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B 773
THE
MAN OE U VERER,
SKIL FUL
O R.
SEAMAN:
BEING
An ESSAY on the THEORY and PRACTICE
OF THE
VARIOUS MOVEMENTS OF A SHIP AT SEA,
OUS
AS WELL AS OF
NAVAL EVOLUTIONS IN GENERA L.
Tranflated from the French of Mr. BOURDÉ de VILLEHUET,
BY THE CHEVALIER DE SAUSEUIL.
Illuftrated with THIRTEEN COPPERPLATES;
FIVE of which, with many interefting Obfervations interfperfed through the Work, by way of
Notes, are the Production of an ENGLISH OFFICER.
DEDICATED, BY PERMISSION,
TO HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE DUKE OF CLARENCE.
LONDON:
Printed for S. HOOPER, N° 212, High Holborn, oppofite Southampton Street,
Bloomsbury Square.
M,DCC,LXXXVIII.
*****
Libr
Parks Birt
12-6.44
51471
то
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS
The DUKE of CLARENCE.
May it pleaſe your ROYAL HIGHNESS!
Τ
HE early attention which your ROYAL HIGHNESS
hath ſo eminently difplayed to the welfare of
England, in your attachment to Nautical Studies, and
the unremitted ardour with which you fo fuccefsfully
perſevere in the ſame glorious purſuits, muſt afford
every true lover of this Country the happieſt preſages
of what your future exertions may accompliſh in
ſupport of your own fame, and the reputation of the
whole Britiſh Empire.
THE People of Great-Britain feel a due ſenſe of their
obligations to your ROYAL HIGHNESS, for having fo
nobly relinquiſhed all the allurements of eaſe and
pleaſure, to court dangers and difficulties, on the
rougheft
iv
DEDICATI O N.
rougheſt element, in defence of the Nation: agreeing
with the general voice of eſteem and applauſe, and
confidering it the duty as well as the intereft of every
individual to fecond, by all poffible means, your
laudable efforts, the Tranflator humbly ventures to
offer the following Syftem of Naval Tactics to your
perufal. The high degree of reputation in which the
Original is held by men of nautical fkill in France, is
the beft apology for prefuming to introduce it here
under your ROYAL HIGHNESS's patronage.
THAT your ROYAL HIGHNESS may be no lefs diftin-
guiſhed for fuperior acquirements in Naval Science,
than for pre-eminence of Rank, is the ardent wiſh of
Your ROYAL HIGHNESS's
Moſt devoted, and
Moft reſpectful humble Servant,
}
LE CHEV. DE SAUSEUIL.
CONTENT S.
THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
THE FRENCH AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
EXTRACT from the Register of the ROYAL ACADEMY OF
SCIENCES at PARIS, being a teftimony of the merits this
Work
PART THE
FIRST.
On the Theory of Working Ships at Sea
Lemma. If a body ftrikes a furface, it communicates to it
all its perpendicular motion
CHAP. I. Of the action which water or wind have, by their
preffure, on furfaces
CHAP. II. Of the center of gravity
Theorem. The center of rotation, or the point on which a
body turns freely, is always on the other fide of the center
of gravity of that body, with respect to the point on which
the moving force is acting
Theorem. A fail acts always two ways on a ship, when it is
not perpendicular to her length
Theorem. The angle ACF (fig. 8.) formed by the yard A B,
and the keel Fc of the ship, is equal to the angle D CE
comprehended between the perpendiculars DC to the yard
and EC to the keel, in the like manner as the angle CDG.
CHAP. III. Of the most advantageous angle the fails are to
make with the keel and the wind, in order to obtain a failing
of the greatest rate, on an oblique courfe
ART. I. Remarks on failing by the wind
ART. II. Theorem of M. Bouguer
ART. III. A Table of the fituation of the fails to run
with the greateſt velocity; extracted from the
MANOEUVRE of SHIPS by M. BOUGUER
a
Page
I
2
3
IO
13
18
20
2I
25
27
32
CHAP.
ii
CONTENT S.
CHAP. IV. Of the mafts and fails which are before the center
of gravity of a ship
ART. I. Of the effects of the lateen-fails, which are
on the fore-part of the center of gravity of a ſhip
ART. II. Of the effect of the fore-fail, fore top-fail, fore
top-gallant fail, and ſprit-fail, in their different fituations
CHAP. V. Of the mafts and fails abaft the center of gravity
of a ſhip
ART. I. Of the effect of the lateen-fails abaft the
center of gravity of a ſhip
ART. II.
Of the effect of the fails of the main-maſt
and of the mizen top-fail, in their different obliquities ibid.
CHAP. VI. Of the equilibrium necesary to be maintained in
practice, between the fails before and abaft the center of
gravity of a ship, in order that the failing may be the most
direct and the moſt rapid poſſible
Remarks on the effect of the main-ſail
ART. I.
ART. II. Of the rudder
ART. III. The time employed by the different veffels
to perform the ſame evolution, is as their length
PART THE
SECOND.
The Theory applied to Practice; or a Demonftra-
tion of the Evolutions of a Ship
Page
CHAP. I. Of getting under fail
ART. I.—Problem I. To get under fail, when the ſhip
is fwinging head to wind, and you want to caft to
ſtarboard in a place where there is no current
ART. II.-Problem 11. To get under fail when the fhip
is fwinging with her head to the current, and with
the wind a-point abaft the beam
ART. III.—Problem III. To get under fail with a
fpring
ART. IV. General Remarks on getting under fail
34
36
37
39
40
43
49
50
61
65
66
ibid.
69
71
73
CHAP.
CONTENT S.
iii
CHAP. II. PROBLEM. To tack a ſhip, in getting to windward
as much as poffible
CHAP. III. To veer a ship
ART. I.-Problem I. To veer a fhip without lofing the
wind out of her fails
ART. II.-Problem II. To box-haul a fhip, or the
ſecond method of veering.
CHAP. IV. Of lying-to
ART. I.—Problem I. To bring-to with the fore or
main top-fails aback to the maft, or filled
ART. II.-Problem II. To bring-to with the three
top-fails a-back
CHAP. V. To fill, when lying-to
ART. I.-Problem I. To fill when lying-to, with the
'fore top-fail to the maſt
•
ART. II.—Problem II. To fill when lying-to, with the
main top-fail to the maſt
ART. III.-Problem III. To fill when lying-to, with
all the fails to the mafts
CHAP. VI. Of lying-to in a gale of wind
PROBLEM. To veer a fhip, when lying-to under a main-
fail
CHAP. VII. Of founding in fair weather.
ART. I.-Problem I. The first method of founding in
fair weather
ART. II. Another method preferable to the former
CHAP. VIII. On chafing
ART.I.—Problem. To chaſe a ſhip to windward, and
the ſhorteſt method of joining her
་
ART. II. Obfervations for the ſhip to windward, which
is chaſed
ART. III.-Problem. To chafe to leeward
ART. IV. Remarks for the ſhip which is chaſed
CHAP. IX. Of Boarding
a 2
Page
ibid.
82
ibid.
84
87
89
90
91
91
92
93
94
98
104
ibid.
106
107
108
110
ibid.
II2
113
ART.
iv
CONTENT S
ART. I.—Problem. To board to windward, or avoid
being boarded
ART. II.—Problem. To board to leeward, when cloſe
to the wind, or to avoid being boarded
ART. III. To board with wind large
ART. IV. Boarding at an anchor
CHAP. X. On coming to an anchor
ART. I.-Problem. To anchor in fine weather, in a
place where you are to ride head to wind, the ſhip
being cloſe-hauled
ART. II.-Problem. To come to an anchor, with the
wind aft
*
ART. III.-Problem. Scudding under fore-fail to come
to an anchor
ART. IV.-Problem. To anchor with a ſpring, in order
to preſent the veffel's fide fuddenly to a place or ſhip
you wish to cannonade
PART
THE THIRD.
Various Obfervations on the Marine
CHAP. I. Of the uniformity which should be introduced among
the feveral mafts of ships; of their height and fituation
CHAP. II. Obſervations on the different inclinations given to
the mafting of ships, with respect to the water-line
CHAP. III. Of the cut or ſhaping of the fails: of their tenfion,
and tendency to fix themselves perpendicularly to the direction
of the wind
CHAP. IV. General Obfervations on the effect of more or less
furface of fails expofed, in various weathers, to the wind
CHAP. V. Particulars to be obferved in the fitting out of a
Ship, in order to accelerate the execution of it
CHAP. VI. Of the careening and cupper-nail ſheathing of ships
CHAP. VII. Of the fcantling in men of war, and in general of
the ftrengthening pieces
CHAP. VIII. Of the boufing-in of the top-timbers
Page
113
116
119
121
124
125
128
131
132
134
ibid.
144
145
151
156
158
160
167
CHAP.
CONTENT S.
CHAP. IX. Of the ballaft and lading
CHAP. X. Of the rigging in general
CHAP. XI. Thoughts on the method of forming seamen, and on
regulating the feveral duties of the officers and crew at fea
ART. I. Of the clearing a fhip for an engagement, or,
Up all hammocks
ART. II. Of what is to be obſerved during an engage-
ment
of
ART. III. Of the order to be obſerved for an en-
gagement, and of the exerciſe
S
CHAP. XII. How to brail-up a top-fail and a lower-fail in
Stress of weather; with the method of fetting them
. PART THE FOURTH.
193
ART. IV. Of the exercife of the great guns
207
ART. V.
Obſervations on the exerciſe of the great guns 21I
ART. VI. Exercife for throwing grenades
ART. VII. Obfervations on the attack
On Naval Evolutions
CHAP. I. Of the manner of dividing fleets; with obfervations
to render it easily practicable
Of the order of
Of the order of convoy
ART. I.
ART. II.
ART. III. Of the order of battle
Of the order of failing
ART. IV. Of the ftarboard and larboard lines of bearing
ART. V. Of the advantages and diſadvantages of fleets.
which come to action with the lee, or weather, gage
·ART. VI. Of the order of retreat
ART. VII. Of the naval fquare
ART. VIII. Of the counter-march, or manœuvre in
fucceffion
-
Page
170
173
178
186
CHAP. II. Of the manner of forming orders in general
ART. I. How to form the order of convoy on a line
ART. II. To form the order of convoy in three columns
191
213
216
219
• 222
223
226
ibid.
227
ibid.
228
231
232
234
236
ibid.
237
ART.
▾vi
CONTENT S.
ART. III. To form the order of failing in one column
ART. IV. To form the order of failing in three columns
ART. V. A principle for finding the diftance of the
columns, as foon as their length is known
ART. VI. To form the order of battle
ART. VII. To form the order of retreat
CHAP. III. Manner of changing orders
ART. I. To change from the order of convoy, in one
line, to the order of battle, continuing on the fame
tack
ART. H. To change from the order of convoy, in a line,
to that of battle, on the other tack
ART. III. To change from the order of convoy, in
three columns, to the order of battle, on the fame tack
ART. IV. To change from the order of convoy, in
three columns, to the order of battle on the other tack
ART. V. To change from the order of convoy, to that
of retreat
ART. VI. To change from the order of battle to that of
retreat
ART. VII. To change from the order of battle, to the
order of convoy, in one line, on the ſame tack
ART. VIII. To change from the order of battle, to
the order of convoy, in one line, on the other tack
ART. IX. To change from the order of battle to the
order of convoy, in three columns, on the fame tack
ART. X.
To change from the line of battle, to the
order of convoy, in three columns, on the other tack
ART. XI. To change from the order of retreat to the
order of battle
ART. XII. To change from the order of retreat, to the
order of convoy, in one line
ART. XIII. To change from the order of retreat, to
the order of convoy, in three columns
Page
237
238
239
240
241
242
ibid.
ibid.
243
246
247
ibid.
248
ibid.
ibid.
249
ibid.
251
252
CHAP.
CONTENTS.
vii
CHAP. IV. How to restore orders in ſhifts of wind
ART. I. To reftore the order of convoy, in one line,
when the wind comes a-head more than cloſe-hauled
ART. II. To restore the order of convoy, in three
columns, when disturbed by a fudden fhift of wind
right a-head
ART. III. To restore the order of battle, on the fame
tack, when the wind comes four points a-head, more
or lefs
ART. IV. To restore the order of battle, when the
wind ſhifts twelve points coming from forward
ART. V. Another method of reftoring the order of
battle, on the fame tack, when the wiud ſhifts on a
fudden four points more a-head
ART. VI. To reftore the order of battle, on the fame
tack, when the wind fhifts on a fudden eight points.
forward
ART. VII. To reftore the "order of battle, when the
wind fhifts aft
ART. VIII. To reſtore the order of battle, when the
wind fhifts fixteen points.
ART. IX. To reſtore the order of retreat, when the
wind fhifts fixteen points.
ART. X. To restore the order of retreat, when the
wind fhifts less than twelve points.
CHAP. V. How to maneuver a fleet in its various orders
without altering them
ART. I. Of turning to windward in order of battle
ART. II. To work to windward in the order of
convoy, in three columns
ART. III. To turn to
to windward in making the
columns go about in fucceffion
ART. IV. To difpute the weather-gage with the enemy
ART. V. If the weather-fleet be inferior, they ought
to come to action while they have the advantage of the
wind
Page
252
ibid.
255
ibid.
258
259
260
ibid.
261
262
263
266
ibid.
268
ibid.
270
271
ART.
viii -
CONTENT S.
ART. VI. To avoid coming to action, when to wind-
ward
ART. VII. To avoid coming to action when to leeward
ART. VIII. To force the enemy to action, when you
are to windward
ART. IX. To force the enemy to action, when you
have the weather-gage; or, the way to approach, in
the beſt order, near enough for battle
ART. X. To double the enemy, when fuperior to him,
and to leeward of him
ART. XI. To double the enemy, when to windward
of him
ART. XII. To force or traverſe the enemy's line
ART. XIII. To prevent the line being forced
ART. XIV. To bring a fleet to an anchor
ART. XV. To get a fleet under way
ART. XVI. To put a fleet in a pofition of defence, in
a road-ſtead
ART. XVII. Reflections on the beſt method of fighting
at fea
ART. XVIII. Of the convoy of merchant-ſhips under
the protection of men of war
ART. XIX.
To force the entrance of a port
ART. XX. To make a deſcent in an enemy's country .
CHAP. VI. A Plan of Signals
ART. 1. Of day-fignals, when far a-part one from
another
ART. II. Of fignals in mifty or foggy weather
ART. III. Of night-fignals
Page
273
275
276
ibid.
281
285
286
287
288
289
290
ibid.
292
294
298
303
305
307
ibid.
. THE
THE
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
FROM
ROM the extraordinary reputation which M. BOURDÉ has
generally acquired among all Sea Officers of profeffional abilities
in France, and the very diftinguiſhed manner in which the Academy
of Sciences in Paris have expreffed their approbation of his SYSTEM
of NAVAL TACTICS, it cannot be fuppofed but that a Tranſlation
of that Work must prove acceptable, and even uſeful, here, as every
care has been taken to convey in English the judicious principles
and reaſoning of the ingenious French Author.-The only difficulty
in this undertaking was to guard againſt the poffibility of mifcon-
ception which might ariſe from the multiplicity of technical terms
and ſea phraſes, which neceffarily occur in a Work of this kind.
To obviate this, I have, as I proceeded in the Tranflation, regularly
confulted a British Naval Officer of experience and capacity, on
every doubt I had as to the meaning of the original. From that
Gentleman I derived much affiftance; and I would here moft cheer-
fully express my acknowledgements to him by name, were I not
fearful of offending his delicacy by fuch a public teftimony of his
liberal information. Hence I flatter myſelf that I may now venture
to affure the Public, that M. BOURDÉ is rendered into Engliſh with
that degree of accuracy which will make his precepts perfectly clear
to every reader, and that he will be found as conducive to the
inſtruction and improvement of thoſe who are defirous of applying
to Nautical Studies, as he is univerfally esteemed by thofe of his
own countrymen who are devoted to fimilar purſuits.
:
•
S
ANOTHER
vi
THE TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
ANOTHER able Britiſh Officer having tranſlated the greateſt part
of our Author, for his private ufe, and added many very ingenious
and uſeful Obfervations, with FIVE Drawings of his own, to
illuftrate them, they appeared to us of too great importance to be
omitted: therefore, we have enriched the Work with both his
Drawings and his Obfervations, the latter of which will be
found printed by way of notes at the bottom of the
pages wherever
they occurred+.
FROM theſe circumſtances, and the peculiar utility of fuch Works
to a maritime nation like England, we are led to prefume we ſhall
not be found to have employed our time in a manner unprofitable
or diffatisfactory to the Public.
MORE intent fometimes on rendering the true meaning of our
Author than on the elegance of the diction, we will not prefume
to affirm that we ſhall not be found to have now and then inadver-
tently made uſe of fome Gallicifms, inftead of the exact English
idiom; but we hope none of them are ſuch as to obſcure the ſenſe,
and that the indulgent Reader will readily pardon them.
March 1, 1788.
* Plates I, VII, VIII, IX, & X, of Evolutions, are additional, and engraved
from the five above-mentioned Drawings.
+ Theſe Obfervations are printed by way of notes in the following pages, viz.
41, 59, 60, 77, 80, 81, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 107, 124, 131, 230,
244, 245, 250, 256, 257, & 264.
THE
THE
FRENCH AUTHOR'
PREFACE.
6
NAVIGATION hath made greater progrefs in Europe within
this century than in all preceding times fince the difcovery of the
Mariner's Compaſs; and this has been owing to the lights derived
from Aftronomy, Geometry, Geography, and other ſciences which
contribute to its improvement. We should not however fondly
imagine that all parts of this great Art have been fully inveſtigated
and explained, and that there is no room left for farther reſearch
or enquiry. The fureft obftacle to the improvement of Arts and
Sciences would be to reft fatisfied with the knowledge we have
already acquired, and forbear all attempts to increaſe it. It is cha-
racteriſtical of the activity of the human mind to be continually buſy
within its proper fphere, otherwiſe this activity decays and is ſoon
extinguiſhed; as in a machine, of which motion alone is the foul,
the power and ufe of its fprings or wheels are frequently deftroyed
by inaction.
ALL our knowledge is compofed of theory and practice, and the
one cannot fubfift without the other: they must therefore
go hand
in hand together; and, in the art of Navigation particularly, they
Thould be infeparable.
SEVERAL
•
THE FRENCH AUTHOR's
SEVERAL parts of general Hydrography, both theoretical and
practical, have been fucceſsfully explained-The Works of Pere
Fournier, Pere Hofte, Monf. Bouguer, and Monf. Morogues, have all
their peculiar merits. But, Ship-Manœuvres had not yet been fuffi-
ciently elucidated, nor regularly explained, by men of the profef-
fion. I have therefore thought neceffary to confider this impor-
tant object with particular attention.
