and
reliable guide to climate, soil, products, distances, localities, means of travel, etc. This work may
be relied on, for it contains no second-hand information.
AGENTS WANTED.
The great desire everywhere manifested to obtain this work. and the low price at which
it is sold, combined with the very liberal commissions, make it the best opportunity for
Agents to make money ever heard of in the history of books. They are meeting with
unprecedented success, selling from PIFTEEN to TWENTY, and some even as high
as THIRTY copies per day.
Send for Circulars, and see our Terms, aln   a Full Description of the Worl
ddress,           NATIONAL PUBLISHING CO.,
Philadelphia, Pa.; Chicago, Ill.; or, St. Louis, Mo.
-" a-"^ Cv es c  AAT- nm  w. nr A n erntnIn Amn  r ImL nw AmYT




THE
LIGHT IN THE EAST.
A COMPREHENSIVE RELIGIOUS WORK,
EMBRACING THE LI1V'E OF
OUR LORD AND SAVIOUR JESUS CHRIST,
AND THE LIVES OF HIS HOLY APOSTLES AND EVANGELISTS.
BY REV JOHN FLEE'TWOOD, D.D.
Together with the LIVES of the PATRIARCHS and PROPHETS, and of the Mos
Eminent  Christian  MARTYRS, FATHERS and        REFORMERS.     To
which is added the HISTORY OF THE JEWS, from the
Earliest Times to the Present Day, and a
HISTORY     OF   TIlE   RELIGIOUS     DENOMINATIONS         OF   THE   WO\ILD,
IOT11 ANCIENT ANDI MOIDE1RN.
ILLUSTRATED WITH OVER 200 FINE ENGRAVINGS.
The object of this work is to present to the reader a full, cmplrehensive and inteiligent
account of the Life, Ministry and Sufferings of our Bless Red  eemer. (On all sides thein is
a growing demand for some plain and forcible illustration of the Life and Teachi,.gs of )iOur
Saviour while on earth, which, unmarred by the,rrors (tal ltl,'ries If I )IEItN I'HILoSi HlIY,
shall serve as an assistance to the faithful student of the Gospel story. Shb a work is nectled
in every household to strengthen the faith of the aged, and to keel) the feet of the youn:_ in
the narrow way. The Liet.s of the Apostles and lEva,,gelists ar given in full, and to them are
added biographies of the other New Testament characters. It will be found a great assitance to, an intelligent comprehension of Christ's ministry to be thoroughly instructed in the
history of those who were his intimate friends and the agents of his power
The Lives,' the Patriarchs and Prophets embrace comprehensive accounts of the most
noted Old Testament characters, a knowledge of whose lives is essential to a proper uni.lcr
standing of that of our Saviour, who was the fulfilment of the Old DIispensation. The work
would be incomplete did it fail to trace the spread of Christi:inity from the days of the
Ap&stles to the modern era. This is done in a series of biographies,f the E'rly C('/,'itrii,,
MaCrt/i,'s, Fathe'r and Releformlrrs, embracing a period from St. John to the Reformation, and
showing hoov the truth was established and witnessed, under God, by those noble men.  To
this is added a History of the Jews ',I,,Lt the Earliest Ti'nes to the P',',c'it Day, which is ve'r
complete and comprehensive, and no more interesting narrative is to be found in the,agnes
of history.
The History of all Rel'iion/ Denominations comprises a series of comprehensive accounts
of the various forms of truth and error which have prevailed in the world. A proper und.rstanding of this subject will do much to soften denominational asperities and to tc.clh us
that respect for the religious belief of our brethren, which should be the distinguishing mark
of a Christian. T/e Chrontloyieral Table wil be found especially vial:ible and interesling,
and will enable the reader to mark the progress of the outside world, while Israel was work.
ing out her destiny.
One of the great merits of this work is that it comprises in one large volume that which
1.s usually spread out through a great many books, so that it may be s-ail it is in effect a
complete library of religious literature in itself. The Editor has been extremely desirous
of including in it all that it is essential for a Christian to know, and miih that is,1elrsntl to
read ',f. Nothing necessary to a full and intelligent understanling of the truths of revealed
religion has been omitted, and the book is perfectlly free from sectarian bias, its aim being to
pronmote the cause of the one indivisible Church.
In one large octavo volume of 850 pages, embellished and illustrated with more than 2(10
fine Engravings, by the best artists of England and America, andl furnished to Sullscl ibe es.
Elegantly Bound in Fine Morocco Cloth.................................. at $3.75 per Copy.
""    ' In Red Roan, Full Gilt Back................................. at 4.50
" In French Morocco, Full Gilt Panelled Sides.. at 6.00 "..
AGENTS WANTED. Address, NA11UNAL PUBLISHING CO.,
Philadelphia, Pa.; Chicago, Ill.; or, St. Louis, Mo.




