ED) UCATI0 
PART I.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION,
ANCIENT AND MODERN.
PART II.
A PLAN OF CULTURE AND INSTRUCTION,
BASED ON CHRISTIAN PRINCIPLES, AND DESIGNED TO AID IN
THE RIGHT EDUCATION OF YOUTH, PHYSICALLY,
INTELLECTUALLY, AND MORALLY.
"A sound mind in a healthy body."
BY H. I. SCHMIDT, A.M.,
PROFESSOR OF THE GERBMAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE IN COLUMBIA
COLLEGE, NEW YORK.
NEW YORK:
HARPERt & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS,
329 & 331 PEARL S rRE U 1,
FRANKLIN SQUARE.
1876.




I',..ed, according to Act of Congress, in the year 184z. ow
HARPER & BROTHERS,
i 4e Clerk's Office no tho R.,thern District of New-York.




PREFACE.
THE writer of the following work can, he believes,
truly say, that he has been induced by no idle cacoie
thes scribendi to prepare it for the public.  The
subject is one of the very highest interest in itself,
and of special interest in our day and country; and
so regarding it, the writer has long considered such
a work as he has here aimed to produce, a desideratum in the English language; for while the Germans possess voluminous works of the greatest merit
from such authors as Jean Paul Friedr. Richter,
Niemeyer, Schwarz, and others, no work, covering the whole ground of education, has, within our
knowledge, appeared in the English language. To
translate, entire, one of the extensive works of the
Germans on pedagogics, would probably, from various reasons, have proved a thankless undertaking;
and the shorter, but profound and sparkling work of
Richter is scarcely susceptible of an English dress.
In order, therefore, to make an attempt to supply a
desideratum in our literature, the present writer ventures to offer to the public, in the second part of this
volume, a work, in which it has been his object to
present a complete system of pedagogics, its princi



iv                 PREFACE.
ples, and its mbthods, in a compass as narrow as
might be consistent with clearness and due copiousness of detail. To a candid and indulgent public it
is left to decide to what extent his object has been
attained.
He ventures to flatter himself that the history of
education, which constitutes the first part of this
book, will be acceptable to the friends of education
and the public in general, as he is not aware that
any similar attempt is extant in the English language.
The writer makes no pretensions to originality as
regards the general plan and matter of his work.
Its history is briefly the following: In the days of
his academic study he heard a few lectures on pedagogics and the science of method from one of his
German professors. Of these lectures notes were
taken at the time, and these notes constitute the
groundwork of the present attempt, furnishing both
the plan and a great part of the matter here presented. They have been very considerably expanded
receiving various modifications and numerous additions, to adapt the work to the wants and peculiai
circumstances of the American public, and to the
character of American institutions. The extracts, in
serted from the large and excellent work of Schwarz
(Erziehungslehre, in drei Binden), will be found acknowledged wherever they occur. These also have
been modified in various ways, in order to accommodate them to the peculiarities of our country.




PREFACE.                  V
The history has been taken substantially from
the work of Schwarz, which (i. e., the historical part
alone) consists of 1058 closely-printed large octavo
pages. This statement will also show the extent to
which the present writer has been obliged to condense and abridge. While, therefore, he has, in the
main, translated from the above-named author, he
has been under the necessity of taking great liberties
with his work, in order to reduce it to such dimensions as seemed suitable to the present design.
Hence, as the work assumed an entirely different
character, it became necessary to give it, in various
respects, a different form; to introduce, occasionally,
original observations in bringing forward some new
personage or subject, or in passing from one period
to another. Some few additions have also been
made, especially at the close. These statements
are made merely in order to show that, although the
train of narrative, as given by Schwarz, has been
closely followed, he is not responsible for the form
in which this abridgment of his history of education appears before the American public.
The reader will find the substantive pedagogics
(frequently, and, as we think, incorrectly written
pedagogy by English writers) and the adjective pedagogic employed in the work, because they are the
only words that adequately convey the idea which it
was here intended to express, viz., the science of
education, in its whole compass. In this sense the




Vi                  PREFACE.
Germans have long used the words "paedagogik"
and "paedagogisch," and it is time that the terms
were domesticated among us also.
If the writer knows himself at all, his sole object
is to do good; and his prayer to God is, that this
humble attempt may, in some measure at least, subserve the interests of his country, the welfare of the
rising generation, and the praise of his Maker's
name.
Columbia College, New York, July, 1848.




CONTENTS.
PART I.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS...... Page 13
I. THE  OLD WORLD.
SECTION I.
EASTERN ASIA.
Comprehending, I. The Hindus.15
II. The Chinese and Japanese... 18
SECTION II.
CENTRAL ASIA.
Comprehending the Babylonians, Chaldeans, Mu des. and Persians...23
SECTION III.
WESTERN ASIA.
Comprehending the Phcenicians and Carthaginians, the Lydians, the Phrygians, and the Scythians. 32
SECTION IV.
AFRICA.
I. Ethiopians (Meroe)...                      32
II. Egyptians....33
SECTION V.
The Israelites or Hebrews...36
SECTION VI.
THE CLASSIC NATIONS: OR, THE GREEKS AND ROMANS.
I. The Greeks..                           41
1. Homer. Achaians and Hellenes..          4. 42
2. Lycurgus and the Spartans.... 44
3. Pythagoras. Pythagoraans....      4




Viii                  CONTENTS.
4. Solon. The Ionians. Athens. Page 55
Socrates...60
6. Plato. 67
7. Aristotle...                    75
II. The Romans....... 82
SECTION VII.
Arabian Culture...99
II. THE  CHRISTIAN  WORLD.   103
ECTION I.
HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION.
1. School of the Catechists at Alexandria.... 108' Schools of the Emperors; and the Universities. 109
SECTION II.
CHRISTIAN EDUCATION AMONG THE NATIONS OF WESTERN
EUROPE.
CHAPTER I.
Domestic Life, and Religious Instruction of the Church. 112
CHAPTER II.
Pedagogic Literature and Method. Capella... 114
Boethius. Aurelius Cassiodorius. Bede. Rhabanus Maurus 115
-Sacred Music. Gregory the Great..          116
University of Paris. Theology. Vincentius de Beauvais. 117
SECTION III.
Education strives to become Free, and to liberate the Human
Mind from the Mediaeval Thraldom. The Gospel emancipated from Papal Bondage. From 1350-1520. 118
Revival of Classical Learning. Petrarch.           119
Nicdolo Niccoli. Netherlands. Germany. Reuchlin. John
Colet. Luis Vives...120
The Reformation. Its influence on Education. 121
Jesuits....122
General Survey. ib
S]ECTION IV.
Methodic Pedagogists and their Labours. 124
Lord Bacon..126
Wolfgang Ratich.                                      127
Chiistopher Helwig. Amos Comenius.128
Montaigne. John Locke..130
Summary of Locke's Pedagogic Views. 131




CONTENTS.                      IX
SECTION V.
Modern Development of the Idea of Education     Page 133
Perrault and Boileau in France.           134
Religious Spirit in the Work of Education. P. J. Spener. 135
Fenelon. Augustus Hermann Franke...       136
Count Zinzendorf  Moravian Schools..138
SECTION VI.
The New Pedagogics. 139
1. The Pedagogics of Piety: Aug. H. Franke.. 143
2. The Pedagogics of the Humanists: Cellarius. Gesner.
Heyne.. 146
Ernesti Fr.  Wolf.                              147
3. The Pedagogics of the Philanthropists.        ib.
A. Jean Jacques Rousseau...                149
B. John Bernhard Basedow.,..              151
C. Christopher G. Salzmann,.....   153
[M. de Rochow....                      155
D. Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi                       ib.
P. E. de Fellenberg.. 159
J. G. Fichte..... 160
Conclusion......162
PART [L.
A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE AND
INSTRUCTION.
Outline of the Work.... 173
General Principles.... 175
DIVISION I.
[NTELLECTUAL AND PHYSICAL EDUCATION.
SECTION 1.
CULTURE OF THE UNDERSTANDING AND THE SENSIBILITIES.
CHAPTER 1.
fan, in his Individual Capicity, educated in the Graces of
the Mind. a. Physical Education.178
b. Bodily Exercise. Gymnastics..196
c. Education for the true Enjoyment of Life... 199
CHAPTER IH.
Intellectual Culture, aiming at the Developmeltt of the Understanding for the Perception of Truth.. 200
Cultivation of the Senses:
1. The Sense of Sight......201




X                      CONTENTS
2. The Sense of Hearing                         Page 205
3. The Sense of Smell..... 209
4. The Sense of Taste.. 210
5. The Sense of Touch...... 211
Language..214
Cultivation of the Memory.ib.
Cultivation of the Imaginatie n.                     217
Cultivation of Attention.. 224
Cultivation of the Understanding. 226
CHAPTER IlI..ESTHETIC CULTURE.
Cultivation of the Feelings for the Perception and Enjoyment
of the Beautiful....233
CHAPTER IV.
Practical Education, designed to develop the Character in.general for the Public and Practical Affairs of Life..- Practical Education in general, or Education in Business Habits and in the Proprieties of Life.. 240
2. Practical Education for some particular Calling. 242
A. Popular Instruction, or Education for the Callings of
Common Life.245
B. The College, or Instruction preparatory to the Learned
Professions. 249
Importance and Advantages of Classical Studies. 252
Rules for conducting them... 253
Geography and History...         255
Modern Languages...          257.,Esthetic Exercises: Drawing and Music... ib.
Mathematics. 258.Plan for diminishing the Difficulties and Unpopularity
of Mathematics..259
Logic. 263
Two general Remarks on Collegiate Didactics. ib.
SECTION II.
MAN EDUCATED FOR SOCIAL LIFE, OR IN THE SOCIAL AFFECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.
Education in the Sentiments of Private Friendship, Love, and
Benevolence in general.. 265
CHAPTER II.
Education aiming at the right Development of the Sertiments
of Love in its narrowest Sense, as the Lovy of Family and
Kindred.                                         269
Different Mental Culture required by the Young of different
Sexes: Errors.                  273
More extended Discussion of the same Subject from Schlwarz 275




CONTENTS.                       XI
CHAPTER IIJI
IFdAcation for the Community or for Public Life, whether
of the Church or of the State. Patriotism.    Page 28S
DIVISION II.
MORAL EDUCATION.
CHAPTER I.
The Moral Education of Man, considered as an Individual.
Cultivation of the Sense of Honour.              293
A. Abnormal Developments, their Origin and Prevention:
Excessive Screaming.. 295
Subduing of the Temper, or Will..297
Obstinacy and Self-will..305
Indolence........          311
Laziness..312
Instability..313
Gloominess and Excessive Levity.. 314
Selfishness.                                   ib.
Sensuality..316
B. Treatment of Corrupted Youth.31.
CHAPTER II.
Moral Education of Man, considered as a Member of Society.
Statement of the subject.. 325
A. Negative or Preventive Education. 327
B. Positive Education... 328
CHAPTER III
Religious Education.3.                            33








PART I.
HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
No subject can be more important to enlightened
man than the education of his race for time and for
eternity —none more attractive and interesting than
its history from the earliest ages, and its gradual development down to the present time.
Some sort of education must have existed among
men at all times and in all places. It would not be
difficult for one intimately acquainted with human nature, and conversant with the hints given in the Scriptures with regard. to the character of human life and
the condition of society in the antediluvian world, to
advance plausible conjectures respecting the state and
methods of education during that remote period. But,
as such conjectures are not likely ever to be authenticated by the publication of hitherto undiscovered monuments of antediluvian Iiterature, we shall not, in this,
follow the example of others, but abstain from them
altogether. Yet there cannot be a doubt, that in the
earliest ages of the world the religious instruction and
education of their children was a prominent ob;,ct
with parents. That such education had not entirely
ceased, though nearly so, before the Deluge, is attested
by the piety of Noah and his family. It were need
less here to argue the necessity and importance of-religious education, from the degeneracy and corruption
which, in consequence of its total neglect and abandonment by almost the whole human family, caused
the earth to be swept of nearly all its inhabitants.
It is equally obvious that antediluvian education
must have occupied itself mainly with the necessary
pursuits, the practical purposes and duties of life. It




14        INTRODUCTORY REMARKS.
had regard, doubtless, to the immediate and more imperative wants of common life; and necessity, as it
arose, dictated its rules and its methods.
The same remark is in a great degree applicable
to all popular education since the Flood, of which we
have any knowledge, down to the invention of the art
of printing. The mysteries of Egypt and her colonies,
the philosophic schools of Greece and Italy, were not
for the people. The facilities of an intellectual education belonged to a privileged few.
The invention of Faust threw wide open the avenues of learning, and bid come, and take, and enjoy, all
that would and had leisure. Yet, though the vast
multiplication and wide diffusion of books, through the
intervention of printing, tended to the greater equalization of education and the extension of its benefits,
little attention was paid to principles, and to a judicious and wise development of suitable and effectual
methods. The universities of Europe were, and of
necessity are, jealous mothers of the learned professions.  In respect of popular education, therefore.
things remained very much at loose ends until, in the
eighteenth century, the learned began to set up theories on this important subject, and to propose and advocate systems; enterprising and benevolent men established'schools with specific, large, liberal, and worthy objects in view; and at length governments began
to interest themselves, and to provide for the intellectual and moral training of their people. Since then a
new day has arisen upon schools; education has become a science; its methods have been reduced to a
system, which the progress of intelligence and wisdom
continues to improve. The interest thus excited has
led men of profound learning to examine with minute
research the monuments of classical lore, with a view
to read and point out the history of education in ages
long since past, and to follow its thread down to our
day. Of the more or less successful results of these
efforts we shall hrbe, in the first place, present a com
pendious view.




THE OLD WORLD.
SECTION I.
EASTERN ASIA,
COMPREHENDING INDIA, CHINA, AND JAPAN.
I. HINDUS.
IT cannot be doubted that the inhabitants of ancient
India were among the first civilized nations of the
earth. The limits which we have prescribed to ourselves will not permit us to present the proofs of this
unquestionable statement. They are found in the divisions of society, in the religious and civil institutions
and usages which still exist among the Hindus, as
tlhey have come down from time immemorial; in the
philosophical, or philosophico-theological systems of
the Brahmlins, the Buddhists, and the Dshainists, and,
more than all these, in the Sanscrit monuments of
Indian literature, which, though but recently made
known to Europe, belong to hoar antiquity; the Shastres, the institutes of Menu (collected, probably, 1280
A.C.), the epic poems Ramajana and Mahabharata,
and many other works which it would be superfluous
co mention. We must suppose the reader to be acquainted with the character of East Indian society,
and in some measure, at least, with the recent discoveries of Sir William Jones and oters, or refer him
on this subject to sources whence information may
be obtained, while we proceed to give a brief view of
what is known respecting the education of this remarkable people.
It must be borne in mind that the Indians have always been divided into four distinct tribes or castes:
the Brahmins, or priests; the Ketri, or military class;




16         UHIsTORY OF EDUCATION
the Vaisaya, or labourers, comprising husbandmen amnl
mechanics; and the Pariahs, "the outcasts of all the
rest," employed only in the lowest and meanest offices, and scarcely.treated as men. The distinct privileges, and the insurmountable barriers, presented by
fixed social arrangements, which separated each of
the higher castes from that next below, and these
three from the despised and abhorred Pariahs, precluded everything like a general system of education for
the whole people; and, indeed, little more can be
done than'to infer the nature of their education from
the degree of culture which the character and ancient
literature of this nation exhibit.
The Sanscrit poems represent the matrimonial relation as one most intimate and sacred; so much so,
that we can regard the right of polygamy, granted
to the three higher classes, only with surprise. The
Brahmins were required to marry; and that the procreation of children was regarded as the important
end, appears from the law of Menu, which allowed the
husband to repudiate a barren wife in the eighth year
of wedlock. In their religious system the father was
the representative of permanent existence. He not
only saw himself renewed in his son, but might improve or perfect himself in him. If he had sinned,
the devotional exercises and good works of his son
could release him from punishment. If, then, the
character, the piety of the son could benefit the father,
even in the next world, what greater concern could
the latter have had than that his sons should become
as good and virtuous as possible. If the daughters
partook less of this interest, passages in the Sacontala
show that they also were embraced by it. These
views are sufficiext to show that religious and moral
education must have employed the careful attention
of parents.
It is probable that the education of the Hindus was
almost entirely limited to the family training. We
say "almost entirely," because the popular schools
of the modern Hindus are perhaps to be regarded as
a remnant of ancient institutions. In these schools,




THE HINDUS.'17
which are often described in our common schoolbooks,
reading, writing, and some arithmetic are taught.
A custom still prevails in India which has probably
come down from remote antiquity., An old.man, occupying an elevated seat in some public place, assembles the children of the village around him, to instruct
them in the principles of a virtuous life.
The present schools of the Brahmins, or the learned
caste, bear evident marks of great age. The students
are divided into exoteric and esoteric. To the privileges of the former even those are admitted who do
not aspire to Brahminical consecration. It has been
stated that no Hindu was excluded: this is improbable; but it may be regarded as pretty certain that
all the three. higher classes were admitted to exoteric
privileges. The studies of fhis class were language
and sciences, poetry, the doctrines of the popular
religion, philosophy, history, astronomy, jurisprudence, and medicine; doubtful are the higher mythology and mathematics.
The esoteric instruction was confined to native
Brahmins after they had received the second consecration of their order, and this instruction constituted
their third and final consecration as priests and sages.
Among the esoteric students the highest rank is held
by those who devote themselves to the exposition of
the religious books, i. e., by the theologians. From
these same books, which to the Hindus are the source
of all the sciences, others study jurisprudence, or medicine, &c. This mode of procedure appears to be as
tld as the nation. They still make use of the ancient
text-books, which, comprehending even the Sanscrit
lexicons, are written in verse. Nor is the mode of
communicating instruction less ancient in its character. During five years the pupil can be only a hearer,
without having permission to speak. He listens merely to the conversations of two teachers. In the exercises of divine worship he is also bound to silence,
being allowed only the language of gesture. During
this period he is probably also required to engage in
ascetic exercises. At the end of these five years he




I S3        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
is permitted to communicate his thoughts and doubts
to the two conversing teachers, and therefore to take
an active part in the disputation.
The time of study continues from twelve to twenty
vears. During this time the pupil dwells in the house
of a teacher (Guru), to whom he must be entirely devoted, like a son to his father. The teachers, whose
general designation is Pundit, are exclusively Brahmins. Each one receives from ten to fifteen pupils,
for a period of ten or twelve years, into his house.
They possess large revenues, but their indolence is
much complained of. Those living in a state of celibacy are said to enjoy the largest incomes. Their
principal institution is at Benares, or, rather, in the
suburbs Kasi: instruction is there given in the gardens or in the temples. There are elsewhere two
other high schools of this description.
No Brahmin is permitted to establish a household
of his own, and to marry, before he has completed his
studies. All this, even the tediousness of the course
of instruction, serves apparently to fix their mode o.
thinking, their doctrines, and their art of disputation,
and thus to establish the people in their usages, and
their devotion to the Brahminical caste. For to this
highest caste alone belongs the privilege of expounding the religious books or Vedas; the second and
third are allowed only to read them, and to the fourth,
as the unclean, even this is denied.
II. THE CHINESE AND JAPANESE.
We deem it unnecessary to consider these two na*
tions separately, because in every point of view they
are of kindred character, and have similar institutions;
and because, while we know little of the Chinese, we
know still less of the Japanese.
With the civilization of the Chinese, their literature
and arts, their political and civil institutions, we are
pretty well acquainted.  A great variety of books,
giving information respecting the character and condition of this people, as far as it can be obtained under
existing circumstances, are before the public.  On




TIlE CHINESE AND JAPANESE.          19
these points, therefore, we shall not dwell, but proceed
to give an account of their education.
Respecting the manner in which children were in
ancient times educated among this people, we can
only form conclusions from what has become known
to us concerning the present state of things in this
particular.
In the Melanges Asiat., par Abel Ramusat, Paris,
1825-26, ii., p. 317, an interesting extract is given
from the commentary of Young-tching, in which a
Chinese emperor expatiates with much depth of feeling on the love of parents to their child. The emperors and their vicegerents in the cities are the highest moral instructers of the people; and this, and similar passages, authorize the belief that parental affection is warm, and religiously cherished among the
Chinese. That medical science is employed in the
proper physictl treatment of children, may be conjectured from the fact that they possess man.y works
on medicine, in which, among other things, there
specific rules with reference to this point.
There are a great many elementary schools through
out the Chinese empire, for which, however, the government is said to make no direct provision. The
children are sent to school in their fifth year, and very
closely confined to their lessons, which employ chiefly the memory, and communicate little beyond what
was conned over, a thousand years ago, by their predecessors. From early times the Chinese have practised printing from stereotype blocks of wood, whence
instruction in China differs from that of all other nations of antiquity in this, that the pupils learn mostly
from books. Besides reading thus taught, they are
instructed in writing, and the Chinese attach much
importance to calligraphy. It is not certain whether
arithmetic is taught in these schools; but, besides the
general information which the pupils must derive from
their exercises in reading, they are specially instructed in divers matters connected with practical life.
They recite twice a day.
It appears that only the boys enjoy the privilege of




20         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
attending the schools; and.among this people, also,
the female sex is in a degraded state. Yet the custom
prevails of employing private tutors in families, for
which office the more wealthy select a man of learning who has obtained the degree of doctor.
-- Besides these elementary schools, there are common schools of a higher character for the people, and
high schools for the nobility and gentry. In the former the course of-instruction comprises four classes,
to each of which a particular book is assigned. The
first is the Pe-kia-sing, a book of names, in which the
members of a hundred families are -.mentioned by
name; and these names the children are required to
commit to memory. The second is the Tsa-tse, containing a collection of things necessary to be known
in common life. This is succeeded by the Tsien-tseumien, a combination of a thousand letters.  The
-fourth, the San-tse-king, contains verses of three syllables, in which are taught the first principles of morals, and the rudiments of history. We have not been
able to ascertain whether this closes the course of the
common schools, and leaves the pupil to commence
the higher course with the study of the Sse-chou, i. e.,
the four classic books, nor have we any information
respecting the relation in which the elementary schools
of the Chinese stand to their higher seminaries of
learning.
These higher seminaries, which are designed only
for the sons of the nobility, are under the immediate
direction of the state; and a college, enjoying great
reputation, has been established at Pekin by the government. Persons desiring to attend these schools,
who probably are always grown-up young men, are
sent to the governor of a city of the third magnitude,
whose business it is to examine the applicants, and,to confer on those who pass a creditable examination
the title of Hien-ming. The applicant, who has obtained this distinction, now calls on the governor of
a' city of the first magnitude, by whom he is examined a second time. The competitors are here required to prepare their exercis s in a building devote. to




TIlE CHINESE AND JAPANESE.
this purpose, and those who are selected for advance.
ment are called Fouming. Into the highest seminary
of: learning, the above-mentioned college at Pekin,
every Mandarin of superior rank enjoys the privilege
of sending one of.his sons, who, after pursuing his
studies for three years, receives some inferior office
with a salary.
Among the learned there are different grades,
which may be compared to our academic honours.
A Mandarin of Pekin is appointed to hold, annually,
an academic visitation in 11ll the larger cities, in. order to examine those who aspire to the inferior honours (or the first degree in the arts), of whom it is alh
ways necessary that there should be four hundred.
Each competitor is required to pass through ten trialexercises. The Mandarin selects fifteen of the most
deserving, and bestows on them the title of Liroutsay.. This title exempts.them from chastisement
with the bamboo, and marks of honourable distinction
are conferred upon them. The title is of considerable
value in the state; whence the title of Kien-song,
which in about. equivalent to the other, and which the
chamber of finance disposes of for about seven hun.
dred and fifty dollars,. is purchased by many, who
stand in awe of the above-mentioned ten contests for
promotion.
Persons who have obtained one of these two inferior academic honours, are at -liberty to present
themselves among the competitors for a higher degree, at the intellectual contest held every three
years at Pekin. This second degree is also obtained
only by passing successfully through appropriate exercises of trial. The successful candidate has the
right to apply, in the following year, at the capital,
for examination in view of the highest academic honours; and if he sustains it with credit, he receives
the title of Tsin-tse, or doctor, which is highly esteemed in China. The relatives and friends assemble
around him with joyful festivities, and bring him
presents: he enjoys great consideration everywhere;
can expect to be appointed to the most important




22          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
offices, and may receive from the emper)r a rank
still higher-that of Han-lin.
All this proves, indeed, that the Chinese hold intellectual culture in great esteem, and that the learned enjoy a sort of rank, and are appointed to the
highest offices, so that they not unfrequently acquire
great wealth. Yet external circumstances are too
much regarded, and the natural consequence of this
is, that titles are purchased in order thus to obtain
offices. Riches, and the rank of birth, secure exemption from onerous exertion; and the Mandarins
of the first and second rank have even the right to
propose their sons, without titles or examination, for
offices, so they be not the highest.
Why the Chinese, after reaching so respectable a
degree of civilization, should nevertheless have so
long been stationary, is an interesting question, which
the philosopher is still at a loss to answer satisfactorily.
Respecting the education of the Japanese, who in
national character and civilization so much resemble
the Chinese, very little is known. That their literature is quite respectable, that they print books, and
are fond of reading, is certain. The history of their
country, and other sciences, are much studied.
Their education is probably not inferior to that of
the Chinese, and there are said to be many schools in
Japan. At the high school or academy, established
at Miako, the capital, the faculty cultivate the sciences and instruct the students in them. The inaccessible seclusion of this nation leaves us utterly ignorant of the development of its civilization, and its ancient methods ofeducation.
We possess some interesting information respecting the state of culture enjoyed by the nations living
contiguous to the Hindus and Chinese ~ the Siamese,
the Burmese, the Malays, and, in the north, the inhabitants of Thibet and Mongolia; but, as we know
nothing of their education, we must pass them by.




THE BABYLONIANS.             23
SECTION II.
CENTRAL ASIA,
COMPREHENDING THE BABYLONIANS, CHALDEANS, MEDES
AND PERSIANS.
I. BABYLONIANS.
THIS people are remarkable as the first after the
flood of whose fixed civil organization and established government we have any knowledge. Some centuries after Nimrod, their prosperous empire fell into
the hands of the Assyrians, who greatly advanced its
prosperity. However fabulous the accounts which
we have concerning Semiramis, there can be no doubt
as to the early magnificence of Babylon, the splendour of its court, the elegance and grandeur of its ar
chitecture, and the luxury that was rife within its
walls.. About 600 A.C., Nebuchadnezzar, at the head
of his Chaldeans, a northern and warlike tribe, conquered the kingdom;- but this united monarchy was
soon after taken possession of by the Medes, who,
like the Chaldearis, were merged in the native population. At this time, however, the Babylonian, the
Median, the Lydian, and the Persian monarchies had
still a distinct existence; but about 550 A.C. the
Persian monarchy had already incorporated within
itself all the others.
These nations appear to have been intimately related in culture and religion, and in the use of one
language, the Semitic, which was, however, diversified by several different dialects.. The peculiar culb
ture of these nations proceeded from the Medes, from
whom it extended to the Chaldaeo-Babylonians, who
had themselves attained a state of high civilization.
With them also originated the division of the people
into the four classes of the Magi, or priests and sages,
the warriors, the husbandmen, and the mechanics.
Babylon was emphatically the abode of idolatry and
-its abominations. The religious system of this peo



24         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
ple is so well known, that an account of it here is unnecessary. Its priests, as has been said, were the
Magi, of whom there was a well-organized institution
at Babylon, under the direction of their superior, the
Destur Mobed, or Grand Magus. Inv number about
seventy, they were divided into classes, of which each
had its superior. They studied nature and astronomy,
mathematics and history. The Babylonians or Chaldeans were regarded as the inventors of astronomy
and astrology.
The state of culture attained by these nations authorizes the belief that the education of their youth,
however little certain knowledge we have of it, was
in some measure provided for. The doctrines of
Zerdusht do not, indeed, recognise monogamy, but
they insist on domestic virtue and order, condemn
unchaste and unnatural vices, and represent a numerous family as a good greatly to be desired. Yet this
people sacrificed their male children to idols,.and the
innocence of their daughters in the pyramid of Belus.
Children were sacrificed in the temple of Astaroth at
Hierapolis. Sometimes their parents tied them into
a sack, and, exclaiming that they were not human beings, but beasts, hurled them from the rock on which
the temple stood. Practices like these augur very
unfavourably respecting the state of education among
them.
II. THE PERSIANS.
In the ancient kingdom of the Medes we find, under the name of Persians, a distinct race, inhabiting
Mount Taurus to the south of the Caspian Sea. They
were divided into twelve tribes, had their own kings,
and were far from being uncivilized. Although the
civilization, and hence the system of the Magi, doubtless influenced them at an early period, they did not,
therefore, renounce their own peculiar manners. As
we do not become acquainted with them until we find
them established in Babylon, it is impossible to decide
what must be regarded as original in their culture,
and what as adopted. But in the account which He



THE PERSIANS.              25
rodotus gives of their religion and manners, we find
various indications of original. development. They
were a powerful and warlike race of mountaineers,
and conquered Babylon under Cyrus, who there established the Persian throne. From this time forward the Persians are found at Babylon in connexion
with the Magi, whose religion and authority were
recognised by Cyrus. But with the religion, they
adopted the voluptuousness and luxury of the Babylonians: having soon sunk into effeminacy and corruption, their expeditions to Greece resulted'only in
disaster and disgrace, and the vast Persian monarchy
itself became, 333 A.C., the easy prey of Alexander
the Great.
For valuable information respecting the character
and civilization of the ancient Persians, we refer the
reader to Herodotus. We hasten to give an account
of their education, concerning which we are better
informed than that of any other nation of antiquity.
On this subject the principal authority is Xenophon.
While the learned have nearly ceased to doubt that
this eloquent writer wrought out, in his thotoughly
Grecian mind, an ideal of what education ought to
be, instead of presenting a mere matter-of-fact statement of what he witnessed among the Persians about
two generations after Herodotus, his account is yet
unquestionably founded in truth; and, treating of a
period about 400 A.C., presents us with one of the
most valuable contributions to the history of education. And while we admit that the master-pencil of
Xenophon may have drawn a picture more- beautiful
in many respects, and more perfect, than the reality,
the ingenuous reader can nevertheless scarcely entertain a doubt of the general truthfulness and accuracy of the account which he gives, with so much
minuteness of detail and beautiful simplicity, in the
second and third chapters of his Cyropaedia. Leaving the scholar to turn to the simple and elegant language of the original, we here give, for the benefit of
the general reader, a version, as literal as possible,
of the second chapter.
C




26         PHISTORY OF EDUCATION.
~ " The father of Cyrus. is said, to, have been Cambyses, the king of the Persians,' who was descended
from  the family of the Persida, and these derive
their name from Perseus. Mandane, the daughter of
Astyages, king of the Medes,. is universally named, as
his mother. 
" The stories and, songs of the barbarians still celebrate Cyrus'as a man of the most beautiful figure, and
the most humane soul; as most eager for knowledge,
and of the strictest integrity; as submitting to..every
species of hardship, and encountering all manner of
dangers, for the sake of fame. As such. he is described both' in, respect of the nature of his soul and. of
his personal appearance: as regards his education,
he. was brought up in the laws of the' Persians. But
these laws proceed very differently from the laws of
most.states: they set out with provision for the common good. Most states allow every citizen to edu.
cate his sons as he pleases, and then suffer.the more
advanced youth. to shape their conduct according to
their inclinations; and after that, they command them
not to steal, not to rob, not forcibly to enter a house,
to beat no man unjustly, not- to commit adultery, not
to disobey the magistrates, and other like things..' If
any man then offend, they visit him with punishment.
The Persian laws, on the other hand, anticipate, and
take care that, from. the very- outset, the citizens be
not such as to incline to any evil or disgraceful deed.
And they make such provision in the following manner: They have a public place which they call the,Xevt8opa dyopa,* where the royal dwellings and other
state-buildings stand. From this place merchandise,
and the market-people with their clamour and rude
bearing, are excluded, and sent elsewhere, in order that
their noisy proceedings may not interrupt the good
order and conduct of the well-educated.
" This -forum, thus situated at the state buildings, has
four divisions; one for boys, one for young men (erl* We do not translate this word, because the literal version, "free place,"
does not give its full meaning: it signifies a;place. of meeting, secured
against the interruptions of common public business.




THE PERSIANS.               27
got), one for men of mature age (Treetoc), and another
for those who have passed the age of military service.
The laws now require that each class repairlto its appropriate place-the boys at daybreak, as also the men
of mature age; but the aged, whenever each one finds
it convenient, except on certain days, when they are
required to be present. The young men sleep round
about the governmental buildings with their trainingarms; those who are married are excepted, and are
not expected to attend except.when they receive, special orders; but.they are not favourably looked upon
if they absent themselves frequently. Each of these
divisions has twelve rulers (or presidents), for the
Persians.also are divided into twelve tribes. And to
preside over the boys, such of the old are select
ed of whom there is reason to expect that they will
be most successful in training them. Over the young
men, such of the men of mature age- are placed as are
likely. to turn out the best young men. With authority over, the men of mature age, those are invested, of whom it is believed that they approve themselves. as eminently prepared to execute whatever is
commanded, and to obey. the mandates of the highest
authority. The old, also, have their rulers selected
from among. those who give evidence that they themselves perform their duties. We shall now set forth
what things it is prescribed to each age to.perform,
that it may become the more obvious in what manner
provision is: made that the citizens may be as good as
possible.. The boys. attend the schools where they
are employed in, learning justice, and they declare
that..they go for this purpose, just as with us they go
to school,. in order to receive elementary instruction.
Their rulers spend the greater part of the day in judging them.; for it happens among the boys, as well as
the men, that charges are mutually brought for theft,
and robbery, and violence, and fraud, and slander, and.
other things which naturally occur., Upon those whom
hey ascertain to have been guilty in any such point,
they, inflict punishment. They punish those, also,
who are found to have alleged unjust accusations,




28         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
But justice is administered also with respect to a
crime, on account of which men indeed exceedingly
hate each other, but are not apt to go to law, namely,
ingratitude. And when it is found that any one, who
was able to render thanks, neglected to do so, he is
very severely punished; for they are of opinion that
the ungrateful care nothing at all about the gods, nor
their parents, their country, or their friends. It is indeed found that impudence is the companion of ingratitude; and impudence, it appears to me, is the
greatest promoter of everything shameful. They
also teach the boys self-government (temperance);
and the acquisition of temperate habits is greatly promoted by their seeing the old passing all their days
in the most discreet manner. They teach them also
to obey the magistrates; and what greatly contributes to the attainment of this object, is that they see
the aged themselves strictly obedient to their rulers.
They also teach them to be temperate in eating and
drinking; and this is the more easily effected, because
they see that the old do not go to their meals until
their rulers dismiss them, and also because the boys
do not eat with their mothers, but with their teacher,
and not until the ruler or president has given the signal. They bring their food with them fromr home;
bread, and no vegetable but cresses or nasturtiums:
for drinking, they bring only.a goblet, in order, when
thirsty, to take their drink from the river. Besides
these things, they learn the use of the bow and the javelin. In this they are practisei to the sixteenth or
seventeenth year of their age, but after this they are
advanced among the young men (eq,76ot). These also
have their prescribed mode of life, as follows: Ten
years from the time of the expiration of their boyhood,
they are lodged, as has been said above, about the
state-buildings (palaces), both in order to guard the
city, and to preserve their habits of self-government;
for this age appears to stand most in need of careful
attention. During the day, also, they are required to
be ready to assist, especially when the rulers require
it, in any duty connected with the common good; and




THE PERSIANS.              29
when such occasions are likely to arise, they all remain about the state-buildings. But when the king
goes out hunting, which he is wont to do frequently
every month, he takes with him the half of this
guard.- When they go out with him, they are required to be furnished with a bow, quiver, and a sword
in a scabbard, or a battle-axe; and, besides, with a
shield and two javelins, in order that, if one have been
thrown, they may have another at hand, in case of
necessity. But the reason why the chase is thus
made a public matter, and why the king himself is
their leader in the chase as well as in war, and urges
on the others as well as hunting himself, is this, that
the chase is regarded as the most suitable training for
war; for it habituates to early rising, and the endurance of cold and heat; it exercises in walking and
running, for it is necessary to pursue with bow and
javelin any wild animal that may show itself. And
the exercise of courage is often necessary in the
chase, in case one of the more powerful animals
should offer resistance; for when the animal is encountered, it must be struck down, and if it attacks, it
must be contended with; so that the qualities required in war are not easily dispensed with in the chase.
*" When they go hunting they carry their breakfast
with them, being, of course, a larger portion than that
given to the boys, but the same in kind. But while
out hunting they would not eat breakfast, but they
take this to serve for supper in case they should tarry
longer, on account of some animal, or otherwise prefer to prolong the chase; the following day they continue hunting until supper-time, and thus they count
these two days as one, because they consume food
only for one day. But this they do in order to accustom themselves to such privations, so that, if required
in war, they may be able to do the same. The only
additional dish which these young men have, consists
of what they take in the chase; if they capture
nothing, they have only their cresses.  If any one
should consider cresses with bread but meager fare,
or complain that he has nothing but water to drink,




:)30       HISTORY OF -EDtCATION.
let him remember how sweet broth and bread are to
him who eats with an appetite, and how sweet water
is to him that is thirsty.
"The divisions which~ remain at home are meanwhile engaged in those other arts- which they have
learned as boys, in shooting arrows and hurling the
javelin; and in these practices they strenuously contend for pre-eminence.  There are also public games
of this kind, in which prizes are proposed; and the
division which can show the greatest number of the
most expert, manly, and prompt: in obedience, earns
praise and honour from the citizens, not only for
themselves for the time being, but: for him who instructed them as boys.
"The rulers also employ the young men who re,
main behind, either when there is anywhere need of
a guard, or when malefactors are to be discovered, or
robbers to be taken, or in any other service demanding strength and speed.; This, then, is the business
of the young men. When they have thus completed
their term of ten years, they are advanced among the
men of mature age.
" These, from the time when they cease to be 0le76ot
(young men), spend twenty-five years in the following manner. In the first place, they, like the IE7j6ot,
are; required to be in attendance upon the rulers, in
order to render any service called for by the common
good, and requiring men of prudent mind and:fried
ability. When a military enterprise becomes necessary, then those who have been educated in the manner prescribed, no -longer carry bows or javelins, but
arms for close conflict (called tayxpaxa): a cuirass. on
the breast, a shield in the left hand, as the Persians
are represented in paintings; in the right hand a
sword- or a dagger.  From  among these are also
taken all the magistrates, the rulers of the boys excepted. After they have spent five-and-twenty years
in this manner, they are somewhat more than fifty
years of age, and they now enter the class composed
of those who are old, and are so designated. These
aged men no longer render military service out of




THE PERSIANS.               3l1
their country, but, remaining at home,' they admini
ister justice in public and private matters.- They also
decree capital'punishments, and act, in general, -as
magistrates; and if any one, either among the young,
or among the men of mature age, offend against the
laws, the ruler of the respective division, or' any one
else that thinks proper to: do so, informs against him.
The old men now give him a hearing, and pass sentence upon him; and the person condemned:becomes
infamous for the rest of his life.
" But, in order that the whole' constitution o'f the
Persians- may be clearly before us, I must go back a
little; for; in consequence of what has been said,: a
concise view may now be presented. *T'he Persians
are said to number about one hundred and twentyj
thousand, and none of these is excluded, by law,
from honours and offices; but all Persians have the
privilege of sending their sons into the public schools
of justice. But those only send their boys who are
able to maintain them, without requiring their labour;
those who cannot afford' this, do not send theirs.
Those who have been instructed by the public'teachers have the privilege of advancing into the class of.76Ol t;: but this is denied those who have not enjoye'd'this instruction.' " Those who have, as flo6ot, well' performed what
the law prescribes to that class, are privileged to advanceinto the division of the men of mature age, and
to receive' honours and offices; whereas those who
have not spent their time among' those boys, or those
kEO6ot, do not enter the class of mature men; and, in
the same manner, those are ranked among the old
men who have passed with credit through all the
previous classes. This is the constitution adopted
by the Persians, with a view to becoming the best
possible citizens.
" They still enjoy the reputation of taking food with
moderation, and of using'such'exercise as is necessary -for the digestion of their food. And it is'still
disreputable among the Persians openly to spit, to
blow the nosp, and to give evidence of flatulency; it




32         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
is considered disgraceful to be seen going aside for
the purpose of making water, or for any such purpose. All this they would be unable consistently to
observe, if they did not eat moderately, and consume
those fluids by labour, so that they pass off in some
other way."
Thus far our author treats of the general subject
of Persian education, and certainly the picture
which he presents to us is a beautiful one. It has
one feature which deserves special attention, and
that is, that education in Persia took up man at an
early age as an active member of society, to whom
his appropriate sphere was assigned, and that this
education consisted, in a great measure, in the practical training which he received in the duties of his
respective sphere of life. It appears to us that our
age might learn an important lesson here.
SECTION III.
WESTERN ASIA.
THIS division of Asia comprises the Phwenicians,
the Carthaginians (who belong here, as the principal
colony of the Phoenicians), the Lydians, the Phrygians, and the Scythians. Among these, the Phcenicians sustain the most important relation to ancient
civilization; and the Scythians are partioularly interesting, because of the account given, in connexion
with them, by Herodotus, of a distinct tribe or people, whom he calls "MeXayXXatvo1, a'2Lo Mevo', Kat 6v
aKoVOLcov," and who were probably, in part, our Teutonic forefathers. But we know nothing, except by
inference, respecting the education of these nations
SECTION IV.
AFRICA.
I. ETHIOPIANS (MEROE).
THESE, according to the account of Herodotus and
the allusions of Homer, were a highly interesting
people. Their culture resembled that of the Egyp



THE EGYPTIANS.              33
tians, but never reached the same eminence. Modern
travellers have introduced us to a nearer acquaintance
with the country which the Ethiopians inhabited, and
which comprehends the present Nubia and Sennaar.
These travellers all speak, with the highest admiration, of the past magnificence of this people, the traces of which remain, after the lapse of thousands of
years. And it is much to be regretted, that besides
these monuments, we have received no information
respecting their ancient culture and history.
II. EGYPTIANS.
The Egyptians are one of the best known and most
important of the civilized nations of antiquity. The
earliest inhabitants of the Valley of the Nile were
so-called Ichthyophagi, and in a completely barbarous state. A race of foreigners brought civilization
among them. These were of a light complexion,
and, though originally, it is supposed, from India, they
entered Egypt from the south, from beyond the cataracts of the Nile, probably from Meroe, and, settling in
Upper Egypt, in the progress of time occupied and
cultivated Middle and Lower Egypt: and thus arose
successively the separate states of Elephantine and
Thebes, This, Heracleopolis, Memphis. and subsequently several in the Delta, especially Sais. They
were independent of each other, each having its own
divinity and worship, its own temple and peculiar
sacred animals, &c. Yet certain divinities they had
in common, such as Osiris and Isis, which were worshipped throughout Egypt.
After this arrangement had subsisted for many centuries, Sesostris, about 1300 A.C., united the separate
states in one kingdom, yet so as, on the whole, to
retain the authority of the priesthood, which had held
the government from the beginning. The aborigines
had partly emigrated, and in part been incorporated
with the immigrants. The civilization of Egypt dates
from the remotest antiquity, at least 2000 A.C.
We must suppose the reader to be acquainted with
the history of Egypt, with its religious system, and




34         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
the character and privileges of the priesthood; with
the permanent division of the people into castes, and
the strictly hereditary nature of all secular occupations, as well as other matters, which, however important, cannot be detailed here. We proceed to give
a succinct account of their education.
The very respectable degree of civilization attained
by the Egyptians leads us to infer, that their education, however different in the different castes, was in
the main well regulated and effective. There has,
however, little certain information respecting it come
down to us.
The three principal institutions for the education
of the priests were at Thebes, Memphis, and Heliop'
olis. Into these institutions it is probable that none
but young men were received, who passed through a
long course of graduated studies: for we find here
the same divisions as among the Brahmins, into exoteric and esoteric students. Among the former, pupils
were admitted who did not belong to the priestly
caste, so that it is uncertain to what extent strangers
could be initiated into the higher mysteries.
Here were studied the different sciences, in which
the Egyptians excelled all their contemporaries: as
tronomy, mathematics (geometry and arithmetic),
chemistry, of which, as their skill in embalming and
in mixing colours proves, they possessed much practical knowledge; architecture, sculpture, painting,
music, medicine, &c. It is obvious that somne of
these could, without danger to their mysteries, be
communicated, at least to a certain extent, to the uninitiated. Among other methods of instruction in
arithmetic, they made use of the i6a6, a counting-table
furnished with small stones.  The teachers were
priests, of whom each had his particular department.
As in Egypt the common people could read, and
write, and even cipher, without which latter acquisition the women could not transact their market business, the children must, of course, have received instruction in these branches of knowledge, and hence
the Egyptians cannot well have been with'out com




TILE EGYPTIANS.~             35
mon schools. This seems to be attested by Plato,
who says, De Leg., 6, fin., that the children of the
Egyptians learned reading together. This is all the
inforjnation we have on this point. In the mechanical
trades, the fathers were the instructers of their sons.
Gymnastics were also practised in Egypt: and in
warlike exercises, the young men of the military caste
were instructed by their fathers.
The children of the priests, both sons and daughters, were much better educated than those of the
other castes. The education of the king's sons received the utmost attention. Their instructers were
the priests, and their only companions were the best
educated among the sons of the priests, who were
over twenty years of age. These companions of the
young princes were not only chosen on account of
their rank, but according to the degree of culture
which they had attained: a wise measure, which was
adopted also in the Asiatic monarchies.
In general, education was, among all classes, domestic; pre-eminently so among the priests. For
among them  monogamy' prevailed, while in other
castes the men might take as many wives as they
pleased. The wives of the priests were undoubtedly
better educated than the women of the other castes,
and had more leisure for attending to the early education of their children. The state of degradation to
which all the nations of antiquity had, more or less,
reduced the female sex, was doubtless a great injury
to the children, and gave to their education a widely
different character from ours. The fixed institutions
of the Egyptians, which gave to each caste its sphere,
and made occupations hereditary in families, no doubt
greatly facilitated the process of education; but, at
the same time, it greatly cramped and narrowed it
down. In the education of the Egyptians we find all
the benefits peculiar to such an organization-the
steadfast adherence to a peaceful life during centuries
of prosperity; but we see also all the evils of it, in its
arresting the development of the intellect, crushing




*36        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
the aspirations of genius, and imposing adamantine
chains on the freedom of thought.
Respecting the other African nations, we knQw so
little that we can merely suppose that, through commercial intercourse, and the oracle of Jupiter Ammon,
they were, to some extent, made partakers of the civilization of the Ethiopians and Egyptians. The latest
discoveries in the civilized countries of Central Africa, e. g., of the kingdom of Sudan, confirm this conjecture, although their present civilization is derived
from the Mohammedans.
The civilization or culture of those nations of
whom we have hitherto treated, may be described as
having been fixed or stationary. That which remains is free and progressive in its development,
or was so as long as the nations to whom it belonged
had a political existence. The people, which here
first claims our attention, is the ancient covenantpeople of God, whose distinct national (not political)
existence, even to the present day, under circumstances the most extraordinary, is one of the most
remarkable phenomena in the history of mankind, to
be accounted for only by acknowledging that Divine
Providence has miraculously provided for the fulfilment of prophecy, and the attainment of infinitely
wise and good purposes.
SECTION V.
THE ISRAELITES OR HEBREWS.
INTENSELY interesting as is the history of this peo
pie, of their civilization and religion, we cannot here
dwell upon it, both because it would not be much to
our present purpose, as we know little of their education, and because the same source of information
from which we could draw, is, or ought to be, in the
hands of all.
The civilization of the Hebrews hod a peculiar
character of its own, not without a considerable
admixture of Egyptian culture.  It owed its pecu



THE HEBREWS.                 37
liarities, in a great measure, to the character and
mode of life of their great ancestor Abraham, and
of his immediate descendants, and to the patriarchal
government that prevailed among them, and gave a
peculiar complexion to their social system; but,
above all, to the mighty influence of their glorious religion, of their holy law, in which they were
instructed by men divinely commissioned, and of
their theocratic polity. Their religion, derived di.
rectly from heaven, was the inherited means ol
instrument of this nation's culture. Their glorious
literature, rich in the most magnificent compositions
in prose and poetry, presenting the only authentic
and true account of the origin of the world, and the
early history of our race; constituting, in its history,
its revealed truths, its devotional productions, its
moral precepts and discourses, and in its wonderful
prophecies, the basis of that religion which it was
designed to introduce, whose influence has regenerated a great portion of mankind, given a new impulse
and direction to human culture, and which is carrying
its noiseless and peaceable conquests to the uttermost
ends of the earth: this literature requires no discussion here; it is in the hands of the high and the low,
the rich and the poor, and, accessible to all, invites
all to receive its divine instruction.
We proceed, then, to give a brief account of Hebrew education. The subordinate position of woman,
so characteristic of the East, was among the Hebrews also a great hinderance to education.  X et
among them, as the readers of Scripture know, powerful religious influences, which gave to wedded life,
and to the relation between parents and children, a sacredness not known among other Eastern nations,
greatly contributed to the melioration of this evil.
The absence of castes was also favourable to the
free development of mind, and of character, among
the Israelites.
Although it was usual for mothers to suckle their
children themselves, it was not uncommon to employ
wet-nurses, even as early as in the time of the pa



38          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
triarchs. They also had male attendants for theil
children. We find, therefore, that among the HIebrews, as with us, persons were employed to assist
the parents in the business of education, and in some
cases, to supply their place., In the time of Davidf
already there were educators, or superintendents, or
governors for the king's sons, who were men of distinction, such'as Jehiel Ben Hachmoni, with David's.
sons, and especially the prophet Nathan, to whom
Solomon's education was intrusted, and who called
his pupil, the future wise king, by the name of Jedediah, the beloved of the Lord.*
After the children were weaned, which was usually
done in their third year, they grew up and were educated. in the bosom of the family, and their education
took its character more from domestic usage, and national custom, than from regular institutions. Their
physical education was not exactly calculated to render them hardy, but their moral discipline was strict
and vigorous.  The rod was in common use, and
this rigid discipline was made the duty of parents;
and an indulgent father, like Eli, was accounted responsible for the evil conduct of his children.
The education of the Hebrews was thoroughly religious, and in the father, who acted in the name of God,
supreme authority was vested. Respect and reverence of old age was a religious duty, expressly inculcated in the divine law. See Levit., xix., 32.
The father's authority over his children continued
as long as they remained in the parental home. The
obedience of children towards their parents was rigorously enforced, and disobedient sons exposed themselves to the- sanctions of the law. The punishments for the violation of filial duty were very severe.
He who- had cursed father or mother, i. e., grossly-reviled or contemned either, received a public malediction and sentence of death. The same punishment
was incurred by those who gave a blow to either parent. Children were bound to support their parents,
* See 1 Chron., xxvii., 32. 2 Sam., xii.,25. 1 Sam., i., 22, sqq..; ii., li,
sqq  2 Kings, x., 1, fi.




THE HEBREWS.                39
when these were unable to maintain themselves.'A
son addicted to strong drink, or otherwise dissolute,
was subject to stoning.
It was, therefore, the father's great concern to educate his children in the law of Jehovah, and adapt to
this end the arrangements of his household. He was
required to impress on their minds the general commandments, frequently to call them to their remembrance, and to enjoin especially the fundamental commandment of love to God. At the same time, special
laws were to be inculcated on every suitable occasion.
The observance of the ceremonial law-habituated the
children to cleanliness and wholesome diet, which
had, not only physically, but morally, a happy influence. Self-pollution was guarded against by a special
statute. In general, the customs and arrangements
of the family were calculated to promote love to the
law, to the whole nation, and to the only true God..,
This. religious education was rich. in instruction,
which exerted an influence on the Hebrew's entire
mode of life; for this instruction was historical,- not
only communicating oral information respecting what
Jehovah had, in times past, done and commanded, but
initiating, by its practices, rites, ceremonies, and,
feasts, the young in the national culture. The. education of the Israelites was truly national
The oral instruction of children in the law  was
commenced as soon as they could repeat the words
pronounced in their hearing. In the fourth year they
were taught the alphabet, and began in the fifth to
learn to -read. This' early instruction in. reading, in
which the father was the teacher, appears, however,
to have been' introduced at a later period of the Jewish history, for the express purpose of accustoming
the young to the sacred language, and enabling them
to read the word of God.
There is, indeed, mention made of writing (Deut.,
vi., 9, et al.), but not as a subject of domestic instruction, and it is not probable that the people generally
were able to write. Still less reason is there to believe, that in ancient times the boys were instructed in




'10         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
arithmetic. Nor is there any evidence that there were
schools for boys, or that the Levites gave instruction
in families. The father appears generally to have
been the teacher, and to have instructed his sons by
his own example, and by practical illustrations, in
those attainments which they were required to make,
among which was vocal and instrumental music.
At twenty years of age the young man was enrolled among the warriors; and all the men, with the
exception of the Levites, were required-to render military service until their fiftieth year.
The education of females was not exactly neglected, yet they received less than the other sex; and
even the daughters of the priests could neither read
nor write; but they enjoyed the common privilege of
growing up in the bosom of the family, in which kindness and affectionate solicitude watched over the development of their character, and trained them up in
habits of cleanliness, piety, and modesty. They were
not only educated to be faithful and skilful housewives, but to appear respectably in public. They
wrought.in flax, hemp, wool, cotton, camels' and
goats' hair; possessed great skill in spinning, weaving, fulling, and dyeing; in making garments for
themselves and their families; in working tapestry
and tents; and were perhaps as skilful in embroidery
as their neighbours, the Sidonian women. They
learned to cook and to bake; and although females of
rank or wealth left the affairs of the kitchen to female
slaves, the daughters of kings did not regard the art
of cookery as beneath their dignity. Instructed in
music and dancing, the young Hebrew women may
be said to have received some measure of aesthetic ediucation; but these accomplishments were valued
chiefly on account of their connexion with religious
rites and festivals.
The education of the Hebrews was not, in the strict
acceptation of the term, a national education; uait it
was in the strictest sense domestic, and thus also national, and its good fruits often became manifest in
the course of their checkered history. They were




THE GREEKS.                41
wont often to repeat its fundamental principle: "the
fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom."
It is scarcely necessary to say that the consideration of the schools of the prophets would here be out
of place, especially as their real character cannot be
ascertained. The later schools of rabbinical learning,
however interesting in many respects, we also omit,
as they are not exactly embraced by our present
plan.
SECTION VI.
THE CLASSIC NATIONS: OR, THE GREEKS
AND ROMANS.
I. THE GREEKS.
THE important relation which the culture of the
Greeks and Romans sustains to modern education;
the mighty influence which their literature exerts
upon that of Europe and our own country, and the intense interest with which every man of liberal education must regard those nations, with whose great
minds he has been in delightful intercourse, and cultivated an ever-growing intimacy, from the early.days
of his academic studies, demand that we should consider, somewhat extensively, the influences which produced their peculiar culture, so long the admiration
of the enlightened world; or, in other words, that we
should give as extended a view of their education as
our limits will permit. While, therefore, we begin
with the Greeks, we request the reader to impress
anew upon his mind their history from the earliest
times, as our limited space would, at best, admit only
of a meager outline of a great historic picture, which
ought to be viewed in all its fulness of detail, and
freshness of colouring.
The ante-Homeric era of the Greeks presents to our
view their culture rather in masses, like the confluent
light of the nebulae; and we discern less the educaton of vouth. than certain influences which operated
in the whole body of the people, and on a grand
D




42         IIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
scale; and among these, next to religion, music and
poetry are prominent. We therefore turn to particular stars of that ancient world, whose light comes
down to us from a distance less remote. These are
framers of states, legislators, and, at the same time,
educators; or they are distinct institutions, promotive
of national culture; or they are entire states, in which
we find the Grecian idea of education brought to a
high degree of development, and offering instruction
even to our age. In following the current of time,
the following periods present themselves to our consideration. The Homeric era; the Dorians in theii
principal seats, especially the Spartans; the philosophic schools; Athenian education; the Athenian educators, and the Grecian culture of their, and subsequent, times. These cycles of culture will be classified under the names of men who are worthy to be
placed at their head, as follows: 1. Homer. 2. Lycurgus. 3. Pythagoras. 4. Solon. 5. Socrates. 6.
Plato. 7. Aristotle.
1. Homer. Achaians and Hellenes.
Homer, acquainted with the manners and countries
of the people dwelling about the eastern portion of
the Mediterranean, shines, by his intellectual culture,
which he probably acquired by travel, perhaps even
in Egypt; as a great and brilliant star of that ancient
time. The knowledge which he acquired, assumed
with him a Grecian form. All his collected treasures
were remodelled by the creative power of the genius
of beauty. From the gods which he found, he formed
the Grecian Olympus, and the world to which it was
sacred, and his poems became the schoolbooks of
the Greeks; his mythology, his historical narratives,
his moral precepts, his geography, and his ethnology,
became the substratum of whatever was spoken or
taught in the Greek language.
Glorious are the ideals of Homer, not only as subjects for the plastic arts, but also on account of a certain moral power and grandeur: male and female
characters of lofty conception, comprising the twelve




THE GREEKS.                 43
higher divinities; and they have thus always exerted
a powerful influence, even upon our culture. For the
history of education, Homer's works contain, in multiplied hints and portraitures, a mine from which we
shall offer a few gems. Achilles, his principal hero,
was at a tender age intrusted to the care of the faithful Phoenix, who educated him, and was in his old
age highly esteemed by his pupil.-See Il., ix., 485.
His friend Patroclus was educated with him, in the palace of Peleus. —I., xxiii., 84, sqq. Homer's second
ideal is Ulysses, a man of refinement and extensive
culture, which appears in his moderation and calm
discretion, in his rigid self-government, and his comprehensive knowledge of the world and of men. In
his son Telemachus we see a well-educated young
man, whose prominent traits of character, filial reverence, youthful ardour and enterprise, and artless
modesty, are depicted with evident delight by our
poet. —See the Odyssee.
Hector, who, in our estimation, is the noblest of the
Homeric heroes, was humane, generous, and exemplary in his relations to gods and men, towards parents, brothers and sisters, wife and child. A beautiful repose characterizes this picture of the Trojan hero. There are many allusions in Homer to the
educational practices of his time. From Od., xv.,
262, it appears that persons of rank sometimes educated the children of others with their own. An
aged man, Phylas, is represented as educating the
orphan child of his daughter as his own son. —I.,
xvi., 191.
Beautiful and instructive are the following passages:.1., xxii., 490-508. Od., ix., 34, sqq. 11., xvi..
7-10. IL., vi., 466, sqq. Il., xxiii., 588.
Homer's female characters are far from being destitute of knowledge and good culture; witness Penelope, Arete, and her admirably-educated daughter
Nausikaa.
From the time of Homer down to the period in
which we behold the Grecian states in a clearer historic light, various institutions of an educational char



44          HIS''TORY OF EDUCATION.
acter appear to have existed. Such were the medical
schools of the Asclepiades in Cos, at Crotona in Magna Graecia, at Cnidus, and at Rhodes. No doubt
there were other schools for boys, as they were instructed in vocal music, for which purpose they were
necessarily, in some way or other, associated under a
teacher. The common schools which, at the time of
the Peloponnesian war, existed even in Bceotia, lead
us to infer that similar institutions were established
at an early period. This inference is sustained by
the traces found, at a very early period, in Magna
Graecia, and in other regions of Italy settled by
Greeks. Nor was the influence of the gymnastic institutions, the several public games, unimportant in
respect of mental and moral culture.
2. Lycurgus and the Spartans.
The peculiar culture of the Spartans, which was
originated by Lycurgus, is less interesting or important to our age than that of the other Grecian states.
For this reason, but also because there are many
things connected with Spartan education, nay, essential features of it, which would be offensive to the
modesty of the well-educated reader, we shall forbear
entering much into detail. The prominent characteristics of the culture of the Spartans may be readily
ascertained from any good work on general history;
e. g., the larger work of Tytler, to which the general
~reader is referred.
It must be conceded that the idea of Lycurgus,
though it embraced little more than the physical culture of man, was a grand one. It was clearly conceived, admirably developed, consistently carried out,
and invested with permanent authority by an extraordinary example, on the part of its author, of selfconsecration to the attainment of some great purpose. The fundamental principle of the national culture which he originated, and of the education which,
in subserviency to it, he established, was, that all children belong to the state immediately, and not merely
because the parents belong to it.




THE GREEKS.                 45
It was the desire and glory of Sparta to possess a
beautiful and brave race of people, healthy in body
and soul, blooming sons and daughters. While war
was the great business of the state, to raise, to educate a vigorous race of warriors was its great concern. To train up hardy citizens was the aim of
Spartan education; and to the attainment of this,
all its provisions and methods were admirably adapted. Immediately upon the birth of a child, the state
asserted its paramount right over it; for it depended
on a public decision, whether it should be permitted
to live. The father was required to bring his newborn child to the older inhabitants of his c6ea, or quarter of the city, who met in a hall (;xaxn); these inspected the child, in order to ascertain whether it
was well-proportioned and healthy. If they found it
to be so, they ordered that it should be raised; but if
it was weakly or deformed, they caused it to be cast
into the chasm of the Taygetus. From early infancy
the children were subjected to treatment, and habituated to diet, calculated to render them hardy.
In early childhood already they were required to
submit to the annual dtaaaarliywtCl, or scourging; when
small boys, together with older ones, and young men,
who had allowed themselves to be detected in stealing, were scourged even to blood. Under this infliction they were not permitted to utter cries, and their
parents stood by to administer encouragement. If
they held out without giving signs of suffering, they
were crowned, as victors, with a wreath; but many
perished under the operation.
Unlike the Persians, the Spartans intrusted children, during the first seven years of life, to the affectionate care of their parents, and besides them, only
the nurse had any charge over them. After the seventh year the boy was surrendered to the public education, in wvhich he passed through a number of different grades or stages until he was thirty years of
age, when he was accounted a man, and belonged entirely to the service of the state and of war.
The age I stood in high respect, and reverence for
the old was 3s rictly inculcated upon the young.