THE Work of P. Hofte, in which this object is compriſed, was
written above ſeventy years ago; it is now ſcarce, and both Ma-
nœuvres and Tactics have been confiderably improved fince that
period. That of M. Bouguer, publiſhed in 1757, includes like-
wiſe a general Theory of Manoeuvres ; but, to be able to underſtand
this Author properly, a confiderable degree of geometrical know-
ledge and experience is neceffary: befides, how multifarious are
the operations which are to be acquired only at fea! I muft indeed
confefs I have derived confiderable affiſtance from fome of thoſe
Works, and the excellent Theory which they contain has been the
bafis of my Syſtem: but I have added my own reflections and ideas,
and many combinations, which I have had opportunities of making
in actual ſervice, with respect to fhip-manœuvres at fea and in
harbour.
G
I SHALL not attempt to explain here the whole extent of
my
Work. The accurate and learned analyſis given of it by the Com-
miffaries of the Royal Academy in their Report, and which is
annexed to this Preface, makes it unneceffary to enter into fuch a
detail, eſpecially as I could not hope to preſent it with equal preci-
fion. I fhall only mention therefore to the Reader my reaſons for
dividing the Work into Four Parts.
-
THE
PREFACE.
THE Firſt, confifting of Theory, on which the whole Work is
•founded, is ſo far elementary that it may be readily comprehended
by a proper attention on the part of the Reader.
THE Second Part is merely practical. I confider the Ship in
motion at fea, under fail, and in every poffible fituation. This part
of manœuvres, which is the moſt brilliant, requires chiefly great
ſpirit and activity in the execution.
THE Third Part contains various Obfervations; and, according
to circumſtances, is blended with Practice and Theory. I confider
the Sea Officer, on this occafion, as an obſerver attentive to every
object which can poffibly contribute to his advancement in theoretical
and practical knowledge.
THE Fourth and laft Part treats of Naval Evolutions and Signals.
This is properly the ſcience of the Admiral or Commander at ſea,
as well as of every Officer who ferves in a fleet, a fquadron, or any
other divifion. Many things may be found in this Part which are
not to be met with in other Works.
To the detail of Manœuvres compriſed in this Work, if the
Reader will but add thofe parts which I have not touched upon,
only becauſe they have been treated of by others, and were not
properly connected with my plan, he will thence eaſily conceive
the multiplicity and variety of knowledge neceffary to form the
complete Mariner.
WHEN we confider our Marine, the extent of our Navigation,
and the vaſt number of ſhips which must be neceffarily maintained,
even in times of peace, for the fupport and protection of com-
merce, we plainly perceive that the number of Officers, of all
ranks,
3 2
{
P
THE
AUTHOR's
FRENCH
1
ranks, employed in the Navy, must be very confiderable. But
were we to examine the capacity of each in particular, we ſhould.
find very few regularly inſtructed in Ship-Manœuvres, which muſt
however be the continual occupation of the Mariner in the courſe
of his voyages, as he will neceffarily be conſtantly in action either
to accelerate or retard the motion of his ſhip.
THOSE Who have no other guide but mechanical Routine or
Practice, or have learned nothing but from common fervice, gene-
rally find themſelves greatly embarraffed upon any fudden and
extraordinary event which happens at fea, particularly in an engage-
ment, where the fire of the enemy, or their own, by dividing the
Officer's attention, is apt to diſturb the execution of the manœuvres.
IT is in the critical circumftances of an obftinate and uncertain.
conflict that Theory admirably feconds the efforts of Practice,
eſpecially when we enjoy the advantage of having ſo happily united
them by conſtant ſtudy and reflection, that we fcarcely perceive
there are any other combinations neceffary, to give the proper
motion to the ſhip, but thoſe in common Practice.
THIS Practice, more active in appearance, feems to have the
advantage over Theory with regard to promptitude and diſpatch;
but the latter, more uniform and certain, is more likely to fecure
fuccefs in whatever is undertaken, than mere Practice unaffifted by
regular principles. To form the complete Adept in Manoeuvres,
Study and Practice must therefore be united.
•
THE great argument of Mariners who think it unneceffary to
Learn the Theory of their Profeffion, is, that there have been fome
of the ableft Sea-Officers formed by Practice alone. But who will
preſume to affert that thoſe men of diftinguiſhed Genius, whoſe
names
PREFA C E.
names are famous in every harbour, Tourville, Duquêne, D'Eftrées,
Châteaurenaud, Guay-Trouin, Barth, Ruiter, Tromp*, &c, &c,
had no theoretical knowledge? For my own part, I have too great
a veneration for the memory of thoſe heroes, to fufpect them of
ignorance in this effential branch of an Art fo complicated as that
of Navigation. Every Maritime State has produced able Mariners;
but who are they that we ſhall venture to compare with thoſe pre-
eminent Seamen, fhould we even ſuppoſe them to have acted with-
out any fixed Principles or Theory in all they have fo happily
accomplished? Who moreover will now venture to ſay that he
poffeffes as much fagacity, penetration, and genius, to perform on
occafion, with equal fuccefs and glory, what they learned from
continual Practice? In a word, who fhall ever find fo many,
opportunities of improvement as they poffeffed, by a variety of
engagements, and a multiplicity of events, during the courfe of
a long offenfive and defenfive Navigation, in which they generally
proved fucceſsful? We rarely fee a concurrence of ſuch events
with all the qualities which were united in thofe great men, whoſe
example would fain be adduced to justify the want of application
and ſtudy; whole ages are neceffary to produce Mariners of this
uncommon ftamp.
Now, fince, with regard to the ordinary race of ſeamen, Practice
alone is infufficient to raiſe them above mediocrity, Theory muft
therefore be united. Without this indiſpenſable union, we ſhall
never be able to approach the merits of theſe great models, who
chiefly diſtinguiſhed themſelves by thofe bold manœuvres which
generally decide the fate of engagements.
INDEED,
* To whom might be added Blake, Boscawen, Warren, and fome others
THE FRENCH FRENCH
AUTHOR's
*
INDEED, experience at leaſt teaches us, that, with equal talents
and equal practice, the Mariner who poffeffes the knowledge of
Theory muft always be fuperior to him who is unacquainted with
"the latter. The man of found Theory, with a fingle glance, will
on occafion direct his fails and helm much more advantageouſly
than the mere practical failor, becauſe the former knows how to
calculate the degrees of their effects by their motion and obliquity;
whereas the mere practical man will make his arrangements at
random, or at best be guided by mechanical cuſtom; for, every
mariner has his own particular method, from which he rarely
deviates. Befides, if the latter hath the good fortune to make his
fhip perform the fame evolution with the other, it will never be
done with the fame precifion, nor with equal diſpatch.
LET us figure to ourſelves a Mariner, not only of confummate
experience, but likewiſe furnished with all the advantages of regular
Theory; can there be a more glorious fight than to fee fuch a man
in the midſt of thoſe violent fhocks, thofe dreadful convulfions, of
contending winds and waves? Without any other refource but
what he finds in himſelf, ſuſpended between life and death, we ſee
him alone, holding the fate of his fhip in fufpenfe, ftruggling to
the laſt moment againſt ſurrounding deſtruction, ſkilfully combining
all the fury of the element which is ready to fwallow him, and,
with calmneſs and tranquillity, fubjecting thoſe horrors to the cal-
culations of genius.
WHAT muſt become of the mere practical feaman in ſuch a
critical fituation, where his mechanical knowledge can be of no
ufe? You may fee him difconcerted, pale, filent, incapable of any
certain refolution, continually repeating fome cuftomary manoeuvres,
as ill executed, in the general confufion of the fhip, as they are
directed without principle or defign.
I WILL
PREF A C
E.
I WILL venture to make another comparifon, which will fet this
matter in a ſtill ftronger light. All men in general, for whatever
profeffion they may be defigned, ufually devote a certain number:
of years to the acquifition of profeffional knowledge. Thofe who
are called to the firft Offices, as well as the loweft mechanics, are
ſubject to Rules and Principles, in which they endeavour to gain a..
proficiency. Shall the Mariner alone claim an exemption from all
ftudy and mental application? Shall he fancy that it will be fuffi-..
cient for him to fee what others perform in the courſe of a few
voyages and engagements, and fuppofe that his eyes will inftruct
him better than all he can learn from ſtudy and reflection in his
clofet?
"A MAN muſt have egregious prefumption and ignorance,"
according to the Author of the Elogium of Du Guai Troin, "to.
"flatter himſelf with any hopes of fucceſs in ſuch a Profeffion
"without having carefully studied it." And, indeed, we have
many woeful examples of the irreparable errors and misfortunes..
which have been occafioned by preſumption in this Profeffion.
HONOUR, that great and glorious expreffion, fo pompously pro--
nounced, but fo ill understood, true Honour, I fay, is not an idle
fentiment which fupinely flumbers in the human breaſt. It confiſts,
with reſpect to a Sea-Officer, in diſtinguiſhing himſelf as much by
Science and fuperior Talents as by Refolution and Courage.
Ir is, therefore, for uninformed Mariners, that, prompted by an
impulſe of zeal for the improvement of the Navy, I have compofed
this Work, the fruit of reflection and ſtudy, during the courſe of
a long ſeries of Voyages; but I am far from pretending to offer
any information to Mariners who have united Study and Practice in
the
*4
THE FRENCH AUTHOR's, &c.
the completion of their Profeffional Character-Happy in being of
fome uſe to thoſe who may have occafion to benefit by my labour,
I fubmit it to the judgement of the reft. Should any errors have
eſcaped me, as I am far from having the vanity of thinking myſelf
infallible, it will not give me the leaſt pain to acknowledge and
correct them,
#
Extrac
[ i ]
Extract from the Regifter of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, at Paris, being a Teſtimony of the Merits
of this Work.
MAY 16, 1764.
WE have examined, by order of the Academy, a Work
" An
intituled, Le Manœuvrier, or the Skilful Seaman; being
Effay on the Theory and Practice of the various Movements of
"a Ship at Sea, as well as of Naval Evolutions; by Mr. BOURDÉ,
"Officer in the Service of the French Eaft-India Company."
"C
We have had but few publications hitherto on the Art of working
a Ship at Sea, that are properly calculated for the Inftruction of young
Officers. The Book of Father HOSTE, published above 70 years ago,
and that of Mr. BoUGUER, in 1757, are almoft the only works of the
kind deferving any notice. The former is nearly obfolete: the latter
is an excellent Performance, wherein the rooft ſkilful Officers may
find objects very effential to their profeffional improvement. Mr.
BOURDÉ, fenfible of this truth, wifely availed himſelf of them:
but a confiderable degree of knowledge of the fubject is previouſly
neceffary, in order to draw from fuch a fource. The ftudy of
Geometry, and experience, are requifite to underſtand that writer
with advantage: befides, there are a multitude of operations, to
be acquired only from practice, that an Officer cannot attain but
A
by
ii
TESTIMONY OF THE MERITS
by a long acquaintance with the Sea, and which do not form a
part of Mr. BOUGUER's plan. That Author treats of the Geo-
metrical part only of the Manauvre: to treat of the utility, proper
application, and practice of it, was the province of a Practical
Sea-Officer; and this is preciſely what Mr. BOURDE has done in
the Work before us.
AFTER having laid down, in a fimple and elementary manner,
the first notions on the fhock of fluids, and on the movement of
bodies after percuffion, Mr. BOURDÉ examines in what manner the
fails are acted upon by the wind, and what is the direction, as well
as the true and apparent velocities of the fhip in reſpect to the
wind. He clearly demonftrates, that the ſeveral velocities of a ſhip
are as the fines of incidence of the wind on the fail, as long as the
fail continues under the fame trimming or difpofition in regard to
the keel; and that, in order to remove the quicker from a coaſt,
or from any given line, it is neceffary the tangent of the apparent
incidence be double the tangent which makes the Courſe with the
Sail; while, at the fame time, the Angle formed by the Courſe
and the coaft from which a removal is required, fhall be equal to
the real Angle of incidence. The Author brings, on that occafion,
the Table Mr. BOUGUER has drawn up for running with the greateſt
velocity; but not without obferving, however, at the fame time,
that, out of 28 Articles contained in it, there are no more than
eight (about a third part only) which may be of real utility; be-
cauſe, in all the other cafes, the Sails would cover each other too
much. So true it is, that the moft fublime Theories ftand in need
of being fubmitted to pofitive experience and practice, before their
real advantage and proper application can be determined.
MR. BOURDÉ next confiders the action of the Mafts and Sails
which are on the fore part of a Ship; fuch as the Sprit-fail, Jib,
and Stay-fail, which are fet on the Bowfprit, and are advantageous
for
OF THIS WORK.
iii
for going by the wind and making the ſhip ſteer well, eſpecially
when the gripes and requires a great deal of weather-helm: expe-
rience ſhows that they are more uſeful than the beſt theory can
demonftrate. All the other Sails are equally confidered, with re-
ſpect to their feveral ufes and functions.
THE Rudder becomes afterwards the object of the Author's con-
fideration. He ſhows, by reaſonings as plain as they are natural
and obvious, that, in practice, it is the angle of 45 degrees, or
thereabouts, which is the moſt advantageous to tack the ſhip; not
that of 55 degrees, fo long infifted upon in all books of Geometry.
But, in the ordinary conftruction, the Tiller can hardly admit of
being traverſed by 30 degrees. As for the reft, Mr. BOURDE fhows
evidently, in regard to the Rudder, that it is to be made uſe of as
little as poffible.
THE Second Part of this Work contains the application of Theory
to Practice, and exhibits a demonſtration of the Evolutions of a
Ship. This is the brilliant part of a Seaman's knowledge. An
intelligent Officer ought to render himſelf maſter both of his Ship
and of the Elements which furround him, fo as to make them
contribute to the accompliſhment of his defign: but he muſt firſt
be perfectly well acquainted with their power and their effects.
The firſt Problems, offered for folution, concern the manner of get-
ting under fail, when the Ship is riding head to wind where there
is no current; to get ready with a ſpring; to either tack or wear a
ſhip to lie to, or otherwife difpofe the fails, fo that, by their
oppofing and counteracting each other, the ſhip may be rendered
as it were immoveable: to lie to in a gale of wind, which is done
by keeping as clofe as poffible to the wind under a fingle fail.
And, as ſhips are never brought to, but when compelled from ſtreſs
of contrary winds, there are hardly any of thofe operations but are
liable to failure. Mr. BOURDÉ has endeavoured to remedy theſe
defects,
A 2
iv
TESTIMONY OF THE MERITS
3
defects, by difcuffing each feparately, and by pointing out, at the
fame time, the methods leaft liable to fuch inconveniencies.
THE Author's next concern is how to chaſe a ſhip and come up
with her by the ſhorteſt method. Several geometricians have treated
before of the curves of purfuit, and of the various methods of
coming up with a fhip. Mr. BOURDÉ adviſes to tack as often as
the chafer ſhall find the veffel he is chafing perpendicular to his
courfe; provided, however, the chafer be to leeward of the other:
but, if he be to windward, he must take care to keep himſelf
ſtanding from the veffel he is chafing always on the fame rhomb
as he did when he began the chafe; which is the only means of
coming both together to the point of fection of the two courfes.
AFTER having chaſed, the next object is Boarding: therefore all
the neceffary evolutions to fucceed in boarding, or to avoid being
boarded, come after thoſe we have been ſpeaking of. Then Mr.
BOURDÉ treats of the various Anchorings; fuch as to anchor in
fine weather, the ſhip being cloſe-hauled: to anchor with the wind
aft to anchor by fcudding under a fore-fail, in ftrefs of weather:
to anchor with a ſpring, in order to preſent the veffel's fide fud-
denly to a place or a fhip meant to be attacked. All thefe operations
are firſt deſcribed, next demonftrated, then cloſed with ſuch judi-
cious reflexions and circumſtances as appear extremely neceflary.
THE Third Part of this Work contains various obſervations on
Ships; fuch as their different parts, their conftruction, interiour
management, rigging and ftowing, the fea-fervice, the neceffary
exerciſes for the manœuvre, and the preparatives for an engage-
ment: laftly, the complement of men on board, their ſeveral duties,
and other important objects relative to navigation. Little as yet
had been written on theſe matters, notwithstanding the important
ufe of difcuffing, inveſtigating, and improving practical experiments,
whence every one is to hope for that experience which is too
frequently
t
OF THIS THIS
WORK.
frequently to be acquired only by time and particular circumſtances.
How many unforeſeen accidents have happened, and might have
been prevented, had Officers tranfmitted us their knowledge in that
branch, as Mr. BOURDÉ has done!
-
ANOTHER object, on which Mr. BOURDE dwells particularly, is
the method of rightly fixing in the point-velique the centrical force
of the fails. By the point-velique is underſtood that point where a
perpendicular raiſed from the center of gravity of the furface of the
floating line, meets the direction of the impulfe of the water on the
Prow of the Ship in a direct courfe before the wind. This point
of meeting does not take place in oblique courfes: for which rea-
fon, in fuch cafes, there can be no perfect mafting of fhips, becaufe
there is no ſhip but drives and inclines. But it is however very
advantageous to place the center of the force of the fails at that
height where an horizontal plane is interfected in the axis of the
ſhip by the two lines above mentioned, in paying attention to the
oblique courfes, which of all others are thofe that are moſt fre-
quently requifite: the refult of which tends evidently to a general
ſhortening of all the maits, yards, &c, of ſhips, as Mr. BOUGUER
propoſes in many places of his Works.
THE Fourth and laft Part of the SKILFUL SEAMAN is intirely
taken up with An Efay on Naval Evolutions, accompanied with
fome Plates, on which the chief of them are delineated. In that
Part are deſcribed, the Diviſion of Fleets; the Orders of Convoy,
of Sailing, of Battle, and Retreat; the method of drawing up in
any Order, and that of changing it; that of changing from one
Order to another, when occafioned by the fhifting of the wind, or
required by the fituation of the Enemy; the method of maneuvering
a Fleet in its various Orders without changing them; that of avoid-
ing an Action, or of forcing the Enemy to come to one; and that
of doubling on the Enemy, and of forcing or traverfing his Line.
All
-
vi
TESTIMONY OF THE MERITS OF THIS WORK.
All theſe various Evolutions have already been almost completely
treated of by Father HosTE, towards the end of the laft century:
but this Work is become fo fcarce, that it is very difficult to be
procured. On the other hand, Mr. BOURDÉ has added to it many
things relative to the actual and modern practice of the Art, efpe-
cially on the Order of Convoy, which is of the greateſt uſe, and
yet had been very little noticed by Father HOSTE. The Treatife
lately published by Mr. BIGOT DE MOROGUES Contains alſo many
remarks on Evolutions; but he has been moft diffufive on the uſe of
Signals therefore the Work of Mr. BOURDE will be of fervice to
the Public, even with regard to Evolutions.
