GRAMM AR OF TIlE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. LOUIS F. KLIPSTEIN, AA. LL.M. & PH.D. Oi T['E UNIVERSITY OF GIESSEN; AUTHOR OF "ANALEOTA ANGLO-SAXONICA,;" ETC. REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION, NEW YORK: GEO. P PUTNAM, 506 BROADWAY. 1 8 59. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1849, *i GEORGE P. PUTNAM, in the Cle k's Office of the District Cou, (. of the United States for the Southera District of New York. TO ORVILLE HORWITZ, ESQ. M.A. IS SINCERELY INSCRIBED BY ONE WHO HAS EVER ADMIRED HIS TALENTS AND SCHOLARSHIP, IAND APPRECIATED A FRIENDSHIP, WIOCH A CLOSE INTIMACY OF YEARS HAS TENDED ONLY TO STRENGTHEN. PREFACE. IT has been asserted by some that the common people of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, speak the language of their respective countries mostly in accordance with what is written among them; while the same class in England, and we may add in our own country to a certain extent, are generally deficient with regard to the received principles of correct speech in the quality and use of words. Without saying how far the, assertion holds good, we will only remark that the philologist and the attentive observer who understands the language of his forefathers, will at once perceive that what is supposed to be incorrect, is in the majority of cases the genuine Anglo-Saxon, which expresses itself through its natural channel. Above the class to which we have alluded, a superstructure has been raised in the various elements which have entered into the composition of our present English since the days of Gower and Chaucer, of Surrey and Spenser, and which took their rise, indeed, considerably anterior to that period, if not with the Norman Conquest. The languages of Italy, Spain, and Portugal, on the contrary, have remained comparatively stationary since their first formation, and, from their very nature, they must be spoken by all conditions of society with but little difference. 1* 6 PREFACE. If we are partly led to the study of the Latin and Greek languages from the light which they throw upon the structure of our own, the Anglo-Saxon, for the same reason, has claims upon us almost equally great, forming, as it does, the broad basis upon which the others rest. So true is this, that it can be safely affirmed that no one has a thorough knowledge of English, who is unacquainted with an element of so much importance. It is from a desire of making American youth, who glory in their Anglo-Saxon descent, acquainted with the language of their ancestors, that the author has been induced to issue the following pages. He has long perceived the want of something of the kind from the press in this country, while the subject has of late years received so much attention in Great Britain, and trusts that he has at last met it in a certain measure. How far he has succeeded in his attempt, he leaves it to the literary portion of the community to judge. The principal authorities consulted in preparing this work, have been the Angelsaksisk Sprogloere of the late distinguished philologist, Prof. Rask, of Copenhagen, the learned Deutsche Grammatik of Prof. Grimm, and the Compendious Grammar of the Primitive English or Anglo-Saxon Language and larger Dictionary of that eminent Saxon scholar, the Rev. J. Bosworth, LL. D., PH. D., etc., etc., etc. In the general order and arrangement of his matter the author has differed both from Prof. Rask and Dr. Bosworth, and likewise from them and the rest who have written upon the subject, in many of his views of the language. In some few instances he has used the PREFACE. 7 expressions of others, either through inadvertence, or where he had found the same employed by more than one to such an extent as to become common property. It was intended at first to introduce the Ablative, but upon mature reflection, deemed unnecessary, as however general and express that case may have been in earlier times, with the exception of a few peculiar forms, it evidently does not belong to the language as we now have it, distinct from the Dative. It would seem to have been gradually laid aside, while the Dative finally, in almost every instance, was used in its stead. The accent has been employed in every case in which analogy would justify it. How much the proper pronunciation, as well as distinction, of words depends upon its adoption, will be easily seen. Not only has the " monkish" character been rejected and the Roman substituted in its place, but the D, P, has been represented by.h, th1, and the D, A, by Th, th. While nothing is lost by this further change, typographical uniformity has been gained. ST. JAMES, SANTEE, S. J C April 1, 1848 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. THE disadvantageous circumstances under which the Author's Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Language was originally prepared for the press, owing to his distance from the place of publication, and the accidental loss of matter designed for rendering the work more complete, having led to defects in its mechanical execution and general structure, a new and improved edition is herewith offered to the public. While therefore much that was unintentionally omitted, has been added to the pages which follow, nothing has been done to affect the arrangement and division previously adopted, in order that all confusion with regard to references might be avoided. In the work as it now stands, the peculiar views entertained by the author concerning the intimate structure of the tongue, will be found to correspond more nearly with the same as set forth by him in the Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, and still more fully in the copious Glossary intended to accompany the volumes which bear that title. In giving the various forms of such words as are introduced in the evolution of the different parts of speech, those have generally been rejected which cannot be referred to the genius of the language as otherwise developed, or which evidently belong to its transition state. At the same time, there have been added many others which connect themselves 10 PREFACE TO THE REVISED EDITION. with the tongue in its earlier stages, and which help to confirm the opinion elsewhere advanced concerning its highly original character. The term "monkish," borrowed and applied to the peculiar form of the Anglo-Saxon characters, as modified from the Roman, we would reject from the foregoing Preface. It is no more applicable to the Anglo-Saxon than to the various forms of the Gothic once obtaining wherever the latter name was carried. All the modified forms of the Roman letter will be found indeed to correspond to the modifications of the Roman architecture, among whatever people they were both introduced. Some observations by the same hand will be found to precede the Essay on the Study of the Anglo-Saxon as originally prepared, along with other additions. The suggestions relative to the orthography of certain classes of words in English we must say deserve consideration. Attention to them as far as the removal of barbarisms from the language in that respect is concerned, will ultimately prevent complete radicalism. We want an orthography strictly' English or Anglican, but one maintaining, not destroying analogies. For the increased expense incurred, the author can expect to be repaid only through an increased interest in the study of the language, signs of which begin to show themselves in various sections of the country. Such signs should be hailed as the dawn of a day in American scholarship, in which to be acquainted with our mother tongue is not to be ignorant of the genius of its main element. ST. JAMES, SANTEE, S. C., May 1, 1849. CONTENTS. PAGU INTRODUCT(ION.................. 15 PART I.-ORTHO GRAPHY. CHAPTER I THE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION..45 CHAPTER IL CHANGE OF LETTERS..........~..................................... 49 With regard to Consonants................................... 49 With regard to Vowels....................................... 51 PART II. —ETYMOLO GY CHAPTER L PARTS OF SPEECH.............................. 53 NUMBERS.......................................... 53 CASES............................... 54 GENDENSIONS................................. 5 DICLENSIONSI~ ~~~. ~~. ~~ ~~~~~~~ ~.~.~.....,i,,,.;b55 General Rules for the Declensions........................ 56 CHAPTER II THr ARTICLES............................................ 56 CHAPTER IILI Synopsis of the Declensions..................,. iiii58i- w 12 CONTENTS. PAOG DECLENSION OF NOUNS.................................................... 59 First Declension.......................................... 59 Second Declension................................................ 64 Third Declension.............. 66 Irregular Nouns............................................. 68 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. 73 POER NAES...................... 78 CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES....... 80 Synopsis of the Declensions.................................. 80 DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES.................................... 81 Indefinite Adjectives................ 81 Definite Adjectives................................................ 84 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES................................................ 85 A List of Irregular Comparisons................ 86 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES...................88............. 8 CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS........................................................ 91 1. Personal Pronouns..... 91 2. Adjective Pronouns..... 94 3. Definitive Pronouns..... 96 4. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns........................ 98 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE ARTICLES AND PRONOUNS............ 100 CHAPTER VL THE NUMERAL......................................... 103 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE NUMERALS.............................. 107 CHAPTER VIL VERBS........................................................................... 109 CONJUGATIONS.......... 109 MoODns......................................................................... 109 TENSES................................... 109 BERS.................... 110 mCRsONES....,............. 110 CONTENTS. 13 PAGB PARTICIPLES.............................................. 110 THE GERUND......................................................... 110 CONJUGATION OF VERBS............................... 110 1. The Simple Order........................................... 110 First Conjugation............................... 110 Remarks on the First Co njugation.117 2. The Complex Order.............................. 118 Second Conjugation.............................. 118 Remarks on the Second Conjugation....................... 120 Third Conjugation............................. 120 Remarks on the Third Conjugation.......................... 123 FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE VERB.................. 123 AUXILIARY VERBS................................... 127 COMPOUND TENSES.................................. 134 IMPERSONAL VERBS.................................... 135 Reflexive Verbs, Note.................. 135 MIXED VERBS.................. 135 ANOMALOUS VELBS.................. 136 NEGATIVE VEBS............................. 138 A LIST OF COMPLEX VERBS................. 140 IMPERFECT VERBS............................182 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF VERBS....................... 183 CHAPTER VIIL ADVERBS i......................................................................185 CHAPTER IX. PREPOSITONS........................ 192 CHAPTER X. CONJUNoTIONS....................... 198 CHAPTER XL NTEJETONS.......................................................... 201 ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE INDECLINABLE PARTS OF SPEECH... 202 2 14 CONTENTSi PART III.-SYNTAX. CONSTRUCTION OF SENTENCES.........................-.......... 204 CONCORD...................................................................... 204 GOVERNMENT........ 207 PART IV.-PR O SO DY. OF ANGLO-SAXON POETRY IN GENiERAL..................... 217 A LIST OF ANGLO-SAXON PH.RASES.............~................. 234 POSTSCRIPT............................................................... 242 APPENDIX A..................................... 246 AP:PENDIX B................. 253 APPENDIX C.................................................260 APFrNDIX D 2............,..2.2............~ 262 INTRODUCTION. ON THE STUDY OF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE. THE history of a language is in truth the history of a people. In seeking for the elements of which the one is 1omposed, we are necessarily obliged to inquire into the vicissitudes that the other has undergone. Every change that has taken place in the condition of a people, and every revolution that has marked its existence, may as distinctly be traced in the structure of the language of that people, as the age of a tree may be known by the successive layers of which it is composed, or that of the earth itself deduced from the geological evidences in its crust. No better example could possibly be adduced of this philological truth, than an examination of the English tongue in connection with the history of Britain,-a history that might almost as clearly be derived, if we were deprived of every other source, from a careful, minute, and skilful analysis of the language itself, as the Indian hunter is said to: derive the precise characteristics of the animal he is pursuing, from an accurate examination of the footprints it has left in the sand, or of the marks it has made in its progress. The early history of the inhabitants of Britain, like that of all the ancient nations, is lost in the twilight of fable, and the imagination of their descendants has been, from time to time, exercised in accounting by fanciful and, often, supernatural causes for that origin which is either entirely unknown, or so wrapped in mystery as to deserve but little 1 6 _ANG LO-SAXON GRAMMAR consideration. Unable to give any satisfactory account of their true origin, poetry was permitted to supply the place of history, and, veiling ignorance under myths and allegories, the Egyptians, the Greeks and the Romans, were not behind the Britons, the Celts or the Saxons, in supposing that they had sprung, like plants, from the ground, or were descended from the gods,* or had existed before the moon herself.t It is in vain, therefore, to attempt to penetrate those mysteries in which ancient history, beyond a certain period, is hopelessly involved, or to lift that veil by which, no doubt with some wise design, the unknown i3 separated from the known. One truth seems, however, to be as firmly settled by those marks which the successive migrations of tribes and of nations have left behind them, in their advance westward, as by the Pentateuch itself; and that is, the fact recorded by Moses, that man originated in the eastern portions of the world, to which region the various inhabitants of the different parts of the earth, in successive centuries, may be referred with something like certainty. There first began those associations of men, which were the basis of states, kingdoms, and empires; and there were first cultivated the arts and the sciences. Civilization, in the course of time, began, as a necessary consequence, to grow up in that quarter, and in its train followed all those evils which flow from ease, luxury, and refinement. Increased wants on the part of the people, and habits of indolence and indulgence, gave rise to inventions and to crimes; and that spirit of generosity and of noble bearing which seems the natural offspring of freedom from control, gradually gave way to less honorable feelings, until, strange as it may seem, * The story of Cadmus, of Mars and Rhea Sylvia, and the Grecian fables, are well known. t See Potter's Antiquities, vol. i. p. 1 INTRODUCTION-. l luxury, avarice, and ambition, " dissolved their social morality, and substituted a refined, but persevering and evercalculating selfishness, for that natural benevolence which reason desires." The diffusion of this worst of passions served the important purpose of spreading mankind over the face of the earth, just as the sordid endeavor to convert all the metals into gold, gave rise to the noble science of chemistry. Intestine dissensions and civil broils, the desire of novelty, or the still stronger desire of gain, the love of conquest, disease, and accidental circumstances, from time to time separated a portion of the people from the great mass, who shook off the trammels by which they had been bound, and advanced towards that country now called Europe, clearing its primeval forests, draining its pestilential marshes, and peopling its wild territories. Hence arose those nomadic tribes, to which modern Europe, modern languages, and modern civilization, are so much indebted for their present condition. It is to them, barbarians* as they were called, that we must look for the population and the language of England. Passing over the long interval clouded in mist and obscurity, and bounded on the one side by the general knowledge derived to us from an investigationl of the imperfect fragments which remain of the character, languages, institutions, and religious superstitions of whole nations that have long since passed away; and on the other, by the more specific information handed down to us by tradition and history, we find that the Kimmerians (a people whose name * This word which at first was applied by the Greeks, as the word Goyim by the Hebrews, to all foreign nations, gradually became perverted in signification, and now carries with it the idea of ignorance and ferocity; as the word villain, that originally indicated simply the tenure by which an individual held his property, is now necessarily eonneeted in our minds with wickedness and rascality. 1 8 A~NGLO-SAXON' GRAM.MIAR. is mentioned by Homer,* nine hundred years before Christ) were the first of those three distinct races which successively crossed the Bosphorus, and spread themselves over northern and western Europe. The earliest correct information we have in regard to this people, locates one of their tribes in the Cimbric Chersonesus, (the present Denmark,) and another, the Celts, (more properly Kelts,) or Gauls,t on the shores of the ocean;-both situations admirably adapted for the conquest and colonization of Britain. That they, a roving and restless people, passed over into the adjacent islands, the examination of the languages of Wales and of Ireland, when compared with the ancient Gaulish, abundantly testifies and corroborates the faint outlines of history left us, and the conclusions drawn from the relative position and habits of the people. It is to these tribes that we must trace those remnants of the ancient Celtic tongue to be found in our vernacular. It is impossible to say how long it was before the Kimmerians, Kelts, and their kindred tribes, were obliged to yield to another race, that came in floods from Asia, sweeping over the continent of Europe and driving before them, with resistless force, every impediment. The Goths composed the second inundation that rolled from beyond the Bosphorus.1 True it is, that the Romans had, in the meanwhile, planted a colony in Britain, and from the time of Caesar to that of Honorius, had, with difficulty and subject to continued outbreaks, held a footing in the island; but they had never been able to impress their manners, or their language on the mass of the population, and have left fewer cva Ra Klpegopiov apepv lio;s re 6bhts re. Od. A, v. 14. t Qui ipsorum lingua Celtae, nostrL Galli appellantur.-Caes. de Bel. Gal., Liber I., ch. 1. $ Dr. Percy has so clearly established the distinction between the Celtic and Gothic tribes, that we look upon it as a settled question among historians and philologists. INTRODUCTION. 19 traces of their possession of Britain than any of its ancient in. habitants. About the middle of the fifth century, the Sons of the Sacc, or Saxons, the Angles, and the Jutes, (three Gothic tribes,) began to drive the Kelts and the Britons to the fastnesses and mountains of Wales, and, across the sea, into Ireland, and to establish themselves permanently in the country now called England. So complete was this conquest effected by the Anglo-Saxons, that they replaced the manners, religion, laws, and language of the conquered tribes by those which they had brought with them from the continent. Dwellings in caves yielded to more formal habitations, and the worship of the Brazen Bull and the Druids gave way to temples dedicated to Woden and to Thor.* Their language so entirely took the place of that of the former inhabitants, and so permanently fixed itself in the island, that, although the manners and laws of the people have completely changed, although the worship of idols has yielded to a purer and more rational religion, neither time nor subsequent invasion has been able to expel from Britain the language of the Anglo-Saxons, whichto this day forms the bone and sinew of our glorious mother tongue. It is to the importance of the study of this ancient language that we desire to direct our attention. Language itself may properly be defined to be " the expression of ideas either by sounds or signs." To the former we give the more specific name of spocen, and to the latter that of written language. It is the capacity of expressing ideas through language which confessedly raises man above the other works of the Creator, and which places him in the scale of being "but little lower than the angels." It is the different degrees in which this capacity is possessed, that draws the line of demarckation between the untutored * The names of the deities from whom we derive Wednesday, or Woden's day, and Thursday, or Thor's day. 20 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. mind of the New Zealand savage, and the intellect tlha originates the beautiful periods of Macaulay-a line, too, that is continually becoming more and more defined; for, just in proportion as civilization advances, and as the arts and sciences progress and develope themselves, does language become more useful in itself and more admirable in its structure, until the nicest shades of meaning, and the finest and most hair-split distinctions in thought, may be set forth and conveyed to other minds with a precision truly wonderful. So far, indeed, is this true, that, whether existing as cause or effect, the curious inquirer may trace the wavy line of civilization, from the wild hordes of Tartary to the polished inhabitants of Berlin, by exactly following the progress and more elevated structure of the tongues of the divers countries through which he may pass, as he advances from the disjointed jargon of Beloochistan to the learned and philosophic language of Germany. It will be further found on inquiry and reflection, that the desire of becoming acquainted with the various languages used by the inhabitants, both ancient and modern, of different portions of the earth, has kept pace or rather increased with social and intellectual improvement among nations. The North American Indian, proud of his native forest and of his naked form, feels his unwritten gibberish adequate to all his wants, and never spends a thought on the mode in which neighboring nations differ from his own tribe in their forms of speech. The Turkish merchant or the Mohammedan dervis, but half-animated under the influence of his opium and his pipe, is satisfied if he can give vent to his few words in a dialect understood by his customer, or misunderstood by his votary, his dull intellect having never been taught to stray beyond the confines of his coffee or his sherbet. But pass within the borders of enlightened France, or cross the channel which separates the continent from the research of England, and INTRODUCTION. 