46         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
When the boy entered on the public course of education, the principle was laid down, that the Spartan
must learn, from his early youth, to govern and to be
governed; and therefore the young must, above all
things, learn to obey. At the same time, they were
required to engage in athletic exercises; and their
minds were trained to prompt activity. Even the
boys were thus intellectually exercised, and practised,
daily and rigidly, in thinking clearly, in judging correctly, in speaking the truth, and in expressing themselves briefly; from which latter practice, for which
the Spartans were noted, we have the word laconic.
These exercises were often introduced at meals.
When the young commenced their course of public
education, they were required to go barefoot: their
hair was closely cropped, and they received a sort of
cap, and were made to clothe themselves lightly. At
twelve years of age they exchanged their trcwv for
a cloak, which had to last them at least a year.
The black soup was as yet considered too strong
for them; their own meager fare they were compelled to prepare themselves. If, in addition to it,
they could steal anything from the gardens or the
tables of the men, this was permitted, as a practice in
artifice and skill; but they were punished if they
allowed themselves to be detected. Their couches
were rushes, just as they pulled them up at the Eurotas. On these they slept in companies, and were
not, in winter, allowed any additional comfort, except
a portion of a certain other plant, mingled among the
rushes.
Their instruction was limited to gymnastics, music
(vocal, and on the lyre and flute), orchestics, i. e., severe athletic exercises, and dancing. Reading and
writing were not required, and therefore much neglected; grammar was, therefore, not thought of, and
still less rhetoric, as the art of oratory was despised
in Sparta. A little arithmetic, especially mental,
was taught for the uses of common life. This whole
course of education was managed by the public
teachers; yet the parents had considerable influence




THE GREEKS.                47
in the training of their children. Notwithstanding
the decided one-sidedness of Spartan education, it
was often much commended, and even sometimes
preferred to that of the.Athenians. Ruddy and rugged health and bodily vigour, and severe self-government, were its principal results; yet, as it strictly
inculcated love of country and a certain sort of piety,
sharpened the understanding and communicated some
degree of asthetic culture, the claims of the mind
were not totally neglected.  It continued in operation during several centuries, until, after the Peloponnesian war, and still more, after the reign of Alexander the Great, the genius of Greece departed, and
everything external perished that was not founded in
intellectual culture.
3. Pythagoras. Pythla,goqa'xans.
Pythagoras, born on an Asiatic island in the Mediterranean, became the founder, among the westernmost Greeks of Magna Graecia, of a philosophic sect,
and the lawgiver of the Doric colony at Crotona. He
was the first Greek in whom the spirit of the East
was united with that of the West, and in whom the
culture of Babylon, Egypt, and westernmost Asia
combined to develop that of the Greeks in a new
and glorious form.
This great sage and educator of men was born on
the island of Samos about 600 A.C.  Respecting
the history of his education there are various reports,
which, after all, leave us in uncertainty. But certain
it is that Pythagoras, who early lost his father, attracted, already in his youth, the observation of all,
by his extraordinary excellences of mind and character: there was something highly dignified and sagelike (ace7voTa7ro Kat awopoveararo~) in hiA appearance, so
that he was accounted a son of Apollo. At the age
of twenty-two he left his native land; and sailed to
Syros, where he visited the celebrated Pherecydes,
and, finding him in ill health, took care of him till
his death. From here he went to Anaximander,
and afterward to Thales, who found his expectations




48         IIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
respecting him more than realized. Thale3, one of
the most profound and learned thinkers, was then suffering of the infirmities of old age, and therefore advised his young visiter to proceed to Egypt, in order
to enjoy the instruction of the priests. He first visited
SidoR, where he was initiated in the sacred mysteries
of the Phenicians. Arrived in Egypt, he visited the
temples and the priests, whose esteem and love he
everywhere gained, and who admitted him to privileges which no foreigner before him had ever enjoyed.
He studied (according to a highly exaggerated statement, during twenty-two years) the geometry, astronomy, and theology of the Egyptians. Carried into
captivity by Cambyses, who had invaded Egypt, he
became acquainted with the Magi, and soon obtained
their friendship and learned their sciences. After a
sojourn among them of twelve years (probably exaggerated), he at length returned to Samos, enriche'd
with all the learning of his age, and familiar with the
profoundest regions of thought. Hampered in his
educational efforts in his native land, he commenced
his travels anew; visited Delos, and afterward the
different oracles; then proceeded to Crete, where he
was initiated in the mysteries of that island; and
thence he went to Sparta, made himself acquainted
with the manners and customs of the Dorians, and
studied the institutions of Lycurgus. After returning
for a short time to Samos, he left it finally for Italy,
where he arrived at Crotona, in Magna Graecia, in the
sixty-second Olympiad. Here, having been received
with great respect, this extraordinary man found, at
length, an extensive sphere of action, in which his
powerful and opulent mind could put forth all its energies, and apply its hoarded wisdom. His influence in
education and politics was immense, and the institutions which he founded were productive of the most
extensive and happy effects. But, persecution having
driven him to Metapontus, he incurred here also the
rancour of faction, and is said, among other reports
concerning his death, to have been slain.:in the disturbances which had arisen. Some authorities say




THEi  G REEKS.               49
that he died nearly one hundred years of age: according to Diogenes Laertius, he had reached his eightieth
year.  The Crotonians consecrated his house as a
temple of Demeter, and in memory of him called
their port Movaezov.  His philosophy continued to
flourish in the celebrated Italic school.
After this brief sketch of this true sage's life, we
proceed to give an account of his system of education, selecting from a vast amount of interesting
and delightful materials only what is most essential.
and present, in the first place, the prominent features
of that culture of man which he aimed to exhibit in
himself, and to realize in society through his pupils.
Harmony in all things was the aim. This exists in
the universe (hence K6qzor), and is to be also in man
(whence he is styled ulKpoK6q1oof). The harmony of
the spheres finds its echo in the well-cultivated mind.
To this we are brought by purification of the soul
(KcOapiat), by self-knowledge (yvwOt cavrov), and by
devotion. Man, attaining thus to the perception of
pure relations, of good order, and of heavenly beauty,
is admitted also to constant converse with God
(1t.Ietv rT() Oe), and in this he finds his highest good.
Purification advances through a succession of exercises, in a well-regulated life, both contemplative and
active; for sensual gratification ('6bovw) defiles, conducts merely from one desire to the other, and plunges
us into the torments of passion. But the human soul
performs also a transmigration through different bodies (or human beings), in order to attain, when at
length purified, to a higher state of being.
Self-knowledge consists not only in our forming a
correct estimate of our gifts and defects, but in olbtaining a more penetrating view of our minds, and in
judging of them according to the relations of eternal
order; but as this could be done by him only who had
perfectly seen through the order of the universe, the
effe.t of this will be that modesty, which will permit
no man to esteem himself a aooor (sage), for wisdom is
only in God, and the highest that man can pretend to is
to love and seek after wisdom, and to be a oL~taoooc;
E




50          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
and thus he is the true philosopher who meditates
upon God and the world —the cause and the nature of
things-the order of the universe-and the highest
good.
Whatsoever is good comes from the Divine Being (the
gods), which rules over all, and orders all things. Man
ought, therefore, to inquire after the will of the Deity;
to do what is pleasing to that being, and to aim, by
truth and morality, more and more to approximate
his character. Prayer and good actions, and finally
death, bring us near to God. The divine government
is therefore the pattern for human government, both
in the state and in the family; internal discord is
worse than fire and sword, and anarchy is the greatest evil. As God notes all our actions, and regards
nothing as beneath his notice, we ought to be watchful of ourselves, and careful of everything committed
to our management. Man, being a Cov 6pt art6KSov requires guidance and rigorous control by means of
laws and education. But justice is more important
in its legislative than its judicial character, for it must
so arrange matters that every man may be treated in
the manner which is suited to him, so that every one
may, from free impulse, obey the laws; nay, that every one may acquire that inward harmony, which ev.
arywhere strikes upon what is right and fitting.
The highest aim of culture is to know things in
their nature and pure relations, and to live and act accordingly. And this is the nature of music: she per
ceives the harmony of the universe; she copies it in
the soul, and causes it to resound throughout the
whole of life (LovatK1c iratdeZa).
Thus was the life of Pythagoras one of music; of
harmony between the life without and that within;
an echo of the music of the spheres. He needed no
earthly tones, for that music resounded in his ear.
He saw in the laws of the planets those pure relations
of the beautiful and the glorious, and he felt himself
irresistibly impelled to exhibit or represent in human
life what was thus present to ills lofty mind: and
thus he conceived the idea of education as no sage
* Inclining to evil, or under the influence of strong passions.




THE GREEKS.                 51
had ever done before him. He had profoundly and
maturely developed this idea. He aimed at the good
of the community, which he sought to attain, by political institutions, the education of youth, and the
culture of men in general. Religion constituted the
basis of that harmony which he sought to promote.
He desired to make external order dependant on that
which is inward; civil liberty on nobleness of soul;
the administration of state-affairs on the intellectual
culture of the citizens; the prosperity of the city on
purity of morals. He wished to cultivate excellence
of character in all, and the rulers were to be the most
excellent.  More immediately he educated young
men at an institution of his own, but also adults, by
lectures; and lastly children, by leading parents to the
adoption of his principles of education. His institution at Crotona was designed for adults, and he assembled around him a large number of young men,
who, living with him, became his particular disciples.
Each one was required to submit to a certain preparation and initiation, to regulate his daily life according to certain rules and prescribed exercises, and to
devote himself, as it were with body and soul, to his
master. Thus his disciples led a common life, whence
they were called Kotv66tot. 
It is with extreme reluctance that we omit a great
deal that is valuable and delightful in the practice of
this extraordinary man, in order to describe the order
of things at his institution, which was as follows: In
the morning, all dressed themselves in a clean white
robe, sang to the accompaniment of the lyre, and addressed a prayer to the rising sun. Hereupon they
repeated the instructions of the preceding day, and prepared themselves for what might happen to them on
the day which had just begun. Then each pupil took
a solitary walk, in order to bring his mind into a calm
and placid state for the day. After this, they all assembled to receive instruction, to which succeeded
bodily exercise. At noon they partook of a little
bread and honey: no wine at all was allowed.' After
dinner, business was resumed: towards evening, par



52          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
ticular friends took walks together, and discoursed on
what they had learned. Thereupon each one went
into his bath, after which they partook of another
meal, never more than ten eating in company. They
began with a libation and scattering incense, and theni
ate moderately of the food which was allowed them,
being chiefly vegetables, and the meat of those animals only which they could offer in sacrifice. At
this meal they also took a little wine. It ended with
another libation, after which one of the younger pu.
pils was required to read something under the direc
tion of one of the older ones, and, at separating, the
senior pupil pronounced some precepts; for example,
that no useful animal or plant should be injured; that
pious thoughts should be cherished towards gods, demons and heroes, parents, and good men; and the
like. And now each one laid himself down on his
couch, and ended the day with serious communion
with himself. Many articles of food were forbidden
them, and of meat they ate but little; and, in fact, they
were not to drink wine, from which Pythagoras himself
abstained altogether. Music was with him a prominent
means of culture, and he employed it for the purification of the mind, and the subjugation of the passions.
Hence, with song and instrumental music, especially
of the lyre, began and ended the day. His pupils had
particular songs against particular excessive emotions
and passions, as also peculiar metres and tunes. He
made use, also, of choice verses from Homer and Hesiod, to awaken good thoughts and cultivate right feelings.
A certain discipline (7ratiapi-aCtf) was introduced
among his pupils, which required the older ones affectionately and tenderly to counsel the younger, to instruct them without envy, and kindly to assilt them:
it was the duty of the younger ones to submit to the authority thus given to their seniors. Good morals were
rigidly enforced; friends were not.allowed to speak
untruths to each other, even in jest. The influence
of friendship in the culture of man was highly estimated; through it, the disciples of Pythagoras were to




THE GREEKS.                 5d
elevate each other mutually to the divine.  His
principle was, "friends have everything in common;" and "our friend is our second self, our alter
ego." The tone of their whole associated life was
unity and harmony: contention and ill-will were positively interdicted: love prevailed throughout. To
their master thev were devoted for life and death.
They were expected to accustom themselves to maintain friendship with the whole universe, and to be in
communion with the gods, waking and sleeping.
Even between men and beasts a friendly relation was
to subsist. The depths of the mind were to be the
abode of purity, undisturbed by passion, untainted by
aught that was rude or base, so that its inward eye
might be opened, which was valued more than ahun
dred outward eyes.
That these doctrines of Pythagoras were not merely speculative, that his method of education was profoundly and pervasively efficient, was abundantly attested by the high, the exemplary character sustained
by his pupils. They everywhere obtained the respect
and esteem of all. In the Grecian cities of southern
Italy (or Magna Graecia), the happy effects of his institution soon manifested themselves, in the revolution
which it effected in all the relations of life, in all the
institutions of society, to the admiration of all the
neighbouring states.
Such was the system and the activity of Pythagoras, a phenomenon equally important for politics and
for.pedagogics.
But he was not merely a legislator, limited to the
city in which he lived, or to the confederated cities of
Magna Graecia. He was the founder, also, of a sodality,
or association, or sect, which extended itself farther
under tlb name of the Pythagoraean, and possessed a
sort of secret or esoteric doctrine, in which he was,
of course, the teacher. He taught the sciences of
that period,- particularly those of Egypt. These were
mathematics, astronomy, natural science, and medicine, in their different branches. Astrology he appears to have discarded




*54         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Unlike many who are great in their systems, he was
truly a philosopher in his capacity of instructer. He
exercised the minds of his pupils, and gave them a direction and impulse, which prevented their merely
learning his system, or repeating his words, but led
them to think for themselves, and with freedom to
cultivate the intellect. In this process of culture, he
insisted on three requisites: OSb7T17, ayXV':ota, ypv/l'71:
acuteness and versatility of mind; desire and resolution for prosecuting inquiry; and memory for retaining. His pupils were required firmly to impress and
appropriate whatsoever they learned, before they
were permitted to take another step forward. Hence
they were expected, before rising in the morning, to repeat in their minds what they had learned the day previous, or even at an earlier period; and that even in
the very words in which it had been communicated.
At the same time, they were, in various ways, stimulated to farther reflection and independent development of thought. The mode of teaching thus adopted
by this great master is highly instructive to educators of our own day. Collections of the sayings, the
maxims, and aphorisms of Pythagoras, are to be received with caution, as great liberties have been taken
with his name.
Many of his pedagogical principles and rules will
be found in writings of several of his pupils; among
others, of Ocellus of Lucania, and Aristoxenus. Stobaeus gives (Serm. 96) a fragment from the work of
Teles, concerning human life, which is interesting.
Among his pupils were also females, who distinguished themselves as authors. To his wife, Theano,
is ascribed a work on Piety, wrepi lvae6eia. Letters
from her to female friends are extant, which contain
much that is beautiful and excellent on various human
relations, especially on education.
The entire picture of Pythagoras, and his school, is
one of the most delightful to look upon in the whole
ancient classic world.




h E GREEKS.                 53
4. Solon. The Ionians. Athens.
Solon, a descendant of Codris, was born at Athens,
638 A.C., and was one of the wisest and most learned men of his age. Elected to the archonship of his
native city, he was called upon to prepare a new code
of laws, as the severity of the laws of Draco had become intolerable. He drew up a milder code, and introduced, at the same time, a system of education for
the people. After the Athenians had adopted his
laws, he absented himself for ten years, and travelled
to Egypt and Crete, receiving distinguished honours
wherever he went.
The immediate results of his new constitution
were not as favourable to Athens as the effects of the
legislation of Lycurgus had been, three hundred years
before, to Sparta. When he returned, he found everything in confusion. The people received him as
though he had been a god, who would restore perfect
order in the state. But his sagacious and wily relative, Pisistratus, succeeded better than he in remedying the existing evils. Solon died 559 A.C., at the
age of eighty years.
Athens, founded 1600 A.C. by Cecrops, did not attain to complete civilization, or acquire a regular municipal constitution, until the time of Theseus, about
1250 A.C. The regal government ceased after the
noble Codrus had sacrificed himself for his people;
and under its aristocratic constitution, administered
by archons, Athens enjoyed almost uninterrupted
peace; during nearly five centuries. But the want of
a new constitution being felt, two distinguished legislators appeared: first Draco, 600 A.C.; soon after
him, Solon, 594 A.C. The results of Solon's legislation have been hinted at; for farther information, the
reader will consult historical works; as also for an
account of the rise and progress of art and science at
Athens, which were already beginning to flourish in
the time of Solon.
Solon's legislation comprehended, as we have said,




56         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
a plan for the education of youth. Here also, in Ath.
ens, the principle was recognised that the child belongs to the state, and is to be educated by and for
the state. But there was not here that unity of populat life, which we find among the ancient Persians
and at Sparta; and the multiplicity of forms, in which
life developed itself at Athens, did not admit of any
fixed, uniform mode of treatment for the young: hence
the public education of Athens was by no means as uniform, or as one-sided, as that of the Lacedemonians.
The Athenians were, therefore, the first among whom
culture was free, and the education of children open
to experiments and improvement. Free development
prevailed in all things. The dominion of the priesthood, the hitherto sacred authority of ancient institutions, perished; and superiority of intellect, and of fortune, and arbitrary ambition, had unrestricted scope.
But as men had now reached that point in which this
stage of development had to be passed through, we
should do injustice to the wisdom of Solon, if we censured him for not preventing the evil and disorder,
which were the inevitable concomitants of this state
of transition.
The laws which Solon enacted respecting marriage
and succession, were promotive of well-regulated domestic life, and of good education. The father was required to have his son taught some useful occupation;
and the son was, in turn, obliged to maintain his parents
in old age, or when incapable of providing for themselves. Every Athenian citizen, whether rich or poor,
was required by law to teach his son at least to read and
to swim; and for instruction in these, the public institutions, of course, made provision. But Solon had also
made it a law, that every man should educate his sons
in a manner suitable to his rank and property.
But, passing by these general arrangements, of
which an outline may be found in every good work on
general history, we proceed to the particular methods
of instruction employed in the education of the Athenian youth.
From early times the Athenians had given their




THE GREEKS.                  57
children a twofold education. Their iraLdeta required
the culture of the mind, and that of the body in pure
harmony, EvpvOlia; the former was attained chiefly by
grammatical studies, the latter by gymnastics. The
latter, in accordance with the spirit of the ancient
Greeks, took precedence of the former; on this branch
of education the state bestowed the greatest attention,
and from it the public place of instruction was called
Gymnasium.
The gymnastic training of Athens was very similar
to that of Sparta. Some of its distinctive peculiarities will be mentioned. One of the most honourable offices in Athens was that of the gymnasiarch, or president of the Gymnasium; he was usually elected for a
year, and had not only to superintend the gymnasia of
the city, but to furnish, at his own expense, the oil
that was used in them.  Each of these institutions
had several teachers and overseers, whose business it
was to provide for order in all things. These officers
were the wraidorpi67y and the yvyvaar7'. The one unlocked the Gymnasium at sunrise, and locked it at sunset;
chastised the tardy, prescribed the diet, and, during the
whole day, watched the boys and young men closely.
His instrument of chastisement was a slender stick
(p66dor), which he plied industriously; he was a formidable character, like our pedagogues of olden times.
He conducted the gymnasiasts to their public contests;
at the Olympic games they had a separate place assigned them. This officer was probably the yvusvaarc, who farther instructed the aOnr7al. There was another officer, the 5dei7rr7c, who anointed the bodies
of the gymnasiasts with oil, and administered medical
aid to those who had been hurt.
The Gymnasium itself was a large open space, surrounded with walls, containing shady spots, and furnished with a building having corridors, so that the
exercises might continue at all seasons, and in every
sort of weather. In the Gymnasium was also a particular place for the contests, called iraaaicarpa, which -was
strewed with fine sand.
The laws concerning the conduct of the gym.la -Lia




58         IIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
ran as follows: "The teacher of the boys shall not open
the schools before sunrise, and close them before sunset; and no one beyond the age of boyhood shall be
allowed to enter while the boys are within, except it
be his brother or son-in-law: if any other person enter, he shall be punished with death. Nor shall the
gymnasiarchs at the Hermaia (a place in the Palestrum), on any account, allow any one beyond the age
of boyhood to enter: if he should, nevertheless, permit others to enter, or fail to prevent them from so
doing, he shall be subject to punishment, according to
the laws which relate to the crimes of free citizens."
From all this it appears how sacredly these places
were guarded against moral pollution. The object
aimed at was general good culture; the bodily exercises were designed to render the young hardy and
athletic, that in peace they might be good citizens.
and in war stalwart defenders of liberty and their native land. By these exercises each pupil was to gain
for his body, beauty,'vpvBtia, and strength; and therefore exertion was interrupted by suitable recreations.
The gymnastic rules provided for moderation in living, self-government, and especially chastity; the
system aimed at suitably combining moral culture
with yovTaLK, or elegant education. It was the duty of
every youth to frequent the gymnasia.
When the boy had left the reading and singing
school, and was, therefore, about ten or twelve years
of age, he began the-course of the Gymnasium, being
required to attend daily from sunrise to nearly sunset.
Grammar, or instruction in language. In early
times the Athenians appear to have had but one elementary teacher (the ypauquaTtc17w'r) for this branch of
instruction: in later times, another of higher pretensions, the ypap/aaTrtKo6, or, as he was at first called, the
KpLttK6O, was employed. The former taught the alphabet, spelling, and writing (Ta ypapyyara); with the
latter, the pupils read the works of the writers of
Greece, and committed poems to memory, while the
teacher made explanations, and gave other instruction.




THE GREEKS                  59
The schoolhouse (ro &tdaacKa2Leov), a building totally
different from the Gymnasium, comprised one large
room, furnished with benches for the boys. The
teacher probably occupied a chair (rciOe6pa). The law
required all the boys to attend this school, which they
entered, not before they were seven, according to
Plato, ten years of age. The course of instruction
probably embraced several years. Afterward they
were sent to the music-master, KtOaptartf, who taught
them to sing and to perform on the lyre. This instruction must either have been synchronous with
that of the grammaticus, or the office of the latter
was altogether of later origin. Some also learned
the flute from the Iav;7r', whose charges were high.
The pupils of the,rat6ayoyeyov were probably not
taught to write, until they had made some progress in
reading. In writing, they made use of tablets covered with wax, and a style: in later times they wrote
with ink. Much importance was attached to elegance
and rapidity in writing.
The higher studies, which succeeded this elementary instruction, consisted in the reading of the poets,
and the memorizing of suitable passages, as has already been stated. The author most generally read
was Homer, who was so thoroughly studied that
many Greeks could, even in their old age, repeat
memoriter the entire Iliad and Odyssee.  Besides
Homer, Hesiod was read, as well as other prose writers, and for this purpose Chrestomathies were prepared. Every pupil was required to be acquainted
with _Esop's Fables. All this supplied the mind with
an abundance of beautiful figures, excited in the soul
admiration and love of whatsoever was noble, gave
the thinking faculty an exalted impulse, and produced
that pure and enthusiastic love of the beautiful, which
characterizes the Greeks in general, but pre-eminently the Athenians.
Every variety of popular instruction, in mythology,
ethics, and politics, was combined with this course of
reading, and was fruitful, in proportion as the teacher
performed his duties with intelligence and zeal. It




60        hIISTORY OF EDUCA'TION.
rendered unnecessary any special religious instruc.
tion, which was farther superseded by the observantces of domestic life and the popular festivals.
5. Socrates.
Socrates was born 469 A.C. (Olymp. lxxvii., 3); his
father, Sophroniscus, belonged to the middle class
of citizens, and was a skilful sculptor. He passed
through the Athenian schools in the prescribed order,
and learned his father's art, in which he acquired considerable skill. He continued daily to practise gymnastic exercises to his old age, and to this custom he
was indebted for the regular health which he enjoyed.
The grammatical course he had so thoroughly accomplished, that nothing remained for him but to become
acquainted with every public teacher, who arose at
his time in Athens; and he so completely assimilated in his own mind the philosophic views of Anaxagoras, Parmenides, and Zeno of Elea, whose personal intercourse he enjoyed at Athens, that his mind,
stored with intellectual wealth, rapidly developed
itself. Through Anaxagoras he became acquainted
with the philosophy of Pythagoras and of Thales,
and therefore with the Italic and Ionic schools; made
himself familiar with their theories respecting the
universe, and practised himself in the use of their dialectics; but, as it becomes every independent thinker
and teacher of philosophy, he connected himself with
no particular sect. The unity of God, the divine
omniscience, justice, and foresight; the dignity and
immortality of the soul-these exalted truths were
firmly fixed in the living conviction of his mind. But
the mind of Socrates was thoroughly practical, and
he seemed born to advance the culture of man. The
idle speculations, and especially the arrogant vanity
of the so-called sophists, which he perfectly saw
through, and which seemed, at that time, to have
reached their pinnacle in Gorgias, were utterly disgusting to him. All this convinced him of his duty
to instruct; not, however, in a school of his own, but
in the midst of his fellow-citizens, in order to over



THE GREEKS.                61
throw the false wisdom of the sophists, to show men
what they ought to be, and to save his native city
from the increasing corruption. And in all this he
exerted himself to the utmost of his ability.
As, at his time, the splendour and the culture of
Athens were at their height, after the Persian war,
and as he witnessed, also, the excitement of the
Peloponnesian war, which brought the heaviest calamities upon Athens, no man could easily have better opportunities of enriching himself with valuable
experiences of life, than had this wise and good man,
in whose life and character are exemplified all the
virtues that we can conceive attainable among a
pagan people. He was the friend of the great statesman Pericles; of the tragic poet Euripides; and, in
a measure also, of the comic poet Aristophanes. He
became personally acquainted with the artists and
men of talent of his native city, and the distinguished
strangers who visited it; and the circle of his studies
daily extended its compass, in the most intellectuil
intercourse with men.
We have said that it was his desire and aim to arrest the growing corruption of Athens: a difficult
undertaking, which demanded the interference of one
greater than Socrates, and something better than human wisdom. Yet he made the attempt; and while
we admire the wisdom which he displayed, we cannot blame him for not succeeding better than he did.
Initiation in the Eleusinian mysteries, in which,
probably, a sort of Deism was taught, was at that time
so common at Athe-,s, that no one any longer seriously believed in the gods. Socrates sought to infuse
into what was left of external religious institutions
and rites, more of a pious and moral spirit. The accusation of revolutionary designs, of a desire to overthrow existing institutions, could proceed only from a
total misapprehension of the character and the principles of Socrates.
His peculiar method of teaching presents itself under a twofold aspect. In the first place, it was, undoubtedly, antagonistic, subversive, or polemical in




MW~         HISTORY OF EbUCATION.
its tendency. But in this tendency it was directed
against the absurdities, the self-conceit, and the selfish policy of the sophists, whom he completely unmasked, by treating them with that happy irony,
which is from him called the Socratic.
The positive direction of his pedagogic philosophy
induced him to select his pupils, but to avoid establishing a school or sect of his own. Athens wasnot,
at that time, the place for a Pythagoraean consociation; yet, in so far, the ancient customs still prevailed, that pupils congregated about their teacher, to
learn from him both in doctrine and practice. Such
followers were his three most distinguished pupils,
Xenophon, Plato, and AEschines, all of whom wrote
concerning him, and in the spirit which they had imbibed in their intimate intercourse with him. A compensation Socrates accepted from none of his pupils,
although such as were rich, for example Crito, cheerfully offered him all they had. He would not even
accept presents from them; and when JEschines gave
himself to him, he said, " Very well; but I shall spare
no pains to return you to yourself, better than I have
received you."
He had few wants, and self-government (awpoacv7y)
was not, with him, a mere doctrine; he rigidly practised it in all things; and his humane and benevolent
disposition, which manifested itself in all his relations
of life, endued him with a certain grace, for which,
known as the Socratic Xdptc in his conversational intercourse, he was noted to his old age. Notwithstanding all his distinguished excellences of character, he was arraigned of crimes of which none could
be more innocent than he, and condemned to die by
poison. His noble defence, his last conversations with
his friends, the calmness and greatness of soul which
he manifested in his last hour, are familiar to every
reader of history. He died 399 A.C., in the seventieth year of his age.
This great educator's history in this city presents,
in itself, a picture of the manners of that age: and
when, in addition, we consider that his own sons t~rn



rHE GREEKS.                6:3
ed out badly, we have strong evidence of the growing
degeneracy of the youth of that day. Of what avail.
was it, that he taught, and illustrated by example, that
self-government, which was, in the education of the
ancients, the paramount object aimed at. The good
seed which he scattered was choked by the rank
growth of the corruption of morals. The two most
eminent disciples of Socrates, Xenophon and Plato,
did indeed diffuse abroad the most valuable doctrines
and precepts; but neither they, nor the entire school
of the so-called Socratics, effected a reformation in
Athens. But of so much the greater importance is
the relation sustained by these two distinguished
men to the pedagogics of modern times, so that they
belong, pre-eminently, to the present historic sketch.
With Xenophon we became acquainted in connexion
with Persian education; and it remains for us, therefore, to communicate the pedagogic views of Plato.
For a picture of Athenian education of his day, we
refer to his Protagoras.
Lucian also exhibits, in his Nigrinus, characteristic features of Athenian education, which belong,
however, to a later period. Nigrinus was wont to
exhort his pupils to that practical virtue, which was
contradistinguished from that asceticism, which then
prevailed in the philosophic schools, and he directed
the attention of educators to the individual temperament and capaciti( s of their pupils. Thus some noble plants yet rem lined in that city, through which,
even when its constitution and good morals passed
away, it handed down to posterity the seeds of genuine culture. The doctrines of Socrates, Plato, and
Aristotle were sustained, in some measure, by some
good qualities which the Athenians had inherited from
their ancestors. Such were their love of country,
their political enthusiasm, the honourable distinction
enjoyed by truly noble citizens; also, the daily observation of the beautiful in the statues of the gods, and
the like; the national songs, the works of their great
poets; in short, the influence of the fine arts and the
sciences. Everywhere something would strike the




6Ji4       HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
eye or ear of the youth, which held up to him the
most glorious ideals, and tended to excite in his breast
enthusiasm for the freedom of his native land. Thus,
in Alhens also, domestic and public education could
readi..y combine to educate the son, through the family, for the state, and through the state for the family,
and that without prejudice to genuine human culture.
What a glorious work of education might the idea of
Solon have effected! But there were not sufficient
safeguards against the corruption of morals. The
good habits of early times were put to flight by the
evil ones of later days. Formerly there had been rigid discipline and a severe mode of life; the boy wore
light clothing, even in rough weather, and received
simple and spare diet; and the youth also retained
his modest deportment: with downcast eyes, and
without ever crossing his legs, he sat in the presence
of his elders, before whom he was not allowed to
speak. But it was widely different at the time when
a Socrates was compelled to drink the poisoned cup,
and the lamentation of a Plato over the corruptions
of education were indeed heard with approbation,
but died away without effecting a change. At that
period children were indulged and spoiled in every
possible way: witness the dainties which little boys
received to reward them for writing handsomely,
while their punishment consisted in the withholding
of such gratifications. Wine was given to them,
which the parents justified by saying that Achilles
had drunk wine when a boy; they had shoes, and gay
dresses, and warm beds, in which they were allowed
to sleep as long as they pleased. The young men
were particularly encouraged to acquire a pleasing
exterior, a polished deportment in company: in short,
the same state of things prevailed, which characterizes fashionable society in modern cities. Thus the
young men; beardless as they were, and more of boys
than men, obtruded themselves into the circles of
adults, had much to say on all subjects, carried about
theatrical news, visited the ladies, and even the iraipat,
and indulged in ridicule at the expense of good and




TIHE GREEKS.                  C
honest citizens. They sometimes endeavoured to en.
tertain company with performances on the flute oi
harp (KtO apa)
They patronised the new style of music, whose object was entertainment, and were always ready to retail the latest arguments in favour of it, and against
the ancient grave and solemn musical style. Even in
their carriage and gestures, they betrayed their intolerable presumption and pride. They became addicted to every sort of dissipation, and even boys gave
themselves up to drunkenness. The most exemplary
citizens were unable to save their sons from the prevalent corruption; for the sons of such men as Themistocles, Aristides, Pericles, Thucydides, and even
Socrates, turned out badly. Yet, notwithstanding all
this, the coryphaous of that corrupt youth, Alcibiades,
exhibited the invincible vitality of Athenian energy,
and the almost indestructible proclivity to KaXoKiydOta.
Aristophanes, one of the closest observers of that
age, presents to us, in his Clouds (960, sqq.), a scene,
in which the good old time of Athens, and the corrupt age in which he lived, appear as persons speaking: and the pedagogic picture which he draws, not
only affords us a view of what was then the state of
things in Athens, but exhibits strikingly many features, in which our own age may discover a strong
resemblance to itself. The two styles of education
are represented as presenting their rival claims to the
youth, and respectively contending for their favour.
The following is the address of the ancient discipline,
as translated by Mitchell.
"'Thus summoned, I prepare myself to speak
Of manners primitive, and that good time
Which I have seen, when discipline prevailed,
And modesty was sanctioned by the laws;
No babbling then was suffered in our schools:
The scholar's test was silence. The whole group
In orderly procession sallied forth
Right onward, without straggling, to attend
Their teacher in harmonics; though the snow
Fell on them thick as meal, the hardy brood
Breasted the storm uncloak'd; their harps were strung,
F




66            HISTORY  OF EDUCATION.
Not to ignoble strains, for they were taught
A loftier key, whether to chant the name
Of Pallas, terrible amid the blaze
Of cities overthrown, or wide and far
To spread, as custom was, the echoing peal:
There -et no low buffoon intrude his tricks,
Let no capricious quavering on a note,
No running of divisions high and low,
Break the pure stream of harmony; no Phrynis
Practising wanton warblings out of placeWo to his back that so was found offending!
Decent and chaste their postures in the school
Of their gymnastic exercises; none
Exposed an attitude that might provoke
Irregular desire; their lips ne'er moved
In love-aspiring whispers, and their walks
From eyes obscene were sacred and secure;
Hot herbs, the old man's diet, were proscribed;
No radish, anise, parsley, decked their board;
No rioting nor revelling was there;
At feast or frolic, no unseemly touch
Or signal, that Inspires the hint impure."
The more recent style having here objected that
this was "oldfashioned stuff," the ancient discipline
proceeds:
" Yet so were trained the heroes that imbrued
The field of Marathon with hostile blood;
This discipline it was that braced their nerves,
And fitted them for conquest. You, forsooth,
At great Minerva's festival produce
Your martial dances, not as they were wont,
But smothered underneath the tawdry load
Of cumbrous armour, till I sweat to see them
Dangling their shields in such unseemly sort
As mars the sacred measure of the dance.
Be wise, therefore, young man, and turn to me;
Turn to the better guide; so shall you learn
To scorn the noisy forum, shun the bath,
And turn with blushes from the scene impure.
Then conscious innocence shall make you bold
To spurn the injurious, but to reverend age
Meek and submissive, rising from your seat
To pay the homage due: nor shall you ever
Wring the parent's soul, or stain your own.
In purity of manners you shall live
A bright example; vain shall be the lures
Xf the stage-wanton, floating in the dance;
Vain all her arts to snare you in her arms,




TIIE GREEKS.                    67
And strip you of your virtue and gooc name.
No petulant reply shall you oppose
To fatherly commands, nor taunting vent
Irreverent mockery on his hoary head,
Crying,' Behold Iapetus himself!'
Poor thanks for all his fond parental care."
The recent style having again replied in self praise,'le other once more proceeds:
" Not so, but fair and fresh in youthful bloom
Among our young athletics you shall shine;
Not in the forum loitering time away
In gossip prattle, like our gang of idlers,
Nor yet in some vexatious, paltry suit,
Wrangling and quibbling in our petty courts,
But in the solemn academic grove,
Crowned with the modest reed, fit converse hold
With your collegiate equals; there serene,
Calm as the scene around you, underneath
The fragrant foliage where the ilex spreads,
Where the deciduous poplar strews her leaves,
Where the tall elm-tree and wide-spreading plane
Sigh to the fanning breeze, you shall inhale
Sweet odours wafted in the breath of Spring.
- This is the regimen that will ensure
A healthful body and a vigorous mind,
A countenance serene, expanded chest,
Heroic stature, and a temperate tongue.
But take these modem masters, and behold
These blessings all reversed; a pallid cheek,
Shrunk shoulders, chest contracted, sapless limbs,
A tongue that never rests, and mind debased
By their vile sophistry, perversely taught
To call good evil, evil good, and be
That thing which nature spurns at-that disease,
A mere Antimachus, a sink of vice."
6. Plato.
This illustrious sage, descended from Codrus ancl
~Solon, was born at Athens on the 17th of May, 429
a&.Ci  Ih his early boyhood, his extraordinary talents
manifested themselves in various ways, and the productions of his youth betokened the future genius.
When not far from twenty years of age, his education
was intrusted to Socrates.  Under the instruction and
guidance of this true philosopher, his mind received
that mighty impulse which carried him into the high



68         HISTORY OF EDUCAT13N.
est regions of thought, and made him the prince of
philosophers. In his mature age he travelled, and
even tried himself at state-affairs; but he found his
most congenial employment in study, and in communicating instruction to others. His personal instruction gave the world a number of excellent men, and
his writings have an undying value to the culture of
man. His life was pure and truly noble, healthy in
body and soul, and thus he died in a green old age of
eighty-one years, 347 A.C.
He has written much on education, and our present
business is to exhibit briefly his educational idea, or
his leading thoughts on this important subject, detaching them from the connexion in which they are found,
as our limited space forbids our making long extracts
from his writings.
His more important ideas are the following:
It is education that makes the man: it belongs to
the whole of life. In it are combined cultivating care,
and intellectually and physically cultivating discipline,
rpoq Kaita SralEeta.
Education must commence previous to the birth of
the child, in the parents themselves: it must supply
right habits for the whole life, and, in a certain sense,
continue to the end of life.
A city can become a state (Tr6tr) only by taking
good heed of culture and education. It will then develop itself from within, and internally, like a circle,
extending its circumference. For by good education,
internal and external (rp)O07 Ka' IraidevfL), excellent
characters are produced, and by means of it these
constantly become more excellent than their predecessors, and can therefore produce others of still
greater excellence.
That training which teaches how to make money,
or aims at the development of physical strength, or
at communicating skill in any mechanical business
or common art,* without intellectual culture and a
sense of right, does not deserve the name of educa* B6vavaor Kat aveeLO6epor.




THE GREEKS.                69
tion. A man may thus be brought up to navigation
or to the wine-trade, and yet have no true education.
Only those who are educated (i. e., by the proper rpoqr8
and 7rahdeia) become good; discipline alone can make
an excellent man. Education awakens the desire of
becoming a good citizen, one who accustoms himself
both to obey and to rule from right principles; it
forms truly noble characters, and impels them to continue in the pursuit of such perfections as they are
still destitute of; it is the first thing among all that
are best, and must on no account be neglected.
Good and evil exist together in the soul. If the latter gain the preponderance from defective education,
or the absence of good example, man sinks beneath
himself, degenerates; education, on the other hand,
elevates him above himself.
Education is but badly cared for in that state, in
which those who have been educated still require
great judges and physicians. The excellence of a
well-educated man consists in his clear apprehension
of the good.
Everything depends on the formation of good habits, and in this, example, familiar intercourse, scientific
and practical culture must co-operate; good morals
attained by good customs, trayv E0o, dai 10ov.
The welfare of a commonwealth consists in this,
that wisdom, manliness, self-government, and justice
prevail therein. For the magistrates of a state which
is what it ought to be, the most excellent persons
should be selected in childhood, and educated with
the utmost care.
There are marks by which we may discover for
what future calling children are fit. For example
one who at no period of life gives himself up to infatuation, or suffers himself to be diverted from his principles, is fit to administer the laws. Let, therefore,
something  be given to the boy to do, in executing
which he may be tempted to forget his principles;
and if he nevertheless continue mindful of them, and
cannot be induced to become recreant to them, let
him be chosen. But he should be tried also by difficul



70          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
ties, pain, conflict, and excitants; in the same mannel
as colts are taken to places where a loud noise is made,
in order to ascertain whether they be skittish. But
let him, who shall be fit for the office of a magistrate.,
be tested also in the different sciences, that it may bp
discovered whether he possess energy enough for what
is most difficult.
The mark of the future philosopher is an aversion
to all untruth, and the most ardent love of truth ana
desire to learn, manifested from childhood upward.
His soul must also pre-eminently possess the gift of
recollection (of that which was divine in its former
life), and must have a native talent in all things to
perceive the idea; he must understand what man is
designed to be and to become, to discern his character, and thus, by instructing and exercising him in the
sciences, to lead him to the divine. The inclinations of children may also be ascertained from their
amusements, for in the plays and the serious pursuits
of the boy, we behold the future man: for example,
the husbandman, if the boy is fond of digging in the
earth; the architect, if he amuses himself with building houses.
Some men possess natural advantages; although
all are formed of one clay, some have an admixture
of nobler metal.
The first three years of life are the most important in education. Hence it is necessary to exercise
special vigilance respecting their first impressions,
and at that age already to accustom children not to
give themselves up to pleasure, nor succumb to pain;
at that period, already, not to grant them everything,
for this makes them impetuous and domineering. But
be not too harsh and severe with them, as this would
make them timid and slavish: they should be carefully protected against fear and alarm. By indulgence, they become peevish and irascible. The
nurses should carry them about in the fields, in the
temples, and among their kindred. They should
handle them cautiously when they are not yet able to
stand, guard against every injurious pressure or. their




THIE GREEKS.               71
limbs, and carry them about until they are about three
vears old. When the child is to be put to sleep, the
mother should carry it on her arms, rocking it gently,
and singing; and thus, by the motion of dancing and
music, rock it to sleep; for outward motion subdues
that which is within.
This mode of treatment should be continued after
the third year, until the child is six years of age: i. e.,
it must neither be indulged; nor treated with undue
severity. By inflicting on the child punishments that
are debasing, or excite ridicule, you can only exasperate it. At this age they may also be taken by the
nurse to the national festivals; but she must provide
that their appearance be clean, and otherwise decent.
The young should receive no wine before the
eighteenth year, for fire must not be poured upon fire.
The age of adolescence also calls for the most
vigilant care of education.
The amusements and games of children may be
improved for directing their inclinations to employments in which they may hereafter excel; but
they should be accustomed to such plays only as are
becoming. Let them not have too great a variety of
plays, as this makes them inconstant and discontented, so that they are always wishing for something new.
Children should, from infancy, not hear anything
but what is calculated to make them regard as sacred
the worship of the gods, reverence towards parents,
and friendship. When passages of Homer, which
contain anything immoral, are read to them, it should
be done with expressions of disapproval. The poets
should never represent the wicked as happy, or the
good as unhappy; and artists should represent only
what is beautiful. In general, the desire of imitation
should be directed only to what is calculated to make
children manly (dvdpeaoS), virtuous, and truly free.
All instruction should be treated in a dignified manner, worthy of the great end aimed at; it must accomplish the culture both of the body and of the
mind, so that both may be cultivated for what is most




$2          AiSTORY  OF EDUCATION.
beautitil alid cxcellent.  It must, therefore, from the
earliest age, secure a healthy development to the
body.
We have, therefore, two generic divisions of the
subjects of instruction, tile physical and the mental.
The former are comprchelded under gymnastics, the
latter under music.*
Gymnastics is again divided into two branches: the
one for skill in combats; the other in dancing.  The
former is designed to exercise the neck, the limbs,
the hips, with a view to noble carriage, to strength,
and health; the latter is to give grace, agility, and
beauty; so that in the whole body, anid in all the motions of the several members, a certain ivpvyOia (harmony) may be expressed.  Pure gymnnastics ought
to render warlike, and should be practised throughout
the whole life.
Children should be accustomed, like tho Scythians,
to use the left hand with the same skill as the right.
Boys ought to become strong in the feet as well as
the hands.
Music is intended to bring the soul into a healthy
state; only such varieties of music ought, therefore,
to be selected, as are adapted to effect this object.
Musical culture comprises the arts and sciences,
and its ultimate aim is love to the beautiful and good:
hence philosophy is the highest music and the highest manifestation of culture, for it is the love of science and wisdom: it contemplates divine things, exalts to true liberty, and gives to action also a divine
character.
Those who would communicate musical culture
must first possess it themselves, for they must be
able to discern what is greatness, and what is virtue.
The best gymnastics is the sister of pure and simple music. As the former gives health to the body,
miand the latter self-government to the soul, both co*Among the Greeks, music, t povaulK (scil. Trxvwq) meant the liberal
arts, comprehending not only music, poetry, and eloquence, but designating, in general, the proper and harmonious development of the mind and
character.




THE GREEKS.                73
operate in producing complete culture. Those who
practise gymnastics alone become too wild; those
who cultivate music alone become too feeble or ef-.feminate (uaXaKWrepo~). One God has given both to
man, in order that body and soul may duly harmonize,
both by necessary exertion, as well as the not less
needful relaxation; for he who combines these two
in his soul in the most correct proportion, may justly
be regarded as the most musical and harmonious man
(U2ovatKc{rarov Kat evapuoararov), much more so than he
who understands tuning the strings.
But the knowledge of language, as well as of other
subjects, is also necessary to complete culture. Here
let the following course be pursued. Let the boy be
first exercised in gymnastics. When ten years of
age he should learn the alphabet; then reading and
writing, and spend three years in this manner: whether he learn to read and write rapidly or elegantly is
not, as yet, important. At thirteen years of age the
boy will proceed to instruction in music, learning, for
the present, the KLtOpa (guitar) in a very simple manner, in order to accompany his song in the same tones
and measure; for variety only confuses and renders
learning difficult; but the young ought to learn in the
easiest possible manner. At the same time, the boy
must learn passages from the poets, which ought to
be well selected, omitting what is offensive; and
these, written partly with, partly without metre,
should be committed to memory, including passages
from different poets, and of a variety of metres: also,
passages from prose writers.
The boys are also to learn the use of numbers; first,
calculation (Xoyto'g'), which, being the doctrine of
proportions, considers and compares what is equal,
and what is unequal. This should be made pleasant
and easy by distributing among them apples, wreaths.
and the like. The second part of the science of numbers is arithmetic.
A principal means of'culture is geometry, which
teaches the measurement of space, i. e., distances,
planes, and solid bodies. For the soldier and the




74          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
statesman, this science is important; for the philoso.
pher it is necessary, for it leads upward to truth.
The preliminary exercises are followed by dialectics: economy, astronomy, &c.
While the pupil is engaged with these severer sciences, he must be left unencumbered with business.
When he has attained the age of twenty, and has
learned well, he should, for the second time, be inducted into these sciences, and deeper than was practicable in his boyhood: thus only is permanent knowledge acquired, and only at this age can real dialectic
talent be discovered with certainty.
Every subject of liberal learning must be studied
with a liberal spirit, not in a slavish manner: not by
compulsory methods should boys be instructed in the
sciences, but in such a manner that they may take
delight in them, as though they were playing. It is
thus only that we can discover for what each one has
been destined by nature. Do the same as when you
wish to excite fondness for martial exercises in boys,
by taking them to see soldiers with their horses.
In general, the young should be acted upon by the
beautiful and the good, which should, like the pure
air of healthy places, everywhere strike the ear and
the eye, and incline them to whatsoever is beautiful
and good. Youth should reverence old age, especially
when it is dignified. The young must learn to obey;
for he that cannot obey, cannot rule.
By means of example and strictly-enforced law,
the young should be imbued with modesty or a sense
of shame (aiaXrv71), and an aversion to everything unchaste (40podiata). This will have a happy effect, as
well on pious minds, as on those that are honourable,
or those that strive after beauty of soul. If the athletae can cultivate chastity for the sake of the desired
victory, why should not the youth for the sake of the
nobler victory.
Everything should combine to form man, from
his youth, to excellence of' character: for even as
the plant is then most certain to reach perfection,
if its first developments are beautiful, so man has




THIE GREEKS.                75
indeed his natural destination as an (tame) animal
(4Aiov); yet does he most need education, for without
it he becomes the wildest animal; but through it he
attains his highest destination, and becomes the tamest (i. e., most cultivated), yea, the most divine
among all creatures. The first good a child can receive is discipline and culture.
Man Is to be cultivated for perfection, both as man
and as citizen.
From a vast deal contained in Plato's writings on
education, we have thus presented a free translation
of those passages which are most interesting and important in our own day, while, at the same time, they
afford a tolerably comprehensive view of the great
pedagogic idea, by realizing which,/ts illustrious
sage sought to improve his race.
7. Aristotle, and the later Period of t/he Greeks.
Aristotle was the most learned scholar among the
Greeks, yet, at the same time, second to none of
their distinguished sages as regards brilliancy of
genius, and philosophic depth, and acumen. In him
the ancient Grecian culture reached its summit, so
that in him we already discover its later tendencies,
manifested in systematizing scholarship, and establishing the later age of the sciences. Thus he became the first systematic teacher, and the great master in dialectics.
He wrote systematic treatises not only on government and ethics, but on pedagogics, and he may be
regarde i as the first scientific instructer of youth.
He was born at Stagyra, in Thrace, 384 A.C., and
inherited considerable wealth from his father Nicomachus, who was physician to Amyntas, king of
Macedonia. An ardent love of the sciences, extraordinary talents, combined with indefatigable industry, distinguished him, at least in the later years of
his youth. lie paid great attention to his outward
appearance, by cultivating neatness and elegance of
dress. When nearly eighteen years of age he went
to Athens in order to study, and became the pupil of




76i         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Plato, who was wont to call him "the Mind of his
school."  With him he remained five years, when he
left Athens and went to Mysia. Philip of Macedon
invited him, in the most flattering terms, to become
the educator of his son Alexander, who is certainly
indebted to his distinguished teacher, for any claim
which he may really have to the title of " the Great."
His royal pupil manifested his gratitude towards him,
and his sense of his high merits, by enabling him, in
various ways, to prosecute at leisure, and in the enjoyment of the most ample resources, his studies,
especially in natural history. After Alexander's accession to the throne, Aristotle established himself as
a public teacher in Athens; but, meeting with persecutions there, he removed to Chalcis, in Eubea,
where he died 320 A.C., at the age of sixty-two
years, having probably destroyed his health by excessive application to study.
Aristotle brings the science of government, ethics,
and the whole of pedagogics, into the closest connexion, and thus exhibits in this, also, the prominent
characteristic of antiquity, unity of life. We present
a few of his pedagogic principles in a detached form.
According to him, the prerogative of man consists in
this, that he is able to discern and apprehend something that is higher and better than himself.
Whatever he may become is effected by the combined influence of nature, habit, and instruction. The
last two elements together constitute education; and
these must always be conjoined, yet so that habit exerts its influence first. Instruction has an internal
design, for it does not become noble and liberal
minds to inquire after the uses of that which is
learned. Education is to prepare the soul for the precepts of morality, just as the soil is prepared for the
reception of the seed. Not until the mind has been
ennobled, and acquired a proclivity to what is good
(20o~ ivyeve vicai OtLXocaXov), can instruction in morals be
communicated with profit; and only when good habits have been acquired, can principles exert an elevating or ennobling influence.  Through the heart the
understanding also) is to be cultivated.




THE GREEKS.                 77
Good (correct, judicious) education (OpO;j'raideia)
consists in habituating man, from youth upward, lo
rejoice or to grieve as reason may require; and in
general in this, that the inferior elements of the soul
be absolutely governed by its higher principle, reason. A healthy and cultivated (rational) soul in a
healthy and well-disciplined body.
He that would govern must first have learned to be
governed. The education of youth is a principal concern of the state; and with a view to it, the state is
bound to establish public institutions.
It is wrong to expose children, except such as are
born deformed.
The screaming of children promotes their health.
Weeping is a beneficial exercise for children.
Stays (or corsets) (6pyava pufXavtKa) should never be
used.
Warlike nations give their children abundance of
milk. Wine must not be given to children, for it aggravates their diseases.
Children must be guarded against all bad examples
and impressions; they should, therefore, not be allowed to keep company with slaves: their governor
should be carefully selected. Boys ought not to be
taken to convivial feasts.
In the first five years of life, the children play, and
thus exercise themselves in activity, until they are advanced to their first efforts at learning. Their plays,
or amusements, should be the type of their future occupation.
The first stage of youth ends with the seventh year,
the second with the twenty-first. All culture must
closely conform to the course of nature.
From the sixth year, boys may be gradually inducted into the process of instruction.
Physical education is first in order of time, because
the body exists before the soul; next follows the cultivation of the appetites or desires (rac bpEnF); and
lastly, scientific culture. Yet for the sake of necessary recreation, alternation should be practised.
There are, in fact, only three principal branches of in



78          HISTORY OF EDUCATION
struction: to wit, gymnastics, music, and grammar
(the study of language); to these a fourth may be
added, namely, the graphic art, or the art ot drawing;'
for this also serves to employ the free in their leisure
(Atayoyi7 r7v k?~evO6pov bv axons); but it is otherwise
useful in various ways: for example, it trains the
mind to judge correctly of works of art. Education
is an ornament in prosperity, an unfailing resource
in adversity.
As the eye receives light through the circumambient air, so the soul receives it through instruction.
Rapid progress will be made by the pupil, if he
strenuously emulates those who are in advance of
him, and does not wait for those who are behind
him.
Bitter is the root of education (ratdeia), but sweet
its fruit.
After he had educated Alexander, Aristotle became
the instructer of young men. He was thus experienced in all the branches of practical education. Yet
his mind inclined to the scientific mode of instruction,
and more particularly in its acroamatic form: so
that, in this respect also, Aristotle has shown the
lead in the modern methods of study.
In the forenoons he was wont to deliver lectures, on
the sciences which he cultivated, to a number of
friends: he lectured on ethics, politics, or the science
of government; also on rhetoric, accompanied with
exercises, especially in the afternoons, which he
generally devoted to practical subjects.
The Athenians had granted him the use of the Lyceum for his educational purposes. A number of
distinguished men proceeded from his school. Although he adhered to the ancient custom of distinguishing between exoteric and esoteric pupils, we decidedly discover, in his scientific institutions and labours, and in his educational operations, the beginnings of modern culture.
The Grecian education of youth, as regards scholastic instruction, had, especially at Athens, attained its




THE GREEKS.                 7(3
full development in the time of Aristotle. We shall
here present a cursory view of the course which prevailed at that period.
The custom of the rich to provide private instruction for their sons, which had become general already
in Plato's day, was alone sufficient to procure for the
cultivated class a distinct series of studies, while the
common people scarcely retained those which have
been specified above, at the proper place. Yet the
public schools were not altogether destitute of such
higher instruction, as it was sometimes communicated by the grammaticus. But it was now that separate branches of study were definitely distinguished;
these were the following: arithmetic, geometry, the
art of design or drawing; also geography, history,
rhetoric, and philosophy.
It would lead us too far to give a detailed account
of the mode of instruction pursued in these different
branches.
In learning arithmetic, the boys were made to distribute apples among themselves, or exchange places,
or transpose letters, attempting the possible combinations, first with three, and then with four, &c. The
units were designated by certain letters, the tens
either by accented or compound letters.
In teaching geometry, the figures were drawn on a
board or in the sand, and, according to the ancient
method, the pupil was probably left, in a great measure, to independent thought, being required to seek
and to find for himself.
Instruction in the art of design (ypafltK) was pretty
general in the time of Plato; and Aristotle insists on
its being practised, in order to cultivate the sense of
the beautiful and the artistic judgment.
Geography was taught in connexion with geometry.
Thales had already made use of geographic tablets
('rivaKe'), on which countries appear to have been
marked with great accuracy. Of course, the geographical knowledge of the Greeks was limited and
defective. Anaximander (about 570 A.C.) is said to
have first described the circumference (7replt erpo~) of




80          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
thle earth and sea, to have declared the earth to be
spheroidal (apatportfi) and the central point of the
world, and to have constructed a terrestrial globe.
The following sciences were studied by adults:
1. Rhetoric. This was indispensable to the culture
of the statesman (7rotrTiKof). With this study many
other subjects were brought into connexion, especially history, in order at once to furnish to political eloquence its necessary materials. Practical exercises
were instituted in a certain progressive gradation.
Even mnemonics was taught in connexion with rheto
ric. The course of instruction usually embraced a series of years. Gorgias of Leontium, in Sicily, is said to
have established the first school of rhetoric at Athens,
494 A.C. Other distinguished names are Isocrates,
the pupil of Socrates and teacher of Demosthenes;
_Eschines, the founder of a school of rhetoric in
Rhodes, which became highly celebrated, and, as it
were, the university for the Roman orators.
2. Politics, or the science of government, which
was first taught by Aristotle in connexion with rhet
oric. Much information respecting statistics, political economy, and financial matters in general, was in
troduced.
3. Philosophy, as taught by Pherecydes of Syros,
Thales of Miletus, Pythagoras, and others, had received, through Plato, Aristotle, and other great philosophers, a form, as regards the method of instruction, widely different from that of those earlier teachers. The distinction between esoteric and exoteric
disciples disappeared more and more. In philosophy,
also, Athens continued to be the metropolis of the intellectual world. It was here that great numbers of
teachers congregated, who, under the name of sophists, degraded the sacredness of truth by the dialectic
arts, and the rapacious avarice with which they everywhere hawked about their intellectual ware; while
opposed to them stood, as we have seen above, Socrates, as the free and noble teacher of men.
The ancient usage, accordlng to which tile pupil
devoted himself, for a long peri, -1 of time, to one and




TIlE GREEKS.                 81
the same teacher, as did Plato, and Aristotle, and Epi.
curus, to their respective instructers, was superseded by a new order of things; the pupil attending the
instruction of several teachers, so that now disciples
became hearers.
There gradually arose, furthermore, out of the
former, more comprehensive instruction, a number of
distinct branches: for example, from the study of
language proceeded that of the poetic art. Aristotle,
by his inventive genius in science, laid the foundation for this transition to the methods of modern
times. For example, he originated the distinction of
pa~e/arLTLK  and OvMtKi: under the former he adopted
the following subtdivisions: 1. arithmetic, geometry,
stereometry; 2. the RvauKS6epa, mechanics, optics, astronomy, and music; and with these sciences he
farther associated Tro2tTtK','Ot, &c., political science,
or the science of government, and ethics, &c.
Thus there arose a distinct individualization of the
sciences; but, at the same time, a combination of
them into a complete course of instruction, the kyKcikta raLetdyjara: and hence comes'EyKcviAorraC6Eia.
We find this course first in the Alexandrian bkrrciT,
or septenary. About the time of the Saviour, there
were taught in Alexandria the seven liberal arts:
grammar, rhetoric, dialectics, arithmetic, geometry,
astronomy, and music: and these composed the complete cycle of liberal learning. But rhetoric, besides
the attention which it thus received in connexion with
other studies, was separately and pre-eminently cultivated.
From the time of the ancient rhapsodists down to
the sophists, of whom we have just spoken, the genius of the Greeks had never entirely disappeared
from their culture: and yet this their culture had be.
come essentially changed.
Instruction and study, and the institutions devotee
to them, assumed a new form. The state of things,
which prevails at the universities of Europe, grew
more and more into vogue. Athens itself became
such a place of study, after the sophists had comG




82         IIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
menced to lecture for money. In this practice the
example was set by Protagoras of Abdera, a pupil of
Democritus. He was an adept in the sophistic art,
and realized a fortune by means of it.
Gymnastics also lost its ancient character, being
degraded into a mere art by which money was made.
In the many different exhibitions of Rome, especially
in the gladiatorial shows, we see the extent to which
this noble exercise had degenerated.
The Grecian institutions of learning were patronized and supported by the Romans, and the teachers
of Athens and Byzantium received salaries from the
emperors. Those of the former city subsisted for
some centuries after Christ; those'of the latter continued for a long time to flourish in that imperial city,
until it (Constantinople) was conquered by the Osmanlis, A.D. 1453, who destroyed, with rude barbarism, all the literary institutions which they found
there, and thus became the means of sending the glorious intellectual treasures of Greece to Western Europe. Some plants of Grecian culture had indeed
been previously transferred, by other means, to Germany, and other portions of Occidental Europe; but
the Germans did not become fully acquainted with the
rich treasures of that ancient mine, until, in the fifteenth century, many learned Greeks fled before the
sword of the barbarian to Italy.
II. THE ROMANS.
It cannot be our office here to discuss the muchdisputed question, whence the Romans really took
their origin. The history of ancient Italy is buried
in impenetrable darkness. That Grecian, Asiatic,
and other colonies emigrated across the eastern Mediterranean into this beautiful land; that probably also
northern tribes, of Celtic or Germanic origin, were atLracted by its sunny plains to settle in its upper part,
while the lower was peopled by Greeks; that especially the Etrurians, as a highly-civilized nation, diffused their culture throughout the central portion:
all this is historically ascertained. and yet so envel




TIIE ROMANS.                83
oped by fabulous traditions, that we cannot penetrate
nearly as far into the antiquity of this western land, as
we can into that of the nations which have been hitherto considered. And thus the origin of Rome itself,
although it dates no farther back than the times immediately after Lycurgus, is covered by a mythic cloud.
For such information as is attainable respecting
the early culture and probable educational institu
tions of the Romans, the Etrurians, the Falisceans,
the Sabines, we therefore refer the general reader to
Livy, as translated by Baker, and published by the
Harpers in their Classical Family Library, and to
Plutarch's Life of Numa, and hasten, without farther
introduction, to present a connected view of Roman
education itself, from materials derived from a variety of sources.
The education of the Romans differed in this from
hat of other civilized nations of antiquity, that the
state took no cognizance of it, made no provision for
it: not even in the manner in which this was done in
Athens.
Education was, therefore, in Rome a domestic matter; and it was at the domestic fireside, around the
sacred Lares, that the children acquired what knowledge was necessary for the purposes of life, in that
primitive period, until the state ordered that the young
should be exercised in arms.
In the earliest times, Roman life was regulated
rather according to established custom (mos) than
express law; and, unquestionably, the early manners
and customs of the Romans constituted, in themselves, an excellent school for the young, if not in
learning, yet in the graces and virtues of domestic
and public life. Among these customs was monogamy, which was subsequently sanctioned by law. All
the members of the household, including the slaves,
belonged to the father of the family (paterfamilias),
who possessed a power over his family, almost more
unlimited than that of any despotic monarch over his
subjects. He was master (dominus) in his house (domus); bult among the Romans the wife also had




84          HISTORY- OF EDUCATION.
her sphere and authority as mistress (domina); for
among all nations of the ante-Christian era, the Romans and the Germanic nations were distinguished
for the dignity of their matrons, and the generally
respectable position of their females; and among
them, therefore, polygamy was forbidden.
Hencej among the ancient Romans, both custom
and law watched over the purity of the matrimonial
relation. Among them, chastity had its home, and
everything was done to honour and guard it.'If the
institution of the vestal virgins furnishes evidence of
this, the honour, the high respect which was paid
these virgins, the severity of the punishment which
they incurred by the violation of their vow, were a
public testimonial to the sacredness of female virtue,
and a stern rebuke to licentiousness. The earliest
kings made provisions for securing the sanctity of
wedded life.
In the most ancient times of Rome, marriage wa:n
regarded as indissoluble. What were the enactments
of the Twelve Tables respecting divorces is not
known; but there is no evidence that any occurred
until 520 A.U.C.: and although, in the case which occurred in this year, the husband had plausible reasons.
which were sanctioned by the censor, he yet incurred
the contempt of his fellow-citizens. But, from this
time, separation became frequent, on the part both oi
husband and wife, and took place for reasons the most
arbitrary. Augustus endeavoured, by legal enactments, to arrest the increasing demoralization; and
subsequent emperors gladly availed themselves of the
Christian institutes respecting marriage, especially
Constantine the Great, who incorporated them in the
civil law, and resisted, with severity, the prevalent
frivolity in respect of repudiation.
The father's authority extended only to his legitimate children, who were called liberi ingenui. Various regulations served to limit this patria potestas,
and to mitigate the excessive severities of its possible abuse.
If the exposure of infants (expositio infantis)




THE ROMANS.               85
which prcvailed so generally among the nations of
antiquity, was not prohibited in Rome, it was yet subject to great limitations; and an express enactment
of Romulus made it the duty of parents to raise their
firstborn son or daughter. If the child had not been
exposed, the parents were bound, by the ancient custom, to its maintenance and education.
The adoption of children, which was not unfrequent, was an important matter of legislation, and
carried out with such rigid consistency, that even
marriages within this relation were regarded, and
condemned, as incestuous.
When a divorce had taken place, the sons usually
remained with the father, and the daughters with the
mother. As might be inferred from the position and
dignity of the Roman matron (materfamilias), the
mother's influence in the education of her children
was very considerable; greater, probably, than with
any other nation of antiquity. History furnishes a
number of beautiful examples of the respect and veneration, which the matrons of Rome enjoyed.
Roman education was then essentially domestic,
and, to a great degree, influenced by the mother,.so
that, in this respect, it more nearly resembled our
own, than that of either Sparta, or Athens, or any
other ancient state. The state, indeed, made provisions for the treatment and education of children,
but, as we have already remarked, established no educational institutions. The father was the natural
teacher of the son, and the mother his natural educatrix.
Omitting a number of customs and ceremonies,
which were observed in connexion with the birth of
children, and their subsequent treatment during infancy, we proceed to notice some arrangements which
had in view the necessary care of childhood. The
boy was furnished with a guide, custos, or paedagogus,
who sometimes instructed him in gymnastics, or accompanied him to the exercises, and then he was
styled progymnasta. The paedagogus attended the
boy to the theatre, where he took his seat at his side:




86          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
he had great power over him, and, being always one
of the older slaves, he generally grew morose and inflated. It was often his business to instruct the boy
in reading; but his office, in general, was to counsel
(monere) him how to conduct himself. The custos
frequently exercised his office, until the boy had reached the age of manhood.
We have seen that it was, in reality, the father's
business to instruct his children, and many a distinguished Roman performed this duty faithfully: Augastus assisted in the discharge of this paternal duty, but
Cato took the whole of it upon himself. The latter,
although he had a slave who was not only competent
to act as teacher, but even gave instruction, in the
capacity of grammaticus, to other boys, himself instructed his son in reading, swimming, and other necessary attainments, because he considered that the
father would treat his child better than the slave.
There were, however, many teachers, who instructed
boys in reading, writing, and sometimes also in calculation, for which purpose the boys made use of tablets.
A common teacher of this description was called ludi
magister.
Girls also attended the schools, certainly as early
as 450 A.C., as we learn from the story of Virginia,
given in detail in the third book of Livy.
The incipient youths or tyros were, for the space
of a year, exercised in arms in the Campus Martius,
and in swimming in the Tiber. The Romans had, be
sides, palaestra, in the manner of the Greeks.
It was not as common in Rome, as it was in Greece,
to learn music: the flute was even regarded as unseemly for Romans of rank. Yet, by means of the
ancient national songs, which, in the earliest times, it
was customary to sing at meals, the practice of singing was probably kept up. But when the culture of
Greece had become, not only a desideratum, but the
fashion in Rome, the city was well supplied with Grecian padagogi, grammatici, lratdorpt6ai, rhetores, and
philosophers, as early as 250 A.C., soon after the
first Punic war; and, of course, still more abundantly




THE ROMANS.                87
after the conquest of Tarentum and of Coiinth.
Greeks, who devoted themselves to the instruction of
youth, now flocked in crowds to the capital of the Empire, and it was quite common to employ Grecian slaves
as teachers. And now the boy and the youth learned to read, and expound, the Grecian poets and prose
authors; the literature of Greece was transplanted into
the Roman soil, and ingrafted on the Roman mind.
Livius Andronicus and Spurius Carvilius are said to
have been the first who undertook the duties of grammatici. After the second Punic war, the ambassador
of King Attalus, Crates of Mallos, being confined to
his room by a fractured leg, delivered lectures on the
Greek authors. Not long before Cicero, the greatest
of Roman orators, appeared on the public stage, Latin
exercises in rhetoric were instituted, Valerius Cato
and Varro having already, the former 160 A.C., the
latter about 130 A.C., supplied written instruction in
the Latin language; while L. Plotius Gallus had himself instructed Cicero, when a boy, in this his native
tongue. Julius Caesar, a man of many-sided culture,
and a zealous friend of science, even wrote a Latin
grammar, which has been lost. But as the culture of
the Greeks, in conjunction with the increasing corruption of morals, effected a change in the habits of the
public mind, the philosophers and rhetores were, by a
decree of the censors, expelled from Rome 170 A.C.
But the effects of this expulsion were shortlived and
unimportant. Grecian culture became more and more
diffused in Rome, combining with that of its adopted
home in the production of a new literary and public
life.
The results which grew out of this union of the
Grecian and the Roman mind may, to a great extent, be learned from the comedies of Terence, who
transferred those of the Grecian Menander to the Roman soil.  Not many passages are suitable to be
cited in a work like the present.
Juvenal, in his fourteenth satire, contrasts the manners and domestic life of early Rome with the state
of things prevailing in his own age, and the picture




68          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
which he draws of the latter is indeed deplorable.
Similar complaints are raised by the author of the
"Decay of Roman eloquence," who is thought by
some to have been Quintilian, by others Tacitus; it
belongs, probably, to the end of the first century of
the Christian era. Of the passage here particularly re
ferred to, we give the following translation: " Things
are different now from what they were with the ancients.  Parents and teachers have degenerated.
With the ancient Romans there was severity of dis
cipline.  The. child owed its existence to chaste
parents, and the domestic mother took delight in
rearing her young charge. It was not given to a
nurse, but a female relative, of mature years and
good character, assisted in its nurture. Such noble
matrons were Cornelia, the mother of the Graechi,
Aurelia, the mother of Caesar, and Attia, the mother
of Augustus. The design was to cultivate well the
good dispositions of the son; and hence he was made
to devote himself entirely to some one pursuit, according as his inclinations prompted him, either to
the profession of arms, to jurisprudence, or to eloquence. But now the child is given in charge to a
female Grecian slave, with whom a male slave, who
is fit for nothing else, is associated, and by them
the tender mind of the child is immediately crammed
with idle tales and divers errors; and these slaves,
moreover, indulge themselves, in the presence of the
child, in everything that is calculated to make bad
impressions. The parents themselves often train
their children to vice and shamelessness;,nay, it
seems as though now the vices of the city, and fondness for gladiatorial shows, &c., were born with
children. What room is then left in the mind for
noble art and science    Where are the children to
hear anything of these better pursuits. They know
nothing else to converse about, except those eptertainments and the like, when they come into the lecture (or recitation) rooms, and even from their teachers they hear scarcely anything else; for these merely
pay their visits to the pupils, talk to them in the tone
that suits them, and seek only to please them "




TIlE ROMANS.                89
Horace complains in a like manner, but in language still more definite, in his celebrated and indignant ode, "Delicta majorum immeritus lues," &c.
-See Carm., lib. iii., ode 6. Yet what Horace says
of his own father proves that a better culture was
not yet entirely extinct.
Many classical passages, exhibiting the decay of
education and morals, might be cited from the poets
and the prose-writers of Rome. Thus the writings
of Cicero alone would furnish a large amount of
valuable matter. This great man approved himself,
in various ways, the careful cultivator of his children,
and wrote, as is well known, his celebrated treatise
"De Officiis" (concerning duties) for his son, besides furnishing instructive writings on various departments of science, especially rhetoric.
To relieve the dark picture which we have presented, we may state, that it appears from several letters
of the younger Pliny, that even in the later times of
Rome there were yet found exemplary wives and
mothers, and worthy fathers and educators. The
writings of his friend, the great historian Tacitus,
also furnish classical passages respecting the education of youth which then prevailed in Rome.
Rome produced some authors who treated expressly of education. Marcus Varro wrote, about the time
of the Saviour's birth, a work entitled " Capys, aut de
liberis educandis," which has not come down to posterity. Gellius has preserved a few fragments of it.
But the most distinguished Roman writer on education is Quintilian. His work, Institutiones Orato
ris LL.XII., is indeed more immediately designed to
form the complete orator; but he begins with the culture of man, and the earliest education of the child:
and it therefore falls directly within the scope of the
present historic sketch to give the following extracts
from.this work. ~
"In the earliest education of the boy, his future
destination should be had in view; hence also in that
of the orator."
H




90          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
"Much depends on education; its object is to make
of the child a good man."
"Every father, cherishing the earliest hopes from
the very beginning, should himself undertake the ed.
ucation of his son; and for this, therefore, he ought
to possess all necessary attainments. By imitatior
children acquire good and evil (habits)."
" The child, and especially if designed to be an ora
tor, should be at once accustomed to a correct pronunciation. In grammatical instruction, the Greek
language, as the source of the Latin culture, ought to
be commenced with, but the Latin language should be
very soon after taken up, so as to be studied at the
same time with the other. Instruction may be commenced even before the seventh year, but it ought to
be made agreeable to the boy: there is thus much
gained for the age of youth."
" Even for elementary instruction, the most skilful
teachers ought to be selected."
"I cannot approve of the practice of causing the
names, and the alphabetic succession of the letters, to
be learned in preference to their forms. It would be
better to teach the forms and the names together, just
as we become acquainted with men. With. regard to
syllables, the above plan is more admissible. Ivory
letters may be given to children to play with; also
other things that please them, and which they handle,
examine, and name. For the -purpose of learning to
write, it is very well to have the letters graven into
the tablets, and to let the children trace the impression with the pencil; it will thus be unnecessary to
resort to the practice of guiding their hand. It is
very important that a good hand, and skill in rapid
writing, be acquired, for even thinking depends on
this; the more cultivated ought not, therefore, to neglect this acquisition as much as they do. While the
boy is learning to read, he ought at once to be accustomed to look ahead, at his right hand, while he is
pronouncing. The syllables must all be thoroughly
practised, in the succession in which they follow, and
should by no means be passed over hastily. He




THE- ROMANS.               91
ought to receive instructive (profitable) sentences to
write, and not common words, as is usual."
"Many are opposed to the public schools, for the
reason that the children acquire bad habits there, and
also because the teacher can bestow more attention
upon one than on many. But these objections against
the good old regulation are not insuperable; there
are also many evils connected with private instruction. If the children were not early rendered effeminate, and otherwise spoiled, they would not be so easily corrupted in the schools. The public instruction
is to be preferred, especially for the future orator, in
order that he may accustom himself to the multitude,
and be stimulated by competition."
"The teacher should immediately make himself
acquainted with the disposition and the capacity (naturam et ingenium) of his pupils, and for this there
are sure marks. The most will depend upon how the
memory, the imitative impulse, and the attention are
constituted. Precocious minds rarely attain to eminence. The teacher should then treat every one according-to his natural disposition and capacity. The
good pupil will aim at winning praise. The young
should also have opportunity for play and recreation.
Whipping is not to be recommended, although Chrysippus advocates this mode of punishment."
From these extracts the reader will be able to form
some little acquaintance with Quintilian's pedagogic
views.
Aulus Gellius has very briefly and superficially discussed the obedience of children. In comparison witli
what Plato, Aristotle, and others have taught on this
subject, his remarks are exceedingly meager, while
the great principles involved are scarcely brought into
view at all.
We have thus gone over that most important part
of the history of pedagogics, of which it seemed particularly desirable to present a somewhat extensive
view. Of the time which intervenes between the period at which we have thus arrived, and the revival




92          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
of education in modern times, we shall take only a
cursory view, designing to give a rather more detailed account of education as developed and system.
atized within the last centuries.
We have seen that, after the time of Alexander the
Great, Grecian culture, in as far as it was involved in
political institutions, underwent an essential change,
and developed itself more in forms purely scientific;
and that this course of development was powerfully
influenced, and in a great degree guided, by the great
Stagyrite, who laid the foundation in Athens of the
polyhistory and learned culture of modern times.
At the mouth of the Nile, Alexander built, 331
A.C., the city which bears his name. Under the Ptolemies, who were his successors in Egypt, and who
governed that country during several centuries, the
sciences flourished. From the very beginning, these
sovereigns, who were liberal patrons of learning,
founded libraries in Alexandria, which filled up rapidly, from the circumstance that the papyrus was obtained in the immediate vicinity of the city. The
principal library is said to have contained twentythousand volumes when it was destroyed by fire in
the time of Julius Caesar. In the same quarter of the
city with this library was the royal palace, of which
one wing was called the tovaedov, museum. IIere assembled the learned, to whom a life void of care was
secured in Alexandria, and constituted a sodality of
scholars from all nations, having for their president a
priest.
In the suburbs Racotis, another library had been
collected in the temple of Serapis. Inciuding the
books which Antony brought thither from Pergamus,
it is said to have consisted of 120,000 volumes. Under the Emperor Theodosius, this library was destroyed by fire, about A.D. 400.
Athens continued to flourish as a seat of learning.
Here also large and valuable libraries were collected;
and in this city, besides other sciences, grammar or
criticism, rhetoric or sophistic learning, and philosophy were chiefly taught in academic institutions.