FROM theſe circumstances, We are of opinion, that this Work
is well worthy of publication, both on account of the mathematical
principles of manœuvres which are therein explained with perfpi-,
cuity and method, as well as the particular experiments and rules
of practice with which it abounds; and we confider it as highly
deferving the approbation of the Academy.
CLAIRAULT & DE LA LANDE.
I certify, that the above Extract is a true Copy of the Original, and
conformable to the Judgement of the Academy.
PARIS, May 23, 1764.
GRAND-JEAN DE FOUCHY,
Perpetual Secretary to the Royal Academy of Sciences.
AN
ESSAY
ΟΝ
NAVAL TACTICS.
PART THE FIRST.
On the Theory of Working Ships at Sea.
THE
HE THEORY, of which this Part is compofed, is nothing
but the Demonftration, fupported with Proofs, of the effects of
every Sail, and of the Rudder, each feparately or all together con-
fidered, both with refpect to the points where theſe machines are
placed in the Ship, and with refpect to the different difpofitions
which either are given them in the changes of evolutions, or reſult
from their various obliquities, when they prefent more or leſs
obliquely their furfaces to the action of the water or the wind.
LEMMA.
2
AN ESSAY ON
LEMM A.
1. If a Body ftrikes a Surface, it communicates to it all its
perpendicular motion.
DEMONSTRATION.
Ir the Body c, (fig. 1.) meets the ſurface A B, with a motion
perpendicular to its middle, or center of gravity D, it will do it
with the ftrength of all its perpendicular motion, which is the
produce of its weight by its velocity; and will force it in the
direction DG, perpendicular to A B. If the fame Body meets the
fame ſurface obliquely, and with the fame velocity, it will impel
it in the direction D G, with no greater velocity than that of
DE, which is equal to the angle of incidence HF. For, HF
expreffes the perpendicular velocity of the Body H, towards the fur-
face which will appear evident, if we confider that the movement
H D, is compofed of the two movements H F, and HE; and that
there is no other movement but н F, only which can meet the fur-
face A B, fince the other H E, is parallel to it.
BUT the part HF, of the motion of the Body H, is perpendicular
to the ſurface A B: whence it refults, that the Body H, impels in
the like perpendicular manner that furface in the direction D G,
with a force equal to the product of its weight by the velocity н F,
-2; e. d.
CHAPTER
NAVAL TACTIC SL
·3
2.
CHAPTER I.
Of the action which Water or Wind have, by their preſſure,
on furfaces.
FLUIDS are formed of an infinite number of particles, the
minuteneſs of which is the cauſe why, in the first inftant of their
action, they communicate, by their ſhock, but very imperceptible
degrees of motion: and fuch is the weakneſs of their operation,
that it requires to be repeated a great many times before they can
produce any fenfible effect on the bodies they are to move.
It is eaſy to conceive, that the more ſpecific gravity a Body is
poffeffed of, the ftronger its impulfe muft be: therefore Water,
which weighs nearly eight hundred and fifty times as much as
Air, ought to produce (allowing the velocity to be the fame) an
impulfion eight hundred and fifty times as great as the Air would
againſt a ſurface of the fame fize moved in directions perfectly
fimilar. And when it is known that the impulſe of a fluid depends
on its specific gravity, it will be eafily understood that fuch an
impulſe muſt depend alfo on the extent of the furface which is
ftruck. For, it is plain that the greater the furface is (granting the
gravity, the velocity, and the direction of the fluid to be the ſame),
the ſtronger the impulfe will be, admitting ftill the fame proportion
to be kept between the extent of that fluid's furface and that of any
other ſurface put in compariſon with it; for this only evident rea-
ſon, that a ſurface of twelve feet fquare will always receive twelve
times as much impulfion as would a furface of only one foot ſquare,
We must not forget, however, to obferve here, at the fame time
that
B
twelve square feet.
弗
​AN ESSAY ON
that fuch parts of the fluid as ſtrike, find more or lefs difficulty to
recoil after the fhock, according as the furface is more or leſs ex-
tenfive; becauſe, the greater the furface ftruck, the longer is the
continuance of repulfion from their former directions impreſſed
on the particles, which, by that very act of repulfion, receive a new
direction, by which they are made to lofe for a while the firſt move-
ment they had during their primitive one; whence it follows, that
the ſhock of the ſubſequent particles must be altered: but, after all,
this deviation, from the direct line, of the ſubſequent particles, is
fo trifling, that it may almoſt be looked upon as nothing; fince
there is very little wanting, indeed, but all impulſions ſhould be
intirely dependent on, and comparable with, the reciprocal pro-
portions which happen to exift between them and the furfaces on
which they ſtrike; allowing always all other circumſtances to be
alike.
3. IT muſt be obſerved, that the rapidity of the fluid contributes
doubly to the force of the impulſe; fince every particle ftrikes with
fo much the more ftrength as it acts with a greater velocity, and is
at the fame time followed by a greater number of new particles to
fhock the furface. So that the greater the celerity of the particles,
the greater is the number of thoſe which ſhare the action, and the
more powerful is the refiftance they oppoſe to their being put out
of their direct motion. But, if the Fluid is poffeffed of five or fix
times more rapidity, it is evident that every particle enjoys likewiſe
five or fix times more force to ſhock the furface which oppoſes the
paffage of them all together; as, on the fide of the ſurface, there
are five or fix times as many particles to encounter in the fame
fpace of time: therefore ſuch a furface, thus expofed to the ſhock of
the fluid, will be ftruck with twenty-five or thirty-fix times more
force at one time than at another, fince there are five or fix times
as many particles employed in the act of ftriking,, and fupported
with five or fix times as much rapidity. Whence it may be drawn
as
:
5
NAVAL TACTICS.
as a conclufion, that impulfions increaſe as the fquares of velocities;
or, in other terms, that they are between themſelves as the ſquares
of their velocities, when all other circumftances are the fame.
OBSERVATION S.
WHEN a furface is expoſed to the courſe of a fluid, it is indiffe-
rent whether we confider that fluid as fhocking the furface, or the
furface as moving in the fluid: or, again, whether we confider the
fluid and the ſurface as having each their reſpective ſhare of the
velocity with which that ſurface receives the impulſe of the fluid.
4. WHEN the Wind has little velocity, its action is obferved to
be but faint; but, when moving with rapidity, then it becomes
capable of producing the greateſt effects. This is not difficult to
be conceived; for, if to the action of every particle of air, which
is ſtronger on account of its increaſed celerity, be added a greater
number of particles ſtriking at the fame time, it is evident that its
force will increaſfe as the fquare of its velocity; which has already
been demonſtrated.
THE fame, therefore, may be faid of Water, the impulse of which
is almoſt like that of a folid when it acts, or is acted upon, with a
great rapidity of motion. Whence we muſt conclude, that if that
water meets perpendicularly a body which preſents to it a great
fuperficies, fuch a body muſt have the greateſt folidity to be able to
reſiſt it.
5. THIS principle is confirmed by experience. For, a fhip which
drives to leeward does not divide the fluid with her fide in a direct
line; there is always fome obliquity in the direction the purſues
by her act of dividing. Now, this obliquity proceeds from the
little refiftance the experiences from the fluid either at her ſtem or
at her ftern. So that ſhould fhe be but ever fo little driven to lee-
ward, ſhe glides always obliquely on the column of water which
oppofes
B 2.
6
AN ESSAY ON
oppofes her, under her lee, in following a line more or leſs cloſe to
the direction of her length, than to the perpendicular which may
be conceived to be drawn as lateral to her keel.
6. We have, as yet, fpoken of the impulfe of fluids upon fur-
faces only, when confidered as perpendicular: but, when that
impulſe becomes oblique, it is plain it muſt receive a great deal of
diminution; fince the motion of every particle will be difcompofed
on account of its acting only by its motion perpendicular to the
furface, as has been demonftrated (fig. 1.), where the body H,
may be confidered as a particle of a fluid, the impulfe of which is
proportionably lefs as the fine of the angle of incidence H D F, is
diminiſhed therefore, in this prefent cafe, when we confider the
particle н, as a body, its impulſe will be in the proportion of the
different angles of incidence, which always exprefs the refpective
velocities, theſe being confidered in a direction perpendicular to the
furface.
7. IF, inſtead of a particle only, the whole furface is confidered
as expoſed to the courfe of all thofe which compofe a fluid; it will
appear evident, from what has been faid, that the furface EF,
(fig. 2.), which is oblique to the courſe of the fluid, preſents to
that fluid, a lefs furface than it would if it were perpendicular to
it, like A B. So that each particle produces a lefs fhock, and lefs in
number are the particles which are at the fame time contributing
their ſhare to the fhock. Now, as theſe two caufes of diminution
follow the fame proportion, it reſults, that the impulfions of fluids
are between themſelves as the fquares of the fines of incidence.
Therefore, as foon as the impulſe of a fluid, which ſtrikes a ſurface
perpendicularly, is known; you have only to diminiſh that impulſe,
when it ftrikes the furface obliquely, in the fame proportion as the
fine total 1 K, is to the fquare of the fine of incidence L K.
THE ſurface A B (fig. 2.) receives all the direct impulſe of the
fluid which ſtrikes it perpendicularly, and which is contained be-
tween
NAVAL
7
TACTICS.
1
tween CD: but, the fame furface, prefented obliquely to the fluid
in the direction ɛ F, will receive but a part of the impulſe, which
will be proportional to the fine of incidence KL, compared with
the fine total IK, of the direct effort of every particle contained
between the parallels E G, and F H, which incloſe a much leſs ſpace
than the firſt, A C, and B D. Whence we may easily conclude, that
the diminution of the impulfe of the fluid has diminiſhed on two
fides, and has confequently followed the proportion of the ſquare
of the fine total 1 K, to the ſquare of the fine of incidence L K;
for, there is a lefs number of particles employed in ftriking the fur-
face, and poffeffed of a ſmaller degree of velocity.
COROLLAR Y.
8. Ir follows, that we ought not to be ſurpriſed to ſee the velo-
city of a ſhip diminiſhing confiderably when, after having run with
the wind aft or large, the veffel is hauled cloſe on a bowline. For,
it is evident that all the fails which can poffibly be ſpread in this
laſt direction will receive but very little impulfe, on account of
their great obliquity to the wind, with which they cannot make
an angle more open than 30 degrees, and fometimes much lefs,
as will be demonftrated hereafter. So that the impulſe has dimi-
nished, in proportion as the fquare of the fine total is to the
fine of incidence of 30 degrees; that is to fay, as 4 to 1. There-
fore, the fails, receiving but a very faint impulfe, can neceffarily
communicate to the fhip but a ſmall motion; a motion which is
ftil enfeebled by the refiftance of the water on the prow; which
refiftance increafes, on one hand, by the inclination of the fhip,
and on the other by the greater furface which the prefents to the
water in the direction of her length; to which must be added,
again, the decompofition of the abfolute effort of the fails, the lateral
part of which is now become much greater than the direct. By
all
8
AN ESSAY ON
all theſe means we fee, that the rapidity of the fhip's way is
already diminished from three evident caufes; to which a fourth
may ſtill be added;` and is this: that if the ſhip has an inclination
to the horizon (as this never fails to happen in oblique courfes,
and as we have already hinted), and if the wind has ever fo little
force, there will refult again, from that new circumſtance, a fourth
cauſe of diminution of impulfe of the wind on the fails; becauſe,
in fuch a caſe, the fails follow that particular inclination of the ſhip
called beeling: and this diminution of impulfe will follow this
particular proportion, viz. that in fuch a direction the fquare
of the fine of incidence will be ſmaller than that of the fine total.
Therefore, we fee that the abfolute fine of incidence diminiſhes
in a twofold proportion, and receives. that diminution from the
compound ratio of the proportion which the fine total bears to the
two fines of the obliquity of the yard with the wind, and of the
inclination of the fail with the wind.
REMARKS.
9. THE impulfe of the wind on the fails being continual,
must neceffarily communicate to the fhip, degrees of velocity
which, from inſtant to inſtant, are increaſing, until there hap-
pens to be an equilibrium between the impulfe of the wind
on the fails and the refiftance of the water on the prow; ob-
ferving alfo, that in the courſes where the fhip fails with the
wind abaft the beam, the firft moment when the wind ftrikes
the fails, is the time when its impulfe is greateſt, and the refift-
ance of the water the weakest; becauſe, at that inftant, the ſhip
does not yet move in the fluid, not having yielded to the
power of the wind: but, in a few moments, the hip gathering
way, her velocity increaſes, whence the refiftance of the water on
the prow increaſes, alfo confiderably: then the impulfe of the wind
on the fails is proportionably decreafing; becauſe the ſhip re-
ceding,
NAVAL TACTICS.
9
C:
ceding, as it were, from the wind, muft of courſe leffen its power
on the fails. Thus the accelerating force is inceffantly leffening
from two cauſes; the firft from the wind ftriking the fails with leſs
force, and the fecond from the greater part of its impulfe being
deſtroyed by the refiftance of the water on the prow: a refiftance
which increaſes in proportion as the fhip's way accelerates; for, this
oppofition of the water is as a deduction from the effort of the wind;
fince, by its refiftance, the water renders part of that effort inef-
fectual. Therefore, the rate of failing will be the greateft poffible
when the impulfe of the wind upon the fails fhall be ſo diminiſhed,
and the reſiſtance of the water on the prow fo increaſed, as that the
two forces acting in contrary directions are in a perfect equilibrium.
Hence we are to conclude, that the veffel muſt now enjoy a con-
ſtant and uniform motion; for, the ſhip advances as if he were not
ſubject to the action of any exterior force, the wind no longer
having power to increaſe her velocity, becauſe the refiftance of the
water on her prow prevents it; and, on the other hand, the impulfe
of the wind hinders the water, by its refiftance, from retarding her
courfe.
7
OBSERVATION S.
10. If a ſhip runs on a line perpendicular to the direction of the
wind, the impulfe on the fails is always the fame, becauſe ſhe does
not recede from the point from which the wind blows: but, when
fhe fails clofe hauled, the impulfe muſt be ftronger; becaufe fhe
runs to windward, and draws nearer to that point. So that if the
rate of the ſhip's failing be great, the apparent angle of incidence
diminiſhes in proportion to the two velocities, viz. that of the wind,
and that of the ſhip.
THE moment a furface which is fufpended, or afloat, is ſtruck
by a fluid, that is the time of the greateſt impulſion (if it were not
in motion before), and of the greatest refiftance of the furface.
CHAPTER
•
-
10
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER II.
Of the Center of Gravity.
II.
11. EVERY folid has a center of gravity; that is to fay, a point
on which, it being fufpended, it will have a perfect equilibrium
in any pofition. And on that point all the gravity of the body
is united. For example, in the rectangular parallelepipedon A в,
(fig. 3.), the center of gravity of which is exactly in the middle
G; if it be ſuſpended from that point, as from G, to D, it will
always be in equilibrium; becauſe that folid being confidered as
regular, one of its halves muſt exactly balance the other; and were
it not regular, the finding of this center would be much more
complicated. Without engaging, therefore, in abftract difficulties,
it will be fufficient, for our purpoſe, to make it appear that the
center of gravity of a body heavier at one extremity than at the
other, lies always in the heaviest part, with reſpect to the point
which marks the middle of the length of the body. If to the folid
A B, which is ſuſpended in a perfect equilibrium by its center of
gravity G, be added a weight E, in the center of the part A G, the
equilibrium will then be loft, as it will increaſe the weight of this
part, which will then overweigh the other half в G, by all the
weight E, of which the part B G, becomes by fo much lighter.
To find, then, the center of gravity, which is changed from G, to 1,
we muſt divide reciprocally to the weight of the two bodies, A G + E
for the one, and B G, for the other, the interval F H; for it may be
ſuppoſed that this half A G, of the parallelepipedon (fig. 3.) plus
the weight E, is a body ſuſpended by the center F, of the part A G;
and
NAVAL
I I
TACTICS.
•
and that this point is the extremity of a lever F н, infinitely light,
which bears alſo, at the other extremity н, taken for the center of
the other part B G, all the weight of that part: fo that, if the body
A'GE, weighs four times as much as the other weight B G, we
have but to make the interval F. I, the fourth part of the other I H,
and the point I, will then be the center of gravity required of the
folid A B+E, and the two bodies fufpended by that point will be
in perfect equilibrium; for the weight AG+E, is four times as
heavy as the other BG; but it acts with an arm of a lever F I,
which is only the fourth part of the other IH; therefore the two
weights fufpended by the point I, will preferve a perfect equilibrium,
in whatever fituation they may be placed, as they make, in fact, both
but one, the heavinefs of which may be fuppofed united in the
fingle point I, which is the center of gravity fought.
COROLLAR Y.
12. It follows, from what has been demonftrated, that a long
lever is productive of a greater effect than a fhort one, when both
are actuated by the fame force; whence we muft conclude, that the
longeſt lever, or (what is the fame) the greateſt diſtance from the
fulcrum or point. of fupport, is proportional to the greateſt weight.
It is very eaſy to be convinced of this truth, if we make one of
the two following proportions: first, thus; the fum of the two
weights A G +E+BG: FH :: BG: FI; or:: AG+E:IH.
We have fuppofed the weight AG+É (fig. 3.) to weigh four
times as much as the other BG, which I fuppofe to be two
pounds; fo that the fum total will be ten pounds. Then fay:
TEN, the fum of the two weights, is to the whole lever F H, as
two pounds is to the lefs part F 1, of the lever divided into five
equal parts fo that, if F 1, is equal to two feet, I н, will be equal
to eight feet, and F H, equal to ten feet. But we have alſo this
C
proportion
I 2
AN ESSAY ON
proportion to make; viz. TEN pounds, the fum of the two weights,
is to ten feet, the length of the whole lever, as eight pounds
are to eight feet; but, admitting the diſtance F н, to be ten feet,
the diſtance F 1, is found to be two feet, and that of HI, eight
feet; which demonftrates, that a power of two pounds on a lever
of eight feet, is equal to a power of eight pounds on a lever of
two feet; for, the product of the extremes, in both the one and
the other proportions, is equal to that of their means.—2, E. D.
Ir ought alfo to be obſerved, that the center of gravity of a ſolid
follows always the greateſt weight with refpect to the middle G,
(fig. 3.), fince the point I, is four times as near the center F, of
the heaviest body as it is to the center H, of the lighteſt body.
COROLLAR Y.
13. Ir follows, that the center of gravity A, of a ſhip (fig. 4.)
is always before the point c, which is the middle of her abfolute
length; for, the fore part в C, having more capacity than the after
part c D, muſt of courſe have alſo more weight: therefore, it car-
ries the center of gravity c, forward, in proportion to its greater
weight (which in large fhips is from fifty to eighty tons), and to
the interval there is between every center of gravity of each parti-
cular part, both forward and aft.
REMARK S.
14. WHEN at fea, and the ſhip loaded, the center of gravity may
well be ſuppoſed to be no longer fubject to change, unleſs the
cargo be moved.