21 you may behold men who, not content with studying the various languages that are now spoken throughout the different kingdoms of Europe; who, not satisfied with analyzing the Latinity of Lucan, the Greek of Aristophanes, or the Hebrew of Maimlonides, are searching for the hidden mysteries contained in the hieroglyphics of Egypt, and in the still more curious and recondite inscriptions of Central America, or are loading their brains with the numerous dialects of the vast territory of Hindustan. One may there admire the labors of a Champollion or a Jomard, of a Clarke or a Porson, of a Sir William Jones or a Warren Hastings. We have intimated that this desire has increased with the rise and progress of the arts and sciences, and the general diffusion of letters. Is not this true? Compare the condition of the European world from the fifth to the fifteenth century; from the time when the swarms of barbarians from the northern hive overspread Italy, till the period of the invention of printing, of the compass, and of gunpowder, with its present state. The general darkness that prevailed during the former period is proverbial, and the learning preserved in the cloisters, where alone the merest elements of cultivation were to be found, was extremely limited. A knowledge of Latin, (the language of the church,) and the study of Greek, in which tongue the New Testament had been written, were thought to be paramount even to the preservation and use of the language of the country in which those asylums of study were situated. The language of Rome became the universal medium of communication, and was looked upon as the only true garb in which the thoughts of philosophers should be dressed; and posterity must gratefully acknowledge that the invaluable monuments of Greek and Roman literature were multiplied through the indefatigable pens of the monks, and thus saved from utter loss. But beyond 2* 20 2 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. this their inquiries into language did not extend. Every tribe, and every feudal territory looked upon its neighbors as barbarians, whose dialects, or whose customs and laws, were unworthy of being known. Except when marching to conquest, or when protecting themselves against the aggressions of their enemies, they knew little and cared less about the people by whom they were surrounded. But this state of indifference and disregard gradually passed away. The consequences of those great discoveries which mark the fifteenth century, were soon felt in the general impetus that was given to the diffusion of information, to the cultivation of the sciences, and to the establishment of that commercial intercourse, which has tended more than any thing else to the civilization of the world. Constant interchange of products and of wares soon taught men that their own interests would be promoted by a knowledge of the languages of those nations with whom they were brought in contact. No more powerful stimulus could have been applied, as may be gathered from the fact that now the craving for foreign languages is without limit, and no European of the present day thinks himself educated, even in this eminently practical age, without a tolerable acquaintance with the classics and some knowledge of more than one modern language besides his vernacular. And should not this increased and ever-increasing desire of becoming acquainted with the modes of thought and expression of those nations which are now numbered with the dead and belong only to history, as well as of those which are still in existence, but which are separated from us by territorial limits and by difference of language, be, within certain bounds, encouraged? We answer that it should-and we would endeavor, as far as we are capable, to give it a right direction. Can it be doubted that the present system of education is susceptible of improvement? Is not too much, by far, too much time spent, particularly INTRODUCTION. 28 in Europe, by youths in lumbering their heads with the languages of ancient Greece and Rome —in scanning hexameters and writing anapests? Years of exertion, when the mind is fresh and the memory strong, are to a great extent wasted in the acquirement of information, which can, comparatively speaking, be but of little practical advantage in future life. Can it be questioned for a moment, that all the boasted discipline of mind so fondly attributed to a study of the classics, and all the elegance of taste supposed to be derived from a familiarity with Cicero and Virgil, may be equally insured from a thorough knowledge of the language and writings of Mendelsohn, of Schiller, and of Goethe, at the same time that we are mastering a living tongue used by millions of the most enlightened of men, and of incalculable benefit in our intercourse with the world? Change of case by change of termination, declension of articles, prepositions governing genitives, datives, and accusatives, and inversion of sentences, may all be found, ready to tempt the ardor and puzzle the ingenuity of the student. These general considerations for the more extended study of the modern languages in early years, as filling up in part the time now nearly entirely devoted to Latin and Greek, apply with double force to the youth of America, from the very character and nature of the country. This is an age of energy and improvement, and a country peculiarly distinguished for its rapid advancement and for the restless and unwearied ambition of its inhabitants. We become men here at a time of life when tutelage has not yet ceased in other countries. We enter upon the duties and take part in the great concerns of life, mere striplings. At an age when the Cretan youth was still compelled to sit at the public tables under the eye of his parent or guardian, and when the modern European is looked upon as incapable of self-protection, we leave our,arly homes and friends, and engage in the most serious 24 ANCGLO-SAXONs GRAMMAR. and important enterprises. The peculiar nature of our political institutions, and the rewards held out by them to practical talent, have had much influence in moulding into this form the character of our people and in giving to them an utilitarian tendency-rin producing a population anxious to acquire only those elements of information that can be brought into immediate use. Profound erudition and deep scientific research are too long in yielding their returns to meet with much countenance in a country where fortunes are accumulated with almost incredible rapidity, and offices of trust and honor may be procured by a flippant speech or a little dexterous manceuvring. And hence there has never been a land that has given rise to so much improvement in the arts, without profound science; to so many orators, without extended learning; to so much legislation, without accomplished statesmen. We make a professional man as we make a journey-by steam; we select a congressman as we select a wife-by accident, or under the influence of feeling. In such a couintry, we confess, we do not expect to find men devoting their whole lives to the thorough and m-lstelly comprehension of a dead dialect, secure, in this way, of a place among the scholars and the venerated men of learning of their country. We do not, in the present state of thinogs, expect to find an American Porson or Schrevelius. Such meni are too plodding, such learning is too solid for so energetic a country. We would endeavor, then, (but without taking away the means of acquisition from those desirous of emulating European scholarship and erudition,) we would endeavor to make education more practical and better adapted to the age and country in which we live. WVe would halve more time bestowed in our colleges upon the modern languages, at the expense of Latin, and especially of Greek; and we would also extend the ordinaryv programmes of our schools so as to embrace the Anglo-Saxon, the full sister of the INTRODUCTION. 25 German and English, the daughter of the same common parent, the Teutonic, for the reasons which we are about to assign. It will scarcely be denied that the first object of all who have any pretensions to the outlines of an education, should be a thorough comprehension of their mother tongue-its power-its character-its elements. Nothing has ever appeared to us more ridiculous than the abundant and pedantic Latin and Greek quotations of a man ignorant of his vernacular-learned in Horace and Juvenal, but shamefully negligent of Murray and Webster-at home in all- the wars of Cmsar, but to whom the splendid productions of our mighty Shakspeare are a sealed book. Such a man reminds us of a mathematician who can calculate the recurrence of an eclipse with accuracy, but who cannot work out the simplest question in discount; of a chemist who will furnish us with the most correct and minute analysis of the waters of a mineral spring, but who blunders in decomposing common chalk. We hope the day is not far distant when such men may be rarely met with; and we think it will depend in some degree on the introduction of the study of the Anglo-Saxon into our colleges. The English, like all other languages of the present day, is a derivative language, and its great bulk comes to us from the Anglo-Saxon, the Latin, the Greek, and the French. Of these four, by far the greater number of words, and those of the most important, necessary, and forcible sorts, are derived immediately from the Anglo-Saxon.* * Under the head of William the Conqueror, Hume, in his celebrated History, has the following sentence: " From the attention of William, and from the extensive foreign dominions long annexed to the crown of England, proceeded that mixture of French which is at present to be found in the Eng!ish tongue, and which composes tle greatest and best part o of our language." Our remarks will be found 26 AN GLO-SAXON GRAMMAnR. From the. information that we can collect on the subject, it may be set down as very nearly certain that about fiveeighths of our language is Anglo-Saxon, three-sixteenths Latin, one-eighth Greek, and the remainder a compound of French, Spanish, and other tongues. It will thus be seen how important a part, even numerically considered, the Anglo-Saxon plays in the formation of the English. Sharon Turner, whose history of that ancient people is replete with learning, with industrious research, and with correct views, has, in his chapter on the language of the AngloSaxons, marked the number of words immediately derived from that language, in several passages selected from the Bible and from some of our most classic writers, such as Shakspeare, Milton, Thomson, Addison, Locke, Pope, Swift, Hume, Gibbon, and Johnson. On counting the number of Anglo-Saxon words, and comparing it with the number derived from other sources, it will be found that in no selection is more than one third not Saxon, and in some less than one tenth, the largest proportion of words of Saxon origin being contained in those authors who are confessedly the most forcible in their expressions, and the most admired as models of strength; the translation of the Bible by the bishops, commonly known as Kinc James's Bible, standing at the head of the list for the number of Saxon words, as it unquestionably does for terseness and force of language. We should, therefore, be doing injustice to the services rendered us by the good old Saxons, were we to look merely to the number of words transplanted from this source into the vernacular. For although of the forty thousand forms, exclusive of inflections and participles, now comprising the English language, more than twenty thouto be in collision with those of the great historian, and yet we think there can be little doubt that in this instance Hume has fallen into error. See Appendix B.-K. INTRODUJCTIOTN 27 sand-which exceeds the number of words contained in Bosworth's Anglo-Saxon Lexicon'-are incorporated intc it from the Anglo-Saxon, yet we believe that we are far more indebted to our Saxon progenitors because of the peculiar kinds of words we have obtained from them, as well as from the influence which they have exerted on the grammatical construction and the idiomatic expressions of our language, than on account of the actual proportion of them. Sir Walter Scott, than whom no man knew better the power of our most forcible language, or has probed more deeply the sources of its strength and flexibility, has borne testimony to the value and energy of our AngloSaxon derivatives in that masterpiece-his Ivanhoe. In a conversation between Gurth the swineherd and Wamba the jester, in which Gurth is calling upon Wamba to "up and help him, an' he be a man," to get together the wandering swine, Wamba says: "Gurth, I advise thee to call off Fango, and leave the herd to their destiny, which, whether they meet with bands of traveling soldiers, or of outlaws, or of wandering pilgrims, can be little else than to be converted into Normans before morning to thy no small ease and comfort." "The swine turned Norman to my comfort!" quoth Gurth; "expound that to me, Wamba, for my brain is too dull, and my mind too vexed to read riddles." "Why, how call you these grunting brutes, running about on their four legs?" demanded Wamba. " Swine, fool, swine," said the herd, "every fool knows that." " And swine is good Saxon," said the jester, "and how call you the sow when she is flayed and drawn and quartered, and hung up by the heels like a traitor." I But see Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, Introductory Ethnological Essay, ~ 83, Note 2.-K. 28 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. "Pork," answered the swineherd. " I am very glad every fool knows that, too," said Warn. ba, "and pork, I think, is good Norman French, and so when the brute lives, and is in the charge of a Saxon slave, she goes by her Saxon name; but becomes a Norman, and is called pork, when she is carried to the castle-hall to feast among the nobles; what dost thou think of this, friend Gurth, ha?" "It is but too true doctrine, friend Wamba, however it got into thy fool's pate." "'Nay, I can tell you more," said Wamba in the same tone. "There is old alderman Ox continues to hold his Saxon epithet, while he is under the charge of serfs and bondmen, such as thou; but becomes Beef, a fiery French gallant, when he arrives before the worshipful jaws that are destined to consumne him. Mynheer Calf, too, becomes Monsieur de Veau in the like manner; he is Saxon when he requires tendance, and takes a Norman name when he becomes matter of enjoyment."* And again he adds, in speaking of the introduction of the language of William the Conqueror, "In short, French was the language of honor, of chivalry, and even of justice, while the far more manly and exapressive Anglo-Saxon was abandoned to the use of rustics and hinds, who knew no other."' * These remarks might be extended to other words of the same class —the Saxon sheep was converted into the Norman mutton, for the use of the feudal lords, and a young hen tasted more palatable and seemed better adapted to Norman stomachs, served up as a French pullet, &c., &c. It was the perusal of the above quotation from the admirable production of the Wizard of the North, many years since, that first turned the writer's attention to the study of the Anglo-Saxon. But see Analecta Anglo-.Saxonica, Introductory Ethnological Essay, ~ 81, Note 1.-K. INTRODUCTION. 29 To infer from this last remark, that the Anglo-Saxon was a barren tongue, or not adapted to the use of the refined and courtly, would be to do great injustice to the copiousness and richness of that ancient language. It is almost needless to say, that it was necessarily deficient in those scientific words that subsequent investigations and discoveries have given rise to, and that it would have been impossible in the days of Ealdhelm, to have written a modern treatise on astronomy or an essay on the magnetic telegraph; but, for all the purposes of philosophy, of poetry, and of metaphysics, the language was abundant and unusually copious. Their synonyms were very numerous. They had ten different words to express the ideas conveyed by the words "man" and "woman;" they had more than twenty synonyms for the name of the Supreme Being; and in their compound words (curiously and ingeniously put together) may be found evidences of a powerful, abundant, and expressive language. No lack of words interrupted the expression of those thoughts that Egbert and Bede, Alcuin and Erigena, Alfred* and Wilfrith, chose to imbody in the Anglo-Saxon. Poetry could find language to picture her richest imagery and to draw her finest metaphors. Philosophy, however mistaken, could teach in language not to be misunderstood, that "the heavens * The following commendation of wisdom, from the pen of the great Alfred, best distinguished by his surname of the " Truth Teller," evinces neither paucity of thought nor of language:" Do you see any thing in your body greater than the elephant? or stronger than the lion or the bull? or swifter thal) the deer, the tiger? But if thou wcrt the fairest of all men in beauty, and shouldest diligently inquire after wisdom, until thou fully right understood it, then mightest thou clearly comprehend, that all the power and excellence which we have just mentioned, are not to be compared with the one virtue of the soul. Now wisdom is this one single virtue of the soul; and we all know that it is better than all the other excellencies that we have before spoken about."-Sharon Turner, vol. i., p. 408. 3* 30 AN GLO-SAXO0N GRAMIMAR. turned daily round." And metaphysics was at no loss for words to tell us of the theophanies of angelic intellects. But our design was not to inquire into the literature of the Anglo-Saxons, or to examine the state of their philosophy. An elegant writer in the Edinburgh Review, of 1839, sums up thoroughly and beautifully, and more forcibly than we could, the items of the debt of gratitude we owe to the Anglo-Saxon, (as by far the most important and influential element of our language,) in the following words, which we are glad to adopt. " In the first place," says the reviewer, "English Grammar is almost exclusively occupied with what is of AngloSaxon origin. Our chief peculiarities of structure and of idiom, are essentially Anglo-Saxon; while almost all the classes of words, which it is the office of Grammiar to investigate, are derived from that language. And though these peculiarities of structure may occupy little space, and these words be very few compared with those to be found in Johnson's Dictionary, they enter most vitally into the constitution of the language, and bear a most important part in shaping and determining its character. Thus, what fiew inflections we have, are all Anglo-Saxon. The English genitive, the general modes of forming the plural of nouns, and the terminations by which we express the comparative and superlative of adjectives, -er and -est; the inflections of the pronouns; of the second and third persons present and imperfect of the verbs; of the preterits and participles of the verbs, whether regular or irregular, and the mrost frequent termination of our adverbs (ly) are all AngloSaxon. The nouns, too, derived from Latin and Greek, receive the Anglo-Saxon terminations of the genitive and the plural, while the preterits and participle of verbs derived from the same sources, take the Anglo-Saxon inflections. As to the parts of speech, those which occur INTRODUCTION. 31 most frequently, and are individually of most importance, are almost wholly Saxon. Such are our articles and definitives generally; as, a, an, the, this, that, then, those, m7anzy, /fwt, some, one, none; the adjectives, whose comparatives and superlatives are irregularly formed, and which (for reasons on which it would be irrelevant to speculate here) are in every language among the most ancient, comprehensive in meaning, and extensively used; the separate words more and most, by which we as often express the fo'ms of comparison as by distinct terminations; all our pronouns, personal, possessive, relative, and interrogative; nearlyV every one of our so-called irregular verbs, including all the auxiliaries, have, be, shall, will, may, can, must, by which we express the force of the principal varieties of mood and tense; all the adverbs most frequently employed, and the prepositions and conjunctions almost without exception. " Secondly. The names of the greater part of the objects of sense, in other words, the terms which occur most frequently in discourse, or which recall the most vivid conceptions, are Anglo-Saxon. Thus, for example, the names of the most striking objects in visible nature, of the chief agencies at work there, and of the changes which pass over it, are Anglo-Saxon. This language has given names to the heavenly bodies, sun, moon, stars; to three out of the four elements, earth, fJire, -uater; three out of the four seasons, spring, summe-r, winter; and, indeed, to all the natural divisions of time, except one, as day, night, morning, evening, twilight, noon, midday, midnight, sunrise, sunset; some of which are amongst the most poetical terms we have. To the same language we are indebted for the names of light, heat, cold, frost, rain, snow, hail; sleep, thunder, lightning; as well as of almost all those objects which form the component parts of the beautiful in external scenery, as sea and land, hill and dale, wood and 32 ANGLO-SAXON GC URAMMAxR. stream, &c. The same may be said of all those productions of the animal and vegetable kingdoms which form the most frequent subjects of observation or discourse, or which are invested with the most pleasing or poetic associations; of the constituent parts or visible qualities of organized or unorganized beings, especially of the members of the hunan body, and of the larger animals. Anglo-Saxon has also furnished us with that numerous and always vivid class of words, which denote the cries, postures, and motions of animated existence. T'hese are amongst the most energetic that any language can supply; for the same reason that words expressive of individual objects are always stronger than general termns. I:t is a sound and universal maxim of rhetoric, that the noree abstract the term is, the less vivid-the more special, the more vivid. Now, almost all the words which are expressive of these specialities of posture and bodily action, are the purest Saxon; such as, to sit, to stand, to lie, to run, to walk, to leap, to stagger, to slip, to slide, to stride, to,qlide, to yawn, to gape, to wink, to thrust, to fly, to swim, to creep, to crawl, to spring, to spurn, &c. If all this be true, we need not be surprised at the fact, that in the descriptions of external nature, whether by prose writers or by poets, the most energetic and graphic terms are almost universally Anglo-Saxon. It is as little matter of wonder, that in those simple narratives in which genius and wisdom attempt the most difficult of all tasks-that of teaching philosophy without the forms of it, and of exhibiting general truths in facts and examples, leaving the inferences to be drawn by the instinctive sagacity of human nature-the terms are often almost without exception Anglo-Saxon. It is thus with the narratives of the Old Testament-the history of Joseph, for instance-and with the parables of the New; perhaps the only compositions in the world which can be translated without losing much in the process, and INTRODUCTION. 