THE ROMANS.                93
And thus Athens and Alexandria contained, event for
the Romans themselves, the-principal educational institutions, until the emperors elevated Rome itself,
and afterward Constantinople, to a similar rank, and
established. other, though not as distinguished, seats
of' learning throughout their vast empire.
In Athens the gymnasia, with their regulations,
continued to subsist under the Roman emperors.
But, as regards intellectual culture and scientific study,
the influence of the sophists, as we have already, in
part, shown, was highly unpropitious. In the absence
of all fixed institutions controlled by the government,
parties arose among the students, who sought only,
by proceedings the most rude, tumultuary, and violent, to secure all new-comers, for whose arrival they
watched in the port, to some favourite professor. Of
this riotous state of affairs among the students of
Athens, Eunapius, Gregory of Nazianzen, both in the
Ith century P.C, and Libanius (about 230-250 P.C.),
a celebrated sophist, and the teacher of Chrysostom,
make loud complaint. It was also complained that,
as very few students paid the demanded fee, the income of the professors was not only so utterly inadequate to their support as to compel them to beg of
the magistrates, but that they were treated with base
ingratitude, yea, with contempt and ridicule; so that
they had neither motive nor opportunity to exert
themselves for the good education of their pupils,
who ran from one instructer to another, as the whim
of the moment guided them. Of this disorderly state
of things, which reached its climax about six or seven
centuries after Aristotle, we may already trace the
beginnings in his time.
The professors themselves were arrayed against
each other; they arranged meetings, in which they
publicly disputed on a variety of subjects: for example, the grammarians on rules of language.
The philosophers had their schools adjoining each
)ther, and, at the same time, stated places of meeting, where they came together for the purpose of disputing. The lectures and exercises were held daily




94          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
in an auditorium. The students frequently engaged
in a sort of contest, especially on certain festivals; so
that here also we trace the transition of the national
customs and higher culture of Attica, into the excesses of a degenerate scholastic life.
In ancient times. the'AvOear~ipta (a festival in honour of Bacchus) had been observed also as a festival
for youth, boys of three years of age being, on the
first day of the festival, crowned with a garland of
flowers: in later times it was customary on the second day to send to the public teachers, especially
the sophists, their fee, besides presents; whereupon
these instituted a convivial feast, on which occasion
great feats of drinking were performed. The best
drinker was rewarded with a cask of wine and a garland of leaves. The practice which had prevailed in
the better days of Athens, of instituting scientific and
literary contests in connexion with different public
festivals, seemed now to have entirely degenerated
into drinking-bouts and absurd disputation, so that
Athens exhibits the caricature of all subsequent student-life.
Aulus Gellius, however, portrays scenes of a somewhat different character, at which he was himself
present. Of one of these we present the following
abstract: "We spent the Saturnalia at Athens joyously, in jovial, but not indecorous entertainments.
We Romans, who happened to be there, and attended
the lectures of the same professors, assembled in considerable numbers. One, whose turn it was, provided
the meal, and at the same time offered some work of
an ancient Latin or Greek author, and a laurel-wreath,
as a prize for him who should solve some question to
be proposed. A question was assigned by lot to
each: if he solved it he received the prize; if not, the
question passed on to the next: if all failed, the prize
fell to the god of the festival. The problem consisted
of some passage from an ancient poet or philosopher,
or some point in history, or some captio sophistica,
or some philological question: for example, respecting frustra, as used by Ennius, or also a passage




TIIE ROMANS.                95
from Plato's Republic, or some captious sophism:
for example, What you have not lost you have; but
horns you have not lost, therefore you have horns;
or, When I lie and say that I lie, do I then lie or speak
the truth l and other like things."
Thus a fixed student-life had developed itself in
Athens, in which we recognise nearly all the peculiarities and arrangements of the modern German universities. Yet, notwithstanding the trifling and the
solemn fooleries which prevailed in this ancient city
of the Muses, there were many who devoted themselves seriously to study, especially that of eloquence.  When the Romans became masters of
Greece, they took Athens under their special protection, from their partiality to Grecian literature: it becamne their favourite city, as we learn from Cicero,
and more particularly from his friend Atticus.
The Romans now began to emulate the conquered
Greeks. Julius Caesar was the first who procured for
Grecian scholars an honourable reception at Rome,
by conferring the right of citizenship on grammarians
and other teachers, as well as physicians, who occur,
from this time forward, in the same category with the
professors.
Augustus and his minister Mecaenas were still
more active in this cause, and they are justly regarded as eminent patrons of the sciences. The latter
admitted to his intercourse the most distinguished
scholars and men of talent, and encouraged them
by honourable distinctions and rewards. Augustus
sought to bring the schools into better repute by exonerating the teachers from public offices and other
occupations, in consequence of which measure their
number greatly increased. Sometimes the grammarians and rhetores were also philosophers, whose lectures were attended by such young Romans as set up
pretensions to culture. These teachers, therefore,
repaired to Rome in great numbers. But those who
aimed at the highest degree of scholarship, visited
Athens, or the celebrated school of the rhetoricians at
Rhodes: many went to Mytilene, or even to Massilia




96         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
in Gaul, and to Corduba in Spain. There were also
many inferior grammatical schools throughout the
Roman Empire.
But soon the decay of the Athenian institutions, as
well as views of a political nature, excited a desire in
the emperors to make Rome herself a prominent se'at
of learning. This purpose became more maturely
developed in the mind of Vespasian (emperor from
A.D. 69-79) by the circumstance that the so-called
Magistri had private schools of learning in Rome, and
more especially that the illustrious Quintilian was
giving instruction as a rhetorician, with great acceptance, in the metropolis. Vespasian appointed him
public professor of eloquence, assigning him a considerable salary from the public funds, and employed, at the same time, several other professors of
rhetoric.
The idea which had originated with Vespasian was
more fully carried out by Adrian, immediately upon
his accession to the imperial throne. Adrian reigned
from A.D. 117-138. He foundedin the Capitol the socalled Athenaeum, in which, besides the professors of
rhetoric, he also appointed grammarians, with respectable salaries. The immunities which these
teachers had enjoyed under his predecessors were
now extended to freedom from all extraneous duties.
From this time onward these public teachers were
styled professors, or literati.
Antoninus Pius (emperor from A.D. 138-161) founded, in addition, a professorship of philosophy, and established in all the important cities of the Roman Empire institutions of learning, on the model of that in
Rome.
After Constantine the Great had converted the ancient Byzantium, under its new name of Constantinople, into the imperial capital, he sought to establish
there, in an improved form, whatever was excellent in
the institutions of Rome, and particularly to elevate
his new metropolis into the first seat of learning in
the world. As the Athenaeum in Rome had eclipsed
the mother-institution in Athens, so was Constantino.




THE ROMANS.                  97
pie to possess a similar, but far more illustrious institution of culture. He had here erected a Capitol, in
which he now established an auditorium: and this
he designed to be the highest institution of learning in
the empire; the professors being strictly required to
confine their labours to its halls, in order thus to prevent any from hawking about their learning, like the
circumforanei, in the public streets and market-places.
In the fifth century there were engaged in that (socalled) auditorium thirty-one professors, classified as
follows: 1. Eloquence, eight; Latin language (oratores), three; Greek language (sophistam), five: 2. grammarians, twenty; i. e., ten in the Greek and ten in the
Latin language: 3. one philosophus: and, 4. two professores juris. At the public library were employed
four Greek and three Latin antiquarii, whose business
it was to arrange, repair, and correct the ancient manuscripts.
Athens, Alexandria, Rome, and Constantinople
were, until the fifth century, the principal seats of
learning and of study in the Roman Empire: we should
say in the world, had there not still existed in Eastern Asia a number of institutions of the old style.
Under the patronage of the emperors, such resorts of
the studious were gradually multiplied. Gaul had
been, from early times, distinguished for the cultivation of the sciences and for eloquent men; first at
Massilia, then in Lugdunum, and afterward at Augustodunum (Marseilles, Lyons and Autun); and thus
there were necessarily erected similar institutions at
Trier (Treves), the capital since the time of Constantine, as also in other cities of that region.
From the writings of Suetonius, Gellius, Quintilian,
and others, we learn that the course pursued by the
professors was as follows: they expounded the
writings of Cicero, the poems of Virgil, Horace,
Statius, and others, in the Latin department; and, in
like manner, the works of the Greek authors. The
grammarians, also, had introduced the system of
certifying, i. e., of giving testimonials respecting the
respective merits of their pupils. In giving instruc



98         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
tion they scarcely ever laid aside the rod; and Quintilian is, as far as we know, the first who condemned
the practice of whipping. The rhetores practised
certifying still more extensively; but, though severe
in their discipline, no longer used the rod, for they
took up those pupils who had completed their studies
under the grammaticus, and also instructed adults.
The new methods of instruction rendered necessary
a plan of classification, or system for arranging the
pupils in classes: the origin of this system we therefore discover in the division into grammatica, the
lowest class, into rhetorica and philosophia, the pupil advancing from one to the other until he reached
the highest class. The arrangements were the same
in the schools of the rhetoricians. Quintilian says
of his teacher that he had retained the very useful
plan of dividing his pupils (pueros) into classes and
sub-classes, according to their capacities, which were
determined according as each pupil solved the proposition given to him: to be at the head of the class
was the highest honour. At the end of every thirty
days the process of certification was renewed, so that
then another might advance to the first place. This,
he says, had operated far better, and effected more
than all the admonitions of the teachers, all the vigilance of the pedagogues, and all the vows of the
parents could have accomplished.
These glimpses of the academic life of that period
are the more interesting to us, because of the resemblance between many of its arrangements to those of
modern times. This appears also in the academic
laws which the joint rulers Valentinian, Valens, and
Gratian drew up, A.D. 370, more immediately for the
institutions in Rome. These statutes were given to
those imperial institutions at the time when they
were at the height of their prosperity and fame. We
have not space to recapitulate them here; but it is
obvious that, when the Western Empire was approaching its dissolution, there existed in Rome &a
public institution of learning formally organized according to prescribed statutes. Here, theni, we dis



ARABIAN CULTURE.              99
cover the' basis of the later German universities:
here already we find immatriculation, relegation, and
the archetype of three faculties. Here assembled
students from all provinces, and the institution continued in some degree to flourish even down to the
reign of Athalaric the Goth.  In presenting this
sketch of Roman education, the difficulty has not
been to find materials, but to select, from a vast
amount of interesting and valuable matter, what
might seem to be most important, and we hope that
nothing that is essential has been omitted.
We are now to enter upon a new epoch in the his
tory of human education, beginning with the intervention of a new power, a new cultivating energy:
we speak of Christianity. But, before we proceed to
draw a brief sketch of education as gradually affected
by our divine religion, and finally developed in those
forms which it has assumed since the Reformation,
we shall, though it be at the expense of chronology,
give an account of Arabian culture in this place, in order that the thread of history may not hereafter be
broken by the introduction of this subject.
SECTION VII.
ARABIAN CULTURE.
Muhammed, the founder of Islamism, made, since
A.D. 622, extensive conquests with his Arabians, and
at the same time extended his religious creed. This
impostor, but still more his successors, established, as
is well known, new dynasties in Asia, Africa, and Europe. His sacred book, the Koran, has derived many
things from the Jewish and Christian religions, while
it contains maxims and imagery in the Arabian style;
for, like other Oriental nations, the Arabians also had
their poetic creations.
It could not be otherwise that the conquering hosts
of Muhamnmed's successors would be hostile to the
culture which was advancing in its development,
through the influence of Christianity, in the Roman
Empire. When, theref;re, in the year of our Lord




t00        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
641, they took possession of Alexandria, the Caliph
Omar caused the libraries of that city to be destroy
ed, and countless volumes, repositories of the treas.
ures of antiquity, were cast into the flames in order
to furnish steam-baths to rude barbarians and voluptuaries. Yet it was not in the nature of the Arabians
to be enemies of the sciences; on the contrary, they
zealously promoted them in several countries where
r;ey had established their empire. And thus they fa
voured them in Egypt also; and although liberal stud.
ies had now entirely died out in Alexandria, they
gradually revived again, and after the lapse of some
time they were established anew in that city by the
Arabians. The caliphs extended their conquests in
North Africa, and with sweeping rapidity the current
rolled its whelming flood from Arabia to the Atlantic, and, led on by Abd-el-Malek, across to Gibraltar,
soon reaching the Pyrenees, ant over and beyond
them: and who can tell to what extent Europe would
have been inundated, had not Charles Martel, A.D.
732, by his great victory on the banks of the Loire,
arrested and driven back this tide of barbarian invaders, and thus saved to Christianity the ground which
it had gained.
As well in the measures of individual sovereigns
as in their whole mode of thinking, the Arabians manifested their intellectual capacity and activity, and
their love of the sciences. It was not only by theii
fairy tales and other poetic creations, but through
their cultivation of several of the severe sciences,
that they became the instructers of the Middle Ages,
after they had introduced some of the treasures of
Grecian literature among themselves. They cultivated with zeal the natural sciences, mathematics, medicie, and philosophy; they translated, and commented upon, works of Greek authors; they had authors
of their own, and made independent progress in the
field of science and literature. They were thus the
inventors of algebra, the name of which indicates its
origin. Jews and Christians studied among them and
with them, and though religious enemies, they often




ARABIAN CULTURE.             101
lived together as friends, in the common bonds of
learning and scholarly intercourse. They left unmolested some of the earlier institutions of education,
such as the law-school at Berytus, the seminaries of
the Jews and the Christians at Nisibis, and those of
the Christians at Antioch and at Edessa; but they
also established several of their own, for the special
benefit of Muhammedans, at Basra and Kufa in the
ninth century, at Emesa and Samarcand in the twelfth,
at Aleppo and Bokharin in the tenth, and in other cities.
Haroun al Raschid (A.D. 788-809), the illustrious
contemporary of Charlemagne, is pre-eminently extolled by Arabian writers as the friend and promoter
of the sciences.
Grammatical studies, poetry, philosophy, jurisprudence, medicine, astronomy, mathematics, natural
science, and, sad to relate, magic also, flourished
among the Arabians during the reign of this great
prince; and to strangers also, his capital, Bagdad,
was open as an emporium of learning. His successor Mamoun (from A.D. 813) also cherished this scientific and literary spirit; but he suffered it to stoop
to small matters, and to stray into astrological and
magical follies: his highest praise is, that he caused the
great works of the Greeks to be translated into Arabic.
The first prince who distinguished himself as a lover of art in Spain was Hakem (796-822), who built
stately structures at Cordova; and during the reign
of his successor, Abd-er-Rhaman II., the great musician Zaryab came from Irak to Spain. The third caliph of that name enlarged and beautified the capital
just mentioned (about A.D. 940), and founded the institutions of learning which flourished there, and of
which there were seventeen, besides seventy libraries.
Females were also instructed there, and the works of
distinguished poetesses read and explained in the
schools. This excellent sovereign maintained the
most friendly relations with the other European monarchs, especially with the Greek emperor Leo, and
the German emperor Otho I. Thus were liberal stud



102        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
res established among the Arabians in Spain, especially at Cordova, for the benefit, also, of Jews and Christians. Similar academic institutions existed at Toledo, Salamanca, and Seville; and in Africa also they
established high schools in Kairwan, Tunis, Fessan,
and Algiers.
In Egypt, likewise, the Arabian princes were, at
different times, patrons of learning, especially from
946 to 967. The same is true of their Asiatic empires,
particularly the Persian. In this empire flourished,
during the splendid reign of Mahmoud, among others,
the celebrated naturalist and physician Avicenna;
here, about A.D. 1030, were libraries, and schools of
learning, of which Christians, Parses, Muhammedans, Jews, and perhaps also Brahmins, availed themselves in common. In Syria, Damascus became a
seat of the sciences; also Emesa, Aleppo, and other
cities; and when, in the eleventh century, the Jewish
seminaries about the Euphrates were discontinued,
the studies which had been cultivated in them were
transferred to the West, and especially from the
Arabian institutions to Spain. Cordova remained,
during several centuries, one of the most important
seats of culture.
Thus we observe, in all this, the influx, through various channels, into Europe, even to the Atlantic, of
ancient Oriental science, and of the culture of those
institutions which flourished, in hoar antiquity, in the
remotest East.
There were yet recently found, even in Africa,
higher schools of the above description: for example,
one in connexion with the mosque at Cairo, and another at Bornou, connected with the principal mosque
of that city; this institution possessed a library, and
was frequented by many men of learning, and by pu.'ils who were supported at the expense of the sultan.
Besides the higher sciences, there was here also instruction given in reading, writing, and arithmetic.
We have no knowledge of the present condition of
this institution. But in all the Muhammedan cities
there are schools for boys, usually close by the




TIHE CIRISTIAN WORLD.          103
mosques; nor are the higher studies neglected. Po.
litical convulsions, which have shaken the Muhammedan empires, revolutions which may not be far distant, and the labours of Christian missionaries, will
probably open new channels for the tide of learning
and culture which once flowed over Europe from the
East, to return, with tenfold volume and power, to that
now benighted region.
THE CHRISTIAN WORLD.
WE have endeavoured to set before the reader what
was great, and good, and beautiful in the culture, in the
education of the nations of antiquity, and truly we have
found much to admire and to commend; much that
is valuable in our own day, especially among those
classic nations whose glorious literature still constitutes a principal means for the intellectual, and more
particularly the aesthetic culture of the modern scholar, and whose eminence in the fine arts has not been
attained by any subsequent age.
But while those nations of the East, among whom
the institutions and'arrangements of remote antiquity
still continue unchanged, are in a state of bondage
and torpor as respects the development of mind, the
highest interests of society, and the noblest purposes
of human life; while the Israelites, who became the
channel through which was transmitted to us the
earlier revelation of the living and true God, forfeited
their highest privileges, through their devotion to
lifeless forms and external temple-worship and Rabbinism, the educational institutions, the beautiful
culture, the civil and social organizations of Greece
and Rome have utterly passed away, intellectual
degeneracy and moral corruption preceding and ushering in the decay and downfall of those once mighty
and illustrious nations. The sweet breeze of morning has long since ceased to whisper in the palms of




104        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Zion; many centuries have passed since C-r-ian
sages wandered and meditated under th;r shady
plane-trees; and from the forest of their laurels the
power of the Romans has long since departed. A
proof, all this, that the wisdom of the ancients, however effective for a season in regulating and adorning the life of separate nations, was not competent
to benefit, essentially, the great family of man; to
remedy corruptions, to arrest the progress of degeneracy, to'establish virtue, to secure substantial happiness; that their culture could not, therefore, conduct
either the individual or the race to the true end of
human existence; that hence this wisdom, or this
culture, having within itself the seeds of decay, could
but last its little day, and then cease from among
men as though it had not been; and that an element
was wanting in the education, the general culture of
man, which might, with pervasive energy, embrace
the entire race, and adapt its influence to every- age,
and locality, and condition of the human family;
satisfy every higher want of the soul, unlock the
mysteries of the present, and the glories of the future
life, and guide the free and immortal spirit in the
paths of eternal truth, and by the unchanging principles of true virtue, to peace on earth, and to unfading happiness in the life to come. And this ele.
ment, this divine energy, this "one thing needful,"
came among men in the religion of Christ.
Jesus, born as the promised Messiah among the
Jewish people and in the time of the Emperor Augustus, lowly in his human relations, but declared by
Divine glory to be the Saviour of the world, approves
himself, by word and deed, highly exalted above all
the wise teachers of antiquity. He himself proclaims
that the time had come in which men should cease to
regard this or that temple as exclusively sacred, and
when all the. world should learn to know that God is
a Spirit, who must be worshipped in spirit and in
truth; that he had come to reveal him as the Father
in heaven, and to make those who believe in him
"free indeed;" to redeem them, and to bestow on
them; as the children of God, eternal life.




TiIE CHRISTIAN WORLD.            105
The history of his life is inseparably connected with
his work of redemption. He dies on the cross, is buried, rises again on the third day, gives his disciples
the commission to preach the Gospel of the kingdom
to all nations, and ascends before their cyes to heaven. They obey his command after having received
for this purpose a higher power, the Holy Spirit, and
bear witness of Christ, as the Son of God, the Mediator, the Lord: they preach that whosoever believeth
in him shall be saved, and exhibit in themselves that
newness of life whereof they testify. They wele, in a
worldly point of view, unimportant men and unlearned Jews, with the exception of the apostle Paul, who,
familiar with the culture of the Jews and the Greeks,
joyfully proclaims his own experience of that new
power which had appeared among men: "I am not
ashamed of the Gospel of Christ, for it is the power
of God unto salvation to every one that believeth."
What no priests on the Ganges, the Nile, the Euphrates could accomplish, with all their wisdom and
their mysteries; what no teacher like Zerdusht, Confucius, Pythagoras, or Socrates had been able to
achieve, that was done by poor fishermen from the
obscure sea of Tiberias; what those far-famed sages
never could even conceive of, was introduced among
men by persons of humble rank, and through their
instrumentality communicated not only to a few of
their contemporaries, but extended, as the kingdom
of light, over the whole earth: they proclaimed the
salvation of mankind. This had been obscurely anticipated and eagerly desired by the purer and nobler
minds of preceding ages.* This was not that human
energy, habituated merely to self-government, but it
was a Divine power, liberating from sensual bondage
to the extent of elttirie self-denial, exalting to holiness
of life, renewing the spirit of man; it was, and ever
continues to be, a new creation. Such is the nature
* Witness the Eastern Magi, whom the star guided to the manger at
Bethlehem. Dr. Harris, in his " Great Teacher," refers to the remarkable
language which Socrates held on this subject to his pupil Plato, by whom
dis words are recorded.
I




106       HIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
of Christianity. It cultivates, it forms the individual
to resemblance of God, and it develops the human
race to the attainment of its destination. Thus, after
the winter, in which perished the creations of antiquity, has appeared the spring, in which the Divine Spirit
of love calls forth a new life. The kingdom of God,
which was thus introduced, is an inward, a spiritual
kingdom, yet manifesting itself also in an external
form, inasmuch as it breaks forth gradually, amid the
conflicts which it sustains against human corruption,
into greater extent and power, leads on the victory of
good over evil, and will ultimately glorify the earth.
Here, then, is more than that harmony, nationality,
calocagathia, and humanity of classic antiquity: a
new life rises upon the world, in which the spirit of
man is glorified, and the nations of the earth become
united in the public spirit of humanity-a spirit of love,
that embraces the whole great family of man. The
one eternal, living God, who worketh everywhere,
and, as our Father in heaven, carries out gloriously
his holy will; the sinfulness of man, of which each
individual must, for himself, obtain an experimental
knowledge, in order that he may desire and obtain the
pardon which the Saviour wrought out for him, and
freely offers to him, and consecrate himself, through
the grace that is given, entirely to God, for this life
and that which is to come: these are the great and
new doctrines which Christianity has introduced: not
merely set up as a theory, but implanted as a living
and operative power in the mind and heart of man
They will extend farther and wider, and exalt and re.
generate the human race. The faculties of the individual renewed into a child of God are thus to be developed for his own real good and the good of others:
and thus shall nations, pervaded by its regenerating
and sanctifying power, pursue' their interests, and
prosecute their benevolent efforts in peace with each
other; the whole race shall be developed to a life of
true wisdom and virtue, the earth become the abode
of love to God and man, and the kingdom and glory




THE CHRISTIAN WORLD.             107
of God be promoted in all things: and this, there.
fore, is also the great idea of Christian education.
As the light of Christianity first exhibited the idea
of education in its full import and its entire compass,
this distinctness will appear, also, in a complete account of the history of education as affected by Christianity. The historian will consider the operation of
the new cultivating power or principle, and show, at
the same time, how those elements, which had been
retained from the systems and institutions of antiquity, have been changed, and thus point out the gradual
development of the culture of modern times.
The history of education thus becomes, in one sense,
more general; in another, more definite. It becomes
more general because it considers less the peculiar
education of particular nations, than the education of
man in general, as it ought to exist among all nations
It becomes more definite, because it has to portray
the institutions, the instrumentalities, and the methods which have developed themselves in this age of
the world. And as this development has taken place
principally in Europe, it is to that quarter of the globe
that the historian will be almost entirely confined.
In presenting such a history of Christian education,
the author from whom our materials are derived goes
very much into detail. He adopts, very naturally,
two periods: in the first, the Christian culture effects
a gradual entrance among the nations of Europe, contending with the opposition of enemies and the obstinacy of ancient custom, &c.; in the second, it shakes
off the yoke, asserts its power, and begins to exhibit
its effects in the life of nations; in domestic life, in
the instruction of youth by the Church, in Britain,
Germany, France, and elsewhere; in the scholastic
arrangements and institutions of those countries, and
in the pedagogic literature of this period.
We have already stated that on this earlier period
we shall not dwell in detail; its history is more or
less identical with that of the Church, from her first beginning in Judea, to her final extension over the length
and breadth of Europe. We shall therefore be e ry




108        IllSTORY OF EDUCATION.
brief until wue reach the second period, with its exten.
sive arrangements, its theories and methods, its ped.
agogic sects and literature.
SECTION I.
HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION.
1. School o(f the Catechists at Alexandrza.
THE first teachers of Christianity established no fixed institutions of education. They instructed men by
preaching; and several of them, also, by those invaluable epistles found in the sacred volume of the New
Testament.
In Alexandria, the Gospel is said to have been first
preached by St. John, whence he is often, but erroneously, regarded as the founder of the school of catechists in that city. Instruction in the Christian religion was termed catechesis, but by this was usually
meant popular instruction in Christianity; and with
this, we are not to confound that learned instruction
given, in the school of the catechists, to those who
were designed for the work of the ministry. The
founder of this higher institution for Christian teachers, was Pantanus, a Stoic philosopher who had become a convert to Christianity. His activity in Alexandria commenced A.D. 181, but how long he held
his office there as president of the school is uncertain: his successor was Clement. The latter was
succeeded by Origen, who was (from A.D. 213) the
most distinguished teacher at this first Christian seminary. His lectures were much frequented, even by
pagans, many of whom, for instance his successor
Heraclas, became Christians. He instructed his the
ological pupils also in the profane sciences, mathe
matics, logic, rhetoric, natural philosophy, metaphysics, ethics, astronomy; and aimed, in general, at comprehensive encyclopedic culture. This school was
under the authority and superintendence of the episcopus of Alexandria, by whom the teacher was appointed. We find no notice of any separate building
appropriated to its purposes: thf lectures were prob




HIGHIER INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION. 109
ably held in private houses, perhaps sometimes also
in a church. It gradually declined, lingering after
the Arian controversy through a precarious existence, till the beginning of the second quarter of the
fourth century, when, after an attempt to revive it in
the fifth century, every trace of it disappears.
About A.D. 600, Pope Gregory the Great seemed
inclined to establish a seminary in Rome for the education of Christian teachers; but his taste led him to
other pursuits, which prevented this idea, if ever he
seriously entertained it, from being realized.
Individual clergymen, distinguished for learning
and influence in the Church, frequently became the
instructers of others, without establishing particular institutions; and many educated themselves, by
means of the writings of such eminent men.
Thus, during several centuries, the Christian Church
had no fixed method of communicating theological
instruction.
2. The Imperial Schools, and the Universities.
We have already, on a former page, spoken of
those public institutions of learning which the Roman emperors established in the principal cities of
the Empire, and among which the Athenaeum at
Rome first attained a splendid reputation, and afterward the Auditorium at Constantinople. The Museum at Alexandria also enjoyed considerable patron..
age.
In the provinces, the schools of the rhetoricians, at
which also the grammarians usually gave instruction,
continued to flourish for a while longer. The schools
of Berytus, Rhodes, and Mytilene were particularly
frequented by those Romans who devoted themselves
to the study of law.
It has been seen that Gaul was early distinguished
for the cultivation of the sciences, and the imperial
schools in that province enjoyed great consideration,
even to the invasions of the Visigoths, Burgundians,
and Franks (428). Several such schools had also
been founded in Belgium and in Germany; and a




1 10        IISTORY OF EDUCATION.
number likewise, it is said, in Britain, among which
those at Cantabrigium, Oxonia, and especially Eboracum, were most distinguished. These, however, became entirely extinct when the Romans, about A.D.
440, left Britain to its fate, and the Angles and Saxons, A.D. 449, commenced their irruptions.
Similar schools existed in other parts of the Empire,
but with the fall of the Empire and the immigration
of the Germanic tribes, towards the middle of the fifth
century, they entirely disappeared.
But a new class of educational institutions now
sprung up in Western Europe, whose organic principle it would be difficult to point out: and these are
the universities. If they derived their organization
in part from the imperial schools just spoken of, and
partly also from the ancient medical schools, the student-life, wild and lawless, which characterized them,
was copied from that which, as we have seen, existed
at Athens in its later times.
The universities occur first in Italy, and among a
great number that might be mentioned, that at Bononia (Bologna) was probably the first of all, being
founded in A.D. 1158. Its professors first obtained
their jurisdiction from the Emperor Frederic I., in
1158. Its constitution, as finally settled, was much
the same as that of modern German universities.
The students, classified according to the nations
whence they came, enjoyed great and singular privileges, and none more distinguished than the German
nation.
The statutes, which imbodied the constitution of
the university, might be altered every twenty years,
but only by the students themselves, who elected for
this purpose eight statuarii from their midst. In A.D.
1253 they were, for the first time, ratified by the pope.
Since the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries, there
existed at this institution several distinct collegia, or,
as they are termed in modern times, faculties: they
were the following five: 1. The collegium of the ca.
nonical, or canon-law; 2. that of civil law; 3. the medical; 4. the philosophical; and, 5 the theological col.




HIGHER INSTITUTIONS OF EDUCATION. 111
legiurm. The first consisted of twelve, the second of
sixteen regular members.
Besides the regular, there were also extraordinary
lectures.  The regular course comprehended one
year, beginning on the nineteenth and twentieth of
October, and ending with the seventh of September.
With this day commenced the principal vacation; but
there was a number of minor vacations during the
year. The recitations and disputations were conducted according to fixed statutes; and even the clothing of the students, both as regards the material and
the cut, was prescribed, in order to prevent extravagance. The colour was usually black.
Next in importance among the early universities
is that of Paris, whose origin is entirely unknown.
Our limits do not admit of a detailed account of its
arrangements. It differed from the universities of
Italy chiefly in that the doctores and magistri passed
resolutions and enacted statutes themselves, and not,
as in Italy, the students, who appear to have had no
influence whatever in Paris.
Among the collegia of the Paris university, which
were very important, and more numerous than in
Italy, the Sorbonne, founded in 1520, was the first
and most celebrated, equalling in fame the theological faculty, which appears to have gradually identified
itself with it.
The theological faculty of Paris was pre-eminently
distinguished. It was first in rank, and in influence
the most important. Its decisions, as we often note
in history, were in request throughout Christendom
elten as late as A.D. 1631.
The other French universities adopted for their organization either that of Paris or that of Bologna
as a model.
Those of Spain have been mentioned in connexion
with the Arabians.
The English universities were constituted in imitation of that of Paris, yet so that the power of the
professors and the depetidance of the students were
still greater.




112          HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
In Germany many universities were founded on the
Parisian model. That of Prague, which was opened
in A.D. 1348, was the first. Similar institutions soon
sprang up in Sweden and in Denmark.
From the very beginning, the student-life at these
institutions was characterized by great frivolity, loose
morality, lawless and riotous conduct. In the thirteenth century this state of things had greatly in.
creased, and only gradually did the influence of
Christianity effect a partial reformation.
SECTION II.
CHRISTIAN EDUCATION AMONG THE NATIONS OF WESTERN
EUROPE.
CHAPTER 1.
Domestic Life, and Religious Instruction of the Church.
THE power of Christianity to regenerate the human
race has manifested itself in the life of individuals, of
families, and of nations, through the transforming influence which it exerts on the inner man. It has
thus effected, and continues to effect for mankind
what we can discover nowhere else. The sacredness
of the marriage-union, and of the personal rights of
man, is recognised among Christians, not only in
theory, but in practice. The emancipation of woman,
the sanctity of family-life in its proper sense, of which
the ancients had scarcely any conception, and the abolition of slavery, have been introduced by our divine
religion, and the great Head of the Church will more
and more extend and glorify its influence among the
nations of the earth.
Domestic education thus belongs essentially to Christianity: it is not only expressly enjoined as a duty;
but as parents are to regard their child as the child of
God, as their love to God sanctifies and exalts to the
utmost their affection for their offspring, this domestic education has fully asserted its influence over the
whole of human life. The spirit of love became the
spirit of education, and is the only spirit capable r,f
promoting the true culture of man.  Goiverning:he




EDUCATION IN WESTERN EUROPE.   113
father himself, it modified the severity of Jewish
discipline and of the Roman patria potestas; but it
inculcates the more strenuously that firmness and
rigour, which are necessary not only to train the young
to good habits, but to exercise them in self-denial, and
to bring them to devote themselves to God. Through
the influence of Christianity, the love of family, and
kindred, and of country became more pure, and firm,
and vigorous, and, extending its compass, became
subservient to the love of the human race, to universal philanthropy. Who does not admire the heroism of the first Christians, which they so often exhibited amid the terrors of martyrdom; while they
were ready to sacrifice everything for that country
which is above, and whose citizens they were, they
were educated in the simplicity and purity of true
virtue, and in genuine benevolence.
The effect which Christianity produced on the social
position of woman. claims our highest admiration and
gratitude. A heatihc:  sage once admiringly exclaimed,
"What women the Christians have among them!"
From the earliest times of the Church, bright examples of noble women, exemplary in every relation, as
wives, as mothers, and as members of the community,
abound.
With this fundamental and thorough reformation of
man himself, the regeneration of education, in respect
of the community at large, although gradual and always contending with obstacles, and for a time even
interrupted by the corruptions of the Church, has been
generally advancing down to our day.
In the beginning the children of Christians received
their instruction partly in the existing schools and
partly in the Church; the former being communicated
by heathens, the latter both by the parents and the
clergy. Religious instruction was mostly given by
the clergy, sometimes also by laymen: the bishop adding that special instruction which preceded baptism.
For the regulations respecting catechetical instruction and catechumens, the reader is referred to cccle.
siastical history.




114        IISTORY OF EDUCATION.
* The monastic institutions which arose at an early
period of the Christian Church in Egypt, we mention
here merely on account of their subsequent connexion with education. In early times the monks were
faithful and zealous missionaries of the Gospel, and
became instrumental in converting many European
nations to Christianity. In England, Scotland, and
Ireland, and in various other countries, especially
France and Germany, they preached the Gospel, instructed the young, established schools, founded extensive monastic institutions, which, by their libraries and other arrangements, sustained an important
relation to the progress of Christianity, and the advancement of education and general culture.  It
would lead us entirely too far to give anything like a
detailed account of the gradual Christianization of
Europe. Of the agencies and institutions employed
in this work; of the vicissitudes, and difficulties, and
trials, and hardships, and triumphs of its agents; of its
general and beneficial effects on family, social, and public national life, peculiarly, and certainly not healthfully, modified by the superstitions and corruptions of
papal Rome, the reader can obtain ample information
in any extensive work on the history of the Christian Church. We proceed to take a cursory view of
the pedagogic literature and methods of this earlier
period.
CHAPTER II.
Pedagogic Literature and Method.
THE seven liberal arts had become the basis of such
scholastic instruction as went beyond the elements of
reading, writing, and vocal music. Before we offer
a brief account of that encyclopedic instruction, we
shall notice the principal authors who promoted it by
their writings.
The most distinguished among these was Marcia.
nus Mineus Felix Capella, a native of Madaura, in Africa, who, in his old age, published his schoolbook at
Rome, A.D. 470. No book of this kind has ever en




EDUCATION IN WESTLRN EUROPE.   115
Joyed a greater and more permanent celebrity than
this: it remained about a thousand years the one
great schoolbook of Western Europe. Its title is
Satyricon, and it consists of nine books in prose and
poetry: the first two compose the work, De Nuptiis
Philologie et Mercurii; the following seven are, De
Septem Artibus Liberalibus Libri Singulares, in the
following order: Grammatica, Dialectica, Rhetorica,
Geometria, Arithmetica, Astronomia, Musica. It is
written in bad Latin.
Soon after him (about A.D. 500), Boethius, a Roman
vir consularis (of consular rank), wrote a far more
valuable schoolbook on three of these arts, so-called:
1. De Arithmetica, in two books. 2. De Musica, in
five books. 3. De Geometria, in two books. This
work was, at the time, truly valuable in various respects.
Not long after, Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorius, also
a Roman of consular rank, who afterward became a
monk, published a work, De Septem Disciplinis. It
was a popular schoolbook.
The celebrated Archbishop of Seville, in Spain, a
zealous promoter of monachism (died A.D. 636), published a far more copious work, entitled Originum
seu Etymologiarum Libri xx.: a sort of extended
encyclopedia, treating of a great variety of subjects.
The venerable Bede also published in England,
about A.D. 700, a sort of encyclopedia, containing,
1. Cunabula Grammatices, in questions and answers.
2. De Octo Partibus Orationis. 3. De Arte Metrica
4. De Orthographia. 5. Several books treating of
particular parts of arithmetic; and a number of other
productions.
And, lastly, the celebrated Rhabanus Maurus published a book, De Universo.
Latin Grammar was studied in the West of Europe
with no little difficulty, from Priscianus, Diomedes,
and Donatus, until Alexander, a Franciscan monk,.
published (about 1230) his metrical Latin Grammar,
entitled Doctrinale, by which the study was considerably facilitated. Vocabularies were gradually constructed, chiefly from the Vulgata: for example, that




116        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
of Rhabanus Maurus. The Greek language was but
little studied during this period.
Dialectics were taught chiefly by collections of
rules, until the study reached its culminating point at
the University of Paris, under the scholastics.
In rhetoric, Quintilian was superseded by Capella,
Bede, and Alcuin, until, about the middle of the tenth
century, the schoolmen returned to the writings of
the master in this department, Cicero.
In arithmetic, the operations were exceedingly im
perfect and clumsy until the celebrated Gerbert (Sylvester II.) was led, by his love of learning, to leave
his monastery, Fleury, and crossed the Pyrenees to
Cordova, in order there to learn -from the Arabians.
He brought back with him the Arabian figures, and
with them a new and far more easy method of calculation.
Geometry was very imperfectly taught from a
wretchedly meager abridgment of Euclid, until the
same Gerbert gave a new impulse to this study, as
he had done to arithmetic In astronomy, nothing
worth mentioning was accomplished, astrological superstitions being more in vogue than anything like
scientific observation.
To Gregory the Great belongs the merit of having,
on the basis of the ancient tunes, completely introduced sacred music among Christians, for the use of the
ecclesiastical institutions and the schools, and for the
purposes of public worship. Rome therefore became
the principal seat of sacred music, especially vocal,
but also instrumental; and this city was therefore
much frequented by those who desired to learn thoroughly this valuable art. Charlemagne imported
singers from Rome, and introduced the improved
church music, with the institutions necessary for its
cultivation, in Metz. In England, also, a Roman singing-school was established in the monastery of Weremouth.
Instrumental music was cultivated in monasteries,
at the courts of princes, by knights, ladies, and itinerant harpers; and the instruments mostly in use
were the harp, tie guitar, and the lute.




EDUCATION IN WESTERN EUROE'E.   117
The other sciences were not studied in the schools.
Little progress was made in geography. History
consisted of little more than legends and chronicles,
although Bede, who had opened a broader path, found
some followers. Notwithstanding the host of the
most absurd superstitions, and the prevailing faith in
magic and black arts, there was some advancement
made in physics: witness John Scotus and Albertus
Magnus. Medicine was chiefly practised by the ecclesiastics. It was more frequently studied with care
by Jews, who often attained the station of court-physician. By the Arabians a new impulse was given to
the study of this science.
At the University of Paris theology was treated in
a scientific manner, the effect of which was not favourable to the religious culture of the people. More
salutary was the influence of the practice, which began in the thirteenth century, of preaching in the vernacular language of Germany; and in the fourteenth
century, the celebrated John Tauler laboured in Strasburg, with great acceptance and effect, as a powerful
pulpit-orator, and some of his writings are still read
with profit. The most important, perhaps we ought
to say the only, pedagogic writer of the Middle Ages
was Vincentius de Beauvais, who flourished about the
middle of the thirteenth century, under Loius IX. and
his daughter Margaret. He published a copious en
cyclopedia, entitled Speculum Majus. But more important in the history of pedagogics is his work on
the education of the children of kings, dedicated to
Margaret of France. This work has sterling value,
and, bating the monkish principles of the age, deserves a place among the most recent productiCons on
pedagogics.




118        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
SECTION III.
Education strives to become Free, and to liberate the IIuman Mind from the mediheval Thraldom. The Gospel
emancipatedfrom Papal Bondage. From A.D. 13501520.
THE reader who is familiar with the period M hich is
referred to at the head of this section, will be aware
that any attempt to present a comprehensive view of
its pedagogic history would lead us into extended
discussions and almost endless details. Within its
limits occur many and highly-honoured names: it
embraces educational developments, and events in
the Church and the state, of the utmost importance to
the Christian culture of the human race. But, as it
is our principal purpose here to give an account of
Christian education in its more recent developments,
in the more matured state in which it presents itself
within the latest times, that is to say, since the labours of Lord Bacon, we shall offer no farther apology for the meager sketch which is here subjoined.
Not only had Christianity now been fully introduced among those European nations which had formed
the Western Roman Empire, but the Gospel had been
employed as the immediate means of civilizing others.
which had never bowed the neck under the Roman
yoke, so that the Christian religion may be said to
have, by this time, been the religion of Europe. But,
although it was thus outwardly received, the nations
of Europe were as yet far from having imbibed, or so
much as adequately comprehended, its true spirit: its
transforming power was yet far from having pervaded and completely renovated the public, the social,
the domestic, and private life of those nations who
called themselves Christian. This was, of course, in
a high degree, owing to the inherent corruption and
depravity of human nature, which did not and could
not immediately be made to harmonize with that
"perfect law of liberty." Other causes, political and
moral, and especially, also, the character and methods




PROGRESS OF EDUCATION, A.D. 1350-1520. 119
of popular and (so-styled) learned education, combined to obstruct the progress of Christianity in the
hearts of men, in the life of nations. But this was
not all, nor the worst. Christianity itself had come
to the nations of Europe enveloped in the superstitions, burdened with the corruptions, bedizzened with
the sumptuous trappings of papal Rome; and the light
of the Gospel was hid, if not under a bushel, under the
triple crown of the pretended vicegerent of Christ.
On this subject we need not expatiate; it is, in general,
well understood. All the institutions that had sprung
up —monasteries, universities, popular schoolswere involved in a night of ignorance, superstition,
and semi-barbarism; and those who set up for teachers and guides were little less blind than those whom
they pretended to guide and instruct. Yet was the
light of the Gospel not extinguished: it shone forth,
here and there, in the words and lives of illustrious
men, who glowed with a holy zeal for the glory of
God, and the emancipation of men from the intellectual and spiritual bondage which bowed them to the
earth. If the occasional labours and public avowals
of such men of God furnished evidence that the light
of truth was yet present in the Church, and betokened
its bursting forth, in due time, from the midnight
clouds which encompassed it, there was one circumstance which signally contributed to prepare men
to hail with gratitude and joy that new and glorious
day, by dispelling, in a great measure, the mists of
ignorance; by liberating, to a great extent, from the
bondage of superstition, numbers whose influence
would be widely felt; and by introducing at the universities better things in the place of the dialectic
games of the scholastics. We speak of the revival
of classical studies which preceded the great revival
of evangelical religion in the reformation of the sixteenth century.
First in order of time among those who powerfully
contributed to this revival of classical learning is the
celebrated Petrarch, born Aug. 1, 1304, at Arezzo, in
Italy. He was himself a truly eminent poet; and pro



120        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
foundly intimate with the Roman classics, and averse
to scholasticism, he strenuously recommended a
prompt return to the healthful fountains of antiquity.
He therefore gave the first impulse to those classical studies which are so inseparably connected with
the higher culture of modern times.
Among the Italians, two other celebrated poets, Boccacio, the friend of Petrarch, and Dante, powerfully
contributed to the revival of elegant literature. An
important influence was exerted in the same direction by another Italian scholar of great learning and
genius, Vittorino da Feltre, who was eminently distinguished as an educator of youth, whom he instructed in the sciences, and initiated in the spirit of classic
antiquity. In this path he was followed by other dis
tinguished men, especially Niccolo Niccoli, through
whose exertions, and those of his pupils, Florence became the seat of classical learning under the splendid
house of the Medici.
In the Netherlands, a similar revival of liberal
learning, embracing theology and philosophy, was
developed under the guidance of gifted men. The
most celebrated' among these, the one whose influence
was most extensive, was Erasmus of Rotterdam. His
connexion with classical learning, his ambiguous position in reference to the reformation, his friendly relations with some of the reformers, are matters of history, and well known.
Among the distinguished Germans who were prominently active in this great movement for the emancipation of human culture, none is more deservedly celebrated than John Reuchlin, born at Pforzheim, in Baden, Dec. 28, 1445. Iis exertions for promoting the
study of the Greek language were specially important, and, to some extent, eminently successful.
Highly distinguished in this connexion were John
Colet, an Englishman, and the intimate friend of
Erasmus; and Luis Vives, a Spaniard. The school
(St. Paul's School) which the former, as Dean of St.
Paul's, founded in London, still flourishes, and enjoys
a high reputation. The latter was the author of some




PROGRESS OF EDUCATION, A.D. 1350-1520. 121
important works on pedagogics and educational methods. and many of his rules have been placed to the
credit of modern writers.on these subjects.
The impulse which the labours of such men had
given to the culture of Europe was very extensively
felt, and productive of highly beneficial effects: it had
commenced the emancipation of the human mind
from the shackles of scholasticism, and the overthrow
of monastic dungeons. But the restoration of classical studies could not remedy the evils under which society groaned, could not regenerate that public life
which was thoroughly corrupt in all its institutions.
The liberty of the mind is a gift of Heaven, and belongs to the destination of our race. But no classical studies could achieve that liberty which harmonizes with law, and practises self-government and
self-denial.- This could come only by restoring to
the pure Gospel of Christ, that "power of God," its
due influence on society, in all its classes and relations. " If the Son shall make you free, ye shall be
free indeed." This truth was felt by many of those
enlightened men, so that there arose an increased tendency to return to apostolical Christianity. There
were many among the people, also, who felt this, and
to whom the corruptions of the Church became daily
more intolerable.
And that great change, for which there had thus
been some preparation, now came, in all its power
and glory, in the reformation of the sixteenth century.
On the labours of the reformers for the regeneration of human culture, we shall not dwell. They
must be familiar to most of our readers. Through
their influence, not only the Church, but the entire system of education, experienced a reformation. New
schools were founded, old ones thoroughly remodelled, and real, efficient schoolmen, of sound principles
and large views, took the lead, especially in Germany,
in the business of education. The most distinguished among the schoolmen of the age immediately succeeding the reformation were Johannes Sturmn and
K




122        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
Valentine Friedland, commonly called Trotzendorf,
from the place of his nativity. Other great names
might be mentioned, besides a long list of learned
philologists, who contributed, in the capacity of pro.
fessors and of authors, to the complete revival of
liberal education. It must, however, be observed,
that the labours of these men had reference, chiefly,
to the higher seminaries of learning.
Thus, towards the end of the sixteenth century, the
new culture had completely established itself in Ger-many, France, the Netherlands, and other countries
of Western Europe. The classic literature was the
cultivating principle, and with this the Reformation
formed an intimate alliance. The Protestant teachers
too well appreciated the high aim which the mind,
imbued with the Grecian and Roman literature, attains, that they should not have made it the principal
subject of the instruction of youth. Those schoolmen should not, therefore, be blamed, if they were too
partially devoted to this one subject. Their labours
hastened the coming of that day, in which profound
reflection, and a comprehensive, experimental development of principles led to the adoption of an enlarged, and liberal, and sound method, embracing every department of the culture of man.
It is well known that this revival of education,
produced by the reformation, aroused also the Catholic Church to adopt, in sheer self-defence, an enlarged and improved system, and that soon the
Jesuits became the educators of the Roman Catholic world. The excellence of their educational system, and especially of their methods of instruction,
even their enemies can scarcely call in question; yet
their pedagogics had great defects, and their general
mischievous purposes were betrayed, to a great extent, in their labours as educators.
During the Middle Ages, for centuries before the
Reformation, the student-life had been, as we have in
some measure seen, one of wanton indulgence in erratic propensities, of confusion, and riot. The teach



PROGRESS OF EDUCATION, A.D. 1350-1520. 123S
ers of schools, both in city and country, were, for
the most part, itinerant students, who, either having
some other personal interest in view, or receiving a
very scanty compensation for their labours, either
neglected their business, or, rude in manners, tyrannized over their pupils, or disagreed, in one way or
another, with their employers, so that little was effected, and things perpetually grew worse; or, if
men of letters and principle undertook the office of
teacher, they were often treated with ingratitude and
contumely, so that those who were fit to teach had no
inducements to devote themselves to so thankless a
business. But since the emancipation of educational culture, down to the beginning of the seventeenth
century, many improvements had been made, and a
better order of things had supervened. There were
public schools of different kinds, higher and lower,
both in cities and in the country; and here and there,
also, female seminaries. Besides these, a variety of
other arrangements and institutions for the purposes
of education grew into vogue, all which introduced a
time of inquiry and reflection, in which men could
select, from a multitude of methods, those which
seemed best, form various combinations, and strike
out new paths. The importance of the business of
education was more and more understood and felt;
As regards the subjects of instruction, these had
become more and more extended, and undergone
various changes with the developments of the times.
The following sketch follows the order of the ancient
encyclopedia.
Grammar was taught in the old fashion; but, after
the art of writing had been introduced in the cityschools, and especially after the press had more and
more separated it from instruction in reading, this
study was treated as a distinct branch, and now the
children were taught to spell and to read by means of
printed primers.
In teaching children to write, the ancient tricks of
stenography and the like were abandoned, and due
attention was paid to a good curren t hand. In arith




124        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
metic a more suitable method was adopted, and, at
the same time, its higher departments were more
cultivated.
In geometry the instruction was wretched, as un:
methodical as possible, so that very few acquired any
knowledge of it. Geography and history were treated
as distinct branches of study in the schools of the
Jesuits: they were introduced elsewhere, for the
first time, by a pupil of Trotzendorf, between 1530
and 1543, in the school at Sorau. Astronomy had
been abandoned by the schools; but astrology and
alchymy continued to be, even in the sixteenth century, the favourite study of deep thinkers.
Mnemonics was very generally cultivated at this
period in Italy, and secretly, also, in the monasteries.
A new and highly important addition had been
made in religious instruction. With a view to this,
the reformers, or, rather, the great reformer himself,
had,drawn up and introduced the catechism; and.
lastly, the progress of culture to greater freedom
became manifest in the reference which.schoolinstruction had to the common affairs of life. Since
the appearance of Reynard the Fox, the Germans
had cultivated the department of literature to which
this admirable poem belongs, and been eminently
successful in the production of instructive fables;
and the young were now made acquainted with the
well-known collection of AEsopian fables. If these
productions were not actually used in the schools,
they were collected in books, and exter -ively circulated among the young.
SECTION IV.
Methodic Pedagogists and their Labours.
THIS new spring which had arisen on the culture
of Christendom was broken in upon by dark and portentous clouds; peace and war alternated in various
parts, but especially in the centre of Europe, until the
fearful storm of the Thirty Years' War devastated
the states of Germany. The effects of this convul



METHODIC PEDAGOGISTS.          125
sion on the culture and the educational institutions of
central Euurope are easily imagined: yet these evil
consequences were not as extensive as might have
been expected. Something still continued to be done
for education; and some sections of Germany, which
had almost entirely escaped the general devastation,
had not ceased to offer asylums to the sciences.
The interest which had been excited for the culture
of man had not expired; and when, in 1648, the peace
of Westphalia restored repose to Germany, and security to the Protestant Church, the business of educa
tion was resumed with unabated zeal and energy.
Since then, the culture of man, which had itself been
emancipated from oppressive bondage, tended to the
complete liberation of the human mind from all extraneous fetters. It first exhibited this tendency in
its opposition to ancient usages in education; against
practices which had nothing but their age to recommend them; for, soon after the culture of Christian
nations had been thus emancipated from thraldom,
education became the subject of enlightened and profound reflection, and the judgment of men respecting
it shook off the prejudices, the bias of ages. The energies of the learned and wise were directed to the
detection of errors and defects, to the rejection of
much that was timeworn and superannuated, and to
attempts at improvement. New methods were de —vised, and systems of education constructed; but there
was, in general, more of criticism, more subversion of
individual practices that were deemed objectionable,
than of judicious effort at organization and construction. Yet men were now coming to these better efforts. The first part of the period now before us is
therefore characterized by inquiries and experiments,
and by critical reflection on the idea of education; to
the second part will belong the complete development, and introduction into theory, instruction, and
life, of this idea. We can scarcely be said to have
advanced beyond the threshold of this second division
of the period under consideration, and we have therefore reachecd the last epoch of our pedagogic history,




126        HISTORY OF LEUCATION.
in which we have three sections: the first, as stated
above, treating of experiments in new methods; the
second exhibiting new views on education; and the
third presenting efforts at combining education and instruction, and thus, also, at reforming public schools.
Innovations as respects method consisted, in the
first place, in alterations made in the ancient encyclopedism, and in general, in the mode of treating the
sciences. And the first who distinguished himself in
this path was the celebrated Lord Bacon, lord privy
seal and chancellor of England, who was born A.D.
1560, and died in 1626. He was one of the most
learned among men, and his acute mind clearly discerned the defects which burdened the learned culture
of his, and of past times. He complained that too
much attention was devoted to languages, and that,
meanwhile, practical matters, important to human
life, were entirely neglected; that philosophy, instead
of seeking after truth, had fallen into the mischievous
nonsense of scholasticism; that teachers followed
undeviatingly the old and beaten path, while pupils
bowed in slavish submission to the authority of their
teachers; that, nevertheless, it was common to form
hasty opinions and rash judgments; that the scholar
did not sufficiently confine himself to some particular
branch of science, and usually had not the proper aim
in view, inasmuch as either vanity, or self-interest, or,
at best, a love of amusement, was generally the motive. These and other like complaints were loudly
raised by Bacon; and in opposition to all this, he
propounded his own positive idea of improvement, of
a thorough reform. This he did especially in his Novum Organum Scientiarum, which sets out with the
principle that man is to be only the servant of nature,
both in knowledge and action. In this great work he
presented a new division of the sciences, arranged
under the three principal intellectual faculties, memory, imagination, and reason. Although in his encyclopedic view there was yet much left to be desired,
it yet created, as it were, new sciences; and, what is
more, it roused a new spirit, which brought forth new




METHODIC PEDAGOGISTS.           1227
thought, and which, while it produced a complete revolution in academic lectures, and in all matters of
science as treated in the schools, yet tended too
much to empty abstractions. As it was his fundamental idea that in a perfect system nature itself
would appear, and that, therefore, the classification of
the sciences, and the process of their acquisition,
would coincide, he yet also considered adaptation to
nature as involving the necessity of paying due attention to the progressive development of the child,
and to the principles of psychology: and thus he decidedly distinguished a twofold course of instruction,
the scientific and the pedagogic; and from this he
developed his principles of education, which coinci
ded, in general, with those of the Jesuits. The work
in which these principles are exhibited is entitled,." De Dignitate et Augmentis Scientiarum," and is one
of the most important in the history and progress of
pedagogics.
In Germany there soon arose men who ardently
desired the introduction of a complete pedagogic
method, and who were zealous advocates of the cultivation and improvement of the language of their
country, which had so long been supplanted, in matters of science and literature, by the Latin. The first
among these men was Wolfgang Ratich, born 1570,
at Wilster, in Holstein. The universal complaints
about the great defects of the school-instruction of
his day stimulated him to the attempt to introduce a
better methodl: and with a view to prepare himself
for this undertaking, he visited Holland, and England,
and other countries, spending thirteen years in these
travels. He commenced his operations in his thirtysecond year, found favour in various high quarters,
and excited a great deal of attention wherever he appeared. He had, undoubtedly, many correct views,
and manifested a good deal of skill in the application
of his principles; but a great mistake was made, in
that his method was employed only in instructing
adults. He was not entirely free from charlatanry;
and being, withal, of a quarrelsome disposition, and




128       HIlSTORY OF EDUCATION.
totally destitute of judgment and tact in managing his
assistants, he soon fell into disgrace, met with opposition everywhere, and died, abandoned by nearly all.his former friends, in 1635, as a pedagogic adventurer.
He was soon so utterly forgotten, that his age has,
and no doubt justly, been accused of having been
rather ungrateful towards him; for, a century and a
half later, other pedagogists met with far better suc.
cess, with methods much like his; and he may be
regarded as the founder of the modern didactics, or
art of instruction, as appears from his numerous writings.
The next pedagogist of importance was Christopher Helwig, born 1581, near Frankfort on the
Mayne, and professor at Giessen. He was a man
from whom much was to be expected for education,
but, in consequence of excessive exertion, he died at'
an early age, and before his views and plans could be
fairlv testes.
After him, Amos Comenius, of Comna, in Moravia,
born 1592, was highly distinguished in the business of
education, on which he entered in early life. After
encountering various vicissitudes and severe trials, he
went to Lissa, in Poland, where he soon after became
president of the school in that place, and bishop of the
Moravian brethren, in the early history of whose peculiar pedagogic system he shines as a star of the
first magnitude. He now wrote his great work, one
of the most important in the history of pedagogics,
which, as the title indicates, was to unlock the door
for the acquisition of all languages: " Janua Reserata
Linguarum," &c.
Comenius was about thirty-five years of age when
he came to Lissa. His work soon carried his fame
to foreign lands, and everywhere the necessity of a
reform in education began to be more deeply felt, and
first of all in England. By an act of Parliament, this
worthy man was, in 1631, invited to England, and re
ceived with every mark of respect in London. His
ideas would probably have been realized in that
country, had not disturbances in Ireland interrupted,




METHODIC PEDAGOGISTS.          129
and eventually altogether suspended the meditated
reform; and even to this day England has not organized a public system of school-education.
Comenius now laboured in Sweden, where he was
again interrupted by war, which induced him to return to Lissa. From here the Prince of Transylvania
called him to Patak, in order to organize the college
which was established there; and during four years
he here prosecuted his efforts in behalf of education
with considerable success, and wrote, among other
works, his celebrated Orbis Pictus, which has passed
through a great many editions, and survived a multitude of imitations. He now returned to Lissa, where
he enjoyed a few years of repose in his episcopal
office. But the disturbances which broke out in 1656,
between the Moravian Protestants and the Polish
Catholics, brought upon him various misfortunes: his
house, his library, and, worst of all, his manuscripts,
the labour of ten years, were consumed by fire. Having found an asylum in Amsterdam, he reproduced his
pedagogic works, which from 1657 appeared in print.
But he suffered many persecutions on account of his
faith; for he was a man of deep piety, although his luxuriant imagination led him to the adoption of some extravagant notions. He died at Amsterdam in 1671, at
the age of eighty, after an eventful life. The great
idea by which this life was animated was the promotion of the happiness of the whole human race by
education, and the adoption of methodical instruction
from earliest childhood. This idea was expressed in
his writings with all the clearness and completeness
that could be expected in that age, and all his efforts
were directed against the indolent trifling of existing
methods, and the realization of his better views; and
the influence of his writings and labours is more or
less visible in the educational arrangements of our
day. The labours of Comenius may be called the
clear and distinct expression of a state of public sentiment, which was a necessary phenomenon in the development of European education. It is only when
brought into connexion with Bacon's psychological
L




130        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
views on the one hand, and the modern pedagogic
views- on the other, that they are duly appreciated.
The triad comprises the whole of what the age of
new and improved methods brought forth respecting
the idea of education. Subsequent efforts consist only
in controversy, in farther improvements, and in finishing touches.
This combination appears first in the educational
views and principles of Montaigne and of Locke.
1. Michel E. de Montaigne was born 1533, at Perigord, and died 1592. His father, who had peculiar
and sound views on education, and was deeply sensible of the great defects of the prevailing methods of
instruction, gave his son, in early childhood, a German
tutor, who educated his pupil in a manner very different from that generally in vogue. Montaigne wrote
a book of essays, abounding in moral and religious
reflections, and which, though altogether deficient in
respect of the religious element, contain many valuable thoughts on pedagogics. But we cannot present
even an abstract of his views on education, as our
limits admonish us to hasten to a more important wri'ter. The writings of Montaigne were productive of
fruit out of his own country. His principles were
first made use of in England, for the development of
a system of education that has become the most important, by one of the most eminent philosophers and
most cultivated men of his age.
2. This man was John Locke, who was born in
1632. He was sent to the Westminster school, under
whose vigorous discipline he remained till his nineteenth year. After he had spent some time on the
Continent, and afterward continued his studies at Oxford, he experienced various reverses of fortune,
which grew out of his connexion with Lord Shaftesbury, who was his warm friend and benefactor. Having returned, in 1689, to England, which he had been
more than once obliged to leave, he declined the public employments that were offered him, and took up
his abode in a family of noble friends in Essex. Here
he wrote several political treatises, and also his iun



METHODIC PEDAGOGISTS.           131
portant pedagogic work, which appeared in 1693, in
the form of letters to his friend Clarke, and under the
title, Thoughts Concerning the Education of Children. In the following year appeared his celebrated
Essay on the Human Understanding, which work also
imbodies the spirit of his views on education. His
peculiar views made Locke a welcome teacher to the
new pedagogic spirit, which desired to confine its attention to the sphere of common life, and to reject as
fanaticism all elevation to ideals. Yet in this- respect his pedagogic principles have been very much
misapprehended. Locke died as a true Christian, in
the midst of the study of the Bible, A.D. 1704, and at
the age of seventy-two years. His book on education begins with the principle, Sana mens in corpore
sano: a healthy soul (mind) in a healthy body. Thus
this principle of the ancients, which especially the
legislation of Lycurgus had so distinctly avowed, was
again expressly recommended by Locke to modern
educators. Of his pedagogic views we present the
following summary:
I. Physical education. He recommends rather too
decidedly that children should be made hardy.
II. In cultivating the mind, habit, in respect of the
desires or appetites, is of paramount importance.
III. He protests against the abuse of corporeal
punishments and of rewards, and inculcates liberal,
but not lax principles. He warns against the influence of domestics.
IV. Children should have but few rules given them,
but the observance of these should be insisted on and
enforced. It is best if their own habits lead them to
the discovery of rules and laws. The child should be
kindly treated, and in accordance with its individuality.. All affectation is to be guarded against, and a
natural and beautiful development of the inner man to
he promoted.
V. For the acquisition of good manners he recommends the dancing-master and the example of good
society, but protests against children being required
to conform to conventional forms.