BUT we muſt not neglect to obferve, that, as experience ſhows
it, the fore or after part of the bottom of a ſhip plunges and labours
more and more, in proportion as the wind acts with more or lefs
force
NAVAL
13
TACTICS.
force on the fails; becaufe fhips are generally not mafted according
to the point velique:* fo that a fhip which has the center of the
effort of her fails ill-placed, draws always more water forward or
aft, when the wind acts powerfully on her fails, than when ſhe is
at eaſe under her burthen.
THE ORE M.
15. The center of rotation, or the point on which a body turns freely,
is always on the other fide of the center of gravity of that body,
with respect to the point on which the moving force is acting.
DEMONSTRATION.
IF the body в D, (fig. 5.) be ftruck in its center of gravity G,
when it is in a perfect ſtate of reſt, it is evident (n. 1.) that the
two extremities B, and D, will advance equally on parallels: but, if
it is ftruck in the point F, diflant from the center of gravity, by
any mobile fuch as A, when it is ſubject to no friction, it will
then have two motions with refpect to its center of gravity G, on
which are collected all the weight and the refiftance. For, that center,
not being held by any thing, is moved in the direction Gg, parallel
to the direction A I, of the effort of the mobile A, which ſtrikes
the
* Let an horizontal fection of the fhip, at the exact height of the floating line,
or where the ſurrounding filaments of water encompaſs the bottom, be ſuppoſed;
from the center of gravity of this furface, let a perpendicular be raiſed, and continued
till interfected by the direction of the impulfe of the water on the prow, in failing
exactly before the wind; and where theſe two lines fhall cut each other, there is the
point velique, and where the center of effort of all the fails ſhould be placed.
C 2
14
AN ESSAY ON
B
the body B D, in the point F. So that the part B G, of that body
receives the ſhock of the mobile A, which makes it pafs from F
to f, conformably to the direction of its motion A 1. And as the
other part G D, of the fame body ſhares that motion but in
propor-
tion as its parts are lefs diftant from the point F, of percuffion,
(fince the neareſt parts of that point receive the greater ſhare of
the action,) in proportion as they remove from their firſt fituation,
they all deſcribe, by the firſt effect of the fhock, parallels B b, Gg,
and Dd, to the direction A I, of the effort of the mobile A.
Theſe parallels are greater as they are more diftant from the part
fhocked, and from its extremity B; becauſe the refiftance which
the body в D, makes againſt receiving the motion, cannot be in
equilibrium with that which the power A, takes to loſe part of its
own motion, but as much as the two refiftances are equal and
directly contrary: therefore, the body в D, in yielding to the
impulſe of the mobile A, does not oppofe to it a reſiſtance equal to
its ſhock; it must then change its place and fituation, in turning.
on the point R, marked by the meeting of two lines DR, and d R,
drawn from the center of gravity of the body в D, in thoſe two
fituations, before and after the ſhock; and as the circular motion.
of the body B D, takes its rife always round the center of gravity,
it is eaſy to conceive that the center having taken the velocity Gg,
it muſt continue to move equally in the fame right line prolonged;
and that the body having begun to turn, it must continue to do
the fame round its center of gravity, although, at the ſame time, it
be carried in the direction AI, on the parallels в E, and D H, as
long as the force which puts it in motion ſhall exiſt. But, it muſt
be remarked that, in proportion as it fhall remove from its firſt
fituation B D, it will loſe all the relations it had in the principle of
motion, with the point R; that is to fay, that the point G, being
&,
tranfported to g, in the firſt inftant of the ſhock, it will continue
in the ſecond and the following inftants to be thus tranſported on
the
t
NAVAL
15
TACTICS.
the fame line and in the fame direction: therefore, the point of
-rotation R, will change in proportion as the body в D, removes from
the ſecond fituation b d, to take another E H; for the line н K, will
cut DR, of the first fituation B D, in a point K, nearer the point
from which the body was moved; and although the point of rota-
tion R, be continually changing during the time of motion, it
remains always on the other fide of the center of gravity, with
reſpect to the point of percuffion, till at last the body B D,
be fo
much turned, that the effort A 1, may paſs through the center of
gravity G, in the direction D B; then the body D B, will ceaſe to
turn round a point fituated on the part G D, prolonged, and will
turn fucceffively on different points of the part G B, which will
then have paffed to the oppofite fide.
REMARK S.
16. If the force of the mobile A, (fig. 5.), employed to turn
the body BD, be greater or leſs, the velocity G g, of the center of
gravity will be likewife increaſed or diminiſhed in proportion as
the mobile ſhall act with more or lefs power. Confequently, when
the body B D, changes its fituation, the angle it will make with its
firft pofition will be proportional to the motion G g, or to the force
employed in the ſhock, fince they are correſpondent to one another.
Therefore, all other circumftances being the fame, the rapidity of
the circular or turning motion will be always in proportion to the
force employed to procure it.
17. A METHOD of increafing the rapidity of motion, and the
angle of rotation, is to make the power A, (fig. 5.) act on a point
more diſtant from the center of gravity G, than the given point F ;:
for, it is clear, that if the distance GF, be two or three times aug-
mented, the other diſtance G R, from the center of gravity to the
point of rotation, will become two or three times lefs; and the
fides
16
AN ESSAY ON
fides of the angle G R g, becoming confequently ſhorter, it follows,
that the angle will of courſe be more open in the fame proportion.
Therefore, it may be demonftrated that there are two fure and
infallible methods of augmenting both the angle and motion of
rotation of a body: the firft, is by employing more force in the
percuffion, in order that the angle GRg, fhould be as much in-
creaſed as is the fide G g, which fubtends it.
THE fecond, is to apply the force at a greater diſtance from the
center of gravity of the body you wish to turn: for, in augment-
ing FG, GR, is diminiſhed; and the more the fides which form
an angle are ſhortened (the fide which fubtends it ſtill remaining
the fame), the more the angle is augmented. So that the angle of
rotation is in a compound proportion both to the force employed,
and to the diſtance of that force from the center of gravity: this
angle is then, as the produce of that force multiplied by F G.
Although the body be perfectly free, and take a direct motion & g,
we muft confider its center of gravity G, as the point of fupport,
or FG, as the arm of a lever; and the angle of rotation B Rb is
always proportional to the abfolute force, employed in the per-
cuffion.
18. LET us confider the body Bв D, (fig. 5.) as being expoſed to
the action of feveral forces at the fame time, and it will foon appear
that the angle of rotation will be proportional to the fum or diffe-
rence of the abfolute forces, according as they tend to turn the
body BD, in the fame or in contrary directions.
If the operative forces directly counteract each other, it is plain
their abſolute effect, with reſpect to the center of gravity G, muſt
be first fought, and then deduct the excess of one from the other:
this
* By the term abfolute force, we underſtand the force employed to turn the body,
multiplied by the diftance FG, from the center of gravity.
NAVAL TACTICS.
17
f
this being done, the angle of rotation will be in a ratio to that
exceſs; whereas it will be proportional to the ſum of the forces
employed, if theſe act in concert, and in the fame manner, to
augment it.
BUT if you take no notice of the angle of rotation, and wiſh to
confider the center of gravity only as being tranſported from G,
to g, it is not neceffary to ſeek the fum of the abfolute forces of
the acting powers: you have but to confider the forces in them-
felves, and then Gg, will be found proportional to either their fum
or their difference, according as they contribute to produce the fame
effects, or as they are oppofite in their efforts.
ARE thofe forces equal between them felves, and do they act in
contrary directions on the extremities A, and B, (fig. 6.) of the body
A B, and on arms of equal levers? Then it is evident the angle of'
rotation will be double what it would be, if the body was ftruck
by only one of thefe forces, and turned on its center of gravity:
fince the two parts, which ſtand ſeparated by the center, are ftruck
equally, and at the fame time, by forces which act perpendicularly
in contrary directions.
To prove this, obferve that the equal powers s, and т, are act-
ing at the fame time on the body A B, with equal levers G K, and
GF: ſo that the extremity B, paffes to c, at the fame time as the
extremity A, paſſes to D; and thereby the center of gravity G, re-
mains as if it were fixed in the fame point which ferves as a center
of rotation; for, if one of the acting forces removes it from its
first fituation, the other, in oppofing an equal force, will replace it.
If the power T, exceeds the other s, it is evident the center of
gravity G, will be tranfported towards g, in proportion as the force
T, exceeds the other s; then the body A B, could turn no longer
on the center of gravity G, (n. 15.), but on another point E,
which would be on the other fide of the center of gravity G, with
reſpect to the point of percuffion.
OBSERVATIONS.
18
AN ESSAY ON
OBSERVATION S.
If the body A B, (fig. 6.) were ſtruck at the two points к, and F,
by two mobiles s, and 1, exerting equal powers, with refpect to
the center of gravity G; it is plain that the body A B will be car-
ried on parallels, fuch as IT, and s н, and that the fum of the two
powers will act on the center of gravity G, fince they are equal in
every reſpect.
THE ORE M.
19. A fail acts always two ways on a ſhip, when it is not perpendicular
to her length.
DEMONSTRATION.
To prove it, we have only to confider the fail A B, (fig. 7)
oblique to the ſhip and to the wind w, to be convinced (nn. 1, 7.)
that it is impelled in the direction C D, with a force expreffed by
the fquare of the fine of incidence of the wind upon the fail.
Therefore, what we are going to ſay here for the preſent cafe is to be
underſtood as applicable in all others, in which the fail ſhall not be
perpendicular to the length of the ſhip; for, then, ſhe would go but
in the direction of her length from c, to E, or from c, to F,
according as the fail might be full or a-back.
IF C D, be equal to the impulfe of the wind upon the fail, as
expreffed by the fquare of the fign of incidence A V, we have only
to form the right-angled parallelogram G H, to be convinced that
fuch a direction is compofed of the two effects c H, and c G, which
it produces with refpect to the body EF, upon which it acts in
impelling it in the direction C D.—Q. E. D.
བ།
REMARKS.
NAVAL
19
TACTICS.
REMARK S.
THE more the yard A B (fig. 7.) fhall make the angle A CE
acute, the more the effect cн will augment, and the other C G
diminiſh; for, the more the angle ACE becomes acute, the more
its equal DCH or C D G (n. 22) will be acute alfo; fo that the
perpendicular CD, which is in the direction of the center of the
yard, will approach more to the other perpendicular cн, in the
direction of the length of the fhip EF; which cannot happen
without increaſing the effect of the ſhip falling off in the direction
CH, and increafing likewife the caufe c D, which follows in that
increaſe the ſame proportion as the ſquare of the fine of incidence
augments (nn. 1, 6, 7.). But this increaſe of the impulfe CD is
not fufficient to preferve the effect of the fail in the direction of
the keel C G. On the contrary, it diminiſhes in the proportion
of the decreaſe of the fine A CE or CDG; whence it follows, you
never can augment the impulſe of the wind by ſhifting the fitua-
tion of the fail, when it is properly trimmed, without leffening the
rate of failing (n. 28.), when neither the ſhip changes her courſe,
nor the wind fhifts its fource or direction.
20. Ir might, in the fame manner, be demonftrated, that the
more open the angle A CE of the fail is with the keel, the more
its effect CG, in the direction of the ſhip's length, will increaſe in
the fame proportion as the increaſe of the fine of that angle,
when the impulſe of the wind upon the fail is the fame; for, the
fines of the angles are in proportion to their oppoſite fides in the tri-
angle CD G, of which the angle CDG is equal to the angle AC E.
Ir the impulſe augment alfo (n. 3.), the two effects co and
CH will augment proportionally.
21. IF the fail A B receive the impulfe of the wind в on its
anterier furface, it would ftill act in two ways on the ship, by
D
forcing
20
AN ESSAY
ΟΝ
forcing her firſt a-ftern in the direction c F, and then to leeward
in the direction Hс: To prove this, reverfe the parallelogram, by
tracing it on the after part of the yard AB, which looks to the
fide F, and uſe the fame reaſoning.
THE ORE M.
22. The angle ACF (fig. 8.) formed by the yard AB, and the keel
F C of the ship, is equal to the angle DCE comprehended between
the perpendiculars DC to the yard and EC to the keel, in the like
manner as the angle CD G..
DEMONSTRATION.
THE angle A CD is right, fince CD is perpendicular on AB: the
other angle FCE is right alfo; for c H is perpendicular on F CI;
therefore, the arc A D is equal to the arc F H; and if, from theſe
two equal arcs, be taken away the common one F D, the remainders
AF and HD will be equal: becaufe, when equals are taken from
equals, the remainders muſt be equal.-2, E. D.
SECONDLY, the angle CDG in the parallelogram GE is alter-
nate to the angle DCE: therefore it is equal to it; therefore it is
equal to AC F.-2, E. D..
COROLLAR Y.
23. IT follows that the angle вCH is equal to the angle
DCF; for, if, from the two equal arcs AD and B D, be taken
the other equal arcs FA and DH, the remainders F D and H B
will be equal.
1
REMARKS.
NAVAL TACTICS.
21
REMARK S.
24. THE few principles of Geometry here given, and which
will be found of great ſervice in the fequel, ought not to diſcou-
rage. When we make uſe of them now, it is only that we may
eſtabliſh principles as fimple as they are fure and fundamental, and
leave nothing to doubt or conjecture in the following part of this
Theory, which is in itſelf very abftruſe. We ſhall however be
obliged to uſe again a few more demonftrations of this kind.
CHAPTER III.
Of the most advantageous angle the fails are to make with the keel
and the wind, in order to obtain a failing of the greateſt rate, on an
oblique courfe.
IN
25. moſt ſhips the fails make with the keel an angle A DR
(fig. 9.) of 40 degrees, or thereabouts (fome more, ſome leſs),
when cloſe hauled. We are now to undertake to make it appear
that this angle is not the moft favourable to run with the greateſt
velocity, in getting to windward. It ſhould be much more oblique;
but as it is not poffible, in practice, to attain the greateſt perfection,
for
very effential reaſons, fuch as the folidity of the mafts, yards,
&c &c, we must be contented to approach it as near as poffible,
in great ships, by reducing the angle ADR to 30 degrees only.
This will be fo much the more eaſily done, as in every ſhip the
two foremoſt ſhrouds of each lower maft can be fuppreffed. For it
muft
D 2
22
AN ESSAY ON
muſt be obſerved that in the movement of pitching and rolling,
the maſts always incline forward, in the direction D E of the effort
of the fail; fo that the ſhrouds which are abaft, and cat-harpened
in, are fufficient to fupport the mafts, fince they act nearly oppo-
fite to the effort of the fail. Befides, fhould there be reaſon to
expect,bad weather, preventer fhrouds may eafily be faftened to the
ſtrops which are always ready hung for that purpoſe. This prac-
tice is ſo much the better grounded, as the number of thofe pre-
venters can at any time be increaſed as circumftances or neceffity
require*. Therefore, we ſhall, for the future, confider the angle
A DR, which is the moſt oblique in practice, as fixed at 30 degrees,
though, in ſome fhips, it may happen to be more acute: a circum-
ſtance to which the maneuverer ought to pay a particular attention.
26. AMONG all the angles A DR, B DR, and HDR (fig. 9.)
which the fail a z can make with the keel in the fame courfe D R
it is evident there must be one more advantageous than the rest, to
give the ſhip the greateſt velocity poffible in the moſt oblique courſe.
Now, that angle of the fail and the keel is not that we propofe
directly to determine, fince it is impoffible to render it more acute
than 30 degrees, which is the term to which we have fixed it in
practice but it will ferve us to determine the moſt favourable
angle of incidence A D W of the wind upon the fail, and which is
the moſt advantageous to run with the greateſt rapidity on all
oblique courſes between cloſe hauled and wind abaft.
:
27. BEFORE
* But, fhould this expedient be thought dangerous or troubleſome, the two fore-
moft ſhrouds may be fixed with three fheave blocks inſtead of dead eyes, according
to the French faſhion. The two foremoft fhrouds to leeward being relaxed, would
amazingly facilitate the bracing-up of the yard, which, as things are at prefent, is
known to require a. very great effort in our King's fhips; and indeed it is not to be
wondered at, fince they are obliged to make a perfect elbow in two ropes of that
fize and tightneſs, before they can effect their purpoſe. Theſe ſhrouds, in ſtays ax
before the wind, would be eaſily ſet up equally taught with the reſt.
NAVAL TACTIC S.
23
27. BEFORE entering upon the demonſtration of the rule which
muſt be followed in practice, the principle which ferves to demon-
ftrate its utility must be firſt eſtabliſhed.
It may be recollected that impulfions (n. 7.) are between them-
felves as the fquares of the fines of incidence. Therefore, to judge
if it is advantageous to render the angle of incidence ADS or
A D W of the wind upon the fail A z, more or leſs acute, we muſt
examine if the fquare of the fine of incidence A F, or the total
impulfion DE, increaſes more or leſs than the fquares of the fines
of incidence BC, and H I, or than their correfpondent impulfions
DG and DK, proportionally to the diminution or increaſe of the
fines of the angles of obliquity of the fail with the keel AT, BY,
and HL: for, if the fquare of the fign of incidence H I, or the
impulfion DK, does not increaſe ſo much proportionally, as the
fine of obliquity AT diminiſhes in becoming equal to L H, it is
evident that the pofition of the fail A D is more favourable than
when it is fituated in the direction DH and if the fquare of the
fine of incidence в C, or its correfpondent impulfe D G, diminiſhes
more in proportion than the fine AT augments, in becoming
equal to the other fign of obliquity B Y, in the other pofition of
the fail; it becomes an evident proof that its fituation A D is ftill
more favourable than if it were in the poſition B D, and that there
is no better fituation than AD, whether the angle of incidence
AD w be increaſed or diminiſhed.
28. To prove it, we ſhall confider (fig. 9) the abfolute impul-
fions DK, DE, and D G, as being correfpondent with the fines of
incidence HI, A F, and B C, and proportional to the fquares of
theſe ſame fines; then, on thefe diagonal lines, if we draw the
rectangles X N and mo, in order to diffolve thoſe total impulfions
DE and DG, it will appear evident that the direct effort D x in the
direction of the keel, is the greateſt poffible, when the tangent A S
of the angle of incidence is double the tangent AR of the angle
of
24
AN ESSAY ON
of obliquity of the fail with the keel; for, if the angle of inci-
dence be opened ten degrees, by placing the fail in the fituation
HD, it will appear that, though the total impulfe DK is aug-
mented in the ratio of the fquare of the new fine of incidence
HI to the first AF, the partial effort D M, in the direction of the
keel, will be nearly by one tenth lefs, in this fituation of the fail
HD, than in the firſt A D. The direct impulfions D M, which
proceed from the total ones DK and DG, are equal, becauſe theſe
laft have augmented or diminiſhed in the fame ratio as the fines
HL and BY have leffened or increaſed in proportion to the fquare
of the fine of incidence A F, and to the fine of obliquity a T.