33 which, into whatever language translated, at once assumes a most idiomatic dress. The same remark holds good to a certain extent, of' Robinson Crusoe,' the' Vicar of Walkefield,''Gulliver's Travels,' and other works, in which the bulk of the words are pure Saxon. " Thirdly. It is from this language we derive the words which are expressive of the earliest and dearest connections, and of the strongest and most powerful feelings of our nature; and which are consequently invested with our oldest and most complicated associations. Their very sound is often a spell for the orator and the poet to'conjure withal.' It is this language which has given us names for father, mother, husband, wife, brother, sister, son, daughter, child, home, kindred, friends. It is this which has furnished us with the greater part of those metonymies, and other figurative expressions, by which we represent to the imagination, and that in a single word, the reciprocal duties and enjoyments of hospitality, friendship, or love. Such are, hearth, roof. fireside. The chief emotions, too, of which we are susceptible, are expressed in the same languaoe, as love, hope, fear, sorrow, shame; and what is of more consequence to the orator and the poet, as well as in common life, the outward signs by which emotion is indicated are almost all Anglo-Saxon. Such are, tear, smile, blush, to laugh, to weep, to sigh, to groan. In short, the words generally expressive of the strongest emotions, or their outward signs, as well as of almost all the objects or events calculated to call forth either, in all the more stirring scenes of human life, from the cradle to the grave, are of Saxon origin. This class of words, therefore, both from the frequency with which they are used, and from the depth of meaning attached to them, must necessarily form one of the most important and energetic portions of the language. "Fourthly. The words which have been earliest used, 34 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMARt. and which are consequently invested with the strongest associations, are almost all of a similar origin. This, indeed, follows from what has been already said; for, if the words descriptive of the most ordinary objects of sense, and of the principal varieties and signs of emotion, are Anglo-Saxon, such, from the course of development which the human mind takes, must necessarily be the terms which first fall upon the ear of childhood. Still, the fact that they are the earliest, gives them additional power over the minda power quite independent of the meaning they convey. They are the words which fall from the lips most dear to us, and carry back the mind to the home of childhood and to the sports of youth. That vocabulary was scanty; but every word, from the earliest moment to which memory can turn back, has been the established sign of whatever has been most familiar or most curious to us. "Fifthly. Most of those objects about which the practical reason of man is employed in common life, receive their names from the Anglo-Saxon. It is the language, for the most part, of business-of the counting-house, the shop, the market, the street, the farm-and however miserable the man who is fond of philosophy or abstract science might be, if he had no other vocabulary but this, we must recollect that language was made not for the few but the many, and that that portion of it which enables the bulk of a nation to express their wants and transact their affairs, must be considered of at least as much importance to general happiness as that which serves the purposes of philosophical science. "Sixthly. Nearly all our national proverbs, in which it is truly said, so much of the practical wisdom of a nation resides, and which constitute the manual and vademecum of hob-nailed philosophy, are almost wholly AngloSaxon. "Seventhly. A very large proportion (and that always INTRODUCTION. 35 the strongest) of the language of invective, humor, satire, and colloquial pleasantry, is Anglo-Saxon. As to invective, the language of passion is always very ancient; for men were angry and out of temper long before they were philosophers or even merchants. The vocabulary of abuse amongst most nations is not only very copious, but always singularly hearty and idiomatic. Almost all the terms and phrases by which we most energetically express anger, contempt, and indignation, are of Anglo-Saxon origin. Nearly all the obnoxious words and phrases which cause duels and sudden pugilistic contests, are from this language; and a very large proportion of the prosecutions for'assault and battery,' ought, in all fairness, to be charged on the inconvenient strength of the vernacular. The Latin, we apprehend, much to its credit, is very rarely implicated in these unpleasant broils, although it often has a sly way of insinuating the very same things without giving such deadly offence. Again, in giving expression to invective, we naturally seek the most energetic terms we can employ. These, as already said, are the terms which are the most special in their meaning, and the bulk of such words are Anglo-Saxon, particularly those which denote the outward modes of action and the personal peculiarities indicative of the qualities that serve either to excite or express our contempt and indignation. Once more, the passions often seek a more energetic expression in metaphor and other tropes; but then such figures are always sought-and necessarily, considering the purpose —in mean and vulgar objects, and the majority of the terms which denote such objects are Anglo-Saxon. The dialect of the scullery and kitchen alone furnishes our newspaper writers with a large portion of their figurative vituperation, and it is hard tc say what they would do without'scum,''dregs,''offscouring,''filth,' and the thousand other varieties supplied fiom such sources. Similar observations apply to the lan 36 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. guage of satire and humor. The little weaknesses, the foibles, the petty vices, the meannesses, the ludicrous peculiarities of character, with which these are chiefly concerned, as well as the modes of speech, dress, action, habit, etc., by which such peculiarities are externally indicated, are for the most part Anglo-Saxon. Here, too, as in giving expression to invective, the speaker or writer is anxious for the sake of energy to secure the utmost speciality of terms; while the metaphors and other forms of figurative expression, to which he is prompted by the very same reasons, are necessarily drawn from the most familiar, ordinary, and often vulgar objects. As to the language of familiar dialogue and colloquial pleasantry, we know it is always in a high degree idiomatic both in the terms and phrases employed, and in the construction, and ihis is a principal reason why the comic drama in every language-and we may' say the same of satire -i — so difficult to a foreigner. "Lastly, it may be stated as a general truth, that while our most abstract and general terms are derived from the Latin, those which denote the special varieties of objects, qualities, and modes of action, are derived from the AngloSaxon. Thus, move and motion are very general terms, and of Latin origin; but all those terms for expressing nice varieties of bodily motion, enumerated some time since, as well as ten times the number which might be added to them, are Anglo-Saxon. Sound is perhaps Latin, though it may also be Anglo-Saxon, but to buzz, to hunt, to clash, to rattle, and innumerable others, are Anglo-Saxon. Color is Latin, but white, black, green, yellow, blue, red, brown, are Anglo-Saxon. Crime is Latin, but murder, theft, robbery-to lie, to steal, are Anglo-Saxon. Member and organ, as applied to the body, are Latin and Greek, but ear, eye, hand, foot, lip, mouth, teeth, hair, finger, nosrWnl, are Anglo-Saxon. Animal is Latin, but man, cow, INTROD UCTIO'N. 37 sheep, calf; cat, are Anglo-Saxon. Number is immediately French, remotely Latin; but all our cardinal and ordinal numbers, as far as vmillion, are Anglo-Saxon, and that would have been so too, if it had ever entered the heads of our barbarous ancestors to form a conception of such a number." How, then, can it be doubted, after this beautiful sunimary of the words, inflections, grammatical influences, and advantages, that we have derived from the Anglo-Saxon, that the most certain and shortest method of arriving at a thorough and correct comprehension of the English is by the study of its most important and powerful element? What chemist would think himself acquainted with the properties and characteristics of water, who did not know the virtues of oxygen? What mineralogist could lay claimn to a knowledge of the granite rock, who knew not the properties of mica, or feldspar, or quartz? His knowledge would extend no further than that of the daily laborer, whose life is spent in hewing the rock into shape —or of the South American water-carrier, whose estimate of the properties of his commodity is regulated by the supply and demand. How often has it been repeated that study of the classics is important, because it enables us to understand more thoroughly and employ more correctly English words! And yet we do not derive one half the number of words from the Latin and Greek together, that we do inherit from the Anglo-Saxon; and, as we have before shown, in the still more important influence on the construction and character of our tongue, the classical languages bear no comparison with the Anglo-Saxon. Indeed, with the exception 6f some synonyms, and some few more liquid and poetical derivatives, our Teuton brethren, the Germans, have acted more wisely in making their language all-sufficient for itself, and in forming their techni. cal and scientific compound words from elements pre. 4 38'"AGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. existing in their own vernacular. They have no occasion to resort to what are called the learned languages for their scientific and metaphysical expressions, and always avoid it; and yet no one will pretend to deny, that, as they are the deepest and finest thinkers, so also are they amply supplied with words expressive of the nicest distinctions in German transcendentalism, and of the most acclrrate definitions in science.* Instead of calling in the aid of the Greek to teach them geography and astronomy, they are given the same information under the far more expressive and idiomatic words Erdbeschreibung and Sternkunde; instead of relying on the Latin for venesection and amputation, they are equally skilful with tee good old German compounds Aderlassen and Abschneidung-words which, compounded of elements already existing in the language, are far more forcible, because the components themselves bring to our minds ideas independently of their connection, just as play-fellow, sweet-heart, and love-letter, speak more directly to the feelings than companion, mistress, and billetdoux, and as thrunder-bolt, earth-quake, and whirl-jpool, carry destruction in their very sound. We would not wish to be understood as denying that our tongue has derived greater variety, more elegance, and in some cases more aptness of expression, from the intermixture of Latin and Greek words. There can be no doubt that to these languages we are indebted for many invaluable synonyms, for many beautiful and sonorous words, and for some modes of expression that we would not willingly part with; but in most cases, their assistance Ihas * We are aware that some of the late Goerman wyiters, hankering after foreign idioms, have adopted the French synonyms of scien-'.c words derived fr*om the Latin and Greek, instead of their own compounds, and, like Carlyle, have only marred the beautiful origi:al by their unnecessary use of words crined from other languages. INTRODUCTION. 89 been rendered at the expense of vigor and vividness. Strergth has been sacrificed to beauty, earnestness to elegance. Still less would we wish to be understood by what we have said as inculcating an entire neglect of the study of the classics. No one can delight more in dwolling on "the linked sweetness long drawn out," of the incomparable Homer; no one can enjoy more keenly the beauties of Virgil, or laugh with more real heartiness over the comedies of Terence; no one can appreciate more fully, or feel more forcibly, the strength, the beauty, and the taste displayed in the immortal orations of Demosthenes and Cicero than we have ever done. We would not have them neglected or disparaged. But if they are to be read and studied for the purpose of acquiring a more correct and intimate knowledge of our own language, how much more does the Anglo-Saxon merit the attention of the English, or American, or German student! If they are not to be neglected, and if so much time is spent in their acquisition by our youth, how much more of the student's time ought to be devoted to the great fountain of his mother tongue! We would have every one of our youth make himself acquainted with the character, construction, and vocabulary of this language. Deep scholarship in Anglo-Saxon we do not expect. That must of course be a rare commodity in any country-rarer in ours for reasons already assigned; but a general acquaintance with the language we firmly expect and sincerely hope to see a very common and ordinary acquirement at no remote period-a period when, indeed, it will be considered disgraceful to a well-bred Englishman or American —" utterly disgraceful to a man who makes the slightest pretensions to scholarship, to be ignorant as multitudes-otherwise well informed —now are, of the history and structure of the English tongue; and above all, of the genuine relations of modern English to that ancient dialect of the great Teu 40 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMqMAR. tonic family, which has ever been and still is incomparably the most important element in its composition." But to those who aspire to be orators or poets, this study recommends itself with peculiar force. If the speaker is desirous of appealing to the passions-of arousing the inmost feelings, he must resort to those words which present most strongly and vividly to the mind the idea he is endeavoring to impress. And surely those words which are most specific-those expressions which are associated with our earliest and tenderest feelings-those phrases which bring to mind our closest ties, are such as are best calculated to rivet our attention and challenge our sympathy. And all such words are, as we have already said, native Saxons. If the poet would pour forth a song framed to draw the tear from the manly eye; if he would bind together stanzas that should fire us with feelings of indignation, or arouse us to deeds of valor, he must seek for tender associations, or for strong and energetic language, in the suggestive words derived from the AngloSaxon. Examine the speeches of those English or American orators who have been the most effective and powerful in addressing an assembly-who have been best able to play upon the feelings, " sive risus essent movendi, sive lachrymae;" analyze those English national songs which have electrified whole bodies 6f men, and stirred up to unparalleled exertion armies of soldiers, and see whether three-fourths of the words in both are not Saxon, as it were, "to the manner born." On the attention of the divine, the philosopher, and the philologist, it urges its strongest claims, in being an important and interesting link in the chain of ethnography. The latest and most astonishing discoveries in modern science-the most improved theories of light-the revelations of geology-the chronology of the Chinese-the city of Petra-all that at first seemed to wage war with the Mosaic cosmogony, las INTRODUCTION. 41 only tended to confirm the sacred account; and we do not doubt that the further inquiries and researches of such men as Wiseman, the Younger Adelung, and William von Humboldt, will place ethnography among the first of sciences, as showing conclusively that all the various languages, dead and living, were derived from one original common parent. The study of the Anglo-Saxon will further this result; and therefore must its introduction be acceptable to the friends of the Bible. In the following pages, the Author of the Anglo-Saxon Grammar (so far as the writer of this Introduction is enabled to judge, or has had an opportunity of examining) has brought together all that is valuable and known in regard to the structure ard grammatical accidents of the language. The sources from which he has had to draw, and the materials with which he was obliged to construct, are well known to all scholars, to be limited indeed; and we feel that we are but doing sheer justice, and not stepping aside from propriety, when we say thus in advance, that he has made the best and most advantageous structure possible out of such scanty materials, and has wisely and judiciously drawn from such limited sources. This is the only complete Grammar of the language with which we are acquainted, and certainly the only Anglo-Saxon Grammar published in this country. We hope, therefore, that it will not need to be stamped first with the seal of European approval, before it can be received into favor in our own country; but that it will at once, as it certainly deserves, meet with its proper reward, and be adopted as a text-book in our colleges and high-schools. To that purpose it will be found adapted, no less from its size and cheapness, than from its real worth. At the same time that it contains all that is necessary and valuable on the subject, it is not encumbered with labored references to collateral languages, which are thought to exhibit great 4* 42 ANGLO-SAXON GRAINI &R. research in the compiler, particularly in reference to a lan. guage but little known. From this, the author (xith all the learning that we know him to possess) has judiciously abstained, even at the expense of not being considered so good a linguist as he actually is. Taking an interest in the subject, with the permission of the author, we have written these pages, in the hope that they may serve, in some slight measure, to awaken the attention of the American public to the importance of the study of the Anglo-Saxon, and may aid by that means in increasing the admiration which we ought to entertain for our noble and sonorous language; so that every one may realize the praises bestowed upon it by old Camden, who, in his quaint "Remains," assures us that, " Whereas our tongue is mixed, it is no disgrace. The Italian is pleasant, but without sinews, as a still, floating water. The French, delicate, but even nice as a woman, scarce daring to open her lippes for fear of marring her countenance. The Spanish, majesticall, but fulsome, running too much on the o, and terrible as the devill in a play. The Dutch, manlike, but withal very harsh, as one ready to pick a quarrel. Now we, in borrowing from them, give the strength of consonants to the Italian; the full sound of words to the French; the variety of terminations to the Spanish, and the mollifying of more vowels to the Dutch: and so, like bees, we gather the honey of their good properties, and leave the dregs to themselves. And thus, when substantialnesse combineth with delightfulnesse, fullnesse with firmnesse, seemlinesse with portlinesse, and correctnesse with stay'dnesse, how can the language which consistetl of all these, sound other than full of all sweetnesse?" 0. II. BALTIMORE, MD., April 1, 1849. Ai SRAMMAR CF THE ANGLO-SAXON LANGUAGE: ABBRE VIATIONS. Nom., N., Nominative. Imp., Imperative. Gen., G., Genitive. Indef., z., Indefinite. Dat., D)., Dative. Perf., p., Perfect. Acc., A., Accusative Part., Participle. Abl., Ablative. pp., Perfect Participle m., Masculine. Ger., Gerund. f, Feminine. Con., Conjugative. em., Neuter. Cl., Clasr. Pron., Pronoun. Anom., Anomalous. Inf., Infinitive. Irr., Irregular. lnd. Indicative. Eng., English. Sub. Subjunctive. PART I.-ORTHOGRAPHY CHAPTER 1. THE ALPHABET AND PRONUNCIATION. ~ 1. THE Anglo-Saxon Alphabet contains twenty-three letters, which we give with their proper representatives in the Roman character, and with their correct sounds.1 FORM. REPRESENTATIVE AND SOUND. a a a as in fat. B b b be " bad. E C2 c ke "' cot. D b d de " dzd. e3 e e " met. F j4 f fe "t find. 15 g ghe " got. 1) h6 h he " a hat. I 1 i i i " pin. L I 1 le " lamb. C) m m me " me. N n n ne neat. 0 o o o *6 not. P p p pe " pence. R ji r re " rise. S r s se " sir. T t t te term. P p8.th the " thing. D t th edh " smooth. U u9 u u full. r p w we " willow. X X" y x eya " six. Yy yl y " lyricatel? 46 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAIll. ~ 2. a is pronounced like a in fate; e, like e in mzete, 1 See Appendix A. 2 C. Ch and tch have in many instances succeeded to this letter, either single or double, in the formation of the English; thus, " cild," a child; "wrecca," a wretch. A similar transition has taklen place in Swedish from the Old Norse, and in Italian from the Latin, but without a change of orthography. K, which expresses the peculiar sound of c, has also been adopted; as, " cyng," a king. Sc has very often passed into sh; as, "fisc," a fish; "biscop," or "'bisceop," a bishop, naturalized fiom the Greek "I7rixKo7or." It is probable that c was sometimes pronounc'd like k followed by y consonant, especially before the soft vowels, a sound still heard in cart, carve, and a few other words; as, " cealf," pronounced kyalf. Sc follows the same analogy, and was sounded like sk, as occasionally heard, in sky. See also Note 5. s E. E befort a, o, had the sound of y consonant; as in " eorl," " Edward," " cow," pronounced yorl, Yridward, yoew, whence at ap. pears to be inserted after c and g. It is also omitted after these two letters, and sometimes interchanged with i. 4 F. F at the end of a syllable, or between two vowels, had probably the sound of v, which is further evident from the substitution of u in its place in many instances. G. G follows the analogy of c, but it seems also to have had a third sound, that of y, when placed between two of the letters e, i, y, or ae, and not unlikely at the end of words. It had the sound of y in the Moeso-Gothic, a sister dialect of the Anglo-Saxon, and easily passed into that letter in Englich; ts, " gear," a year; " daeg," a day;'' taegl," a tayl, and by a further change, tail. Cg is usually written for gg; as, " licgan" for "liggan," to lie down. It is probable that the liquid sound of c and g did not exist in the earlier period of the language. Subsequently other consonants acquired the same sound before u, as now heard in pure, tune, etc. 6 H. The sound of h was very hard, as in " heord," a herd. At the end of a word or syllable, or united with another consonant in closing a syllable, it was guttural, as is plain from the later and stronger orthography, "thurh," through; "leoht," light; "d6ohtor," a daughter; in which gh has taken the place of simple h. We willhere observe, that theg might very properly be rejected from such words as through, light, mnight, right, daughter, giving them the forms, throuh, or thruh, liht, miht, riht, dauhter. Their present or ORnETO RAPreY. 