132         IIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
VI. He strongly urges the advantages of domestic
education. In schools, good manners are too much
sacrificed to Latin and Greek. He disapproves of
boarding-schools, both on account of the numbers that
frequent them, and for other reasons.
VII. In respect of pardonable and punishable faults
of the young, and their general treatment, his views
are liberal, and generally sound; but some are decidedly erroneous, and have been productive of mischief. Towards children who are too lazy to learn,
he is rather too liberal of blows.
VIII. A governor or private tutor should possess
knowledge of the world and refined manners. If he
be a mall of talent, his instructions will soon enable
the boy to help himself.
IX. Confidence between parents and children, in
their mutual intercourse, is strongly recommended.
X. The love of ruling, and selfishness, should be
suppressed in children: covetousness should not be
encouraged: their real wants should be provided for:
they should be habituated to modesty, and their complaints against others not always listened to: conscientious honesty, and, at the same time, liberality in
giving, should be encouraged in them.
XI. The screaming and crying of children should
be prevented.
XII. Both fear and courage are good; but effeminacy and extremes must be guarded against.
XIII. Children should not be suffered to be cruel towards animals, and kindness towards servants
should be inculcated.
XIV. As respects the desire of knowledge and indolent inattention, his observations are less profound
than those of later writers.
XV. Children should not receive too many toys,
and, in general, be induced to make them themselves.
XVI. Children must learn to regard lying as unnatural and detestable.
XVII. Religion and virtue should be promoted by
simple views, which may be occasionally communicated. At the same time, the child shodld be taughi




MODERN EDUCATION.             133'o pray, to speak the truth, and to exercise love towards all. They should never hear a word about
ghosts.
XVIII. The child should be taught to be prudent,
but not cunning.
XIX. The outward deportment of children should
be equally remote from impudence or presumption,
and awkwardness.
XX. As respects the method of instruction, his
views are, in general, very correct, and many of his
rules exceedingly judicious and valuable. Some of
them have been much misapprehended and misapplied. He considers the desire of applause and praise
as the strongest motive to urge the young to strive
after perfection. If it be the strongest, it would be a
monstrous pedagogic error to regard it as the best.
At the close, Locke acknowledges the defects of his
work, and admits that much remains to be determined
according to the individual peculiarities of children.
Would that the German pedagogists of his school had
always borne in mind this modest and candid admission of their great master!
SECTION V.
Modern Development of the Idea of Education.
WE have seen that earnest inquiry and diligent
search after improvements in the culture of youth,
and especially with respect to the method of instruction, had been awakened, and the efforts that were
made promised great results: but these promises
were not fulfilled. Had the classics been studied in
the right spirit, and the Gospel appreciated and improved as it ought to be, the result would have been
different: but this was not done. The fundamental
principle of human culture had not even been, as
yet, clearly apprehended, to say nothing of its being
brought into connexion with the increase of knowledge. If there had not been an actual retrograde
movement, it is yet certain that the root of culture,
religion, and the sweet odour of its developed blossom,




134        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
baste, had, notwithstanding the evident increase of
knowledge, rather retrograded than advanced. The
evidence of this is found in the controversies of the
theologians and of the philologists in the seventeenth
century, and even later.
The malady of vanity and self-conceit, the most
pernicious to men of learning, appeared in a new, at
one time offensive, at another, ridiculous formnamely, pedantry. Schoolmen, principals of seminaries, became the laughing-stock of the public, and
pedagogues and pedants were held up to ridicule on
the stage; and thus even men of genuine scholarship
and sterling worth were involved in the common
contempt. Such men strove earnestly to call forth a
better state of things, and to promote a spirited and
tasteful study of the classics. But such a change requires time, and the proper study of the classics did
not make much progress. In France and elsewhere
it even met with opponents, among whom Perrault
was the most prominent. His opinions were controverted by Boileau.
In England, as witnessed by Swift's "Battle of
Books," and in Germany, these controversies respecting the comparative merits of the ancients and moderns were also prosecuted.
If the good cause always does triumph in the end,
it is often long enough persecuted and desecrated by
the mob, the profanum vulgus. And thus classical
studies were indeed extolled in France, England,
Germany, and elsewhere, as the fountain of taste, and
even better taught in the schools; yet by many they
were still viewed in a false light, or clumsily treated
by pedants, and abused, even down to the latest times,
by impure worshippers, to the still greater perversion
of inflated boys.
In France, the false taste went hand in hand with
irreligion, with infidelity, and brought forth idols to
suit the popular spirit. A principle of disruption pervaded the culture of Europe, and purged away, as
men fondly believed, a great deal of dross, and only
about the end of the eighteenth century the loss of




MODERN EDUCATION.              135
the good was felt: but this principle contained also a
stimulating power to excite reaction. Men, highly
and thoroughly cultivated by the classic spirit, soon
stood forth, prominent and illustrious, in England,
although in the colleges the ancient pedantry still
practised its antics. In other countries, also, sound
philologists arose. Germany especially now became
the great arena for the enactment of all sorts of literary and pedagogic manceuvres. German industry,
combined with great susceptibility of culture' and
depth of feeling, did indeed possess itself of all the
treasures of foreign culture; but it strayed also too
far into the stern asperities of controversy respecting
matters unworthy of serious consideration, and neglected too much that Socratic irony, which should
always distinguish the more eminent scholars.
In the past arrangements of the Church and the
scholastic system, the mind had gained too little in
true piety, although efforts had not been wanting in
this respect, also, to improve the schools. While the
theologians were addicted to controversy, religious
instruction was, for the most part, left to unlettered
schoolmasters, or treated by clergymen in a lifeless
or even controversial manner. It was high time that
something should be done on all hands for education
in this most important concern. And now, in the providence of God, two men appeared, the one a Protestant, the other a Catholic, in whom the spirit of the
Gospel was alive and operative, and whose names are
illustrious in the history of education.
The first was Philip J. Spener, born at Rappoltsweiler, in the Alsace, in 1635. He was distinguished from his early youth, not only for his ardent love
of knowledge, but for his fervent piety. Having finished his academic studies, and spent some time in
travel, he became preacher and doctor of theology at
Strasburg, and soon after, in 1666, he accepted a call
as Senior, to Frankfurt on the Mayne, where his
kindly but vigorous activity produced great effects.
He contended against the prevailing spirit of contro



136         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
versy, and by his mild but energetic labours effected
an extensive revival of evangelical religion in Germany. Denounced as a mystic, he persevered in his
course, and became the founder, by his example and
through his writings, of the German system of catechetical instruction. His influence for good was great
and deep. He died in the triumphs of Christian faith,
in 17X05, at Berlin.
The other benefactor of his race was the celebrated Francois Salignac de la Motte Fenelon, born 1651,
at Perigord. He was a man whose extraordinary excellence of character extorted admiration even from
the infidel Voltaire. His little pedagogic work, De
l'Education des Filles, induced Louis XIV. to appoint
him tutor to his three princes. For their benefit he
wrote the universally known work entitled Telemaque. Though this eventually brought him into
disgrace at coiirt, and exiled him to his diocese, he
was in no wise'disturbed, but pursued, through good
and through evil report, the even tenour of his benevolent, his truly Christian life, and died at the age of
sixty-three years. His two pedagogic works still continue to exert a healthful influence.
But the most important attempt to supply a want
universally felt, by the establishment of a truly Christian school, was now at hand, and two men arose
whose efforts in behalf of Christian education deserve our most grateful acknowledgments.
1. Augustus Hermann Franke, born 1663, at Lubec,
was distinguished at an early age for deep piety and
a vigorous spirit of enterprise. By his zealous efforts
to promote vital piety, he accomplished much good in
various places as a preacher of the Gospel, made
many friends, and raised up troops of enemies.
After preaching some time at Erfurt, he accepted
an invitation to the newly-founded university of Halle
as preacher, and professor of the Greek and Oriental
languages, and afterward of theology.
The religious influence which he exerted in this
place was productive of deep and abiding results.
But the great work which he accomplished here was




MODERN EDUCATION.               1 37
the establishment of the far-famed asylum and school
for orphans, which he succeeded in erecting, amid
innumerable difficulties. Yet, notwithstanding he often lacked means, which were as often providentially
supplied, the work went forward rapidly: the foundations were laid in 1698, and as early as 1700 the large
building was already occupied. The establishment
consisted of a number of connected institutions, not
only for orphan boys and girls, but for poor students:
the paedagogium regium; a seminary for teachers and
educators; a collegium orientale; one of the most
extensive book and printing establishments, an apothecary's office, and other benevolent and highly useful
institutions, all founded, sustained, and more and more
perfected by this one man.  The institution soon
numbered among its beneficiaries two hundred orphans: sometimes nearly two thousand pupils received instruction here at a time: in the higher schools
alone there were sometimes five hundred students
and one hundred teachers, who here trained themselves for the business of instruction. Franke died
in 1727, aged sixty-four, and his institution continued, after his death, to flourish amid frequent storms.
But the spirit which had directed its affairs at the beginning, departed with subsequent developments of
the age. However great and beneficial had been the
influence of Franke and of his institution, which was
the first orphan asylum in Germany, and in which education was treated on a truly Christian plan, though in
a manner too contracted and one-sided, neither the
culture of youth nor the cultivation of piety continued to advance and prosper to the extent desired by
the wise and good; and a desire universally prevailed
that good schools might be established, that education
migrht be brought into fit connexion with instruction, and
that thus religious culture might be brought into closei
union with the scientific and classic culture of youth. If
this was the object which Franke had aimed at, it
was, to a far greater extent, attained by the distinguished personage of whom we are now to speak.
2. The idea of a culture of man proceeding fromi a




138         HISTOnRY OF EDUCATION.
religious centre, or of education on a Christian basis,
was first distinctly seized upon by a man of Franke's
school, who, with a profound apprehension of the distinctive peculiarities of Christianity, sought to develop and realize this idea with greater consistency.
This man was Count Nicholas L. de Zinzendorf, who
had received his school-education in Franke's paeda
gogium regium at Halle, and whose mind was so
deeply affected and penetrated by the Christian spirit
that prevailed there, that he conceived, with striking
clearness, his great idea, and, thiough the energy of
his character, and the wealth which he possessed,
succeeded to admiration in giving it a real and tangible existence. He founded at Herrnhuth, in Saxony,
the religious society known as the Church of the
United, or Moravian Brethren, which soon sent out
branches, not only throughout Germany, but to the
remotest parts of the world. And thus the spirit of
vital piety was once again revived, and various edifying developments were witnessed in different places.
Zinzendorf's idea was, a sodality, or association of
like-minded Christians, which, even in their external
organization and arrangements, should fully express
the spirit of their faith; a Protestant-Christian Pythagoraeism, far more elevated and pure than the monastic institutions of earlier times, and exhibiting, in
every respect, its great superiority to the institutions
of the Jesuits; for the Brethren's Church tended
more to the inward life, to the repose of the soul, and
to external tranquillity, and thus came but little into
collision with the state; while the Jesuits aimed at
an external life of their religious society, which
brought even states into peril. Education in the
Brethren's Church was more complete, because it
took up and treated the child from its earliest existence, and embraced also the family relation: the culture of the Jesuits, so far as it was good, was purely
scholastic; in other respects, political, moral, and religious, their influence was evil, and tended to evil.
The institutions of education at Barby, Neuwied,
Niesky, Hennersdorf, Montmirail, &c., manifest this




THE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.                  139
spirit to the present day, and a number of the most
distinguished men in Germany, among whom are
some celebrated philosophers, owe to these institu
tions their earlier culture.* The pedagogic principles
and arrangements, notwithstanding their general excellence, could not deny their one-sidedness, and
have, through the influence of the later pedagogics,
undergone various improvements. The great principle of this system is, to' make Christianity, in its
most definite and positive form, that of true inward
piety, the principle of education, as well as of the
whole life. Both the negative and positive arrangemernts adopted for the attainment of this object, and
the general discipline of these institutions, have, in
the main, been well adapted to the end in view; and
although the general character of these institutions
has doubtless undergone considerable changes with
the alterations in the spirit of the times, they must
still be ranked among the best and most efficient,
both as regards scholastic instruction and general
education, that modern times have produced.
These, then, were the attempts at improving education from a decidedly religious point of influence and
operation. But the spirit of the age pressed forward
more strenuously in a different direction, and thus
arose the new pedagogics.
SECTION VI.
THE NEW PEDAGOGICS.
THUS men sought and hoped for improvements, and
had dim and remote views of what was wanting; various good things were brought to light, but still the
right thing was not yet found. The school of Halle
and the Moravian Church had opened up a new path
for the culture of youth; but here also there were de* The Moravians have similar institutions in this country: a boardingschool for boys at Nazareth, and female boarding-schools at Bethlehem and
at Litiz, in Pennsylvania, and another at Salem, in North Carolina. The
first two were established about the middle of the last century. These
schools have a deservedly high reputation, and are in a flourishing condition.




140        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
vious movements, and the great goal was yet far from
being distinctly in sight. But the demands of the age
were pressing, not only for improvements in the narrow circle of existing schools, but for efficient institutions for the education and culture of the people at
large. The defects in the prevailing state of things
were many and great, and were, by many, deeply felt.
Religion especially was too much a matter of mere
doctrinal belief and of lifeless forms, as though Christianity were not designed to influence andmould the
whole life of man, and to manifest its divine power to
sanctify, in all his relations and circumstances. Theological controversies were the order of the day; and
so deficient were the great majority of schools, wiether high or low; so little, in general, were the instruction and example of teachers in accordance with the
precepts, the spirit, the great design of the Gospel,
that the earnest complaints of wise and good men
were growing louder and louder. Among these was
that eminent man of God, Spener. From among his
many bitter lamentations we select only the following
passage: "Must we not be surprised that nearly all
the industry of the schools is bestowed upon Latium,
so that little is left for Hellas, and scarcely any at all
for Judea? I will not farther speak of the other defects of the schools, which they have in common with
the other modes of life, inasmuch as the vicious desires, which gain strength with age, break forth more
and more in impudence and other unseemly manifestations, and yet are not restrained with becoming zeal
and with pious wisdom; for the more there are in the
schools, all being creatures depraved by nature, the
more prosperously, or, rather, unprosperously does
wickedness thrive and increase, the profligacy of the
one supplying what is lacking to the impudence of the
other; if not by great wisdom, which, indeed, is more
than human, and must be sought of God, the tender,
and, therefore, yet docile minds are led from this corruption of the age to real virtue and piety. But since,
for this purpose, the holy example of the teachers is
necessary, it is obvious to every judicious person




TIE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.            141
what mischief must accrue to the public good from
the circumstance, that among those who teach in the
schools numbers are found who do not at all know
what it is to be a Christian, and who are, therefore,
still less Christians themselves, and hence totally
unfit for the wholesome performance of the duties of
their office; and, lastly, whereas, in domestic education, the boys are chiefly urged to do what is required
of them by stimulating their desire of praise and distinction, whereby they are. at the same time, filled
with the unhappy seeds of ambition, it grieves me
that the same procedure is continued in the schools.
Such being the case, it is but too true that young men
often leave the schools quite unlearned, inasmuch as
God withholds his blessing from the industry of those
who prefer all other things to him: intimate indeed,
to a considerable extent, with other departments of
knowledge, yet not with those which they will always
need, but without knowing God, while, on the other
hand, they are immersed in the love of the world and
in the desire to please it; wise in their own conceits,
but, alas! the more unfit for the divine wisdom. What,
then, do the efforts of the professors benefit their hearers, except that they fill their brains with what I am
fain to call a theological philosophy, or a human expertness in holy things, while their hearts are empty
of all true heavenly knowledge! And it is a fact that,
at this present time, the youth bring away from the
majority of schools more that is heathenish than of
what is Christian, so that the fears of the far-seeing
Erasmus are but in too high a degree fulfilled, inasmuch as he somewhere declares that his pleasure at
witnessing the progress of certain studies in his day
was considerably diminished by the apprehension that
gradually much heathenism would insinuate itself in
the minds," &c.
By many other voices complaints had been raised
respecting the corruption of the clergy, the schools,
and the universities. A reform was needed, and this
want was deeply felt. The mind, liberated from its
bondage, had in education, as well as in other matters,




*42         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
adopted partial views, and employed itself with one.
sided developments. Men began to perceive that it
was necessary to bring the schools into due connexion with the concerns of life; but the right way had
not yet been found of carrying out the culture of
youth from this only true starting-point. From this
point proceeded two divergent courses of education:
the one advocating the farther development, on improved methods, of the principle of culture hitherto
recognised; the other aiming at the complete adoption of the new principle, which had, for some time
past, been brought into action. Both these directions
soon became still more divergent; the former, indeed, dividing into two distinct branches, which, howaver, at no time diverged as much from each other as
the latter did from both these; and thus there soon
arose, one after another, three principal systems in
respect of schools and education. The first proceeded from piety, which had been extensively revived
through the restoration to the Gospel of its influence
upon mankind; the second proceeded, in like manner,
from the revived study of the classics; the third
adopted the new encyclopedism as its basis. It has
been usual to denominate the first the Pietistic, the
second the Humanistic system of pedagogics; by
analogy, and without intending any severe reflection,
the third will be here styled the Egotistic system. A
fourth might yet be adopted, namely, the Eclectic;
but this is not, in reality, a system: it is rather the
mode of thinking of those teachers who do not approve of the sharply-drawn distinctions of one-sidedness, but reserve to themselves an unbiased judgment,
and, while they connect themselves with no particular
party, recognise that which is good in each. But such
Eclectics, so-called, who indiscriminately adopt whatsoever, upon a superficial view, appears valuable, do
not at all deserve a place here.
A new epoch usually derives its form and character
from the circumstance that a number, be it greater
or less, of energetic men hold to one and the same
views or opinions, and are brought, more or less, into
contact in life. Such friends generally impress, in a




THE NEW PEDAGOGICS.'143
certain sense, their character upon the new generation.- And thus it was here, when, at the beginning
of the eighteenth century, the business of education
assumed a new form at Halle, and the existing generation proceeded in carrying out the principles of this
school. The succeeding generation inclined more to
the second system; and with the third generation,
the third pedagogic system acquired a sort of predominance. Thus the three systems succeeded each other: first, the Frankean, usually called the Pietistic,
from about 1700 till after 1730; then came the Humanistic system of the philologists, continuing until
about 1770; and, lastly, the Egotistic system, or
the pedagogics of the philanthropists, originating
with Rousseau, and extending into the nineteenth
century. It must, however, be observed, that these
systems are not to be too sharply distinguished from
each other, either as regards time or the mode of their
manifestation. They existed, for a long time, side by
side, in decided opposition to each other in respect of
a few prominent doctrines, and scarcely has any one
of them yet reached its utmost point of development.
We proceed now to consider them separately in their
chronological succession.
1. The Pedagogics of Piety.
The founder of this system is Augustas Hermann
Franke, although we must not overlook the influence
of his teacher and friend, Spener, in the same direction. Franke's principles are most clearly exhibited
in his own useful life; but he has also, here and there,
expressed them in his writings. They may be summed up as follows. Christian piety is the foundation
and aim of education; without it, all knowledge is
more detrimental than useful. In every child there
is evil, and we are therefore to begin by watching
against it and counteracting it, especially in view of
certain prominent defects that are peculiar to this age
of human life; but, in so doing, it is necessary to
have regard to the natural disposition of each child,
and not to combat minor defects in such a manner as
Lo give rise to greater ones.




144         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
External points of culture must also be attended to.
Whatsoever may be the future destination of the
child, he is to be habituated, from an early age, to
prayer, to self-examination, to self-knowledge, and to
piety. Religious instruction is therefore, at all times,
the chief concern; but it must be practical, and therefore accompanied with devotional exercises. The
young should be left, as little as possible, without supervision; but far from all educational institutions be
monastic discipline: the whole course of education
must be paternal: love must reign, yet combined with
due rigour; the rod should be used as little as possible, but kept in view, in terrorem. Those who are
intended for the ordinary pursuits of life should be
instructed in the practical matters connected with
them, but those who are designed for some learned
profession should only incidentally practise them,
for to them the Latin and the Greek languages are the
chief concern. In the higher classes they should
also study logic and rhetoric.
The Latin language must be studied with grammati.cal accuracy, but practised also in conversation. A
selection should be made from the classics, that nothing immoral may be presented to the pupil. For
the study of the Greek language, the New Testament
is chiefly to be used, as every student ought to read
it in the original. The teachers are to exercise strict
supervision over every pupil, and to prepare, previously to each examination, i. e., every three months, judicia respecting pietatem, studia, affectus, mores et
constitutionem corporis, which are afterward to'be
entered in a book, in order that each pupil may be
treated according as his case may require.
In order to give efficiency to this system, a variety
of well-adapted arrangements were adopted, which
our limits will not allow us to recapitulate. Among
other important improvements, Franke made excellent provisions for the external accommodation of the
pupils, for an adequate supply of books, and for the
other apparatuses of schools, which had before been
scarcely thought of.




THE NEW PEDAGOGICS.            145'Illn this plan of education, we still find the two
first-named systems, to a considerable extent, united;
but the point where they separate is also clearly
discernible. Even the third and later principal educational direction was, in some measure, founded in
this system. But Franke's spirit and practical genius
still embraced the whole; and, though he treated the
element of piety as paramount, he accorded to the
others their due weight. His disciples and successors became more and more deficient in this spirit,
however excellent they were in character and zealous
to do good. The best things among mnen are subject to
perversion and abuse; and thus the good cause of piety suffered from the one-sidedness, and the injudicious methods and contracted views of its friends.
The neglect of classical culture, particularly of the
Grecian literature, and thus, also, of taste; an as
sumed appearance of sanctity, excessively multiplied
devotional exercises, which, in the absence of true
piety, produced either hypocrisy or disgust, and Phariseeism, even among the better pupils; secret vices, and intellectual shallowness-these constituted
the morass into which this course of education led;
whereas, seeing that it proceeded from the right principle, it might, if it had been judiciously organized
and wisely carried out, have led to the happiest results. None of the teachers of this school can be
altogether exonerated from mistaken management,
though it would be doing injustice to each of them if
we refused to acknowledge the peculiar excellences
which characterized the'labours of each in the development of this system.
Among the many and deservedly distinguished authors who proceeded from this school, and who produced a great number of valuable schoolbooks, embracing new editions of the classics, Latin and Greek
grammars, &c., Joachim Lange is particularly celebrated. We have not space to mention more of these
men, of whom but few were, to any extent, affected
by the errors of the system, and whose labours in beIA




146         HIsTORY OF EDUCATION.
half of education are deserving of grateful acknowledgment.
2. The Pedagogics of the Humanists.
The Italian and Flemish school of pedagogics, as
we have seen on previous pages, looked upon the
study of the classics as the principal source of culture, and since then the literature of the Greeks and
Romans has been studied as constituting the humaniora (the humanities), i. e., the principal means for
the true culture of man. Even the Frankean school
at Halle laid great stress on this so-called humanistic
pedagogics. So long, however, as this school cultivated classical studies only in connexion with what
is called the pietistic education, the pedagogics of
the humanists did not urge its pretensions in all their
rigour. The professors of philology at the universities
of Wittenberg and Leipsic, from Melanchthon down
to Mosellanus, had given great prominence to this
study; and in Franke's time, a professorship and a
seminary of the humaniora (the humanities) was
also established at the University of Halle. Of this
institution, the first teacher and superintendent was
the celebrated pedagogist, C. Cellarius (born 1638,
died 1707), who has particularly distinguished himself by his schoolbooks. He founded at Halle the
Seminarium Doctrinme Elegantioris.
A still more distinguished promoter of classical
studies was J. M. Gesner: born 1691, died 1761.
From the rectorship of the Thomas-school at Leipsic,
he was, in 1734, called to the new university at Gottingen as the first professor of ancient literature.
Here he immediately established the philological seminary, which soon became very flourishing, and was
instrumental, under Gesner's great successor, Heyne
(born 1729, died 1812), in educating a number of highly distinguished philologists: it continues to flourish
under the direction of eminent scholars. Gesner,
who rather inclined to the encyclopedism, and desired to see the study of the ancients brought into connexion with the acquisition of the useful knowledge




THE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.            147
of later times, is not to be ranked among those who
are, in the strictest sense, called humanists. To this
school belonged, more decidedly, J. A. Ernesti, born
1707, died 1781; who taught at Leipsic, and distinguished himself as a Ciceronian Latinist, as his
schoolbooks still show. In 1759 he became professor of theology, but remained faithful to his humanistic views. In 1784, a philological seminary was also
founded in Leipsic by Chr. D. Beck, which continues
to flourish under the direction of Hermann.
We have remarked the establishment of the Seminarium Doctrinae Elegantioris at Halle by Cellarius;
but another seminary of the latter kind was now established in that city by G. G. Schiitz, born 1747,
who, although a humanist, inclined to the so-called
philanthropism.  When he removed from Halle to
Jena, Trapp succeeded him as first professor of pedagogics; but soon after, Fr. A. Wolf, born 1750, died
1825, became his successor at the philological seminary. This profoundly learned humanist united in
himself the multiform culture of his age, educated
many distinguished philologists, and contributed greatly to deliver the humanistic pedagogics from its onesidedness. And since then the new epoch has commenced.
3. The Pedagogics of the Philanthlropists.
In proportion as education was more diffused among
the mass of the people, the more was it drawn into
the service of common life, and the more was it
aimed at to educate children for its affairs. Thbis
tendency soon became the prevailing spirit of the
age, which developed the egotistic system of education. The polymathy, which had, since the restoration of the sciences, been the hobby of the learned,
was now about to appear as a rage for much knowledge, among all classes of society; the past simplicity was lost in a multiplicity of pedagogic subjects;
the ties which bound man to society, as a whole,
were regarded as oppressive chains; and while societv was, as it were, resolving itself into atoms, the




148        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
individual claimed to be independent as such; and this
chemical tendency of the spirit of the age was too
agreeable to egotism, that it should not have welcomed
the regard which was manifested for the pupil's self.
Those who saw only what was good in this development, found in it, from want of penetrating sagacity,
the true enlightenment, and regarded the prevailing
zeal to educate the young in accordance with it as
that true philanthropy, which, as they weened, had
long been a stranger on earth. Thus it was this
spirit of the age which procured for the eighteenth
century, in its latter half, the name of the philosophical, and in respect of education, the philanthropic.
If the strict sense of these terms be not insisted
upon, we may, in our turn, safely venture to designate this period as the egotistic.
This period began to develop itself with the efforts
to devise new methods, of which we have spoken, and
with the commencement of the new encyclopedism.
Bacon, Ratich, Comenius, and Locke introduced the
better aspects of this period. So far from indulging
in lamentations at this tendency, we must recognise
in it a necessary and profitable point of transition in
the progress of pedagogic science towards the right
culture of man. But the more to be lamented is that
degeneracy of the Protestant clergy in Europe, respecting which, as we have seen, good men bitterly
complained; for it was in this emergency that the
Gospel ought to have been set forth in all its power,
in order to counteract the invading egotism: then
would the school and the Church have truly gained,
and that directly through that public enlightenment
which such men as Thomasius had sought to promote,
with respect, to important relations of human life.
But now the clergy had to suffer for having neglected
the true culture of the mind and heart, and it was, in
a great degree, their own fault that men looked with
suspicious eyes on ecclesiastical organizations; but
the people, also, and the rising generation, were, to a
great extent, defrauded of that better culture, which,
under more favourable auspices, would have appear




THE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.           149
ed, and what might have been gain turned out to b6
loss.
The schoolmen had been no less culpable in giving
themselves up to pedantry, for vanity has at all times
been more pernicious in its influence on the learned
class than is generally supposed; and this we learn
from the history of the men who belonged to it, and
from the very confessions of the wiser among them.
As long as the so-called spirit of caste was cherished
by this class of society, pride prevailed among its
members; but when the higher studies more and more
became common property, everybody began to set up
claims to polymathy; and from this union of vanity
and pride proceeded the pedants, first in the humanistic department, then in the useful sciences, and so
on to the newest airs of pedagogues and college-students. It is obvious that such a spirit could not give
to youth the culture that was so much needed, and
that it necessarily spoiled much of the good that had
been gained. The pedagogic systems which belong
to this category originated more immediately in the
principles of Montaigne and Locke. The first who developed from these a system was Rousseau; next
followed that of Basedow; and lastly, occupying higher ground, that of Pestalozzi.
A.
Jean Jacques Rousseau, born 1712 at Geneva, expressed with much genius, and in an elegant form,
those principles of the modern pedagogics. We shall
not follow him through his erratic and eventful life.
With some few points which we may admire, it presents, on the whole, a vile and often disgusting spectacle. His writings produced an astonishing effect on the
public mind, and had, perhaps, no inconsiderable influence in bringing about the French Revolution. In
1762 appeared his celebrated pedagogic work, with
which we are here more particularly concerned, entitled " Emile, ou de l'Education." This work bears a
deep impress of its author's character, which the uninformed reader will find depicted in Musset-Pathay's




150             HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
" Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvrages de Jean Jacques
Rousseau."
We deem it unnecessary to exhibit Rousseau's pedagogic views in detail; the more so, because his general principles were more completely reduced to system by men of whom we shallhereafter speak, and who
were guided by other, and higher, and purer principles
than this unhappy man. Many of his rules that are truly valuable are imbodied in the forenamed work. His
rules for the physical treatment of children correspond, on the whole, with those of Locke. He regards man from a false; a low, worldly, utilitarian
point of view; and while he gives many excellent
rules for the physical and intellectual education, and
the general worldly culture of man, he abounds in glaring absurdities; and to him are chiefly to be traced
the grovelling tendencies which have manifested themselves in modern pedagogics. He utterly repudiates
religious instruction for the young as absurd. But,
as he had not himself aiy knowledge of the great God
of the Bible, and would none of the religion of the
New Testament, of whose character he had, certainly, not the remotest conception, he is not entitled to a
judgment in the premises, and his assertions are
worth nothing, for he knew not whereof he testified.
In announcing these views, he seems to have been, in
some measure, actuated by a spirit of hostility against
Locke, between whose educational opinions and his
own there are strong points of resemblance, but no
less obvious ones of difference, especially on the subject of religious education.*
* In farther confirmation of the views expressed above, we append the
following note from p. 50 of " The School and the Schoolmaster," a work
which we most cordially recommend to all who take an interest in the progress of education in our country. " This," the Emile, " may be regarded,
says a late writer, as the principal work of Rousseau. It is a moral ronance, which appeared in 1762, and treats chiefly of education. The plan
of instruction which it inculcates is to allow the youthful mind to unfold
itself without restraint, and rather to protect it against bad impressions
than to attempt to load it with positive instruction. The objects of nature
Are to be gradually presented to it. Necessity alone is to regulate and restrain it, till reason, unfettered by prejudice and previous habits, is able tc
weave the drapery in which it is afterward to be swathed. The child of reason, thus thrown into a mass of-humanl beings, actuated by different mot;ves,




TIHE NEW PEDAGOGICS.                    151
Even before 1770, the doctrines of these two men
had been completely domesticated in Germany, where,
however, the new spirit of culture had already manifested its activity under a somewhat different aspect. New institutions, of various descriptions, had
been everywhere established, and domestic education
had experienced considerable changes. It was constantly the subject of thought and inquiry how  the
young might be educated to be well-informed, enlightened, and good men and women; but the mode
of procedure was still too one-sided. It was agreed
that classical studies ought to be pursued according
to a better method, but that method was not so easily
found; that these studies constituted the principal element of higher culture was asserted by a numerous
party, but this was denied by many who made the
highest pretensions to taste. Disputes arose, and the
schools underwent many metamorphoses.
B.
And now it was that a celebrated man, John Bernhard Basedow, born in 1723 at Hamburg, took his
seat on the oracular tripod. Having experienced
various reverses, and even persecutions on account
of his theological opinions, he devoted himself more
and more to pedagogics; and the enthusiasm with
which he contended against the defects of the prevailing methods, as well as the universal and deeplyseated desire of a reform in the schools, procured
him the favour and patronage of noble and actively
benevolent men.   He published  in  1768 a remonguided by different principles, and pursuing different objects from itself, like
a skilfully-constructed bark without its rudder, and stripped of its canvass
and cordage, can have no other fate than that of being dashed against the
cliffs, or sunk beneath the waves. In discussing the subject of religious ed
ucation, he exhibited the same inconsistency and absurd views. The
French savants were displeased with his glowing sentiments of piety,with his
impassioned admiration of the morality of the Gospel, and of the character
of its Founder; while the friends of religion and social order were shocked
with his attacks upon miracles and prophecy, with his insidious and open
objections to Christianity, and with the application of human reason to subjects beyond its sphere and above its power. The French Parliament not
only condemned the Emile, but compelled Rousseau to retile precipitately
from France, by commencing a criminal prosecution against him."




152         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
strance addressed to philanthropists, in which he
earnestly sought to direct attention to the neglected
claims of education. Soon after appeared his celebrated elementary work, and lastly, his book of Methods for the fathers and mothers of families and nations.
In 1771, the venerable Duke of Dessau furnished him
both buildings and money for the establishment of a
new institution, which Basedow opened in 1774, under
the high-sounding title of Philanthropinum. But had
not his prince had sounder and clearer views than
himself, and watched, with parental care, over the institution, which at the very beginning suffered a severe blow through Basedow's listlessness and want of
skill, it never would have achieved the good which in
the end it did accomplish, chiefly through the wise
exertions of the excellent duke. The eyes of all
were anxiously directed towards this new institution,
and the first public examination produced an exceedingly favourable impression.
But Basedow was in no respect the man to continue, with success, the experiment which had thus
far succeeded, notwithstanding the striking defects of
his character. His assistant, Wolke, contributed most
to the establishment of the new institution; he was
aided by a number of young men, who afterward
ranked among the most eminent pedagogists of Germany: among these, Campe and Salzmann are the
most celebrated. Basedow soon left his institution,
which had no reason to mourn his loss. He died,
1790, in poverty, more to be pitied than blamed, for he
had good intentions and benevolent purposes, and
showed great activity in reducing them to practice;
bu; his temper was violent, his own education defective, and his abilities were inadequate to the work
which he had undertaken. His pedagogic idea is expressed in the following sentences:
" The culture of the understanding is the chief thing,
for even the way to the heart is through the head.
The cultivation of the memory is apt to induce stupidity. Religion is communicated by means of enlightened instruction, and moral character is produced




THE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.           153
by simple instruction in morals. Languages are to be
studied only in subserviency to practical studies; and
things serviceable to culture are not supersensuous,
but consist in the commonest concerns of daily life.
These useful matters are the chief subjects of instruction. The process of learning must always proceed from the observation of sensuous objects: it
should be made as easy as possible, and children
should learn only when they please, and in an entertaining manner. Attention must be paid to physical
health and strength. In accordance with these principles, all schools should be regulated; and they
ought, in general, to be, more than they are, institutions of education. Such an institution will rather
educate man, as such, than the citizen or scholar; for
the general interests of man are more important than
those of particular callings. Until the fifteenth year
the boy should be educated only as a citizen of the
world. Man is by nature good! and God, as the father of all,.loves all. Children naturally love men,
and must, therefore, be educated to be philanthropists
and cosmopolites. Such an institution deserves the
name of Philanthropinum: with its encyclopedism of
instruction, it will bring on the Golden Age."
According to these principles, absurd and mischievous as the most of them are, Basedow had drawn up
his elementary work for schools, and laid down the
rules for instruction in his book of Methods. Those
who are acquainted with the writings of Montaigne,
Bacon, Comenius, Locke, and Rousseau, can find little
or nothing that is instructive in these works. Basedow
stood, indeed, on the shoulders of these men, and the
views to which they had given currency he knew well
how to beat out into tinsel; but he possessed neither
their genius, nor a profound acquaintance with their
works.
C.
Far more successful, and deservedly so, than Basedow, was Christopher G. Salzmann, born 1744 at
Sbinmerda, near Erfurt: a man of great learning,




154        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
sound judgment, correct feeling, pure taste, and deep
piety, and one of the best teachers of his age. He
laboured for some time at the Philanthropinum at
Dessau (Basedow's), to which he had been invited ir.
1781, and where his labours for the religious education of the pupils were greatly blessed. But the
institution of Basedow did not please him: he wished
for a sphere in which he might carry out, independently, his own idea of education, and desired, therefore, to found an institution of his own. An opportunity soon presented itself. A friend made him a
present of a small estate in the neighbourhood of
Gotha, and the reigning duke, Ernest, advanced him
a considerable sum of money for the erection of new
buildings. Salzmann trusted in God, and the work
which he had undertaken advanced and flourished
more and more from  day to day.  "I had commenced it," he writes, "in order to be able here to
give children a good education, and, as yet, no father
has had sufficient confidence in me to intrust to me
his child." But soon pupils flocked in from every
part of Germany, from Switzerland, England, Portugal, and the northern kingdoms of Europe; and he
soon presided over the largest and most respectable
real institution of education among all that had yet
been undertaken. Six of his assistants became his
sons-in-law: his whole patriarchal family were entirely devoted to the interests of the institution; and
though it suffered severely through the catastrophe
which Napoleon's wars brought upon Germany, it
still flourishes, since the father's death, under the direction of his children, or, perhaps, children's children.
Such permanency proves that the fundamental idea
was good and sound. Simplicity, order, a healthy
mode of life; gymnastics, useful studies, culture of
the understanding; cultivation of a healthful state of
the feelings, of a true love of nature, and of sincere
piety; vigilance against any unchaste manifestations;
the regular division of the day between bodily and intellectual activity: all this operated together, under




TIIE NEW  PEDAGCOGICS.          155
the influence of parental kindness and care, in so
happy. a manner that the idea of an extended familyeducation has never been more fully realized. This,
indeed, was not yet the idea of a complete education
for boys and young men: it was still burdened by the
one-sidedness of philanthropism.
Educational institutions now increased in number,
and there was no end of the new arrangements that
were tried. The imitations of the Philanthropinum
were the least successful; for these attempts were
now made either with a view to profit alone, or from
a mad zeal for improvements; adventurers and young
enthusiasts embarked in the business of education.
It had become a matter of fashion. One of the better developments was the institution of M. de Rochow, born 1734 at Berlin, died 1800. This worthy
nobleman exerted himself practically for the improvement of the village-schools on his estates, so that
from every part of Germany young teachers were
sent there, in order to study the model of a good
country-school, and of the method of instruction best
adapted to them. He also published a schoolbook
suited to his plan. All this concurred with the universal tendency to disseminate every species of knowledge among all classes of society.
D.
J. Heinrich Pestalozzi, born at Zurich 1746, died
1827; of a patrician family, was, from his sixth year,
left, by the death of his father, to the care of his
mother and of some kind relatives, who gave him a
plain education. He visited the schools at Zurich,
distinguished himself, among other things, in the
study of the Greek language, but forfeited the goodwill of his teacher by translating better than he, a
portion of the Philippica of Demosthenes. This induced him to discontinue his studies, and to retire to
one of his estates, of which he possessed several.
He is, no doubt, to be regarded as having been, in a
great measure, self-educated. In the country he became accainted with the wretchedness that prevailed




156        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
among the people, and undertook to provide for more
than fifty poor children (mendicants), whom he jindertook to instruct in agriculture and in various manufactures. At great cost, and amid contempt and
ridicule, he persevered in his enterprise, which a total
want of funds at length compelled him to abandon;
yet he had the satisfaction of knowing that he had
brought up more than one hundred poor, vagrant children to be useful members of society. In 1776 he returned to Zurich. About this time Iselin was publishing at Basle his periodical, entitled "Ephemeriden
der Menschheit," and Pestalozzi became a frequent
contributor. In 1786 he published his popular romance, Lienhard und Gertrud, which gained him great
celebrity. He now travelled in Germany, where he
acquired the friendship of many distinguished men,
but brought back a very unfavourable opinion of the
schools which he had visited. Soon after his return
he wrote his " Inquiries respecting the Course of Nature in the Culture of the Human Race," on which
work he spent three years.
His desire to engage personally in the work of education soon revived, and he resolved to "become a
schoolmaster." After an unsuccessful attempt at
Stanz, he opened, in 1799, his elementary school at
Burgdorf, in which, though at first only a day-school,
he'soon received a number of boarders. It was the
period of the Swiss Revolution, and, amid many annoyances and difficulties, this excellent man persevered in
his arduous labours until 1806, when he was compelled
to remove to Hofwyl, where the government of Berne
assigned him a commodious building for his school.
Here he associated with himself the celebrated De
Fellenberg: but the connexion did not long continue;
and already, in 1807 (other authorities state these
dates differently), he transferred his institution to the
roomy schloss (castle) at Yverdun. He had, ere this,
again published several books, to wit: "How Gertrude instructs her Children," in 1801; Elementary
Books, in four volumes, 1803-4; some years later
he also edited a periodical. His institution became




THE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.           157
very flourishing, numbering frequently as many as
one hundred and fifty pupils, and, besides, fifty young
persons, who came, often at the expense of their governments, from almost every country of Europe, in
order to study Pestalozzi's method with a view to introduce it at home. At first his assistants were animated by a common spirit, and vigorously co-operated
with their venerable principal; but gradually this good
understanding disappeared, discussions arose, and the
institution declined more and more, while others grew
out of it, as from a common root. Pestalozzi had
spent upon it nearly his whole fortune, and now saw
himself, in his old age, abandoned by those assistants
to whom he had ever been, and still desired to be, a
father. At eighty years of age he still comforted himself with the idea of his youth, to establish a school
for poor children; but even this plan was frustrated;
and having yet experienced the mortification of reading a lampoon directed against himself, he died.
In order to become acquainted with his pedagogic
idea, we must recur to some of the earliest statements
respecting it, which he made in the Ephemeriden der
Mlenschheit, to which we referred above. In this periodical he says, in 1779: " Childlike docility and obedience are not the result and invariable consequence
of a complete education: they must be early, nay,
the first foundations of human culture." And again:
"Faith in God is the source of a peaceful life; a
peaceful life is the source of inward order; inward
order is the source of a well-directed (unverwirrten)
application of our powers; order in the employment
of our faculties is again the source of their expansion
and of their culture for wisdom; and wisdom is the
source of all that is good in man and in human life;
and thus faith in God is the source of all wisdom and
of all blessings, and the path of nature to the proper
culture of mankind." The idea here expressed developed itself farther in his own mind, yet the spirit
of the age exerted upon it, in various ways, its modifying influence; and Pestalozzi himself, with whatever clearness he announced his views in " Lienhard




158         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
und Gertrud," seems never to have mastered it completely. While he attached the, highest importance
to the influence of Christianity on education, he was
yet too strongly tinctured with the egotistic views of
his age, in aiming at the elevation of the individual to
independence through an energy unconnected with
the interests of society.
The one-sidedness was soon discovered, but the
good that was involved in his idea. was not sufficiently appreciated.
When Pestalozzi made the true culture of man dependant on his being developed entirely from within,
his meaning was, that the child and the youth should,
in accordance with his natural development, be excitedAto purely independent activity, and strengthened
for an unbroken progress. This is his method. It
achieves, in the first instance, the strengthening of
the mental faculties, in order to their developing themselves progressively from within; and thus the culture of the intellectual powers for the successful performance of their appropriate functions is made the
chief concern of education. And as this development ought to commence in early childhood, Pestalozzi has assigned to the mother the first instruction
of the child; and, in order to aid in the discharge of
this duty, he wrote his "Book for Mothers."
Elementary instruction is, in general, of great importince. It cultivates the power of observation*
and of thinking by means of the three elements,
figure, number, and word. Hence, the doctrines of
form and magnitude belong to the earliest subjects of
instruction, and the square is at the foundation, not
only of intellectual, but even of moral culture, so that
the educator has only to pronounce the (imperative)
word " measure!" For he that observes* angles and
lines correctly, will also learn to discern clearly and
without confusion what is truth and what is error; to
distinguish, with the greatest accuracy, between right
and wrong, and desire only what is true, and right,
* In the second part of this work, this peculiar use of "observe" and'observation" will be found explained.




THE NEW PEDAGOGICS.           159
and good. In the elementary books, teaching the relations of numbers and of magnitudes, the mode of
procedure in the application of this method was fully
described. Religion also was to be developed out of
the child's filial feelings, which manifest themselves
in confidence, gratitude, and obedience towards the
parents; and here also the mother was to be the first
agent, as in her the Deity was, as it were, to appear
to the child.
Here, then, we have a complete, compact whole.
But that, in this system of education, in the so-called
method, the only true culture of man should have
been regarded as discovered, proves how extremely
one-sided was the spirit of the age. The sacred truth
that salvation has come into the world, and that its
power needs only be properly introduced in the hearts
of the young, was too much lost sight of by the inventor of this method, however full of love and of piety
he may himself have been.
Pestalozzi carried the egotistic mode of education
to its utmost height, so that in him it found its culminating point. He was deeply sensible of the egotism
of the age; he desired to educate the individual for society, and we can discover in his labours various tendencies to this end. In him we find the point of transition to the newest educational developments, and he
belongs, in a measure, to that period, which had already commenced in his day. Ratich wished to lead
the world of thoughts and of language, Comenius
that of the senses, into the pupil; Rousseau desired to
conduct him to an ideal world, and Pestalozzi to create one out of him.
And here our history of education, as pertaining
to the past, is, in fact, at an end; for the labours of
Fellenberg, who has been mentioned in connexion
with Pestalozzi, belong rather to the educational developments of a later day. This very excellent man,
Philip E. de Fellenberg, born 1771 at Bern, after his
connexion with Pestalozzi had been dissolved, in consequence of their totally different characters, exerted
himself in different ways for the improvement of ag



160        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
riculture in his native land. At the same time he ac.
complished, what Pestalozzi had attempted without
permanent success, the establishment of an institution of entirely forsaken and destitute children. He
opened, also, an "(Ekonomisches Lehrinstitut" for
instruction in practical matters of life; in connexion
with which, he established, in 1808, a seminary for
children from the higher classes. As this soon became very extensive and flourishing, lie resolved to
devote to it his chief attention, and therefore gave up,
in 1818, the CEkonomisches Lehrinstitut, or agricultural manual-labour school.
We must not omit to notice here the celebrated philosopher J. G. Fichte, born 1762, who, in his " Reden
an die Deutsche Nation," 1808, says many important
things concerning education, but contends that children should all be taken away from their parents to
be -educated in a manner entirely different from that
to which the corrupt generation of that day was competent: of course an utterly impracticable idea, unless educators could have been obtained from some
other world.
The development and growth of this spirit of the
age appears from its extensive pedagogic literature.
The number of writers on education, of authors of
instructive books, and every variety of schoolbooks,
was very great in Germany and in France, but especially in the former country. Besides the works
of authors already spoken of, we may here mention
the Conversations of Madame de Beaumont, and in
Germany, the numerous writings of Campe, as books
very popular and useful in their day, and important,
on account of the countless imitations to which they
have given rise.
Intellectual activity received a new impulse through
the vast multiplication of books, which exerted, also,
an important, in many respects very unfavourable, influence on the culture of youth. There was much
written and much read, and this produced a fondness
for writing and a rage for reading; and both these




TIlE NEW  PEDAGOGICS.          161
effects were prejudicial to that careful industry which
produces classical works, and weakened the attention
of the reader, and thus prevented profitable reading.
Thus writers and readers mutually spoiled each other:
instead of graver studies, ephemeral entertainment
was sought after, and literature became the servant
of amusement and shallowness. The many journals
and so-called literary periodicals which now sprung
up, catered liberally for this depraved taste. And
now came the flood of modern novels and romances,
the great majority of which tend only to produce, in
the young, a morbid sensibility, to fill them with false
notions of life, its affairs and duties,; to give loose
reins to the imagination; to weaken the power of
attention and of observation, and to produce that
general enervation of mind, through much and hasty
reading, of which there has been so much complaint.
Since' about 1780, the number of schoolbooks and
of pedagogic works increased to such an extent, that
a separate work of the history of literature would be
required by this branch alone. Systems mutually
supplanted, absorbed, or flattered each other, and
true Christian education was more and more lost
sight of: to this the spirit of the age did not tend. In
respect of classical studies, though here also there
were clashings and wanderings from one extreme to
another, some better things came to light.
The mass of cloud had refracted the light'of the
rising sun into colours, and one had called forth the
other. The one-sided culture of the heart led on its
opposite, the one-sided culture of the head: and this
proceeded to such extremes, that the colour, which
had seemed the harbinger of enlightenment, only
receded from the light; for this has shone forth, and
will forever shine forth only from the Gospel: and
the union of the refracted rays, through a truly Christian education, had not yet been found. The presumption of that egotism, which was thoroughly cultivated in the school of mere reason and worldly
prudence, constituted a very remarkable point of
transition in the history of the human race. It apN




162         HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
peared in three different metamorphoses, until, like
the night-moth, it burned its wings in the light. It first
came forth in Rousseau's admonition, " For God's
sake, let the rising generation not hear a word about
God!" and, next, in the self-worship of the philosophy of nature, exhorting man himself to become God:
and, lastly, in the thinking faculty, rent loose entirely
from the Eternal, and claiming kindred with the Titans, and saying, "Bring forth everything out of the
idea, out of thyself: the world, the commonwealth,
even the Deity, &c.!" That all this involved the subversion of everything sacred, and of the whole order
of nature, appears from the latest history, civil and
pedagogic, of Europe; yet not without comfort, for
the present state of the schools and the whole system of education exhibit decided tendencies towards
the only right aim.
To this, then, it had to come, when the Christian
cultivating principle was departed from. To this led
the age of Louis XIV. in France, and of Frederic the
Great in Germany; but in France burst forth that
fearful storm, which was averted from Germany by
its.remaining piety and the better elements in the
German national character.
And thus it also appeared that modern culture, destitute of the power of Christianity, was afflicted with
even greater poverty than that of the ancients, who,
in their common public institutions, trained the young
to order and good habits of life.
CONCLUSION.
Prospects for the Complete Realization of the Idea of
Education.
THE inquiries and attempts of the emancipated
mind of man must, in the end, lead to the recognition,
in the fulness of its truth, of that cultivating principle
to which the mind is indebted for its liberty, and to
the unqualified elevation of this principle to the supreme control of all the great concerns of human life.
We trust that we have seen the beginnings of this im



CONCLUSION.                163
portant period even in the preceding; in the labours
of some men who belong both to the former and to
the latter. It remains for us to consider what has already been accomplished towards the attainment of
the desired end, and what are the prospects before us.
In contradistinction from the past period, with its
great errors, its one-sided and mischievous developments, its separation between the school and active
life, or, more distinctly, of school-instruction and of
education, it will be characteristic of the present period, which is to achieve the true freedom of man,
that it will effect a perfect union between instruction
and education, proceeding from the innermost centre
of life.
In Germany, the renovated public life, the beautiful
dreams and hopes which succeeded the seven years'
war (1762), were broken in upon by the whirlwinds Df
the French wars, which harassed Europe during twbnty-five years. This awakening from delusion, even
from the much-admired dreams of the philanthropists,
however dreadful, was necessary. The restless doings of this philanthropism, in institutions and in writings which only deserve to be forgotten, led to nothing; nay, it is doing it too much honour to ascribe
to it all the educational developments of its age. Vulgarity was called culture, sentimentalism was regarded as excellende of character, unruly insubordination
was mistaken for energy, unbelief for enlightenment,
revolutionizing states for liberation from slavery, the
dissolution of family-life for refinement and enjoyment of life.*
Thus everything had become unsettled and loose,
and there was no longer, in education, a counterpoise
to egotism. From it proceeded the principles of education, and the means employed were in its service.
Thus impudence had become natural to the young, and
it was even sometimes regarded as a virtue, and exalted above that of Sparta, or that of any other people or age. It was heightened by the prevailing
* For illustrations of all this, we would refer the reader to Professor Fel
ton's elegant translation of W. Menzel's German Literature.




164        HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
polymathy, and among students by the philosophical
systems; and, of course, licentiousness increased.
But now influences of a better character, tending
more or less towards the improvement of the theory
and practice of pedagogics, and some of which had
been in operation for some time, began to make
themselves more distinctly and extensively felt. The
classic writers of Germany, beginning with Gellert,
but more especially since the days of Iessing, rebuked, by precept and example, the prevailing pedantry, and gave rise to clearer and profounder views
respecting the culture of youth, than all those onesided teachers and polyhistors. And as the necessity
of improvement became more and more deeply felt,
the desire to minister to it grew daily stronger. Even
from the writings of J. P. Miller, born 1725, whose
" Principles of a Wise and Christian art of Education"
is one of the earliest instructive works on pedagogics,
we learn that, during that state of pedagogic anarchy,
men were earnestly striving, throughout Protestant
Germany, to bring about an improved plan of schooleducation. More important and directly to the purpose were the writings of J. M. Ehlers, whose work,
entitled "Thoughts concerning the Requisites necessary to the Improvement of the Schools," appeared as
early as 1766. Thilo's "Thoughts concerning Education" contained many wise and well-timed hints.
And from this time more and more was written
respecting the relations between the school, the
church, and the state, between public and domestic
education, &c., all which writing, if it accomplished
nothing more, kept alive and stimulated the spirit of
inquiry. Many existing errors, in theory and praclice, were exposed and protested against, and sounder
views and better methods gradually fought their way
into public esteem. Among the most important measures must be ranked the establishment of seminaries
for the education of good teachers. In Catholic countries, also, the interest of the clergy and of princes in
behalf of education was revived, and various effectual
steps were taken, and institutions established for its
improvement.




CONCLUSION.               165
Thus, since about the last quarter of the eighteenth
century, the business of education has been vigorously
prosecuted in Germany; the idea of educaiion is graduially pervading it, and has already brought forth in it
divers encouraging developments. The higher institutions of learning and the popular schools, both in
city and in country, give evidence that great progress
has been made.
The European nations of Germanic descent more
immediately participate in this culture; and among
them Denmark, for a considerable time past, and
more recently Holland, which has almost outstripped
Germany in its course of improvement as respects
common schools. It is only of late years that the
business of popular education has experienced a revival in England, and the measures of government, as
well as the influence of public-spirited men, have already effected great and extensive improvements.
The methods of Bell and Lancaster are of importance
only in communities where nothing has as yet been
done for popular education, and where no well-organized and suitable plan for common-school education is
in successful operation.
Sabbath-schools, which existed as early as 1754 in
the Grand-duchy of Baden, first became general in
England through the exertions of Robert Raikes, and
have since proved, both in other countries of Europe
and in our own land, one of the greatest blessings to
society. Since the middle of the eighteenth century,
the attention of men has thus not only been occupied
with the improvement of schools, but diverted more
and more to the true culture of man and the public
education of nations. Among the writers who have,
in quite recent times, done most for the diffusion of
sound principles and the development of good methods, are Niemeyer, the author of a noble work, entitled
"Principles of Education;" Schwarz, the author to
whom we are mainly indebted for the materials of this
history, and numerous extracts introduced in the following system; Harnisch, and Graser.
Institutions of education, of every name and de



1 66      HISTORY OF EDUCATION.
scription, are open to the young in the different countries of Europe, and especially in Germany. One of
the best features of the age is the provision that is
made in some countries for the education of poor children. There are yet, indeed, many errors to be corrected in every department of education; many inconsistencies to b, removed; many absurdities, and
follies, and littlenesses, and vagaries to be rebuked,
and driven from the schools and the firesides; many
prejudices to be conquered; and there remains much
to be developed in theory, and to be rendered efficient
in practice.
And, above all, when we consider the progress of
demoralization and irreligion throughout the civilized
world, let us take heed that we boast not of advancement where there is retrogression, and remember that
" pride cometh before destruction, and a haughty spirit before a fall;" and let all who labour for the improvement of human education take for their motto
that word of unchanging truth, "' the fear of the Lord is
the beginning of wisdom."
In our historic sketch of modern education, our
own country has not been brought into consideration,
for the simple reason that its pedagogic activity and
institutions belong, in reality, entirely to the present
period of that history, and because no peculiar systems have been here promulgated. If we belong
to any school, we must be Eclectics. Our culture is
essentially European, modified, of course, by our political institutions, our peculiar civil and social organization; and, while we are prompt to appropriate
what we consider as good in the pedagogic arrangements, and institutions, and systems of Europe, we
have fallen into many of the errors which, as we have
seen, prevailed, or still prevail, in the Old World.
These errors we have not here space particularly
to discuss; they are referred to, sometimes directly,
but generally by implication, in the second part of this
work.
Yet we must add that our young country deserves
great praise for much that she has independently ac



CONCLUSION.               167
complished in education, and for various good features in the character of her schools. The practical
character of our people is prominently exhibited in
our educational affairs; and improvements in the arrangement and management of schools, in the methods of instruction, in schoolbooks, are the order of
the day. We have scholars among us of whom we
need nowhere be ashamed, and who deserve the highest praise for their efforts to promote an intelligent
and spirited study of the classics in our higher seminaries of learning. In the cultivation of the exact
and the natural sciences, our professors are competing with those of learned Europe. England seems
to be aware of the increasing excellence of our schoolbooks, if we are to judge from the eager but disingenuous manner in which she makes them her own.
But there is too much mere book-learning and too
little education on all hands.
Since these sheets have gone to press, we have received a copy of a new work, entitled " The School
and the Schoolmaster," by Alonzo Potter, D.D., and
George B. Emerson, A.M., about to be published by
Messrs. Harper and Brothers. We hail the appearance
of this work with sincere joy, and cannot but hope
that it will be productive of much good, both in instructing the public mind relative to the ends which
ought to be aimed at in the education of the young,
and in guiding and counselling educators in the appropriate and successful prosecution of their efforts for
the attainment of those ends. The work, differing
materially from the present in its character and design, is decidedly one of the most valuable contributions which our country has yet made to pedagogic
literature. Its chief design seems to be to exhibit the
principles, and to present, in ample detail, a judicious
and well-digested method, according to which our
common schools should be conducted. The authors
have long been known as men of distinguished talent
and learning; and as their work is the result of mature thought, and long experience in the business of
education, it comes before the public with the strong



168       HIISTORY OF EDUCATION.
est claims to their attention. In the first part there
is much able and acute discussion of general principles; and we regret that the work did not appear early enough to admit of our extracting some of the
beautiful and impressive passages in which it abounds.
The second part, while it contains a great amount of
sage counsel and direction for the teacher, will also,
we trust, serve to enlighten trustees and inspectors,
as respects the location, the arrangements, the ventilation, the warming, &c., of schoolhouses, and enable them to proceed with increased intelligence and
prudence in employing instructers. The entire work
is of great practical value, and the public are greatly
indebted to its gifted authors for the time and labour
which they have devoted to its preparation. Other
valuable pedagogic treatises by American writers, referred to in the work above spoken of, are the following: " The Teacher," by Jacob Abbott: " Hall's Lectures:" " Hall's Lectures to Female Teachers:" "The
Teacher Taught," by Emerson Davis: " The Teacher's Manual," by Thomas H. Palmer: " Suggestions
on Education," by Catharine E. Beecher.
We have reason to rejoice at the zeal and energy
with which the Protestant churches of our country
have engaged in the establishment and improvement
of Sabbath-schools. As an omen for good we would
regard the extent to which Christianity is allowed to influence our institutions of education: they are, indeed,
for the most part, monuments of Christian effort for
the improvement of mankind. The presidents of the
great majority of our colleges, and many of their professors, are Christian ministers, who make their influence as Christians felt; and the number of American
authors who have written in the purest Christian spirit, and in a popular and attractive style, on matters
of education, or furnished instructive books for the
young, is cheeringly great, and constantly increasing.
The superior discipline of our colleges to that of similar institutions of Europe is doubtless, in a great
measure, to be ascribed to the Christian principles on
which these institutions have been established. And




CONCLUSION.               169
we merely add, that the future true, healthy, and beneficial development of our system of public education.
which is yet in its infancy, the permanent existence
of our free institutions, and the true greatness, and
progressive culture, and abiding glory of this rising
nation, all depend on this one thing: the religion of
Christ must preside over, direct, and pervade the entire education of the free people of this mighty
realm, otherwise we can but add another to the list
of republics in which public corruption achieved national ruin.
0








PART II
A PLAN OF CULTURE AND INSTRUCTION.
BASED ON CIIRISTIAN PRINCIPRES, AND DESIGNED TO AID IN
THE RIGHT EDUCATION OF YOUTII, PHYSICALLY,
INTELLECTUALLY, AND MORALLY'" A sound mind ill a bealthy body."