Theſe direct partial-impulfions DM and DX are in a compounded
ratio of the fines of obliquity HL, AT, BY, equal (n. 22.) to
thoſe of the angles D K M, DE X, D G M, and of the total impul-
fions DK, DE, and DG; for, if the total impulfion augment by
a movement of the fail, the fine of obliquity diminishes: fo that
from the total impulfions can at any time be deduced the direct ones
for every poffible angle of incidence. By calculation might very
well
again be verified this demonftration, which proves that the tangent
As of the angle of incidence must always be double the tangent
AR of the angle formed between the fail and the keel, agreeably
to the fituation of the fail A z; fince, if any other pofition be
given to it with reſpect to the wind w, whether it be in the direc-
tion HD ten degrees more open than a z, or like BD ten degrees
more oblique, a reſult as D M, in the direction of the keel, will
ever be found leſs than D X.-2; E. D.
OBSERVATION S.
C
As the vanes always indicate the apparent direction of the wind,
on all the courſes the fhip can fail, the angle which the wind
makes with the courſe, or the keel, cannot fail being eaſily known
if
NAVAL TACTIC S.
25
if there is no lee way; let that angle with the fails be parted into
two others, fo that the angle of obliquity of the fail with the
courſe may have its tangent equal to half the tangent of the
apparent angle of incidence of the wind upon the fails. On this
foundation, it will be eafy to form a table which will always ſhow
both the apparent angle of incidence, and that of the obliquity of
the fail with the keel, or with the courſe. This table will ferve
for all oblique courfes, whenever the after fails ſhall not take the
wind from thofe forward, or will do it but in a trifling degree;
for, fhould they becalm them. much, they muft, for other confi-
derations, be braced up a little more to the windward; but always
have the precaution to leave the apparent angle of incidence of
the wind upon the fail more open than that between the fail and
the keel, or the courſe.
ARTICLE I.
C
Remarks on failing by the wind.
29. WHEN it is neceffary to gain to windward as much as pof-
fible, without abfolutely wiſhing to fail with the greateſt velocity,
let the direction of the coaft under the lee be fuppofed to make
with the abfolute direction of the wind (which muft as near as
poffible be known) an angle of 90 degrees; or, in the fea phraſe,
blowing dead on ſhore: let the angle ACE (fig. 10.) formed by the
fail and the keel, be known to be 30 degrees, let the lee-way be
alſo known to be 10 degrees, the angle ECI between the fail and
the courſe will confequently be 40 degrees, which you muſt take
from the total angle w CL 90 degrees; then there will remain 50
degrees, the half of which, 25 degrees, is to be taken for the abſo-
lute angle of incidence w C E, and for its equal ICL; fo that the
fhip AB will go 55 degrees from the wind when she is clofe hauled,
and
26
AN ESSAY ON
and will confequently recede as much as poffible from the point D
on the coaſt, the direction of which makes an angle of 90 degrees
with the abfolute direction of the wind w K.
BUT, if the fituation CL, (fig. 11.) of the point D, from which
you wish to move, made an obtufe angle w CL, with the pofitive
direction of the wind wм; then, the tangent of the apparent
angle of incidence wc E, muſt be made double the angle of obli-
quity E CI, which the fail makes with the courſe, at the fame time
that the angle ICL, of the courfe and the coaft fhall be made
cqual to the angle w c E, formed by the real direction of the wind
w K, and of the fail FE: fo that two confiderations muft at once
be attended to. For example: the angle ACE, formed by the
fail and the keel, is 30 degrees; then, according to the firſt prin-
ciple, it will be neceffary that the apparent angle of incidence
WCE, fhould be 49° 6'; and if the difference between the appa-
rent and real direction of the wind be 10°, there will be 59° 6' for
the angle which the fail E F, makes with the real direction of the wind
w M fo that the angle LCI, of the courfe and the object ſtood
from, muſt be found alſo to be 59° 6', and the total angle L c w,
will then be 148° 12′, adhering to the two principles of failing
with the greateſt velocity, and of getting to windward of the point
D, as much as poffible, at the fame time; while the angle L cw,
formed by the apparent direction of the wind and that of the coaft
from which the ſhip moves, will be only 138° 12'. The yawing
and the different velocities of the ſhip render the angle formed by
the two directions of the wind, viz. the real and the apparent,
more or lefs open. If the fhip has more velocity at the fame time,
or if the courſe approaches more to the direction of the wind, it
will appear by the vanes that the wind draws forward, and the
angle of the two directions of the wind will augment. If the ſhip
falls off, and yet ſtill preferves the fame velocity, or if her velocity
decreaſes without altering her courfe, the wind will feem by the
vanes
NAVAL TACTIC S.
27
vanes to draw aft, and the angle of the two directions will dimi-
niſh; ſo that, whenever the ſhip ſhall have velocity or run obliquely
to the wind, there will always be a difference between its real and
its apparent direction. In ſhort, if the ſhip run exactly before
the wind, or be in any fituation having no motion, there will be
then no other but the real direction of the wind fhown by the
vanes: but, let it happen how it will in oblique courſes, this is
however certain, that the fails are always ftruck by the abſolute di̟-
rection of the wind; becauſe, their pofition being once fixed by the
braces and bowlines, it can no more change, but continues as fteady
as the real direction of the wind; for it is the vanes only which,
being moveable, fix themſelves in a middle direction between the
abfolute tendency of the wind and the courfe of the ſhip;
whence we may eaſily conclude, as we did before, that the appa-
rent direction of the wind ſhown by the vanes, is an intermediate
one between the reſpective velocities of the ſhip and of the wind;
fince that direction neceffarily partakes more of the greater velocity
than of the lefs: fo that, if the fhip runs Eaft, with the wind at
South, having the fourth part of the velocity of the wind, the
vanes will ſhow S. by E. 6° 45′ E. for the apparent direction of the
wind.
ARTICLE II.
THEOREM OF MR. BOUGUER.
о
THE velocity and real direction of the wind is cм, (fig. 11):
ſuppoſe the fhip A B, of which E F is the fail fituated at pleaſure, to
draw the courſe c 1, while the particles forming the current of air
run in the direction cm: if, from the point I, be drawn 1 K,
parallel to the fail E F, till it cuts the direction of the wind w k,
in the point K, there will refult the three points c, I, K, through
which
1
E
28
AN ESSAY ON
?
which draw the circumference of a circle e IL K, and that cir-
cumference will fhow the extent of the forces acting on the fhip,
at the fame time, in following the courfe c 1, provided her fail be
always trimmed in the fame manner with reſpect to her keel.
DEMONSTRATION.
THE apparent or relative velocity of the wind is reprefented by
1 M (fig. 11.) in the courfe c 1; and as I K is parallel to the faid
E F, the angle MIK is equal to the apparent angle of incidence
wcE. But to be more explicit: the wind ſtrikes the fail with its
apparent or refpective velocity 1 M, (and not with its abfolute
velocity, becauſe of the motion of the fhip,) and with an angle of
incidence MIK=WCE: fo that, if the ſhip runs cloſe hauled or
perpendicular to the direct wind w c, I M will become in both
cales ftronger than the abfolute velocity; becauſe the fhip will
either approach to the fource of the wind, or not recede from it.
But the impulse on the fail is proportional to the iquare of the
velocity 1 M, multiplied by the fquare of the fine of the angle of
incidence M I K, equal to the angle w c E (n. 3. & 7.); and the
proportion м K: fine KIM:: MI: fine M KI, which furniſhes.
us the triangle K I M, fhows us that M KX fine мM KI=MIX fine.
KIM; fquaring the two products, and fubftituting the fine of the
angle w KI in the room of the fine of the angle м K I, which is.
equal to it, fince they are the fupplement of each other, we ſhall
2
2
•2
2
then have this other equality: Sine w KIXM K=fine KIMXM 1 ;,
whence it follows, that inftead of expreffing the actual impulfe of
the wind upon the fail by the fquare of 1 M, multiplied by the
fquare of the fine of the angle KI M, it may be expreffed by the
ſquare of м K, multiplied by the fquare of the fine of the angle
W KI, or of its equal w c E, formed by the abfolute direction of
the wind w M, and the faii E F.
WE
•
NAVAL TACTIC S.
29
We muſt not forget to pay a great attention to this obſervation
viz. that the impulfe of the wind upon the fails is in equilibrium
with the effort of the water on the prow, or that they are exactly
equal and contrary when the fhip is come to an uniformity of
motion (n. 9.), as here we fuppofe her to be. Beſides, the impulſe
of the water on the prow is proportional or equal to the fquare of
the velocity of failing c 1 (n. 3.); fo that the fquare of the velo-
city of failing c I, is equal to the actual compulfion of the wind
upon the fail expreffed by the fquare of K м, multiplied by the
fquare of the fine of the angle w CE; and if s be fuppofed equal to
-2
•2
2
the fine of w C E, or of w K 1, we fhall always find CIS+KM,
The firſt term in this equality reprefents the impulfe of the water
on the prow, and the ſecond expreffes the effort of the wind upon
the fails; and if the ſquare roots of the one and of the other be
taken, it will be found cI=sXK M; that is to fay, that the very
velocity of failing c 1, will be continually equal or proportional to
the product of KM by the fine s of the angle w CE or CK I.
The proportion between theſe quantities depends on the denfity of
the two fluids, and on the magnitude of the furfaces ftruck: but
it will be the fame in all the different courſes.
THE different velocities of failing c 1, have a conftant and given
proportion with the products sXC K and C IX fine c IK; for, the
triangle CIK gives 8: C1:: fine CIK: CK, which forms this
equality, sXCK=fine C1KXC1; and all the angles c, 1, K, are
conſtant, and known, fince they are equal, being alternate to that
which the fail makes with the courfe. But, as the velocity c I bears
a continual and conftant proportion with the product s×K м, and
as it bears alfo a conftant proportion with SXC K, it follows that
SXKM:SXCK:: KM: KC; fo that the point K always divides
CM in the ſame proportion: the point K is then invariable when
the fail, as well as the lee-way, are both the fame; (which never
happens, however, as will be made appear (n. 47.) hereafter): but,
¿
E 2
in
30
AN ESSAY ON
in admitting thofe two hypothefes, which never can deviate from
the truth but in refpect to the lee-way, which is always variable
in the fame ſhip, according to the different circumftances of wind,
fea, velocity, fail, and courfe, it ought then to be concluded that
all the points, 1, &c, &c, will be fituated on the circumference of
a circle; for, without that, the angle crк equal to thoſe which
are formed by the fail and the courfe, and which are ſupported on.
the fame chord c K, would not be equal.
COROLLAR Y.
с
c
-
It follows (fig. 11.) from that the velocities are continually pro-
portional to the fines (whatever they be) of the angles w c E, which
the fail makes with the abfolute direction of the wind, provided
the fail be always trimmed in the fame manner with refpect to the
keel, and that, in the triangle C I K, the fide C K and the angle c I K
are conſtant, and the velocities of failing C I are proportional to
the fine of the angle c K 1 equal to the angle of incidence w CE:
it follows, I fay, that all the other conditions being the fame, the
more the fine of the angle w CE is augmented, the greater there-
fore will the rate of failing be; fo that, if you want to carry it to
the greateſt rapidity, you have only to make a right angle of the
angle w c E formed by the abfolute or real direction of the wind
with the fail; then the velocity c1 will no longer be a fimple
chord in the circle cK I, but a diameter. This holds good for all
the ſhips which have but one fail fet; but, whenever they fhall
have ſeveral, the greateſt velocity will be when the apparent angle.
of incidence of the wind upon the fail makes a right angle with the
courfe; becauſe then the fails will eafily make with the apparent
wind, an angle, of which the tangent will be double that of the
angle they make with the courſe, without their becalming one
another; while, at the ſame time, the ſhip will receive all the abfo-
lute
NAVAL TACTICS.
31
lute impulſe of the wind, becauſe ſhe does not recede from it, and
it is the time when the greateſt ſurface of fail is expoſed to its action.
The fame advantage of the greateſt velocity will still be had, when
the apparent direction of the wind makes an angle of a hundred
degrees with the courſe; and I am inclined to think that, in this
fituation, the velocity will in fome degree be increaſed. In a word,
whenever the after fails do not becalm thofe forward, the fhip's
rapidity may always be increaſed, by trimming the fails as directed
(n. 28.) but when the fails take the wind from one another, an
increaſe of velocity can no longer be pretended to.
:
Now, we are going to demonftrate the exactneſs of the rule
given before (n. 29.). When it is required to get off fhore, or
recede from a given right line with all poffible expedition, or to
keep abfolutely as clofe to the wind as the fhip will lie; c M
(fig. 11.) is the abfolute direction of the wind; the circle c KLI
marks all the points at which the ship can arrive with the fame fail,
the fame difpofition, without alteration of lee-way, and at the
fame time; and C L is the right line from which he is to move.
Knowing the angle that line makes with the abfolute direction of
the wind w M, it is evident that the point I of the circumference,
where the courſe ought to end, is in the middle of the arc c I L,
of which CL is the chord: and all the points from one part to
the other of c I, where the fhip can come to at the fame time,
are leſs diſtant from C L, fince D I, perpendicular to c L, divides
it into two equal parts, and is the longeſt of all the perpendiculars
which can be drawn from the circumference c IL; but the point
I, cannot be taken without rendering the angle LCI equal to the
angle C K 1, which itſelf is equal to the angle w C E.
ARTICLE
32
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE III.
A TABLE of the fituation of the fails to run with the
greatest velocity.
Extracted from the MANOEUVRE OF SHIPS by Mr. BOUGUEr.
Angles of the appa-
rent direction of Angles of the fails Angles of apparent
the wind and with the keel.
incidence of the
wind on the fails.
courſe.
D.
D. M.
103,
99,
94,
89,
84,
79,
73,
68,
M.
180,
176,
174,
85,
172,
168, 44 82,
58 80,
164,
161, 10 77
157,
22 75.
153, 33 720
149,
4I 70,
145,
48
67,
141,
53
65
137, 55 62,
60,
133,
129,
125,
121,
117,
112, 53
108, 26
Oo 90,
87,
86,
15
253000
37
D.
54
50 57,
42 55,
31 52,
14
50,
47.
45,
53
42,
13 40,
25 37,
28
2838
06
39
M.
Oo
30
2.5
Oo
30
Oo
30
·00
30
.00
383030
00
30
Oo
go,
88,
88,
87,
30
Oo
86,
79,
30 78,
·00 76,
75,
73,
72,
70,
66,
35, OO
32, 30
30,
27
25,
84,
83,
30
00
82,
81,
65,
30
00 63,
61,
59,
30 56,
67
54,
51,
Oo 49,
46,
43,
Oo
45
12
30
14
58
40
20
03
41
18
53
25
54
20
52
354
42
ΟΙ
14
23
26
23
13
55
28
53
об
09.
Oo
b
N. B.
NAVAL TACTICS.
33
N. B. The foregoing TABLE can be of no great fervice, except
in the eight laſt circumſtances under the line a, b; becauſe, in all
the cafes mentioned above that line, the fails will cover one another
too much.
OBSERVATION S.
WHEN a fine-failing fhip (fuch as will, on a direct courſe, or
right before it, take a third or a fourth part of the velocity of the
wind) comes to run with the fame quantity, or more fail, on a
perpendicular to the apparent direction of the wind, then ſhe ac-
quires a greater rapidity of failing with reſpect to the velocity of
the wind; the angle formed by the two directions, the apparent
and the abfolute, is at that time very confiderable; it may be from
18° to 22° 30′; and if the ſhip hauls quite cloſe by the wind, the
angle will ſtill be nearly the fame; for, her velocity diminiſhes :
but, as it is in failing by the wind that it is moſt effential to know
the greatness of the angle between the two directions of the wind,
let the angle between the directions of the fhip's head on the diffe-
rent tacks be obferved, without paying any regard to the lee-way,
but just to the exact point on which the thip ſtands, before and
after going about, when ſtrictly by the wind, neither too much to
leeward nor to windward; and when you have determined that
angle, from two or three obfervations, halve it, and then you will
have the angle formed by the keel and the abfolute direction of the
wind; by which you will know the quantity the will come to
upon the different tacks, and will never be deceived with reſpect to
the lying on after having gone about: a miſtake pretty commonly
made by thoſe who pay attention only to the apparent direction of
the wind, which always makes with the real one an angle more or
lefs open in a compound ratio of the greateſt velocity with the
greateſt obliquity of the courfe of the thip, with refpect to the
direction
34
AN ESSAY ON
direction and the abfolute velocity of the wind; things which vary
in all ſhips, becauſe they have not all the advantage of failing with
the fame rapidity in fimilar circumſtances.
CHAPTER IV.
Of the mafts and fails which are before the center of gravity
of a ship.
THE fails which are before the center of gravity of a ſhip,
30.
are the ſprit-fail, bowfprit top-fail, the jib, the fore-top-maſt
ſtay-fail, and the fore ſtay-fail.
ALL theſe fails belong to the bowfprit, which projects out of
the ſhip, over the ſtem, obliquely to the horizon. The fore ſtay-
fail hoifts on the fore-maft, which is ftepped on the extremity of
the keel; and the jib, and the fore-top-maft ftay-fail, are hoiſted
on the fore-top-maft, which is raiſed above the laſt-mentioned
maſt.
Theſe maſts carry alfo a fail more confiderable than the
former. The fore-maft carries the fail which bears its name, bent
to its yard. There is a boomkin on each bow, placed perpendicu-
larly under the extremity of the yard, when by the wind, for the
purpoſe of extending the foot of this fail: the ſheets are hauled aft
to the fides of the ſhip. Directly over this laſt fail is placed another,
called the fore top-fail, which is carried by its own yard, and tal-
lied on the fore yard: it is hoifted, when wanted to be fet, on the
little top-maft. Now, this very fore top-fail is itſelf again fur-
mounted by the top-gallant, carried by its own yard and maſt,
and tallied on the fore-top yard, as the fail of this is on the fore
1
yard.
NAVAL
35
TACTICS.
yard. There is ſtill over all this fometimes another fail, called the
top-gallant royal-fail, or only the royal-: fo that the three laft-
mentioned fails, viz. the fore-fail, the fore top-fail, and fore top-
gallant-fail, may be looked upon as making only one large fail,
wide at the foot and tapering towards the head, and which can be
reduced, as occafion requires, either by taking in the royal, which
is the higheft, or by reefing the fore top-fail, or even taking it
quite in, if neceſſary, to have the fore-fail only fet; or by hauling
the fore-fail up, if nothing but the top-fail is wanted. It must
notwithſtanding be obſerved alſo, that the different parts of the
whole fail may, in certain cafes, be maneuvered differently the one
from the other; as, for example, in reefing the top-fail, or in
taking in either the one or the other. But, when you want to
fet them to work all together, either for making a courfe, or per-
forming fome evolution, they must all be braced and trimmed in
the fame form, and with the greateſt uniformity poffible. There-
fore, whatever we ſhall fay concerning one of them in any manœuvre,
is to be underſtood to be the ſame with reſpect to all the reſt.