41 t, like t in pinle; A, like o, in cool; and y. like y in lyre. thography is neither English nor Saxon, but belongs to the transition state of the latter language, and the barbarous period of the former. It is to be regretted that ill English there has been a transposition of the h, when naturally coming before the w, as, "hwlit," white; "hwaer," where; " hw,," who. The Moeso-Gothic contains a distinct character for this combination of sound, which is, indeed, one. 7 1. I has the sound of y consonant before e or u, as in " iett," yet ";igoth," youth. Hence, it is said, the insertion of g in the present tense, and in the indefinite participle of all verbs in -ial; as, "' ic tlufige" for "ic lufie," I love; "lufigende" for "lufiende," loving, from "lufian," to love. But see further, ~ 408. ]) is the same as the Runic thorn. _D is the Roman D with a small hyphen to make it distinctive. These two characters are often confounded by writers. See also Postscript, Note 1. J) represents the hard, and _D) the soft sound of th. The-former is generally used at the beginning, and the latter at the end of words and syllables. Rather than retain these two characters, as is usually done in adopting the Roman, we have distinguished the the from the edi by two dots under the th, which represents it; as, th. The English sometines has the soft sound of th where the Anglo. Saxon has the hard one, as in this, there; and vice versa. U. U before a vowel has the sound of v.' X. This letter is but seldom used. Its constituents cs are preferred. 1 Y. The sound of this letter originally approached nearer that of the French I or the German ia, than any which we have in English. The i-sound, however, must have taken its place at a very early period. 12 Such are the initial sounds of the consonants. The final, or medio-final would severally be, eb, ek, ed, ef, egh, eh, or ekh, guttural, el, em, en, ep, er, es, et, ew, or ev; edh is strictly th final. That this system should be carried into English as far as practicable, there can be no doubt. We would no longer then hear the teacher tell the child to say, be a de, but be a ed, bad; not, de a be, but de a eb, dab; nor what is still worse, aitch a te, but he a et, hat; nor, double u (which is pardonable, but wha' shall we say of double-uz?) i te, but we i et, wit; nor wi t es, but y.e' es, yes. It is evident that in such a case, ch, ph, sh, th, and even wh, would necessarily be considered distinct sounds, which they are in reality, while a proper expression would be given to w and y as vowels. We are well aware of the difficulties of such a system, as well as of the modifications with 48 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Ae has the sound of a in ylad, and with the accent, onR somewhat broader and more diphthongal.' ~ 3. The letters j, k, q, v, and z, are not found in genii. Anglo-Saxon. C was used for k, as in Latin, and <>.zv, or cu, for q. V was only employed as a "calligraph;e -v'riation of u,"' while the pro per soft sound of z was never heard. ~ 4. The Anglo-Saxons used the following abbreviations: for "anb," and,'i and 3:; for " at" and " aec," that, P; and for "oeb6e," or, and " -lice," -ly, Si. To denote the omission of m likewise, they made a short stroke over the preceding letter; as, "pa" for "jtPm," to the; "b6nne," then, they wrote " p5n." ~ 5. The only signs or notes of distinction which they employed, were one dot at the end of each sentence, or of eac, line of a poem, and three at the close of a complete discourse. ~ 6. The Accentuation will be found wanting for the most part in the printed copies of Anglo-Saxon works, and in some it is altogether omitted. By the older transcribers it was generally either neglected or capriciously applied.' The student will perceive how necessary it is to the proper pronunciation of the language, as well as ii. fixing the signification of words. Comparison with the Friesic, Lower German, Dutch, Icelandic, and English, throws much light upor, the subject. which it should be attended, modifications which will readily sugges themselves to every mind. A is set down by some as a distinct letter, as the Anglo-Saxon! never admitted diphthonLs, and such it must always be considered Oe is seldom met with. It was introduced by the Scandinavians, bwi never adopted to any exterpt. Its sound is that of 6. Hence the peculiar form of our w, in Old Saxon written uu. But the Anglo-Saxon chli.racter is Runic in its origin. The grave, circuv-4ex, and acute accents have all three beek sometimes employed, but we think that the last alone is sufficient for all practical purposes. It is now imposs'ile to determine the nice shades of pronunciation in the langnage. ORTHOGRAPHY. 49 CHAPTER II. CHANGE OF LETTERS. ~ 7. The student will observe many irregularities in the Anglo-Saxon language. These proceeded from the variety of writers, their little acquaintance with each other, the inevitable changes introduced by the lapse of time, and other causes. Irregularities must obtain to a great extent in the early stage of every language.' The Anglo-Saxon writers very often confounded some letters, and used them indifferently for each other. They transposed, substituted, and inserted or added both vowels and consonants. The following are some of the principal changes.' 1. With eregard to Consonants. ~ 8. B, f, and ut, before a vowel,' are often interchanged; as, "beofer," "beber," a beaver; "ifig," "iuig," ivy; "ofer," "ober," "ouer," over.' Many of the various forms of words that we meet with evidently owe their existence to the carelessness of transcribers, while others belong to a difference of dialect. The Anglo-Saxon in its purest days, though in its early stage, was a highly cultivated tongue, with all the elements of indefinite improvement within itself.-See Appendix B. The changes or permutations which letters, especially the vowels, undergo in the derivation and inflection of words in Anglo-Saxon, are very numerous. These will be better learned as they appear in their proper places. Also p. " In all languages, and especially in the dialects of cognate languages, the letters employing the same organs of utterance are continually interchanged." a 5b0 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. ~ 9. C interchanges with g, k, and q;' as, " thlonces," "..thonges," of thanks; "cyth," "kyth," kindred; "cw6n," " quen," a woman, wife, queen. It also, either single or double, frequently becomes h before s or th, and especially before t; as, "ahsian," for "acsian," or 1"axian," to ask; "(he) sehth," for "(he) secth," (he) seeks, from "secan," to seek; "(hi) strehton," for " (hi) strecton," (they) stretched, from:"streccan," to stretch. ~ 10. D and t are often used indiscriminately for each other; as, " (he) mette," for "(he) metde," (he) met, from "metan," to meet. ~ 11. G is charged into h in many cases; as, " dahlum," for "dagum," with days; "burh," for "burg," a town. It is added to words which end with i; as, "h big," for' hbi," they; and omitted in those words which terminate in -ig; as, "dri," for "drig," dry. It is also omitted before d and thi; as, " maedn," for "maegdn," a maiden; -" maeth," for "maegth," power; and before n, it is either left out, or gn becomes gen, or is transposed to ng; as, " waegn," " waen," a wagon, wain; "1thegn," "thlen," "t1.haegen," ".theng," a servant, thane; "regn," "len," "reng," rain. Ng is likewise changed into nc and ngc, or ncg; as, "sang," Isanc," a song; "ring," " ringc," r1incg," a ring. ~ 12. H is sometimes changed into g; as, "(he) thlag," for "(he) thah," (he) grew, from " the6on," to grow. It is also found added to monosyllables ending in a vowel; as, "' fre6h,'" for "afre6,"free. ~ 13. L is written double or single indiscrim:inately at the end of monosyllables, but the reduplication ceases when, in lengthening the word, a consonant follows; as, "well," or " wel," well; N. "eall," A. " eal-ne," all. It:is also frequently aspirated; as, "hllitan," for "litan," to bow. K and q in later Saxon. Q combining one u-sound in itself, is followed by this letter instead of w, when substituted for c. ORTHOGaRArA, 5i ~ 14. IM sometimes interchanges with f; as,'emnetheow," " efne-.theow," a fellow-servant. ~ 15. N follows the same law in regard to reduplication as 1. ~ 16. R is often transposed in words; as, "forst," foi "frost," frost; "gaers," for "graes," grass. Like, too, it is aspirated; as, "rebd," "hrebd," a reed; "re6l," "hreol," a reel. ~ 17. X is frequently supplied by cs; as, "neoresen," for "neorxen," quiet; or it is changed into sc; as, "tusc," for " tux," a tusk or tuks. 2. With regard to the Vowels. ~ 18. A and ae interchange as follows:A and ae; as, "apl," "aepl," an apple; "aecer," "acer,' a field. A', aa, a, ai, ed, and d; as, "aac," "aac," " aec," an oak; i"Ad," "aad," a heap; "acer," ".ar," 1"6r," ere, before;'-in," "aen," " en," "ain," one. A and e; as, "arc," "erc," an ark; "elne," "alne," an ell. A and o, particularly before n in a short syllable; as, "mann," " monn," a nan; -" sand,:" "sond," sand; "ob," "ab," a beam. Ae and e; as, "aeft,' " eft," again; "egsa,"."aegsa," fear. Ae and oe; -,a,': a e ghwaedr, oehwr," everywhere. Ae and y; as, "aelc," "ylc," each one. ~ 19. E, ea, and eo, as follows: — W, ae, and ei; as, "ege,'". aege,"'" eige," terror. Ea, e, a, ak, and eo; as, "ceaster," "cester," a fortified town; "eall," or "eal," "al,"," ael," all; "eard," "eord," earth. i'd, e, and a'e; as, " ec," "6c," "'kec," also; ".a," "aei," water; se and? as, "..t.jebeli.c, "thi.; eA and ed; as, "' Easter,". ".E6ster," Easte. 52 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Eo, e, and y; as, " seolf," "self," "sylf," self; eo, io ea, and i; as, "seoc," "sioc," "seac," "sic," sick; eo and u, especially after w; as, " sweord," "swurd," a sword. 16 and ed; as, "e6wu," "euiwu," a ewe. NOTE.-E is not unfrequently added at the end of words which do not require it, and omitted in many cases where it naturally belongs. Its omission, though, especially before another vowel, and when belonging to declension, should always be denoted by the apostrophe, if not supplied in the letter itself. ~ 20. I is interchanged with e and y; as, "igland," " egland," "ygland," (igland, egland,'gland?) an island; and likewise goes into ie and ii; as, "il," (il?) "iel," "iil," a hedge-hog. I' and y also interchange; as, "hi," "hy," they. ~ 21. O is changed into e, i, u, and y, besides a; as, "on," "an," "en," "in," in; "pearroc," "pearruc," a park; "ofer," "yfer," a shore. ~ 22. U is sometimes:converted into eo, o, and y; as, "scucca,l" "sceocca," "scocca," a demon; "ufera," "yfera," higher. ~ 23. Yis changed into e, o, ie, and i; as, "'ylp," "elp," an elephant; "yrf," "orf," "ierfe," "erfe," cattle; "ylc," "ilc," same. Also y, into ed and s; as, "Srrre," "e6rre," ire, anger; "/'tra," A"tra," outer. ~ 24. The forms which the same word often assumes, are various; as, "sae," "se," "se6," "saew," "s6we," "siew," a sea; "hwom," "hwem," "hwaem," "hwamm," "huomm," "waem," a corner; "stare," "staer," "stearn," "staern," a thrush; "rinan," " renian," "regnan," "hregnan," to rain; "forod," "forad," "forud," "fr6d," old, debilitated.' The most of the forms coming under our notice in the inflection of words, will be given for the convenience of the student. PART II.-ETYMOLOGY. CHAPTER I. PARTS OF SPEECH. ~ 25. There are nine Parts of Speech: the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, Verb, Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection. ~ 26. These are divided into declinable and indeclinable. The declinable Parts of Speech are, the Article, Noun, Adjective, Pronoun, and Verb: the Adverb, Preposition, Conjunction, and Interjection, are indeclinable.' NUMBERS. ~ 27. There are two Numbers in Anglo-Saxon, the Singular and the Plural; as, "smith," a smith, "smithas," smiths. A Dual form, however, evidently exists in the pronoun of the First and Second Persons; as, "ic," I, "wit," we two; ".thud," thou, "gyt," ye two.' All words in Anglo-Saxon were undoubtedly at one time declinable, and such a thing as an indeclinable Part of Speech was unknown to the grammar of the language, as will plainly appear from the sequel. See also Analecta Anglo-Saxonica, Notes, passim, with Glossary. 1 i" Wit" and "git," as Duals, are also found in the Moeso-Gothic. One might suppose them to be the remains of a Dual that obtained generally in an earlier stage of the Teutonic dialects than the one in which they first appear to us, although not required by their connection with the Indo-Germanic range of languages. Compare the Latin with the Greek in that respect. But is not " wit" contracted from 5* 5 4 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. ~ 28. Nouns follow the declension to which they belong with regard to the formation of their plurals. But some are the same in both numbers; as, "cild," child, or children; "wif," a wife, or wives; "word," a word, or words. Others are used only in the singular; as,'"gold," gold; "seolfer," silver; while many names of nations are found in the plural alone; as, "Dene," the Danes; "Angle," the Angles. Irregular plurals also exist; as, "b6c," a book, "b6c," books; "ralfis," a mrouse, "m's," mice; "aeg," an egg, "aegru," eggs. CASES. ~ 29. The Cases are four, the Nominative,' Genitive, Dative, and Accusative.2 GENDERS. ~ 30. There are three, the Masculine, Feminine, and Neuter. The Masculine and Feminine genders are often assigned to things without life. Hence there are two ways of discovering the gender of nouns: 1. By the Signification; 2. By the Termination. " we," we, and "twegen, twa," two, and "' gyt," from "go," ye, and "twegen, twa?" The Anglo-Saxon is one of those languages which settle the question whether the Nominative should be considered a case, as we very often find it distinct from the mere name, or expressed idea in general; as, " sunne," the sun, "sun-beam," a sun-beam; " ligu," law, "lah-mann," or "l lg-mann," a law-man, or lawyer. See Gloss. to Anal. Anglo-Sax., Introduction, ~ XV. 2 The Ablative case evidently once obtained throughout the AngloSaxon, but its place at length became occupied by the Dative, with the exception of a few archaic forms preserved for the most part in the poetry of the language. What remains of it, therefore, may very properly be termed the Old Ablative. ETYMOLOGY. 5/ 1. By the Signification. ~ 31. The names of all animals of the male kind are masculine, and those of the female kind are feminine, what, ever the final letter, or syllable may be. 2. By the Termination.' ~ 32. The Masculine terminations are:-a; -el, -ol, -ul, or -1; -els; -em; -end; -ere, or -er; -et, or -t; -ing; -nath, -noth, -ath, or -oth; -scipe, or -scype. The Feminine are:-d, or -t; -en, or -yn; -esse, -isse, or -ysse; -estre, -istre, or -ystre; -ele; -nes, -nis, or -nys; -raeden; -u, or -o; -ung, or -ing; -uth, or -th. The Neuter are: -ed, -od, or -et; -ern; -incle; -ling.? NOTE I.-" Sunne," the sun, is feminine, and " mona," the moon, is masculine.' NOTE 2.-The gender of compound words may be ascertained by that of the last part. DECLENSIONS. ~ 33. There are three Declensions, the First, Second, and Third, distinguished by the ending of the Genitive case singular. These rules for determining the gender of nouns from the final syllable can be only general. The best mode of ascertaining it, is by comparison with the Icelandic and the German. g See further, ~ 75, Note 1. The same is the case in many other languages. 56 ANKGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. General Rules for the Declenstons. ~ 34. The Dative case singular is either like the Geni. tive, or it is formed from it by rejecting the s, when the termination is -es. The Accusative singular is always like the Nominative, except when the Genitive ends in -an; it then takes the same termination. In all the declensions, the Genitive plural ends in -a;' the Dative in -um, or -on;2 and the Accusative is like the Nominative. CHAPTER II. THE ARTICLES. ~ 35. The Anglo-Saxon has two Articles, both definite: "'se, seo, thaet," and ".tle," tike. The former is declinable, and put before proper as well as common names: the latter is indeclinable, and often used for all the cases of "se, seo, thaet," especially in adverbial and other like expressions, and in corrupt forms of the language in its declining stage. ~ 36. " Se, se6, th. aet" comprises the three genders, and is thus declined: —-' Sometimes preceded by en, and again by r insertive. 2 Sometimes -an, and -un, and even -en. But the two last are found mostly in adverbial and other expressions of the kind, dating from remote periods in the history of the language. Indeed -on and -an themselves are strictly archaic. ETYMOLOGY. 57 Singular. m. f. n. N. se' se6 thaet the. G. thaes th.aere thaes of the. D. tham.thaere th. am to,for, with the. A. thone tha, thaet the. Plural. m.f.n. N. thi the. G:. thfra of the. D. tham to, for, with the. A. thla the. For the origin of the Article, see ~ 119. l The following forms are also found: se, se6;-sed, si6, the6, thae6;-thaet, both Nominative and Accusative, that, thet;-thaes, thas; —thdere, Genitive and Dative, th6re; —thim, singular and plural, thaem, and th6n, than, and tha'en, employed chiefly in adverbial expressions, and the like;-thone, thaene, thaenne, thene, thanneo;-t.hara, tha.era.: The peculiar form appearing for the Ablative singular is:m. f. n. thy thaere thy. As, "mid thy ithe," with the oath. Express forms in most cases seem L3 be instrumental. It will be observed that " th." is very often used in other cases than the Ablative singular, and apparently then in the place of " the." 58 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. CHAPTER III. NOUNS ~ 37. Nouns are divided into Proper and Common, botE declinable. ~ 38. Synopsis of the Declensions. 1. Singular. Plural. zm. n. n. m. n. n. N. - - - -as - -u. G. -es -es -es. -a -a -a (-ena.j D. -e -e -e. -um -um -um (-on, -an.) A.,. -as - -U. 2. n. f. n.,,. f. n. N. -a -e -e. -an -an -an. G. -an -an -an. -ena -ena -ena. D. -an -an -an. -um -urn -urn (-on, -an.) A. -an -an -e. -an -an -an. 3f-f. f.-fN. - -u -a -a. G. -e -e. -a -ena. D. -e -e. -UM -urn (-on, -an.) A. -e -e. -a -a. ETYMOLO G-YM. DECLENSION OF NOUNS. First Declension. ~ 39. This Declension is characterized by the Genitive singular in -es. It includes a large part of the AngloSaxon nouns; almost all masculines ending in -d6m, -end, -ere, or -er, -els, -ing, -erd, -6rd, -est, -nath, -noth, -ath, -oth, -eth, -scype, or -scipe, and generally those in -1, -m, -n, and -r; also neuters in -e and -incle, those ending in one consonant or more, dissyllables in -el, -ol, -ul, -en, and -er, and the terminations -ed, -od, -ud, -et. ~ 40. Nouns ending in a consonant, add -es to form the Genitive, while those in -e take -s alone, as: — "s' e smith," the smith. Singular. N. se smith the smith. G. thaes smith-es' of the smith. D. tham smith-e to,for, with the smith. A. thone smith the smith. Plural. N. tha smith-as' the smiths. G. th.ra smith-a of the smiths. D. th.am smith-umrn to,for, with the smiths. A. thia smith-as3 the smiths. The English Possessive or Genitive is derived -from the Genitive singular of this declension, the e being omitted and the apostrophe taking its place; as, " Abrahames God," Abraharm'n' God, or, tihe God of Abraham. -es: sometimes -as, and -ys -as: occasionally -es; but in both cases only in that confusiq.oof dialect styled Dano-Saxon. V. 4nal. Anglo-Sax., In.trud,, ~ 78. 80 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR, "se ende,"4 the end. Singular. N. se end-e the end. G. thaes end-es of the end. D. thiAm end-e to,for, with the end. A. thone end-e the end. Plural. N. thl end-as the ends. G. thAra end-a of the ends. D..thm end-um to,for, with the ends. A. tha end-as5 the ends. ~ 41. When monosyllables having ae' before a single consonant, or before sc, st, assume another syllable with a, o, or u, the ae is changed into a, as:se staef,"2 the letter Singqular. N. se staef the letter. G. etc. staef-es of the letter. D. staef-e to, for, with the letter. A. staef the letter. With regard to the Nominative and Accusative plural of nouns in -ende, see also ~ 81, Note 1. Ende, aende, ge-ende. It will be observed that nouns in -e differ from those ending with a consonant as the foregoing, in the Nominative and Accusative singular only. 1 Not ae, which remains unchanged, although the rule is not strictly observed by writers or transcribers.' Staef, staf, stef, ETYMOLOGY. 61 Plural. N. thA staf-as the letters. G. etc- staf-a of the letters. D. staf-um to, for, with the letters. A. staf-as the letters. ~ 42. Neuters ending in a single or a double consonant, have the Nominative and Accusative singular and plural all alike, while those in -1, -n, and -t, preceded by a short vowel, and not falling under the rule in ~ 43, usually double these letters in the other cases, though they are sometimes found double in the Nominative singular, as:"1thaet word,"' the word. Singular. N. thaet word the word. G. thaes word-es of the word. D. thlIm word-e to, for, with the word. A. thaet word the word. Plural. N. th& word the words. G. thira word-a of the words. D..tham word-urn to, for, with the words. A. thA word the words. "gewil," or "gewill," a will. Singular. N. gewil, or gewill a will. G. gewill-es of a will. D. gewill-e to,for, with a will. A. gewil, or gewill a will. X Word, wyrd. 6 62 ANGLO-SAXON OGRAMMAR. Plural. N. gewil, or gewill wills. G. gewill-a of wills. D. gewill-um to, for, with wills. A. gewil, or gewill wills. ~ 43. But neuter monosyllables having a'e or ae, dissyllables of the same gender ending in -el, -ol, -ul, -1, -en, -n, -er, diminutives in incle, and likewise neuters in -e, make the Nominative and Accusative plural in -u, (-o,) as;"' thaet faet,"' the vat.:Singular. N. thaet faet the vat. G. etc. faet-es of the vat. D. faet-e to, for, with the vat. A. faet the vat. Plural. N. th.f fat-u the vats. G. etc. fat-a of the vats. D. fat-um to, for, with the vats. A. fat-u the vats. ~ 44. Dissyllables in -el, -ol, -ul, -1, -en, -n, -er, -r, -ed, -od, -ud, -et, are often contracted when a vowel follows, as:I Sometimes -a instead of-u, (-o,) ~ Fact, fat. ETYMOLOGY. 