PART II.
A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE AND
INSTRUCTION.
Outline of the Work.
PEDAGOGICS is the science which treats of the principles on which man should be educated. And here
the great question presents itself on the threshold,
For what purpose does man live' or, In what does
the value of life consist!
We shall not enter into an ethical or theological
discussion of this great question, but answer it by
simply asserting that the object of human life is the
enjoyment of happiness; and we shall consider human happiness as dependant on the two following
conditions:
I. On the culture of the understanding and the sensibilities. This division will embrace the affections, as
being, indeed, spontaneous in their motions, yet susceptible of development and training in a particular
direction: and we shall here consider man as a
being possessed of mental faculties and instincts,
which are necessarily called into action by the relations and circumstances in which he is placed, and
which require education in order to their becoming
the means of promoting his own happiness and that
of others.
II. On the culture of the moral powers, which coin
prehends religious instruction. Under this head we
shall consider man as a responsible agent, and treat
of the duties which hi;'-'r;,'- relations impose upon
him.
Under our first division, then, we are to present a
plan for the education of the understanding and the
sensibilities. Here we are to consider man from two
different points of view: and, first, Man as an Indi



174    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
vidual. In this respect, his education in the graces
of the mind will be considered. This will involve,
from obvious reasons,
1. Physical education, having in view the proper
development of the body, by negative provision for
health, by bodily exercise, and by regular education
for the true enjoyment of life. Under this head belong, 2. Intellectual culture, which aims at developing the understanding for the perception of truth:
3. _Esthetic education, which aims at the cultivation
of the feelings for the perception and enjoyment of
what is pure and beautiful in the relations of life; and,
4. Practical education, which is designed to develop
the character in general, for the public and active affairs of life.
Under the last division we shall treat of practical
education in general, or education in business-habits
and in the proprieties of life, and of practical education in view of some particular calling. The nature of these is such as obviously to require a theory
of didactics; and this will be presented under two
heads: first, didactics for the learned professions, or
instruction in the sciences; second, didactics for the
popular or common occupations of life. Our second
division regards man as a social being, and treats of
his education in the social affections. This will be
considered under three aspects, as, 1. Education in
the sentiments of private friendship, love, and benevolence in general: 2. As education aiming at the
right development of the sentiment of love in its narrowest sense, i. e., the love of family and kindred:
3. As education in public spirit, having in view a development of the affections in harmony with, and promotive of, the interests of the community. And here
we shall consider man, 1. As a member of the Christian community: 2. As a member of the civil community, or a citizen of the state. In connexion with
the first point, we shall treat of his intellectual, aesthetic, and practical education in view of his Chris
tian relations; and under the second, his education iu
pure and enlightened patriotism.




AND INSTRUCTION.                 175
Under our second general division we shall present
a plan for moral education. And here, again, we shall
consider man, 1. As an individual, under which aspect
we shall treat of his education in what is ordinarily
designated as a sense of honour, or the cultivation of
a proper self-respect: 2. As a social being, which asspect comprehends the cultivation of a sense of justice; a due consideration of the rights of others; or
moral culture, in its narrowest sense: and, 3. As a being subject to Divine government and responsible to
God. This involves the religious education of man,
or the cultivation of the religious sense, under its
three necessary aspects.
General Principles.
By pedagogics we mean a theory of education; a
system of principles for the culture of the understanding, the sensibilities, and the moral powers of the
young. The former department comprehends all that
is denominated learning, or the scientific culture of
the mind: the culture of the moral powers embraces
virtue and piety.
The difference between the theorist in pedagogics
and the practical pedagogue is not to be lost sight of.
The system of pedagogics must embrace every variety of education, and make provision for all its departments, however widely the subjects to be educated and the objects to be attained may differ. As the
theory cannot provide for every possible case, its principles must necessarily be subject to many and various modifications. These are, of course, left to the
judgment and sagacity of the educator.* Highly as
we estimate the value of a theory of education, and
of a systematic digest of its most judicious methods,
we must yet regard both as subordinate to this highest principle, that the judgment and skill of the educator are superior to all prescribed methods.
* This word, which is not actually in use, is frequently employed in this
work in preference to teacher, because the latter word is, in its ordinary
acceptation, of very limited meaning; and because a general term, embracing all engaged in the work of education, is here wanted.




176    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
The value of a theory of pedagogics arises, not so
much from its actually forming future pedagogues, as
from its directing their attention to the various and
difficult duties of the teacher, which are so often sacrificed to self-interest, to the love of ease, and to other improper motives. The educator of youth should
be animated in his employment by pure love to his
race, and by nothing else. He that devotes himself
to the business of education from any other motive
than that of developing his pupil's understanding for
the apprehension and appreciation of all that is excellent and desirable within the compass of human
knowledge, and of cultivating his heart for the love
of virtue, the love of God and man, is destitute of the
spirit that ought to actuate all who would educate the
young: an office second to none that can be intrusted
to the faithfulness of man.
And, in this connexion, we cannot refrain from observing that, though the world may have men of disinterested liberality and benevolence to boast of, it is
vain to expect that any should possess the right spirit
for the duties of education but those who are under
the influence of the high motives and the holy principles of the Christian religion. It is of supreme importance that the teacher should himself eminently
exhibit, in his character and conduct, those attainments and excellences to which he aspires to conduct his pupils; for education can be successful only
when the educator's love of mankind is sustained in
its efforts by the force of his example: and hence
the immense difficulty, we may safely say impossibility, of a perfect education is apparent. Want of
success is more frequently owing to the incompetency or the unfaithfulness of the educator than to the
perverseness of the pupil.
Education has reaped much contempt from the mistakes and failures of those who have professed to be
her servants: but while men are ready to heap censure on public or professed teachers, they are but too
apt to forget that parents are educators no less than
certain individuals who make educati(n their fixed




AND INSTRUCTION.             177
employment; and that it is the former who, by their
all-powerful example, as often, if not in most instances, train up their tender pupils for happiness or misery.
From all this, the great responsibility that rests
upon teachers, and. the importance of their being
thoroughly prepared for their high office, are abundantly obvious. This preparation consists in perfect
self-education. This, indeed, is an ideal, but it is one
whose closest approximation should always be aimed
at. But we repeat, that among all the qualifications
required in one who aspires to be an educator of
youth, pure love to man is the sine qua non.
Education, when it is what it ought to be, embraces
the interests of man, not only in the present, but still
more in the eternal world. It is, hence, the most important of all occupations, and it demands to be recognised as such. However extensively this demand
may be responded to in theory, it is beyond expression deplorable to witness the extent to which the
practice of society is at variance with its professions.
And this is utterly inexcusable; for it is obvious, that
if education were universally what it ought to be
what the doctrines of Scripture require it to be, all
men would become what their Creator has designed
them to be, as far as this destination is attainable in
this world. How little is education understood, and
its importance appreciated! How mistaken is the notion that education consists in what is usually called
a school-education! This is but one department of
the great system, and a limited one indeed. The
world is one vast schoolhouse, in which education,
such as it is, never ceases for a moment. Oh! that
the mighty power of Christianity might control it exclusively, through the influence, not only of the instructiofs, but of the character and example of its
teachers!
Admonitions and counsel are by no means to be despised; but in education, example is omnipotent, and
its importance is therefore paramount.




178    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
DIVISION I.
PHYSICAL AND INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION
SECTION I.
I. THE CULTURE OF THE UNDERSTANDING AND THE
SENSIBILITIES.
CHAPTER I.
Man, in his Individual Capacity, educated in the Graces
of the Mind.
a. WE begin with physical education, or the proper
development of the body: and here we are first to
consider that negative provision for health can be
made in various ways. This subject is one of the utmost importance to parents, and to others intrusted
with the education of children, and a great deal of attention has been given to it by writers on pedagogics.
We would refer particularly to the admirable work of
Schwarz. Apart from its own distinct value, the body
is highly important as the substratum of the mind.
Hence the duty of parents and others to provide negatively for the health of the body, on which the health
of the mind depends.
The unimpaired health of parents is, in general, a
guarantee of healthy offspring. It cannot be too seriously urged upon the attention of mothers, that the
mode of life which they observe, and the tempers and
feelings which they cultivate previous to the birth of
their children, and during their early infancy, has a
great influence, not only on the physical health, but
on the disposition of their offspring.
Great progress can be made during the infancy of
children in the due development of their senses, especially those of sight and hearing. Let the child
look as long as it pleases at every object that at



AND INSTRUCTION.              179
tracts its attention, not passing from one to another
before it has examined one to its satisfaction. Let it
be entertained with agreeable sounds of the human
voice, by talking to it pleasantly, not seriously, but as
much nonsense as you please; and especially by sing.
ing, not loudly and harshly, but softly and sweetly.
Similar rules for the development of the other senses
will suggest themselves to every intelligent mind.
This subject will be discussed at large on a subsequent page.
Infants should be permitted to spend a good deal
of time at the window; and whenever the weather is
suitable, they should be carried about in gardens, or
wherever nature's green abounds.
For the development of gentle and amiable dispositions in the infant, nothing can be more influential
than its being surrounded by cheerful, pleasant faces;
faces not wrinkled and clouded with care, but beaming with joyous love towards the new citizen of the
world. It is important that it should very often see
the father's face lighted up with the smiles of affection,
and hear his voice expressive of joyful emotions; for
if, in its earliest intercourse with human beings, it be
too much confined to the mother or to other females,
an influence on its character will be wanting which
can be supplied only by the manly features and tones
of the father.
In respect to the physical education of the child,
we observe farther, that its food requires the utmost
attention. As regards the quality of the food, care
should be taken that it be neither too strong, nor contain too little nourishment, but that, in all cases, it be
adapted to the age and constitution of the child. On
this point we refer to medical authorities, merely adding, that the practice, which prevails so extensively
in this country, of giving children a large proportion
of animal food, deserves to be condemned as mis.
chievous.
Parents, and others intrusted with the education of
children, should pay special attention to the quantity
of food which they receive. This point is of the ut.




i80     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
most importance, because children are not led by reason, as grown persons often are, nor, like animals, by
instinct, to observe moderation in eating and drinking,
whence they frequently indulge themselves to excess.
It is no less important that they be not suffered to
eat too rapidly. They should be taught, with care, to
masticate their food properly. And it is, in like manner, necessary to guard against their making use, at
one time, of articles that accord ill together, such as
fat food and cold water. As regards the tzme of eating, regularity should be observed. Children may require food more frequently than grown persons, but it
is always best to limit them to certain stated times;
to give them moderate meals in the evening, and not
too shortly before their going to bed; and, in general,
to indulge them but very little in cakes and confections. Plain, nourishing food is best for all stomachs,
especially for young ones.
With respect to the natural discharges, we here
merely observe, that some children are affected with
peculiar infirmities, which require the most careful
and judicious treatment, as these early weaknesses
often become confirmed habits, and induce general,
habitual filthiness. It will be obvious to most of our
readers what infirmity is here more particularly referred to. The manner in which children subject to this
weakness, or, for want of early and suitable management, addicted to a vile but stubborn habit, are generally treated, is highly injudicious. The habit may
arise from sheer laziness; and, when this is ascertained to be the case, let correction be administered.
But it is often a real infirmity, whatever may be its
origin. For such cases, Dr. Graves, professor of the
institutes of medicine in the school of physic, Trinity
College, Dublin, recommends the following treatment.
We quote his language: "A boy, perfectly healthy,
but of a nervous temperament, studious, and extremely
anxious about his lessons, is subject from his infancy
to pass his water under him in bed. He is,.suppose,
arriv ed at the age of six or seven years, and has no
disease; but still this habit sticks to him, and cannot




AND INSTRUCTION.            181
be removed. The irritability of his disposition has
been increased by injudicious correction; he has been
taken up at night and whipped; he has been ridiculed
during the day; his infirmity has been made known
to his companions, who call him nicknames; and in
this way the habit has been rather confirmed than removed.... Now what are you to do. In the first
place, you must remove the boy entirely from all companions of his own age who are acquainted with his
bodily infirmity. In the next place, you must not allow him to be corrected or reproached, and you must
adopt every moral means to diminish general irritability. - The boy should not be too much confined; be
should not be allowed to apply too closely to his lessons; and he should have generous diet, good air,
and sea-bathing. On these general principles I have
cured several very obstinate cases, with the use of infusion of buchu, with tincture of cantharides, in small
doses."-GRAVES'S Clinical Lectures, 2d Am. edit., p.
235.
We merely add, that the above-prescribed medicines should not be meddled with without consulting
a physician.
Cleanliness in every respect can never be too
strongly inculcated, by precept, example, and discipline. Nothing is more important to a healthy state
of the body. Some children seem to have no notion
whatever of cleanliness-no capacity for it. But we
know that in such cases vigilance and unremitted attention can accomplish a great deal, though it may be
necessary, for a long time, daily to direct such children to brush their teeth, to comb their hair, and to
attend to other points connected with a due cleanliness of person.
Bathing is highly to be recommended. Even in
the case of those who are really cleanly in their habits, the accumulation of dust during the winter, to the
obstruction of the pores, renders bathing decidedly
necessary for the preservation and promotion of
health. If practice in swimming can be combined
with it, the acquisition of a valuable art will furnish




182    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
additional inducements to frequent bathing. It is considered most conducive to health not to prolong ba
thing beyond half an hour at a time..
Another point of the utmost importance is the ventilation of rooms. Children should never be suffered
to inhabit ill-ventilated rooms, much less to sleep in
them. In boarding-schools, where many children often live and sleep in one room, this matter should be
carefully, conscientiously attended to. A foul atmosphere is pestiferous to the human system, but especially so to the tender organs of the young. The artificial impregnation of the air with foreign ingredients, by fumigation or otherwise, should be avoided.
It is not only an unnecessary, but a pernicious practice. It is, under all circumstances, best to keep up a
moderate temperature in inhabited rooms. Much that
is valuable on the ventilation of rooms may be found
in the writings of George Combe.
A great deal may be done for the preservation, the
development, and the strengthening of the bodily organs. And here it is of primary importance that perspiration be not in any way, e. g., by too much or too
little clothing, either too much excited or too much
repressed. But the promotion of this necessary excretion by the pores, by means of suitable bodily exercise, is much to be recommended. Tight clothes obstruct the development and prevent the free exercise
of the bodily organs. It is painful to see how often
children are thus cramped, and screwed up in stays
and buckram, in order to gratify the bad taste of
their fashionable parents. Children delight in their
natural freedom, in the use of their limbs, and to make
fools of fashion of them requires much and laborious
effort in training them to habits which are unnatural.
They cannot be taught to prefer fashionable clothing
to such as nature prescribes, except at the expense
of their health and comfort.
The preservation of the teeth, the eyes, and of the
sense of hearing, is a point which calls for the most
vigilant care on the part of parents and teachers, because children are notoriously careless of it them




AND INSTRUCTION.             183
selves. As regards the preservation of the teeth,
children ought not to be suffered to eat or drink anything either too hot or too cold. Hot food or drink
is exceedingly pernicious. The greatest harm, however, is done by rapid transitions from one extreme
to the other.
Children are very apt to injure their eyesight by
having their books at either too great or too small a
distance from the eyes, and by often poring over them
in the gloom of twilight, or when seated too far away
from the candle. On these points they require to be
advised by the experienced. So they will often injure or destroy the sense of hearing by thrusting pins
and other pointed articles into their ears, which practices parents and others should peremptorily prohibit,
and if repeated, punish, instead of setting the evil
example, which they often do.
In general, we may here remark, that it will be well
to make children hardy in their whole mode of life;
for, by so doing, they will be saved a host of ailments
and of imaginary wants in after life. Only avoid extremes; for, while many parents train their children
to effeminacy, others kill them by ill-advised methods
of making them hardy.
Care should be taken that children get an adequate
amount of sleep, and no more. Assuming seven
hours of sleep as sufficient, on an- average, for a
grown person, we may safely set down nine hours
as quite enough for children. Too much sleep interferes with and obstructs the circulation of the blood,
produces enervation and indolence, relaxes the fibres,
and thus occasions many diseases. Infants, on the
other hand, should be suffered to sleep as much as
they please.
Of the utmost importance to the healthy development of the body is the prevention of all unchaste
habits of thought and conduct, and the most assiduous
cultivation of the strictest purity. The writer had
originally discussed the physical aspects of this subject at considerable length, and dwelt extensively on.
the prevention and cure of certain vicious and perni.




184    A PLAN OF YOUTHIFUL CULTURE
cious habits, into which the young are so often, and in
various ways, seduced; but sundry weighty reasons
subsequently induced him, after his work was entirely ready for the press, to suppress this discussion.
He feels bound, however, to urge, in this connexion,
upon parents, and others charged with the education
of the young, the necessity of guarding their tender
offspring or pupils, with the most solicitous vigilance,
against the pollution of unchaste language and conduct; of protecting them from all temptations to fall
into practices and habits which would necessarily degrade and demoralize their minds, and sap the energies of their physical constitution: in short, of adopting every possible means of preserving uncontaminated their purity of soul, and of exciting, whenever the
necessity arises, their utmost abhorrence of all obscene allusions, all impure and lewd language-of all
unchastity, in whatever form it may be exhibited.'
Another point which deserves special attention in
our negative provision for the health of the young.
is to check and prevent all ebullitions of passion, and
use every means for promoting their uninterrupted
cheerfulness. In this connexion we may repeat, that
the games of boys, which furnish incitements to active
exertion, and the best means of recreation, not only
deserve, but require superintendence and wise direc
tion.
Violent affections of the mind, such as fear and anger, jealousy and envy, desire of revenge, as well as
effeminate sensibility, are very prejudicial to health;
while, on the other hand, the influence of the gentler
and more agreeable emotions is decidedly beneficial.
With respect to the proper treatment of the sick,
we only observe, that children should be accustomed
to bear pain with fortitude, and to bear up under indisposition as long as possible. Many parents do all
they can to make children commiserate themselves
whenever an accident befalls them or they are unwell. This absurd practice should be studiously
avoided. It is best to make light ot falls aand other
accidents; turn them into a joke, and the child will




AND INSTRUCTION.             185
laugh at them instead of crying. If the accident be
more serious, it is still better to cheer up the little sufferer than to magnify the evil by lachrymose speeches
of wo-begone condolence. The practice of teaching
children to beat the floor on which they have fallen,
to strike the table against which they have run their
heads, is to be utterly reprobated, as systematic training to the indulgence of vindictive passion.
Boarding-schools must, of necessity, provide a suit
able sick-department, and it is a very important con
cern of their superintendents to obtain the services of
a sensible and faithful matron to take care of the
sick. One who has herself been a mother should always be preferred. The matron should possess sagacity to detect, and firmness to resist all needless intrusion' into the sick-chamber; for while the really ill
should be treated with due tenderness and care, those
who are subject to the camp-fever, i. e., feign sickness in order to get rid of school, should find no encouragement to resort to the sick-department. From
this department all luxurious indulgences should be
carefully banished. Make every provision for the
wants and the comfort of the sick, but furnish no
temptations to those who are well to pretend or imagine that they are sick. To those who are in health,
the sick-department should present no attractions,
lest, by their frequent visits and lounging about, they
waste their own time, and become burdensome to the
sick, while they are themselves beyond the restraints
of supervision.
The following additional remarks on the physical
treatment and education of infants, were communicated, at our request, by an esteemed friend and highly intelligent and successful physician, expressly for
the present work. They give little more than hints on
a subject to which a separate volume might be profitably devoted. We hope they may awaken attention,
and prove effectual in correcting mischievous practices, and induce many to adopt a more judicious
mode of treating their children.
"The present age is prc-elminently distinguished
p




186    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
for the attention which is bestowed upon the moral
and physical training of the young. It is pleasing to
the philanthropist to observe the wise and good of the
civilized world devoting their energies to these important subjects. The laws governing the moral and
physical constitution of infantile existence are thus
brought, more and more fully, to light, and rules of
treatment, in harmony with those laws, are adopted
and practised.
" Our purpose in furnishing the present commune
cation is to treat of a few of the more prominent errors in the physical management of infants. It is
unquestionably true, that from one fourth to one third
of the children, born in the most favoured communities upon earth, are carried off by death before they
reach the period of childhood, or the age of two years,
and from one third to one half before the age of five
years is attained. The bills of mortality, published
annually in Europe as well as in this country, most
fully establish these melancholy facts. Does not a
strong presumption, then, arise from developments of
this nature, that great errors are committed by those
upon whom devolves the care of infantile life l We
discover no similar fatality among the young of the
brute creation, whose structure most nearly resembles
that of man, and which are guided, in the treatment
of their offspring, by an unerring instinct. Man is left
to his boasted prerogative, reason, to guide him in this
momentous business. In order, then, that he may
perform his duty appropriately and successfully, it is
self-evident that he should make himself acquainted
with the elementary principles of that nature, of which
the young being intrusted to his care is a specimen.
We do not mean to assert that a thorough knowledge
of anatomy, physiology, and medicine is necessary to
parents, in order to stay this widespread desolation
of human life; but prejudice and erroneous customs,
having nothing but antiquity to recommend them,
should give place to reason and observation, guided
by experience and the advice of medical men. The
several popular works on these subjects, now accessi



AND INSTRUCTION.             187
ble to every one, and accommodated to the most moderate capacity, should also be consulted.
" Contemplate, for a moment, the condition of the
infant, previous to its being ushered into a state of independent existence. It enjoys a tranquil state of
growth and nutrition, wholly dependant upon a portion of its mother's organism. Those organs which
connect us with the external world are then in a state
of inactivity and repose. The function of respiration
is not yet needed, other organs being provided for effecting the necessary changes in the blood. The digestive organs have not yet been called upon to receive aliment, and to fit it for the uses of the system,
all sustenance being, as yet, elaborated by the parent;
the muscular system has not yet been excited into action, there being no feeling, no intellect, no will to
need or control it.
"But the connexion is severed: how great the
change! what a revolution in the infant's mode of
existence! In a moment it passes from a state of
unconscious repose to life, and light, and action;
from mere vegetative to independent animal exist
ence. A multitude of new and important relations
are established between its tender and delicate organism and the countless objects of external nature. The
current of the circulation finds new channels, and abandons those heretofore the conduits of the vital fluid
The digestive, assimilative, and respiratory functions
hitherto dormant, must now originate their primary
movements. Animal heat, until now furnished by the
parent, must hereafter be elaborated by its own organs. Until this moment guarded by the mother's
sensations, its own nerves must now warn it of impressions made by external objects. How important,
then, that the treatment of the infant should be in harmony with the feeble demands of its constitution, and
adapted to the incipiency of its delicate organism.
How absurd and preposterous to abandon the plain
indications of nature, and to expose the infant to a
regime better suited to adolescence, with a view to
render hardy, to invigorate, and nourish. No wonder




188    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
that the garner of death is filled by so large a pro.
portion of infants not a month old, while many of
those that survive this period eke out a miserable ex
istence of but a few months longer: the vital principle being reduced so low, that teething, or any of the
milder diseases common to infancy, furnish a ready
avenue out of this world, to them peculiarly one of
suffering and distress, short as their career in it may
have been.
" We are persuaded, from extensive opportunities of
observation, and very special attention to this subject,
that deficient clothing, inappropriate food, and improper domestic medical treatment, constitute the
three principal errors in the physical training of infants. We shall, therefore, briefly notice these three
causes of disease and death among children, our limits not admitting of our entering more extensively
into the subject.
" 1. Inadequate protectionfrom cold. The sudden transition from a long-continued and uniform temperature of 980 to one of 60~, or even lower, we should
suppose, would severely try the vital resistance to
morbid action of the adult; how much more that of
the infant! It is reasonable to infer that infants are
capable of generating a much smaller amount of
heat proportionally than adults, because all their
bodily functions are yet in a state of incipiency.
Physiology teaches that animal heat is generated
principally by the functions of respiration, circulation,
and innervation. These are, in infants, necessarily
feeble and imperfect, and hence exposure to cold is
met by a very imperfect resistance. Respiration and
the nervous influence commence their first movements at birth, while the circulation finds new channels; having been hitherto confined in a great measure to the skin, which is extremely vascular, it is
now directed towards the internal viscera, which
have not yet been excited fully to the performance
of their appropriate functions. We can have no difficulty, then, in deciding, a priori, that the exposure of'
infants to a low temperature, whether from deficient




AND INSTRUCTION.             189
or improper clothing, will prove injurious to them.
In accordance with this are the experiments of Doctors Edwards and Villerm6, of France, made upon
young, warm-blooded animals, by which it was incontestably proven that their temperature decreases
very rapidly at an atmospheric temperature which
had no effect upon adults; for example, when newborn dogs and cats were taken away from the parent,
and exposed even to a moderate degree, they were
chilled even to the very point of death.
"The researches of Doctors Fontanelle and Trevisano, of Italy, also sustain these views: from them we
draw the following conclusions: 1. That out of one
hundred children born during the winter months, sixty-six die in the first month of life. 2. Out of one
hundred born in summer, only seventeen die during
the first month. 3. Out of one hundred born in spring
and in autumn, only about one half die during the
first year; and, 4. That the mortality is greater among
children born in northern than among those born in
southern climates.
" From these physiological principles and facts, so
clearly ascertained, it is evident that infants should
be furnished with a greater amount of clothing than
adults. Agreeably, however, to the present mode of
attiring infants, especially in fashionable life, not only
are they more thinly clad than the parent, but large
portions of the surface are wholly uncovered. Nothing is more common than to see children with their
arms, necks, and upper portions of the chest bare,
thus exposing these parts to the continued sedative
influence of a low temperature.
"' When we reflect on the close sympathy that exists
between the skin and the internal organs of the body,
we have, under such circumstances, no difficulty in
deciding upon the probable cause of disease in the
liver, lungs, stomach, bowels, and brain; and hence
croup, catarrh, fever, diarrhwea, cholera, and convulsions are frequent consequences, but constitute parts
only of that wide outlet to infant life which deficient
clothing creates  Some endeavrour to justify their




90    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE,practice by maintaining that such exposure is ealcu.
lated to inure their children to the impressions of cold,
and to render them hardy. This may be the result
with those who have stamina sufficient to survive the
experiment, but, before the system is thus invigorated, the child may be carried off by some inflammatory affections produced by such exposure. I have
often had occasion to admire the ruddy health which
characterizes the children of the plain people of the
country, who, in matters of this kind, follow the indications of nature and the dictates of common sense.
These cover, from the commencement, the entire surface of their children in winter with warm flannel, and
in summer with cotton; they rarely have any diseases
among their children except such as are natural, and
these, in a majority of instances, are so mild as not
to require medical treatment. I do not remember,
during a practice of fourteen years, to have been
called to a case of croup, catarrh, or cholera in such a
family; and I have frequently met with such families, who had raised from ten to fourteen children
without having at any time had occasion to call in a
physician. The pure air of the country, I am aware,
also exerts a healthful influence; but we have there
also seen undue exposure producing disease; while
in town we have known many instances of ameliorated health, by the adoption of more suitable clothing,
in families whose children had previously suffered in
consequence of improper clothing.
" 2. Inappropriatefood. The digestive organs of the
newborn babe have not, as yet, been exercised, having been in a quiescent and passive state during the
whole period of gestation. The stomach has not yet
been distended, and participates in the universal delicacy of the whole organism. The question now presents itself very forcibly, what substance can be found
in nature, sufficiently bland and nutritious, and suitable for so delicate an organ 1 The benevolent Author:
cf all being has made the most appropriate provision'
in the milk of the mother, the proper and only food'
for the infant; art cannot supply, nor does nature af




AND INSTRUCTION.                191
lord, any adequate substitute for this fluid. When the
child is applied to the mother, at from six to eight
hours after birth, it receives a watery fluid which possesses laxative properties. This excites the stomach
and bowels to action, and frees them from the tenacious, dark-green substance, the expulsion of which
is necessary to prepare them for the exercise of their
proper functions. In due time, more nutritious milk
is furnished, in sufficiently large quantities to nourish
the infant until the first teething. Should the secretion of milk not be fully established even before the
third day, it is unnecessary to substitute as food any
extraneous substances.  The idea entertained by
some that the child has been fasting all the while, is
erroneous, for to the last moment of its connexion
with the mother it has been supplied with a rich and
nutritious blood, prepared expressly for its support;
so that, in fact, instead of fasting, it has just finished
a continuous meal of nine months.
" But, notwithstanding the admirable provision so
bountifully made, and so benevolently adjusted to the
peculiar wants and condition of the helpless being intrusted to our care, it is scarcely ushered into existence, and invested in its disease-inviting habiliments,
when a system of drenching and stuffing is commenced. A mixture of molasses and water, of salt and
water, manna tea, or even some of the common purgatives, is first given, to purge off the meconium or
green matter already mentioned. This is usually the
first offence. We have already made it appear that
this is unnecessary;* but positive injury is also inflicted by creating irritation on the tender surface, of
the alimentary canal, not only producing pain, but unfitting it for the digestive process which is subsequently to take place. The pain thus induced robs the child
of repose and sleep, and causes wakefulness and fretting; the latter is looked upon as a symptom of hunger; it is forthwith decided that'the child must be
* "It will be borne in mind that the writer here assumes that the mother
is in a healthy state, actually furnishing her infant with what its Maker
has intended for it."




192    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
fed after having fasted so long,' and straightway an
ample bowl of panada, thick pap, grated cracker and
tea, or some other equally improper article of diet is
prepared, and the stuffing commences, which is repeated at regular intervals; increased, however, so
soon as colic, which is one of the invariable results
of such treatment, sets in. VWhen the proper time arrives for the milk to be secreted, the child has already
been broken to the spoon, and, in a great measure, lost
its instinctive knowledge of sucking, as also its desire
for food, for by this time it is racked with colic-pains,
flatulency, vomiting, and diarrhoea. The consequence
is, that the spoon is, at least in part, continued; the
mother's breasts are not drawn; they swell and become painful by distension; disturbed rest, and exposure to the chilly night-air in consequence of attentions to the suffering infant, bring on chills, fever, and
inflammation, followed by abscess in the breasts, loss
of milk causing much suffering and distress to both
mother and child. In the mean time, the infant, which
was plump and full of vigour when born, becomes pale
and emaciated; diseases of various kinds, in addition
to those already mentioned, invade the enfeebled
frame, under the influence of one or the other of
which it pines away and dies. Many, however, have
a sufficiency of stamina to enable them to survive
these severe trials; but we have most abundant reason to believe that, in such cases, the foundations of
disease in after life are thus early laid. It is erroneously supposed that the nourishment afforded by the
mother is, after a few months, insufficient to sustain
the health and life of the infant. We would lay it
down as a general rule, that when the motner is
healthy, the infant needs no additional food before the
commencement of the first teething, which usually
takes place about the seventh month. The first food
given should differ in its properties as little as possible from that which the infinitely wise Creator has
himself supplied for the first stage of human life.
" To remedy the hurtful effects of insufficient clothing and improper diet, recourse is had to carminatives




AND INSTRUCTION.             193
and opiates, and this leads us to consider the last error above mentioned.
" 3. Improper domestic medical treatment. Were proper attention paid to infants in their diet and clothing,
medical treatment would rarely become necessary.
So soon, however, as the train of symptoms already
detailed begins to manifest itself, the mother, or more
officious nurse, without instituting any inquiry as to
the cause, and the possibility of its removal to the
immediate relief of the little sufferer, forthwith administers some portion of active medicine, to be repeated as occasion may require, until they become
alarmed, and send for their medical adviser, who is
gravely informed' that the child took slightly ill, and
that, notwithstanding full and repeated doses of calomel, magnesia, rhubarb, or laudanum were given, it
continued getting worse and worse!' But, not content with giving drugs when disease is supposed to be
present, many mothers are in the habit of constantly
keeping and administering one or more of the many
opiate nostrums and cordials, merely in order to quiet
the child or to procure it sleep.  The basis of all
these preparations consists of opium. The almost
invariable effect of these is to impair the powers of
the stomach, to retard the development and growth
of the body, to injure the nervous system, and to induce a state of the entire system adverse to the health
and life of the child. But the evil of indulging in the
use of opiates does not stop in merely producing disease, for death is very frequently the result. Agreeably to a report printed by order of the House of
Commons in England, it appears that, of all inquests
held in England and Wales in 1837 and 1838 in cases
of death from poison, one seventh of the whole number resulted from the carelessness of mothers and
nurses in administering opiates, with the properties
of which they were unacquainted. Mr. Brown, the
coroner of Nottingham, England. also reports that
great numbers of children are annually destroyed
in that borough by the use of' Godfrey's Cordial.'
There are, doubtless, many such cases which never




194    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
become subjects of official notice, and the cause of
death is reported as unknown. The majority of cases of this kind are the result of errors as regards the
particular article intended to be administered, or in the
amount of the dose. Cases of this kind frequently
come under the observation of the physician: we will
mention the following two out of many which we
might adduce:
" Mrs. C., of N., had been in the habit of administering laudanum to her infant son; the dose was gradually increased until she gave eleven drops at a time.
The opiate was then discontinued for several months,
during which period the acquired capacity to receive
so large a portion with apparent impunity was lost;
the laudanum, also, being in a vial closed with a paper stopper, became much stronger in consequence
of the evaporation which had taken place. The
mother, however, ignorant of this, supposing a dose
of laudanum necessary, gave the child twenty drops,
because he was several months older than when she
was in the habit of giving him eleven drops. The effect was a state of narcotism, which would certainly
have proved fatal had not active measures been
adopted soon after the laudanum had been given.
" The other case was also in N. Mrs. M. was in the
habit of administering' Godfrey's Cordial' to her infant. Her vial being empty, she gave it to her brother, and requested him to have it filled. When he arrived at the apothecary's, he could not remember the
name of the article; but he'knew  that laudanum
would make babies sleep:' he accordingly procured
it. His sister gave the dose she was wont to give,
a teaspoonful (holding sixty drops), to her infant,
aged three months and two days, and laid it upon the
bed. Having other family matters to attend to, she
did not look at her child until more than an hour after
she had given the' opiate, when, to her inexpressible
surprise and alarm, she found it in convulsions. We
were sent for, and found her, with her babe in her
arms, frantic with grief; for she had already discovered the error. The case appeared hopeless; but the




AND INSTRUCTION.             195
almost immediate introduction of the stomach-tube,
by means of which the stomach was entirely freed
from the poison remaining in it, and by other appropriate means, with a view to counteract the poisonous effects of the portion which had found its way
into the circulation prior to the evacuation of the
stomach, proved successful in saving the child. It
cost us the labour of a night, but there was a joy in
the morning in that mother's breast which repaid us
amply for all our watching and labour. We might
state cases of this kind which terminated in death,
but we forbear.
"Although we designed, in the commencement, to
confine ourselves to a few hints on these three principal errors, which obtain in the physical education of
infancy, we cannot, under this last head, refrain from
adverting to the moral effect of opiates, when regularly administered to infants. The effect of this narcotic is to obtund the sensibilities of the nervous system; to becloud that sprightly vivacity, which gives
an irresistible charm to the speaking countenance of
the infant; to induce stupor-narcotism. We may
easily conceive that permanence may be given to.
these effects by a frequent and long-continued use of
this poison, just at a time when the brain and the nervous system, the organs of the soul, are being called
into exercise, and manifest their earliest developments. We have met with several cases in'which
the children of sprightly and intelligent parents were'
dull, inactive, and stupid at adult age, notwithstanding they had had good opportunities of education;
and, on making inquiry, our suspicions were verified
by the information that during infancy those persons
had, daily and regularly, portions of quieting medicines administered to them; and that, when an extraordinary engagement on tile part of the mother,
whether at home or abroad, had required it, a double
portion had been given. But the moral malady thus
induced extends still farther. In the majority of the
male members of those families, there seemed to exist a natural propensity to intemperance.




196    A PLAN OF YOUTIHFUL CI'LTURE
" Never can I forget the heart-rending self-reproaches of an intelligent Christian mother, who is now, we
trust, in heaven. In speaking to me of the case of
her son, she exclaimed,' Alas! my poor, wandering,
forlorn, lost, firstborn son! He was intemperate
from his boyhood; and O! mine is the guilt, for I
made himn a drunkard. He was a cross and fretful
child; I gave him stimulating cordials and opiates;
he continued to crave them when several years old;
and ever after, when he could obtain spirits of any
kind, he would have them. Thus I made him what he
is. O! that I had withheld from him the pernicious
drugs! My poor, lost boy!'"
b. Bodily Exercise. Gymnastics.
The exercise and development of the body is of obvious importance, not only in a mechanical point of
view, with reference to profitable employment, nor
in a physical or medical sense alone, i. e., in respect
of health, but also in an aesthetic sense, i. e., with regard to gracefulness of carriage and motion. From
these three considerations it is evident that gymnastics deserves the special attention of those to whom
the education of youth is intrusted.
It may be divided into mechanical, common, or natural, and into aesthetic, elegant, or artistical gymnastics.
Mechanical gymnastics includes everything per —
taining to the exercise of the body by manual labour.
It may be said, however, to begin with walking and
running. To this division belong all mechanical employments which are calculated duly to develop the
physical organs. Here must also be mentioned riding on horseback and swimming, considered as useful arts. This division of gymnastics may be termed
natural, because children will acquire skill adequate
to the purposes of exercise in all the varieties embraced by it, if they be not subjected to unnatural
coercion and oppression in a matter that ought to be
made as agreeable as possible, which, unhappily, is
very often the case.




AND INSTRUCTION.              197
The province of elegant or aesthetic gymnastics is'o develop those physical organs which, apart from
all actual, tangible profit, give strength to man, invest
him with agility and grace, and enhance the beauty
peculiar to the human frame.
In every system of gymnastics, dancing holds a
prominent place, and is, undeniably, highly promotive
of elegance of carriage and motion;: yet its connexion with fashionable dissipation and its moral influence are of such a character, that, while we lament
that no suitable substitute for it canbhe found, we can
in no wise recommend it.
To proceed, therefore, to other gymnastic exercises, we mention, first, running, in which the degree of
speed acquired will furnish a good test of the development of muscular strength, as well as the flexibility
of the joints and the capability of the limbs to endure
protracted exertion.
Wrestling, when under proper control, is favourable to the development of the sinews and joints of the
upper part of the body, while running is more advantageous to the lower extremities.
Jumping, in which the- arms also are often much
exercised, is an important branch of gymnastics.
We distinguish two varieties, the upward and the forward jump. The former consists either in jumping
up and immediately coming down again, or in jumping upward to a more elevated position. The latter is
performed either without extraneous aids, or with the
assistance of the pole. All these exercises, if controlled with care and judgment, will have a very favourable influence in developing the bodily organs for
agility, energy, and elegance of motion.
All the various games of ball, and the like, in which
boys are fond of engaging, constitute an important
branch of gymnastics: and to what has been said of
these, we would add a few general observations.
The tendency of the present age is entirely too
bookish. Compends in every department of science
abound, and children study philosophy, mental and
moral, and natural science in its various branches, be



198    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
fore they are capable of understanding anything of the
subjects presented. Pedantry and affectation come
into the place of. the artlessness and the unassuming
docility of childhood. We rejoice to see the higher departments of knowledge made more generally accessible than in times past. In our country especially,
liberal education must become general. But "there
is a time for all things," says the wise man; and all
things have their necessary limits. Ir connexion
with the rage for book-learning, the impression seems
to have gone abroad that children and youth should
be no longer suffered to play, but, in order to keep up
with " the march of mind," they should be early confined to their lessons, and learn to look grave and
knowing when their elders discuss matters of science,
and even to prate learnedly and wisely in literary
circles. We are running into extremes, which many
wise and good men have long deplored; and we, for
one, desire to plead for the rights and interests of
childhood and youth. Give your children ample time
to play; encourage them to play; help them to play.
They will then learn, not only more willingly and
cheerfully, but more successfully, during the time necessarily devoted to books. The course so generally
pursued at present results, after all, in the attainment
of only a very superficial knowledge, which is never
digested. By sound physical health and a flow of animal spirits, the healthy tone and activity of their
minds, in maturer years, are much more effectually
secured than by early confinement to the many textbooks of the day; and when they reach those years
in which the sciences may be studied understandingly,
and therefore profitably, they will possess a mental
vigour which modern methods of education are calculated, in a great measure, to destroy. These games,
or other varieties of gymnastic exercise, should be
continued during the whole course of education. One
of the'greatest evils prevailing at our colleges —one
that fills their halls with sallow faces and languid bodies, is a deficiency, or entire absence in many instances, of suitable exercise




AND INSTRUCTION.             199
Every boarding-school should possess several suitable play-grounds, one for each section of pupils.
In the years of childhood and early youth, all these
gymnastic exercises ought to be engaged in systematically, i. e., according to a regular plan. But they
may be diminished in proportion as the physical and
intellectual energies of the youth increase. As the
young approach the age of manhood, the necessity of
stated hours for gymnastic exercises should be superseded by the voice of nature and common sense,
which will loudly forbid every student who has a regard for his health, physical and intellectual, to neglect exercises which are so essential to both.
c. Education for the True Enjoyment of Life.
Love of a simple and moderate enjoyment of the
things of this life is essential to the healthy life of the
soul. The blessings of Providence are bestowed for
our happiness-to cheer our progress through this
earthly existence. This design is frustrated, as well
when we make the good things of life the objects of
covetous and anxious care and burning desire, as
when we indulge in the excessive enjoyment of them.
Cheerfulness and moderation! This cheerful disposition ought to be cultivated in children: nor will
this be a difficult task, as morose and unsociable minds
are an exception to the general rule.
Those who multiply artificial wants are mistaken
if they imagine that they contribute to the real enjoyment of life. A strong desire for a variety of enjoyments is a mental disease, which we should not seek
to heighten, but to cure.
Everything will depend upon a wise combination of
the ideals of comfort and discomfort, and hence on a
just estimate of what must be termed luxury.
Luxury, i. e., the influence of refinement upon the
multiplication of wants, presents itself to our consideration under three aspects. First, that of ease or
comfort; second, of fashion; third, of mental culture,
i. e., such culture as will qualify for the enjoyment of
a luxurious mode of living.




200    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
Love of ease and fashion are the guides that con.
duct to effeminacy, to worldly folly and frivolity;
they are in themselves worthless, and have no claim
on our attention. But the mental culture above referred to demands farther notice, and requires that
we should attend to its proper direction. With regard to a wise mode of living, we should endeavour to
give children clear ideas, and more particularly exert
a healthy influence upon them, by setting them a good
example. The examples of the wise and good of every age should be held up to those who have reached
the age of youth. It requires much prudence and
judgment to manage suitably the treatment of children, in view of their general mode of living. In fitting them for the true enjoyment of life, all the -various methods connected with the different departments
of education must, in their due measure, co-operate.
The reader will himself trace the bearings of subsequent discussions on the subject here considered.
CHAPTER II.
Intellectual Culture, aiming at the Development of the
Understanding for the Perception of Truth.
THE course of development taken by the human
mind in the culture of the intellect proceeds from the
external sense to language; from the impressions received from the outward objects through the medium
of the senses, to the expression of these impressions in
words. Next follows the exertion of the memory,
often connected with the imagination; then, and but
gradually, comes attention; and lastly, through the
exercise of attention, and by the active employment
of the internal sense, the power of thought is developed and brought into action. Many remain strangers to that effort of the mind which is called thinking, even to the later years of youth.
Education must here adapt its methods to the
course of nature, and aim only at guidance and direction. Much injury is done by urging the youthful
mind to premature efforts; by seeking preternaturally




AND INSTRUCTION.              2(1
to develope its active but still slumbering powers.
We need scarcely observe, that all the faculties above
named must, at a certain age, be simultaneously exercised and cultivated.
Young children live entirely in the external world,
and therefore this age should be carefully improved
for the development and cultivation of their outward
senses, especially those of sight, hearing, and smell.
As this branch of education is much neglected, we
would direct attention to it through the following observations, which are taken substantially from tho
excellent work of Schwarz.
Properly cultivated and well-trained senses constitute an important mark of difference between man
and the lower animals. They are the avenues through
which stores of raw material are conveyed into the
workshop of the mind. If you suffer but little to pass
through them, and confine the attention of children to
a small number of objects, and to a particular view of
them, you limit the free development of the capacity
of the senses, and condemn it to poverty. If you
leave all to nature, no readiness or distinctness of observation is acquired; the impressions, vague and
confused, would confuse the mind itself, and surrender it to mere sensual excitement. And then man becomes more beastly than the beast, which is indemnified by its instinct for the want of what we possess
in the power of attention.
In cultivating and training the senses, our object
should be,
1. That each sense may perceive acutely and correctly, and by attaining vigour and firmness of capacity, make easy and copious acquisitions.
2. JEsthetic observation, leading the senses to a
sense of the beautiful, and developing particularly
those of sight and hearing for the exercise of taste.
3. The strengthening of the power of observation
by means of the senses.
1. The Sense of Sight.
This is the first that is developed, and it is particularly susceptible of cultivation.




202     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
The eyes of children will always be turned to wards
the brightest object near them; but they should not,
in early infancy, be permitted to look at any very brilliant light, for this is injurious to the eyes. On the
other hand, by introducing them gradually from an
artificial twilight to the full brightness of day, the
sense of sight is strengthened. This may be done
during the first weeks of life. Now let them distinguish different objects, according to the various degrees of light, and they will soon begin to notice different forms and colours. Then accustom them so to
fix their regards on single objects as to recognise
them when they see them  again. Show them, as
frequently as possible, natural objects, such as birds,
flowers, trees, &c., and teach them to distinguish colours. They may thus learn, at two years of age, to
distinguish several varieties of the same colour.
Even before they speak, repeat to them often the
names of many objects; after this, frequently pronounce certain names in a tone of inquiry, while
pointing to the things mentioned; and soon, when
they begin to speak, they will, even when not called
upon to do so, frequently point out such objects, and
mention their names.
Then take them out, also, into the moonlight, and
let them recognise various objects: carry thenl out in
dark nights.
Thus they will early learn to find their way in the
dark without mistaking the stems of trees for men.
Let them not closely examine minute objects in the
twilight, for this injures the eyes; but direct their attention early to the starry heavens, pointing out to
them stars of peculiar brightness, as well as particular groups. This will produce a strong impression.
and a singular interest in young minds, ald sometimes even elicit poetic sparks.
Accustom them also to discern and distinguish objects at a distance, as well as to observe accurately
objects in rapid motion, and to discover a given object among a number of moving ones. Take them to
elevated positions, such as high towers or steeples.




AND INSTRUCTION.              203
and let them look down: this will preserve them from
the infirmity of giddiness, to which so many are subject for want of proper training. Such treatment
will give children, at seven years of age, acute and
accurate habits of vision.
But it will now be necessary to continue the proper
cultivation of this sense by regular exercises. 1. In
observing: let the children recognise near and distant objects in different degrees of light, and name
every object within sight Begin with single objects,
then proceed to several, and finally to groups. Let
them recognise objects, and even read at distances
gradually increased. Then let the forms of lines and
figures be noted, named, and drawn, e. g., perpendicular, oblique, circular, &c. Continue to practise them
in distinguishing colours. Finally, accustom them to
make accurate estimates of the dimensions of objects,
and of their relative distances.
2. In an aesthetic point of view: the previous
training will teach them accurately to distinguish the
outlines of a leaf, a tree, &c., and this, with suitable
instruction, will enable them to draw such objects
correctly; and as, in so- doing, their attention is directed to the real form and dimensions of the objects
as they appear within the sphere of vision, i. e., to
perspective, they will thus learn to draw masses or
groups, without having their sense of the picturesque
disturbed by the thought of the reality. In this practice great advantage will be derived from showing
them painted landscapes, and letting them compare
these with the appearance of the real landscape before them. With such training, they may learn, at
fourteen years of age, to discern picturesque landscapes, or particularly picturesque features of tlem,
and to collect these in their portfolios. A sense for
the symbolical character of natural objects is best excited by poetry.
3. With regard to the strengthening of the power
of observation by means of sight, we have nothing to
add to the preceding. Various exercises might be
recommended; but we shall only remark, that the




204    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
great object to be kept in view is to teach the young
to discern and distinguish, with increasing acuteness
and accuracy, both near and distant objects, and especially to describe them in words. Let them begin
with isolated, small objects, such as a leaf; then proceed to a small plant; next to a tree; then take
groups of trees, and finally an entire landscape, or
whatever may lie within the sphere of vision. This
describing in words should be first performed while
the object is viewed, then with averted face, and
lastly at home, after the lapse of some time, or after
a walk. With these exercises, drawing from memory
may be combined. It is astonishing what progress
young persons will thus make, not only in acuteness,
distinctness, and accuracy of vision, but in habits of
order, in clearness of language, and in attention, besides enriching the memory with valuable treasures,
and acquiring a keen sense of the picturesque.
The advantage attained by a methodical'training
of the sense of sight is twofold. First, it leads to an
extensive and accurate acquaintance with created
objects. A multitude of the most important observations and impressions are thus appropriated, in such
a manner that they remain in the mind with truthfulness, freshness, and clearness. The understanding
thus acquires a fund of necessary material; an abundance of seed is deposited in the memory; a fruitful
soil is presented to the fancy; and to the feelings, the
wide field of the beautiful and the significant is thrown
open. Thus, by means of the sense which is earliest
active, the mind is endowed with the riches of external creation, and thus enabled to prosecute its
internal creations.
But this advantage consists, in the second place, in
the sharpening of the sense itself, in the training of
the eye for enlarged and sagacious action, and is, in
this sense, perhaps still more important. If the child
is left to its natural observation, its eye will generally
become indolent, and its soul sensual. The attention
is not practised except by the animal instinct which
calls for food; excited only by objects that are other



AND INSTRUCTION.             205
wise serviceable, or such as awaken fear; and thus
the most valuable sense is in early life subjected and
habituated to the service of the lower propensities,
and the child becomes a slave of sensuality. If the
child looks at objects only with a view to ascertain
whether they may be eaten, we need not wonder if
the countenance of the adult betrays nothing but animal appetite and greediness. When the sense of sight
is not early cultivated, it cannot be otherwise than
that a sensual disposition must become dominant;
and this will, in' a great measure, account for the
grovelling dispositions which characterize the uneducated classes, and for the more elevated and generous qualities which distinguish those who have received a good education. Cicero seems to have perceived the necessity of such an education as is here
contended for, when he wrote the following words:
"Nos ne nunc quidem cernimus ea, quae videmus;
vim quasi queedam sunt ad oculos, ad aures, ad nares
a sede animi perforatre," &c.-Cic., T. Q., i., 20
2. The Sense of Hearing.
This sense is to be cultivated in a manner similar
to the foregoing. Here, also, the objects to be aimed
at are,
1. Acuteness and accuracy of observation. Sounds
are to be recognised and distinguished, their direction
and distance to be estimated, &c. The attention is
to be directed particularly to language.
2. The aesthetic training of the ear. To this are
conducive musical exercises, harmonious combinations of sounds, &c.
3. The sharpening or strengthening of the mental
faculty of observing by means of the ear. To this,
practice in discerning very low sounds, distinguishing
certain sounds amid loud and confused clamour, and
the like, are subservient.
It will be observed, in the first weeks of an infant's
life, that its sense of hearing is sensibly excited. After the lapse of a few more weeks it will notice particular sounds, and it will now be well if it be fre



206    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULLURE
quently addressed in a kindly tone of voice. Thus it
will soon recognise the voice of its mother, and not
be long in distinguishing that of other persons. There
will be no harm done if there be various noises about
infants, so they be not of a violent nature, for this
keeps the sense of hearing in a state of activity, without causing it strong exertion. Besides the human
voice, young children should be made to notice the
sounds uttered by various domestic animals.
When they begin to walk, call to them frequently
at a distance, at one time with a loud voice, at another more softly; and thus, at two years of age, they
will be accustomed to listen sharply. Now teach
them to know different animals by their voices; permit them occasionally to hear more violent noises,
e. g., that of a mill; and sometimes speak to them in
a very soft, scarcely audible tone. They may be
taught, at the age of three years, to distinguish sever
al varieties of birds by their voices; they will recognise with joyous feelings, among the voices of a number of persons engaged in loud conversation, that of
an acquaintance; and not fail, in the midst of the
clamour of play, to observe what their parents may say
to them. If a piano-forte be played upon in the room
which they frequent, they will soon be seen to note
its tones attentively. The ear should be accustomed
from early infancy to hear the tones of sweet song.
In their fourth year, children may be taken to the piano-forte, and made to listen to different series of
tones; first, the diatonic or natural scale, and the octaves; then the fifths, and thirds, and other intervals;
and if their sense of hearing be not very obtuse, the
ear will soon distinguish those tones correctly when
they are sounded in their proper order of succession.
By frequently repeating easy tunes for them, they
will soon be led to endeavour to repeat them with the
voice. Let this be their primary instruction in music
without subjecting them to constraint. In the course
of a year, the ear will generally be sufficiently practised to distinguish more complex musical combinations; and at five years of age, formal instruction in




AND INSTRUCTION.            207
music, especially in singing, may commence. The
ear should be habituated to distinguish tones on different, both wind and stringed, instruments; but no
stunning noise, like that of the explosion of a gun or
the sound of a drum, should be brought very near
them, until the sense of hearing has, by gradual exercise, become strong enough to bear it; and even then
it will be advisable to remove from them such sounds
whose tendency it is to blunt the sense of hearing.
With such training, children will, at six years of age,
have a well-practised ear. Continue to practise them
in distinguishing with increased accuracy, not only
musical tones, but every variety of sounds, by which
means they will acquire great readiness in distinguishing very soft sounds, and to point out the direction
from which they come. It will be well, also, to give
them something particular to listen to, while, at the
same time, a loud noise is made. This cultivation of
the sense of hearing may be continued by the following exercises.
Blindfold the eyes of the child under training, and
let him name those whose voices he hears. After
some time, let a number of other children be stationed at differeht distances from him, and let him, still
blindfolded, specify whose voice he hears, and from
what direction it comes. Again, let him state, with
his eyes closed, what he hears another person do;
describe the direction from which the voices of different persons who are speaking reach him; or
specify the particular body from which some peculiar
sound is elicited. Again, let something be read, or
names pronounced, and let the child repeat what he
hears.  Let a key be sounded on the piano-forte
without his seeing it, and call upon him to find out
what key has been struck; or let him, blindfolded
specify the particular tones that have been struck,
with a variation in the succession of the intervals;
and when his voice has been sufficiently practised,
let him repeat the tones. Subsequent exercises will
consist in hearing narratives, and then repeating
them; in frequently hearing poetry read, and in ac



208    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
quiring a readiness at memorizing by hearing only,
and in attending to oral commissions, of which many
may be sometimes given at once.
The first advantage accruing from the exercise of
this sense consists partly in its acquaintance with a
vast number and variety of sounds, and partly in the
firm retention of observations and ideas, acquired
through the other senses, which this sense secures to
us by means of the words which designate them.
The ear is the organ which, by means of spoken
words, directly excites the understanding to form for
itself clear ideas of objects; it enriches and enlightens the memory; it excites the fancy by the pictures
which it retains, and it unlocks the innermost sanctuary for the reception of intellectual and spiritual
truth; for it is in the sense of hearing, and by means
of the multitude of words familiar to it, that reason is
particularly developed. But again, he that hears well
has his mind fitted for an exact and thorough performance of its different peculiar functions; he becomes
more susceptible of the beautiful, in its higher manifestations, as well as for the supernatural, and thus
his taste is liberated from sensual trammels; the
most sacred feelings are excited within him by words
in which the sincerity of an affectionate heart addresses him. It is this sense, by whose agency the
earliest transition is made from attention to recollection, to reflection, and to a respectful regard for the
will of others: acute hearing awakes attention to the
smallest word, however gently spoken, and this leads
to obedience. If the ear, through the medium of
sound, conducts us to a profound acquaintance with
nature, it is, at the same time, the organ through
which we hold communion with the spiritual world
As the inhabitants of the East heard the voice of God
in the sound of thunder, the child hears it in the communications of its parents, and every pious heart in
the word of wisdom. He that has become accustomed to mark attentively the words of others, possesses an additional antidote against egotism. Pythagoras regarded attentive listening as such a means of




AND INSTRUCTION.              209
culture, and discovered in sounds a depth which might
lead the soul to the enjoyment of the music of the
spheres. It is undeniable that the sense of hearing
is, in a high degree, subservient to the cultivation of
harmony of soul, of purity of heart, of holy love, and
of spiritual life; in which respect its importance is
far from being adequately recognised.
3. The Sense of Smell.
On this sense, which is intermediate between the
two higher and the two lower senses, we shall be
brief. It has doubtless been given to man for higher
purposes than to the brute. Through its instrumentality children are, 1. To learn to discover the near
or more remote presence of things, such as smoke
-and fire, injurious or beneficial exhalations: 2. To
enjoy purely agreeable odours, and to be invited and
led to a certain secret sympathy with the life of
nature: 3. To acquire the power of enduring, in cases
of necessity, disagreeable smells, without prejudice
to the acuteness of the sense.
This sense is not likely to betray much activity before children have reached their third year, and your
first care should be to guard it against everything
calculated to exert a blunting influence upon it. Suffer them not to frequent places where the air is impregnated with disagreeable odours; but, at the same
time, forbear the application of strong odours of an
agreeable nature. Let them, in the open and pure
air, inhale the balsamic fragrance of the vegetable
world. This will make them sensitive against all
disagreeable smells, and careful to avoid what may
be injurious to them, as well as teach them to dis.tinguish objects at a distance by their exhalations.
Avoid stimulating the sense too highly by strong perfumes; but, on the other hand, accustom it early to
relish the sweet odour of flowers.
For a variety of exercises designed to develop and
cultivate this sense, and for many other interesting
observations in relation to it, we refer to Schwarz, vol.
iii., p. 102, seqq.
R




210    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
4. The Sense of Taste.
That this sense, also, is of importance to the un.
lerstanding, appears clearly from the multiplicity
of words in different languages by which its sensations are designated, particularly in chemical science.
This sense becomes negatively subservient to the
higher feelings just in proportion as it is secured
against gluttony, and habituated to the relish of sim
ple, healthy diet; and in this respect it may serve to
illustrate what is called taste in a higher sense. The
acquisition of such, habits necessarily involves the
proper cultivation, not only of the acuteness of the
sense itself, but of the sagacity of the mind in employing it; and its proper development is betokened
as well by a keen and accurate distinction of different
tastes, as by the elevation of the soul above the mere
animal pleasure or disgust excited by them.
An infant will, in the first months of its life, begin
to distinguish between sweet, bitter, and sour; and
beyond this the cultivation of taste should not, at this
early age, be attempted, in order that it may not
lose its susceptibility of the teachings of nature; for
these are especially important to the sense of taste,
because it is this sense which must guide us in the
choice of food, without seducing the stomach into bad
habits, contracted in consequence of the lustfulness
of the appetite. Let, then, the early cultivation of
this sense begin with your administering simple food;
and put off acquainting the tongue with salt and spices, that its energies be not blunted, and become prematurely susceptible of the stronger stimulants, and
therefore lustful. An early fondness for sugar should
also be guarded against. Children thus judiciously
treated will so much the longer relish farinaceous
food and milk, and they will find their chief luxury in
what nature alone presents perfectly prepared to ev
ery one, namely, fruit. This treatment will preserve
the organ of taste healthy and uncorrupted, so as to
enable it to distinguish the different varieties of fruit
with the utmost acuteness.




AND INSTRUCTION.              211
Various exercises may be employed. Children
may learn to distinguish different sorts of water by
their taste; and when chemical experiments are
made, they may be taught, in the same way, to distinguish the different salts, and to discover the constituent parts of various mixtures, &c.
As there are many things that can be detected only
by the taste, the cultivation of this sense has also its
twofold use, in the same manner as the senses already spoken of. It may be that in this way the purity
of intellectual taste is soonest and best provided for;
but certain it is that young persons gain, in a moral
point of view, when the palate is the servant of the
stomach only, while the latter is in the service of
health, if the demands of the palate do not interfere
with the exercise of the higher senses; and the palate itself is capable of being extensively employed in
the examination of various things.
5. The Sense of Touch.
However subordinate this twofold sense may be,
belonging, seemingly, altogether to animal life, its
cultivation is nevertheless of great importance to the
culture of man. It is, in the first place, instrumental
in the acquisition of many facts which are useful to
man in determining accurately respecting the surface
of objects, the surrounding atmosphere, &c. But, in
the second place, it stands in the immediate service
of aesthetic feeling, both negatively, by preservation
from the slavery of animal gratification, and positively, a ready tact in discerning well-formed surfaces,
by the expressive touch of musical strings or keys,
and by the lively enjoyment of nature's pure air. Its
cultivation tends, thirdly, to exercise the energies of
the mind, by its being habituated to the endurance of
heat and cold, and by being steeled, yet not unnaturally, against bodily pain.
If children be not spoiled in their infancy by treatment which must render them effeminate; this sense
will not become the instrument of subjecting them to
C.eir animal nature. By accustoming them gradual.