WE with not, however, to neglect obferving here, alfo, that the
fails compriſed under the general French denomination of Focs,
viz. the jib, ftanding jib, fore-top ftay-fail, and fore ſtay-fail, as
well as thofe compriſed under that of Civadières, which are the
fprit-fail and bowfprit top-fail, are no-ways connected with each
other, any more than are likewiſe the main ftay-fail, the main-top
ſtay-fail, the preventer ftay-fail, or the main top-gallant ſtay-fail,
which are likewife fails of the fore part of the fhip's center of gra-
vity, and the haliards of which are fixed at the head of the main
maſt, the main-top-maft, and the main-top-gallant maft, while
their tacks are at the foot of the fore-maft, in the fore-futtocks,
in the main fore-top fhrouds, and on the top-gallant futtocks,
under the cross-trees.
E
ARTICLE
36
AN ESSAY ON
•
ARTICLE I.
Of the effect of the Lateen fails, which are on the fore part of the
center of gravity of a hip.
31. THE jib and ſtay-fails being of a triangular or trapezoid
figure, their center of gravity is eafily found; and that point is to
be confidered as the part, in all theſe fails, on which the whole effort
of the wind is united, when they are expofed to its impulfe, what-
ever be the way in which it ſtrikes them?
THE effort of each Lateen fail fingly being on the fore part of
the center of gravity of the ſhip, it follows that the total effort of
all theſe fails muſt be there too; and that if the ſhip was in a per-
fect equilibrium with respect to the wind, before her fails were fet,
ſhe will loſe it immediately after (n. 11.); they will always make
the fore part of the ſhip obey the wind whenever it ſtrikes them
perpendicularly or obliquely. For, it muſt be obſerved, that almoſt
all theſe fails have their tacks in the middle of the ſhip, and are
tallied on the fide of her; fo that they make with the keel a very
acute angle: whence it is eafy to conceive, that a perpendicular
raiſed on the exterior ſurface of theſe fails, in the direction of their
effort to leeward, from their center of gravity, would differ but
very little in the lateral direction from a perpendicular to the keel.
From. this we may therefore conclude, that theſe fails would have
but very
little effect to accelerate the rapidity of failing with reſpect
to their poſition, if it was not demonftrated that they are very ad-
vantageous in going by the wind. Befides, they make alſo the ſhip
fteer well, and are particularly uſeful when a ſhip gripes or requires
a great deal of weather helm: and, when they do not take the
wind out of any of the ftanding or lower fails, they ought to be
uſed, particularly when one is obliged to fail by the wind, or to
run
J
NAVAL
37
TACTICS.
run not very large. The jib and fore-top-maſt ſtay-fail muſt be
preferred, becauſe they are at all times uſeful when they are not
hindered from receiving the wind in them: for, their pofition is
fuch, that they cannot take the wind out of any of the other fails,
and their particular effect in wearing is very confiderable, not only
on account of their great furface, but becauſe they act before the
point, on which the fhip turns, with a very long arm of a lever
(n. 17.). On the other hand, all the fails draw the fhip a-head in
raiſing her for, the direction of their effort aſcends obliquely to-
wards the horizon; therefore, (a very great advantage, which is
peculiar to them) they do not make her dive in the water. Expe-
rience has, many a time, confirmed me of their utility on all occa-
fions when they could be employed without taking the wind out
of the other fails.
ARTICLE II.
Of the effect of the fore-fail, fore top-fail, fore top-gallant-fail, and
Sprit-fail, in their different fituations.
32. WHEN the fail A B (fig. 12.) is trimmed cloſe to the wind
which blows from the point w, it is impelled in the direction
CD (n. 7.) with a force expreffed by the fquare of the fine of in-
cidence, and compofed of the two effects c E and E D (n. 19.)
But, as the center of effort of that fail A B is on the fore
part of
the center of gravity of the fhip H, and as its power c D is always
diſcompoſed between thoſe two effects C E and E D, it follows, that
the effect of this fail is to cauſe the ſhip to bear away; while it keeps
up at the ſame time, and even augments, the rapidity of failing.
33. IF the fore-fail A B received the impulfe of the wind per-
pendicularly, it would ftill produce the fame effects, viz. bearing
away, and augmenting the rate of failing, for the fame reaſons juft
F 2
given
38
AN ESSAY ON
given above, but more effectually (n. 29.), on account of the in-
creaſe of the impulfe of the wind upon the fail.
COROLLARY.
34. It follows, from what has been faid, that when the fails
upon the fore-maft are full, on the fame fide they are tacked, and
braced obliquely to the keel, there is always one part of their effort,
in proportion to their obliquity, which acts to make the ſhip bear
away; while the other part of their effort acts at the fame time to
accelerate or keep up the rate of her failing.
35. WHEN the fails A B of the fore-maft (fig. 13.) are fituated
obliquely with refpect to the keel, and receive the wind in them,
on the fide of the ſheet B, they act upon the ſhip in bringing her
then to windward, becauſe their effort D G being difcompofed, as
cuſtomary, the lateral part D F carries the fore part of the ſhip
towards the fource of the wind w, in carrying her from D to F.
RE MARKS.
36. In general, when the yards are fquare or perpendicular to
the keel, it is evident they will act on the fhip, only by impelling
her right in the direction of the keel, from ſtern to head, or from
head to ftern, with more or lefs velocity, in proportion to the im-
pulfe of the fluid which ſtrikes them.
37. WHEN the fails A B on the fore-maſt (fig. 14.) receive the
impulſe of the wind w, on their anterior furfaces, they will make
the ſhip both go a-ftern and fall off; becauſe the direction CE of
their effort, being turned towards the after-part of the veffel, ferves
as a diagonal to the parallelogram F D, which, by diſcompofing it,
will ſhow us thoſe two effects C F and c D, the first of which
takes its direction with that of the keel from forward aft; while
the ſecond takes it in a lateral direction in making the ſhip to turn.
REMARKS.
NAVAL TACTIC S.
39
REM A RK S.
38. WHEN the wind blows between the keel and the yard, the
ſhip comes to until the point G (fig. 14.) is in the direction of the
wind w.
But, as foon as this is executed, it is evident the falls
off; for, the point G recedes farther and farther from the direction
of the wind. Whence we are naturally led to make this remark
as we go; viz. As foon as the weather part of the fail catches
a-back, on the tack fide, the angle of incidence of the wind on it
goes continually increafing, till the fhip has fallen off fo much,
that her fail becomes perpendicular to its direction: and if the
veſſel continues to fall off, then the angle of incidence diminishes
more and more, till the fail is parallel to the courſe of the wind
which comes from the tack B, or, in the marine phrafe, shivering..
CHAPTER V.
Of the mafts and fails abaft the center of gravity of a ship.
39.
THE main-maft and all its fails are placed abaft the center
of gravity of a ſhip, which is alſo abaft the point round which the
total effort of the fails is placed. They are fitted and manoeuvered
in the fame manner as the fails on the fore-maft: There is, bé-
fides, the mizen-maſt, which, when placed more aft, is highly
uſeful in certain evolutions to accelerate, by its fails, the move-
ments of rotation which one wishes the fhip to execute. Between
this laſt and the main-maſt are placed the mizen ftay-fail, and the
mizen-top ſtay-ſail, to fill up the vacancy the other fails leave be-
tween them.
•
ARTICLE..
40
AN ESSAY ON
•
ARTICLE I.
Of the effect of the Lateen fails abaft the center of gravity of a ship.
40. THE center of effort of theſe fails being abaft the center of
gravity of the ſhip, it follows they always force the after-part of
the ſhip to leeward, and confequently contribute to bring her to
the wind, as ſoon as they receive its impulfe; for, that movement
of the after-part of the ſhip cannot happen, without the head ap-
proaching to the direction of the wind.
OBSERVATIONS.
On the Lateen fails.
S
THE Lateen fails being in general fituated very obliquely, it fol-
lows, if we reafon conformably to principles, that they are very
advantageouſly fo for failing by the wind. Therefore, we muſt not
neglect augmenting them: obferving, at the fame time, that they
do not take the wind out of one another, nor becalm the principal
fails. They are only to fill up the fpace between the mafts fore
and aft, in failing on a bowline, in order that no wind may be loſt. ☀
ARTICLE II.
Of the effect of the fails of the main-maft, and of the mizen top-fail,
in their different obliquities.
41. As we have already demonſtrated (n. 19.) that when the
fail A B (fig. 15.) is trimmed obliquely to the keel, it produces
evidently two effects on the ſhip; we draw here this confequence;
viz. that in diſſolving its power c D, we ſhall find its compound
effects,
NAVAL TACTICS.
41
effects, the one c F, in the direction of the keel which produces
the velocity, and the other c E lateral, which (in forcing the after-
part of the ſhip to leeward, by its action on the point c abaft the
center of gravity G of the ſhip) induces her to come to the wind;
for, that motion of the ftern from c to E, cannot take place with-
out the fore-part н acting in oppofition by the very act of coming
to the fource of the wind w.
-
REMARK S.
42. IF the fails A B (fig. 15.) were more or less oblique to the
keel, they would produce ftill the fame effects of keeping up the
fhip's velocity, and bringing her to the wind. And if they received
its impulſe perpendicularly, it would ſtill be the fame thing; with
this difference, however, they would produce thofe two effects
with
greater efficacy than in any other fituation with reſpect to the
wind, becauſe then they receive its greateft poffible impulfe for the
time.
43. WHEN the fails A B (fig. 16.), of which the center of
effort c is abaft the center of gravity of the fhip, receive the
impulfe of the wind w on the ſheet fide, and obliquely placed to
the keel*, they will cauſe the ſhip to fall off, by forcing the after-
part of the fhip from c to F, towards w, the fource of the wind,
while they will, at the fame time, keep up the velocity c 1. For,
this motion of the after-part E towards w, cannot be executed
without the fore-part н going, as it moves off, in a contrary direc-
tion; and ſhe will continue to fall off till the keel E н be right
in the direction of the wind w c, or right aft; then the fhip will:
come to the wind, as fhown in the two preceding articles...
IT
* Let it be well understood, that it is with her yards braced to port; or, to be
more explicit, when a fhip has her larboard braces hauled in aft, and the wind at...
the fame time on the fame quarter.
42
AN ESSAY ON
IT may be remarked that, in this movement of the fhip, the
angle of incidence goes continually increafing till the wind is per-
pendicular to the fails.
44. WHEN the fails A B (fig. 17), of which the center of effort
is abaft the center of gravity G, fhall receive the impulſe of the
wind w on their interior furfaces, they will make the ſhip come to
the wind, and go a-ſtern at the fame time. For, the direction of
their effort C D may be diffolved between the two efforts C F, in
the direction of the keel, from forward to aft, and CE lateral and
perpendicular to the keel; fo that the after-part c H is forced to
leeward from c to E, while the fore-part I approaches, by a con-
trary motion, the fource of the wind w. In this cafe, confe-
quently, the ship comes to, and goes a-ftern, at the fame time.
REMARK S.
45. WHEN a fhip is fo far come to the wind, that the fore-part
I (fig. 17.) is pofitively in its direction, it is evident that ſhe will
fall off more and more; for, the point I will be conftantly moving
from the fource of the wind w c; therefore, it is demonftrated
that, in this caſe of evolution, the fine of incidence is continually
decreaſing more and more, till it is reduced to nothing. But, if
the direction of the wind had made an obtufe angle w c B, the
fine of incidence would have augmented until the direction of the
wind had been perpendicular to the fails; and it is at that moment
only it would have begun to diminiſh, as ſhown above.
CHAPTER
NAVAL TACTICS,
43
CHAPTER
VI.
Of the equilibrium neceſſary to be maintained in practice, between the
fails before and abaft the center of gravity of a ſhip, in order that
the failing may be the most direct and the most rapid poffible.
46. AFTER having demonftrated the different effects of the fails
on the part of the ſhip before and abaft the center of gravity, it is
plain that, if the head, or after fails, only were fet, in failing by
the wind, the ſhip would not only fteer badly, but confequently fail
not ſo faſt, as ſhe could under the fame quantity of furface, if an
equilibrium was kept up fore and aft in the difpofition of the fails.
For, if the ſhip be fuppofed (fig. 18.) to be under her head fails,
and one half be retrenched and fet on the mafts abaft, it will evi-
dently appear that the velocity CT they produced is the fame,
fince the direction and the velocity of the wind act always in the
ſame manner on the fame quantity of furfaces; the only difference
which will be found, is, that the primitive effect is divided, and acts
now on the points c, c, c, before and abaft the center of gravity
of the ship. But, it is not the fame with reſpect to the effect C D,
which acted to pay the veffel's head round, in the firft difpofition of
the fails, becauſe that effect being now divided on the after-mafts,
it is diminiſhed one half c E forward, by the very act of its tranf-
porting itſelf with the fame force aft, where, balancing the effect
of falling off produced by the head-fails, it keeps, by an equality
in the movements, the fhip to the wind (nn. 34 & 42). I fay it
balances, becauſe it is always in the power of the officer, when the
Ꮐ
weather
1
44
AN ESSAY ON
weather permits, and whenever he chooſes, to increafe or diminiſh
the head or after fails, fo as to maintain an equilibrium between
their powers, and fix the fhip on her courfe. No fooner is this
point of equilibrium obtained, but one is fure to have got the moſt
advantageous difpofition the fails can have for the veffel to run with.
the greateſt celerity; provided alſo they have been trimmed in the
moſt favourable manner to receive (n. 28.) the greateſt impulſe of
the wind.
THIS equilibrium between the powers of the fails forward and
aft, is again infinitely advantageous with refpect to the rudder ;;
becauſe, as there is lefs occafion to uſe it to regulate the movements
of the ſhip, its furface oppofes itſelf but little, as well as not ſo
often, to the ſhock of the fluid, which glides along the ſhip's bot-
tom. It is then of the greatest importance, when the ſhip fails
with rapidity, to combine, as much as poffible, in trying various
ways, the reciprocal effect of the fails fore and aft; as for example,
in fetting to the wind, or in difpofing more advantageoufly on the
head or ftern, a greater or lefs quantity of fails, according as the
ſhip is more or leſs inclined to fall off, or come to; in order to be
able to make as little uſe of the helm as poffible; although, at the
time of performing any evolution, its full power muſt be put in
action; as we ſhall have occaſion to make it appear hereafter,
OBSERVATION S.
47. WHEN there is an equilibrium between the fails fore and
aft, the refiſtance of the water from A to B (fig. 18.) on the
prow is equal to the power of the fails, whether it paffes through
the center of gravity н of the fhip, or through another point of
the axis, more or lefs forward or aft; then a fhip, thus fituated,
finds no more difficulty to wear than to come to the wind, with refpect
to the refiftance of the water under her lee; fince all things are
equal,
NAVAL TACTICS.
45
equal, viz. the refiftance of the water upon the bottom to leeward, and
the impulfe of the wind upon the fails. But it must be conſidered
that the power compofed of thofe of all the fails united, acts upon
the fhip according to the direction B A, perpendicular to their
furfaces, the origin of which is the point н, a middle between all
the effects CG of the fails placed fore and aft, which ought to
correſpond exactly with the refiftance of the fluid from A to B :
ſo that the ſhip is pushed to leeward of the courſe 1 K, which ſhe
holds into the direction B A of the effort of her fails; but the re-
fiſtance ſhe finds from the water on the lee-fide of her bottom,
from A to B, fets her to rights again by its oppofition, which is
greater in ratio of the greater facility fhe finds in dividing the fluid
with her ſtem, than with her fide; fo that he runs on the true
courfe NR, which approaches nearer that on which the fhip is
made to ſteer, than B A. From this may be feen, that the angle
K HR of the lee-way is proportional to the greater or leſs reſiſtance
the ſhip finds laterally from the fluid under her lee; a reſiſtance
which depends intirely on the more or lefs facility ſhe finds in di-
viding the water with her prow; fo that the lee-way can never be
confiderable but when clofe hauled; a reafon why it is not much
taken notice of when the courfe is lefs oblique than the wind on
the beam. This reaſoning might be carried ftill further, from a
fact undeniable in the practice by thoſe who have had any expe-
rience, and which proves that the lee-way depends, not only on the
form of veffels, but ftill more on their greater or lefs velocity, and
feldom, or never, on the intire difpofition of their fails more or leſs
oblique to the keel, as fome authors have advanced. For, when
a fine-failing veffel is trimmed ſharp, with all her fails fet, in a very
light breeze, with which ſhe hardly fteers, the lee-way is confiderable,
though the ſea be perfectly ſmooth. The reafon of this great lee-
way, made by the ſhip, is that the veffel being impelled gently only,
and with little force, the water, which is not fhocked with vio-
G 2
lence,
!
L
46
AN ESSAY ON
lence, does not refift her, and he is then carried eafily by her fails
in the direction of their effort B A and if we confider the fide of
the ſhip, on the act of failing, prefenting a very great furface of
fails above the water, it will viſibly appear the lee-way will become
ſtill more perpendicular to the keel. But, fhould the wind begin to
freſhen pretty much, then the rapidity of failing augments confi-
derably, and the ſhip ſhocks the fluid with a force expreffed by the
fquare of fix or nine knots of velocity from B to A (fig. 18.) in
the ſpace of an hour, while the water repels her effort in a contrary
direction: the reſiſtance of the water is then in the ratio of this
fquare to the fquare of her firft velocity, and the fluid now no
longer yields with facility (n. 4.); the lee-way is fuddenly dimi-
nished; and is reduced to five or fix degrees, and fometimes leſs,
if the rapidity of failing continues to increaſe; if, at the very time
when the ſhip has acquired already a very great velocity, the be
kept away 12° or 15°, or even 22° 30', without altering the fails,
their obliquity remaining the fame, the fhip fhould then fall off in
the fame proportion, according to the opinion of thoſe who have
written on the theory of the manœuvre of fhips. Notwithſtanding
it is what never happens; the velocity augments, becauſe the
fails then receive the wind with a greater fine of incidence, and
thereby acquire more power, while the prow continues to be ftill
fhocked by the fluid in the fame parts, and with the fame fine of
incidence; fo that the lee-way diminiſhes again, becauſe, from the
increaſe of velocity, the water makes a greater refiftance, and that
reſiſtance is greater on the fhip's fide than on her prow, which is
lefs expoſed to the fhock. Whence must be concluded that the lee-
way, in the fame fhip, does not depend alone on the difpofition of
her fails, and that in various fhips it always differs, from their not
having the fame form, or their fails not trimming equally in the
fame oblique courfes; and becauſe, in fine, none have the fame
velocities with the fame weather, and under the fame fails. Which
proves,
C
NAVAL TACTICS.