63 "c thaet tungel,"' the star. Singular. N. lthaet tungel the star. G. etc. tungl-es of the star. D. tungl-e to, for, with the star. A. tungel the star. Plural. N..tha tungl-u the stars. G. etc. tungl-a of the stars. D. tungl-um to, for, with the stars. A. tungl-u the stars. ~ 45. Proper names in -us, introduced into the language from the Latin, sometimes follow the general rule in forming the Genitive, and sometimes undergo no change; as, N. "Remus," Remus, G. " Remuses," Remus's; N.'' Mattheus," Matthew, G. "'Mattheus,".Matthew's.l Others of Tungel, tungol, tungul, tunegol. Another happy change in English orthography would be the substitution of the analogical termination -el, or -ol, as the case may be, for that of.le, a barbarism superinduced upon the language in a period not far back, through a French influence; as, cradel, for cradle; needel, for needle; apostol, for apostle. The change of a similar barbarism, -re, to -er, has already become quite general. The forms -le and -re suit a language in which the e, and, in some measure, even the 1 and the r aro clipped off in the enunciation, but do not answer for the manlyspoken English. Indeed, -ne for -en would be just as reasonable. In adjectives ending in -le and -ile, derived from the Latin, those terminations might very properly give place to -il; as, venerabil, for venerable; hostil, for hostile. So also -ine would become -in; as, infantin, for infantine. The Anglo-Saxon writers seem to have observed no rule with regard to the inflection of proper names in -us of foreign origin, naturally coming under this declension. Thus we find, N. "-Justus," Juistus, G. " Justi," D. " Justo," the Latin inflection of the name; but N. " Pdtrus," Peter, G. " P6trus," D. "PMtre." Again, we have N.'"Ptolo 64 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. foreign origin conform to the inflection of common nouns, in every respect. ~ 46. Some nouns of this declension transpose their consonants in the plural; as, "disc," a table, "dixas," tables. Second Declension. ~ 47. The Second Declension, which includes all masculines in -a, all feminines in -e, -estre, -istre, or -ystre, some neuters in -e, and proper names, especially those of men and women, in -a, has the Genitive case singular in -an, as:" witega,"' a prophet. Singular. N. witeg-a a prophet. G. witeg-an of a prophet. D. witeg-an to, for, with a prophet. A. witeg-an a prophet. Plural. N. witeg-an prophets. G. witeg-ena of prophets. D. witeg-um to, for, with prophets. A. witeg-an prophets. "se6 tunge," the tongue. Singular. N. se6 tung-e the tongue. G. ithaere tung-an of the tongue. D..thaere tung-an to, for, with the tongue. A. t.ha tung-an the tongue. meus," Ptolemy, G. "Ptolomeuses," or " Ptolom6i," D. "Ptolomduse," or" Ptolomgo." Witc'a, witta. ETYMOLOGY. 65 Plural. N. th& tung-an the tongues. G..thra tung-ena of the tongues. D. tham tung-um to, for, with the tongues. A. tha& tung-an the tongues. ~ 48. Neuters of this declension, as all others, make the Accusative singular like the Nominative, as:"thaet eare," the ear. Singular. N. thaet ear-e the ear. G. etc. ear-an of the ear. D. ear-an to,for, with the ear. A. ear-e the ear. Plural. N. tha ear-an the ears. G. etc. ear-ena of the ears. D. ear-um to,for, with the ears. A. ear-an the ears. ~ 49. Proper Names. "Attila," Attila. N. Attil-a Attila. G. Attil-an of Attila. D. Attil-an to, for, with Attila. A. Attil-an Attila. 6* 66 ANGLO-SAXQON GRAMMAR. "seo Anna,'' Anna. N. seo Ann-a Anna. G. etc. Ann-an of Anna. D. Ann-an to, for, with Anna. A. Ann-an Anna. ~ 50. Names of countries and places in -a, naturally fall. ing under this declension, are sometimes found undeclined; as, N. and A. "Sicilia," Sicily. Again, they are inflected as in Latin; as, N. "Eur6pa," A. "Eur6pam," Europe, the Gen. and Dat. being "'Europe," for "Eur6pae," like "' Italie," for "' Italiae," and As Rome," for "Romae," if the termination -e in such instances is not derivable from the same in the Nominative unchanged for the other cases. ~ 51. The Genitive plural is not unfrequently contracted; as, "Myrcna cyning," king of the iMercians. Third -Declension. ~ 52. The Third Declension is known by the Genitive singular in -e. It includes only feminine nouns, and those feminines which end in a consonant, or in -o, or -u, with the terminations -ung, or -ing, -nes, -nis, or -nys, and -uth.' ~ 53. Nouns ending in a consonant make the Genitive plural in -a alone, as:1 i. e. the woman Anna, or the said Anna. The names of women terminating in -burh, and tile like, and those generally which end in a consonant, come under this declension; as, N. "Eidburh," Eidburh, or Eadburga, G. "Eddburge;" N. "Mildred," Mildred, G. " Mildrede." Also those in -u; as, " Eid. gifu," E4idgifu, or Eddgifa, G. "' Eddgife" ETYMOLOGY. 6I "wyln,"l a female servant. Singular. N. wyln a female servant. G. wyln-e of a female servant., D. wyln-e to for, with a female servant. A. wyln-e a female servant. Plural. N. wyln-a female servants. G. wyln-a offemale servants. D. wyln-um to, for, with female servants. A. wyln-a.female servants. ~ 54. Those in -u, or -o, have the Genitive plural in -ena, and sometimes the Accusative singular in -u, as: "denu," a den, Singular. N. den-u a den. G. den-e of a den. D. den-e to, for, with a den. A. den-e (u) a den. Plural. N.? den-a dens. G. den-ena of dens. D. den-um to, for, with dens. A. den-a dens. ~ 55. Those which end in a single consonant after a Wyln; wylen, the original, uncontracted form. Nouns of this declension in -el and -en are often contracted in the Nominative, and these with others in -er, almost always in the oblique cases. 68 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. short vowel, double the final letter in the Genitive, and in all the other cases formed according to it, as:"syn,"' sin. Singular. N. syn sin. G. syn-ne of sin. D. syn-ne to, for, with sin. A. syn-ne sin. Plural. N. syn-na sins. G. syn-na of sins. D. syn-num to, for, with sins. A. syn-na sins. ~ 56. Nouns in -ung and others sometimes make the Dative singular in -a;' as, "fortruiwunga," from "fortrdwung," presumption. A few also are usually found with the Accusative like the Nominative; as, "hand," a hand; "miht," power; "tid," time; "woruld," the world.2 Irregular Nouns. ~ 57. The few names of nations which are used only in the plural and terminate in -e, are thus declined:' — Syn, sin, synn. X This termination is archaic, and is met with as the Old Ablative, especially in words used in later times as adverbs, either singly, or in phrases. For this declension generally, see also Postscript. 2 Woruld sometimes has the Genitive in -es, as if masculine and be'onging to the first declension. To which must be added all such terminations as end in -e; as, bWre, -sa'ete, -ware, and the like. See also ~ 69, and ~ 75, Note 1. ETYMOLOGY. 69 "th. R6mane," the Romans. N. thl Roman-e the Romans. G. etc. R6man-a of the Romans. D. Ro6man-um to, for, with the Romans. A. R6man-a the Romans. ~ 58. Those masculines which end in -u, are declined in the following manner:-A " sunu," a son. Singular. N. sun-u a son. G. sun-a of a son. D. sun-a to,for, with a son. A. sun-u a son. Plural. N. sun-a sons. G. sun-ena' of sons. D. sun-urn to, for, with sons. A. sun-a sons. ~ 59. Nouns terminating in -or, -er, or -ur, and denoting relationship, whether masculine or feminine, are declined for the most part as follows:"br6thor,'T a brother. Singular. N. br6th-or a brother. G. br6th-or of a brother. D. br6th-er to, for, with a brother. A. broth-or a brother. Sunena, suna. Br6thor, brother, and brdthur NJG ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Plural. N. broth-ra' brothers, or brethren. G. broth-ra of brothers, etc. D. br6th-rum to, for, with brothers, etc. A. br6th-ra2 brothers, etc. ~ 60. Some nouns, chiefly monosyllables, containing the vowels a, 6, ti, and u, change these vowels in the Dative singular, and in the Nominative and Accusative plural, as:"mann,"1 a man. Singular. N. mann a man. G. mann-es of a man. D. men to, for, with a man. A. mann a man. Plural. N. menn' men. G. mann-a of men. D. mann-ums to, for, with men. A. mennd men.' Br6thra, br6thru, and gebr6thra, gebr6thru, gebr6thro. These nouns are very irregular. " Sweoster," "'swyster," a sister, analogically has "swyster" in the Dat. or Abl. with the Nom. and Ace. plur.'sweostra," or "gesweostra," while the Dat. or Abl. of " Modor," "moder," " modur," a mother, is "m6der," with " modru," or'" modra" in the other cases mentioned. 1 Mann, monn, maenn, man, mon, maen, both Nom. and Ace.; but sometimes " mannan" and " monnan" in the latter, as:if from "manna," "monna."' Menn, men, gemenn. a Mannunm, manuum, monnum. ETYMOLOat. "se t6th," the tooth. Singular. N. se t6th the tooth. G. etc. t6th-es of the tooth, D. t6th to, for, with the tooth. A. t6th the tooth. Plural. N. the t6th the teeth. G. etc. t6th-a of the teeth. D. t6th-um to, for, with the teeth. A. teth the teeth. cii,' a cow. Singular. N. ctd a cow. G. cd-s4 of a cow. D. c w to, for, with a cow. A. cat a cow. Plural. N. cy Gcows. G. ct-na of cows. D. cy-n (?) to, for, with CoWS. A. c cows. ";-se6 burh," the city. Singular. N. se6 burh the city. G. etc. burg-e of the city. D. byrig5 to, for, with the city. A. burh the city. 4 Ois, cuus. Byr/i, byrih, byrg, byrh, birg,'boin. 'T2 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Plurat. N. tha. byrig5 the cities. G. etc. burg-a of the cities. D. burg-um to, for, with the cities. A. byrig5 the cities. ~ 61. So also "b6c," a book, "br6c," breeches, "f6t," a foot, "g6s," a goose, "lids," a louse, "m is," a mouse, "turf," a turf, " sulh," a plow,' make in the Dative singular, and in the Nominative and Accusative plural, "b6c," "brec,""fet," ges' "lys," mys," "tyrf," sylh."'2 ~ 62. "Faeder," a father, is indeclinable in the singular,' but the plural has the regular forms of the first declension. ~ 63. Nouns in -e6, or -e6h, preserve the 6 through all the cases except the Genitive and Dative plural, being commonly found without the h; as, "fe6," (fe6h,) cattle, money, Gen. "fe6s," Dat. "feo," etc. But such as have -a, or -ah, while the Genitive usually has -hes, when the noun belongs to the first declension, appear either with or without the h in the other cases, both singular and plural; as, "fAh," a foe, Gen. "fahes," Gen. plur. "fAhra," or "fira." Those in -6, or -6h, have the Genitive in -6s; as,' h6," or "h6h," the heel, or hough, Gen. "h6s." ~ 64. "Sane,' a sea, "a'e," law, and "ea.," water, are not declined in the singular, except in the Genitive, which, especially in composition, makes "saees," "saes," and "eas," in the case of those two nouns.' ~ 65. Some nouns in -u change this letter into w, or ew,' Sulk, sul, sulg. 2 Sylh, syl, sylg. " Faederes" is sometimes found as the Genitive. "E E" has "e&" in the Nominative and Accusative plural, with "ein" in the Dative; "sa3," "Sa'es," with "sgem," in the same cases. " Ae" would seem to be undeclined even in the plural. ETYMOLOGY. 73 in the oblique cases; as, "searu,"' a device, Gen. "searewes," or "searwes," etc. "E6wu,"'2 a ewe, has "eowes" in the Genitive singular, and "e6wa" in the Nominative and Accusative plural, with " e6wena" in the Genitive. ~ 66. "Feld,"' a field, has -a in the Dative or Ablative, while the Genitive terminates in -es; and "sumer,"2 summer, "winter," winter, and some other nouns, both -e and -a. ~ 67. The Dative, or Ablative, of "duru," a door, is "dura," and "duran," besides the regular form "dure." "Ta," a toe, has the Genitive, etc., "taan," or "tan;" and " beo," a bee, " beoan," "bean," or "beon," with the Genitive plural, "be6ena," or "beona." ~ 68. "Fre6nd,"l a friend, and "fe6nd,"2 an enemy, have 4"frrnd" and "find" in the Nominative and Accusative plural. ~ 69. The termination -waru, the population of a place collectively, has -a, (-e,) -as, or -an in the Nominative plural. ~'70. The inflection of names of men formed from feminine substantives, is according to that of their primitives. ~ 71. Some nouns are indeclinable throughout; as, "aethelo," nobility. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF NOUNS. ~ 72. Nouns may be divided into Plimitive and Secondary. ~ 73. All Primitive Nouns in Anglo-Saxon are monoSearu, searo, syru. 2 E6wu,.ewa, 4.we, both which forms have -an: in the Genitive singular, with the regular declension throughout I Feld, feald, fild. 2 Suntme, surnor. I Frer6ild, fr~ d, fr'ind, friend, a Fe6nd, fi6nd, ilena '74 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. syllabic in their nature; as, "wer," a man, "Ac" an oak, "m6d," mind. ~ 74. From these Primitive Nouns were originally formed many adjectives and verbs, which gave birth in turn to other nouns. It was also by combining two or more words that many were made. These either appear with their constituents in full, or they present one complete word or more, together with the fragment of another having a definite signification. ~ 75. The Secondary Nouns were formed:1. By the union of two or more primitive nouns; as, "&c-corn," an acorn, from "aic," an oak, and "corn," a corn, or nut; "win-treow," a vine, from " win," wine, and "treow," a tree; "ealand," an island, from "ea," water, and "land," land; but it will be observed that island owes its peculiar form to "eas," the Genitive of "ea," or rather to the Genitive of the corruption "ie," and "land." NoTE.-Sometimes the first noun may be rendered as an adjective; as, " eorth-cyning," an earthly king; " morth-weorc," deadly work. 2. By adding significant terminations, which are in fact other nouns, to primitive nouns, and to words already compounded, or derived;' as, {" cildbad," childhood, from " cild," The following are the most of the terminations with definite meanings, which enter into the composition of common nouns: — -a, denoting a person, an agent, or actor, and sometimes, an inanimate object. It would seem also to be, in many cases, merely distinctive. -b're, from "byr," a son, signifying descendants, sons. -d6m, expressive of authority, property, right, office, quality, state, or condition: Eng. -dom. -e, denoting either a person, or an inanimate object, and sometimes merely distinctive. -els, -yls, -Is, causative. -end, denoting the agent. -en, -an, -un, -en, with the idea of possession, or subjection. -en, -vn, -in, -n, belonging to nouns which denote females. ETYMOLOGY. 75 a child, and the termination -hd; " saedere," a sower or seeder, from "sa'd," seed, and -ere; "sangistre," a songstress -ere, -er, from " wer," a man, and signifying a person, or an agent: Eng. -er.,-yer.-Obs. that in -ere, the radical part of the termination is -er, with -e distinctive, added. -ern, from " aern," a house, or room, denoting place. -estre, -istre, -ystre, either a complete word or the fragment of a word, once probably signifying a woman: Eng. -stress, -ess. -had, which expresses person, form, sex, quality, state, or condition: Eng. -hood. -ing, -ingc, -inlcg, -inc, -eng, -ng, -ngc, -ncg, -ig, -eg, -g, denoting, 1. origin, and as such forming patronymics; 2. action, in this case used for -ung, as in the sequel. NOTE.-The plural -ingas, -inga, -ingum, signifies the inhabitants of a country, as descendants oj those wlho preceded them on the soil: Eng. -ing. -esse, -isse, -ysse, softened from "ides," " idese," a female: Eng -lac, -laec, -lac-u, expressive of offering, or giving: Eng. -lock. -ieast, -lyst, implying inferiority, or deficiency. -ling, -lingc, denoting, 1. a state or condition; 2. an image, example, and forming diminutives, besides seeming very often to imply contempt: Eng. -ling. -nes, -nis, -nlys, -ness, -niss, -nyss, -es, -is, -ys, signifying quality, or state, and forming abstract nouns: Eng. -ness. -raeden, denoting, 1. A state or condition; 2. the manner, reason, laio, or rule of action. -ric, as a termination, expressive of dominion, orpower: Eng. -ric. -saete, -sadetan, -sabtas, inhabitants, dwellers, settlers. -scipe, -scype, signifying state, office, or dignity: Eng. -ship. -ster, denoting guidance, direction, from " ste6r-e," id. -ung, -unge, -uncg, -unc, -ong, denoting action, or passion. See further " -ing." -waetha, denoting a leader, or chief. -waru, from' wer," a man. See again ~ 69. Besides these there are others, the signification of which cannot well be defined, but which seem to denote action, condition, quality, endowment, or the like. They are, -ed, -od, -ud, -ad, -yd, -d, -et, etc.; -el, -ol, -ul, -yl, -il, -1; -el-e; -em, -om, -um, -ym, -im, -mI -on, etc.; -er, -or, -ur, -yr, -ir, -r; -et, -ot, -yt, -it, -t; -d, -t, -th; '76 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. or song-woman, from "sang," a song, and -istre; "'car. leasnys," carelessness, from "carleAs," careless, and -nys. 3. From verbs, or more correctly speaking, from the same root or formation as the verb in any case; as, "gitsung," desire, from "gitsian," to desire; "halgung," a hallowing, consecration, from "halgian," to lallow, consecrate; "swutelung," a manifestation, from "swutelian," to manifest. 4. By employing primitive nouns without any change inll a variety of figurative senses; as, "cnilit," a youth, and also a boy, servant, attendant, disciple, client, and soldier, a KNIGHT. 5. By the union of significant prefixes to primitive nouns, and to others already formed in any way; as, "sib,"peace, concord, "unsib," discord, enmity; "rihtwisnes," righteousness, "onrihtwisnes," unrighteousness; "cenning," birth, "edcenning," regeneration2 -nath, -noth, -nyth, -nith, -nieth, -ath, -oth, -yth, -eth, -th; -u, -o, -a, -eo, -io; -u,, -o, -co, -en, -ew, -ow, -uw, -aw, -eow, -iow, -w, and -ew-u,-ew-e, -ow-e, -uw-e, -wu, -wa; -uth, -oth, -ath, -eth, -th. The prefixes being more or less common to different parts of speech, we deem it best:to give them all in this place. They are:a-, ae-, negative, deteriorative, or oppositional. But a prefixed to verbs especially, in many cases either does not alter the meaning, or it adds some little force or intensity to the original signification: Eng. a-, sometimes in the latter sense. aef-, af-, of-, implying descent, and also deteriorative. aeg-, ag-, oeg-, ae-, a-, and sometimes ge-, from "aelc," each, every, and signifying every, united with pronouns and adverbs. ael-, al-, all-, eal-, call-, signifying all: Eng. all-, al-. aer-, expressing priority. and-, ant-, an-, a-, ond-, on-, denoting opposition. be-, bi-; this prefix is used in various ways: 1. it is privative; 2. it denotes nearness, intensity, or excess, and perhaps should then have the accent; 3. it usually gives an active signification to verbs.; 4. it seems to add nothing to the meaning:.Eng. be- in some cases. d-, -signifying again. ETYMOLOG, 77 6. By the union of an adjective with one noun or more, in a modifying but not a qualifying sense; as, "ealdefen-, efan-, efn-, efle-, ern-, emne-, emr-, expressing equality, evenness: Eng. from the Latin, co-, con-, coin-, cor-. eft-, implying back, back again: Eng. from the Latin, re-, retro-. ell-, el-, ele-, ael- aele-, denotes what is foreign. for-, fore-, fer-, is either the preposition for, or it gives the idea of privation, or deterioration, and sometimes even implies abundance; the word in each case probably having a different origin: Eng. for-I fore-, very, which indeed is derived from " fore," as the- Old Abl. of the expressed idea "for." f6re-, f6r-, implying precession: Eng. fore-. frae-, expressing abundance, or excess: Eng., from the Latin prege-, ie-, is employed in different ways like be-: 1. it forms a sort o) collective; 2. it often seems void of meaning; 3. it gives verbs an active signification, or changes them from literal to figurative, 4. it is a mere augment. mid-, myd-, signifying with: Eng. from the Latin, co-, com-, con-, cor-. mis-, mys-, denoting a defect, an error, evil, unlikeness: Eng mis-. n-, negative: Eng. n-. on-, in-, an-, either privative, or signifying in, on, upon, but sometimes, like be- and ge-, apparently without meaning: Eng. in-, un-, or in, on, upon, detached. or-, privative. 6r-, ord-, denoting what is original,- chieftancy, superiority, excess. oth-, signifying from, out, out of; but sometimes like and-, and again deteriorative. regen-, regn-, ren-, denoting intensity, or signifying very, chief. sam-, either signifying half, or, when used as the first member of "samod," together, implying conjunction.-In the latter case, it should have theb accent. sin-, expressing continuance. to-, either to in English, or with the idea of deterioration. In the former case it should be written with the accent, in the latter, with. out it. tir-,- meaning powerfully, superlatively, exceeding, very. un-, on-, an-, in-, denoting privation, deterioration, or opposition It is supposed either to be allied to the German " ohne," without, or 7 " ~78 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. faeder," a patriarch, a grandfather, from "eald," old, and "faeder," a father; "heleh-setl," a throne, from "hea'b," high, and "setl," a seat; "heah-setl-wealdend," ruler of thrones, from "he&h-setl," and "wealdend," a ruler. 7. Sometimes nouns, especially the names of countries and places, are really compounded, although the first may be in the Genitive either singular or plural; as, " cumenahuis," a guest-house, an inn, lit. a house of comers, or strangers; "Ro6mana-burh," Rome, lit. the city of the Romans; " Asian-land," Asia, lit. the land of Asia. Again, the first noun is only the radical portion of the word; as, "luftacen," a love-token; "Fr'jsland," Friesland. PROPER NAMES. ~ 76. The names of men and women as well as of places among the Anglo-Saxons being significant, are frequently compound words. Those of individuals appear to have been mostly the effect of caprice or the effusions of vanity; but without doubt many were received from the illustrious in the early history of the race, and perpetuated from one generation to another.! to be derived form the prefix which follows. It is very probable that on- privative, has the same origin: Eng. un-, in-. uth-, wuth-, implying any thing mystical. wan-, won-, from " wana," wanting, lacking, and implying a deficiency. wither-, denoting opposition. V. Anal. Anglo-Sax., Gloss., pass. I The Anglo-Saxons sometimes added distinctive appellations to their original names. These were taken either from some peculiarity of appearance, or from residence, office, trade, possession, or affinity. Not unfrequently, too, the addition expresses the name of the individual's father. Thus we find "W Vulfsie, se blhca," Wlifsie. the Blake, or Pale; " Eddric, se hwita," Eadrlic, the White, or perhaps, the White-haired, as also "se blaca," the Black, or Black-haired; "Aeltric aet Sealtwuda," Aelfric living at Saltwood; " Le6fwyn, Ealderman," Leofwyn, an Elderman or Senator; " Sweigen, Scyld The following are examples of compound proper names. 1. Names of men; as, Aethelwulf a noble wolf. Egbert bright eye. DunstAn a mountain stone. Sigfred tAZe peace of victory. Eadric2 hkappy and rich. 2. Names of women; as, Eadgifu a blessed gift. Aelfgifu an elf-favor. Werburh a fortified city. Mildred3 mild in counsel. 3. Names of places;4 as, Cynges-tdn the king's town, Kingston. Cyric-burh the church city, Chirbury. Waering-wic a fortress-dwelling, Warwick. wyrhta," or Sweigen, a Shieldmaker; "Aegelpig, Munuc," Acgelpig, a MIonk; " Eidwig, his mdeg," Eadwig, his Friend or Kinsmart; " Aelmfaer, Aelfrices sunu," Aelmaer, Aelfric's Son; " Wulfrig Madding," WVulfrig, the Son of ]ladd, or Maddson. Hence the names of the Blakes, Whites, Blacks, Cliffords, Brightons, Aldermans, Cooks, Smiths, Canons, Friends, Johnsons, Eppings, and the like, and those which owe their origin to ridicule or derision, and to other causes. But it was not until after the Norman conquest, that surnames became generally established in England. 