212    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ly to the endurance of heat and cold, and more espe.
cially to the utmost cleanliness, their animal feeling
will be in accordance with nature, invigorating to their
physical organism, and promotive of the free activity
of the mind. But great care should be taken to
sharpen this sense; to practise it in observing, in its
own peculiar organ, the hand. Children may thus, before they are eight years old, acquire a multitude of
ideas by means of an intelligent manipulation of bodies. These exercises may be continued by letting
them examine surfaces by the touch. At the same
time they should be more and more habituated to bear
every degree of temperature, yet without exposing
the nerves to the blunting influence of extremes.
This sense may be suitably exercised by blindfolding children, and letting them  recognise different
coins by examining them between their fingers; they
should begin with the coarsest coins, and gradually
proceed to the finer ones. In the same manner, let
them estimate the number of leaves in a book; recognise and describe plants by the touch; and subsequently teach them to become conscious of the presence of a hand or other object held at some distance
before the face. They may also be accustomed to recognise persons by examining their faces with the
fingers, or other objects submitted to their touch.
At the same time, they may be made to perform various operations with their fingers while their eyes are
bound up; for example, guide the hand, and let them
specify what they write: or let them write, and
perform various other manual operations in the dark.
Of special importance are musical exercises, in
which the greater or less degree of force with which
the key or string is struck deserves particular attention. In order that accuracy in stating the degree of
heat and cold may be acquired, let water be taken at
various temperatures, and estimated according to the
thermometer. In a similar manner, the hand may be
practised in estimating different weights.
The young will thus acquire'a large amount of
knowledge. which is necessary to render their ac



AND INSTRUCTION.             213
quaintance with the external world complete. Another advantage they derive from such training is.
that they become accustomed to distinguish between
appearances and realities, attested by the evidence of
the senses; and that the sense under consideration is
developed for the discernment of plastic beauty, for
greater expression in musical performances, and for
greater acuteness and correctness in general. There
is reason to expect that a child habituated to external cleanliness will be likely to manifest a tender
susceptibility for purity of soul, and that such exercises will be particularly useful for young females;
the more so, from their immediate connexion with various female employments. It cannot be denied that
this methodical treatment of this lower sense is calculated to preserve the freedom of the soul in the de~relopment and use of the higher senses.
The author from whom this discussion of the best
mode of developing the senses is derived, proceeds to
expatiate on the treatment required in cases where
one or more of the senses are wanting; but, as this
subject does not fall within the scope of our plan, we
shall only add a few general observations. With regard to those who are in the possession of all the
senses, it is important to observe that no one sense
ought to be developed at the expense of the others.
It has already been observed that the uneducated
are generally governed by the sense of taste, and that,
consequently, the higher senses are generally employed in the service of gross sensuality. If either of
the higher senses be disproportionately cultivated to
the neglect of the others, the effect on the mind must
be to produce one-sidedness, and other evils which
are to be deprecated. Not one of the senses, then,
should be trained in preference to, or at the expense
of, the others, but all should be fully developed, and
judiciously cultivated in just equilibrium  and pure
harmony. And this is essential to the true culture of
man.
We resume, now, the thread which was broken by




214    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
this long treatise on the cultivation of the outward
senses, by proceeding to observe that language is the
instrument which first unlocks to children the world
of ideas; and it is this process by which they are invested with the peculiar characteristics of humanity.
I-ow important is it, then, that children should, from
the very beginning, learn to speak correctly! Hence
they must, at all early age, be carefully habituated to
the use of correct language. Of course this practice
ought to be natural, easy, and unconstrained; not formlal, made up of rules, which could only serve to make
them young pedants. The most appropriate practice
in speaking correctly will always consist in their
hearing no other than correct language from those
who address them, or converse with each other in
their presence.
Our readers will need nothing more to convince
them of the necessity of such a course, than the
recollection of the fact that children will imitate all
they see and hear; therefore, let them  have no
other than pure and correct language to imitate.
The foolish and childish dialect of the nursery is
consequently not only useless, but injurious. The
next step in the culture of the intellect consists in
the exercise of the memory. Although some modern
writers on pedagogics have treated the memory with
indifference, we are persuaded that, in our day and
country, the importance of carefully cultivating it is
duly appreciated, and that, therefore, the following
observations on the subject, derived substantially
from Schwarz, will not be unwelcome to the reader.
Cultivation of the Memory.
We are then to observe, in cultivating the memory
of children, that the retention of any subject involves
the following three elements: 1. A clear and distinct
impression; 2. Firm preservation; 3. Ready recollection. The design, therefore, of cultivating the memory is, that it may receive impressions easily, and thus
accumulate stores of wealth, and acquire prompt and
energetic freedom in the use of them. A faithful




AND INSTRUCTION.            215
memory is one that retains impressions in their
purity; one that retains many is a strong memory,
and one that easily recalls them a happy one; a good
memory must possess all these qualities. We have
seen that the memory is exercised by practising the
eye to see correctly, and the ear to hear acutely, and
by requiring children to repeat what they have seen
and heard. Thus they become acquainted with things.
The predominating principle here is constant repetition. Children should be made to repeat very often
what they have learned, for it is thus that they learn
things perfectly by impressing them indelibly. " Repetitio mater studiorum." " Mnemosyne, the mother
of the Muses." " Tantum scimus, quantum memoria
tenemus." Among all the faculties of the mind, the
memory is considered to be most in need of practice
in order to its becoming good. Not to strengthen it
is synonymous with weakening it. This practice is
rendered efficacious by the psychological laws of as
sociations, according to which, similar, synchronous
successive, externally or internally connected impressions or ideas are so interwoven with each othei
that one will call up the other.
A principal requisite in practising the memory is,
that the impressions be received in a manner lively,
truthful, and distinct, and that the words by which
they are conveyed have invariably a direct reference
to correct observation; otherwise either something
else than what is intended will be retained, or the impression will be untrue, wavering, and confused. The
usual practice of memorizing has regard only to the
forms of language; to names, words, and the like.
But children should, above all things, be made to employ their sight and hearing in observing for themselves, and to revolve in their minds what is intended
to be fixed in the memory; and this they should do
with the clearest consciousness, and not be allowed,
while professedly employed with one thing, to direct
their attention to anything else.  Even the locality
where they thus learn is not unimportant. At first
a secluded and quiet spot should be selected, but af



216    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ter a while they may be accustomed to commit to
memory in the midst of bustle, and circumstances
which demand an effort in fixing the attention. Thus
they will learn to remember what is observed merely
in passing.
The second requisite in this process of training i.
firmness of retention. As all modes of storing up
like the arranging of books and oth' articles on their
shelves, are here, of course, out of the question; and
as, on the other hand, a living, intellectual activity
which reproduces and vividly presents the same impression that has been made, and in the manner it
which it was made, is required, retentiveness can consist only in a capacity to perform these operations
and can hence be acquired only by practice, i. e., by
repetition.
The third requisite consists in easy and prompt free.
dom of recollection. This cannot be otherwise attained than' by firmly connecting the impressions oi
ideas retained with one or more others, which are
every moment at our command, and by which, therefore, those impressions or ideas can at any time be
again called forth. When, therefore, children are
learning words, they should be made to think of the
objects which they designate, -and to pronounce the
word in the language which they are learning at the
time, with its signification in their mother-tongue. It
is well to explain the words, and to make them intelli
gible and interesting to them, and not often to let then
learn, except after they have ascertained the signifi.
cation of the words, in the connexion in which they
occur; yet they should sometimes be made to learin
by the sound only, in order that the memory, considered purely as such, may be suitably practised. In the
same manner you may proceed with events, dates,
sentences, maxims, and the like, at the proper time.
Let these things be thought over separately, and presented in connexion with what is already known;
let them be separately impressed and repeated, and
that at different times, as, for example, in the morning and evening; and under different circumstances,




AND INSTRUCTION.             217
in different states of the mind, in the house or the
open air, in private or in company.
Not to continue this subject any farther, we conclude
By repeating the rule of Quintilian  "Quotidie adjiciantur singuli versus;" and the well-known maxim.
"Nulla dies sine linea."
Imaginatzon.
The imagination is in most children the predominant
faculty, and the importance of carefully watching and
wisely directing its development is great. With the
majority of children it may be more necessary to impose checks on its development than to furnish excitements. Yet, as this faculty will live and flourish
in spite of all restraints, and, for this purpose, seek
its food somewhere; and as the mode and degree of
its development have much to do both with our usefulness and happiness, it will be important, in a work
like this, to devote considerable space to it; and the
more so, because, though our young people be much
addicted to a sort of reading which over-stimulates
and vitiates the imagination, we Americans are exceedingly deficient in the higher poetry of life, and
much disposed to neglect as useless those methods
of training by which the imagination may not only be
made highly subservient to the sterner operations of
the mind, but become a source of pure and vivid enjoyment. Our observations will again be taken chiefly from Schwarz.
Whatsoever is conveyed through the senses to the
mind, and becomes its property, should be completely
absorbed by the mind; i. e., it ought to increase the
freedom, the vigour, and the compass of the mind's
activity. This activity is creative; excited by impressions from without, it develops them intellectually, and from what has been given it produces new
images. This inward, creative power is often designated by the word fancy, which is, however, often
misunderstood. Without this faculty, the mind is
destitute of wings on which it may mount upward.
Although, in the cultivation of the senses, the reasos -




218    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
and the memory, that of the imagination is in a great
measure involved, yet, in order that everything may
be done to cultivate it fully and properly, it should
receive special attention and exercise. Three points
are here to be observed: 1. In the use of the senses,
the reason, and memory, it is to give vitality to the
observations. 2. It ought to be exercised independently. 3. It should pass over into purely intellectual activity, manifested in the production of ideas.
1. It is not sufficient that the material object merely deposite a picture in the eye or a sound in the ear;
the mind is to add to these deposites something which
it neither sees nor hears, without, however, disturbing
or falsifying the impression made upon the senses; a
something which employs the senses in the immediate service of the imagination. This takes place, on
the one hand, in respect of the form of objects, considered from an aesthetic point of view, and on the
other in respect of their material, considered as affecting the sense of touch in a variety of ways.
When the sight of children has become accustomed
to distinguish forms and colours, their attention should
be directed to the beauty which form and colour give
to different objects. But this is not accomplished
by exclaiming, " Oh, how beautiful!" or by teaching
them to prate about beauty; for in this connexion
mere words-are entirely out of place, as they abstract
the mind from all true enjoyment. They should be
permitted to see a great deal that is beautiful, particularly in the vegetable kingdom, committing to a higher influence the time when their feelings will seek
vent in words. Ugly and distorted objects, grimaces,
shallow people, and other things, all calculated to
smother taste in the germ, should be kept far from
them. Do not inflict on them the analysis of flowers,
the anatomy of insects, the shackles of system, ere
they have contracted an affectionate intimacy with
nature. For the best mode of treatment, we refer to
the directions given in connexion with the cultivation
of the sense of sight, where frequent walks amid
beautiful natural scenery and exercises in drawing are




AND INSTRUCTION.             219
recommended. If, with these, the frequent reading
of descriptive poetry, and of tales and biographies,
calculated to excite and nourish the filial affections, is
combined, happy results will be witnessed, and children will frequently break out into expressions truly
poetical.  But great care should be taken lest the
feelings which prompt to such expressions be perverted by your loudly testifying your admiration, or
even exhibiting to others what you regard as extraordinary talent or sensibility in your children; these
feelings are sacred and tender, and thrive only in the
sweet repose of an affectionate family.
Amid the observation of the senses, the imagination
thus becomes the guide to that higher world to which
the mind is to be introduced. In this process, the understanding also is undeniably active; but there are
some exercises which have a special and direct reference to the understanding, inasmuch as the creative
power here spoken of conducts us from what has already been perceived and comprehended on to higher
truth. Mathematical science exhibits this clearly in
multiplication, in the theory of proportions, of the triangles, &c.; in the operation of finding, by means of
certain given quantities, an unknown one, and thus
bringing to light something new. A similar function
is performed, unperceived by the understanding, in all
its conclusions, but especially in the deductions of
logical ratiocination; and thus the activity of the understanding depends, in its apprehension of truth, upon
the active exercise of the imagination.
The young should not, therefore, be left to occupy
their minds only with the objects which they see, and
the thoughts excited by them, but they should be led
onward to farther reflection upon cause, effect, connexion, &c. The mathematical and natural sciences
will serve to accustom them to such reflection. Many
suitable exercises, connected with common life, or
demanding the examination of natural objects as well
as works of art, the qualities requisite to their firmness and permanency, the accidents and destructive
influences to which they are exposed, may be devised




220    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
in order to direct aright their own independent investigations and observations, in the prosecution of which
it is best to let them rectify their errors themselves,
as any interference can only raise obstructions; for
in this connexion the accumulation of knowledge is
not aimed at, but the cultivation of the inventive pow
er of the understanding.
The whole empire of supersensual truth would,
without this power of the mind, remain utterly unknown to us. Without the ability derived from this
faculty to mount above the gross elements of the material world, the soul would remain a stranger to religion, and therefore never find its real home. Hence,
to lead the young to a deeper acquaintance with nature, may become, at the same time, a process of initiation into that which is above nature: and this great
end may be attained on the development of the moral
constitution, in which alone man can be assimilated
to the divine nature; the cultivation, therefore, of pious feelings, be brought into such connexion with the
study of nature, that the mind may discern in the material world the agency of a wisdom which its most
sacred impulses lead it to adore. But, for this very
reason, methodical training is necessary, in order that
absurd and foolish imaginings may not be indulged in.
Children should therefore learn, by comparing what
has already been recognised as true, to proceed to the
supersensual in unbroken and harmonious connexion,
and hence with logical correctness. By means of
these exercises, the creative power of the mind acquires its upward impulse, and yet remains the faithfill handmaid of truth. Thus are prejudice and superstition not only avoided; the light that is poured
into the mind does not convert it into an illuminated
vacuum, but reveals to it its own depth.
But this training is complete only when it keeps,
at the same time, the memory in activity. The stores
of knowledge already accumulated must be perpetually brought to recollection, in order to form out of
them new ones, to rectify errors, and to cause all that
the mind has made the subject of thought to unfold




AND INSTRUCTION.            221
itself in the mature blossom of One Thought. For
example, let the children, when examining some extensive structure, bring distinctly to recollection what
they have learned respecting horizontal and perpendic.
ular lines, gravitation, the nature of wood, &c. With
regard to machines, plants, &c., a similar course,
adapted to the object, should be pursued. The more
they have really learned, the farther will they advance
in the perception of truth, and only in this way does
knowledge become productive capital: "whosoever
hath, to him shall be given." Provision is thus made
that the young will not be robbed, by the capricious
inventions of genius, of their true perceptions, nor
become fantastical even when taking the largest and
boldest views of nature, into which errors those are
the first to fall who, in respect of the subject here
discussed, are left to take their own course. But the
proper training which the imagination, when called
into activity by every exciting cause, and connecting
its operations with those of the senses, the understanding, and the memory, will effect, leads to more
profound and comprehensive views of truth.
We need but be observant of children to discover
how powerful an impulse to the exercise of this creative faculty exists in the very constitution of our
minds. If children are permitted unreservedly to
communicate their own thoughts on various subjects,
we shall often be astonished at the correct, though
imperfect views which they will develop, without extraneous aid, on different matters, even of natural
philosophy. And such observations will teach us how
absurd is the practice of beginning with giving children instruction in everything, respecting its quomodo
and its cui bono, without allowing them time, or affording them occasion, for prosecuting their own independent inquiries, as though, by the process of
teaching, truth were to be driven into their minds.
And surely, considering the rage for text-books on
every conceivable subject, and the premature initiation of children in almost every department of sci



222    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ence, which prevail at present in this country, this
point is deserving of our most serious attention.
One direction, in which the imagination strongly
inclines to exercise its powers, has been almost entirely neglected in modern times. We speak of its
efforts to comprehend the hidden, symbolical meaning
of things. While the symbolical character of natural
objects possessed for the ancients an interest and
charm which excited their liveliest attention, and had
a great influence on their life and institutions; while,
with them, it constituted an essential element of their
education, the modern mind has, in a great degree,
been closed against it; and this has had no little influence in producing the prevalent indifference to religion and its appropriate solemnities. But this tendency of the imagination is highly susceptible of cultivation, and for this cultivation ample occasion is
furnished by many of the amusements of childhood.
Little girls symbolize social life in their dolls, or ascribe to a wreath of certain flowers a peculiar meaning: boys make their canes the representatives of a
variety of things, or seek to express a particular idea
or sentiment by drawing a monument for a friend.
Children should now be taught to read correctly the
symbolical language of nature. Show them the oak
as an emblem of strength; the slender poplar as representing aspirings and elevation to what is exalted;
the violet, as the emblem of modest and retiring virtue; the tulip, that of a pleasing and agreeable exterior, &c., as in the Oriental language of flowers.
But here, also, the independent activity of the imagination should not be too much forestalled. The best
exercise consists in the reading of short poems, of
tales of a suitable character, of fables, and parables.
German literature is rich in exquisite parables, an:
our poverty in this respect might be relieved by
translations. Those of Krummacher, of some of
which an elegant translation was some years ago published in this country, deserve special commendation.
The principles already laid down will enable our
r aders to develop for themselves a suitable method




AND INSTRUCTION.             223
for prosecuting this culture in harmony with the progress of the mind, and with a view to the more profound comprehension of nature.
The object to be attained by these exercises is the
proper culture of the imagination alone. The understanding and the moral sense are cultivated by a different mode of instruction, only let harmony of development prevail. As additional exercises, we may
mention the solution of riddles, charades, and the like;
the invention of such; learning to understand some
language of symbols; examining and finding out the
meaning of allegories; the reading and memorizing
of beautiful poems; the study of the fine arts; excursions of pleasure; and, lastly, every proper variety
of study, if prosecuted with spirit. One of the most
natural and elegant exercises, which is particularly
appropriate for the gentler sex, consists in the cultivation of flowers.
The dreams of children are, in a measure, their poetry, and are generally more connected and vivid than
those of adults; just as if childhood possessed an occult, inward world, which gradually disappears before
the glaring light of reality. Who has not felt. a lively
interest when hearing children of six or more years
artlessly relating their dreams 3 This pleasure should
not be foregone.  By encouraging your children to
repeat to you their dreams, you obtain a twofold advantage; you will become acquainted with their dispositions, and thus understand better how they should
be treated, and you will afford them a most appropriate exercise in giving expression to their poetic imaginings.
In respect to the subject before us, men differ from
each other in that one has avery lively imagination, but
deficient in order and stability; in another, the imagination enjoys a copious flow of images and thoughts,
but is also usually deficient in arrangement and classification; again, in another, it is more active in inventing and in developing from within, but proportionably destitute of external resources; and in the
fourth, its inventions are happy and its combinations




224    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
correct, but; it makes no forward strides, and renlmtinl
poor. Now, that this intellectual power may acquire
opulence and boldness through a copious influx of
thoughts; that it may be quick in grasping and crea.
ting, and yet well-disciplined in forming beautiful
colnbinations; that it may be persevering in execution, and that its energies may, on every fit occasion,
vividly flash out-this is the object to be aimed at in
its cultivation. By the cultivation of this faculty, the
activity of the mind, in general, is to be strengthened
and elevated, and flighty and unsteady heads are to be
accustomed to persevering exertion. It is thus that
distinguished thinkers are developed; and if nature
come to the aid of the culture contended for, by gifts
munificently bestowed and harmoniously arranged,
we see before us a genius. If, during the development of the imagination, a docile and pious spirit be
cultivated, it will have the most happy influence on
the whole mental culture of man. It is, therefore, of
the utmost importance, that, from the earliest period
of its development to its mature bloom in the later
years of youth, it be guided and disciplined by a proper mode of education.
Attentwon.
Attention, in the proper sense of the word, cannot
be ascribed to children before their minds begin to
become conscious of their independent existence and
their capacity for exertion; their earliest consciousness has respect, not to their higher personality, but
only to self. Our readers must, of course, be aware,
that in our observations on the cultivation of the
senses, the memory, and the imagination, the powet
of attention has already been largely treated of. The
discipline, recommended under the just mentioned
subjects, is in the highest degree calculated to awa
ken, to exercise, and to cultivate the attention. It
will, therefore, not be necessary to expatiate much
on this point here, and we shall merely add a brief
sketch of the principles to be observed in leading the
young to the exercise of attention. These may be di



AND INSTRUCTION.             245
vided into, 1. Negative. Do not require children to
direct their attention to what must be unintelligible
to them, such as purely abstract ideas, or such as are
incomprehensible both from their nature and their
magnitude; for example, the nature of God; but
while their attention is directed towards subjects
which their minds are capable of grasping, let all distracting influences be removed from them.
2. Positive. Positive means of exciting attention,
and of promoting its steady and habitual exercise,
will be found in the charm of novelty, of change, of
contrast; and in ascending, by an appropriate and
gradual progress, from lower to higher degrees of
knowledge.
The great principle never to be lost sight of is, that
the pupil should be able to make his own whatever is
presented to him. Let, then, nothing be presented to
his attention which he is utterly unprepared to master; which his mind is quite unable to digest, and
which, therefore, cannot be changed "in succum et
sanguinem."
When the child hears the oral communications of
his teacher, or is made to see something, as it were,
through the medium of the teacher's instructions, the
subject communicated is as yet strange to him, but is
now to become his own. The subject, therefore.
awakens sensations new to him; produces an excited
state, which is not at first agreeable, but demands a
determinate effort for the exercise of the attention.
Now, if the subject is to obtain entrance, and to engage the attention, it must excite an interest in the
pupil, and enlist his desire of culture; it must transform, instantaneously, that disagreeable sensation
into' the pleasing consciousness of inward power;
and by the apprehension of that which is given, that
mental activity must be excited by which the pupil's
3wn mind receives, digests, and assimilates the subject, so that what once was foreign now becomes
his own. Here, also, one-sided culture is to be studiously avoided; neither too much nor too little direct
instruction to be given. In the multiplicity of subjects
S




226-   A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
which children are made to study in our day, there is
entirely too much of mere verbal instruction; and
youthful minds are often crushed under the weight of
the external world, which is crowding in upon thern
through every avenue. How important is it that the
old maxim be borne in mind: "Non multa, sed
multum."
The Understanding.
It cannot be denied, that to the full and proper use
of reason maturity of years is necessary, and that its
factitiously precocious development, which displays
itself in a certain knowingness and pertness, belongs
to the most disgusting perversions of the youthful
mind. - Nevertheless, a great deal can unquestionably
be done, from early youth, for the appropriate culture
of the understanding. Our readers will not fail to
observe, that much of what has already been said, in
connexion with other subjects, has an important
bearing, more or less direct, on the development and
cultivation of the understanding. And thus the importance of harmoniously cultivating all the faculties
of man, in such a manner as most effectually to attain
the true end of his being, becomes more and more obvious the farther we advance.
Among the many points of difference between man
and the lower animals, the first that particularly
strikes us is the slow and gradual process by which
he attains the full and perfect use of his senses. The
cause of this is to be. sought in the gradual development of the mind, whose servants the senses are.
The higher senses, through which the soul receives
its first impressions from the external world, and
through which, therefore, the activity of the mind is
first excited, are the first to come into vigorous and
extended action, and the inferior senses are much lator in coming to anything like perfection. But a long
time is necessary in order to bring the senses to perform all their functions with that degree of acuteness
and accuracy, vigour and compass, of which they are
capable. And it is attention which gradually carries




AND INSTRUCTION.              227
on and perfectly develops the energy of the whole
sensual system of man, by detaining this energy in
the different branches of that system, and by suitable
practice giving it the mastery of each. These observations will serve to show how important it Is that
the cultivation of the senses, as recommended in this
work, be carefully attended to.
We are here more particularly concerned with
the understanding, as thZ thinking faculty. Yet here,
also, we cannot immediately escape from the senses,
because the thinking of children, in as far as they
may be said to think, consists in observing by means
of the senses, especially those of sight and hearing.
The first instruction given to children should therefore treat of subjects which may be illustrated to the
eye. Speak to children even ten years of age on any
subject, however interesting, and, unless they have an
image of it before them, or a clear conception of it,
they will be listless and inattentive; but if you illustrate your narrative or explanations by visible objects,
they will hang with breathless attention on your lips
to catch every word that you utter. Yet are they not,
therefore, slaves of the sense of sight; for, in the attention which their various modes of observing imply,
the independent activity of the mind is already displayed, inasmuch as the attention passes deliberately,
not only from one object to another, but from one form
or colour to another; and even young children will develop abstract notions from all the various impressions received through the senses. The attention
thus proceeds to form ideas of things, of their qualities, relations, and distinctive peculiarities; begins
to accustom the imagination to distinguishing and
classifying, and thus to conceive of things different
from the reality; and acts, therefore, with perfect independence, both in perceiving and imagining. These
operations are displayed in the constant search after
something new, not yet seen or heard of by them,
in which we see children engaged. This vivid play
of the attention, passing from perceptions to the
formation of ideas, and vice versa, increases until




228     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
about the fourteenth year, when the attention withdraws more into the inner world, which the morningstar of love begins to illumine, or fixes itself more on
some particular object in the external world.
With children of seven years of age the fancy will
already far outstrip the realities of the material world;
their narrations of what they have seen will be less
faithful; they will omit poiits that failed to interest
them; they will exaggerate those which excited their
liveliest interest; they will delight in marvellous
stories and accounts of superhuman beings; and as
this is clearly the age of play, their plays and amusements deserve particular attention. Regarding them
as an essential means of not only intellectual, but almost every other variety of culture, they ought not to
be left to mere accident, but should be treated as a
most important part of education. Games which ex-.ercise the patience, the ingenuity, the imagination of
children, or require some acquaintance with geography and history, are to be highly recommended. If
the age of childhood and early youth is the season for
play, care should be taken to give meaning and character to the games of the young. Games which contribute nothing to the development of the body and
the culture of the mind, or even promote indolence
and sensuality, ought to be discountenanced as utterly worthless. But the veriest trifle becomes important as soon as it contributes to the attainment of
higher purposes. All games are liable to degenerate,
and to be perverted to mischievous purposes: all
games of hazard are evil and only evil, and those who
indulge young persons in them are guilty of downright wickedness.
During childhood the receptiveness and retentiveness of the memory are greater than at any subsequent
period. The boy of fourteen years will have to make
greater exertions in committing to memory than the
boy of seven years. But now the inward activity
has increased in freedom and strength. The boy sees
and hears more acutely what he wishes to see and
hear, and impresses it more distinctly and firmly in




AND INSTRUCTION.            229
the mind. Determined to see and hear correctly, he
will make greater exertions to commit the subject to
the memory, but it will be done in such a manner as
to ensure distinct recollection. But, as the inward activity of the mind keeps pace with the progress of
youth to maturity, in feeling, in developing ideas, ill
forming purposes, whatever is immediately connected with this inward faculty will be more easily and
I)etter retained. The youth who, in his boyhood, most
readily and distinctly remembered the forms of words
and the scenery of his home, will now be occupied
with the meaning of words, and with the rights, the
advantages, the improvement, the adornment of the
paternal estate, and seek rather to acquire thoughts
through the medium of language, and to become acquainted with the relations of human affairs. Thus
the memory is gradually diverted from observations
to ideas: in earlier years its business is chiefly to receive impressions through the senses; in youth it becomes the servant of thought in recalling ideas: and
thus, also, the power of recollection is strengthened;
for the many accumulated impressions are now more
and more frequently reproduced, classified under various forms of thought, or interwoven with divers
feelings, so that it is frequently the favourite employment of youth to look back into the paradise of childhood.
The highest activity of the thinking faculty is exhibited in the process of reasoning, and in this respect the understanding is the power or impulse to
strive after what is greatest and highest in thought.
Its first manifestations are witnessed in the attention
with which children observe, by means of the senses
of sight and hearing. The constantly increasing desire to conceive and create by means of the imagination, is nothing else than the understanding progressing in its development. Children will connect two
conceptions with each other, and formn out of them
a third; and for this process they soon develop a
rule, which refers all individual conceptions to that




i.t30    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
one entire product of connected thought which we
call truth: this rule is the syllogism.
The reasoning faculty will early give evidence of
the decided convictions which it has attained; and.
even children of three years of age will imagine pos-.
sible cases, and make provision for that case which
they regard as the most probable to occur. The subjects which occupy their minds are mostly such as
employ their physical energies and their senses; but,
as they advance towards youth, they rather compare
conceptions (or perceptions) with each other, in order
to separate the true from the erroneous, and to obtain
a correct apprehension of everything. This striving
after unity of thought, this thinking of many things
in order to develop and apprehend the truth, which is
the object of all thought, is denominated reflection.
Another mode in which the activity of the thinking
faculty is manifested, is contemplation. The mind
here employs itself in thinking of an object in such a
manner as to elevate this inward process of thinking
into an operation of unlimited compass, and resembling vision in its nature and clearness. Thus we
contemplate nature and the traces of the Deity. This
operation of the understanding is originated by the
imagination, which seeks to present the subject under
a variety of conceptions to the soul, but, not satisfied
with this alone, enlarges them ad infinitum.
Reflection and contemplation constitute that activity of the reasoning faculty which is manifested in
the earliest process of thinking, and its product is
thought.  A thought beyond which the thinking
faculty cannot go in respect of any particular object,
is termed an ultimate truth. The child has notions,
the boy gets thoughts, the youth obtains ultimate
truths.
The understanding is designated by different terms,
according to.the particular direction in which it is
pre-eminently active. When it correctly and easily
combines the general and the particular, it is called
a sound judgment; if it perform this operation with
acute discrimination, we call it profundity; and if with




AND INSTRUCTION.             231
happy associations of ideas, we name it sagacity.
Even in young children possessed of a healthy understanding, these mental qualities may be observed.
They will, for example, note the difference between
two animals; they will play upon words; they will
draw rapid conclusions from the expression which
they observe on the countenance of an acquaintance;
or they contrive how they may most effectually pre.
vail with their parents to grant them some wish;
but, of course, all this is done unconsciously and
without design, at least throughout the second period
of childhood.  Not until the season of youth can
sagacity and penetration be deliberately exercised, and
the pleasure arising from them aimed at, at least
if their minds have not been perverted in childhood,
The boy of ten, or even fewer years, may easily solve
riddles, or discriminate between two significations of
the same word, or translate into well-chosen words,
and with correct application of rules; but the boy of.
fourteen years is not likely to invent riddles, or to
write original essays, or to form a critical judgment of
anything, because he does not yet possess the power
of abstracting his mind from the objects themselves,
nor of exercising his mind with reference to rules,
ideas, and connexion of ideas. Before the fifteenth
year, it.will, therefore, be. necessary to exercise his
judgment, penetration, and sagacity in observing:
practice by means of original productions belongs to
the subsequent period.
In attending to the mode of treatment recommended
for the cultivation of the senses, the memory, the
imagination, the attention, and the understanding, the
complete result will be the proper culture of the mind
for the healthful and energetic performance of its various functions. You will thus arouse children from
the dreamy habits into which they are apt to glide,
and habituate them to the deliberate control of their
thoughts. You will accustom them to form clear
conceptions and correct perceptions, and the consequence of this will be, that they will express them.
selves clearly. You will train them to independent




232    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
efforts in thinking and judging; and you will excite
them to the exercise of penetration and sagacity.
You will essentially aid them in the attainment of
clear conceptions and perceptions by giving them
accurate definitions of objects and observations, and
by practising them in defining; by letting them closely
compare and distinguish, which will particularly practise their penetration and sagacity; by explaining to
them the origin and use of things, and the mode of
using them; by directing their attention to the connexions subsisting between things, such as those of
cause and effect, of means and object, &c., and by practising them in arranging and classifying their observations. On the other hand, you are sure to suppress
the independent activity of the understanding by exposing them to influences which distract the attention, and by undertaking to accomplish too much at
once: for example, by giving them too many and too
extensive lessons; by proposing to their minds what
they cannot comprehend; by habituating them to that
slavish reliance on the authority of others which the
poet repudiates, when he describes himself as " nullius addictus jurare in verba magistri;" and lastly, by
despising, or treating as ridiculous, their opinions or
judgments, which, though objectively wrong, are yet
subjectively correct; i. e., such as, from their point
of view, they necessarily must be.
Penetration and sagacity may be perpetually exercised in the daily intercourse of life, and especially,
also, by certain amusements, which we have specified,
and which demand an effort of the understanding.
The reading of the young is a point of the utmost
importance in respect of their entire culture. That
this should be carefully and wisely controlled and regulated, we need not urge. Although excellent juvenile books of every description are now exceedingly
abundant, furnishing to the young nourishment for the
mind and heart, this well-founded rule remains unshaken in its authority, that small children should scarcely
read at all, and boys and girls but little; and that, even
in youth, reading should not be extensive in quantity.




AND INSTRUCTION.                  233
Our young people now read incalculably more than
they can digest; and such reading, which in our day
is a downright mania, exerts an inconceivably pernicious influence on the mind. When we consider the
mass of trash and miserable twaddle which, in the
shape of tales, &c., is daily thrown from the press,
and see with what voracious appetite children and
youth devour this noisome stuff, we stand aghast at
the consequences which loom up out of this muddy
atmosphere.
In conclusion, we observe, that the entire intellectual culture thus treated of is not designed to form
the future professional scholar, but is that development of the understanding which is equally necessary
to all, and ought to characterize every sound mind.
CHAPTER II1.
MSTHETIC CULTURE.
Cultivation of the Feelings for the Perception and Enjoyment of the Beautiful.
FoR the sense of the beautiful, in the widest signification of the term, i. e., taste, the best foundation is
laid by observing and promoting cleanliness, order,
and simplicity, in the arrangements and concerns of
external life. Theserequisites should be procured
for the sense here considered, even before it awakes
in the child, which does not, indeed, usually happen
very early. The favourable influence of cleanliness
and order in the interior and exterior of dwellings,
and of everything around them, on the development
of aesthetic feeling, is amply attested by experience.
As the beautiful itself is necessarily divided into
two varieties, namely, 1. sensuous, as all object of observation,* and 2. intellectual, as employing the judg* This word, which is often used in the present work in its popular
meaning, is here and elsewhere (as the reader will have noticed) employ
ed in a manner somewhat peculiar, in order to express what the Germans
call Anschauung. By observation we therefore mean the acquisition of
perceptions by means of sensations produced through any one of the senses, or the acquisition of knowledge by the inspection of objects thiougb
the medium of any of the senses.




234    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ment, there will also, in this respect, be a twofold ed.
ucation.
With respect to each variety, the necessary culture
should be immediate; i. e., partly with direct reference to observation, and partly with a direct view to
feeling; yet with this culture no theory of the beautiful should be connected; for such theory cannot belong to popular life, but only to the learned world.
We here again observe, that much of what has
been said in relation to the cultivation of the senses
and the imagination has a direct reference to the aesthetic culture here treated of, embracing both varieties of the beautiful, but more particularly the first.
The following brief observations will therefore be
sufficient on this subject.
The first important requisite foi- the cultivation of
the taste for beauty in perceptible objects, in its widest sense, is, that the external dispositions of locality,
which daily meet the child's eye, be of a beautiful,
tasteful, and exalted character. This requisite applies with peculiar force to the dwelling and its ornaments; to furniture, utensils, toys, and pictures, from
all which objects the child receives its first sensible
impressions: but the most important point to be considered is the character of surrounding nature. It is
much to be desired, that, in the choice of a locality for
institutions of education, the beauty of the circumjacent natural scenery might meet with far greater
attention than has generally been the case. The
grounds which surround academies and colleges ought
to be laid out and planted according to the dictates of
refined and elegant taste. Alas! that in this country
the destructive propensities of college students are so
extensively employed in marring the beauty of such
arrangements by hewing or breaking off young trees,
and in many other ways. This very fact proves a
deficiency in the early education of our young people.
When an American scholar of eminence, (luring his
travels in Germany, expressed his surprise that the
public grounds and gardens were not injured by the
populace, and his regret that such was but too much




AND INSTRUCTION.             235
the case in his native land, the German, who asked
him the simple question whether we had no education
in America, ha  obviously the correct view of the
matter. Early ducation must cure the disgraceful
habit, which so  - nerally prevails in this country, of
cutting, and in v -rious ways defacing and injuring,
whatever is acces ible to the public.
Frequent excur,ions into beautiful and romantic
mountain scenery, particularly if accompanied by
suitable conversation on the part of the parent or
teacher, calculated to awaken and guide the attention
of children in observing the beautiful characteristics
of the landscape, both in. mass and in detail, will do
much towards developing and cultivating their sense
of the beautiful. This and other exercises, recommended on former pages, will lead children to the unaffected enjoyment of nature. This enjoyment should
arise from the actual perception and correct appreciation of what is truly beautiful; and hence every
mode of culture should here be avoided which can be
productive of pedantry, or an affectation of pious feelings, in contemplating the beauties of the Almighty
Creator's works.
* Parents who desire to cultivate in their children a
capacity to perceive and enjoy the beautiful, should
be careful to select their toys with taste. The majority of these things, as well as most of the little
books for children, which are generally disfigured by
uncouth and gaudy daubs, exert an influence most
prejudicial on the future development of the child's
taste; but, on the other hand, by affording children
early and frequent opportunities of learning to admire
beautiful paintings, a most effectual and salutary educational influence will be secured.
It is the opinion of some, and among them of Rousseau, that a taste for the beauty of forms and of nature is promoted by early teaching children botany, in
a manner suited to their young capacities. To this
we can only assent if but little of the details of botanical anatomy (for such is the analysis) be introduced,
and the attention chiefly directed to the wonderful




236    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
variety of forms, of colouring, and habits exhibited ili
the vegetable world.
When the power of observation has acquired acuteness and vigour, and the understanding begins to display a degree of judgment, children should have frequent opportunities of observing (see note, p. 233)
works of art; of painting and design; productions
of the plastic art, strictly so called; of music and
architecture. Without intending to practise professionally any of these arts, every man should, in his
youth, cultivate his observation; in general, his power
of perception, by suitable practice in several of these
arts, if not in all. This should be treated, not as a
branch of school-instruction, but as an amusement;
at least where the educator has learned to manage
amusements in a manner suited to the attainment of
higher ends.
We are aware that on this point education will
thus come into conflict with the spirit of fashion, inasmuch as the modern arrangements of life exhibit
very little that is truly beautiful in all these arts, but
much, on the other hand, that directly corrupts the
taste. Much might be done in our seminaries of
learning for the promotion of a better state of things,
by judiciously cultivating in our-youth a taste for all
that is beautiful in nature and art.
The point of transition from the purely sensuous
beautiful to purely intellectual beauty we find in the
beautiful human form, with its intellectual expression, in bearing, motion, and features.
The observation of beautiful human beings, whose
exterior announces excellence of character, is directly the most effectual education for the perception and
appreciation of intellectual beauty, which can be apprehended only by the judgment..We need not here attempt to show how desirable
it is that children be placed in situations where they
would remain entire strangers to the dregs of human
society, while enjoying the genial influence of refined
and virtuous society, both male and female.
The chastening and refining influence of female




AND INSTRUCTION.             237
society on the young of the other sex is a subject
on which elegant pens have largely written, and
which needs no recommendation here; yet here, also,
how necessary is caution! how baneful is the influence of females who have nothing to recommend
them but personal beauty, and the frivolous gayety,
the trifling worldliness of mere fashionable life!
Not before the age of puberty should young persons
begin the study of intellectual beauty as presented by
the poets, in order by it to cultivate themselves for it;
but more particularly, and first of all, should they cultivate acquaintance with the poets of their own native
land, in order that at length the absurd prejudice may
be eradicated, that there is no real beauty except the
antique or classical. and that learning, or even pedantry, is necessary to the apprehension of the truly
beautiful.
A gradation should here be observed from.he more
easy to the more difficult poets.
1. Authors.more distinguished for pure versification
than poetic depth, and who cultivate the taste more
by the melody than by the meaning of their song:
under this we include also hymns, narratives, ballads,
and fables, where simplicity is the highest grace. Such
are the productions of Mrs. Barbauld, Watts, H. F.
Gould; certain pieces of Wordsworth and of Cowper;
Gay's Fables, &c.; Mrs. Hemnans, Mrs. Sigourney.
2. Pastoral Poetry.  Shenstone, Pope, Thomson,
Crabbe, Collins, Dryden's Eclogues of Virgil, Beattie.
3. Epic Poetry. Pope's Homer, Dryden's Virgil,
Milton's Paradise Lost, Spenser's Faery Queen, Sir
W. Scott's Lady of the Lake, &c., Southey's Thalaba, Don Roderick, &c.
Tragic and lyric poems are scarcely adapted to the
culture of youth, as they are not sufficiently understood until maturer years have been attained, though
they be not injurious, as comedies and satires undoubtedly are.
It is deeply, inexpressibly to be deplored, that poetry also has been prostituted to the service of lust and
licentiousness How carefully should the sanctuary




238    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
of the young heart be. guarded against the -polluting
influence of such vile works of art! Yet the fastidiousness of those who confound love with lust will do
little for asthetic culture, by forbidding the young all
but grave, didactic poems.
The very impossibility of understanding many of
our best English poets without some classical culture,
demonstrates the necessity of an acquaintance with
the classics; but this necessity presents itself from
a higher point of view when we consider the poverty
of modern life in everything poetical and beautiful:
these elements are crushed amid the crash and clamour of business, the rush of railroads, and the clatter
of money. The beautiful aspects of classic Greece
should therefore afford our youth an ideal background upon which after times may throw their darker colours of reality.
Children merely observe, they do not reflect. Hence
an additional reason for making them acquainted with
the Greek classics arises from the objectiveness of
the Greeks, so observable for children; and this will
serve as a counterpoise to the highly reflective subjectiveness of modern times.  The study of the
Greek classics should not, therefore, be regarded as
belonging exclusively to the culture of the professional scholar, but treated, as it is to a considerable
degree in England, and in some measure also in this
country, as constituting an important element in the
general culture of man. It serves as a lever to raise
men from the common class (common as regards cul
ture) to the educated or cultivated.
From these observations it will appear that classical
culture should be attainable without the study of the
Greek language. It is the enjoyment of the beautiful,
as exhibited in the Greek classics, which ought to be
accessible to all; and for this purpose good translations should be put into the hands of those who are
not instructed in the Greek language.
It is desirable that this classical culture might commence at a very early period. Among the first picture-books and stories put into the hands of children




AND INSTRUCTION.              239
should be mythological representations. These will
also have a favourable influence on the imagination,
as well as the taste for sensuous beauty; and thus,
through the pleasures of its woild of amusements, the
child will domesticate itself in the mythological and
historical world of the Greeks. The writer recollects,
with pleasure, that in his early days such things were
furnished for children; and to them he feels himself,'n a great degree, indebted for such familiarity as he
las with the mythology and history of the Greeks.
tas it contributed to the improvement of the age that
these classical toybooks have been superseded by
Mderry Jack, et hoc genus omne, with all its daubs and
unmeaning rhymes 1
Next, then, let translations of the Odyssee and Iliad
be read to children, so that they may, at the same time.
feel the pleasure arising from the charm of rhythmical
numbers. Unfortunately, this charm, as it belongs to
those glorious Greek epics, is entirely lost in the
English translations of Pope, while in the German
translations of Voss the easy and grateful flow of
the hexameter appears as perfectly as in the Greek.
But, as the English language (some authorities to the
contrary notwithstanding) is incapable of hexametrical verse to any considerable extent, we must be
content with what we have. No reflections on Pope's
elegant translation are intended; we speak merely
with reference to the beautiful metre of the' original.
The children should themselves read geographical
and historical representations from the Grecian world,
which ought to be illustrated by suitable engravings
and maps.
A book of travels for youth, in the style of Barthelemy's "Journey of the younger Anacharsis to
Greece," would be a desideratum.
In later years this difference arises, that by far the
smaller number of pupils only have an opportunity to
study the ancient languages, with which the majority
of our youth remain unacquainted. It therefore only
remains to furnish, for the use of the unlearned of
both sexes, translations, giving not only the sense, but




240     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
the spirit of the originals. The literature of Germany
and France has long been rich in such translations.
Is there no encouragement for American scholars to
supply the deficiency of English literature in this respect.
The following order may be observed in making the
young acquainted with the classics. Next to Homer
should follow translations of Ovid expurgated; next,
of Virgil; and, lastly, of Horace's Odes, which must
also be subjected to an expurgatory process. At the
same time might be read an English version of
what Herder has translated of the Anthology; also,
a selection from the poems of Theocritus. Equally
to be recommended are translations of prose writers,
such as Herodotus, Plutarch, Xenophon. We have
already said that the ancient tragic and comic writers,
though the former be not actually injurious, are nqo
directly suited to the course of education here treated of.
The design of this whole westhetic culture is not to
educate future artists or scholars, but to produce that
culture of the feelings which is equally necessary for
all men, and should give to the judgments of all the
refinement of taste.
CHAPTER IV.
Practical Education, designed to develop the Character in
generalfor the Public and Practical Affairs of Life.
i. Practical Education in general, or Education in Business Habits, and in the Proprieties of Life.
THE first point here is to give the young correct
and salutary views of human life, which occupy middle ground between rudeness and effeminacy, and,
being at the same time liberal, will counteract the
prejudices of contracted minds. It is, no doubt, a
difficult matter to contend against a corrupt public
sentiment; and when this is so, the children will be
so also. It is the business of a wise system of education to remedy this evil.




AND INSTRUCTION.             241
The young should be taught to entertain a health
ful self-respect, which lies midway between false
humility and foolish pride. No less should a generous desire, and a dignified pursuit, of distinction be
inculcated, which again keeps the middle course
between a stupid indifference to the opinion of others,
and a vainglorious passion for shining. Ill these
respects the habits of the popular mind will present
no small obstacles to education.
The virtues of active or business life, by means of
which property is acquired, are, industry and economy, midway between habits of drudgery and a passion for dissipation, and between avarice and prodigality.
The young should be taught to value labour and
property as means for the supply of wants, and never
to regard them as the end or object of life. The importance of these considerations to our thrifty and
money-making community is frequently recognised
by writers and public speakers who have the good
of the public at heart; but still the mighty throng
rushes on in the pursuit of wealth, and the voice of
the preacher is scarcely heard amid the buzz of the
eager multitude. It behooves, then, the educators of
youth to assail this evil at its root.
In connexion with industry and economy, the young
should be habituated to a love of order, which comprehends regularity and punctuality, and occupies middle
ground between rude insubordination and a listless
pliableness, indicating a total absence of an independent will.
In these highly important concerns of human culture, the example of the educator must furnish the
most suitable and efficient process of education.
Without this, neither instruction nor admonition will
be of any avail. The earlier you begin with habituating the young to these virtues, the more easily and
completely you will succeed. Bad habits, in these
respects, are not easily shaken off in later life.
To the proprieties of life, which comprehend personal cleanliness, posture in sitting or standing, and to
T




242    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
politeness, the young should be accustomed in early
childhood; but never should nature be sacrificed to
the conventional rules of politeness, or, in other
words, artificial forms or affected manners should
never usurp the place of that gracefulness of deportment, that studiousness to gratify and anticipate the
wishes of others, to promote by even the most trifling
attentions their comfort and enjoyment, which are
dictated by an amiable disposition, or, more correctly,
by a thoroughly and well educated heart. In this
particular, also, example and habit will be most effectual. But, from what has just been said, it is evident
that examples should be chosen with care. The notion that by intercourse with society the young should
be educatedfor society, is an absurd prejudice. It is
the business of a good education to raise the young
above the follies and caprices of fashionable life, and
to give them strength and independence of character,
to adopt such manners as are dictated by a sound
judgment and an elegant taste, however those, who
are slaves to conventional rules, may sneer.
The design of this general culture for life is insensibly to habituate the young to those virtues which
constitute the basis, not only of the culture necessary to any particular profession, but of every higher development of character.
As the subject here discussed is, in general, well
understood, we have considered ourselves justified in
treating it quite briefly; the more so, as it is one on
which much valuable matter may be found in the writings of Dr. Franklin, Blair, and others who have laboured for the general improvement of men
2. Practical Education for some particular Calling.
Not only is it with most men a matter of necessity,
but, with regard to all, it belongs to the beauty of life,
that they devote themselves to some particular calling; for this alone can give to life form and stability
of character, without which it can present nothing to
the view but shapeless confusion. The life-ideal of
the rich, which consists in restless but passive change,




AND INSTRUCTION.             24-3
in alternation between country and city life, and in
travels undertaken solely with a view to pleasure, or
to run away from the ennui of home, is as contemptible as it is false. The most wealthy ought, without
any regard to gain, to seek the most important offices in the state.
Education for some particular calling, which consists in the cultivation of a capacity for business (professional or mechanical) and usefulness, is thus an
essential element in the culture of the understanding
for the development of intellectual grace or beauty.
A capacity for business is not the highest object at
which education should aim, but it is that most important element, without which all that is higher can
have no fixed centre, around which it may perform
its steady and beautiful revolutions.
If the cultivation of useful qualities has, in modern
times, been neglected in other countries, either from
effeminacy or through the influence of false theories,
this reproach does not affect the inhabitants of our
free states, where, on the other hand, the practical
predominates, to the exclusion, in a great measure, of
the beautiful and ideal.
Every human being ought to be free to choose his
own calling, in accordance with his talents, which
are wont to manifest themselves at a certain age by
favourite inclinations and tastes. Few are so happy
as to enjoy this privilege; in the exercise of which,
however, the young should be guided by the counsels
of experience and mature wisdom.
Education should therefore dG all in its power to
effect this object, as far as it may be attained: its
business is to inquire, with the utmost care and impartiality, into the talents of the young, and, according to the result, to fix upon their future, calling. A
child ought never to be compelled to embrace an occupation against which all its inclinations revolt.
Such coercion can only have a pernicious effect on
the whole course of life, by diverting powers, which
might be most successfully exercised in some other
sphere, into channels where they are sparingly ex.




244    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
pended in unprofitable exertion, and by destroying
the individual's contentment and happiness. Nothing
can be more foolish than to compel young persons to
study with a view to some learned profession, and
nowhere is this folly more mischievous, than when it
introduces an unwilling drone into the Gospel ministry.
The callings of human life are divided into two
classes, which may be contrasted as the higher and
lower; the ideal and practical; the elevated and common; or the intellectual and sensuous.
The former constitute the learned or literary world;
the latter, the world of the people, or of common life.
They are opposites; yet not hostile, but friendly opposites: certainly the most amicable relations ought
to exist between them, for they really stand related to
each other as the flower to the stem. The learned
world has in the public its root and stem: hence only
when popular life, the life of the community at large,
is healthful, can health and vigour pervade the learned
w'r-ld; but it is the duty of the latter steadily to advance the improvement and culture of the former in
all things essential to the well-being of the individual
and the state.
The scholar is, by virtue of the special calling to
which he is bound to devote himself, a member of the
popular world; for only in connexion with this can
the ultimate objects of his calling have real significance and importance. But this relation cannot be
inverted. The common man is not to intrude himself
into the learned world, for he does not belong therehe is unfit for it; and, however desirable the general
diffusion of useful knowledge undoubtedly is, there is
in our modern culture too much of that perverse tendency which amalgamates the two opposite callings,
degrading learning into a trade, and making a scholar
of the mechanic.
Popular callings are such as are rendered necessary
by the wants of our nature, but which are valuable
only as means for the attainment of higher purposes.
The learned callings, on the other hand, are those




AND INSTRUCTION.              245
which ale truly free (liberal, k:e7,Oepa), and have directly in view the genuine, the highest purposes of
man's existence —truth, virtue, and beauty. The
Greeks divided society into freemen and slaves.
This distinction cannot coexist with the doctrines
of the New Testament, which represent all men as
brethren; and, according to these doctrines of Christianity, the scholar, though in intellectual culture he
rank far above the community at large, ought to be
the faithful servant of society, aud, as such, labour
earnestly for its good.
Preparation for any future calling is effected by
suitable instruction and training. The science which
presents a system for the instruction of youth is called
Didactics, and is necessarily divided into two parts.
A. Popular Instruction, or Education for the Callings of
Common Life.
What the popular callings chiefly require is skill ill
reading, writing, and arithmetic. It is too late in the
day to urge the importance of these acquisitions, more
especially in our land of common schools; yet recent
statistics have shown the shameful extent to which
even these primary branches of knowledge are neglected in different sections of our country.
In this earliest instruction of youth, the wants of
the people and of the professional scholar coincide.
The question, whether the Bible be a suitable reading-book for schools, has been often discussed and variously answered. We certainly think that there are
serious objections to this use of the Bible. It seems
inconsistent with the reverence due to this Divine
Book, while, at the same time, much that it contains
should not be read by children; yet the imperative necessity of extending the knowledge of it, and the frequent difficulty of accomplishing this in any other
way, seem to require its introduction into schools;
and, in order that it may not be reduced to the level
of common schoolbooks, we would venture to recommend that the teacher himself devote about an hour
each day to this exercise, by reading aloud to his




246     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
whole school judicious selections from the Old Testament, embracing especially the historical and devotional portions, and the New Testament entire; and,
in order that sectarian jealousy may suffer no alarm,
let him do this "without note or comment," excepting, perhaps, the explanation of such words as the
children cannot be expected to understand, and such
elucidation of ancient manners and customs, as may
be necessary to a correct understanding of what is
read.
No human calling ought to be of such a nature,
that the occupation or trade which constitutes it must
needs injure and degrade, physically, intellectually,
and morally, him that practises it; hence popular instruction ought to impart such knowledge, also, as
will not only protect against immersion in sensuality,
but make those whose employments are sensuous,
who live in the material world, susceptible to the
higher interests of humanity, to beauty and virtue:
On the second step, also, of the instruction of
youth, the wants of the people, and of those who are
looking forward to a learned education, coincide; and,
as regards the latter class, this second period furnishes the best opportunity of showing whether they possess the requisite talents for the course which they
have in view.
The subjects belonging to this second period of instruction are geography for children, with which natural history adapted to the capacities of children may
be profitably combined; history, Latin, and composition, all conducted in a manner suitable for children.
In general, instruction in language, judiciously adapted to the capacities of the pupils, belongs to this second stage of scholastic study.
In the geographical course, the natural productions
of different countries will furnish opportunity for the
introduction of a judiciously adapted course of instruction in natural history. But scientific inquiry and
systematic arrangement are, of course, as yet out of
the question. It is indispensably necessary to exhib
it to the observation of children the different natural




AND INSTRUCTION.             247
productions treated of, as well as animals peculiar to
other climates, either real or in plates. If possible,
good coloured plates should be obtained for this purpose.
In every course of historical instruction for children, everything will depend on the selections which
the instructer makes, and the mode adopted by him
of presenting that which he wishes to communicate.
In both respects, he must, of course, be guided by the
capacity and the destination of his pupils.
Children should not learn history from books, but
from the viva voce narrative of the teacher. In order
to suitable selection, the teacher should therefore possess a copious fund of historical knowledge; and, in
order to his presenting what he has selected in
a suitable and interesting manner, a peculiar talent
for narrative is requisite. The younger the child, the
more' should he be instructed by narrative suited to
his age and capacity, and not in the style of books,
least of all by reading to him. At a later period, detailed accounts of particularly important transactions
may be read to the pupils; but the general plan should
continue to be that of viva voce narrative, with which
suitable conversation, suggested by the subject, may
often be very profitably combined. For the first
course, the best plan will be not to teach universal
history, but prominent sections separately, as,
1. Biblical: 2. Grecian: 3. Roman history.
Instead of teaching the young American what is
called Middle History, or even modern history in general, it will be best to instruct him in that of his native land, with which all that is essential in the history
of other nations will either naturally connect itself,
or may be easily brought into connexion.
In every historical course, it is imperatively necessary to present what has been selected in a manner as
much as possible adapted to the keenness of youthful
observation; i. e., to bring out the individual points
definitely and vividly: in the subsequent repetition or
recitation by the pupil, only the leading facts an the
most important dates should be called for; but, in re



248    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
spect of these, the greatest accuracy should be insist.
ed on.
A survey of universal history, or even a comprehensive view of particular periods, is less to be expected of children than a thorough acquaintance with
separate details. The former is more easily acquired
at a later period, than the latter, if neglected in child*hood, can ever be made up.
Particular instruction in languageis a consideration
of a higher character, and therefore a matter of less
general or imperative importance. If the above-named subjects of instruction ought to be taught in our
common schools, the higher schools, designed for
those whose employments and social position call for
a more elevated and liberal education, should be prom,
inently characterized by the addition of that study
which is here treated of, namely, the study of language. And here the acquisition of some knowledge
of the Latin grammar and vocabulary is particularly
desirable, for two reasons: 1. Because the Latin is
inseparably interwoven with numberless terminologies of common life, of every science, and even of
our own grammar. 2. Because the study of a foreign
language requires closer attention, and leads to a more
intimate and thorough knowledge of the entire structure of language.
It is desirable that those who expect to take the
course usual at high-schools and academies should become acquainted with the Latin language previous to
studying grammatically their native tongue, or other
modern languages, which may be useful to them in after life. Great care should be taken not to burden
the pupil with too much at once.
WVith this early instruction in language should be
connected exercises in the expression of ideas; i. e..
in style. These may be either oral or written. As
regards the former, all affected declamatory utterance
should be guarded against; but great attention ought
to be bestowed on correct and natural declamation.
T'e design of this popular instruction is not to
make of the people, in general, unripe and foolish




AND INSTRUCTION.             249
scholars (axoXaarTcot), and thus to advance them to an
unsatisfactory grade of learning, but to communicate
to them, besides those acquisitions which are necessary to the ordinary pursuits of life, those nobler and
more purely belles-lettristic attainments which develop and elevate their perception of beauty and moral
excellence, to which life itself must cultivate them after their school education is completed.
B. The College, or Instruction preparatory to the Learn.
ed Professions.
Our collegiate institutions are chiefly designed for
those young men who intend to devote themselves to
one or the other of the learned professions. They
may indeed be, and no doubt are, frequented by those
who have no such intention, yet this is the great and
principal object, in view of which they must be regu.lated and conducted. Their great design is this: the
pupil is to be made sufficiently acquainted with antiquity, that, in his future learned profession, he may be
able to learn whatever is known in that profession, so
that in its cultivated class, whose office it is to exert
a cultivating influence, the commonwealth may possess men who have possessed themselves of these
treasures of humanity, of human knowledge, which
have hitherto been accumulated. It is necessary to
adopt this exalted aim, even though it still remain an
ideal; and, if this be the goal to which our colleges
are to conduct the young, their chief concern is the
ancient classic languages, and, besides these, history;
yet, as a matter of course, the other usual studies
can be the less dispensed with, because every one.
who desires to enter and occupy the higher rank of
the cultivating class, must indispensably possess what-'-ver belongs to ge.neral culture, and is expected from
every other class. On the importance of the ancient
classic languages to the attainment of this purpose
-we shall treat farther below. They are indeed indispensable. Seek a substitute for them in whatever
quarcer you please, and you M ill find. nothing that will,
in.l.ke mannar o;' degree, give to t'ie cultivating class
17




250     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
that culture which is illustriously distinguished from
that which every individual in common life may obtain, and which, therefore, alone elevates him to the
rank here contemplated.
From this also follows, that the pupil is bound to
bestow a much greater amount of time and exertion
on his college studies; not more, indeed, than his
strength will bear; but let him who is destitute of
that energy which this higher intellectual rank calls
for, and which must, of necessity, be capable of no
ordinary efforts-let him, in the name of conscience,
not obtrude himself into the halls of colleges.
The daily hours of study to be observed by the pupil must, of course, be gradually increased in number. From the age of eight or nine to the age of
eighteen years, the study-hours in general, including
hours of recitation, should be gradually increased
from eight to nine, to ten, to eleven, to twelve.
In the beginning his labours are performed in
school-hours; subsequently he is expected to prepare
for recitation, and, in general, to study in private, at
an increased ratio, proportionate to his progress and
advancement. The hours of private study should be
to those of recitation in the proportion about =6 or
8  4. The entire period of this scholastic culture
may, on an average, be estimated at ten years, six of
which will be spent in preparatory schools, and four
in college. It may, however, be expected, when a suitable mode of instruction is pursued, that even slow
heads, or mediocrity of talent, will sometimes pass,
in a manner perfectly satisfactory, through the whole
course of study in eight years; and as only the higher order of minds should aim at this highest eminence
of culture, the time may sometimes be even still
shorter. Yet, as every good thing requires time, a
minimum must here be adopted.
The most suitable age for entering college is the
beginning of the sixteenth year, provided that the
preparatory course of instruction has been passed
through with complete success, so that now the higher may be essentially the philological school, tha




AND INSTRUCTION.             251
lower schools having first communicated a profound
and thorough acquaintance with the grammar.
In a good plan of instruction for colleges, regularity of progression should be carefully observed. The
different classes should be so graduated, and sustain
such a relation to each other, that the best students in
the one may, with the best students in the next above,
constitute a continuous succession of strictly progressive advancement.
Hence it will be necessary to be exceedingly strict
in admitting students to college. When pupils enter
unprepared, it is at no time an advantage to them,
and always an injury to the institution. The course
of instruction should resemble the clear, unruffled
current of some gentle stream. Every pupil ought to
be capable of vigorously co-operating in one common
work; each one should bring to it powers sufficient to
go through with the work; each one should stimulate
the other, and contribute to his intellectual growth.
To the attainment of this object, a plan like the fol~lowing, for conducting recitations, will be found highly conducive: let one student go through a portion
of the lesson assigned for recitations say in translating from the Greek or Latin; let another be called
upon to suggest alterations; a third to rectify these;
a fourth may be invited to make observations; a fifth
will perhaps contribute a voluntary remark, and thus
all become, at length, accustomed to take an equal interest and share in the business in hand, and learn,
sine ira et studio, to co-operate in eliciting, in working out fully the sense of a passage, to correct each
other's mistakes, to communicate ideas: they mutually stimulate and are stimulated, and with liveliness
and cheerfulness the work advances: fervet opus.
From this, however, it follows, that the classes must
not be crowded. By strictly adhering to an elevated
standard with regard to qualifications for admission,
the evils arising from classes being unduly large may
in a great measure be obviated.
To'the above observations on colleges, which have




2502   A PLAN'OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
been substantially derived from Schwarz, we add the
following on the importance and uses of classical
studies.
We consider the advantages arising from the study
of the ancient languages under two aspects. The
study is important, 1. As a means for the culture of
the understanding, or of the thinking faculty in the
widest sense.  Memory, imagination, abstraction,
sagacity, judgment —in short, all the lower and higher
intellectual powers are most appropriately and happily exercised and cultivated by a spirited study of
the ancient classic languages. Even the art of expression (style) is much more suitably practised in
this manner than by so-called exercises in composition, which the higher classes in college ought to
be prepared to dispense with. It is this study of the
classics which will afford the student occasions for
presenting his 9wn thoughts and those of others in
the greatest variety of essays; and thus these essays
will combine with his other studies in the formation
of a complete whole, and not be a lame accompaniment, consisting of disconnected and unsuccessful
hors d'oeuvres. Thus will the study of language be
the best preliminary training and preparation for the
learned world, for this is the world of thought.
2. The second advantage attained by these classical
studies is found in the subjects which are presented
in the ancient languages, and with which this study
is to procure us a familiar acquaintance. The collective mass of these subjects may be termed the
classical world. The study of the classics, regarded
from our present point of view, is therefore designed
to afford us a comprehensive and complete view of
tho world, or the life, of the classic nations of antiquity, for the reason that these nations present to
us an ideal of beauty. Classical studies thus constitute the best preparation for the highest purposes and
pursuits of the scholar; for the learned are, first of
all, to promote the ideal of a truly beautiful public ot01
popular life.
cxiu-dered from both these points of view, the




AND  INSTRUCTION.                  253
roper study of the classics will require some particular rules, according to which it ought to be conducted.
1. As a means of Mental Culture.
a. The most natural course would be to begin with
the Greek, rather than the Latin; but, in most cases,
custom is averse to this.
b. With the grammar, application in translating
should  at once be connected by using elementary
books; also, written exercises in the language studied.
The deficiency of suitable books for this latter purpose has long been felt.*
c. The higher art of Latin and Greek writing retains
its value as a beautiful or fine art independent of every
practical purpose to which it may become subservient.
Our youth would acquire a new taste and spirit for this
art, if once they learned to penetrate deeper into the
spirit of the Romans and Greeks; for it is only by
learning to think, in the spirit of the Greeks and Romans, that the art is acquired of expressing one's
thoughts in the genius of these nations; and in this
respect the art of writing Latin and Greek verses is
of great importance.
-. Without, therefore, endeavouring prematurely to
instruct the student in the art of writing good and
elegant Latin, a very rigorous grammatical method
should be adopted and steadily observed. This must,
of course, be adapted to the natural development of
the pupil's mind. In every class the student should
be taught no more than he can distinctly survey and
perfectly understand, but so much he should be absolutely required to make entirely his own.  The introduction of too much of the philosophy of language
should be avoided, while.the powers of the memory
* Since the above was first written in 1842, the consummate ability of
an eminent American scholar has been, and continues to be, indefatigably
employed in supplying the deficiency referred to, and the writer can not
forbear expressing the great pleasure which the appearance of Dr. C. Anthon's voluminous series, to aid students in the study of the Greek and
Latin classics, has afforded him. By his unwearied and invaluable labors
in every department of classical learning, Dr. Anthon has secured the lasting gratitude of all who love the literature of Greece and Rorne, and ap,
preciate its influence in the culture and refinermeat of the mind.