47
proves, in a word, that the lee-way is always in a proportion com-
pounded of the velocity of the fhip; of her form, which gives her
more or leſs reſiſtance on her fide than on the prow; and of her
fails, trimmed more or lefs obliquely.
To return to the confideration of the action of the water on the
bottom from A to B (fig. 18.), it must be remarked, that it acts
afore, and that it must confequently contribute very much to the
facility which almoſt all ſhips have in coming to the wind, when-
ever the after-fails are in the fmalleſt degree more powerful than
thoſe forward: for, in that cafe the ſhock of the water is a power
which is to be added to that of the impulfe of the after-fails,
fince this action of the fluid is fo much the ftronger as it acts
before the center of gravity of the fhip at the point м (fig. 18.),
in impelling the fore part towards the wind, which always makes
fhips difficult to wear, becaufe all the effort A B of the water's
refiſtance
upon the
the prow
is oppofed to this movement, in forcing
this part to windward with a very great effort.
It is not therefore to be wondered at when ſhips wear with dif-
ficulty or flowly, eſpecially fuch as have what is called a rank cut-
water or long prow; becauſe there are two forces acting one againſt
the other, and that the force which comes from the fail muft fur-
mount (n. 18.) that which comes from the water, before fhe can
fall off: which will always happen with facility, whenever, in
fuppreffing ſome of the after-fails, thofe forwards thall be difpofed
favourably enough to produce that effect; and in ufing alfo the
rudder at the fame time, whofe power is great, whether the fhip
goes a-head or a-ſtern rapidly.
BUT if the ship, being abandoned to her own proper movements
in an oblique courſe, had on a fudden all her fails fuppreffed, it is
certain the veffel would come to the wind, fhould even the rudder
never be uſed; becauſe the water, acting on the fore part of her
bottom more on one fide than the other, impels the head to wind-
ward
48
AN ESSAY ON
ward againſt the ſmaller reſiſtance, until its power is entirely deſtroyed
by the total ceffation of the ſhip's velocity.
OBSERVATION S.
WHEN the fhip runs fo large that the after-fails becalm part of
thoſe forward, this is again another reaſon for the fhip carrying a
weather-helm, or having an inclination to come to the wind; for,
the fails forward receive a much lefs impulfe from the wind than
in a courſe more oblique; becauſe the fails abaft, by increaſing in
their power, prevent thofe forward from having as much wind as
their furfaces require, fince all the lee parts of theſe fails become
uſeleſs for the moment, being becalmed by the weather part of
thoſe on the main maft; fo that the power of the fails forward
diminiſhes, while that of the after-mafts increaſes; for, the fine of
incidence is greater. The fhip ought then, for theſe reaſons, to
have more inclination to come to the wind; but, regard muſt be
paid to the direction of the power of the fails in general, which
now becomes nearer the direction of the keel: fo that the greateſt
part of their effort is in that direction, while their force in the
lateral one diminiſhes.
It is farther to be obferved, that when the ſhip has as much fail
as the weather will permit her to carry, that is the moment of
the greateſt velocity of failing, providing that the fails having at
the fame time received the most favourable difpofition, an exact
equilibrium has alſo been placed between them afore and thoſe aft,
ſo that there ſhould be little occafion for the uſe of the rudder.'
APPLICATION.
48. FROM what precedes may be deduced the method of diſtin-
guiſhing the degree of quickneſs and celerity with which different
manœuvres
*
NAVAL
49
TACTICS.
:
manœuvres ought to be performed. For example, when one is
obliged to run for a road-ſtead, and to let go an anchor as foon as
come to it, it is evident this manoeuvre ought to be executed but
under little fail, which ſhould be all on the part before the center
of gravity; becauſe, in the firſt place, a ſhip has always velocity
enough when ſhe fails large; fecondly, becauſe ſhe is to overcome
the effort A B (fig. 18.) of the water which oppoſes her movement.
On the contrary, when obliged to come to the wind in anchoring,
as many fails as can conveniently be managed at that moment may
be fet, becauſe that movement of the fhip is always very quick,
and that as foon as the fails take a-back, the rapidity of the
ſteering diminiſhes, and in a few moments entirely ceafes, whereas
it always augments when the ſhip falls off.
ARTICLE I.
Remarks on the effect of the main-fail.
49. In the uſe of the fails, attention ſhould be paid to the effect
of the main-fail, which perhaps may not be that of bringing the
ſhip to the wind; for, if the fhip be too much loaded a-ftern, the
center of gravity н (fig. 18.) of the ſhip might very well in that
cafe be abaft the main-maft, and then the direction of the effort of :
that fail, quitting the point c before the center of gravity, ought
to make the ſhip fall off in lieu of keeping it up to the wind.
But, that this ſhould happen, the ſhip muſt be either very ill con-
ſtructed, or very badly loaded; or, in fhort, there must have been
originally a very grofs error in the firſt fixing of her maſts...
NOTWITHSTANDING the main-fail can always, at the pleafure
of the manœuverer, be made to affift the fhip in wearing, though
the center of gravity н be (as it almoſt ever is) before the effort c
of the main-fail. To do it, the effect of that fail need only be
changed,
€
P
50
AN ESSAY ON
changed, by making it to pafs before the center of gravity of the
ſhip: which will be fuddenly the cafe, if, when clofe hauled, the
main ſheet be let go a-main, becauſe the weather part of the fail
being fixed forward by the tack, its effect is likewife before the
center of gravity of the ſhip, though it has loft in that part a great
deal of its power, in becoming lefs expoſed to the impulse of the
wind; while the lee part, bellying out more, may receive a great
impulfion of the wind, which will ftrike it more and more per-
pendicularly as the ſhip ſhall fall off with more and more rapidity.
In this caſe, it may happen, that if the direction of the effort c G
of the main-ſail do not paſs before the center of gravity н of the
ſhip, it comes fo near that point, that it may be faid to have no
longer the effect of an after-fail.
ARTICLE II.
Of the rudder.
50. THE rudder is a machine known to all the marine world;
it is fupported by the ftern-poft, and turns on hinges thereto
affixed. It acts by means of a lever, called a tiller, which enters
horizontally into the ſhip, in paffing over the tranſom; ſo that if,
inftead of leaving the rudder exactly in a right line with the keel
A B, and as it were a prolongation of it, it be turned to one ſide
or the other, as B D (fig. 19.), it receives an immediate ſhock from
the water which glides along the ship's bottom, in running aft from
A to B ; and this fluid impels it towards the oppofite fide, while it
continues in that fituation, ſo that the ftern, to which the rudder
is confined, receives the fame movement; and, the fhip receiving
a fidely impulfion, her aft turns accordingly from в to b, on any
point whatever c (n. 18.), while her head paffes from A to a. It
muſt be obſerved, that the water ftrikes the rudder obliquely, and
only
NAVAL
51
TACTICS.
{
only with ſuch part of its motion which acts according to the fine
of incidence, in impelling it in the direction N P with a force
which depends not only on the rapidity of failing, but alfo on the
greatneſs of the angle of incidence: a force which is confequently
in the compound ratio of the ſquare of the more or leſs velocity
with which the ſhip advances, and of the fquare of the larger or
fmaller fine of incidence which neceffarily increaſes or diminiſhes
according to the various circumſtances. So that, if the veffel runs
three or four times more ſwiftly, the abfolute ſhock of the water
upon the rudder will be nine or fixteen times ftronger under the
fame angle of incidence, and will be augmented in a greater pro-
portion, if the fine of incidence be increaſed. This impulfion,
or, what is the fame, the power of the helm, is always very fee-
ble, when it comes to be compared with the whole weight of the
veffel; but it operates with a very long arm of a lever: whence it
reſults that its efforts to turn the ſhip are extremely advantageous;
for, the helm is fixed at a very great diſtance from the center of
gravity G, as well as from the point c, upon which the ſhip is
ſuppoſed to turn horizontally, with reſpect to the point of percuf-
fion B and if the direction P N of the impreffion of the water
upon the rudder be prolonged, it is evident it will paſs perpendicu-
larly at the point R, widely diſtant from the center of gravity G;
therefore the abfolute effort of the water is very powerful. It is
not therefore ſurpriſing, if this machine impreſſes the ſhip with a
confiderable circular movement, by impelling the ſtern from в to
b, and the head from A to a, and even much farther, when the
velocity of the ſhip is kept up; becauſe the effect of the helm
always keeps pace with the rapidity with which the veffel adyances.
B
51. AMONGST the feveral obliquities which may be given to
the rudder, there is one fituation which is more favourable than
any of the others to make it produce with more rapidity the defired
effect of turning the ſhip, in order to change her courſe. To be
convinced
H
52
AN
ESSAY ON
?
convinced of this, we have but to confider that, if the obtufe angle
ABD (fig. 19.) were to be leffened, the impulse of the water on
the rudder would augment, at the fame time that it would offer a
greater reſiſtance to the failing of the ſhip, fince the angle of inci-`
dence would be more open, and prefent a greater furface (n. 7.) to
the ſhock of the water by oppofing its paffage more perpendicularly.
But, then the direction N P of the effort of the helm upon the
ſhip would pass at a fmaller diftance from the center of gravity G
towards R, and lefs approach the perpendicular N L, according to
which it is abfolutely neceffary that the power applied fhould act
with greater effect to turn the ſhip. Therefore, it is evident that,
if the obtufe angle A B D were too much clofed, the greater fhock
of the water could not counterbalance the lofs fuftained by the
diſtance between the direction N P and that N L, or by the great
obliquity which would be given to the fame direction N P of the
abfolute effort of the helm with the keel A B.
If, on the other hand, the angle A B D were too much opened,
the direction N P of the effort of the rudder would become more
advantageous to turn the fhip, fince it would approach more the
perpendicular N L, and fince the prolongation of N P would aug-
ment GR, by paffing at a greater diſtance from the center of gra-
vity, G. But, then, the rudder would receive the impulfion of the
water too obliquely; for, the angle of incidence would be more
acute fo that it would only preſent a ſmall proportion of its
breadth to the fhock of the water, and of courſe receive alſo but a
very faint impulfion. All which proves that the greateſt diſtance
GR from the center of gravity G, is likewiſe infufficient to repair
the diminution of force occafioned by the too great obliquity of
the fhock of the water. Whence it muſt be concluded, that when
the fluid rikes the rudder too obliquely, or too perpendicularly,
a great deal of the impulfion, or of the effect it ſhould produce, is
loft. Therefore, between theſe two extremes, there muſt be a
middle
$
ཋཱ
: 1
NAVAL
53
TACTICS.
middle pofition, which certainly is the most favourable to its ope-
rations.
52. THE diagonal N P of the rectangle 1 L (fig. 19.) répreſents
the abfolute direction of the effort of the water upon the rudder:
N I expreffes the portion of this effort which oppoſes the fhip's
head-way by forcing her a-ftern in the direction of the keel. It is
eaſy to perceive that this part N I of the whole power of the helm
contributes little to turn the veffel; for, fhould you prolong I N,
you might foon fee that its direction paffes at a very finall diſtance
Gw from the center of gravity G, and that the arm of the lever
B NG W, to which the force is as it were affixed, is at moſt equal
only to one half of the breadth of the rudder. But, it is far from
being ſo with reſpect to the relative force N L, which acts
perpen-
dicular to the keel. If the firft force NI is almoft ufelefs, and even
pernicious, by retarding the velocity; the fecond NL is capable of
a very great effect, fince it is applied at a confiderable diſtance from
the center of gravity G of the fhip, and acts on a lever's arm G E,
which is very long, and neceffarily very powerful. Thus, it
appears clearly, that between the two effects N L and N I, which
refult from the abfolute effort N P, there is one which is always
oppofing a refiftance to the ship's rapid head-way, and contributes
very little therefore to the motion of her turning; whilſt the other
alone produces that movement of evolution, without operating any
way to retard her velocity.
53. GEOMETRICIANS have determined the moſt advantageous
angle made by the helm with the line prolonged from the keel,
and fixed it at 54° 44', on a preſumption that the ſhip is not wider
at her floating line, or at the line defcribed by the furface of the
water round her bottom, than at her keel. But, as this fuppofition
is abfolutely falfe, inafmuch as all veffels augment their breadth
from the keel upwards to the extreme breadth where the floating
line, or higheſt water-line, is terminated; it follows that this angle
H 2
is
54
AN ESSAY ON
is too large by a certain number of degrees. For, the rudder is
fhocked by the water at the height of the floating line more per-
pendicularly than at the keel, fince the fluid exactly follows the
horizontal outlines of the bottom: fo that one could almoſt ſay
that a particular pofition of the helm might be required for each
different fine of incidence which it encounters from the keel up-
wards. But, as a middle pofition may be taken between all thoſe
points, it is quite fufficient to confider the angle formed by the
fides of the ſhip and her axis, or the middle line of her length at
the furface of the water, to be able to determine afterwards the
middle point, and the middle angle of incidence.
MR. BOUGUER, in his Théorie de la Manœuvre, Sect. I. Liv. III.,
ſhows that in moft fhips the angle of the rudder with the prolonged
line of the keel ſhould be made to be 46° 40'. Without interfering
with the calculations of that author, we fhall perhaps find means
of making plain to our readers what that able geometrician has ſo
learnedly difcuffed in a more abftrufe manner.
54. WHEN it is required to turn the ſhip by means of the rudder,
and, at the ſame time, to preferve the head-way as much as poffible,
it is evident that the angle 54° 44', which has been determined to
be the moſt favourable with the line of the keel prolonged, is in
that cafe too open; becauſe the water acts upon the rudder with
too great a fine of incidence, and which is equal to that of the
angle which it makes with the line prolonged from the keel below.
Above, the ſhock of the water is almoſt perpendicular to the rud-
der, on account of the width of the ſhip's fides at the floating line
towards the bottom, as has been remarked before. But if the
rudder oppoſes the fluid by making only with the line prolonged
from the keel an angle of 45°; the impulfe, by becoming weaker,
will be leſs oppoſed to the ſhip's head-way; and the direction N P
(fig. 19.) of the abfolute effort of the water on the rudder, draw-
ing nearer the lateral perpendicular N L, will be more advantage-
oully
NAVAL TACTICS.
55
ouſly placed; fince the abfolute effort prolonged paffes at a greater
diſtance GR from the center of gravity G. On the other hand,
experience ſhows us every day that ſhips fteer very well when they
do not make the angle D B E more than 35°; and if this angle be
made 45°, as we require it, and then we ſhould come to diſcompoſe
the abfolute effort N P, we find the fide N 1 to be equal to the other
fide N L of the fame fquare; fo that the part of the power total
which oppoſes the head-way ftands in this cafe but on an equality
with that which produces the movement of rotation; whereas,
were D B E 54° 44', NI would become much greater than N L, in
proportion to the fines of the angles which are oppoſed to them in
the triangles PIN or P L N, and the ship would of courſe lofe
much more of her velocity than in the firſt fituation of the rudder,
to which we ſhall confine ourſelves, as being that part which ſuits
beſt the generality of veffels, but which muſt nevertheleſs be ſome-
times altered, according as they fhall be found to make an angle
more or lefs open with their fides a-ftern.
It will always be eafy enough to determine the angle of the
rudder with the keel, by obferving the rule we have prefcribed
(n. 28.) in ſpeaking of the determination of the angle of the fails.
REMARK S.
55.
As the water often ſtrikes the rudder with a very great force,
one has been under the neceffity to give the lever, by means of
which it is put in action, a certain length, in order to diminiſh the
effort the helmfman is obliged to make in moving it, to regulate
the fallies the ſhip is continually making in the courfe of her navi-
gation.
To leffen ftill more the effort of the helmfman, there is in moſt
Thips, on the quarter-deck, directly over the extremity of the
tiller, a vertical wheel (fig. 19.), which has the effect of a cap-
ftern,
*
56
ON
AN ESSAY
ftern, by means of a white rope, which, after having been wound
ſeveral times round the cylinder of that wheel, is ſtopped above in
the middle: the two ends are then paffed, in a fore and aft
direction, athwart one another, through two longitudinal open-
ings made on the quarter-deck, on each fide of the barrel of the
wheel, in order to repafs on two fheaves placed in a block per-
pendicularly under the aforefaid openings. The channels of the
block are placed obliquely, in order to correfpond with two other
blocks fixed cloſe to the fhip's fide, at the points F and F
(fig. 19.), where the end of the tiller B F touches when the rud-
der is in its moſt oblique fituation. Theſe two blocks receive the
rope, which thence goes to the head of the tiller, where it is
faſtened. So that, if the wheel be turned either one way or the
other, the extremity of the tiller approaches towards one of the
fides of the ſhip, and expoſes the rudder to the ſhock of the fluid.
56. THE longer a lever is, the more effect it has when it acts
with the fame power: therefore, the longer the fpokes of the
wheel are, in proportion to the radius of the cylinder round which
the rope is wound up, the more advantage the helmſman will have;
for, if the fpokes of the wheel be three or four times longer than
the radius of the cylinder, the helmfman will act with three or
four times more force, fince he acts on a lever which is three or
four times longer than the radius of the cylinder the extremity of
which is ſuppoſed to be the fulcrum of the lever on which he acts.
So that, if the effort of the helmfman be equal to 30 pounds weight,
he will produce an effect of 90 or 120 pounds by the mere difpo-
fition of the wheel only. On the other hand, the impulfe of the
water is united in the middle of the breadth of the rudder, which
is very narrow, if compared to the length of the tiller; therefore,
the effort of the water is at a very trifling diſtance from the point
of fupport в upon which it turns: whereas the tiller forms the
arm of a lever 10 or 15 times longer, which ſtill increaſes the
power
NAVAL TACTIC S.
57.
power of the helmſman in the fame proportion as is between the
length of the tiller and that of the lever on which the impulſe of
the water acts. This force is therefore 10 or 15 times ftronger;
and the effort of 30 pounds, which before gave the helmſman a
power of 90 or 120 pounds, will become one of 900 or 1800
pounds on the rudder. The cauſe of this advantage is, that the
ſhock of the water acts on a very ſhort arm of a lever, while the
ſteerſman acts on one very powerful in compariſon to the other;
and, that this lever is moved by a wheel which ſtill multiplies its
force. This demonftration ought to remove the very great ſurpriſe.
ſome perſons exprefs at the prodigious effect of the rudder, when
they do not pay attention to its mechaniſm; for, they have only to
confider the preffure of the water, which acts at a very great diſtance
from the center of gravity G of the fhip, as well as from the point
c upon which it is fuppofed the turns (n. 15.); and they will foon
eafily perceive the difference there is between the effort of the
water againſt the helmſman, and the effect of that fame impulfion
againſt the ſhip: for, with refpect to the helmſman, the water acts
with the arm of a lever N B very fhort, of which в is the point
of fupport or fulcrum. On the contrary, with reſpect to the ſhip, .
the impulse of the water acts on a direction N P, which paffes per-
pendicularly at a very great diſtance from the center of gravity G,.
in acting on a very long lever E G, which renders the action of the
rudder very powerful in turning the fhip; fo that, if, in a large
ſhip, the rudder receives an impulfe from the water of 2700 or
2800 pounds (as is very often the cafe, provided that the fhip fail:
at the rate of 9 or 12 knots, and that this power, applied at E, be
100 or 110 feet from the center of gravity G), it will act upon the
ſhip to turn her with a power equal to 270,000 or 308,000 pounds,
while, in this laft cafe, the helmfman may very well act with no
greater a power than one of 30 pounds only, on the ſpokes of his
wheel.