2 " Ric" is used in the composition of male names both as a prefic and as a termination. s There are some words which are frequently met with as terminations in the names of men and women among the Anglo-Saxons: as, "bearn," son, issue; " beorht," bright; "burh," a city, fortress, which, very common in the names of the fair sex, is equally expressive, and gives us an insight into the Saxon estimate of the femalo character; "heort," heart; " niith," daring, bold; " wald," a ruler, lord; " wulf," a wolf, besides the others adduced above, and the like. 4 There are some termillatiol-q which are common to names of 8Q0 ANGLO-". LC.'N GlRAMMAR, CHAPTER IV. ADJECTIVES. ~ 77. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon have variable terminations, to correspond with the nouns which they describe. ~'78. They have two forms of declension, the Indefinite, and the Definite. ~ 79. The Indefinite form is used,when the adjective stands alone with its substantive: the Definite, when it is preceded by an article, or by a demonstrative, possessive, or personal prononn, even *when the last is governed in the Genitive. ~ 80. Synopsis of tihe Declensions, Indefinite Terrminations. Singular:. Plural. m. f a. n. m.f. n. N. - - - -e G. -es -ye -es. -I-a. D. -um -re -um.' -um, (-on1, -an.) A. -ne -e - -e. places, as, " burh," a city; " tfin," a town; " ceaster," or " cester," from the Latin "castrum," a fortified camp, cities so called being on sulch sites; "-wic," the present -wich, as well as -wick, a dwelling, station, village, castle, or bay, according to the situation of the places ~ burne,"' a brook, streamn, bourn, used also as a prefix, and now appearing as -burn, or Burn-, -bourn, -braun, -brown, and -bran, or Brownand Bran-; "den," a valley; "holm," a holml, or river-island; " hyth," a shtore; " hMm," "h6m," a home, likewise a prefix, and others The distinct terminatiols for the Ablative singular are:t. f. 71. -e -re.-e. ETYMOLO GY. 81 Definite Terminations. Singular. Plural, sm. f. n. m.f.n. N. -a -e -e. -an. G. -an -an -an. -ena.2 D. -an -an -an. -um, (-on, -an.) A. -an -an -e. -an. DECLENSION OF AL)JECTIVZS. lndefinite Adjectives. ~ 81. All Adjectives of one syllable, except those which contain ae before a single consonant; also those ending in -e, participles in -ende,' -od, -ed; dissyllables in -el, etc., are declined in the following manner:"god," good. Singular. n. f. n. N. g6d g6d god good. G. g6d-es god-re g6d-es of good. D. g6d-umn g6d-re g6d-um to,for, with good. A. g6d-ne g6d-e g6d good. Indefinite Participles generally have -ra instead of this termination. Nouns in -end nearly related to Indefinite Participles, and denoting the agent, are declined, as before stated, according to the 1st declension, and should never be confounded with the participles themselves. The Anglo-Saxon writers always made the distinction. It will be observed, however, that in many instances the Nominative and Accusative plural of such nouns take the participial ending -e, instead of -as, while in others, those cases are like the same cases singular; as, " wigend," a warrior, N. and A. plural, " wigende," or "wigend," or, as the latter form should very often be Written, " wirend'. "-See ~ 19, Note. 82 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Plural. m.f. n. N. g6d-e good. G. g6d-ra of good. D. god-um to, for, with good. A. g6d-e good. ~ 82. Monosyllables ending in a single consonant preceded by ae, whenever the same consonant is followed by a, e, o, or u, in the course of inflection change ae into a; and these, as well as polysyllabic adjectives formed by the derivative terminations, -ful, -ig, -isc, -leas, -lie, -sum, etc., and participles passive of the 2d and 3d conjugations in -en, make the Nominative singular feminine, and the Nominative and Accusative plural neuter in -u,l as:"laet,"2 late. Singular. mf. n. N. laet lat-u laet late. G. lat-es laet-re lat-es of late. D. lat-um laet-re lat-um to,for, with late. A. laet-ne lat-e laet late. Plural. mn. f n. N. lat-e lat-u late. G. laet-ra laet-ra of late. D. lat-um lat-um to,for, with late. A. lat-e lat-u late. ~ 83. Adjectives ending in -e, drop the e in declining, as:Adjectives formed by derivative terminations, and participles in -en, are found, however, without the feminine in -u, while the neuter plural terminates in -e. Uniformity as to the change of ae into a also mqst not be,xpected,' Laet, lat. E9lYMOLOGY. 83 " niwe," new. Singular. m. f. n. N. niw-e niw-e niw-e new. G. niw-es niw-re niw-es of new. etc. etc. etc. etc. Plural. m.f. n. N. niw-e new. G. niw-ra of new. etc. etc. ~ 84. Those which end in a single consonant after a short vowel, double the consonant in declining; but one consonant is omitted before -ne, -re, -ra, as:-' grim," severe. Singular. ma f o l N. grim grim grim severe. G. grim-mes grim-re grim-mes of severe. etc. etc. etc. etc. Plural. m. f. n. N. grim-me severe. G. grim-ra of severe. etc. etc. ~ 85. Dissyllables, when the inflection begins with a vowel, are often contracted, as:"hAlig," holy. Singular. m. f. f. N. hWlig hiaig halig holy. G. hMig-es hilig-re halg-es of holy. etc. etc. etc. etc. 84 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Plural. n. f. n. N. hblg-e holy. G. hUlig-ra of holy. etc. etc. Definite Adjectives. ~ 86. The inflections of Definite Adjectives are the same as those of the second declension of nouns. ~ 87. The definite termination of the Nominative singular masculine, is always -a, and that of the feminine and neuter, -e, as: — "se goda, se6 g6de, thlaet gode," tne goo.. Singular.. rn. f. n N. se g6d-a seo g6d-e thaet g6d-e. G..thaes g6d-an th.aere g6d-an t]haes god-a.. D. th.~m god-an rtehare g6d-an ti.m g6d-an. A. th.one god-an.lyi g6d-an.thaet g6d-e. Plural. mn.f. n. -N. tha g6d-an. G. th.ra god-ena. D. tham g6d-um. A. t.h. g6d-an. ~ 88. In all cases, ae before a single consonant is changed into a in accordance with the rule given in ~ 82. 2 The peculiar form met with for the Ablative singular, is made by " th, thaere, thy, " as:rm. f. n. th g6dan - licre g6d-an ti g6d-an, ETYMOLOGY. 85 "t se lata, se6 late, thaet late," the: late. Singular. m. f n. N. se lat-a se6 lat-e thaet lat-e. G. thaes lat-an thaoere lat-an thaes lat-an. D. tham lat-an thaere lat-an tham lat-an. A. thone lat-an tha lat-an thaet lat-e. Plural. m. f. n. N. tha lat-an. G.. thira lat-ena. D. tham lat-um. A. tha lat-an. ~ 89. Some adjectives, as, "waedla," poor, "wana," deficient, wanting, "wraecca," wretched, have only the definite form of declension, even when used in an indefinite sense.' COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. ~ 90. There are three degrees of comparison, the Positive, Comparative, and Superlative. ~ 91. The Positive becomes the Comparative both definite and indefinite by annexing the termination -ra for the masculine, and -re' for the feminine and neuter; as, "smael," small, "smael-ra, smael-re," smaller, indefinite, and "se smael-ra," "seb, thaet smael-re," the smaller, definite. $ 92. The Superlative is formed from the Positive indefinitely, by adding the termination -ost or -est, and definitely, by adding -esta for the masculine, and -este' for the 1 "Wana" sometimes appears undeclined. 1 The termination -or, sometimes -ur and -ar, through which -raj -re, are obtained, is never used but- adverbially. Instead of -ost, or -est, we sometimes find -ust and -ast, and in 8 86 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. feminine and neuter; as, "smal-est," smallest, and "se smal-esta, seo, thaet smal-este," the smallest. Irregular Comparisons. ~ 93. The following list contains the most of these: — Pos. Comp. Superl. aer, (adv.)l aera aerest. formerly, ere earlier.first. eald yldra yldest. old elder, older eldest, oldest. feaw feawost. few fewest. feor, (adv.) fyrra fyrrest. far farther farthest. geong gyngra gyngest. young younger youngest. the place of -esta, -este, not unfrequently -osta, -oste, we meet with -ista or -ysta, -iste or -yste. 1 Variations in this and the following comparisons:Aer, ar, aar, eir, 6r; a'era, derra; aerest, derost, 6rest. eald, aeld. feaw: properly a Definitive Pronoun. See ~ 107. feor, feorr. geong, geonc, ging, giung, gung; gyngra, geongra. betera, betra; betst, betest,-both formed regularly from the old positive "bet," good. heah, he.ig, hech, hei; hyrra, hyra; hyhst, hehst. lang, long. laest; laesest, formed regularly from the old positive "laes," little: whence also the English lesser. mycel, micel; maest, mast. neih, nehg, nih; nyhst, neahst, necst. sceort, scort. strang, strong, streng, straeng. wyrst; wyrrest, wyrest, formed originally from the old positive U weor," bad. ETYMOLOGY 87 Pos. Comp. Superl. g6d betera betst. good better best. heAh hyrra hyhst. high higher highest. lang lengra lengest. long longer longest. lytel laessa laest. little less least. mycel mara maest. much more most. neah nearra nyhst. near nearer nearest. sceort scyrtra seyrtest. short shorter shortest. strang strengra strengest. strong stronger strongest. yfel wyrsa wyrst. evil or bad worse worst. Some form the Superlative by -mest, -myst, from "malest," most, as:Pos. Comp. Superl. aefter, (adv.)l aefterra aeftermest. behind after aftermost. forth, (adv.) furthra fyrmest. forth further foremost. inneweard innera innemest. inward inner inmost. Aefter, efter, aeft, eft, aefte; aefterra, aeftera; aeftermest, aef. termyst, aeftmest, aeftemyst. fyrmest, formest, fyrest, fyrst, first. inneweard, inneward, inweard; innemest, innemyst, innost. laet, lat, as already given; laetmest, laetmyst, laetemest. 8 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Pos. Compi Supert. laet laetra laetmest. late later latest. midd midmest. middle middlemost. nitheweard nythera nithemest. downward lower nethermost. northeweard northmest. northward northernmost. uppeweard ufera ufemest. upward u pper umost.: fiteweard uitra iitemest and &te and ftera and y'temest. outward outer outmost. sith sithra sithmest, late later latest. ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF ADJECTIVES. ~ 94. Adjectives in Anglo-Saxon owe their origin either to nouns or verbs. 1. They are nouns used in a descriptive sense; as, "hige," diligence and diligent; " lath," evil and pernicious.' 2. They are nouns with meaning terminations added to them;2 as, "gold," gold, "gold-en," golden; "bl6d," nitheweard, nytheweard, nythewerd; nythera, neothera, neothra; nithemest, nythmest. sithmest, sithest. uppeweard, upweard; ufera, ufora; ufemest, ufemyst. tdteweard, itewerd; uitra, iitera, fiterra, fittera, 6ttra; and, ytera, yttra. In the course of time slight changes were made in many instances, for the purpose of distinguishing the adjective from the noun. g The following are these terminations:- - -baer, -baere, -bor, having the signification of peoducing, and re ETYMOLOGY. 8:9 blood, "bl6d-ig," bloody; "wer," a- man, "wer-lic," manlike, manly; "waestm," fruit, "waestm-baer," fruitful; "faeder," a father, "faeder-le/as," fatherless; a'e," a law, "ae-faest," fixed in the law, religious. lated to the root of "beran," to bear, produce, which also probably comes from the Teutonic " bar," fruit. Observe that -baere itself is a compound, being formed from -baer with the -e distinctive. So also with regard to -ende below. -cund, denoting a kind, origin, or likeness, from " cynd," id. -e seems to be merely distinctive. -ed, -ad, -od, -ud, -yd, -d, -t, probably the perfect participle of a lost verb, and signifying furnished or provided with. Adjectives and participles thus formed usually have ge- prefixed to them, and such words may be considered as belonging ill every instance to the latter class. Eng. -ed, -d. -en, -an, -yn, and -n, from " unnan," to give, grant, and donec ling addition. See farther ~ 408. Eng. -en. -ende, -ynde, possibly from the same verb, the termination of partlCiples indefinite. -ern, -aern, -en (?),-an (?), fromi "aern," a place, as in nouns, and denoting towards a place. Eng. -ern. -faest, -fast, signifying fast, very, perfectly, effectually. It is also used as a prefix. Eng. -fast. -full, -ful-, -fol, expressive of ful;ness, completeness, or perfection. It is also a prefix. E-ng. -ful. -ig, -eg, -g, -i. -ic,: -ec, -ich, -ech, -ie, -ug, -og, -eog, signifying addi. tion, probably from the radical part of " ican," to eke, add. Eng. -y. -iht, -eht, the same. -isc, -esc, -sc, denoting the external quality of a subject, like Eng. -ish. -leis, denoting privation. It is also used as a prefix. Eng. -less. -lic, -lic, -lIc, -leec, -c, -, -li, expressive of similitude, or likeness Eng. -like, -ly. -ol, -ul, -el, -al, usually denoting a mental quality. -or, the same. -sum, -som, signifying dimninution, from the pronoun "sum," some Eng. -some. -weard, -ward, -word, denoting situation, direction. Eng. -ward. -wis, either uwise, or the radical part of "wise," a wise, manner Eng. -eous. V. Anal. Anglo-Sax., Gloss., passim. 90 ANGLC-SAXON GRAMMAR. 3. They are formed from nouns as well as from other adjectives by significant prefixes;3 as, "m6d," mind, "aemod," out of mind, mad; "gelea&flic," credible, "ungeleaflic," incredible; "mihtig,"4 powerful, "tir-meahtig," exceedingly powe)rful. 4. They are formed by the union of nouns and numerals; as, "an-ege," one-eyed, from "an," one, and "eage," an eye; "twV-feald," twofold, double, from "twv," two, and "feald,"T a fold. 5. They are formed from participles; as, "bebeodendlic," imlperative, from the indefinite participle of the verb "bebe6dan," to command, with the termination -lie; or they still present the participial form alone; as, " berende," fruiufal, from "beran," to bear. 6. They present compound forms from simple adjectives, or from simple adjectives and participles; as, "ylpenba'enen," made of ivory, fromn "ylpen," belonging to an elephant, and "baenen," formed of bone; "ethel-boren," noble-born, from "ethel," noble, and " boren," born. 7. They are further formed from pronouns and adverbs with significant terminations; as, "iure-lendisc,"6 of our country; "uite-weard," outiward, external. 8. The increase of the same adjective fiom the Positive, is by means of significant endings.7 See ~ 75, Note 2. 4 Aihtig, from miht, meaht, maeht, meht, and -ig. 5 An-feald, twy-feald, etc., are considered numerals by some. In that case, " feald" becomes a' numeral termination.'. -lendisc, -laendisc, -landisc, as a termination compounded of "land," land, a country, and -isc, signifies belonging to a country. 7 The termination of the comparative is from "kaer," before, first with respect to time, and then, to quality: that of the superlative, q om "Incest," " st," abundance. Eng. -er, and -est. ETYMOLOGY 91 CHAPTER V. PRONOUNS. ~ 95. Pronouns in Anglo-Saxon are divided into Personal, Adjective, Definitive, Relative, and Interrogative. 1. Personal Pronouns. ~ 96. These are "ic," " thui," "he," "he6," "hit," with their plurals "we," "ge," "hi," and the duals "wit" and 5, git." ~ 97. Declension of the First Person "ic," I. Singular. Plural. N. ic I. N. we we. G. min of me. G. fire of us. D. me to, for, with me. D. us to,for, with us. A. me me. A. us us. Dual. N. wit we two. G. uncer of us two. D. unc to, for, with us two. A. une us two. I The following different forms are found under the declension of this pronoun:me, Dat. and Ace.. mec, nmeh, mek, mech, meek, poetic;-tire, user, awre;-us, Dat. and Ace., usic, usig, usih, usich, but, like the preceding forms of " Inme, used chiefly by the poets;-wit, wyt; —unc, Dat. and Ace., ungc. 92 ANGLO-SAXOXn GRAMMAR. ~ 98. Declension of the Second Person ".thd," thou Singular. Plural. N. thui thou. N. ge ye or you. G. thin of thee. G. eower of you. D..thi' to,for, with thee. D. eow to,for, with you. A. the thee. A. eow you. Dual. N. git ye or you two. G(. incer of you two. D. inc to,for, with you two. A. inc you two. ~ 99. Declension of the Third Person " he, he6, hit," he, she, it. Singular. Plural. N. he he. G. his' of him. D. him to, for, with him. A. hine him. N. he6 she. N. hi they. G. hire of her. G. hira of them. D. hire to, for, with her. D. him to,for, with them. A. hi her. A. hi them. N. hit it. G. his of it. D. him to,for, with it. A. hit it. J the, Dat. and Ace., thec, tlieh, used by the poets;-eower, eowr, iower; —eow, Dat. and: Ace., eowic, eowih, iowih, poetic, iow, iu, geow;-git, gyt;-incer, incere, inca;-inc, Dat., inlg, incrum;-inc, Acc., ineg, incit. I his, hys;-himl, hym, hion; —hine, hyne, hiene; —ted, ic6, used ETYMOLOGY. 93 ~ 100. "Sylf,"' self, is declined like "g6d," and added to personal pronouns in the same gender and case, as follows:Singular. Plural. N. ic-sylf I myself. N. we-sylfe we ourselves. G. min-sylfes of myself. G. uire-sylfra of ourselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N..thi-sylf thyself. N. ge-sylfe ye yourselves. G..h.in-sylfes of thyself. G. eower-sylfra of yourselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. he-sylf he himself. N. hi-sylfe they themselves. G. his-sylfes of himself. G. hira-sylfra of themselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. heo-sylf she herself. N. hi-sylfe they themselves. G. hire-sylfre of herself. G. heora-sylfra of themselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. N. hit-sylf itself. N. hi-sylfe they themselves. G. his-sylfes of itself. G. hira-sylfra of themselves. etc. etc. etc. etc. ~ 101. "Sylf" sometimes takes the Dative, or perhaps more properly speaking, the Ablative, of the personal pronoun before it; as, "me-sylf," myself, " t.e-sylf," thyself, also for "he" and "hi," especially in poetry, hid, scae;-hire, hyre, hiere; —hit, Nom. and Ace., hyt, it;-his, hys;-him, hym. hi, Nom. and Acc., hig, hie, h~;-hira, hyra, heora, hiora, hiera, herra;-him, heom, hiom, eom. NOTE.-" He" and "he6," when representing a masculine or feminine noun which denotes ar inanimate o bject, are properly reudred by it in English. 1 Sylf, silf, self, saelf, seolf. 94 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. "him-sylf,"' himself. It is also annexed to nouns; as, "Petrus-sylf," Peter's self, "Crist-sylf," Christ himself. But when used definitely, it signifies the same; as, "se sylfa mann," the same man.2 2. Adjective Pronouns. ~ 102. The Adjective Pronouns are only the Genitive cases of personal pronouns taken and declined like the indefinite form of "g6d." They are "min," my, ".thin," thy, " uncer," our-two, "incer," your-two, "fire," our, and' eower," your. The personal pronoun of the third person has no declinable adjective pronoun, but the sense of the same is always expressed by "his," "hire," "hira," the Genitive cases of the primitive forms. ~ 103. To define the reciprocal sense in "his," "hire," "hira," more accurately, the word "agen,"' own, declined like "gbd," is added; as, "To his hgenre thearfe," to his own necessity. This sense the poets also express by "silln;" as, "Ofsloh br6thor sinne," slew his own brother. ~ 104. Declension of "min," my. Singular. m. f. n. N. min min mi ll ay. G. min-es min-re min-es of my. D. min-um min-re min-um to,for, with my. A. min-ne min-e min my. 1 For the real nature of this idiom, see Anal. Anglo-Sax., Part I., Section IV., ~ 50, Notes. 2 In poetry we often find the definite form used for the indefinite with the personal pronouns proper; as, "ic sylfa," I myself; "he6 ylfe," she herself; etc. I Agen, 4gan, ign, a'egn, igien, aewen. ETYMOLOGY. 915.Plural. m. f. n. N. min-e my. G. min-ra' of my. D. min-um to,for, with my A. min-e my. ~ 105. Declension of "uncer," our-two. Singular. m. f. n. N. unc-er unc-er unc-er our-two. G(. unc-res' unc-re unc-res of our-two. D. unc-rum unc-re unc-rum to,for, with our-two. A. unc-erne unc-re unc-er our-two. Plural. m. f. n. N. unc-re our-two. G. unc-ra of our-two. D. unc-rum to,for, with our-twoo. A. unc-re our-two. ~ 106. Declension of "i re,"' our. Singular. m. f. n. N. ire r-e iir-e our-e or. G. uir-es ur-e ur-es of our. D. uir-um ur-e ur-um to,for, with our. A. tir-ne ur-e dir-e our. k Mznra, m6nra. The contraction of the Possessive Pronouns in -er, when the syllable of inflection begins with a vowel, is common. i Ure, user, usser, but chiefly poetic. " User" has a distinct but irregullar form of declension, as follows: 96 ANGLO-SAXON:GRAMMAR. Plural. tn. f n. N. uir-e our. G. ur-ra of our. D. ur-um to,for, with our. A. uir-e our. 3. Definitive Pronouns. ~ 107. The Definitive Pronouns are those which define or point out either classes or individuals. The following are the most of them:'aegther2 either. aele each. Singular. m. f. R. N. us-er us-er us-er. G. us-ses us-se us-ses. D. us-sum us-se us-sum. A. us-erne us-se us-er. Plural. m. f. n. N. us-se or us-er G. us-sa. D. us-sum. A. us-se or us-er. Others are, " feaw," " few," "fea," few, with the Gen. "feawa," Dat. " feawum," and " fela," "faela," "feala," " feola," much, many, many a one, indeclinable, both in like manner agreeing with nouns, and being used as distributives with the Genitive plural; "man," " mon," one, t~tey, employed only in the -Nominative singular; and " thyslic." " t.hlislic," like " t.hyllic," such, of this sort, -this like. 2 Other forms of these pronouns are: aegther, egtler.-a-elc, ealc, elc: —aenig, a'eneg, eui, ang, aoeniht, ini, dnig, eneg;-aeinlypig, aenlipig, ne6nlipug, nelnlypic, aenlep; —ht, iht, auht, awhit, contracted fi'rom " awiht," "awuht," augments of "wiht," "wuht," a thing. creature;-6-n, alen, ain;-dthor,:auther, awther;-bUgen, as under tlie declension of the word ~ 109:;-eall, eal, ael, all, al, aeall, geall;i —-n6h, gen6g, n6h; —matig, aneg, maii,:iaeni!g, maeneg, ETYMOLOGY. aenig any. nAht nothintg. aenlypig each. n&n no one. aht anything. n&thol neither. an one. other other. Athor either. sum some. begen both. swile such. eall all. thes this. gen6h enough. i.thylic such. manig many. unmanig few. na'enig none. yle same. ~ 108. All these, with the exception of "b6gen" and ".thes," follow the inflection of indefinite adjectives. " B6gen" and " thes" are declined as follows. ~ 109. Declension of "b6egen," both. m. f. n. N. b6gen' bta both. G. be6g-ra beg-ra of both. D. bam bam to, for, with both. A. -ba b both. maeni, monig, moneg, menig, meneg, meni;-,naenig, ndeleg, n8nig; — niht, neiht, nauht, nawht, n6ht, contracted from "nlinuht," "nlnwuht;"-?nzn, n an n n;-nithor, nauther, nawther;-other, othyr;-ssum, sore;-swilc, swylc,.:swelc, and the compound " alsuici" aEi sutch;-thes, see ~ 110; —t.yllic, t.h.lfc, thylc, thillic, thillec; -unmanig, unmaneg;-ylc, ilc. The following variations are met with in this pronoun: begen, b6ggen, bedgen, bdgan; —bi, both Nom. and Ace., bi; —begra, bdgea, b6ga; —bm, baem. A compound form also appears; as, "ba-twa," "bvl-t,4/' " bd-t4," "ba-twd," "bd-twdr," " bd-ttr," literally, soth:tie:two. Thus.ve have-" B i-twi Adam and Eue," Adnm and:Eve both: together. "3Bigen," bot~h, atld," um," e ig nif ying s.ome, ebout, as, ",sume ten?' some or about ten, are usually egarded as numerals, like,"innfeald,".etc. inld':sumn" "'nall;' and otser pronoUns of the ind, -might very properly sbe,tyled.indefinite Pumerals. ~The nitamber Combined 9 98 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. ~ 110. Declension of "thes," this. Singular. m. f. n. N. thes the6s' this this. G. this-es this-se this-es of this. D. this-um this-se this-um to, for, with this. A. this-ne thas this this. Plural. m. f. n. N. th'as these. G. this-sa of these. D. this-um to, for, with these. A. thas these. ~ 111. The Definite that is expressed by "se, seo, thaet." 4. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns. ~ 112. The Articles "se, se6, thaet,"' and "the," are with "sum," in most cases, is put in the Genitive plural. See further Anal. Anglo-Sax., Part I., Sec. V., ~ 25, and ~ 28, Notes. The variations in this pronoun are: the6s, thi6s; —tis Nom and Ace., th.ys;-t-ises, thisses, thysses, thesses; —t.isse, thysse, thissere, thyssere, in the Geu. and Dat. both; —t.hisum, sing. and plur., thysum, thissum, thyssum, theossum, and the archaic forms thison, thyson; —t.isne, thysne;-thissa, thissera. The express form. met with for the Ablative singular is:m. f. n. thise thisse thise. We will here observe -that "thes, the6s, this" may sometimes be properly and forcibly rendered by this.... here, or this very, and by this.... now, or this very. The neuter "this," too, is often used idiomatically for "t thaet," and vice versa. 1 Thaet" is sometimes used idiomatically for "ses. and " se6," and thus becomes the origin of that for who in English. ETYMOLOGY. 99 generally used for the Relatives, who, which, that. The Interrogatives 1"hwa," who? "hwaet," what? are thus declined:Singular. m. f n. N. hwi2 who. hwaet what. G. hwaes whose. hwaes of what. D. hwam to, for, with whom. hw/am to,for, with what. A. hwone whom. hwaet what. ~ 113. "Hwaet" is sometimes used idiomatically for "hwa;" as, "Hwaet is thes," who is this? "Hwaet is thes Mannes Sunu," who is this Son of Man? In all such cases, it may be rendered what one? ~ 114. Like "hwa, hwaet," are also declined:m. f. n. aeghw/a?whoever. aeghwaet whatever. elles-hwa who else? elles-hwaet what else? gehw& whoever. gehwaet whatever. swa-hwa-sw& whosoever. sw&-hwaet-sw& whatsoever. ~ 115. "Hwylc,"' who? which? or what? and "swAhwylc-swa," whosoever, whichsoever, or whatsoever, are declined like indefinite adjectives. ~ 116. "Hwylc" and its compounds, except "'sumhwylc," some one, are often used in a definitive sense, signifying each, every one, etc. g In this pronoun we find: hwd, hud, wui; hiwdm, hwaem; hwone. hwaene. The distinct form appearing for the Ablative singular is:m. f. n. hwy or hwi.' Aeghwca; ahwd, any one. I Hwylc, hwilc, hwele. 10..0 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR.:~ 11l. "Hwaether" and "swaether,"' whether? which of the two? and " swa-hwaether-sw&," which one soever that, have the same declension as "hwylc," and its compounds. ~ 118. He who is expressed by "se-the," "the-the," "se.....the," "the.... the, and occasionally by "he... the." ORIGIN AND FO..RMATION OF THE ARTICLES AND PRON;o.U:NS. ~- 119. Pronouns, as well as the Articles in AngloSaxon, have been supposed to be derived from nouns and verbs. 1. "Se,9' "se6" are said by some to come either:from "1.saegan," to say, or from "se6n," to see, and "thaet" and "the," from " thicgan," to take. 2. "He," "heo," "hit," have likewise been considered as owing their origin to "hatan," to call, name. But what is the origin of "ic" and " thu?" The derivation of the Articles and of the Pronouns of the third person from verbs we think not only very improbable and far-fetched, but unnatural. "Se," which exchanges the sibilant for th out of the Nominative feminine, is in English, "the;" in German, "der;" in Dutch, "de;" in Danish and Swedish, "den-;" while the initial of the kindred word in,other cognate languages or dialects, with the exception of the:Moeso-Gothic which has -" sa," is either.th, or d.' We therefore consider "C.the" and ".theo" to be more ancient.forms than ":se" and "seo."2 Any one closely observing the sound.of ". th.e," will perXSwaether, swaethor, swa.thor.'o,'os, ro, the definite article in Greek, was probably at one time to, to, To, or more anciently.o;, An, Oor.' Se" is evidently a softened form of " the," and so with itg.ard to the Moeso-Gothic " sa." EvI~mOLOGY. 101 ceive that it is original and arbitrary, and in itself definite with regard to another person or thing.3 "Ic,"' in English, "I;"' in Dutch and Moeso-Gothic, "idk;" in German, "ich;" in Danish, "jeg;" in Swedish, ""jag;" in Icelandic, "eg," "jeg;"4 in Latin, "eg-o;" in Greek, "2y7-;" in Slavonic,'"az;" in Lithuanian, ":asz;" in Heblrew, as a postfix.;. in Zend, 1"az-6m;" in Samkrit,5 "nah-am;"6 in Malay, "ek-o," all indicate a common source< and an original sound pointing to the individual speaking in his own person. ".Thu," in English, " thou;" in Dutch, German, Danish, and Swedish, "du;" in Moeso-Gothic and Icelandic, " th.d;" in Latin and Hindustanee, "tu;" in Greek, "cu'," "'ru;" in Slavonic, "ty;" in Lithuanian," " tu;" in Hebrew, "at," "itta;" in Armenian, "te," "to;" in Persian, "tu," "' tou,;" in Zend,'"tu-m;" in Samkrit, "tu-am;" and the like in other languages and dialects either nearly related, or far removed from each other, is arbitrary in its nature, and leads the mind to the person addressed and in proximity, "He," from which "he6" and "hit" are formed by a slight modification, in English, "he;" in Dutch, "hy;" in German, "er;"` in Danish and Swedish, "han;" in Icelandic, "hann;" in Hebrew, "hi," seems to be simple and primitive, and to have reference to the person spoken of as absent.7 a Observe the difference between "t thaer," there, and "h6r," here, in the organs employed to express them: the former in its sound determinate with regard to another place; the latter, with regard to that where the person is speaking. 4 J in Danish, Swedish, and Icelandic, is pronounced like y in English. V. Anal. Anglo-Sax., Introd., ~ 4, Note 3. 6 In the Yorkshire dialect of England, " ah." 7 The same difference is perceptible in the plural of these pron uns in all the persons, as well as in the oblique cases. 9* 102 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. This view may be fanciful, but it is at least very plausi. ble. 3. "Sylf," self, is probably derived from "sawl," "saul,"' the soul, and "lif," the life, as pointing the most determinately to the individual. " Sjel," soul, was used in Old Swedish in the place of the modern "sjelf," self, and the Hebrew " n6phesh" was likewise employed to express either idea. 4. "Agen," own, appears to be no other than the perfect participle of the verb " gan," to have or possess, to OWN; or in its form " Agan," it may be the infinitive of the same. 5. ". Thes," this, in its sound, seems to be definite with respect to something near. Compare it with ".tlaet," that. 6. " Hwa," who? seems to be arbitrary, and to contain the interrogative within itself. 7. Some of the Pronouns are compounded; as, "maenig," many, from "man," one, they, and the termination -ig; "naenig," no one, from "ne," not, and "aenig," any one, and "aIenig" itself, from "a'en," one, and -ig; "hwylc," which? from "hwa," and "lie," like; "swylc," such, from "swa,T8 so, and "lie." Other examples might be given. 8 Or rather from the old pronoun of which " swI," sometimes found as "suae," or, perhaps better, " sue," belonging to one case, preserves the remains. ETYMOLOGY. 103 CHAPTER VI. THE NUMERAL ~ 120. The Numeral combines the Substantive and the Adjective, and ought to be treated as a distinct part of speech. It is divided into Cardinal and Ordinal Numbers; as, "in," one; "se forma, seo, tliaet forme," the first. 1. Cardinal Numbers. These are:1 an, one. 2 twegen, twA, twa two. 3 thry, f.hre6, t.lre6 three. 4 feower four. 5 fif five, 6 six six. 7 seofon seven. 1The following are some of the variations of the Cardinal Numbers. It is deemed unnecessary to give those of the Ordinals, as an idea may be formed of them from the others. an, see under ~ 121;-twegen and thry, under ~ 121, 1, and ~ 121, 2;-feower, feowr, fowr, fewer, fe6r, fi~r, fdther, f6thyr;-six, syx, sex, seox, siex, sexo;-seofon, seofan, seofen, siofon, siofun, syfan, syfon, seofa, seouen, sibun;-eahta, ehta, aehta, ahta;-nigon, nygon, nigan, nigen, nyga; —tyn, ten, till;-endlufon, endleofun, aendlefen;feowertyne, feowertine, feowertene;-fiftyne, fiftene, fiften;-sixtyne, sixtene; —seofontyne, seofontine;-n-igontyne, nigontine, nigantine, nygantyne;-twentig, tweontig, twenta; —trittig, thritig;-feowertig, feowrtig;-sixtig, sixteg, sextig. " Seofa," " nyga," and " twenta" would seem to be Genitives of dialectic forms " seofe," which is indeed found, " nyge," a:ld " twente." Compare ~ 122. E104 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. 8 eahta eight. 9 nigon nine. 10 tyn ten. 11 endlufon eleven 12 twelf twelve, 13 threottyne thirteen. 14 feowertyne fburteen. 15 fiftyne fifteen. 16 sixtyne sixteen. 17 seofontyne seventeen. 18 eahltatylne eighteen. 19 nigontyne nineteen. 20 twentig twenty. 21 an and twentig one and twenty. etc. etc. etc. etc. 30 h.1rittig thirty. 40 feowvetig forty. 50 fiftig fifty. 60 sixtig sixty. 70 hund-seofontig seventy. 80 hund-eahtatig eighty. 90 hund-nigontig ninety. 100 hund-teontig, or hund a hundred. 110 hund-endlufontig' a hundred and ten. 1 20 hund-twelftig a hundred and twenty. 200 twa-hund two hundred, 1000 thtisend a thousand. etc. etc. 2. Ordinal Numbers. These are: — 1st se forma the first. 2d se othler the second. 3d' se thridda the third. 4th se fe6rtha the fourth, ETYMOLOGY. I 0 5th se fifta thefifth. 6th se sixta the sixth. 7th se seofotha the seventh. 8th se eahtotha the eighth. 9th se nigotha the ninth. 10th se teotha the tenth. 11th se endlyfta the eleventh. 12th se twelfta the twelfth. 13th se thrytteotha the thirteenth. 14th se feowerteotha the fourteenth. 15th se fifteotha the fifteenth. 16th se sixteotha the sixteenth. 17th se seofonteotha the seventeenth. 18th se eahtateotha the eighteenth. 19th se nigonteotha the nineteenth. 20th se twentugotha the twentieth. 21st se an and twentugotha the one and twentieth. etc. etc. etc. etc. 30th se thrittigotha the thirtieth. 40th se feowertigotha the fortieth. 50th se fiftigotha the fiftieth. 60th se sixteogotha the sixtieth. 70th se hund-seofontigotha the seventieth. 80th se hund-eahtatigotha the eightieth. 90th se hund-nigontigotha the ninetieth. 100th se hund-teontigotha the hundredth. 110th se hund-endlufontigotha the hundred and tenth. 120th se hund-twelftigotha the hundred and twentieth. ~ 121. "An," one, is declined like "g6d."' "Twegen, twa," two, and ".thry-, thre6," three, are declined in the following manner:When standing definitely as a pronoun, it signifies alone , fi ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. 1. "twegen," two. rnt. f. n. N. twegen twa two. G. tweg-ra tw6g-ra of two. D. twam tw8am to, for, with two. A. twegen twa2 two. 2. ".thr," three. m. f.n. N. thrr thre6 three. G. threo-ra thre6-ra of three. D. thrym ithrym to, for, with three. A. th.r th.re63 three. ~ 122. "Feower," four, makes the Genitive "feowera;" and we sometimes find "fifa," "sixa," "seofona," as the same case of " fif," five, "six," six, "seofon," seven. When used absolutely, " tyn," ten, makes the Nominative and Accusative "tyne," and the Dative "tynum:" also "twelf," twelve, the Nominative "twelfe," the Genitive "twelfa," and the Dative "' twelfum." ~ 123. "Twentig" and the other numerals in-tig, are thus inflected:m. f. n. N. twentig twenty. G. twentig-ra of twenty. D. twentig-um to, for, with twenty. A. twentig twenty. 2 In the declension of " tw6gen," we have twd, tfi, tug, tuu, twih, Dr twig, tuig, twy, either in the Nom. and Ace., or in both;-.twegra, tw6gera, tw6ga;-twaim, twtaem. I3 n "tthry" likewise; —thr, t~hri, thrig, thryae, thr6; —tre6, tri6i;.thrym, thrimn. ETYM-C LOGY. 107 ~ 124. All these numerals in -tig, are used in the Nominative and Accusative, both as nouns which govern the Genitive plural, and as adjectives which agree with nouns in the same case. ~ 125. "Hund" and "hundred,"' a hundred, and " thusend," a thousand, are treated in their inflection as nouns of the first declension. ~ 126. All the Ordinal Numbers with the exception of "se other," the second, are declined definitely; as, "se forma, se6, ]thaet forme," the first. ~ 127. "Healf,"' half, when used as a numeral, is generally placed after the cardinal, or the ordinal which agrees with it, and which it diminishes by the one-half of a unit; as, "six healf mare," five mares and a half; ".thridde healf," two and a half.2 ~ 128. Distributives are made by a repetition of the Cardinal Numbers; as, " six and six," six and six, by sixes. ~ 129. The Anglo-Saxons also expressed numbers by the different positions of the letters I, V, X, L, E, and Ci.' ORIGIN AND FORMATION OF THE NUMERALS. ~ 130. 1. The Cardinals "an," "twegen,".".thr,";1 "Hundred" is, properly speaking, a noun with the signification of centuria in Latin;, it not only means the number hundred, but it is applied to a division of a county; as, "innan his hundrede," within his hundred. It is compounded of 1" hund," and " red," a word supposed to mean a stroke or line, "it being the ancient custom to count or number by strokes or lines." Healf, half. a For the explanation of this idiom, see Anal. Anglo-Sax., Part I., Sec. V., ~ 18, Notes. It would seem that the letters I, X, IE, CD, were first assumed to represent the decimal numbers 1, 10, 100, 1000, and then by bisecting the three last were given V (U) 5, L 50, and D 500. After that, nothing more was wanting in order to complete the system than to place the different letters in additiye and subtractive position!. 108 ANGLO-SAXOON GRAMMAR. "feower," "fif," "six," "seofon," "ealhtta," "nigon," are more or less simple. 2. "Tyn" appears to be a contracted form from " t-i," two, and'"hand," a hand; signifying both the hands, or the ten fingers, the common way of counting in the early stage of mankind, as always with children. 3. "Endlufon," and "6 twelf," are compounded from " An," and "twegen, twOa," and "lifan," to leave.' ".].reottyne," "feowertynei" " fiftyne,'" "sixtyne,"' " seofontyne," "eahtatyne," "nigontyne," owe their origin to "tyn,' and the simple numbers "an," "twegen," etc. 4. "Twentig" is compounded of " twa," "' tyn," and, the termination -ig, and signifies tiWO tens, or twice two hands added together. The same formation obtains in all the nu. merals which end in -tig. It is true that from seventy to a hundred and twenty inclusive; "hand" is prefixed, but more as a refinemeiint than any thing else, since it is sometimes omitted When the same word, iiused to express a hundred, goes before. In ancient times "hund" signified only ten, but its meaning was afterwards extended to ten times ten. 5. The tens are increased by placing the units first with "'and," and, but after "hund," a hundred, the smaller number is set last, while the noun is repeated. When the smaller number is placed before e hand," it denotes multiplication. Thus "i"an and twentig," one and twenty; "an hund wintrane and rittig wihirty years. 6. "Thulisend," a thousand, is thought to be no other than the more complete Moeso-Gothic "tigos hund," or "taihuns huns und," ten times a hundred. But such derivation is doubtful. 7. Ordinals are formed from the Cardinal Numbers; as, "six," six; "se sixta, se6, th.aet sixte," the sixth.: See Appendix C. CHAPTER VII. VERBS. ~ 131, Verbs in Anglo-Saxon may be divided into two orders, the Simple and the Complex;' and also subdivided into Conjugations and Classes. They are likewise Mixed and Anomalous. CONJUGATIONS. ~ 132. There are three Conjugations, the 1st belonging to the Simple order of verbs, and the 2d and 3d to the Complex order. Under each of these are arranged three Classes. MOODS. ~ 133. These are four, the Indicative, Subjunctive, Imperative, and Infinitive. TENSES. ~ 134. The Tenses are only two, the Indefinite and the Perfect; the former being predicated either of the present time or of a future period, and the latter, of any past time, according to the relation in which the sentence containing the one or the other stands.' Complex verbs receive their appellation from the complex modilications which the vowels of their roots undergo in forming the Perfeet tense. X The Perfect tense inl Anglo-Saxon may be rendered by the Imperfeit, the Perfect, or the Pluperfect in English. Like the Latin Imperfect, it is also used to denote what is in the habit of being done 10 110 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. NUMBERS. ~ 135. There are two Numbers, the Singular and the Plural. PERSONS. ~ 136. Each number contains three Persons, the 1st, 2d, and 3d. PARTICIPLES. ~ 137. There are two Participles, the Indefinite and the Perfect. GERUND. ~ 138. The Gerund, termed by some a Second Infinitive, is always preceded by the preposition "to."' With the verb of existence, it has a passive signification, or expresses what ought to be done.2 CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 1. The Simple Order. ~ 139. This Order is distinguished by having the Perfect tense of two or more syllables, with the termination -ode, -ede, -de, or -te, while the Perfect participle ends in -od, -ed, -d, or -t,' as:1st Conjugation. al. Inf: Perf. Perf. Part. 1 luf-ian, to love, luf-ode, loved, luf-od, loved. 2 baern-an, to burn, baern-de, burned, baern-ed, burned. 3 syll-an, to give, seal-de, gave, seal-d, given. This particle is never found before the Infinitive in Anglo-Saxon, as in English. a The Gerund combines the nature of the noun with that of the verb, just as the Participle unites the properties of the adjective and of the verb. The difference between the endings.de and -to, and -d and -t, depends altogether upon the hardness, or the softness of the preceding consonant. ETYMOLOGY. 111 ~ 140. Inflection of the verb "luflan," to love, 1st Class INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ige I love. 2 thu luf-ast thou lovest. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ath he, she, it loveth, or loves. Plural. 1 we luf-iath' we love. 2 ge luf-iath ye, or you love. 3 hi luf-iath they love. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-odeg I loved. 2 thi luf-odest thou lovedst. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. Plural. 1 we luf-odon3 we loved. 2 ge luf-odon ye, or you loved. 3 hi luf-odon they loved. Lufiath, lufige. The form of the first person singular is used for the plural whenever the pronoun follows the verb, as in asking a question; and in accordance with this rule, the second person plural of the Imperative, which is always like the plural of the Indefinite Indicative, assumes the same form; but never when the Nominative is omitted. Sometimes, however, we find the peculiar termination of the plural euphonically retained; as, " magon ge," are ye able? 2 Lufode, lufede, and so also with regard to the plural. D Lufodon, lufode, upon the same principle as in Note 1, but very seldom occurring. For -on we also find -an, -en, and -un. 112 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. SUBJUNCTIVE Moob. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ige I love.4 2 thd luf-ige thou love. 3 he, heo, hit luf-ige he, she, it love. Plural. 1 we luf-ion5 we love. 2 ge luf-ion ye, or you love. 3 hi luf-ion they love. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic luf-ode2 I loved. 2 thd luf-ode thou loved, 3 he, he6, hit luf-ode he, she, it loved. Plural. i we luf-odon we loved. 2 ge luf-odon ye, or you loved. 3 hi luf-odon they loved. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 iuf-a thu love thou. Plural. 2 luf-iath (ge) love ye, or you. A conjunction such as " gif," if, "thaet," that, " theth," though accompanies the Subjunctive mnood.' Lufion, lufian, lufien. INVSFIITIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. luf-ian6 to love. PARTIIrPLES. Indef. luf-igende7 loving. Perf. luf-od8 loved. GERUND. Indef. to luf-igenne,9 to love, about to love; of, in, and to loving, and to be tovecd. ~ 141. Inflection of the verb "baernan," to burn, 2d Class. INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic baern-e I bur.n 2 thui baern-st thou burnest. 3 he, he6, hit baern-th he, she, it burneth, or burns. Plural. 1 we baern-ath' we burn. 2 ge baern-ath ye, or you burn. 3 hi baern-ath they burn. 6 Lufian, Iufigean. $For -an we sometimes find -en. 7 Lufigende, lufiende. 8 Lufod, gelufod, gelufad, gelufed. 9 Lufigenne, lufienne. —For the insertion of the g in such cases as "lufige," " lufigende," " lufigenne," see again ~ 1, Note 7, with ~ 408. Bacrnath, baerne;-baernon, baernan;-baernan, forbaernan, onbaernan;-baernanne, baernenne. 10' 114 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Perfect Tense. Singular. I ic baern-de I burned. 2 thui baern-dest thou burnedst. 3 he, heo, hit baern-de lie, she, it burned. Plural. 1 we baern-don we burned. 2 ge baern-don ye, or you burned. 3 hi baern-don they burned. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic baern-e I burn. 2 thd baern-e thou burn. 3 he, he6, hit baern-&e 4e, she, it burn. Plural. 1 we baern-on.we burn. 2 ge baern-on ye, or you burn. 3 hi baern-on they burn. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic bearn-de I burned. 2 thul baern-de thou burned. 3. he, heo, hit baern-de he, she, it burned. Plulral. I we baern-don iwe burned. 2 ge baern-don ye, or you burned. S hi baern-don they burned. ETYMOLOGY. 115 IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 bearn thd burn thou. Plural. 2 baern-ath (ge) burn ye, or you. INFINITIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. baern-an to burn. PARTICIPLES. Indef. baern-ende burning. Perf. baern-ed burned. GERUND. Indef. t6 baern-anne, to burn, about to burn; of, in, and t&, burning, and to be burned. ~ 142. Inflection of the verb " syllan," to give, 3d Class. INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic syll-e I give. 2 thui syl-st thou givest. 3 he, he6, hit syl-th' he, she, it giveth, or gives. 1 Sylth, silth;-syllath, sylle;-sealde, gesealde; —syllan, sellan, selan, gesyllan;-seald, geseald;-syllanne, syllenne. We will here observe that a-, be-, for-, ge-, and in some few instances, on-, and to-, are indifferently and interchangeably prefixed to verbs, especially to perfect tenses and perfect participles; ge- to the perfect tense is universal. Some verbs are not met with in their simple 116 ANGLO SAZX:C GRAMMAR. Plural. 1 we syll-ath we give. 2 ge syll-ath ye, or you give, 3 hi syll-ath they gite. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic seal-de I gave. 2 thui seal-dest thou gavest. 3 he, he6, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. Plural. 1 we seal-don we gave. 2 ge seal-don ye, or you gave. 3 hi seal-don they gave. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Inde finite' Tense. Singulcar. I ic syll-e I give. 2 thAd syll-e thou give. 3 he, he6, hit syll-e he, she, it give. Plural, 1 we syll-on we give. 2 ge syll-on ye, or you give. 3 hi syll-on they give. state, but only occur with these prefixes. Very often indeed they affect the signification of the simple word. It is evident that in the earlier stage of the language, the distinctive forces of the foregoing prefixes, naturally inhlerent in them, invariably obtained. At a later period, ge- especially, began to be used more for euphony than forx any thing else, while the peculiar intensities of the; others in many cases gradually disappeared. But see again ~ 75, Note 2, and alto Anal. Anglo-Sax., Gloss., sub voczbus. =XTMOLOGY. 11 7 Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic seal-de I gave. 2.thd seal-dest thou gavest. 3 he, heo, hit seal-de he, she, it gave. PJlural. 1 we seal-don we gave. 2 ge seal-don ye, or you gave. 3 hi seal-don they gave. IMPERATIVZE MOOD. Singular. 2:syl-e tthi give thou. Plural. 