254     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
should be constantly and heavily taxed, without, how.
ever, permitting the mode of instruction to become
inane and lifeless. The method of the ancient hu.
manists and grammarians deserves to be, to some extent, revived, particularly as regards their metrical
and rhyming rules of Latin grammar.
e. Of the utmost importance is a suitable selection
of the authors to be read in class, which selection
most be the result of an extensive and profound acquaintance with classical literature.
2. As a means of acquiring valuable Knowledge.
a. The great point here to be aimed at is, that the
young become suitably and profitably acquainted with
the whole of classic life. We do not mean that the
students are to become archaeologists, veteran antiquaries, but that the instructers should be perfectly at
home in antiquarian lore. The value of such knowledge will become manifest, both in the business of selecting authors for the class, and in the improvements
which its application will produce in the methods of
teaching ancient history which have hitherto been in
vogue.
b. Let such authors only be selected to be read in
class as will essentially contribute to present a complete picture of the ancient world, and let the list of
such authors be as full as possible. But they should
cnly be read carptim, selecting such parts as are essential. to the grand object in view. The student
ought, of course, to feel sufficient interest in the matter, and to possess industry enough to read in private
iue parts omitted. Only by adopting and strictly adikring to a method like this, will a full and satisfactory knowledge. be obtainedl of what is essential, in
the originals, to a complete acquaintance with classic
life.
c. Suitable instruction in ancient history and geography constitutes the indispensable basis for the study
of the authors of antiquity. In both a vivid light
should be thrown upon physical, artistical, statistical,
and political relations; but, in order to do this suce




AND INSTRUCTION.              255
cessfully, it will be necessary for the instructer to
have completely digested and assimilated in his own
mind the writings of such men as Heeren and Barthelemy. Maps, and drawings of whatever is not actually represented in modern life, are indispensable for
rendering classical affairs observable to the student.
d. This entire process of introducing the young
into the beautiful world of the ancients should always
be a direct one; i. e., adapted and corresponding to
the feelings; it ought never to be mediate, i. e., presenting theories and dissecting views and ideas already developed. It should be accomplished by the
intelligent and spirited reading of the originals themselves, accompanied by such explanations, and illustrations, and other reading as may be necessary to
bring out their meaning clearly and fully, and to put
the student, as far as possible, on the same standpoint with his author.
This latter course would in Germany belong to
the University; with us it will have to be mainly
left to the private reading of the student, after having
completed his academic course; and, therefore, the
way to the perfect comprehension of the ancient
world should also be opened by immediate aesthetic
impressions of the plastic arts. A most important
exercise for the student would consist in observing
and copying with his pencil antique statues, temples,
porticoes, and colonnades. Instruction in drawing
may be almost entirely limited to representations
from mythological and Biblical history, and from the
later life of the Romans and Greeks.
e. In general, a thorough and projbund acquaintance
with the ancient world should be insisted on: this will
be the best preventive of pedantry, and of all affected
admiration of the beauty of Grecian life and literature.
Those young persons who design to devote themselves to some one of the learned professions ought,
while at college, to regard themselves as laying a
foundation, broad and deep, for that learning which it
will be their subsequent business to accumulate, in




256     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
connexion with their professional studies and pursuits.
Indeed, our present collegiate course does little more
than lay such a foundation. If in this course the
classics are first in importance, we yet cannot refrain
from expressing our deep regret at the superficial and
unsatisfactory manner, in which certain other highly
important branches of knowledge are usually treated. We speak of geography and history. It is evident that the memory ought to obtain indefeasible
possession'of a copious stock of geographical and
historical knowledge. No one will pretend to deny
that such knowledge is indispensable to the professional scholar; yet our colleges make little or no provision for these important branches of scholastic education. The student is expected to have done with
them, so far as instruction is concerned, before he enters college; or, at most, a little is done in history
during the freshmen-year.
We will admit that an adequate amount of geographical knowledge may be acquired during the
course of instruction which prepares the pupil for college; yet, even in geography, a subsequent course of
a higher and more scientific character would be desirable. But in respect of history, the case is truly
deplorable. The schoolboy is made to recite, memoriter, some author on the history of the United
States, some catechism on English history, and Tytler's Universal History. It is a mere task, and, usually, no palatable one to the pupil; while, in fact, this
study might and ought to be so treated as to engage
his keenest interest. When the instructer teaches by
viva voce narrative, communicates in an interesting
and spirited manner his own accumulated stores of
historic lore, schoolboys will wait, as we can bear witness, with the most impatient eagerness for the hour
of history to return. Of the portion communicated
during the hour, the teacher can furnish an abstract,
to be transcribed and committed by the pupils., But,
while much may be accomplished by the adoption of
such a course in academies, history, in its widest
compass and its highest meanings, ought to consti



AND INSTRUCTION.             257
tute a PIrominent branch of college study, and we
would venture to suggest that every college should
have a professor of history: a man of large and liberal mind; one possessing in a high degree the faculty of treating his great subject, mankind, in its varied
aspects, developments, revolutions, and activities, in
a lively, spirited, and sensible manner; in a manner
every way calculated to lead to those important and
valuable results which an intelligent and profound
study of history is confessedly alone competent to
effect; and we would farther suggest that ancient
history be thus studied in the first two, and modern
history during the last two years of the collegiate
course.
It is farther important that instruction in modern
languages should be continued and completed in college. It is, perhaps, difficult to point out the extent
to which this instruction should here be prosecuted.
The only suitable mnode, however, of conducting it is
through regular teatchers of their respective native
tongues, who will, by private lessons, and conversation out of school, effect vastly more than can ever
be accomplished by instructers to whom the language
is foreign, and who are therefore under the necessity of treating it according to the established scholastic method.
The aesthetic exercises in drawing and music, which
had been practised in childhood more as an amusement, should now be cultivated with a more direc;
view to the high calling of the scholar, by a morl
thorough and rigorous method. Both these fine arts
should be practised by every pupil, at least until the
teacher himself, and not his own disinclination, has
pronounced him destitute of talent for either. A correct and rigid method of instruction is no less important than it is rare.
For every variety of music, the foundation must be
laid by instruction on the piano-forte, with which
singing should be connected as early as possible.
Vocal music ought also to be extensively cultivated
m our common schools; and we rejoice, not only that




258    A PLAN OF YOUTIIFUL CUL'rURE
the experiment has been.made in the public schools
of Boston, but that it has been attended with results
so highly satisfactory as to furnish every inducement
and encouragement to other communities to imitate
so praiseworthy an example.
Another matter of great importance in collegeinstruction is that preparation for higher scholarship
which is obtained by means of mathematics and
logic, i. e., for perception and conception.
These two branches of education will require very
different modes of instruction, which will coincide
only in this, that in respect of both, independent effort, and not mere memorizing, should be insisted on.
With respect to instruction in mathematics, we
wish to ask attention to a few remarks, which the
mode of treating this science among us has suggested. It will strike every one conversant with our colleges, that students generally regard mathematics as
a difficult study; that they dislike it as dry and uninteresting. Now it appears to us that the difficulties
of this study and its unpopularity arise, in a very
great degree, from its being commenced too late, and
being then, from necessity, treated in a manner too
abstract. The student's mind, which has already, in
a great degree, formed its tastes and partialities, is
expected, without having acquired any interest in this
study by early and entertaining methods, at once to
jump in medias res, and while pursuing, at the same
time, studies far more inviting in themselves, to
grapple with all the abstruse details of this sober
science. The difficulties and the consequent unpopularity which so generally attach to this study would,
we conceive, be very much diminished, by commencing it much earlier than it is at present the practice
to do. In this science, also, Pestalozzi adopted a
method which is in harmony with his general system, and which was more particularly developed and
applied with eminent success by some of his disciples. Through their instrumentality it has been
extensively introduced in Germany; and although it
has met with considerable opposition, it has, in gen



AND INSTRUCTION.              259
emal, maintained the field; and as the following observations, which we translate from the work of
Schwarz, imbody the principles of Pestalozzi's method, we make no apology for introducing them here.
"The abstract consideration of space and time
furnishes matter of instruction which is of unlimited
extent, and calculates spaces, times, powers, and
laws, in relation not only to our earth, but the universe; and the Greek word mathematics indicates
that in this science the process of learning is preeminently performed.  It exercises the  thinking
faculty in its primary functions and efforts; but,
when properly treated, it exercises also the fancy, by
giving impressions (imaginando) of pure form, which
is at the foundation of all sensuous observation, and
thus it exercises the thinking faculty in its legitimate
activity. In this respect, then, it may be truly termed
gymnastics for the mind. This, therefore, is its great
use in the culture of the mind; and for this reason it
constitutes a principal department in the instruction
of education. But its use in respect of what it really
and directly gives, adapts it no less for the purposes
of general culture, and, therefore, some of its branches have, in their application, also become necessary
for the young.
" Inst.ruction in mathematics begins with the exer..
cises for the cultivation of the sense of sight, particularly in estimating distances, as also in the drawing
of lines and figures, and then pursues its regular
course, and cultivates the faculties concerned during
boyhood; so that, towards the fifteenth year, the pupil
reaches that point where he may proceed to the scientific method.
" In the first stage, then, he will learn to comprehend
the doctrine of space and of number; in the second
he will study geometry and arithmetic strictly as sciences, and, not before this period, algebra and mixed
mathesis. The educator will instruct, 1. in the doctrine of figure (or form) and of magnitude; and, at
the same time, 2. in the relations of numbers, or in
calculation. This instruction must be conducted




260     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTUItE
mathematically, i. e., not merely in the way: f ob.
servation, but also to produce comprehension, and a
real understanding of the doctrine of equality, of similarity, of the different relations of angles, figures,
proportions, &c.; so that the difference between the
instruction here spoken of and the scientific instruction, both in geometry and in algebra, eiists only in
the method pursued, while the same things are actually learned to a certain point.
" 1. The Doctrine of Form and of Magnitude.
"By form we mean the limits of space, in all its various phenomena; and, contracted into what is infinitely small, it is conceived of as the mathematical
point. It can, therefore, be exhibited in two ways,
either by proceeding, as seems to be the natural
course, from the former, i. e., from what presents itself to the eye in space, or from the latter, the point,
of which a conception only can be formed by the
mind. The question here arises, Which course would
furnish the best method for education? The former,
it may be thought; yet it is only seemingly the best;
for, in fact, this course would have to proceed from the
entire field of vision, inasmuch as the individual object
in it, or, rather, its outline or surfaces, must first be
sought out and distinguished by the eye: thus some
skill in observation is already presupposed, while this
is, in reality, to be acquired in the manner prescribed.
Moreover, the field of vision is something so indefinite
and confused, that there can be, in relation to it, but
the smallest degree of clearness and simplicity of conception; and, in addition, it requires a power of abstraction very considerably cultivated, in order to
form an abstract conception of the mathematical instead of the material figure, of its surface and its limits, of the lines and points. This course of instruction, therefore, presupposes the power of the pupil to
possess what he is first to acquire by instruction, and
is, therefore, only objectively, and not subjectively,
elementary.
" But the secofid course, which is diametrically op



AND INSTRUCTION.             261
posite to the preceding, leads from the internal to the
external, from the most simple in conception to the
most extended in space, according to its three dimensions; and its starting point is the mathematical point.
it is true that this is, in the first instance, visibly rep.
resented, and is therefore, however diminutive it may
appear on the board, in so far a material point; but
this i: is only symbolically, as the teacher requires
the pupil to imagine it so small as to occupy no space
at all. And this can be required of him; for to the
child of seven or even more years, this is more easy
than the process of abstraction, demanded by the other course. And this is the real beginning of mathematical thinking, which imperatively demands the
flight of the imagination in order to the conception
of pure form; it is the easiest beginning; and by exciting the mind to observe through the medium of
what is figured to the eye, it leads the mind immediately onward, in perpetually progressive succession;
for the teacher will now let his pupil mark two points
on his slate, and notice the possible directions between them; then three, pointing out the different
possible lines between them. The pupil may for
some time be exercised in finding the possible cases
of the relative position of several points to each other, until he has -acquired considerable readiness in
pointing them out; but to exhaust them all would,
with more points than four, lead to enervating diffuse
ness. The pupil should now rather.be taught to distinguish between straight and curved lines. The possible directions and combinations of two straight
lines, and thus, at the same time, the possible angles,
are to be sought, then those of three, afterw;ird of
four lines; by which process a notion is acquired of
triangular and quadrangular figures. After a while
the pupil should proceed to the combinations of several straight lines, the teacher having first drawn for
him a number of curved lines, and dwelt at sufficient
length on the most regular curved line, the circle.
Meanwhile the pupil should be induced to exercise
himself, in private, in combining straight and curved




162    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
lines, and in inventing various figures, these employments serving to exercise the creative power of the
imagination both for mathematics and for aesthetic
feeling, while the hand, at the same time, becomes
skilled in drawing.
" If the teacher can devote about an hour daily to
this course of instruction, his pupil will find himself
in the midst of geometry ere he'is aware of it; for
these progressive exercises will of necessity lead
the pupil, when engaged in drawing or examining figures, to measurements and comparisons; to the perception of equality and of similarity; to the comprehension of reasons; to the clear exhibition of demonstrations; so that it will only be the constant business
of the teacher to direct the pupil's reflection to the
subjects before him; and thus the demonstrations are
devised by the pupil himself, and have a real existence in his own mind: he sees at once the origin of
figures and their relations, and the reasons for everytling. This, then, is a very different affair from that
contracting and cramping operation which mathematics is so generally made the instrument of inflicting
on the mind. Here the mind expands; conceives of
magnitudes as they produce themselves or continuously increase, and thus enters the field of their natural powers and their laws, and therefore proceeds to
philosophy.
" It may therefore be expected that the pupil with
whom this method has been pursued will, at about
fourteen years of age, have comprehended what is
called elementary geometry, besides stereometry and
trigonometry. The mode of instruction is chiefly inventive (i. e., the pupil is required to invent demonstrations himself), sometimes catechetical, and succeeds best with a number of pupils whom the teacher
can stimulate to competition in inquiry. He should
himself speak but little, merely exciting investigation, and requiring its results to be properly expressed."
2. As regards the relations of numbers, or calculation, we deem it unnecessary to translate the re



AND INSTRUCTION.             263
marks of our author, partly because, in this instaace,
the difficulties spoken of in connexion with mathematics do not exist; but chiefly because, in teaching
calculation, or the relation~ of numbers, the method
here recommended has, in a great measure, been very
generally and successfully adopted in this country.
LOGIC.
Instruction in logic should never be commenced before the last collegiate year, and even then only what
is easiest and most general should be dwelt upon.
There should be two courses of logic distinguished:
one for the college; the other, which would in Ger
many belong to the University, ought in this cournry,
while our present academic arrangements continue
unchanged, to constitute a part of the strictly Drofessional course of study. Only in the latter can the
science be treated in its completeness. The former
should aim only to elicit self-observation, to produce
a correct understanding of the nature of abstraction,
to incite to its practice, and to teach the first elements
of the language and terminology of philosophical
speculation. Accordingly, it will be necessary to
adopt, not the progressive course of some particulal
compend, but the retrogressive course of some analysis, which should be followed up in ill suitable collateral digressions. A complete survey of this science
is here not at all to be thought of; for the object in view
is that the pupil may begin to learn to think. The
mode of instruction should be conversational; but it
nmust be borne in mind that in this science it will be
impossible to elicit the truth from the pupil by questions, as it may be done in mathematics; he can only
be invited to the observation of it.
Hence arises the unfrequency of logical acuteness,
because the fondness for it is very rare. In mathematics much may be forced, in logic nothing.
As respects the didactics for this higher academic
instruction, the following two general but necessary
observations will suffice:
1. Whichever of the three learned professions the




264     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTIRE
student may intend to embrace, he ought on no ac.
count, for the sake of the studies of his particular
calling, to neglect that general learned culture which
he has commenced in college, and which is rendered
complete by the suitable and judicious study of the
natural sciences (natural history, physiology, experimental physics, and mixed mathematics); of philosophy (logic and metaphysics); mathematics (of which
the collegiate course may communicate sufficient
knowledge, but, at all events, no scientific survey);
and history, in its higher aspects.
2. In general, it is desirable that the mode of instruction in college should, in no branch of study, be too
acroamatic; yet in history it must of necessity be
more so than in other sciences.
It is much to be desired that, for the comprehensive
scientific culture which our colleges ought to supply,
the ideal of the Greek academy might be restored.
This, indeed, could not be attained by insipid and stale
catechization or puerile questioning, but only by free
conversation, or disputatio in the sense of the ancient
Romans. With this might be connected, at suitable
points in the different sciences, general recitations, or
repetitions of what has been gone over by the class,
which would both furnish the student a general view
of what he has learned, and, at the same time, teach
him tile meaning of independent study.
And only when the student has been led to make
independent efforts can written communications (essays in composition, or by whatever name they may
be designated) to his professor have any real value;
and they are not, therefore, to be treated, either by
theteacher or the pupil, as college-tasks.
These ideals of educational methods in academic
instruction can, of course, only succeed, when the
professors sustain to the students the relation of elder
friends. To what extent the spirit which prevails
among our youth at literary institutions, and which
often manifests itself in developments little to thei;
credit, would be favourable or unfavourable to such
relations, we shall not here attempt to determine.



AND INSTRUCTION.              265'
All farther theory respecting academic instruction
would be more suitably treated as a part of some particular science of academic life; and such a science
would serve to show that, by means of this higher
general culture, the scholar is to become superior to
the rightly cultivated man of common life only in
point of intelligence, and not in moral worth.
SECTION II.
MAN EDUCATED FOR SOCIAL LIFE, OR IN THE SOCIAL
AFFECTIONS.
CHAPTER I.
Education in the Sentiments of Private Friendship, Love,
and Benevolence ingeneral.
THE rational life of man in society must, in order to
present a beautiful aspect, be a life of friendship; a
life adorned by the practice of all the so-called duties
of philanthropy, love, and benevolence. As regards
education in this respect, everything will depend on
the distinction made between what is essential to our
character and what is merely ornamental. Private
friendship, family affection, and public spirit, should
be the ideals of every human being of high and generous culture. These ideals are destroyed as soon as
they are dictated as duties. It is, therefore, the first
business of the educator to be well satisfied in his own
mind respecting the following views:
The nature of friendship consists in that pure affection for another, which, being an unconstrained, a
spontaneous satisfaction or delight in its object, can
Lever submit to the authority of prescribed rules,
though it will ever be dependant on the degree of culture, especially the judgment. This pure affection is
either love for an ideal, for every moral ideal, or love
for some individual person. The former constitutes
the higher or ideal friendship; the latter, the lower or
common; both combined constitute the highest ideal
of friendship.
Affection which is felt for some particular personl
X




266     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
combines within itself delight in that person, good.
will towards him, and the performance of kind offices
for his good. Such affection can therefore be exer.
cised only towards an object that is really amiable;
but this amiableness is either mental; i. e., it consists
in the peculiar characteristics, in the temper and disposition of the individual; or it is sensuous, i. e., the
amiable deportment of the individual in his intercourse
with others.
The opposite of this is hatefulness, or the repulsive or odious qualities of individuals, existing, like
the foregoing, under a twofold aspect. The man who
cannot'hate, cannnot love: he is a superficial, sweet,
soft, pleasant sort of person. There is much misconception relative to that love of our enemies inculcated in the New Testament: the nature of this is
purely religious, and not ethical.
Personal affection is, in the first instance, felt only
by one: it must become mutual, and thus it ripens into
friendship. Affection, and mutual devotedness to each
other's welfare, exhibited in every possible kind office,
constitute for every relation of life an imperative requisite to the realization of the beauty of benevolence
and gratitude, which has its true foundation in the
sentiment of universal philanthropy. For the product of the spirit of friendship, expanded, diffused
over all, and graduated according to the manifold relations of human society, is that sympathetic, purely
philanthropic fellow-feeling, which produces towards
every man (for the sake of his humanity, which always deserves our love) good-will and benevolence,
which will not fail t9 meet with gratitude and return
of affection on the part of truly noble natures capable of friendship.
Benevolence that assumes an air of graciousness
and condescension, however inseparable it may be
from -peculiar civil organizations, is utterly worthless
and contemptible when actually characteristic of the
person who practises it.
As we are here considering friendship and benevolence, not from the stand-point of religion, but as be.




AND INSTRUCTION.              267
longing to the beautiful developments of human life,
we cannot refrain from inviting the recollection of our
classical readers to the delightful results produced, in
respect of these virtues, by the'racdaprtgaq' of Pythagoras. Damon and Pythias were Pythagoraeans. Many other beautiful and affecting instances of the noblest and purest friendship, which grew out of this
school, will occur to the scholar.
Opposed to these philanthropic virtues are the misanthropic vices of malevolence, jealousy, envy, atnd
mischievous or malicious delight in the misfortune or
misery of others. If they be not in themselves vicious, they always become so as soon as they exert
an influence on deliberate designs and matured purposes, in which case they are justly designated as
fiendlike vices. Now, as a disposition or propensity
to love and friendship, with all their subordinate virtues, has its appropriate abode in the human heart,
education, in view of their development and cultivation, will have to proceed chiefly in a negative manner. Let it beware, above all things, of extinguishing
love in the human breast, which takes place especially by the expression of contemptuous judgments
respecting others uttered in the presence of children.
The ear of childhood should be regarded as a sacred
depository; and thus, also, it is of great importance,
in this connexion, to prevent children from becoming
selfish; to see that their ego do not acquire an undue
importance and prominence.
Education will exert its positive influence in this
matter by producing in children a respect for life, or
living beings in general; and, first, a tender regard
for animals, and then for inferior persons, however
poor; for example, towards beggars;  especially, also,
for the domestics of the house, and for children who
are poor. The first point is of far greater moment
than men are wont to regard it: he that is unfeeling
and cruel towards animals, will never be a kind friend
of man; and children who are permitted to treat animals with cruelty, will be pretty sure to ill-treat and
tyrannize over their fellow-men in after life.




268    A PLAN OF YOCtiiFUL CULTURE
In respect of the culture here considered, the most
important influence will proceed from the example of
the educator.
The powerful influence of Christianity in promoting
real love to mankind, true philanthropy, will be considered on a subsequent page.
Particular care should be taken to cultivate the love
of ideals: it is true that this also exists in every man,
but it is more easily extinguished by the realities
which come into conflict with it' Education ought to
recognise youthful ideals as necessary, and even to
educate for ideals. With regard to this, no particular
rules are necessary, if those who educate are themselves in possession of noble, exalted ideals; if none
such exist in their minds, all rules are useless. But,
in addition to the example of parents and teachers.
we may mention history and poetry as highly important means in the culture of the young for ideals.
This subject will be farther considered in the progress
of the work.
Educators and pupils often confound ideals and
productions of the fancy with each other, and therefore mistake,t fantastical or romantic for an ideal
temperament. The inseparable characteristics of enthusiasm for ideals are considerate seriousness, and
sobriety of thought.
It is necessary here to warn against that vital mistake, so frequently made by those who have the education of children intrusted to them, of valuing natural
goodness of heart, good-nature, or bonhommie, too
highly, and of undervaluing insensibility or coldness
of temperament, which is, indeed, of less frequent occurrence than the other. Both are in themselves
only natural qualities of the disposition or temperament, which are yet to acquire their real value, in
and through that rational self-control which is the
work of culture. The former is apt to be allied to
preponderant sensuality and an inclination to licentiousness, and generally to weakness of character,
and under the latter is often concealed the most profound and vigorous love, which embraces all the rela



AND INSTRUCTION.              269
tions of mankind, and which no vicissitudes nor passions can prostrate or extinguish. Such opposite natural temperaments will require very different modes
of education, in order that the true beauty of affection,
of genuine human love, which lies in the middle be
tween all extremes, may be attained. It is an evidence of the effeminacy of modern culture, that there
exists a prejudice against characters called cold, and
an favour of good-nature.
The design of this education for friendship is therefore, by means of culture, to give to the life of the
individual, in his relation to others, a beautiful (in
the narrowest sense) character and aspect; and this
in a twofold respect: 1. In the closest relation of
friendship, properly so called: 2. In the wider and
the widest relations of universal philanthropy.
CHAPTER II.
Education aiming at the right Development of the Sentzment of Love, in its narrowest Sense, as the Love of
Family and Kindred.
A nDSTINCT species of private friendship, not only,
but its highest manifestation, is conjugal love, the
love between man and wife, whose friendship-ideal is
found in the common object of the procreation and education of children. Matrimony being the highest
beauty of social life for the individual, is the destination of every human being. As such, and as a virtue,
it occupies middle ground between the mischiefs of
coarse sensuality, or fornication, and fanatical spirit-..
uality, or monachism. It may be right and praiseworthy if, for the sake of exalted ideas, which demand
the utmost self-consecration, this noblest blossom of
human life is sacrificed and foregone: this resignation
or renunciation of the most sacred and happy of human connexions may, if made for the sake of objects
or purposes truly noble and good, be regarded as sub
lime; but it should never be other than voluntary,
and never be required of any man.




270    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
The beauty of family-life is perfect only when it
can be regarded, 1. As an individual manifestation, or
individuum, in the collective mass of the great family
of the state; when the private interest of the family
is not at variance with the public interest of the people, i. e., with public spirit; but when, on the other
hand, it rather promotes the latter by the development and cultivation of all truly human virtues,
which are first to acquire tenderness, beauty, and
strength in the family circle, i. e., in the friendship
subsisting between man and wife, parents and children, employers and domestics, but are then to manifest themselves in the public life of public friendship,
i. e., of public spirit; or, in other words, in the family
must be nursed, cultivated, and established those affections, those kind and benevolent sentiments, which
ought to adorn a nation's public life, and minister, in
every proper way, to the common good. In the life
of the family must be sought the pith and marrow of
the state.
To the perfect beauty of wedded life belongs, 2dly,
the free choice of matrimonial companions, which
must proceed from pure love, and develop itself into
firm friendship. -For this choice of love, and for subsequent beauty and perpetuity of matrimonial friendship, everything will depend on the following three
virtues: chastity, faithfulness, and the mental culture
of both parties, for which it is the business of education to provide.
1. Education in purity of mind, or in true chastity
of heart, presents, in accordance with nature's course
of development, the following three aspects:
1. Accustom or train the child to modesty;
2. Carefully protect and rigidly discipline the
child's fancy;
3. Direct the child's fancy upon what is spirituous
or ideal; for by this means the sternest contempt of
mere sensuality, effeminacy, and lust is effected.
For chastity is not merely to be external, as manifested in outward conduct, but internal, as constituling a disposition of soul. The latter ought to be, and




AND INSTRUCTION.             271
can be, retained, even after acquaintance with real life
has put an end to the-innocence of childhood, and substituted experience in its place.
It was the opinion of Aristotle, that the intercourse
of young persons of both sexes should, at the time
when the sexual instinct is developing itself, be subjected to the closest supervision; and many modern
pedagogists have expressed the same view. But unchastity very generally owes its origin to the premature development of:the sexual instinct, induced by
various causes.'' This may, in a great measure, be
prevented by proper attention to the physical educa.
tion of the young. But the great point, is to keep at
immeasurable distance from the:young; everything
that can pollute the heart and corrupt the imagination. Watch over the eyes and ears of yourchildreii
as you would over a sacred deposite, that nothing unclean may approach them, or even taint the air in
which they exist. Here, if anywhere, prevention of
evil is worth all the cures that human ingenuity can
invent, and which seldom effect much, and can never
restore what is lost. But where the preventive, or
negative education for chastity, recommended under
the three aspects specified above, is consistently and
carefully practised, the desired result can scarcely
fail to be attained; and with respect to young persons of both sexes, thus educated, it will not be necessary to watch, with timid solicitude, their social
intercourse; yet, of course, the supervision of parents or other educators should never be withdrawn
fiom this intercourse. But young persons, correctly
educated, and having nothing to conceal, will not seek
concealment. The pure, the virtuous, never shun the
light; and the young man who has retained his innocence through boyhood, and whose soul has never
been polluted by so much as an unchaste word, or by
early initiation in the knowledge of sexual relations,
will bring modesty and self-respect with him into that
period, in which new impulses begin to Inanifest themselves in his organism, and he will have that within
him which will impel him to shun companionship




272    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CUI.TURE
with the unclean, and to spurn pollution.with indigna
tion from his presence.
And if we say.that, in relation to this important
tnatter, our boys are everywhere exposed to evil influence, we need but refer to the evidences of impurity of heart and corruptedness of imagination so
copiously exhibited in various ways, wherever boys
frequent, in order to convince those who have the interests of education at heart, that in this particular a
great reform is necessary. But how and where will
you begin to reform, when impurity is everywhere
rife, without condemning children to monastic seclusion 1  Better, indeed, would this be than pollution.
But, of course, the reform must begin at home: i. e.,
parents must attend to this matter, superintending the
education-of their children themselves, not exposing
them to promiscuous companionship, but excluding
from their intercourse those whose character is suspicious, or even unknown; giving them more of their
own company, and using every conceivable precaution to secure them against evil communications.
If it should be thought that we have dwelt at too
great length on this subject, we can only reply, that
having, for many years past, been in various ways
and at different places employed in the business of
education, we know full well whereof we testify, and
speak only from actual knowledge of the necessity of
the case.
2. Faithfulness in love has its basis in general excellence of character; in that nobility of soul which
shrinks from no sacrifice as too great, when required
by honour and justice. Nothing can be more indicative of weakness of mind and littleness of soul than
fickleness in love: nothing more base and despicable'than trifling with the affections of confiding woman.
There is reason to fear that the frivolity and lax morality, which characterize the social condition of some
European countries, are making progress among us
also; and to the influence of education we must.look
for the erection of a barrier in the hearts of the rising




AND INSTRUCTION. 2~ 73
generation, and hence in public sentiment, against
the spread of this and every other moral pestilence.
3. We add a few general observations on the different mental culture required by the young of different sexes; and we premise that in the education of
females there exist two grand mistakes, the one
more practical, the other, as yet, chiefly confined to
the lucubrations of theorists, which call for the judicious but very decided interference of education. The
first of these mistakes is founded in the prejudice,
which has become so general among the rich of this
country, that it is disgraceful for ladies to have any
knowledge of domestic economy, not to say practical
acquaintance with the ordinary affairs of housekeeping,
and the daily routine of housewifery. In consequence
of this certainly very extensively prevailing prejudice, we see that many rich families, and many that
are not rich, educate their daughters in a manner calculated to fit them only for the boudoir, for gossip,
and for parties, for fashionable assemblies, and to unfit them for all real usefulness; for all those domestic
duties, whose faithful, and intelligent, and cheerful performance is so essential to substantial domestic happiness-so important in order to secure stability to
earthly happiness; while the sterling virtues, and
the ready tact and skill in management which qualify
for the discharge of those duties, are alone competent
to supply expedients and resources, when vicissitudes,
reverses, nay, poverty, come to those who have been
bred in the lap of affluence, as, indeed, they often do
come, when least expected, in a state of society so
fluctuating as ours.
The second mistake is that which has of late years
made no little noise in theory, through the sexual
public spirit (perhaps, more correctly, esprit-de-corps)
of Miss Martineau and a number of others, and which
consists in wresting from woman the crown of modesty, the lovely virtues, and the sweet charm of that
noiseless, retired, unobtrusive life and activity which
constitute her appropriate sphere, and thrusting her
into the busy thoroughfares, the noisy assemblies,




274     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
nay, the political arena, where men jostle each other,
and contend for gain or distinction.'
On neither of these mistakes do we deem it necessary here to expatiate, because the first argues a lack
of common sense, which many exceedingly pertinent
productions of some of our most gifted and popular
female writers have hitherto failed to remedy, and
because we believe the second to be confined chiefly
to a few monomaniacs, against whose baseless pre
tensions and preposterous demands we have no doubt
that the right feeling, and correct taste, and good sense
of the sex will ever revolt, to the frustration of assumptions that are obviously contrary to nature.
The due differential relation between the respective mental culture of boys and girls must be determined according to the nature of the intellectual capacity of the different sexes. Man's mind finds its
sphere in action, woman's in feeling: to man, therefore, belongs the practical, to woman the meditative
sphere of life. The man, therefore, is to be educated
for the busy stage of the world by manifold knowledge and skill, and his highest callings in the scientific and the artistic world have already been pointed out.
Woman's calling is to the more retired sphere of
domestic life, for husband and children, and her distinguishing virtues should be prudent housewifery,
i. e., order and economy combined; feeling sympathy, tender care, cheerful affection, and vigorous patience. For these ideals should woman, as such, be
educated, but without prejudice to all other general human education. It is the latter only which, in respect
of females also, fixes the different degrees of mental
culture. In this general education of the female sex,
as well as in that special culture which has direct reference to woman's peculiar sphere, the process, as in
all popular education, should not be mediate, i. e.,
proceeding from theories and scholastic systems,
but everything should be adapted immediately to the
feelings, so that the example of the educators, whether male or female, will be of the highest importance.




AND INSTRUCTION.             273
Girls should be educated only in the social circle,
and by their mothers. Yet, for the time being, female boarding-schools appear to be a necessary evil.
To this general sketch we subjoin the following
more extended discussion, which we translate from
Schwarz:
"From the beginning of the eighth year.
"From the beginning of the eighth year, the two
sexes require, in almost every respect, a different education. With respect to boys, it is scarcely necessary to add anything to the general directions which
have been given on a former page, and from which
the necessary special rules are easily deduced. Their
principal concern are the studies of school, alternating
with bodily exercise. Their amusements are, at an
early age, of the more active kind: chasing the butterfly, and scouring the plain with other boys: at a
later age they should engage in pedestrian excursions and bold undertakings, and enjoy the cheerful
company of their equals; taking care, however, that
their playmates be of the proper character, and that
their hearts be cultivated for what is noble and gensrous. This vigilant supervision should follow them
to the later years of youth, and guard them against
all bad company. Their propensity to imitate other
young persons, older than themselves, which, among
other evil practices, so often leads to the early habit
of smoking, and the like, should be enlisted on the
side of what is good and praiseworthy, by constantly
managing their entire education in accordance with
sound principles.
" On the subject of early female education it will be
necessary to go more into detail. And here we must,
first of all, deprecate a most unhappy error, which appears, in our age, more and more to extend its mischievous operation, Without receiving the attention
which its progress calls for. In former times girls
were too much buried in domestic life, and forgotten;
whereas now they are too early advanced to a manysided culture; and the attention of the whole family,




276    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
and of visiters, is to such a degree directed to the little
daughter of three or four years of age, that we need
not wonder if the girl of seven expects to be noticed
before all others, and at fourteen pretends to the dignity of a lady; and if, in the end, the married woman
must be allowed to regard herself as the principal
person in the family, if she is not to pine away as
though under the influence of a slow poison, and thus
to poison the whole sphere in which she moves.
" It is true that v.e speak here, primarily, of the socalled cultivated class; but the evil appears to be already extending itself to those who have no pretensions to culture.
" It should be well considered what female culture
is, and how high, when it is of the right character, it
is capable of elevating a being which, without it,
either sinks from its own weakness, or succumbs under the storms of life. Nothing should girls learn
earlier than to take delight in manifesting their affection towards the whole family by artless, noiseless,
well-regulated activity; to anticipate their wishes by
courteousness, reflection, and good sense: in the happiness of those around them they should seek their
own. This is, in general, the end to be attained.
Let us consider more particularly the manner in
which education should contribute to its attainment.
" Girls require chiefly the guidance of the maternal
hand, in order that their tender nature may not be
rudely handled, their purity not invaded, and the appropriately female direction of their development not
interfered with. Their understanding and their feelings should be exposed to no rude touch, that, like
the rosebud, they may develop themselves purely
from within, and like the chaste mimosa, shrink from
every the least contact. Maternal gentleness can
alone administer such treatment. Man is incapable
of giving up the more rigorous.process of forming or
determining, according to his own purposes; and
when he does this, as we so frequently witness when
fathers have to educate their daughters alone, he
rarely succeeds in finding the right method, and then




AND INSTRUCTION.            277
generally prefers doing nothing at all.  That thQ
mind of woman has so often fallen into error, or lost
its purity and truth, is chiefly to be ascribed to the
preponderance of external influence uponrr her culture:
girls are instructed and treated like boys, and the peculiarities of the female character are too much overlooked, and handled with too little tenderness. Girls
should therefore always and chiefly enjoy the gui
dance of the mother; and she should more carefully
attend to their health and bodily vigour than is usual;
and physicians should be consulted on this point: so
that, in the place of feeble women, suffering from
sundry nervous affections, future mothers of healthy
offspring may be educated. Mothers should rather
pride themselves upon blooming than on elegantly
dressed daughters.
" The employments, whether designed for instruction or for amusement, with which little girls aro
furnished, should all be of the gentler character.
They will be easily amused by silently observing
flowers or human beings; they will, indeed, take delight in jumping and running about with others of
their age, and they should be encouraged to do so,
yet taking care that they do not acquire habits which
are more becoming boys; for much that would not
be unbecoming in boys might acquire for girls the
unenviable name of hoidens. In their case, therefore, greater care will also be necessary in the choice
of companions and playmates; and, in general, they
will want fewer than boys, because otherwise they
are apt to fall into what is called gadding about,
while their inward beauty and tenderness of feeling
are injured; and to this cause it may, perhaps, be
owing that there are.so many heartless women and
coquettes. The little garden out of doors, and the
little doll-closet within, will supply little girls with
entertainment, and with exercises suitable to their
future sphere, for hours. They must, by all means,
be furnished with a doll and its paraphernalia; but
not with more than they can well manage and make
Eise of, in order th at they may learn to take care of




278    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
their little concerns, and accustom themselves to
good management. They ought to have a few playmates, whom they may see daily, and with whom
they will contrive little dramatic entertainments of
various kinds. At the same time, however, they
should have a fixed season for certain female employments, such as knitting, for hearing something
instructive, or for relating something themselves.
This stated time for actual employment must, indeed,
at first be short, but it may soon be extended to the
length of some hours; and in connexion with this,
little commissions should be frequently given them
to perform, in order that they may become habituated, in all respects, to order and punctuality, and to
noiseless, domestic activity.
"Girls are more fitted than boys to mingle frequently among grown persons; but they should not be too
much noticed and praised, and, in general, not be permitted to contract a desire of notice. But their habits of domestic industry should not become such as to
confine them  too much to their room, and thus to
deny them the enjoyment of nature and exercise in
the open air. They ought, at a very early age, to be
introduced to the world of flowers.
" Girls of seven years of age should already possess
a decided fondness for domestic employments, and
from this period onward they ought themselves to
learn all the active duties which belong to domestic
life: they should derive pleasure from active employment in the different departments of the household,
the kitchen, the nursery, and in needlework, &c., in
order that they may become well-informed and skilled
in all these affairs. It will be necessary to continue
the exercises designed for the cultivation of the senses. At this period, also, they must become acquainted with books, since these are inseparably connected
with modern culture: they should, therefore, be gradually instructed' in writing, natural history, geography; civil history, &c., and perhaps, even at'this
age, already in the French language; but, in imposing any such exercises, it will be necessary to pro



AND INSTRUCTION.              279
ceed with caution, and to observe the utmost mnoderation; the more so, because girls are, at all times, too
prone to confine themselves too closely to pursuits of
this kind. How many young girls have become diseased in body and in soul by reading! how many have
lost their health by close application to ornamental
needlework! They ought, therefore, to be directed, at
all suitable times, to engage in free bodily exercise,
and even in some of the more quiet and gentle gymnastic exercises; they should enjoy frequent opportunities of appropriate amusement in the society of
others of the same age. It is particularly desirable.
that they should have several little friends, with whom
they may keep up an interchange of less frequent
visits, in order that their tenderness and freshness of
feeling towards beloved persons may on no account
be blunted, as is so frequently the case in consequence of daily intercourse. In general, too great
care cannot be taken that that cheerfulness which is
so lovely in all should not be lost by study, or application to any other pursuit. It is delightful to hear
every part of the house resound with the young maiden's sweet song: delightful is that vivacity which so
often enlivens home and cheers all its inmates.
"Modesty, cleanliness, propriety in all respects, as
well as.all other female virtues, will indeed manifest
themselves spontaneously in young maidens who
have not been neglected or spoiled in childhood; yet
tLey must be earnestly cherished and carefully cultivated; and it is precisely at the age commencing with
the eighth year that this is most necessary, because
at this age an excited state of mind with reference to
social relations supervenes, by means of which the
artlessness of childhood is apt to suffer. Hence, even
in the playful age, some positive treatment is necessary,
i. e., treatment by which the inward soundness of
character is secured by external influences, which
favour the firm retention of good habits. It is difficult
here to find the proper medium or middle course, so
that, on the one hand, that simplicity and artlessness
(naivete), which are such beautiful features in the char



280    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURN
acter of young females, be not impaired;,lA diss:pated, and that, on the other hand, nature b-: inot left to
run wild, at a time when its second impulse irs de-eloping itself. It is only the tender amother,'terself
free from vanity and egotism, who can truly understand and appreciate the delicate organismn of her
child's mind, and succeed, by her beautiful tact in
treating the elements of childho(c&, in awakening its
slumbering powers. Intercourse Fwith rude companions, and, still more, every public exhibition of young
girls-for example, in public musical performanceswould directly contravene the object aimed at; and
in this respect even boarding-schools have their disadvantages. When it is borne in mind how easily
the mind's simplicity and purity are lost by shallow
gossip, by ungentle, injudicious treatment, and by
fondness for shining and public display; when the
many examples of female flippancy, vanity, and coquetry, that meet us everywhere, are taken into consideration, it will be obvious to every reflecting mind
that the treatment, or, rather, absence of proper treatment during the period of which we speak, is in fault.
Girls, in short, require treatment of such delicacy and
tenderness, as to cherish in their minds a prominent
and acute sense of personal sacredness.
" But they are not, on that account, to be brought up
to be fragile, sensitive, or ornamental plants. Girls
also have their path of life to run, which is often
enough thorny, and the asperities of whose atmosphere they must be prepared to bear, while in their
home they let their softening and warming light shine.
But, in order to this, exalted self-denial is necessary,
and nothing is so sure to communicate this as a
Christian education. Their school for life will therefore be home, with its joys, and, perhaps, more fre
quently, its sorrows; and this school will be the best
for developing their tender feelings, and to induct them
gradually into their own beautiful activities. One of
the most beautiful of these is the care of smaller chli].
dren, particularly of brothers and sisters, in which
girls may be the assistants of their mothers.




AND INSTRUCTION.             281
"The tone of the house, and of the entire mode of
treatment, should be, both for boys and girls, the same
even, natural; sober, and friendly family-tone, if education is to be successful. Nothing affected, nothing
stiff and constrained, nothing pedantic; but throughout, unconstrained cordiality, cheerfulness, and goodhumour, combined with due sobriety and firmness in
all things, which the educator must require: this is
what the nature of children and of parents demands.
But, in all respects, parents, educators, and others
should live before children as in the sacred presence
of God, and thus accustom them thus to live. This
may become, at the age here treated of, the fixed
habit of the whole life; and what could be more desirable 1 If the omnipresent God dwelleth in the
heart of the child, it is already in the path of wisdom.
"From the beginning of thefifteenth year.'It will not be necessary here to say anything more
on the subject of physical education. The proper
mode of life, with all its good habits, should by this
time have become second nature, and be identified
with moral accountability. On the direction of this,
by means of instruction, we have only the following
observations to add:
" 1. The education of young men is best conducted on
she principle of leaving them to choose the good for
themselves, and to avoid the evil. Even in the monkish Middle Ages this principle was recognised, and
Vincent de Beauvais has some excellent remarks on
the subject.
" The young man may be expected to make the right
choice, if he has, up to this period, been trained up,
and continues to be guided, according to the directions which we have given. On the one hand, his reason must, by means of his scientific culture, become
the ruling power within him; while, on the othel
hand, his heart must be elevated by noble and generous feelings. Happy are the influences of affectionate intercourse with his parents, his brothers and sis.
ters; of tender attention to his younger brothers and
y




282    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE'
sisters; especially, also, of friendship, and even of
love, which should be allowed to develop itself and
bloom in the youthful heart: it is a guardian angel,
that protects in many temptations. Thus will he enter armed into life, and consecrate himself to God
and mankind. The guidance which he will still require should consist not only in the directions of sensible counsel, but also in protection against evil influences. Youth cannot, as yet, dispense with a certain
degree of rigour. Thus, for example, he should not
so much as desire bad company; and on all occasions
entertain the firm resolve not to be misled. He may
yet, in various ways, break his resolutions, and run
into excesses; and here he will stand in need of a
Mentor, who will come up powerfully to his aid, and,
if need be, not spare him. Even the young man of
eighteen ought not to enjoy absolute liberty, but a degree of rigorous Mentorship should still be exercised
over-him. Thus, in every good institution of learning, there ought to be inexorable statutes against
card-playing, and every game of chance, and against
certain classes of meetings. An all-important point
is, that young men repose confidence in their counsellors; and, in connexion with this subject, we refer to what has been said concerning the early cultivation of enthusiasm for ideals.
" We should encourage youth of this age in the development of truth; in giving an account, at least to
themselves, of their actions; in cultivating habits of
reflection; and we may do this, among other means,
by exciting doubts in their minds, when we observe
that they are too hasty to assume things as true;
yet, in so doing, it will be necessary to keep within
due bounds, and to treat with respectful tenderness
that youthful heart which pursues and embraces wi;l
ardour.
"The youth's heart should glow for whatever is
good, and true, and beautiful. Hence it is the office of
education to provide that his active or moral principles,
having developed themselves with his growth, having
be&i disciplined by instruction, and practice, and dis



AND INSTRUCTION.            283
played themselves in the various virtues of early life,
may be strengthened. The sphere in which he moves,
example, scholastic instruction, and religious culture,
all will co-operate in this; but serious admonition and
counsel must not be wanting. Science, indeed, leads
directly to truth, but there must be a steady influence
to excite a thirst for truth. His taste, as the sense of
the beautiful, must be protected against whatever
may corrupt it.
" The utmost cleanliness and unaffected neatness in
dress should be insisted on. While you seek carefully to preserve him from foppery and all fashionable follies, use every suitable effort to give predominance within him to a sense of what is becoming,
beautiful, and dignified. The cultivation of the taste
must, in the mean time, make gradual progress; every attempt to force out premature fruit must be avoided, otherwise the young man will learn to criticise
before he learns to admire and to love; he will become
a shallow babbler, who will prate about matters of art
in the phraseology of popular periodicals. No, let
not this be; let him first learn to feel healthfully and
naturally; then, as his taste becomes more and more
developed in the study of nature, and in progressive
artistic culture, he will, in due time, have a healthy,
sound judgment, which is scarcely to be expected of
the youth of eighteen; for he is still, at this age, in
too excited a state to possess it. Let, then, no conceit be indulged in him, which would rob him of his
greatest ornament, his modesty.
"And then, when the youth receives into his soul
the true with the good, and the good with the beautiful,
his most exalted idea will dawn upon him in its glory. He will find happy hours in devotion: he will
desire, with some dear friend, to strive upward to the
divine: he will resolve to consecrate himself to the
promotion of human happiness: he will long to see a
heaven upon earth, and to labour for the evolution of
better times; and if, amid these high impulses, he
should begin to indulge in fantastic schemes, and
threaten to run into extravagances, he will need, not




284    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
only a calmly reflecting friend, but also that aydOodat.
uwv within him, which will admonish him modestly to
attend to the corrective counsels of his older and maturer teachers. Yet only when the culture of the
mind and heart, in its whole compass, advances stead
ily, can that which is highest in humanity, however
mightily it may struggle within him, be actually developed in the youth. Our age is, in the highest degree, unfavourable to the education of young men.
They are too early left to themselves; an emancipation utterly at variance with nature. Among the
more cultivated, everything tends to excite ill the
youth more of pretension than of modesty, more
egotism than affection, more fantasticalness than
thirst for truth, more idolatrous devotion to the prevailing spirit of the age than fear of God: and a highsouled youth is a phenomenon that men stare and
wonder at. Among the uncultivated, the state of
things is even worse. What rudeness and licentious_less characterize great numbers of apprentices and
journeymen in our cities and towns, and extend even
to the sons of our yeomanry, is but too notorious."
What a commentary on the state of education
among the mass of our people do we read in the
progress of insubordination, in the ferocious exhibitions of a riotous and lawless spirit, which have, for
some time past, been more and more frequently witnessed in our land! What does the police-what can
it effect in our peculiar political organization 1 The
schools do little enough; and fathers also, even though
they be sensible and wise, can accomplish scarcely
anything, since the spirit of the age has so much enervated parental influence, and the current of unrestrained license is hurrying along so many even of
the more cultivated and better class. The influence
of the Church, of religion, is indeed great, so far as
it reaches; but how vast the multitude of those who
spurn its authority! When, therefore, we look abroad,
and contemplate the condition of our youth, we see
that, precisely at the age which requires the strongest inward efforts of virtue, they are not only sent ou




AND INSTRUCTION.             285
helpless into the world, but exposed to the most
frightful dangers to the soul: not much better than if
the newborn child were exposed in a wilderness inhabited by ravening beasts. If better provision be
not made, both in city and country, for the education
and discipline of the young, both in and out of school,
in domestic and public life, no good is to be expected
from education among a cultivated people; nay, the
evils deprecated seem to keep pace, at a fearful rate,
with culture itself. Of this we have evidence in all
the information we possess on the subject respecting
our large cities and towns; and, alas! that we should
say it, abundant proof is furnished even by our colleges. And we cannot but hope that our state legislatures, as they see these evils increasing with fearful
rapidity, and evolving the most lamentable results,
will be induced not only to make more ample provision for the education of the people, but will inquire
more closely into its nature, and adopt a system that
may be calculated to train up the youth of this great
republic in such views of life and of human duty, as
may fit our people for the right and profitable exercise of those political rights and privileges of which
they so fondly boast.
In conclusion, we may add, that if our legislatures
are too indifferent or too impotent to extend, both as
to time and space, the operation of education, and to
adapt its character to our wants, as this is the age of
societies, a society might be formed which should aim
at reforming the existing system of education, and
developing and establishing principles indispensable
to the discipline of a free people, and adopting and introducing a plan and method, by which the evils which
exist and are increasing among us may be assailed
and remedied at the root, in the mind and heart of the
young, and the true, the right, the beautiful, and the
good become the objects of the people's love and pur
suit.
"2. Female Education from the thirteenth year of Life
" At no time of life does the sanctuary of the female




286    A PLAN OF YOUTIIFUL CULTURB
heart require more vigilant protection, than at the age
when the young maiden begins to develop herself to
womanhood. Not only should the mother, with the
utmost solicitude, guard her against improper company, and against evil communications of every description, but she should herself be more than ever
her daughter's companion. Her own heart should
more intensely glow for whatever is pure, and generous, and good; and thus will her maternal conversation and example exert an influence which cannot fail
to produce fruits of greatest excellence. At this period the young female should engage -more extensively in domestic employments, and make greater exertions both in acquiring accomplishments and in cultivating the understanding, being, at the same time,
gradually introduced into social life, and taught to accustom herself to the harsher and rougher elements
of human intercourse. Education must provide that
she meet with nothing corrupting to the soul, nothing
destructive to faith, and hope, and love. It is at this
period that conversations on religion and on other
subjects, not only with the mother, but with the father
also, will be most desirable and profitable.
"Whatever peculiar destinies may await the young
maiden, something should be learned by means of
which, even though she remain unmarried, she may
be able to lead a useful and dignified life. Every talent that makes itself manifest should be suitably cultivated. In the cultivated class, every young woman
should, at least to some extent, learn drawing and
music, for these fine arts are favourable to the development of inward truth in thought and feeling, and
subserve the attainment of other female accomplishments.
"But, because such should be their influence, females
ought never to be called upon to make what may be
called exhibitions in these arts: it is only among
friends that girls or young women should sing and
perform on an instrument; and then not for the sake
of applause, but to give pleasure. Performances before large and mixed companies have a tendency dan



AND INSTRUCTION.             287
gerous to some of the most beautiful traits in the
character of well-educated woman; and young women should never engage in them, except they be really above all vain desire of admiration and praise.
" Moderation and dignity in all suitable amusements
should be strictly insisted upon, and all fashionable
folly and impropriety in dress carefully guarded
against. The present aspect of social life would
stamp with absurdity all declamations against beauty
and elegance of apparel; but surely every well-educated woman should not only be above mere worldliness in anything, and the follies and frivolities of
fashionable life, but ought to exhibit the purity and
nobleness of her character by seeking the beautiful
and elegant in what is modest and becoming, simple
and dignified, and by making all her accomplishments
subservient to the true and the good.
" Although boys should be chiefly educated by men,
and girls by women, the two sexes should unite in
the education of both boys and girls. The boy requires the mild and gentle treatment of the mother,
in order that his sensibility may not become callous;
and, besides, he will always need some intercourse
with persons of the other sex, both young and adult,
as it is found in families, because otherwise he will
contract habits of rudeness, without developing a
susceptibility for the finer feelings of humanity.
Without such influence, the youth would become
coarse and rude in his manners; for, as the youth is
less disposed than the boy to submit to positive
treatment, and his educators are, consequently, under
the necessity of influencing him chiefly by instruction, there would be reason to apprehend that his
feelings would be deficient in cordiality and fervour;
or that he would be less capable of expressing them
suitably and well; or even that he might enter on
evil courses, and fall into the excesses of ambition
or of lust; for it is in intercourse with cultivated,
noble, and virtuous women, that virtue presents itself
to the youth in its most amiable light; and while this,




288     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
therefore, will most readily make him complaisant
and modest, nothing is better calculated to overcome
the first movements of impure desire than such society, for it has even been effectual to the reformation
of dissolute characters. If, then, the uncorrupted youth
is so happy as to have access to such society, this
will not only give his manners a pleasing exterior,
but will increase the enthusiasm of his soul for
everything noble and good. In certain situations, in
which he needs some one to whom he may confidingly open his heart, we would recommend to him
to seek some judicious maternal friend.
" Not exactly in the same, but in a similar manner,
it is necessary that man should co-operate in the education of females, from its earliest stages, in order
that they may not become too effeminate (if we may
be indulged in this seeming paradox), but acquire energy of mind without prejudice to the graces of the
female character. We may particularly observe that
girls will, in general, learn better with a male than
with a female teacher.
" In human life, at least in our European culture, the
two sexes are, as they ought to be, associated: hence
young women must be accustomed to the society of
men; and, if so, they must not be excluded from it in
their earlier years. They will then, if their education
have been of the proper character, be the less liable
to be deceived by the exterior of shallow or unworthy young men, and they will be better prepared
to appreciate, in all its forms, whatever is noble in
mankind; and this, surely, is necessary to completed
culture. It is important to consider that the young
female's mind will more beautifully develop itself,
and attain higher elevation, if the communications of
a gifted man instruct her on those subjects, of which
she has formed only remote or obscure ideas. How
much may a father thus do for his daughter!
"We see, then, in the arrangement of nature, by
which the child is given in charge to both parents,
the directions of wisdom, indicating, indeed, that men
are to be chiefly engaged in educating the young of




AND INSTRUCTION.              289
their sex, and women those of their own, yet show
ing no less clearly that both sexes are to unite in
the complete education of each. The energy of the
male sex would launch out into wild excesses, if the
influence of the gentler sex did not calm and restrain;
the powers of the latter would too much live and lose
themselves in the inward world, if they were not
roused and elevated by the influence of man's energy."
CHAPTER 1II.
Education for the Community or for Public Life, whether
of the Church or the State. Patriotism.
The highest degree of friendship is the universal
national bond of public spirit in public life; but this
presents itself under two forms, according to two
ideas, for which public friendship may be formed-religion and love of country. In the former case, friends
unite for the realization of that cosmopolitan ideal
which is set forth by Christianity alone; in the latter,
they unite for the attainment of that political or civil
ideal, which gives to the patriotism of each particular
nation its own peculiar form. If, then, the life of the
young is not to be destitute of the highest, mental
beauty, they must (irrespective here of all imperative
duty) be educated also for Christianity and for patriotism. As both Christianity and individual nations
are historical developments in mankind, the development of both will have to proceed from history, and
derive its life from it; each of the two, of course, iccording to distinct and peculiar relations.
Christianity must live among the people: i. e., it
Irust,
1. Be known from the Bible and from history; and,
2. Practised in t ie manners and customs of life,
and in the forms of society. To provide for this
Christian life, is the business of the Church or the
clergy. For the first requisite above specified, Christian teachers and pastors; for the second, Christian
institutions of life, are necessary. By means of both
these instrumentalities, a society is constituted within
Z




290    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
the state, which ought to be entered voluntarily and
from conviction.'l he institutions of life will have in
view partly the regulation of affairs, partly the solemnization of religious rites and exercises, in meetings open to all.  To the former institutions belongs
a constitution or Church discipline; the latter shows
the subserviency of art to Christianity, in beautiful
public representations for the eye and ear, and in the
worthy celebration of Christian festivals.
We learn from history that the Catholic Church
has not only aimed at exhibiting this subserviency of
art to the purposes of Christianity, but that she clains
the exclusive credit of success in this attempt; yet
her great defects, and especially her heathenish superstition, are obvious to every unbiased observer.
The Protestant Church, in returning to the simplicity of the apostolic times, and to the paramount authority of the Inspired Volume, has brought back religion from the region of fancy, and the empire of superstition, into the daily life of man, and restored to
her that influence which she is designed to exert over
his mind, and heart, and conduct, in order that in all
the pursuits and relations of life he may be a servant
of the living God. Christianity in the Protestant
Church, particularly in this country, is, as it ought to
be, eminently practical; and the great object to be
had in view, in connexion with the regulations and institutions mentioned above, is, therefore, their influence on practical life-on man's habits of thought,
feeling, and action, in every position he may be called to occupy in life. We regard the institutions of
Protestantism as in the main scriptural, and hence
decidedly calculated to effect the desired object; yet
we would venture to suggest whether the Protestant
Church has not, in part, been one-sided in its course,
in rejecting those more solemn festivals of the early
Church which have been retained by some Protestant
denominations. We regard the stated commemoration of the leading historical facts in the redemption
of mankind and the establishment of the Christian
Church, as founded in reason and sound views of hu.




AND INSTRUCTI(N.              291,lan nature. We feel persuaded that, when these festivals are celebrated in the right spirit, unaccompanied by superstitious notions and empty observances,
their influence will and ever must be highly salutary.
And believing that their abandonment has mainly
arisen from causes which can no longer operate, we
should rejoice to see these solemn celebrations of the
prominent events in the history of human redemption
restored, in all their early simplicity and solemnity,
throughout the Protestant Church. We regard their
influence on the young as peculiarly happy.
The farther consideration of religious education be-'ongs to the following division, to whose third chapter
the reader is referred.
Education for patriotism is much less difficult than
that for Christianity; first, because its ideal is one
that is easily comprehended; secondly, because patriotism is not based upon a history which is in part
foreign, but upon that of the people itself.
Patriotism may exist among every people that possesses a history of its own; national customs and
forms of life, which are mostly the results of the former, or of the peculiar nature of the country, contribute greatly to its advancement and growth. General
desiderata for the cultivation of patriotism in the
young are the following:
1. An intimate acquaintance with the national history, which should be taught in the schools, and kept
before the public mind by the celebration of important events, i. e., by national festivals.
t. Habituating the young to national peculiarities.
This object will be attained without difficulty or coercion, if,
3. The public life of the nation is animated by patriotisni. If a people at large be destitute of lively
patriotism, it may be best cultivated in narrower cir
cles of friends, whose patriotic life will diffuse its
spirit by the force of example.  These points are essential to the cultivation of a patriotic spirit. But the
subject before us is vast in its extent, and of incalculable importance, especially under a political constit.u



292     A PLAN" OF YOUTHFUL CULTIItE
tion and government like ours; yet it is difficult to
mark out a course of education in view of a result
which so greatly depends on the spirit by which a na
tion is actually animated, and upon influences whici
are as fitful in their course and as uncertain in their
operation as the wind. In general, we may say, that
when the young are properly educated in all other respects, and especially when they are brought to a due
sense' of their religious obligations, they cannot fail
to become sound and conscientious patriots; yet, in
order that their patriotism may be, poiitically, according
to knowledge, the desiderata which we have mentioned demand due attention; and we may farther say,
that every father should consider it his duty to instruct
his sons, as soon as they are capable of understanding
and appreciating such instruction, in the Constitution
of this country, in the nature of the privileges which
its citizens enjoy, and in the grave and important d@tties which these privileges involve. He should make
them acquainted with the principles and the design of
a government like ours, and point out the motives
and purposes with which the elective franchise ought
to be exercised. He ought to instruct them respecting the necessity, the nature, the scope, and the object of human laws, and inculcate a spirit of reverence for, and submission to, institutions without
which order would be subverted, the bonds of society
rent asunder, and all the affairs of mlen unhinged. It
may here, indeed, be objected, that the great majority
of fathers are destitute of such knowledge themselves,
and hence incapable of communicating it. True;
but it is, and it must be, the object of that commonschool system, which is rapidly gaining ground among
us, to diffuse that sort of knowledge among our people which shall fit them for the proper exercise of
their political rights, and the rational enjoyment of
their civic privileges. Our schools, then, must begin
the work; and we earnestly recommend that in all
our common schools a course of instruction be int roduced, whose general subjects and features we have
presented above; but for this purpose, and to aid




AND INSTRUCTION.            293
teachers in the performance of this duty, we need a
lext-book or political catechism adapted to the use of
schools; and we hope that this desideratum may be,
ere long, supplied by some one of our learned civilians
who is both a patriot and a Christian. If the children
who frequent our public schools should be thought to
be, in general, too young to comprehend the whole
subject under consideration, a course suited to their
age should be adopted; and we would add, that it is
precisely at this early age, which, as we all know, remembers better than any other, that the inculcation
of correct views and principles with regard to all human relations is pre-eminently important. The more
extended course might then belong to higher schools
and seminaries of learning. We regard this subject
as one of great importance, and recommend it to the
serious consideration of those to whom the direction
and management of our scholastic institutions are intrusted
DIVISION II.
MORAL EDUCATION.
CHAPTER I.
The Moral Education of Man, considered as an Individual. Cultivation of the Sense of Honour.
THE traits of character which are to be cultivated
in view of the proper education of man in his individual capacity, may be briefly stated as follows: Every
man should regard himself individually as the equal
of every other. This feeling of self-respect constitutes the true sense of honour. It is necessary carefully to distinguish self-respect, as well from self-confidence, as from self-love (egotism), and from self-esteem. When self-love and self-esteem are combined,
they constitute, in their union, the true and noble love
of honour. That self-respect, which is here insisted




294    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
upon, has for its office merely to maintain inwardly
the individual's own dignity, and manifests itself in
the capacity of what is termed generous pride only
negatively, in repelling all arrogance and presumption
In contradistinction from this self-respect, we find, in
human life, the following vicious qualities: false or
feigned humility, self-contempt, or baseness of disposition, and a grovelling or cringing temper; also, the
following perversions, or rude and harsh manifestations of the sense of honour, viz., insensibility, arrogance, and ambition or vaingloriousness.
The educator must here observe two stages of development in the pupil, and regulate his treatment of
him according to his years. In the merely sensuous
child or boy, who is yet far from being conscious of
real personality, this personality should yet be prepared for its development; should be, in anticipation,
gently treated and respected, as certain to manifest
itself in future. This will be effected, 1. By cultivating the child's bodily health and vigour, which will,
at least, produce a sort of physical self-respect, whose
office it is to maintain its ground in the external
world, as will subsequently the sense of honour in
the world of mind. In this connexion it is also important to accustom boys to hardships and the endurance of pain; in short, to develop that genuine stoicism in which our effeminate age is so deficient. Boys
should not be prevented from courageously using
their fists in cases of real necessity, and in general
they should, as far as practicable, be allowed to settle
their childish quarrels themselves.
2. By the proper treatment of stubbornness or selfwill, which is not in all cases to be entirely condemned, but which ought, in every instance in which it is
clearly wrong and evil, to be repelled and resisted
with inexorable severity and the utmost calmness.
On this point the great majority of mothers betray the
most culpable weakness. The evil here spoken of is
one of the greatest magnitude; and, as it begins to
manifest and develop itself in earliest infancy, this is
the proper, and the only proper period for resisting




AND INSTRUCTION.              295
and subduing it. When we consider the injudicious
manner in which we usually see children treated in
this respect, and the weakness and mistaken fondness
which lead so many parents, and particularly mothers, to oppose remonstrances and coaxing to the stubbornness and the self-will of their little ones, and
even to give up to their violent explosions of temper,
we feel that no apology is necessary for the introduction here, from the work of Schwarz, of the following discussion of the subject:
A. ABNORMAL DEVELOPMENTS: THEIR ORIGIN AND
PREVENTION.
The first abnormal manifestation of the newborn
child is its excessive screaming: this must be distinguished from the first scream, which is produced by
the reaction of the system against the numerous excitants to which it is exposed. But screaming is to
be regarded as irregularity, when it betrays the incipiency of selfishness; and this is betrayed when, by
screaming, the child offers resistance to its mother
and others, and strives to invert the established order
of things by attempting to rule. As yet, the child has
no other means of making resistance except the use
of its voice; but this unruly disposition will subsequently manifest itself by striking, stamping, and the
like. Such screaming may be distinguished by those
who are about the child, not only by its angry tone,
but also by its increasing in violence until the desired
gratification has been obtained; and with this successful attempt, an association is formed between unruly conduct and the attainment of purposes, which
will last through life. The child very soon discovers
that by this means it can obtain its object; it knows
this at first, as the animal does: for example, the
dog, which asks its master for what it wants by barking; but it gradually learns, by experience, to effect
by screaming whatever it desires, and to rule, by importunity, over those around it. For such a child it
becomes very difficult to acquire, at any time, the
feelings of love, of gratitude, of cheerfulness, of con



296    A PLAN OF YOUTIIFUL CULTURE
fiding attachment; it will always command-always
regard those about it as tools, and even, in the end,
regard itself in the same light. It will neither enjoy
its own life, nor allow others rightly to. enjoy theirs.
If, then, at any time, a man, in whose childhood such
abnormal manifestations were developed and indulged.
should feel a desire for anything, or a want (and how
few hours of life are free from wants!), he is peevish
and morose, even before he seeks the gratification of
his desire; and this temper naturally grows worse
by the experiences of each day; and out of it grow
ill humour and suspicion. If any desired object has
been obtained, he is not satisfied with it; and far from
feeling grateful to those who do him favours, he talks
of nothing but the additional demands which he might
make, and thinks only of rights and claims where he
ought to think of duties. If he have need of anything,
or if any of his efforts be unsuccessful, he becomes a
burden and torment to those around him and to himself. He is always dissatisfied with things as they
are, and never at peace with himself; and though
he should have the semblance of religion, yet would
he use God himself only as an instrument, and is constantly quarrelling with Providence. If morals be at
all his study, his conduct is, in all things, artificial.
In a person of this description, it is in vain to look for
affection, and even his parents must not expect any
from him. A And thus the child, that is indulged in the
unruly habit of effecting, by means of screaming, Whatever it desires, may become an intolerable egotist;
and if this should not be the result, it will be because
the circumstances of his life have prevented it, and
for this parents may feel thankful to God. We meet,
in the intercourse of life, many persons, whose illnatured conduct will justify us in saying,' they have,'in their childhood, made trouble in the family by their
screaming." Varying with different dispositions and
circumstances, such children become malicious, headstrong, irascible, spiteful, crafty, liars, sycophants, deceitful, cruel, tyrannical, &c.
The existence, then, of this unruly habit, involves a




AND INSTRUCTION.              297
serious charge against parents. No child is, indeed,
so entirely possessed by it, that better features should
not be now and then exhibited; but it is bad enough
if once the habit has struck root. We should see a
great many more children of good dispositions, if that
evil habit were not permitted to form itself in the infant.
The principal- remedy for this evil is to repel the
* cry first attempts of the child; not to give up to it,
but to let it scream; but to make it a point to satisfy
its natural wants before it has occasion to demand
gratification by screaming and importunity. In other
respects it should be treated in as kindly a manner as
possible. This is the so-called subduing of the temper.
It is a mistake to suppose that this must be effected
by a sort of force; for, if this has actually become necessary, it only proves that much of the evil already
exists. I This is, i:!veed, usually the case, as the practice of yielding is tie most common, and thus the perverseness of the parents descends to the children.
When, however, the evil really exists, nothing is left
but this subduing of the temper; and the sooner this is
accomplished the better, otherwise the evil will increase with each day, for the association becomes established and deeply seated in the organism. It is no
better, or rather worse, if the child is remonstrated
with; for, by so doing, a sort of dominion is conceded
to it, and in the end, a pernicious struggle is the consequence, which stimulates to increased unruliness.
" But," it is objected, " the child will cry too much, and
perhaps injure itself." You may safely run the risk;
or, is the injury less if it becomes daily more headstrong l When shall the temper be subdued or the
will broken. Will you leave it to time and circumstances. This would be cruel; for the stern Nemesis never omits to come, and she is a stranger to sparing gentleness. If the child sustain a bodily injury,
this may be cured; or it may become happy even with
it; but an ill-tempered child will certainly become
an unhappy man. Nor is there great danger of iniu



298    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ry arising from screaming. When its exertions are
destructive to itself, nature soon becomes sensible of
it, and the child will scream no longer than it can bear
it, at least not in early infancy: it will grow weary,
and rest the more sweetly; and perhaps this exercise
of the voice will even serve as a wholesome excite..
ment to its animal organism; but when the unruly
child has been, for once, allowed to scream to its
heart's content without effecting its object, all is gained; that evil association is broken up; it will not carry its second attempt so far, and nature is freed from
its bonds; for, according to nature, the child feels itself dependant on the will of others, and finds itself
well at ease in this sense of dependance; much better than in its position of unnatural domination. I
know an excellent mother, whose acute observation
detected the beginning of this unruly tendency in her
infant daughter when only six weeks of age. The
child screamed in order to be taken from its bed; she
let it lie, and it screamed more violently; it continued
to scream for about fifteen minutes, until it could
scarcely be endured; but the mother had firmness to
persevere. The child screamed until it was weary,
then fell asleep, and awoke in the best humour imaginable, and never made a similar attempt, but became
a most obedient and amiable girl. Although it had
bten born with an umbilical rupture which had scarcely been healed, its screaming had not had the least injurious effects upon it.
As the breaking from any habit always produces a
disagreeable excitement, and that the more sensibly
the more the evil habit has become confirmed, and
the more it feels the restraint imposed upon its violent
manifestations, so every means employed to correct
the evil here particularly treated of cannot but leave
a disagreeable impression in the child's mind which
can never be effaced; an aversion to the person who
subjects it to restraint, which can only be prejudicial
to affection and cheerfulness. The longer, therefore,
the subduing of the will is put off, the more violently
will the child be exasperated argainst those who ultimately attempt to curb it. Henlce arises the univer



AND INSTRUCTION.              299
sally prevailing propensity of children to disobedience,
and even aversion to education; for a child, that has
not been more or less neglected in this respect, is one
of the greatest of rarities. All have, in some degree,
to suffer for this early neglect, and never is the penalty completely cancelled; for, in suffering for it, it is
always again renewed, though it be but to a small degree. And, therefore, the disobedience of children is
to the parents who complain of it, the penalty of sin;
and the same is true of all the bitterness and ill-will
of the younger generation towards the elder, which
suffers from the effects of these feelings and tempers.
In cAtreme cases it will be necessary to resort to
chastisement, and then the rod is a remedy, as an
emetic is for divers diseases. In its bodily pain, the
child feels the displeasure of its parents; and this
feeling resolves itself into the association that such
attempts must in future be abstained from, in order
that such pain may be avoided. But the child's heart
is, at the same time, excited to humility by its own
sense of the justness of its suffering, and the displeasure of the parents now becomes the displeasure
of the child with regard to itself. This mode of
treatment, though severe, strengthens the child's capacity for self-government. It is true that, if the
course thus adopted be not persevered in, the case becomes worse than it was before; for then the child
has been exasperated, and becomes malicious; and,
what is more, feels its own superiority to the will of
its parents. But if the child is really brought to feel
the superiority of its parents (and how can it otherwise, except they themselves be weak.), in that moment nature resumes its prerogative; the child's heart
has been softened, and its will become pliant; and as
soon as the hand of affection is again held out to it, it
will cling the more fondly to its parents. It is inherent in human nature that he who is the weaker, and
needs the support and guidance of others, should
cheerfully content himself when he is made to perceive the strength of his guide, and perhaps even to
become sensible of it by mean'f of suffering in his
own person.