TM   This very interesting and valuable Work wiU              be sent to
any address, postage paidd, on receipt of Price.
SEXUAL SCIENCE;
INCLUDING(
MOOD, ANHOOD, WOMAOOD,
AND
THEIR MUTUAL INTER-RELATIONS;
LOVE, ITS LAWS, POWER, ETC.
By Prof. 0. S. Fowler.
"Sexual Science" is silmply that great code of natural laws by which the Almighty requires the sexes to be governed in their mutual relations. A knowledge of these laws is of
the highest importance, and it is the general ignorance of them which swells the list of disease
and misery in the world, and wrecks so many lives which would oiherwise be happy.
THE WORK TREATS OF LOVE-MAKING AND SELECTION, showing how love
affairs should be conducted, and revealing the laws which govern male and female attraction
and repulsion; what qualities make a good, and a poor, husband or wife, and what giver
persons should select and reject; what forms, sizes, etc., may, and must not, intermarryOF MARRIAGE, its sacredness and necessity, its laws and rights; of perfect and miserable
unions; and of all that it is necessary to know concerning this most important relation in life.
OF BEARING AND NURSING.-This portion being a complete encyclopedia for pro.
spective mothers, showing how to render confinement easy, and manage infants; every young
wife requires its instructions as affecting her embryo.
OF SEXUAL RESTOIRATI (). —This is a very important part of the work; because
almost all men and women, if ii, dliseased, are run down. The laws of sexual recuperation
are here, for the first time, unfolded, and the whole subject thoroughly and scientifically
treated; giving the cause and cure of female ailments, seminal losses, sexual impotence, etc.
And Tells how to promote sexual vigor, the prime duty of every man and
woman.
How to make a right choice of husband or wife; what persons are suited ta
each other.
How to judge a man or woman's sexual condition by visible signs.
How young husbands should treat their brides; how to increase their lovt
and avoid shocking them.
How to avoid an improper marriage, and how to avoid female ailments.
How to increase the joys of wedded lile, and how to increase female passion.
How to regulate intercourse between man and wile, and how to make it
healthful to both; imiriallcc.,ftliis law is tle cause of tlearly all the woes of marriage.
How to have fine and healthy children, and how to transmit mental and
physical qualities to offspring.
How to avoid the evils attending pregnancy, and how to make'child-bearing
healthful and desirable.
How to prevent self-abuse among the young, and how to recognize the signs
of self-abuse and cure it.
How intercourse ou't of wedlock is injurious; a warning to young men.
How to restore and perpetuate female beauty, and how to promote the growth
of the female bust.
How to be virtuous, happy, healthful and useful, by a rigid compliance with
the laws of sexual science.
There is scarcely a question concerning the most serious duties of life which is not fully
and satisfactor.ly answered in this book. Such a work has long been needed, and will be
found invaluabl, to every man and woman who has arrived at years of discretion. It should
be read especially by the married, and by those who have the care of children, and it will
carry happiness w.ith it wherever it goes, by diffusing knowledge on those subjects concerning which it has, until now, been almost impossible to obtain reliable information. The
book is pure and ekvated in tone; eloquent in its denunciations of vice; and forcible in its'
warnings against the secret sins which are practiced with impunity even in the family circle.
In one large royal octavo volume of 930 pages, embellished and illustrated with numerous
Engravings, and furnished to Subscribers,
Bound in Extra Fine Cloth..........................  at $3.75 per Copy.
Pound in Fine Leiather, (Library Style,)....................... at $4.50  "
AGENTS WANTED. Address, NATIUNAL PUBLISHING CO.,
Philadelphia, Pa.; Chicago, Ill.; or, St. Louis, Mo.
























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