2 syll-ath (ge) give ye, or you. INFINITIVE MOOD. Indefnite Tense. syll-an to give. PARTICIPLES. Indef. syll-ende gisvng.:Perf. seal-d given. GERUND. Indef. -tb syll-anne, to give, about to give; of, in, and to giving, and to,ibe given. ~ 143. Remarks on the Ist Conjugation. 1. The lst Class contains all verb-s in -ian. 2. The 2d Class comprises those which are derived from nouns, adjectives, and other verbs. 118 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. 3. The 3d Class includes those which have the Perfect tense of more than one syllable like the rest, and which do not belong to the other two classes. 2. The Complex Order. ~ 144. This order makes the Perfect tense a monosyllable, with a change of vowel, and the Perfect participle ill -en, or -n, as:2d Conjugation. Ct. Inf. Indef. Perf. Perf. Part. 1 et-an, to eat, et-e aet et-en. 2 laet-an, to let, la'et-e let la'et-en. 3 far-an, to go, far-e f6r far-en. ~ 145. Inflection of the verbs " etan," to eat, "la'etan," to let, and " faran," to go. INDICATIVE MOOD. indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic et-e laet-e far-e. 2 th.di yt-st la'et-st faer-st. 3 he, he6, hit yt' laet faer-th. Plural. I we et-ath laet-ath far-ath. 2 ge et-ath laet-ath far-ath. 3 hi et-ath la'et-ath far-ath. yt, ytt;-etath, ete; —laetath, laete;-farath, fare:-laetan: onla'etan, to continue;-faran, fearran, gefaran, gefaeran: afaran afearrian, to go out of: on-farali, to go n: t6-faran, to go to;-eten, ge-eten;-faren, ge-faren. ETYMOLOGY.-'119 Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 io Aet let f6r. 2 ~thd ant-e let-e f6r-e. 3 he, he6, hit a'et let f6r. Plural. 1 we aet-on let-on f6r-on. 2 ge aet-on let-on f6r-on. 3 hi aet-on let-on f6r-on. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic et-e laet-e far-e. 2 thd et-e labet-e far.e. 3 he, he6, hit et-e lant-e far-e. Plural. 1 we et-on laet-on far-on. 2 ge et-on laet-on far-on. 3 hi et-on lalet-on far-on. Perfect Tense, Singular. I ic aet-e let-e f6r-e. 2 thA a'et-e let-e f6r-e. 3 he, he6, hit aet-e let-e f6r-e. Plural. 1 we aet-on let-on f6r-on. 2 ge aet-on let-on f6r-on. 8 hi a'et-on let-on f6r-ou. 120 ANGLO-SAON!CRAMMAR. IMEPRATIVWE:MOOD. Singular. -2 et laoet far thu'. Plural. 2 et-ath la'et-ath far-ath (ge.) INFINITIVE MOOD. IndeJfiite Tense. et-an laiet-an far-an. PARTICIPLES. Indef. et-ende ] laet-ende far-ende. Perf. et-en hlet-en far-en. GERUND. Indef. to et-anne la~et-anne far-anne. ~ 146. Remarks on the 2d Conjugation. 1. The 1st Class contains those verbs which h!ae a lobg e or i before a single characteristic. 2. The 2d Class includes those which have a short ie and short eo in the Perfect. 3. The 3d Class comprises -those which form the Perfect in 6. 3d Conjugation. Cl. 1 sf. Indef. Perf Perf. Part, 1 byrn-an, to burn, byrn-e;barn burn-en. 2 writ-an, to write, writ-e wr6at writ en. 3 sce6t-an, to shoot, -sce6t-e scet scot-en. ~ 147. Inflection of the verbs "byrnan," to burn, " writan," to iwrti, and "sce," to shoot. ETYMOLOGY. 121 INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic byrn-e writ-e sceot.e. 2.thd byrn-st writ-sto sct-st. 3 he, he6, hit byrn-th writ seCt. Plural. 1 we byrn-athl writ-ath sce6t-ath. 2 ge byrn-ath writ-ath sce6t-ath. 3 hi byrn-ath writ-ath sceot-ath. Peifect Tense. Singular. 1 ic barn wrat sceAt. 2 thd burn-e writ-e scut-e. 3 he, he6, hit barn wrat sceat. Plural. I we burn-on writ-on scut-on. 2 ge burn-on writ-on scut-on. 3 hi burn-on writ-on scut-on. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 Ic byrn-e writ-e sce6t-e. 2 th.L byrn-e writ-e sce6t-e. 3 he, he6, hit byrn-e writ-e sce6t-e. 1 Byrnath, byrne; —writath, wrifte;-sce6tath, sce6te;-barn, born;-wrat, gewrait;-byrnan, gebyrnan, forbyrnan;-writan, gowritan: awritan, to iorite out;-sce6tan, sc6tan, be-sce6tan;bymnen, geburnen; rtvrten, gewriten. 11 122 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR, Pliural. 1 we byrn-on writ-on sce6t-on. 2 ge byrn-on writ-on sce6t-on. 3 hi byrn-on writ-on sce6t-on. Perfect Tense. Singular. I ic burn-e writ-e scut-e. 2 thu burn-e writ-e scut-e. 3: he, he6, hit burn,-e writ-e scut-e. Plural. 1 we burn-on writ-on scut-on. 2 ge burn-on writ-on scut-on. 3 hi burn-on writ-on scut-on. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 byrn writ sce6t.thi. Plural. 2 byrn-ath writ-ath sce6t-ath (ge.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. byrn-an writ-an scebt-an. PARTICIPLES. Inzdef. byrn-ende writ-ende sce6t-iende. Perf. burn-en writ-en sceot-en. GERUN-D. Indef. t6 byrn-anne writ-anne sce6t-anne. ETY'MOLJO0i4 123 ~ 148. Remarks on the 3d Conjugatio'n. i. The 1st Class contains those verbs which have a short i (y) before mb, amm, mp, nc, nd, ng, nn, rn; a short a (o) in the Perfect, and u in the Perfect participle: also those which have a short e or eo before gd; ht; Id, If, ig, 11, 1p, it; re, rf ry,, rn, rp, rs; so, st; ea (ae) short in the Perfect, and o in the Perfect participle. 2. The 2d Class comprises those which have a hard i (i) in the Indefinite, and a in the Perfect. 3. The 3d Class bears a near resemblance to the 2d. FORMATION OF THE DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE VERB ~ 149. Imperative Mood.-This part of the verb is formed from the Infinitive by rejecting the termination -an; but if the final consonant of the root be double, one of the consonants is also thrown away, and e put in its place. Verbs in-ian make the Imperative in -a. Thus, " baern-an," " baern;" " syll-an," "syl-e;" "luf-ian," " luf-a.' ~ 150. Indefinite Participle.-This Participle is formed by rejecting the Infinitive ending -an, and adding the termination -ende; as, "baern-an," " baern-ende." ~ 15i. Gerund.-The Gerund appears to be the Dative case of the Infinitive declined as a noun, the a of the termination -an being sometimes changed into e; as, "writan," " writ-anne;" "baern-an," "baern-enne." ~ 152. The Perfect tense and Perfect participle, and, to some extent, the Persons, are formed differently in the Simple, and in the Complex Verbs. 1. Simple Verbs. ~ 153. Perfect Tense.-:Tlie Perfect tense rejects the — a or ian, and adds -ode, -ede, or -de i the toot;, as, ]' luf 124 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. ian," "luf-ode;" "1segl-ian," "segl-ode," or "segl-ede." The form -de, which is a contracted one, belongs mostly to verbs having d, f, g, 1, m, n, r, s, w, and th before the Infinitive termination; as, "baern-an," "baern-de;" "al.ysan," "al's-de." ~ 154. Verbs which end in -dan or -tan preceded by a consonant, do not take an additional d or t; and those having either c or cc before the termination -an, change the c or cc into h whenever t follows; as, "send-an," "send-e;" " pliht-an," " pliht-e;" " recc-an," "reh-te." ~ 155. In many cases the letters t, p, c, h, x, and s, after another consonant, and preceding the Infinitive -an, not only contract the Perfect tense, but also -change the d into t; as, "dypp-an," "dypp-ede," "dyp-de," "dyp-te." ~ 156. Perfect Participle.-The Perfect participle is formed by changing the -an or -ian of the Infinitive into -ed or -od. It is also frequently contracted like the Perfect tense when t, p, c, h, x, or s, preceded by another consonant, terminates the root of the verb, while d passes into t. Sometimes the root itself is changed, and the e of the -ed rejected. Thus, "baern-an," "baern-ed;" "luf-ian," "luf-od;"."dypp-an," " dypp-ed," "dyppd," "dyppt," and "dypt;" "syll-an," "seald." ~ 157. The syllable ge- is not uncommonly prefixed to the Perfect participle in both orders of verbs; as, "lufod," "gelufod;" "faren," "gefaren." See also ~ 142, Note. 1. ~ 158. Persons.-The First person singular of the Indefinite Indicative is formed from the Infinitive by changing the termination into -e, the Second, by changing it into -st, -ast, or -est, and the Third, into -th, -ath, or -eth; as, "baern-an," " baern-e," "baern-st," "baern-th," etc. All the persons of the plural end in -ath, but -an with a vowel before it makes -iath; as, " baern-an," "we, ge, hi baernath;" " luf-ian," "we, ge, hi luf-iath." ~ 159. Verbs in -dan and -san have -t in the third per ETYMOLOGY. 125 son singular instead of the aspirate -th, while d before -an also makes the second person in -tst, though -dst is some. times found. Verbs in -than and -tan do not receive th additional in the third person. Thus, "f6d-an," "f6t;" "rgaes-an," "raest;" "send-an," "sentst;" "cyth-an," "cyth;" i hat-an," " hget." ~ 160. Whenever a verb has a double consonant, one is always rejected in forming the persons in case another follows; and where it would make too harsh a sound to add st or th to the bare root, an e is usually inserted. Thus, " spill-an," " spil-st," "spil-th;" "nemn-an," "nemnest," "nemn-eth." ~ 161. In the Perfect tense the second person singular adds st to the first, and the third is like the first. The plural rejects the final e of the first person singular, and puts on in its place. ~ 162. In the Indefinite Subjunctive all the persons of the singular are like the first person of the same tense Indicative, while the plural adds -on, -an, or -ion, -ian, as the case may be, to the root of the verb. ~ 163. The Perfect tense is like the Perfect Indicative, except that it does not add st to the first person singular to form the second. 2. Complex Verbs. ~ 164. PerJect Tense and Perfect Participle.-The Perfect tense is formed by rejecting the Infinitive termination, with various changes of the radical vowel: the Perfect participle usually modifies the root in the same way, and converts its verbal ending into -en. ~ 165. Verbs, the roots of which present a monosyllabic form with a or ea after the rejection of the Infinitive ending, frequently change the a into o, and sometimes into eo, and the ea generally into eo, to form the Perfect tense, while in forming the Perfect participle no other change 11* 126 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. takes place than that of the terminationi as, "stand-an," AMstd," " gestand-en;" " beat-an," " beet," " beat-en." ~ 166. Verbs having e or eo before 11, If, Ig, It, rf, rg, rp, and the like, make ea, and in some cases ae, in the Perfect tense, and o in the Perfect participle; as, "delf-an," "dealf," "dolf-en." ~ 167. Verbs having i before gn, nn, no, nd, ng, nb, mb, p, etc., often change this vowel into a in the Perfect tense, and into u in the Perfect participle; as, (' sine-an," "sane," (' sunc-en." The same change of vowel takes place when i occurs before a single consonant; as, "nim-an," "nam,"' "numen;" but i becomes a in the tense, and i in the patticiple; as, " slit-an," "' slait," " slit-en." ~ 168. Those verbs which have either X or e6 in the Infinitive, make the Perfect tense in e4, and the Perfect participle in o; as, "cluif-an," "cleff," "clof-en;" "hre6wan,"' hreaw," "hrow-en." ~ 169. Persons. —The Personal terminations are usually like those in verbs of the Simple Order; but while in the Indefinite Indicative the persons of the plural retain the vowel of the first person singular, the same is not unfrequently changed in the second and third. Thus, a becomes ae, and occasionally, e, or y; e, ea, and iu, are converted into y, or i; 6, into e; and A, or e6, into y; as, "Ic bac-e, thu baec-st, he, &c., baec-th," "we, ge, hi bac-ath;" "Ic stand-e, th. stent-st, he, &c., stent," "we, ge, hi standath;" "Ic et-e,.thu yt-st, he, &c., yt," " we, ge, hi et-ath;" " IG sceot-e, thuf sct-st, he, &c., sc't," "we, ge, hi sce6tath." ~ 170. The termination of the third person singular in verbs ending in -dan, -san, -tan, etc., follows the same rules as those given in ~ 159; as, "rid-an," "ic rid-e, he, &c., rit, or rid-eth;" "et-an," "ic et-e, he, &c., yt;' etc,. ~ 171. In the Perfect Indicative, the second person singular commonly ends in -e, and gives form to all the ETYMOLOGY. 12/, persons of the same number in the Perfect Subjunctive; as, "Ic stod, thui stod-e;" "ic, thiui, he, &c., st6d-e." ~ 172. Verbs taking either u or o in the stem of the Perfect participle, in most cases have u in that of the second person singular and of all the persons of the plural in the Perfect tense, while the third person singular is like the first; as, "clrung-en," &c., "ic crang,.tlui crung-e, he, &c., crang," "we, ge, hi crung-on." ~ 173. Verbs having i in the radical part of the Infinitive, and i in the Perfect participle, with d in the first and third persons singular of the Perfect tense, make i in the second, and in all the persons of the plural; as, " aris-an," "aris-en," "ic, lie, &c., aras," " tinu aris-e," " we, ge, hi aris-on." ~ 174. Contracted verbs of one syllable having the Perfect participle in -gen, terminate the first and third persons singular of the Perfect tense, and the second person singular of the Imperative mood, in -h, besides always inserting this letter before -st, and -th; as, " thwean," " thweg-en," lic, he, &c.,.thw6h,', ".thweah t.l.u," ",tl.tUa thwyh-st," "he, &c., thwih-th." Those which terminate the root of the Infinitive in g, in general follow the same rule, converting the g into A; as, "stig-an," " thui stih-st," "ic, he, &c., stah." AUXILIARY VERBS. ~ 175. There are, properly speaking, no verbs in AngloSaxon which can lay claim to this peculiar character, as those which have been regarded as such, do not convey the idea of time, especially future time, except seemingly and in rare instances, but rather of possession; affirmation, or existence; violition, obligation, command, and necessity. They are, " habban;' "wesan," "beon," and "weorthan;" "willan," "sceal," " magan," "cunnan," and "m6t." 128 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. ~ 176. Conjugation of the verb "habban," to have, (1 Con. 2 C1. Irr.') INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic habb-e2 I have. 2 thu haef-st thou hast. 3 he, heo, hit haef-th he, she, it hath, or has. Pltural. 1 we habb-altl we have. 2 ge habb-ath ye, or you have, 3 hi habb-ath they have. Peifect Tense. Sinfrqulai. I ic hacf-de I had. 2 thd haef-dest thou hadst. 3 he, he6', it haef-de he, she, it had. i we haef-don wae -had. 2 ge haef-donr ye, or you had. 3 hi haef-don theY had. This verb, strictly speaking, unites two classes of the first Conju. gation, the 1st and 2d, from the infinitives "'habban" and " hafian,' different formations from the sanme root, as will clearly appear. The same may be said of " lybban" and "leofian," to live; 1" hycgan" and "hogianl," to lhink; " fyligau" or " fyligean" and " folgian," to followt; and some others. Such are usually considered irregular. Tl'here is aliso a class of verbs which evidently form their different parts from two or more distiuct roots. These will appear in the sequel. 2 Habbe, haebbe;-haefst, halfast;-kaefth, hafath;-habbath, hafiath;-~habbe, hafie;-habbe, haebbe;-h/bbon, habban;-habban, ETYMOLOGY. 129 SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. I ic habb-e I have. 2 thud habb-e thou have. 3 he, he6, hit habb-e he, she, it have. Plural. 1 we habb-on we have. 2 ge habb-on ye, or you have. 3 hi habb-on they have. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic haef-de I had. 2 thd haef-de thou had. 3 he, heo, hit haef-de he, she, it had. Plural. 1 we haef-don we had. 2 ge haef-don ye, or you had. 3 hi haef-don they had. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 haf-a thui have thou. Plural. 2 habb-ath (ge) have ye, or you. haebban;-habbende, haebbende;-haefd, haefed;-habbanne, haeb. banne, habbenne, haebbenne. 130 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. INFINITIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. habb-an to have. PARTICIPLES. Indef. habb-ende having. Perf. haef-d had. GERUND. Indef. t6 habb-anne, to have, about to have; of, in, and to having, and to be had. ~ 177. Conjugation of the verbs "wesan" and "beon," to be, (2 Con. 2 C1. Irr.,) and "weorthan," to become, be, (3 Con. 1 C1. Irr.) INDICATIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic eom' be6 weorth-e. 2 thul eart by-st wyr-st. 3 he, he6, hit ys by-th wyrth. B Eom, earn, am;-eart, earth; —ys, is;-synd, sind, synt, syndon, sindon;-waes, was;-wa'eron, w'eren;-syi, si, Sig, se6;-sy'n, sin; -wesath, wese;-wesan, wisan, wosan;-wesen, gewesen. Be6, bi6, bi6m, b6n; —bst, bist; —bth, bith:-be6th, bi6th, be6, bi6;-be6n, bi6n;-be6nde, bi6nde;-be6nne, bi6nne. Weorthe, wurthe, wyrthe;-wyrth, wirth, weorth, weortheth, wyrtheth;-weorthath, wurthath, wyrthath, weorthe, wurthe, wyrthe;,.-weorthe, weorth, weortheth, weordeth;-weort/han, wurthan, wyrti,.l;-.weoarthende, wurthende, wyrthende;-worden, geworden;,-weowthannp, wtuthanne, wyrthanne. 1rTYMOLOGY. 18 Plural. 1 we synd be6-th weorth-ath. 2 ge synd beo-th weorth-ath. 3 hi synd beo-th weorth-ath. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic waes wearth. 2 thi wabr-e wurd-e. 3 he, he6, hit waes wearth. Plural. I we wdaer-on wurd-on. 2 ge waer-on wurd-on. 3 hi wder-on wurd-on. SUBJUNCTIVE Moon. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic sr beo weorth-e. 2 thu sy be6 weorth-e. 8 he, he6, hit sS be6 weorth-e. Plural. 1 we syn beo-n weorth-on. 2 ge syn be6-n weorth-on. 3 hi syn beo-n weorth-on. Perfect Tense. Singular. 1 ic wa'er-e wurd-e. 2 thu waer-e wurd-e. 3 he, he6,!jt war-e wurd,-. J 3S2 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Plural. 1 we w'er-on wurd-on. 2 ge waer-on wurd-on. 3 hi waer-on wurd-on. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 wes beo weorth thM. Plural. 2 wes-ath beo-th weorth-ath (ge.) INFINITIVE MOOD. Indef. wes-an be6-n weorth-an. PARTICIPLES. Indef. wes-ende be6-nde weorth-ende. Pe:f. wes-en word-en. GERuND. Indef. wes-anne beo-nne weorth-anne. ~ 1l78. Inflection of the verbs " willan," to will, or be willing, (1 Con. 3 C1. Irr.,) and " sceal," shall, " magan," to be able)' unnan," to know, know how, and "m6t," must, (Anom.) INDICATIVE Moon. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic wyll-e' sceal maeg can m6t. 2.thd wyl-t sceal-t mih-t can-st m6-st. 3 he, &c., wyl-e sceal mnaeg can m6t. 1 Wylle, wville;-twylt, wilt, wylst,-~wyle, wile; —yllath~ willatl ETYMOLOGY. 133 Plural. 1 we wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on mot-on. 2 ge wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on m6t-on. 3 hi wyll-ath sceal-on mag-on cunn-on m6t-on. Perfect Tense. Singular. I ic wol-de sceol-de mih-te cuth-e mos-te. 2 thti wol-dest sceol-dest mih-test cuth-est m6s-test. 3 he, &c. wol-de sceol-de mih-te cuth-e m6s-te. Plural. 1 we wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on m6s-totl. 2 ge wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on m6s-ton. 3 hi wol-don sceol-don mih-ton cuth-on m6s-ton. SUBJUNCTIVE MOOD. Indefinite Tense. Singular. 1 ic wyll-e scyl-e mag-e. 2 thui wyll-e scyl-e mag-e. 8 he, he', hit wyll-e scyl-e mag-e. Plural. I we wyll-on scyl-on mag-on. 2 ge wyll-on scyl-on mag-on. 3 hi wyll-on scyl-on mag-on. wylle, wille;-wylle, wille;-wyllon, willon, wyllen, willen;-wyllan, willan; —wyllende, willende. Sceal, sceol, scal;-scealon, sceolan, sculon; —scyle, scile;-scylon, scylan, scylen. Can, cann, coll; —cuthe, evidently contracted and modified from 4 cun-do;"-cun-nan, connan;-cuth, i e. " cun-ed," or " cun-d." 12 184 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. Perfect Tense. $ingular. 1 ic wol-de soeol-de mih-te. 2 thu wol-de sceol-de mih-te. 3 he, he6, hit wol-de sceol-de mih-te. Plural. 1 we wol-don sceol-don mih-ton. 2 ge wol-don sceol-don mih-ton. 3 hi wol-don sceol-don mih-ton. IMPERATIVE MOOD. Singular. 2 wyl-e th.d. Plural. 2 wyll-ath (ge.) INFINITIV-E MOOD. indef. wyll-an mag-an cunn-an. PARTICIPLES. Indef. wyll-ende. Perf. cuth. COMPOUND TENSES. ~ 179. Hence, in strict terms, there can be neither Com. pound tenses, nor a Passive voice in Anglo-Saxon. Thus, in parsing forms like the following, "Ic haebbe geset," I have set; " ic maeg beon lufod," I may be loved, the Part. "geset" agrees with the Pron. "ic;"''be6n" is the Inf. governed by "maeg," and "lufod" agrees with "ic," as before.''" Iabban," there can be no doubt, is.ot unfrequently employed ETYMOLOGY. 135 ~ 180. A participial form of tense exists as in English: thus, "ic eom baernende," I am butrn ing;'ic waes lufigende," I was loving. It denotes continuance of action. IMPERSONAL VERBS. ~ 181. These are used only in the third person singular with the pronoun "hit," it, either expressed or understood, while in other respects they are like regular verbs; as, "hit sniwth," it snows; "me thufhte," it seemed to me, or I thought. ~ 182. "Man" corresponding to one and they in English, often gives the verb an impersonal sense; as,, man dyde," one, or they did, it was done.' MIXED VERBS. ~ 183. Verbs in Anglo-Saxon may be termed Mixed when they combine both Orders in a greater or less degree. A large number will be found to possess this character; as, "adrencan;"' p. "adrenc-te;" pp. "adrenc-ed," "adrunc-en," to immerge, drown; "bringan;"2 p. "br6hte," " brang;" pp. "gebr6h-t," "brung-en," to bring, proas an auxiliary; as, "hi h efdon lufod," they had loved, though somne grammarians would consider the participle in such cases as "an unchangeable supine." But is it the nature of the supine to agree? Sometimes we have the participle with "habban" agreeing with the governed word; as, "hine haefde he gesetenne," him had he set, which construction was probably at one time very general in the language, being more natural than any other, and therefore more ancient. Perhaps we ought to have introduced Reflexive verbs as a distinct class; as, " hi hi reston," they rested themselves, but such may not improperly be looked upon as active-transitive, for although from their nature, the subject and the object are the same in every case in which they are employed, still there is a quqsi transition, or, so to speak, a transition from the outer to the inner person always implied. Adrencan; adrincan, also to quench, p. adranc;-adrenced, adruncen, adraenct, adronct, adroncen, adronc. Bringan, brengan; —gebrht, hr6ht.. 136 ANGLO-SAXON GRAMMAR. duce; "acwencan;"3 p. "acwanc;" pp. "acwenc-ed,' "acwin-en," to quench, extinguish. ANOMALOUS VERBS. 184. Anomalous verbs in Anglo-Saxon are such as cannot be reduced to either of the two Orders. Besides those already inflected, we have the following:~ 185. a"gan,"l to own, deliver, restore. Perf. Part. ag-en. Ind. Indef. ic ag-e he ah we ag-on. Perf. ic alh-te we ah-ton. ~ 186. "buian,"' to inhabit, to cultivate. Perf. Part. gebid-n. Ind. Indef. ic bu-e he bP-th, we but-n. Perf. ic bu-de we bii-don. ~ 187. "dear," dare, presume. Perf. Part. - Ind. Indef. ic dear,'.thui dear-st, he dear, we durr-on. - Perf. ic dors-te,.thd dors-test, he dors-te, we dors-ton. Sub. Indef. ic durr-e. Perf. ic dors-te we dors-ton. ~ 188. "d6n," to do, make, cause. Perf. Part. ged6-n. Ind. Indef. ic d6, thfu de-st, he de-th, we d6-th. 9 Acwencan, cwencan, acwinan;-acwenced, acwinen, acwenct, acwent, acwan. Agan, aegan; —gon, igan;-ahte, aehte. Butan, byan, bdgian.' Dear, deor; dearst, durre;-dorste, dursto ETYMOLOGY 137 Ind. Perf. ic dy-de,' thid dy-dest, he did, we dy-don. Imp. do6 thd. ~ 189. " dugan,"1 to profit, care for, help, be good. Indef. Part. dug-ende. Ind. Indef. ic deah, thui dug-e, he deah, we dug-on. - Perf. ic d6h-te, thui d6h-test, we d6h-tono ~ 190. " gan,"' to go, walk, happen. Perf. Part. ga-n. nmd. Indef. ic ga he gae-th, we ga-th. Perf. ic eo-de we e6-don. Imp. ga.th... ~191. " geman,"' remember. Pe