300     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
When chastisement is administered, let it be brief,
and severe in exact proportion to the necessity of the
case, lest it degenerate into worrying; and. let all
scolding be abstained from, for this only exasperates.
One single severe word, e. g., "silence!" uttered
with a commanding voice, is better than many. But
let all be done without passion, for an angry face
can only produce a frightful impression on the child.
And now, when the child is content and yields, let
him at once again see a serene brow and an unclouded face, and talk with him about other things; this
will operate like the warm sunshine after the first
thunder-storm in spring. The unseemly hifit of
which we speak is exhibited, in an inferior degree,
by children who are prone to much weeping.  This
occurs most frequently in sensitive natures. By violent dispositions it is manifested in a higher degree
by striking indiscriminately at all around; and in morose tempers it is displayed by vexation, which boils
and rankles within.* As tears may injure the eyes,
care should be taken that they be soon wiped away.
If the child should cry from ennui, it is, indeed, to be
also regarded as an impropriety, but it is, at the same
time, an indication that the child is not sufficiently
employed; and nothing is more easily remedied than
this. Give the child something that will entertain it,
before ill-humour can intrude and gain a footing.
When the child cries because there is something to
irritate it, let it be quickly brought into a different
position. If its crying be occasioned by bodily pain
or sickness, sympathy should be manifested towards
it; but if this should provoke a desire in the child to
attract still greater attention and compassion, it will
be necessary to drop all expressions of sympathy,
and rather to encourage and cheer up the child, or to
direct its attention to something else.t
* The following passage from St. Augustine strikingly illustrates this
sort of disposition. ", Vldi ego et expertus sum zelantem parvulum. Nondum loquebatur, et intuebatur pallidus amaro adspectu r,ollactaneum sr.t For those who are conversant with children, it wi]' not be difficul' We




AND INSTRUCTION.              301
As this species of misdemeanour, the worst that appears in the first months of life, is generally exhibited
on those occasions which are inseparably connected
with the earliest training of the child to order, e. g.,
when it is washed or laid down, &c., all that can be
recommended here is, do not suffer the child's
screaming to interfere with your operations; it will
soon accustom itself, and cheerfully submit to them.
If the child be sickly, both physical and mental
culture will, of course, suffer. In such a case, nothing can be done but to indulge it, as far as the disease
renders indulgence necessary, but, at the same time,
to guard it, as much as possible- against ill humour.
Many parents indulge their children, under such circumstances, more than is necessary. If, in giving
them nourishment, in washing them, &c., they be
subjected, on those days in which they enjoy a better
state of health, to the usual order of life; if they be
not too timorously treated, nature will always assist
in curing the inward evil which she has herself occasioned. I once saw a boy who passed the first
years of his life in constant suffering from sore eyes;
so much so, that he could scarcely see, and was confined to a dark corner. Wheneverhe heard the other
children playing joyously around him, he would sometimes stamp on the floor from pain and vexation.
The parents were apprehensive lest he should become a malicious and envious boy. I advised them
to take no notice of his displays of temper, while
they continued the application of remedies to his
eyes; to persevere in habituating him to regularity in
the reception of food, and otherwise to treat him
kindly and gently. This was done; they neither
spoiled him, nor treated him  with neglect; and
when, after some time, he was cured of his ailment,
he manifested none of those evil dispositions which
had been apprehended, for they were not in his nature, and his sickness had not led to the formation of
any unruly habit. He became one of the most cheerdistinguish and properly to treat the different varieties of crying. Jean
Paul Fr. Richter has, in his Levana, many excellent hints on this subject.




302    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
ful, good-natured, and amiable boys. Nature alwayt
makes amends for whatever evils she is alone accountable for.
In proportion as the child's self-consciousness is de
veloped, self-will more and more advances its claims
and this takes place to the detriment of good impul
ses, just in proportion as the particular virtues suffer
The first of these is complaisance, a kind regard foi
the happiness of others: egotism is opposed to this
at one time in the shape of obstinacy, at another in
that of indolence. These, then, are the first definite
forms in which degeneracy is manifested in children;
and each of these produces a series of new ones,
which, in the progress of time, enter into a variety of
combinations with others. Obstinacy springs from
the nascent consciousness of the freedom of the will,
and consists in a striving for independence of control, without reference to any particular purpose, but
merely in order to be independent. The contempla
tive temperament exhibits this degenerate trait more
in pure obstinacy, as a feeling which submits with repugnance to foreign control, and therefore repels such
control without any farther reason. Natures, whose
tendency is to activity in the external world, will
manifest it more in the form of self-will; they seek
to rule, and refuse to be guided by others; and when
the will of such children is to be subdued, and to be
subjected to that of the parents, they will strive to
assert their own, and sometimes to carry it by violent efforts.
Boys, therefore, are in general more self-willed, afterward impatient of contradiction, and lastly refractory; girls more frequently obstinate, peevish, and
ill-humoured; but both will then be disobedient, and
may become intractable and headstrong. Indolence
is egotism in its feebleness, i. e., when the natural
powers refuse to exert themselves for their cultivation. In lively and susceptible dispositions, this will
manifest itself by an easy surrender to every impres-,ion, by levity and frivolity; in firm and reflective' dis.




AND INSTRUCTION.               303
positions, by retirement into themselves to the extent
even of thoughtlessness and idle. revery. Both these
generic corruptions are hostile to attention: the first
will not receive, the second will not pay attention to
anything; the first has lost the cultivating energy
(love) by an irregular resistance, the second by an
excessive submissiveness.
The three virtuous tendencies of children are obstructed in their specific manifestations by egotism.
It opposes industry, on the one hand, by a determination to be idle, which, when carried to extremes, is
called laziness; but, on the other hand, by a mode of
life which has neither method nor fixed aim, and is
called instability. It prevents true cheerfulness, either
directly in the form of gloominess, or in that of extravagant hilarity, and it contravenes the development
of pious feeling, either in the shape of selfishness,
which repudiates every feeling of dependance, or in
the form of sensuality, which abandons itself to sensual gratifications.
And thus these marks of degeneracy develop themselves progressively to the age of youth, when they
become passions, and lead to deeper corruption, and
everywhere throw obstacles into the way of virtuous
self-government, of ideal culture, and of everything
that belongs to good character. Before we trace the
farther development of these corruptions, we shall
present a few general observations on the means
which should be employed to combat them.
Of such means there are two classes, constituting
either a negative or a positive mode of procedure.
The first mode anticipates, prevents, and corrects;
the second interferes, expels, and eradicates: the
former belongs mainly to the entire plan of education;
the latter consists in single, occasional measures, to
be designated as rewards and punishments; and it is
this of which we are here to speak.
A single remedy, which is applied as a medicine,
operates as a stimulant; and it is necessary here to
attend to the psychological principle, that such remedy
ought to be neither too stimulating nor too relaxing in




304     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
its operation; its quantity or potency should be well
weighed, in order, at the time and place, and in the
manner necessary, to produce that stimulus which
will restore health, i. e., restore the patient's powers
to their equilibrium, so as less and less to require
stimulants or medicines. If we were to adopt a different course, and to create an increasing necessity
for new and stronger stimulants, we should resemble
the empiric, who cures his patient of one disease by
poisoning him, or, at least, so treating him as to bring
on another disease. Do not expel one demon by
another, nor leave the door open for him to return
after he has taken to himself seven others, so that the
condition of your pupil has become worse than it was
before. In the treatment of corruptions, parents and
teachers usually commit the greatest faults, and do,
perhaps, more harm than is done in the use of medicine by quacks. Only in the way indicated above
may rewards and punishments be employed, i. e., according to the laws of stimulants; but the former
should be less frequently administered than the latter, because praise operates, as is well known, more
powerfully and deeply than censure, and therefore
induces, more easily, the evil of vanity.
Punishments, in the pedagogic sense, are means of
discipline; and they differ essentially from the punishment of crime by the civil magistrate in this, that
they aim only at the reformation of the person punished. They consist in the endurance of deserved
suffering, which the educator inflicts in order to bring
his pupil to self-knowledge, and to effect his reformation. They ought to resemble Divine chastisements,
in that the person who punishes manifests indignation.
virtuous wrath, which, to the heart of the person punished, should be an evidence of love. Through the
rigour of severity, the kind intention ought to be discernible; but if, on the other hand, the smallest degree of vindictiveness, of hatred, of injustice on the
part of the educator is displayed in the infliction of
punishment, its wholesome operation is not only lost,
but it becomes a poison. Even if it be unaccompanied




AND INSTRUCTION.             305
by due seriousness, it will operate unifavourably, inasmuch as it will cause the child, or young person
punished, to hold in.contempt the punishment and him
who administers it. It must, therefore, be adapted to
the age of the child: smaller children feel only the
rod; older ones are more sensible to wounds inflicted
on their sense of honour than to bodily pain.
The end of punishment is best attained if the child
can find in it the restoration of its inward peace; a
sort of expiation to which it will gladly submit.
Children of good dispositions will sometimes, of their
own accord, offer themselves for punishment; and, after the pain is over, such are usually more cheerful and
more affectionate towards their rigorous guide. This
effect should be aimed at; but never should the sufferer be induced to kiss the hand which has inflicted
chastisement, for this makes hypocrites: nor should
natural punishments be contrived, as Rousseau recommends; for in him who inflicts punishment the
child should recognise a sacred authority of will, but
not be tempted to act a part.
It is unnecessary to add any more particular rules;
and we merely subjoin the general observation: Let
punishment always be just, suited to the evil which is
to be removed, and really calculated to effect its cure,
according to the rules for the progressive application of
stimulants. Larger children should accordingly be
first reproved, then, for a season, deprived of liberty,
and lastly, if the offence be again repeated, let the
rod be administered; but, when the punishment has
been inflicted, do not give the child reakn to believe
that you bear it any farther ill will.
We proceed to the application, taking up the corruptions above specified in due order:
1. Obstinacy and self-will. The child wishes to rule,
and to treat the persons who are about it in the same
manner as it does the little articles which are given
to it: thus, for example, it will command the mother
to give it something to eat, and if she does not instantly comply, it will cry; nor will it becomne quiet until its commands are complied with. To refilse posA A




306     A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
itively, and to persist in the refusal, while all other
proper attention is shown to the child, this is the sovereign, universally known, domestic-remedy, but which
is, unfortunately, so little employed. It is a remedy
that must be effectual. For why does not the child
storm against nature 1 Why does it not command
the tree to hang itself full of cherries, or to hand
them down to it. Those persons with whom it has
to do are, indeed, a complaisant nature, upon whom
it can more easily make demands; but if they were
as inexorable, whenever it is necessary, as external
nature in refusing, the child would submit to its de
pendance with regard to them as well as to nature,
and refrain from fruitless wishes, entreaties, and efforts, particularly if its natural wants are, at the same
time, duly attended to. Should the child be unmanageable, and its conduct become outrageous, it ough
to be shut up by itself; i. e., it should be removed to
a secluded, but not dark or disagreeable place, where
it will feel the privation imposed upon it; and there
it should be left until it has again become quiet and
submissive. If the son of Themistocles could say,
"My will is the will of all Athens; for what I will,
that my mother wills;,and what she wills, my father
wills; and what he wills, that the Athenians will,"
we need not be surprised that this son became un
worthy of his father. Socrates could hold him up a,
an example, proving that virtue cannot be communicated by instruction.
When the child has acquired a taste for ruling, it
will be fond of making experiments in the exercise of
dominion, at one time out of pride, at another from
caprice; for the child which is fond of executing,
and strives directly forward to its object, while it has
an eye, not to the object only, but also to itself, and
delights to say to itself, " I must, at all events, have my
will," such a child will sport with its will. But from
such conduct proceed that ennui and chagrin which
are called ill-humour. This is a disagreeable state of
mind, which self-willed obstinacy will seek to remove by setting others in activity on its account, iin




AND INSTRUGTION.              307
order to enjoy the consciousness of authority and
power. After all the child's demands have been complied with, it is still dissatisfied with everything, and is
then usually peevish and fretful if it cannot think of
anything more to demand; and, in the end, it desires
only to torment all with whom it has to do.
Self-will is perseverance in external action; obstinacy, in refusing to receive or admit influences from
without: the latter is, in its nature, more deeply seated and permanent, but the former is more violent and
unruly. In both, it is not the perseverance which is
to be regarded as evil: nor should the self-regard
peculiar to the former, nor the proclivity of the latter
to sensitiveness, be viewed as such; but in the former, the desire to rule, and in the latter, the propensity to contemplation, should be suppressed in season.
The suppression of the former is effected by positive,
that of the latter rather by negative treatment: for
example, your little boy insists that you shall mend
his whip for him, and none but you, his mother, shall
do it; you have positively refused, but he becomes
more importunate; he screams, stamps on the floor
and repeats his demand: " But you shall do it." (Who
has not, time and again, witnessed such scenes2)
Others have offered their services, but that is not to
his mind. Say nothing to him, except at the most,
with perfect calmness, "No! Be still."  If he becomes too noisy, assign him a seat by himself; and
when he becomes more quiet, think of something that
is to be seen or done, and direct his activity towards
it, but without directly requiring his action, in order.hat he may not lose his sense of freedom, and yet be
sensible that no one else bows to his will. Though
this method may not always be successful in the first
paroxysm, it will yet, in most cases, succeed after
the first heat has passed off; and if your attempts
should then still be unsuccessful, let him sit, even
though he should have to fast for some hours. As
self-will proceeds from impetuosity of temper, seek
to give this a different direction, and, at all events,




308    A PLAN OF yOUTIIFUL CULTURE
oppose to its efforts the firmest resistance, by which
it will not fail to be broken in the end,
Your little girl pouts because she has not been
first attended to. and now she makes this a matter of
complaint. When you have told her to be quiet, she
complains of something else; you endeavour to remove the grievance, but her peevishness increases;
she demands first one thing, then another, and refuses
to move. What is to be done  Nothing. Take no
notice of the morose child; let her stand; let her not
interfere with your pursuits; and if she becomes too
noisy, put her by herself. Let no one, in the mean
time, speak to her, least of all irritate her; in short,
deport yourself as though she were not present. Thus
she not only fails of effecting her object, but discovers
that in this way nobody manifests any concern about
her; and in the end, while nothing has been done to
blunt her sensibility or to weaken her firmness, she
will be obliged to yield, and to use entreaty. As soon
as she has, in any degree, become pacified, give her,
without any artificial management, some commission.
which you know beforehand that she will take pleasure in executing.
The more affection there is in the child, the more
painfully sensible will it be of its unruly conduct, if
in this manner it discovers that those whom it'loves
cease to concern themselves about it when it misbehaves. But if these persons should add reproaches,
or appear hurt by its conduct, they would, on the one
hand, permit the child to partially attain its purpose,
and thus nourish its evil dispositions, and, on the other
hand, they would exasperate it. By entering into
long remonstrances with the child, they would only
protract the longer its evil state of mind; but, when
its misdemeanours are resisted in the manner recommended, it will be soonest restored to its cheerfulness.
Your treatment tends directly to effect this. When
the paroxysm has passed off, you should allow your
child to consider all as forgotten, and treat it with
your wonted kindness. With such treatment, it is
scarcely possible for obstinacy to make any progress;




AND INSTRUCTION.              309
nor would these displays of temper ever have occurred, if you had not, from the beginning, indulged your
child in commanding. Such exhibitions of temper
should not, however, be overrated, for children of an
energetic or sensitive temperament cannot remain
entirely free from them.
From this tendency to domineer, i. e., from the natt.ral feeling of self-importance, there proceeds yet another very prevalent irregularity, namely this, that
children determine to pursue a certain line of conduct
simply because it has been forbidden them. To this
there is a propensity in all men (" nitimur in vetitum
semper, cupimusque negata," says Ovid); not, however, consisting in a deliberate purpose of wrong-doing, but in the struggles of selfishness beginning to
advance its claims. The energies involved in this
struggle are bent upon exertion. The first excitement
to this is given by prohibitions, and it is these which
make such efforts possible; but inasmuch as they also
obstruct their exercise, they furnish an additional and
stronger excitement. The child sees the possibility
of maintaining an ascendency over those who have
imposed on it a certain prohibition, and through whom
it therefore finds itself restricted, and this discovery
gives new force to the excitement. Thus every prohibition excites to at least secret transgression, by
exciting the selfish desire of independence, in the consciousness of energy which belongs to our nature.
Now if parents are gratified by such demonstrations,
and foolishly regard them as marks of a noble disposition, then wo to their child. The case of frank, upright, and honest children is then the most hopeful,
because with them the evil will break forth in undisguised rebellion; hut others feign obedience, while
their temper secretly rebels against the prohibition,
and they long to be delivered from their chains.
These are hypocritical and truly disobedient children,
and they become deceitful, cunning, and spiteful. As
this evil is once seated in the heart, and cannot be entirely prevented, it should rather be suffered to break
forth openly, in order that it may, as far as possible.




310    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
be combated. This may be accomplished in the fol.
lowing manner: when anything has been forbidden
the child, let something else be pointed but to it which
will excite its activity, and cause it to forget that
which it is not allowed to do; and it will then be better if the prohibition be so pronounced as to almost
escape its attention. In general, it would be best not
to multiply prohibitions. But what is accomplished
by it? In all legislation against rudeness, against irregular conduct, we trace the evidences of the perverseness of human nature, and it is nothing but indolence in discipline that calls forth a countless multitude of prohibitions, of which each renders a new one
necessary. The educator should keep in view the
method adopted in the beginning by the Creator in
the discipline of man.
Every attempt to remedy this evil by reasoning or
argument, designed to demonstrate to the child the
necessity of the prohibition, would only aggravate
the injury already done; for the child has, as yet, no
capacity to appreciate argument, and ought not to
have any. You will, therefore, only excite it to entirely unnatural attempts; for it will begin to make
stipulations, and endeavour to maintain its ground
against those whom it ought only to obey; it will acquire an absolute aversion to obedience, contract
habits of falsehood, and other evil practices, and thus
its state is one of many untoward excitements.
"But the child must subdue its temper, and learn to
act according to duty." Yes; but do not, as yet, expect this of the child, if you would not train it to be a
hypocrite or an impudent rebel, destined to become a
moping and disagreeable man, whose soul is in perpetual strife with itself. To lead the child into temptation is no better than prematurely accusing its art
less heart of evil; it is to create cause for offence; it
is monstrous wrong-doing.
A kindred manifestation of degeneracy is that of
teasing; it is a mode of acting, in which children
betray their growing selfishness when they strive to
carry their own points in o-position to their equals,




AND INSTRUCTION.              311
in order, by means of trifling, but provoking tricks
of irritation, to make their superiority felt. This
practice, at the same time, nourishes the obstinacy
of those who are thus teased; and hence, when
this ambition of the weak to domineer has once
fairly established itself among a circle of brothers
and sisters, there will be no end of intolerable struggling and wrangling. The older children of this description are apt thus to tease the younger ones; and
if they be more vigorous than the latter, they are
prone to exercise authority over them. They attain
this purpose the more easily, as they have frequent
occasion to assist the younger children, without regarding them in the same light in which they do
grown persons; without feeling towards them the
natural impulse to obedience which they feel towards
their parents. If their efforts are successful, they
become completely imperious, insufferable to their
playmates, and; under certain circumstances, tyrannical, cruel, and malicious. How shall this evil be
arrested in its incipiency! Above all things, avoid
all argumentation, all efforts to convince your children of relative rights, if you would not make them
hypocritical, disputatious, and hateful; but do not allow their injurious efforts to succeed for one moment.
If you observe anything of this kind, deprive the little usurper forthwith of his violently obtained spoils,
and give him a smart rap on his fingers. If a general dispute should arise about the object which has
caused the difficulty, take it away from all the children without farther parley, or adding, at most, two
or three peremptory words, and endeavour to direct
their attention to something else.
2. Children become indolent when their attention is
either too little taxed or only occasionally exercised.
In the former case, inactivity of mind, and even stupidity, are the result, even though there may be
physical activity. In the latter, children become
trifling, incapable of connected thought, intractable,
and averse to persevering exertion. They learn
nothing well; they will sit still and listen to instruc.




312    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
tion, and even be fond of reading.; but they will ac.
custom themselves, in all things, to be supplied with
employment by others; and even in the play of
imagination, in which they seem to display talent,
they will be merely passive.
3. Laziness is the expanded form of the preceding
evil, in its positive annihilation of industry. This is
induced by indulging indolence, and nourished by
idleness and want of excitement. It will often be
found where the routine of business is slow and
drowsy, but not unfrequently, also, in families where
the. children are not sufficiently excited to activity.
It affects either mental or bodily exertions alone, and
often both at once. As the natural impulses will incline to mere enjoyment, in proportion as they are
diverted from active exertion, lazy children will usually become gluttonous, uncleanly, thievish, given to
lying. Contemplative natures, particularly effemi
nate ones, or persons of phlegmatic temperament, are
the most likely to contract habits of laziness.. Nature herself points out the remedy for this evil,
for necessity compels man to work. Let, then, lazy
children suffer the want of one thing or another
which they may happen to desire or stand in need of,
and that so long until the-sense of this want becomes
painful, or until they have earned, by some active
exertion, the object desired, even though it be their
necessary food. This treatment has proved effectual
both;in families and in houses of correction. In the
case of children, a perfect cure can be more certainly
effected than with adults, because nature still prompts
them to activity, and the evil habit has not yet become
fixed. But labour should not be madp unpleasant to
them, by giving them more than they can accomplish;
they should be' gradually accustomed to greater exertion, and to this they should be encouraged by moderate praise and kind treatment.
Uncleanlir ss is nothing more than laziness.supported by the absence of a sense of propriety. Nothing will here. avail except inexorable firmness in
cultivating the opposite habits.




ANU INSTRUCTION.             513
4. Instability proceeds from not fixing the attention,
particularly. of more active children; from leaving
them too much at their own disposal, and not habituating them to perseverance: hence arises a restless
and fickle activity; the boy undertakes with ardour, but
soon abandons his undertaking, and commences something new; at length he. becomes averse to begin any
serious employments; he runs about, plays, amuses
his fancy, &c. Thus this sort of activity is converted
into a passion for amusement, and even into intellectual laziness. This evil is not unfrequently found in
the cultivated class, when many studies are commenced with children, but none perseveringly prosecuted-;
and an easy, entertaining mode of instruction serves
only to establish it. In schools and educational institutions, the same evil is often produced by the
adoption of too great a variety of studies. It usually
does not fully display itself until the youth enters college, or the maiden is brought out. into society;, the
absence of all inclination for serious. employment then
betrays itself. completely, as also a decided propensity toidle gossip and amusement.
It is not easy to cure this evil, if the child has
been given up to it until it is seven years of age. It
will be necessary to return to the starting-point of judicious education, by exercising the child's attention,
by giving it easy tasks of progressive difficulty, just
difficult enough to leave a certainty of their successful:performance; whatever can distract the attention,
should be removed; instruction itself must be exceedingly simple,. one subject only being undertaken at a
time, and completed before another is taken up; and
when once the child has tasted the pleasure of really
accomplishing anything, it will thus receive a powerful impulse to perseverance; but.the victory obtained
must: be resolutely followed up.
As the indolent, although averse to serious and profitable employment, would not be totally idle, a multitude of evils spring from indolence; and they are
such as we hear most frequently animadverted. upon
Awkward postures cf the body, clownish and clum



314    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURI
sy manners, noisy conduct, boisterous laughter, silly
and stupid remarks, gluttony, pilfering and junketing,
&c., are physical or mental activities, produced by a
combination of sensuality and indolence, and making
a most disagreeable impression on all around. For
these there is no other remedy than to accustom the
child, in general, to the proper exercise of its powers,
and to assail the evil habits by the infliction of severe
punishments. But with punishments it is necessary
to be economical, lest, coming too often, they blunt
the better feelings of the child. Nothing is more injurious than constant chiding, or to be perpetually
scolding at the child on account of some evil habit'
rather let cautious physicians be imitated, by remo
ving one evil ere you attack the other.
As regards, 5, gloominess, or habitual moroseness
and the other extreme, 6, excessive levity or frivolity,
we may remark, that the judicious treatment of children in their general education, especially in view of
the corrupt manifestations already considered, will
serve also as a preventive against these. Yet moodiness or gloominess must sometimes be directly assailed by urging children to exertion and the exercise of courage, without noticing their foible, and by
increasing your demands upon them when they are
ill-humoured. Even punishments are in this case effectual, by effecting a revolution in their state of feeling. Yet, if indulgent treatment, or cockering, can
only increase the moroseness of children, continued
harsh treatment would not be less injurious. The
great point will be to provide them with cheerful company, to treat them kindly, to employ them regularly,
and, in case of necessity, to use severity. A tendency to levity and frivolity must be seasonably checked
py very similar treatment. An indirect, but perhaps
the most effectual remedy against it consists in cultivating the sense of hearing, and the memory, by frequent exercises.
7. Selfishness is a development of egotism which
dissolves all pious feeling. A general want of affection, particularly towards the parents, feebleness of




AND INSTRUCI ION.             315
filial feelings, produce a transition from egotism to
disobedience, and in more energetic natures, to rebellion. These corruptions, therefore, appear in those
families where parents do not respond to the young
affections of their offspring, and inspire their children
with neither love nor respect; and the evil develops
itself equally, though in different ways, among the
rich and the poor, the cultivated and the rude. And
where there is no respect for religion; where the
young are not brought up to prayer and the fear of
God, all pious feeling will expire in the early years of
life, and the welfare of the family, and that of the
nation, is destroyed. There is no practical truth older or more sacred than this, that reverence and love
towards parents brings a blessing on children and
children's children, and that there is no wisdom without the fear of God; but if once the young have
been neglected in this respect, they are not easily reformed, and never completely so: hence all cor
ruptions belonging to this category must be smothered in their birth.. The more mature manifestations
are, dogmatical churlishness, rudeness, harshness, deception, and violence.
The remedy is simple, if it be early applied. The
entire treatment of the child, and perhaps its external
position, must be changed. It must:learn to respect
and love those that are about it. All unseasonable
indulgence must cease, and rigorous firmness be opposed to the disobedient child. The treatment recommended.under previous heads will be effectual
here also. In addition, we observe, that the child
should not receive many commands, and at first chiefly such as it may be expected to obey willingly and
cheerfully; and then an affectionate recognition of
its active proofs of affection will exert a good influence. If the child be destitute of grateful feelings, it
should not be attempted to elicit these forcibly, by
means of censure; for this would procure the benefactor nothing but hatred, and expressions of gratitude would only be base lies. But the child should
be occasionally instructed respecting the odiousness




316    A PLAN OF YOUTHFIL CULTURE
of ingratitude, and, at the same time, treated rather
coolly, and with bare justice, in order that it may
learn to appreciate benefits as such. If it lack confidence, this may be gained by kind treatment and little
kind offices. The selfish little mortal should be frequently made to feel his destitution and dependance
on others. The necessary instruction in religion
should. on no account be neglected: this will awaken filial feelings, and revive, as far as possible, the
deadened germ of good. All this should be done early; if deferred to the later years of boyhood, or even
of youth, the difficulties are multiplied a hundred
fold. The father, who would then yet recover the
confidence of his son, must'first thoroughly ascertain
by what means he formerly alienated the confiding
affections of his child, and now studiously omit all
such measures, however he may be able to justify
them  such as anger, chiding, moralizing; let him
manrest the greatest kindness towards the youth,
and show that in all allowed and expedient things he
sympathizes with his youthful joys.
* 8. Sensuality consists in the child's self-abandonment to the gratification of the lower senses, and
therefore chiefly to the consumption of confectionary, dainties, &c. Thus arises immoderation, lustful
ness, daintiness; and out of these irregularities proceed developments of still lower sensuality. To
these evils contemplative natures are most inclined.
But generally such irregularities are found where
children are too much indulged, where there is too
much good living in the family, and where the children thus become accustomed to consider luxurious
living as important. The principal preventive remedy for all such sensual and effeminate irregularities
consists in adhering, from childhood, to a healthy,
regular, and active mode of life, in which the child
must be brought to accustom itself to obedience, industry, and. simple diet, in connexion with innocent
pleasures suited to its age. Where these evils'actually exist, a regular course of training for their remo



AND INSTRUCTION.             317
val must be adopted, and a rigid school of self-denial
and endurance of privations instituted.
All the.abnormal developments exhibited in the
ramifications which have been specified, form a multiplicity of combinations with each other; thus mutu.
ally strengthening each other, and degenerating farther into corruptions, which usually manifest themselves in the age of youth. But it will not be necessary to descend into greater detail, as the necessary
mode of treatment has been sufficiently developed
under the preceding general heads.
B.
Treatment of Corrupted Youth.
ll men are more or less under the influence of
selfishness, which subjects one more particularly to
sensual gratification, another to avarice, a third to aumbition, but each, at the same time, to vanity and pride
These two, vanity and pride, are the generic tendencies, and stand in opposition to the virtue of youth,
even though the more specific corruptions shouldehave
been preqented or subdued. Pride is a feeling of independence, which is unaccompanied by enthusiasm fgr
the ideal, which may otherwise have already been attained, and it therefore destroys modesty andhumility
in the root. Vanity is that sense of self-importance
which is sought and acquired by means of accidental, external, trifling things, and, therefore, by adopting the manners and ways of the world. To the former fault young men are more exposed; to the latter, young females; but the foundation is laid at.an
early age. Parents exaggerate the merits of their
children, so that they learn to think of their own importance; when they speak and act, they are no longer entirely free from the purpose of putting forth
claims to consideration; they become more and more
arrogant because their advances are not resisted;
thus they at the same time become cold and indifferent to the interests of others; they become dogmatical; are easily offended, captious, disputatious, and




31.8    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
unyielding; grow rude, and deal out blows, or refuse
to listen to others; and seek to fix upon themselves
alone the attention of the company. We often meet
with young men or women who, when in company,
will scarcely deign to bestow an answer, or so much
as a glance, on those persons whom they esteem of
little importance. In such young persons pride has
already attained its full development; whether in the
form of pride of station, or of wealth, or of intellect,
or genius, or of pedantry, &c., or of a self-complacent conceit of their superior refinement. Obviously as this sort of pride is more at home among the
more wealthy, and those (often by a sad misnomer)
called the more cultivated class, because parents, as
it were, inoculate the children with it, especially
when motives of ambition are employed as spurs to
learning, or when the young are early introduced in
the social circles of adults; it is no less certain that
it obtains, to some extent also, among those who
have no pretensions to refinement.
The vanity of young persons manifests itself in
their passion for admiration. Children become vain
by learning to draw upon themselves the attention of
others. There is too much notice taken of their
pretty ways and their graceful bearing; they are
toyed with like dolls, adorned, and admired; they are
called upon to repeat sayings or actions which are
considered fine: by these and other practices they are
trained to act a part, to do everything, as it were, before a glass. No wonder if they fall into absurdities
in speaking and acting, by which they aim at making
an impression; and by fondling and dandling them
the evil- is aggravated. Young men thus become
shallow votaries of fashion, and young women dressy
coquettes; and if there be a want of love for the ideal,
the true, and the good, they will severally, according to their peculiar dispositions, give themselves up
to vanity and the world. It has been remarked that
this tendency prevails chiefly among the wealthy and
the (so-called) refined; but no one much conversant
with society in our country can be ignorant to what




AND INSTRUCTION.             319
extent male foppery, and female competition in dress,
prevail among the poorer and less cultivated portion
of the community. But among the rich there is little
to check, and everything to foster the evil. The public distinctions which children receive among them;
when, for example, their musical performances are
admired and applauded; when they are taken at an
early age to festivities, and even balls; when they are
permitted to act their own part in company: these irregularities, which obtain in refined or fashionable society, can only promote the idolatry of vanity.
We must not omit to notice that form of selfishness
which we can only designate as covetousness. This
is developed among all classes, especially through the
example of parents, and their practice of everywhere
making their children observant of their own advantage. At first the children desire to possess what
they see others have; then they will deprive the latter of whatever pleases them; or they are unwilling
to communicate, especially in respect to eatables;
but soon this degeneracy gains ground, and, if suitable caution be not used in allowing children the use
of money, they will, at an early age, become covetous of money; and hence we see so many selfish
young persons, prodigal on the one hand, but on the
other so rapacious, that they are not ashamed even
of mean and dishionourable means of gratifying their
cupidity.
The means of counteracting selfishness in all these
ramifications are inherent in the soundness of the entire course of education. Children must be removed
from the position in which those faults were seen to
grow up and flourish, otherwise all counter-effortes
will be fruitless. They should, at the same time, be
taught to acquire real, substantial distinctions, and
thus, through the entire age of youth, to make progress in genuine culture. Against pride and vanity
there is no remedy, except in the consciousness of
being engaged in striving after real excellence; and
thus, also, in opposition to covetousness, the ideal to
which the mind is -elevating itself must gain the as



320    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
cendency. The more man consecrates himself from
childhood to an idea, the more will he deny self. But
this he will not aspire after, except he be.brought to
feel the gentle but powerful influence of love (in all
its appropriate developments); and hence no effort
should be spared to develop.cordial and fervent affection in selfish children.
That each of these corruptions is adverse to the
pure and right culture of man, is.obvious, and universally admitted; and yet education, as now practised,
takes one or the other of them into its service, and
effects great things through their instrumentality.
How much may be accomplished through ambition or
the love of distinction! how much by fostering vanity
in the pupil!
These incitements need only be set in motion and
encouraged, and you may raise him to a degree of
culture which will attract universal admiration: but
it is such a one as the world honours. He that covets this culture has but to enter the service of that
spirit which rules in and by worldly-mindedness, and
he will usually attain his purpose; this spirit rewards
his servants, even in the business of self-culture;
but let him, who would be a cultivator of mankind,
forswear that demon which is hostile to the divine
image, though he should profess to work miracles.
A confirmed inclination or propensity, which has
obtained the predominance over the divine.in man,
we call a passion; and the ebullition of feeling, which
interrupts the sobriety of reflection, an excessive
emotion. The passions are in themselves cold, but
may produce fervidly ebullient emotions; for example, the love of distinction will thus excite violent anger: moreover, they are generally connected with re.
flection and great penetration, and hence they are
deeply-seated corruptions. True culture must therefore prevent all passions from asserting their power;
and young persons of both sexes, when rightly educated, are entirely free from them, though not from
general depravity. To excessive emotions even the
best are subject; but when passions invade the soul.




AND INSTRUCTION.             321
an evil spirit enters with them; and where education
finds these, she can do little more than mourn, for
there is, generally, not much to be done against them;
but against excessive emotions there are remedies.
We find here two varieties, similar in their nature to
others which have been considered.
The first, which may be termed excessive emotions
of effeminacy, are those of fear, or terror, in its different degrees. On this subject the German reader will
find admirable remarks in Jean Paul Fr. Richter's
" Levana." Children of a lively imagination are most
subject to excessive fear; but it is generally awakened and nourished by tales of terror, by the timidity of
older persons, and the like. Everything unknown is
calculated to excite it, as well as darkness, or, perhaps more frequently, twilight; and children who
have never heard of ghosts become alarmed, when in
the dark or in a solitary place, even by the gnawing
of a mouse. In this we see an arrangement of Divine
wisdom, that things uncertain or mysterious in their
nature should excite such feelings in order to awaken
caution; and this is what ought to be produced, but
not timidity, or even cowardice. Children should
therefore never be allowed to hear ghost-stories and
other tales of terror, except they be accompanied by
a clear exposition of the illusion experienced by the
senses; delusions of the fancy should be made to lead
to a comprehension of the reality. Children should
also be made to accustom themselves to be in the
dark or alone. Let their courage be strengthened by
the cultivation of general energy of character.
The emotions of the second class are of a vigorous
character, and operate more outwardly, being exhibited in different degrees of anger. Persons of ingenuous character are precisely those who are most etasily provoked to anger, inasmuch as their indignation
is strongly excited by the wrong and unjust deeds
which they witness; but lively dispositions, having
an admixture of the contemplative or vigorous, and
therefore, the ardent, the impetuous, the bold, and da.
riilg, are much subject to anger. In general, the feB s




322    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
male sex is less so than the male. In contemplative
natures anger rankles more deeply within, and generally betrays itself by the pallor of the countenance.
The principal remedy against anger consists in removing, as much as possible, whatever is calculated
to excite it; so long, at least, as the power of resistance is too weak. But it is of the utmost importance
to make internal provision against it, by eliciting selfknowledge, by representing its sad consequences, by
strengthening the resolution to resist it. While the
paroxysm lasts, let the child be very calmly and dispassionately admonished. The well-known remedy
of repeating to one's self a suitable maxim at the moment when anger is rising, deserves to be recommended.
Two vices incident to childhood are, lying, and,
especially in boys, unchastity. They have been called the besetting sins of childhood.  The. latter has
been cursorily considered under physical education
and elsewhere. On the former we subjoin the following observations, which are taken from Schwarz:
" Addictedness to lying, which branches out into de
ceitfulness, dissimulation, exaggeration, hypocrisy,
knavery, &c., has already been referred to, in connexion with other depraved manifestations, out of
which it is-apt to grow. There must be a great deal
of mismanagement before a child will lie: for' God
hath -made man upright;' and if a child be guilty of
this sin, it has certainly been taught to lie; for, at
the period of life in which it does not yet distinguish
between truth and fiction, it does not as yet consider
whether it can accomplish anything by lying; and it
does not really design to utter a falsehood, even when
it says what is not true. Now, if anything of this
kind is magnified into importance; if a purpose is
imputed to the child which, as yet, it cannot have;
if the child's attention is thus directed to the circumstance, or, if care be not taken to prevent its accomplishing anything by an untrue statement, the child
is actually taught to do what otherwise it wMould not
have learned-nay, what its natural instin At would




AND INSTRUCTION.             323
have led it to abhor, i. e., to speak untruth designedly; it is taught to violate its own self-respect by
lying. And now, if children do things for which they
are censured; if they be subject to several abnormal
developments of character; and if the parents do not
command their entire confidence, or if they be even
subjected to harsh treatment, they will contract a vicious habit of lying, under the auspices of example
and of desired success, and stimulated by manifold
opportunity.
" There is here no other remedy than that of closing
up the sources of the evil in the other corrupt tendencies, and of obtaining the implicit confidence of children. Children should, in no instance, be allowed to
get out of a difficulty by a falsehood; never permit
yourself to be deceived by them, but give them due
credit for a frank confession, and never punish them
for a fault which they spontaneously avow. If they
have once been brought to repose full confidence in
their educators, all is gained; and in this course it is
necessary to persevere. The first real, intentional,
deliberate lie should, without a moment's forbearance,
be punished with sorrowful severity of manner, and
likewise every subsequent falsehood, according to
the necessary gradation of punishments. When
once lying has become a confirmed habit, the young
person will not be easily reformed, perhaps not till
after the lapse of years; nevertheless, the necessary
course of treatment must be consistently persevered
in. It will, at the same time, and especially in the case
of hardened liars, have a good effect if they be made to
feel, on all suitable occasions, the baseness and odiousness of this vice. The least inconvenience to which
they can be subjected is, that they are never believed;
that they receive no credit, under any circumstances,
until they give evidence of amendment."
We shall take leave of this entire subject by adding
a few general observations. Throughout this course
of education for man as an individual, it will be important to aim at exciting, from early childhood, a




324    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
sense of what is honourable, decorous, and beautiful;
i. e., by exciting a desire of honourable distinction, bu'
not ambition; and, where punishment is necessary
by shaming and humbling, but not by disgracing
Due praise should be given where it is deserved, yet,
as we have said, not too frequently: yet we cannot
but protest against the practice of giving premiums in
order to excite ambition and competition: it gives to
effort a wrong basis and a pernicious motive. In the
place of it, we would strongly recommend to teachers
the practice of giving their pupils certificates respecting their progress and conduct, in order to present
them to their parents. This gives to exertion the
firm basis of duty, and adds, as a powerful motive,
the desire of giving pleasure to those whom the child
ought to love best.
In proportion as the understanding of the (hild ol
youth is developed, education should increase itg care.
ful efforts in cultivating and respecting the sense of
honour. The pupil should be treated with respect
and confidence, and his feelings never be injured by
undue harshness, or lacerated by the scourge of sar
casm. In spite of the modern doctrine, so subversive
of all civil and social order, " that it is wrong for one
human being to exercise any physical control ovei
another, and that hence even children must be governed, if at all, by moral suasion," submission to authority and law, obedience to parents and instructers
should be distinctly insisted upon, and, if necessary:
peremptorily and energetically enforced; but, though
all commands should be positive and unalterable, and
though all reasoning and argumentation with children
should be utterly eschewed, no slavish obedience
should be demanded. In order that obedience may
be   rational and cheerful submission to authority, let
but the educator have good and maturely weighed
reasons for his commands, and then the pupil will not
find occasion to ask what those reasons are, or to call
them in question. Thus, also, the young ought nevex
to be required to practise any obsequious forms at
politeness.




AND INSTRUCTION.              325
In the man, gement of pride and vanity, and particularly of that self-conceit for which college students
are so often distinguished, the educator will be most
frequently tempted to wield the scourge of satire; but
let him forbear, except in rare cases, and rather operatf upon the young by his own noble example. The
history of ancient and modern times affords the most
ample materials for holding up to the pupil's observation the excellence of a truly honourable character,
and for enabling him to distinguish it from the false
glory of a character merely ambitious; and thus observation and instruction may be beautifully combined,
The objection so ofen raised against Christianity,
that it blunts or destroys the sense of honour, can be
most effectually refuted by true portraits of the most
distinguished characters in its history.
CHAPTER II.
Moral Education of Mlan considered as a Member oJ
Society.
THE sense of honour belongs to man as an individual; a sense of justice fits him for intercourse with
others, and adapts his personal virtue to the intercourse of life. Hence common usage speaks of justice as virtue par excellence, and of its behests as duties.
This virtue, then, in its narrowest signification, as
a sense of justice, is based on the following relations,
which determine the specific forms in which it is
manifested. As honour makes it my duty not to
postpone my own dignity to ano her, and to regard
myself as the equal of all others, so justice requires
of me that I respect the moral dignity of every other
member of the human family, and treat him as my
equal. This respect for the dignityof others we designate, 1. As justice in its narrowest sense. It embraces the virtues of modesty, peaceableness, equity
in our judgment concerning others, and the republican
spirit. Opposed to these virtues are the following




'26    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
vices, viz., arrogance, contempt, slander, and deris.
ion.
In the possession of this sense of justice, man is
prepared to associate with his fellow-man. The relations of human intercourse then farther enjoin, 2.
The virtue of veracity, which is violated by every
species of deception and fraud, and by all injurious
encroachments on the rights of others. Writers on
ethics distinguish a variety of falsehoods. We deem
all specifications superfluous, as every deviation from
truth is wrong in itself, and violates both the sense of
personal honour and of justice towards others. 3. The
virtue of good faith, i. e.,my obligation, on the one hand,
to be true to my given word o promise, and on the
other, to submit to the laws under which I live. This
obligation embraces all the requirements of justice.
4. As regards the merely external dealings of men
with each other, irrespective of their inward disposition and intentions, justice requires, both in public
and in private life, an adequate compensation for services or value received, and reparation for injuries inflicted. It is very common to make this merely external consideration a test of inward character; and
persons are often heard to claim credit for virtue, because they render to every man his due, and do their
neighbour no wrong, while, in fact, their conduct has
no other basis than their love of ease, no other principle than self-interest. But here we must insist
upon the truth that virtue is estimable for its intrinsic
beauty alone, and asks no reward; vice bears its own
condemnation within itself, without being punished.
Justice, then, in its essential character, is based on
that consciousness of inward dignity which I respect
in others, in the same manner in which I desire that
my honour should be respected by them. To this ennobling consciousness, which gives me that degree of
self-confidence that renders the practice of virtue
possible for me, is opposed that consciousness of personal unworthiness, that piOclivity to evil, which humbles me in my own eyes and in the sight of God, but
not in view of other men, respecting whom I know




AND INStrRUCTION.            327
that the same is true. Hence this humiliation is purely religious, and not ethical, in its character. From
the preceding considerations we derive the following
elements of the moral education of social man: the
first is negative, and consists in counteracting the
propensity to evil; the second is the positive promotion of virtue; and the third consists in the establishment and maintenance of moral discipline, and in
securing the predominance to good habits.
A.
Negative or preventive education must, first, protect the young against evil examples, both in real life.
and in books. As regards the influence of living example, the necessity of this caution is universally admitted. But in view of the. popular and light literature of the present day, which contains so much that
is frivolous and corrupt, we cannot too earnestly urge.
upon parents and educators the duty of exercising a
constant and wise supervision over those whom Prov-.
idence has committed to their care. This supervision
should be rigid in its scrutiny,'but not oppressive in
its manner, and ought to adapt itself to the progressive development of the pupil's understanding. The
laxity of many parents and educators as regards this
necessary supervision, and the indifference of others
as respects their own example, deserve to be severely censured and rebuked. They are unfit for the
trust committed to them.
But, secondly, this preventive education must be
vigilant in its care to preserve the yet uncorrupted
child from falling into corruption. It should be the
earnest purpose of its educators, as long as practicable,to keep its heart from pollution, to preserve itts innocence, and that not merely in respect of certain peculiar impurities. This object may be attained by
promoting cheerfulness in children; by constantly engaging them either in useful employments or play,
for idleness is the beginming of all vices; and by exercising constant supervision over them. We need
but point to the boys who are suffered to run at large




328-   A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
in the streets of our cities and elsewhere, and the necessity of the treatment here contended for is abundantly illustrated.
B.
Positive'education must aim at training the young
to good habits in all respects, and therefore by requiring obedience, the true principle of which is faith,
t. e., affectionate confidence in parents and educators.
Everything will here depend upon the educator's obtaining due authority, and possessing a good tact for
government. Rules are easily given, but a certain
degree of native talent is requisite for their successful
application.
Above all things, the educator must possess, in the
highest possible degree, the respect of his pupils, in
contradistinction from their affectionate regard, which
is only the second element; for without the former
the latter cannot really exist. This respect he will
directly obtain if he manifests the most conscientious
faithfulness in discharging the duties of his office; if
he possesses the requisite talents and information; if
he practises the strictest impartiality towards all his
pupils; and if his entire conduct gives evidence of excellence of character. Those who are deficient in
any one of these points, or in all, and seek to make up
for the deficiency by treating their pupils with great
kindness and affection, will, of necessity, utterly fail.
Nor will those succeed better who assume the appearance of authority, when the respect on which the
reality is based is wanting; and least of all can such
respect be extorted by excessive severity or tyranny.
A reign of terror is the worst of all in education.
The manner in which commands and prohibitions
are given is of the utmost importance. The following principles should be carefully observed: Let there
be as few commands or laws as possible; but what
has once been prescribed ought to be irrevocable. If
altered circumstances should require the abrogation
of any rule that has been given, it should be as formally abrogated as it was enjoined. No rule should




AND INSTRUCTION.            329
be permitted to become an obsolete statute, for which
nobody has any farther respect. Hence it will be
necessary to reflect maturely before any rule of conduct is prescribed; and no order should be given, to
enforce which the will or the ability is wanting. By
neglecting these several principles, great and extensive mischief is done by many who undertake the business of education.
Rules for the conduct of children should be given in
as few words and with as much distinctness as possible; and no flattery, or any other mixed motives
which would derogate from the authority of the rules,
should be employed.
No commands should be given in the excitement
of passion. Hence irritable persons, who are easily
provoked to anger, should be careful not to betray
their foible to their pupils, and in all cases refrain
from speaking until they have recovered their command of themselves.
After punishment has been administered, all reserve and austerity should disappear, and kindness
and love towards the pupil be exhibited as before.
The educator should much less indulge himself in
pouting than even his pupils. A heart softened by
punishment is often the more easily and directly influenced for good. Disobedience need not, in all cases,
be punished; nor should obedience be always rewarded. If the latter were done, there swould be danger
of converting all morality into mere legal obsequiousness.
As respects the former, that is, the omission of the
punishment of disobedience, this may be admissible
when, in order to avoid excessive rigour, a minor misdemeanour can be connived at; but without, by any
means, permitting the child or youth to be aware of
your connivance.
And again, this omission of punishment may take
place when there is reason to believe, that the reproaches of conscience inflict a severer punishment
than could be otherwise administered. External pun.
ishment often weakens the punitive inflictions of




330.A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
conscience. A wise plan of education, consistently
pursued, will greatly diminish the necessity of pun.
ishment. It is notorious that those who have no plan
or judgment are perpetually inflicting chastisement on
their children, if they do not spoil them by indulgence.
Sometimes we find both extremes strangely combined; and such a course of education usually produces monsters of wickedness. The golden mean is
found only by the reflecting and wise.
C.
It should be the aim of the higher moral education
gradually to lead the young to desire and to will the
good solely for its own sake, and thus to acquire a
truly virtuous character of their own.
Unconditional obedience should gradually cease, and
the obedience of conviction take its place. Yet we
must here repeat our protest against all premature
reasoning and argumentation with the young on the
subject of duties.
As soon as the child's understanding has attained a
sufficient degree of maturity, sound moral instruction
should be given, which should be directed against
prevalent prejudices, and against any evil habits which
the child may be forming: nothing but simple maxims, couched in concise and impressive language,
should be given.
This instruction ought never to slide into a moralizing tone, but lay hold especially of living and historical examples. Direct discourses to the young,
breathing a spirit of sound and exalted morality, can
scarcely fail of accomplishing good; but, in order to
this, the educator must possess a moral sense no less
(enlightened than quick. An instructer possessing
these necessary qualifications will, of course, be exceedingly careful not to foist in wrong motives to virtue, be they ever so plausible and flattering, but to
present it to the eyes of his pupil in all its exalted
dignity, without seeking to invest it with any extraneous charms or artificial incitements to emotion.
In the more advanced years of youth, the example




AND INSTRUCTION.             331
of strict and exalted morality will exert an influence
the more powerful, the more beautifully it illustrates
all the instructions that have been previously given.
The more mature, therefore, his pupils are, the more
severe should be the educator's demands upon himself, the more rigid his examination and judgment of
himself.
The reading of good treatises on morals, either of
an argumentative or illustrative character, is much to
be recommended; but the capacity of the reader, and
the contents of the book to be read, should be carefully considered. Many books that profess to have a
moral tendency are worse than worthless.
To this higher moral education belongs the direct
culture of all those distinct virtues which combine in
forming a just, in a word, a virtuous member of society, and for which the early preventive and habituating education must have laid the foundation. In
stating the following points to be observed in this
connexion, we are aware that we repeat what has already been said elsewhere; yet this brief recapitulation is necessary to complete the plan which it is here
proposed to give. We remark, then, first, that, in order to fit man for social intercourse, his selfishness
must be subdued. This is accomplished by the uocess which is styled the breaking of the temper; by
abstaining from all flattery in the treatment of children; and by promoting a spirit of self-denial, in contradistinction from that eager egotism, which, even in
the highest state of refinement, aims only at selfish
enjoyments.
Again, on the foundation here supposed to be laid,
modesty, as contradistinguished from arrogance, will
spontaneously develop itself; yet it may be positively
promoted by judicious instruction respecting its amlableness, especially in the young, and by directly cultivating such tempers as are essential to it.
Again, cultivate a love of truth in the young, on
the plan already presented. It is a much to be lamented fact, that parents and others frequently dispose of the questions of children, or help themselves




332    A PLAN OF YOUT'rFUL CULTURE
out of a difficulty which they may have with them, by
telling them falsehoods. Words would fail us were
we to attempt, in adequate language, to reprobate this
practice, and to express our abhorrence of it. Apart
from the sin itself, these falsehoods rarely fail of being eventually detected by the children; and what
must be the effect of such discovery? Oh! that parents and other educators would, in all respects, walk
before children as in the presence of the omniscient
God, and cultivate in them a sense of his omnipres
ence and omniscience!
But, farther, in training the young to habits of good
faith, their educators should themselves regard as inviolable any promise which they may have given
their children or pupils, however inconvenient it may
be to fulfil it; and then the pupil should be as inexorably required to be as good as his word; but no
promise should be exacted from him which it would
be difficult for him to fulfil.
Good faith in submitting to the laws manifests itself, in education, as obedience. This, then, the corrupt notions of our day to the contrary notwithstanding, is the child's, the pupil's first duty; the stem, as
it were, out of which all others grow. Here the
mao tender moral sense can, and ought to, manifest
itself, when the child obeys simply for the sake of
obedience. But hence arises that most sacred duty
of the educator, to require nothing that is not suitable
and wise.
The young should be accustomed to respect the
mutual claims which men have on each other, according to the principle, " Whatsoever ye would that
men should do unto you,'that do ye unto them."
None are so mean that their.kind offices should not
deserve, at least, a grateful acknowledgment.
Lastly, the ideal of character, compounded of re
fiection, energy, action, and purity of soul, should be
constantly kept in view by those intrusted with the
business of moral education, and brought, more and
more clearly, before the minds of the young. Historical and living examples are best calculated to il



AND INSTRUQTION.            333
lustrate it; though living examples may often have
to be taken, in order to place the opposite of this
ideal into strong relief. The development of this
ideal in the soul of the pupil is the highest aim of
moral education.
In conclusion, we add a few remarks in justification of the brevity with which we have treated the
subject of the present chapter. We have been thus
brief partly because much of what belongs here had
already and unavoidably been considered elsewhere,
in connexion with man's individual education; so
that the reader, with the sketch here presented before
him, need only refer to those pages where the subjects here specified are discussed in detail. But we
have been thus brief on this head, chiefly because we
are deeply convinced that moral character, without
genuine, heartfelt piety, has, at best, only a relative
value, and no absolute stability. We certainly do
not mean to say, that the man of good moral principles and habits is not a better member of society
than one who has no such pretensions; but we do intend to assert, and the history of our own time and
country daily furnishes additional proofs of the fact,
that moral character, without a real and deep religious
basis, is not to be depended on in seasons of temptation, in circumstances which "try men's souls," and
make it appear what is in man.
The very idea of pure and genuine cosmopolitism
belongs to Christianity. It had no existence before
the religion of Christ regenerated human life. Utterly fruitless must be every attempt to establish and
carry out this grand idea, which unites all mankind
in one great brotherhood, without the idea of one
great destination, to which the human race is developing itself under the guidance of Providence; in a
word, without the consciousness that we live and labour in the kingdom of God; without belonging to
the Church of Christ. Without this, we should see
nothing in the history of man but the constant repetition of that vast tragedy which we witnessed in the




334    A PLAN OF YOUTIFUL CULTURE
developments of the ancient world, and which, so fat
as his subjective stand-point is concerned, is still rolling along its dismal scenery before the eye of the unbeliever; and all the undertakings and doings of men,
the work of education itself, would be idle and vain.
Then would man only contrive a multiplicity of arts,
in order to pass through life as agreeably as possible;
then would parents have nothing better to do than to
teach their children how to calculate accurately, how
to think profoundly and acutely, and thus to make the
shrewdest possible egotists; leaving, however, the
prospect before them, that another, or ten, or a hundred, will outstrip them in the race, and leave them to
mourn in despondency, or to sink into despair. What
a miserable affair would be all human culture, if we
had not Christianity! Without the belief that our la.
bours will not, on the whole, fail of their high aim, all
our educational institutions and efforts would be nothing but "vanity of vanities;" but, under the conviction that we are employed in prosecuting, in the
kingdom of God, a work subservient to his purposes
and praise, the business of education and instruction
becomes a divine employment, and forms true citizens of the world.
To the Church of Christ, to its institutions and instrumentalities, we therefore leave the moral education of man as a member of the great human family.
The following chapter, which treats of the religious
instruction of the young, is, in the main, derived from
the work of Schwarz.
CHAPTER III.
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION.
IT is the same with religion as with language, which
is developed at once both from within and from without. As the child, in order to have any language,
learns the language of its mother, its home, its country, the religion of man must also be evolved by tradition transmitted from the father to the son: its origin must always have a positive basis Doctrines




AND INSTRUCTION.             335
must here always be communicated by tte instructer,
and be announced with a certain divine authority, because otherwise they would not gain admission into
the child's mind, and because they would teach reflection, and not religion. We would not even arrive at
any fixed moral precepts if we had not moral maxims
and morals, and if not a voice of sacred authority
from without first called forth the divine voice within.
We would otherwise have to suffer the springtime of
life to pass away unimproved, and to deny to the soul's
most sacred impulse that light, without which it cannot
burst into life. No: from the lips of their parents
the language of virtue and religion must penetrate
into the hearts of children, if all shall' be well with
them; something must in this way be given from
without. We are therefore indebted to Providence
for positive religion, as an essential element of education; consequently, there must be an important connexion between right instruction in religion and the
religion actually possessed by the parents.
This instruction is, in the first place, domestic. As
long as the child does not distinguish between things
as good or evil, it is, as yet, incapable of religious
thought. The first guides to this are the childlike
feelings of confidence and gratitude; for in both the
child can already perceive the good, and will in both
affectionately strive upward to that Being from whom
it derives what is good; in the first instance, therefore, to its parents. Thus we see the elements of
piety unfold themselves with the development of the
child's mind, and then, in due time, moral feeling and
thinking.
Confidence, obedience, gratitude, and humility are
the first and abiding religious feelings a these must
be, first of all, awakened and animated, and through
them the child must be drawn to the Father in heaven, if instruction in religion is to be thorough, truthful, and imperishable. As early as in the fourth year
of life, the child begins to send its thoughts beyond
the sensuous world, and to comprehend communications respecting God; it conceives of him with




336   A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
reverence as of a spiritual being, and the farther the
child advances in intellectual development, the more
-will it worship the infinite Spirit. If now it be suitably instructed, it can, already in its seventh year,
entertain the idea of an infinitely good, all-wise, and
almighty Being, with the. proper feelings and reasons,
though the idea may only gradually become clear;
and as it will now also form notions of the supersensuous, the ideas of heaven, aind of the destination of
man will, at this period already, connect themselves
with that of God and the worship of God, and hence
instruction must be given on this point also. The
child of seven years of age must therefore be no
stranger to the doctrines of God and of immortality.
If any of Rousseau's disciples should here interpose
hi% impertinent opinion, that, as yet, nothing should
be said to the child respecting God, because it is not
yet capable of comprehending him, they may be met
with the question, "Do ye comprehend God? " and
dismissed with that sacred word, "Become like unto
children." The child that prays in its simplicity has
more religion than the self-complacent philosopher.
If, then, parents desire to bring up their children as
true worshippers of God, they should begin early, on
the basis of pious feeling, to give them instruction
respecting God.
For this reason we have called this early religious
instruction the domestic, and thus also pointed out
the course which it should take. In the first instance,
the child should occasionally hear something respecting the Father in heaven, but particularly on those
occasions when it seeks aid in any matter, or rejoices at anything. Then the mother or the father
may tell the child of God in heaven, as the Father of
them all; and then their prayers should sometimes be
offered up in the presence of the child, and the child
itself be directed to pray ere it retires to-rest. They
need only give the child a few words, expressive of
deep and lively feeling, to repeat, and give it frequently to understand that it may tell this Father
whatsoever it pleases; that he hears and loves it,




AND INSTRUCTION.            337
and is able to do whatever seemeth good to him
Under the divine blessing, the parents will soon have
reason to rejoice at the pious prayers of their child,
and, in general, at the manner in which it will give
utterance to what is passing within; and as the
imagination will be ever employed in its plastic operations, the religious feelings of the child, which will
frequently exhibit themselves in these productions
of the imagination, should sometimes be noted, and
gradually guided by the parents. But on this point
no particular rules can be given, in addition to those
given under the head of imagination.
It is, of course, a paramount requisite that the pa
rents themselvesbe religious, and regarded with reverence by their children, otherwise the best instruction in religion which the child may receive will not
be accompanied by the needful blessing.
When children are about the age of seven years,
their regular instruction in religion should commence.
This may be divided into three courses. The first
should develop those feelings of confidence, obedience, gratitude, and humility, before spoken of; point
to God, the Father of all men, and show how all men
are intended to be the children of God, and to become
eternally happy. This course should also give instruction concerning Jesus as the best of men, but as
one come from heaven, by whom the Father himself
instructs men. All historical statements in relation
to religion must be made authoritatively, without superadded reflections and proofs, because for these the
child is, as yet, far from being prepared; and the supposed truth which it might be expected to receive on
these subjects would not really be truth, but would,
in the soul of the child, be untruth: it is sufficient if
its heart receives all this; for then it will, at this period already, hold it as truth, and become more and
more confirmed in its convictions; and thus it be.
comes truly sanctified in the truth of the divine word.
It is necessary to take the child aside from other witnesses, and to devote, at most, half an houlrat a time
to this subject, or, rather, no longer time than while
(C C




338    A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE
its religious feelings manifest activity; for these are
here principally concerned, because without them
the ideas presented would become mere empty formulas, and consequently be a desecration of the divine name; but, whenever they are received by the
heart, let them be expressed in definite terms or propositions. Occasionally a passage of Scripture, or a
stanza of a hymn, should be repeated to children,
which may serve in the place of such a proposition,
and will now be understood by the young heart.
The second course, opening with about the ninth
year, will apparently again commence at the beginning, inasmuch as it will more fully analyze and elucidate all these doctrines, and particularly, also, give
more distinct instruction respecting the divine Redeemer. The morals of Christianity must also be
more extensively treated; but always, of course, with
reference to the doctrines of faith, and with special
reference to the childlike mind, adapting instruction
to its state of development. At the same time, more
passages of Scripture and hymns ought to be committed to memory.
The third course, which cannot begin before the
twelfth year, will embrace a review of the preceding,
and bring everything into due connexion, while it is,
as it were, a repetition of the first, completed by the
second. This course will give unity to the finished
whole.
The consideration of the farther prosecution of this
domestic religious instruction does not belong to our
present undertaking; for those who would communicate such instruction according to the plan here presented, and with a religious spirit, must themselves
possess that spirit, and will then readily mark out the
subsequent course for themselves. Every father ought
to do this. We merely remark, that only one child
alone, or, at most, a few brothers and sisters, can be
thus instructed at a time, because there must be no
restraint; because everything should be directly received by the heart, and by the heart also freely expressed. If this religious instruction is to produce all




AND INSTRUCTION.             339
its intended and happy results, three important influences (subordinate, of course, to the spirit of grace)
must combine in one harmonious operation: the father's instruction,'the mother's tenderness, and, in
general, the love of the parents and the pious spirit
of the family, exhibited in the good deportment of every member of the household. Whenever one of
these influences is absent in any family, religion will
not flourish as it ought, and what is there that could
make up for such a deficiency.
Domestic religious instruction is followed by that
of the Church. In a manner corresponding to the former, there must here also be a union of three sources
or influences: the instruction of the pastor, the influence of the Christian spirit in the Church, especially
through the sacred Scriptures, and the good tone of
public morals. Important means of religious education are devotional exercises in the family, and the
solemn days of the Church.
It is not our province to enter farther into this sub..
ject, and to show the happy influence which, in our
country, Sabbath-schools may and generally do exert,
or to speak of the necessity of Bible-classes, and other
important means of religious instruction; but we may
observe that the teachers of Sabbath-schools ought to
be selected with more attention to their qualifications
to instruct in sacred things, than we have reason to
believe is always the case. They should not only be
decidedly pious, but capable of speaking to the young,
wisely and well, of those things that belong unto
man's everlasting peacte
And we would add that we consider the practice of
our churches, as regards religious instruction, to be
defective in a considerable degree. There is too little done to develop religious character in children,
and hence arises a necessity for extraordinary efforts
to bring the youth and adults into the Church; and
we recommend the above discussion to the attention
of parents and others, in the hope that they will be
irdce-l to sow early that divine seed, which, when




340 A PLAN OF YOUTHFUL CULTURE, ETC.
early sown, may be expected to bear rich and copious
harvests; for such are the promises of Holy Writ.
We are quite sensible that what we have given
above is but a brief sketch, unaccompanied by those
earnest and fervent admonitions which many will
probably look for in connexion with the solemn concern under consideration; but the subject is so great in
itself, and of such vast importance, that it demands a
literature of its own, and of such a literature our
country possesses much that is truly valuable and excellent. Our present purpose could only be to present a simple plan of religious education for that period of life, in which it is most generally neglected, in
that very sphere where most can be effected for it:
we speak of home. And if the brief treatise given
above should be effectual in enlightening hitherto neg
lectful parents respecting their duty, and in guiding
them in its faithful performance, our purpose will be
attained.
TUSI 5W~