2
57. IT
58
AN ESSAY ON
57. Ir may not be improper to remark here, that the great
length generally given to the tiller, in order to facilitate the opera-
tions of the helmfman, is an obſtacle to the play of the rudder;
fince that length hinders its prefenting itſelf fufficiently to the
ſhock of the water to produce all the effect which may be expected
from it. For, this inconvenience does not, in moſt ſhips, allow
the rudder to make the angle D B E (fig. 19.) more open than 30°;
whereas it ſhould be 45°, as has been made appear before.
BUT, as this moft favourable determination has not yet been made
uſe of, but the coarſe dimenfions commonly given the tiller have
always been followed, we think ourſelves under an obligation to
correct that error, and to propoſe ſomething better for practice.
Ir muſt be confidered, that if the tiller was ſhorter, the rudder
would have more play, becauſe the extremity of that lever, in
defcribing the arc of a ſmaller circle, would occafion the rudder to
make an angle more open, with the keel prolonged: and this new
augmentation would be ſo much the more advantageous, as it would
come nearer the angle of 45°, which we have adopted for the beſt.
And as in all ſhips the length of the tiller might certainly be cut
a fifth ſhorter, or perhaps more, it is evident that, by fuch means,
the angle of the rudder and the keel prolonged might be rendered
very near 45°, which would increaſe its force in a proportion as 3
is to 5, fince the fquare of the fine of incidence of 45° is to the
ſquare of the fine of incidence of 30°:: 5:3, or thereabouts.
THIS augmentation of the impulſe is often of the greateſt im-
portance, eſpecially in the full evolutions one has fometimes occa-
fion to make ſhips go through, and above all when they are of a
large fize, as their motions are but flow on account of their length.
If the tiller be ſhortened, the helmfman will be obliged to em-
ploy more force in proportion to the length taken from the lever
on which he now acts; but this lofs may be repaired by the facility
with which the helm fhall be handled, if the diameter of the
cylinder
C
NAVAL
59
TACTICS.
cylinder of the wheel be a great deal leffened, at the fame time
augmenting the length of its axis without diminiſhing that of its
fpokes, which ought on the contrary to be lengthened as much as
poffible, and let two turns more of the tiller rope be wound round
the barrel.
THESE forces would be ftill much more multiplied, if two
fheaves were fixed in the end of the tiller, in two mortices which
might be made for that purpoſe, with an iron pin paffing through
their centers, and taking care to have the end of the tiller well
hooped with iron, in order to ftrengthen it; then the tiller rope
might be reeved through the blocks which are for that purpoſe on
each fide the ſhip, and thence through the two fheaves at the end
of the tiller, and the ſtanding part to be affixed cloſe to the blocks
on each fide of the ſtarboard and larboard. By theſe means nothing
would be loft with reſpect to the force; becauſe, if the lever be
ſhorter, the forces which cauſe its action are likewife multiplied
in proportion.
58. AFTER what has been ſaid reſpecting the helm, it is eaſy to
conceive that the greater the ſhip's velocity is, the more powerful
is the action of the rudder, fince it acts againſt the water with a
force which increaſes as the fquare of the velocity of the fluid
(n. 3.), whether the fhip has head-way, or ftern-way; always
recollecting, that in theſe two circumſtances its effects are oppofite;
for, if the ſhip goes a-ftern, the rudder will be ftruck from 1 to N
(fig. 19.); and inſtead of being pushed from N to P, it will be fo
from N to R; fo that the ftern moving in the fame direction, the
prow of courſe muſt take a contrary one, and move towards the
fame fide that the tiller B F is on *.
59. IT
* It may be objected to this new mode of increafing the purchaſe of the helmf-
man, here propoſed by Mr. BOURDE', that it will prolong the motions of the rudder:
I
I grant
60
AN ESSAY ON
59. Ir ought to be obferved, in the ufe of the rudder, that
there is one part of its effort which is hurtful to the fhip's failing
when it is ftruck by the water which runs rapidly along the fhip's
bottom. If it makes an angle of 45° with the keel prolonged,
then it receives only half the impulfion it would if the fluid acted
upon it perpendicularly; becauſe there are two cauſes for the abfo-
lute impulſe diminiſhing (n.7.): firſt, The ſurface which oppoſes
the fhock of the water is reduced to a lefs extent than it was at
firft, and the angle of incidence diminiſhes likewiſe: ſo that, in
this cafe, the impulſe has diminiſhed one half. The next cauſe to
be confidered is that fame impulfion N P which remains (fig. 19.);
for, it will appear then that there is only one part N I which is
oppoſed to the failing (n. 54), and which is lefs than N P in the
proportion as the fine total is to the fine of 45°, the meaſure of the
angle of incidence w N B equal to N PI; for the angle w N L is
right, as well as the angle P N B; fo that, if you take away the
common angle L N B, the two angles PNL and W N B will remain
equal between themſelves; but, as the angle i P N is equal to its
alternate angle PNL, it follows that IPN is always equal to w NB,
whether the angle made by the rudder be more or leſs open with
the keel prolonged. So that, if the furface of the rudder which
receives the ſhock be 80 feet fquare fuperficies, it will firft be
reduced, by the manner in which it is expoſed to the courſe of the
fluid, to an effort of 40 feet ſurface, then to 28 or 29, becauſe,
in the firſt place, there is but one part of the velocity of the water
which
I grant it will to a certain point; but, when the diſparity of the arcs deſcribed by
the tiller are confidered, the difference will be found but trifling, and cannot (I
imagine) come in competition with the many great and good effects which muſt
ncceffarily attend the increaſe of the angle of the rudder with the keel prolonged.
NAVAL
61
TACTICS.
which contributes to the fhock, and that part is proportional to
the relation between the fquare of the fine total and that of the
fine of incidence; and, fecondly, becauſe out of the abfolute im-
pulfe N P, which reſults from this laſt oblique ſhock, there is only
a part N I which oppoſes the velocity of the ſhip proportional
to the abfolute N P, in the fame ratio as there is between the fine
total and the fine of incidence; that is to fay, that when the rud-
der makes, in the largeſt ſhips, an angle of 45°, it impedes the
ſhip's rapidity of failing, in the direction of the keel, with an effort
NI equivalent to the impulfion which a furface of 28 or 29 feet
ſquare might receive, if it was expofed perpendicularly to the ſhock
of the water. So that, if the ſhip runs 12 knots an hour, or 19
feet a ſecond, the effort of the rudder N 1, which oppoſes the rapi-
dity of the failing, will be 12,499 or 12,945 pounds, as falt water
weighs more than freſh.
I
35
OBSERVATION S.
60. It follows, from what has been faid of the rudder, that
it ought to be uſed as little as poffible; that is to ſay, the ſhip and
and her fails ought to be fo diſpoſed, that the ſmalleſt motion of
this machine may bring her to her courfe, if ſhe deviates from it,
or make her perform any evolution which may be thought requi-
fite.
ARTICLE III.
-
The time employed by different veſſels to perform the fame evolution,
is as their length.
61. ALL that tends to produce motion in ſhips, has more force
in the larger than in the ſmaller ones; but the difficulty which
I 2
large
•
62.
AN ESSAY ON
large ſhips experience to receive the motion is greater, in a greater
proportion, than that which oppofes the motion of fmall fhips.
For, if the dimenfions and machines which enter into the compo-
fition of a large veffel, have twice the magnitude of thoſe which
conſtitute a ſmall one, folidities being in ratio of their cubes, the
firſt will be eight times as great. Yet the obftacle which the large
ſhip will oppoſe to its being put in motion will be two and thirty
times as great as that of the finall one. For, if both ſhips were
confidered as divided into an equal number of vertical fections,
thofe of the large would foon appear to have four times as much
furface as thoſe of the fmall, befides that they would be twice as
thick, fince the dimenfions are in general twice as large; confe-
quently they will have eight times the folidity; which anſwers
already to the relative effort of the rudder and fails."
AGAIN, the parts of the large ſhip are twice as diftant from the
center of gravity as thoſe of the ſmall one, fince thoſe diſtances are
proportional to the other fimple dimenfions of the two fhips. So
that, if the evolution be fuppofed of the fame number of degrees,
the extremities aft and forward of the large fhip will have to de-
ſcribe arcs twice as large as the fmall one; and this greater velocity
being multiplied by the folidity of the parts of the large fhip,
which is eight times as great as that of the fmall one, the product
will give 16 times more motion; the refiftance, or vis inertiæ*,
will act confequently 16 times as much on the large as on the
fmall; and as that refiftance operates on the arm of a lever twice as
long,
1
* Vis inertia-Is a force which refides in bodies at reft, or in motion. It is that
force, which cauſes them to reſiſt motion when at reft, and oppoſes being ſtopped
when put in motion. The first we experience every day when any thing is moved ;
and the fecond will manifeft itſelf if an attempt be made to ftop fuddenly a body in
motion. TRANSL.
•
NAVAL TACTIC S.
63
long, the momentum or total refiftance of the large fhip will be
32 times as great. Therefore, fhould the forces which act on the
large ſhip be augmented no more than in proportion to her folidity,
ſhe will have ſtill four times more difficulty than the fmall one to
get into motion. Therefore the large ſhip, inſtead of making in
the ſame ſpace of time an angle of rotation as great as the ſmall one,
will only make an angle of one fourth, or, in other words, three
times lefs. Now, that the great ſhip ſhould defcribe an angle of
rotation equal to the other veffel, it will require only thrice as much
time but that angle, or the velocity with which the fhip obeys
the impulſe of her rudder and fails, will follow the laws of accele-
ration, fince the velocity acquired in the firſt inſtant is continually
augmenting in an arithmetical progreffion; fo that the time which
fimilar veffels of different fizes take in performing the fame evolu-
tion, will be in proportion to their lengths.
THE heavier a body is, the greater is the effort neceffary to put
it in motion: vice-verfa, the more difficulty there is found in put-
ting a heavy body in motion, on account of its volume three times
as heavy as that of a ſmaller one compared to it, the more difficulty,
of courſe, will be found alfo in the heaviest body to make it loſe
the velocity of that movement once impreffed on it, comparatively
ſpeaking, with the difficulty found in performing the fame opera-
tion on a ſmaller body. For, this having been put in motion with
three times the facility, will be ſtopped with the fame cafe. The
refiftance
* Momentum, in mechanics, is the produce of the mafs of any body whatever by
the diſtance of its center of gravity, from a point taken at pleaſure. The momentum
of a body which falls, is the product of its mafs, by the velocity acquired in the
firſt inftant of the fhock. The momentum of a force, which acts on the arm of a
lever, is the product of that force by the diſtance from the fulcrum or point of fup-
port. TRANSL.
•
64
AN ESSAY,
&c.
refiſtance a body oppoſes to loſe a movement is always equal to that
employed by the fame to acquire it. So that, if a veffel 100 feet
long takes four minutes to perform an evolution, a fimilar veſſel
of 150 feet will take fix minutes or thereabouts to perform the
fame circular movement. 100150:4:6. 2. E. D.
END OF THE FIRST PART.
AN

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AN
ESSAY
ΟΝ
NAVAL TACTICS.
PART THE SECOND.
The Theory applied to Practice; or, a Demonftration of
the Evolutions of a Ship.
WE
E are now entering into the moſt brilliant part of the Seaman's
duty, which requires him to be continually in action, and always
availing himſelf of the theoretical knowledge he poffeffes, in order
to apply it with judgement to practice: which will enable him to
diſpoſe of the machinery which compoſes and guides the ſhip with
fuch ſkill as to place her with the greateſt expedition in any
required pofition.
CHAPTER
66
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER I.
Of getting under fail.
ARTICLE I.
PROBLEM I.
To get under fail when the ship is fwinging head to wind, and you
want to caft to ſtarboard in a place where there is no current.
SOLUTION.
You must heave ſhort on your anchor till it is a-peek: then
haul in quite home the larboard braces forward, and ſtarboard
braces abaft loofen, fheet-home, and hoift the top-fails, fhould
they not be fo already: put the helm a-ſtarboard, and heave round
till the anchor is a-weigh. The moment the anchor quits the
ground, the fhip will begin to fall off to ftarboard; a movement
which you no fooner perceive her to make, but you muſt help her
by fetting the jib and fore-top-maft ftay-fail: and when the has
fufficiently fallen off, her fails abaft (which are trimmed sharp for
the larboard tack) will fill. But, unless it is for very fuperior rea-
fons, you had better to continue lying-to till the anchor is catted,
taking care however to haul the mizen-fheets clofe aft, if the ſhip
be inclined to fall off too much.
M
DEMONSTRATION.
NAVAL
67
TACTICS.
DEMONSTRATIO N.
You heave ſhort before the top-fails are loofened, in order to
facilitate the manœuvre of the capftern, which would act with too
much power, if they were fet; fince they would be a-back, and
confequently in a fituation to fend the hip a-ftern; whereas the
fhould go a-head when you are heaving on your cable. The lar
board braces are hauled in forward, becaufe, in that fituation, the
fails are ſo braced as to caft the fhip's head to ftarboard, fince they
make with the keel the moft acute angle poffible a-ſtarboard for-
ward, and are at the fame time a-back. Befides, the after-fails
being braced up to ftarboard and fharp trimmed, are alfo taken
a-back like the others, and receive the wind in fuch a manner as
to turn the after-part to port. Therefore, there are always two
powers acting in contrary directions, one before and the other abaft
the center of gravity of the ship; the one forces the fore-part to
ſtarboard, and the other impels the after-part to larboard.
As theſe two effects cannot happen without the ſhip going a-ſtern
the moment the anchor quits the ground, fince ſhe is no longer
with-held by any thing, and is moved by an exterior fluid power
which carries her in this direction, part of the effect of her fails
giving her ftern-way (n. 21.); it follows, that the helm must be
put to ftarboard, that the rudder may help her after-part round to
larboard (n. 58). By thefe means every thing is difpofed to make
the ſhip fall off to ſtarboard; which is the folution of the whole
problem; recollecting however that what we call the jib and fore-
top-maſt ſtay-fail are not added to the evolution, unless there be
reaſons to fear the fhip will not fall off faft enough; and when
you
find ſhe has fufficiently done fo, the mizen is to be hauled out,
to procure the contrary effect, and thereby to counterbalance the
jib and ſtay fail, which it is very often neceffary to keep fet.
K
1
REMARKS.
68
AN ESSAY ON
REMARK S.
If there was an abfolute neceffity to caft to port, you ſhould
then haul-in the ſtarboard braces forward, and the larboard braces
aft, and put the helm a-port; the rest of the manœuvre is the fame
as in the preceding cafe, and could be proved by the fame reaſon-
ing; only changing, in the demonftration, ftarboard for port, or
larboard.
If a ſhip, riding head to wind and tide, wanted to get under fail;
after having decided which ſide it is beſt to have her caſt, you muſt
maneuver according to one of the foregoing methods, except the
helm, which must be put to ftarboard,. either before the anchor
looſens, or while it does, if you wiſh to caft to port; becauſe the
water, coming from forward, acts with the fame force on the rud-
der as if the fhip went along, with the current, and impels the
rudder to ſtarboard, and the head to port. Therefore, it is evident,
in this caſe, the helm ought to be put to ſtarboard; which, on the
contrary, would be put to larboard, was the ſhip to be caft to pet..
If the ſhip, after the anchor is out of the ground, went a-ftern
fafter than the current runs, the helm must then be uſed as if there
was no current, becauſe the excess of velocity, whereby the thip
exceeds that of the water, acts upon the rudder.
If it blows freſh, ſo that you cannot fet your top-fails without
reefing them, let that be done before they are fheeted home; and
if it blew fo hard as to compel you to fail onward with only your
fore-fail, it would be then fufficient to loofen the fore-top-fail,
without tallying it, after having braced it quite cloſe on the fide
oppofite to that you want the ſhip to caft, not forgetting however
to put
the helm the fame way as you caft, as foon as you perceive
the ſhip going a-ſtern; and when the ſhip has fallen off futliciently,
then is the time to fill and trim the fore-fail.
❤
(C
starboard
ARTICLE
NAVAL TACTICS.
وه
*
ARTICLE
PROBLEM
II.
SOLUTION.
II.
To get under fail when the ſhip is ſwinging with her head to the
current, and with the wind a-point abaft the beam.
K 2
•
THE top-fails being furled with rope-yarns, let them and the
mizen top-fail be hoifted, and properly trimmed, as if they were
fet; and when every thing is properly difpofed, heave ſhort on
your anchor till it is a-peek; next to this, loofen, tally the fore-
fail and mizen top-fail, keeping the wind in, and heave quick and
vigorously the capftern till the anchor is a-weigh. At the ſame
time hoiſt the jib and fore-top-maſt ſtay-ſail, or haul out the mizen,
according as circumftances may require. Whether you wish to
come to windward, or fall off more quickly, you muſt ſtill continue
to heave round the capftern brifkly to get the anchor up, till you
find yourſelf fufficiently offward to bring to, in order to ftow it
with eaſe, or to ſtand on under an eaſy fail with the anchor hang-
ing out to windward, if the fituation of things will admit of it.
You may fometimes alſo hoift up both the main and the fore top-
fails, as foon as you get ready; but, in certain cafes, when obliged
to make the beſt of your way and fail at the higheſt rate, every ſail
poffible muſt be fet at once which the weather will admit of;
eſpecially when obliged to haul by the wind in which cafe, the
anchor muſt be got up and catted as well as it can: there are cafes
even when, without lofing your time in weighing it, you crowd as
many fails as you poffibly can, and depart in cutting the cable, or
veering it end for end.
DEMONSTRATION.
79
AN ESSAY ON
DEMONSTRATIO N.
THE top-fails and the mizen top-fail are hoifted up, becauſe the
fails in that fituation are eafier ſheeted home and trimmed d; and
becauie, as foon as the rope-yarns are cut, the fails fill, and give
celerity to the ſhip, which fails onward the moment` the anchor
quits the ground. The mizen top-fail is used to make the fhip
ſteer well, as one has it in one's power to keep it either filled or
looſe to the wind, according as the fhip is griping or the contrary;
befides the affiftance of the rudder, which is to be employed as
foon as the thip begins to move.
1
REMARKS.
It happens fometimes, in getting under fail, that you are obliged
to heave the anchor up to leeward; which often gives a dangerous
ſtrain to the capftern; becauſe the ſhip, driving to leeward as foon
as the anchor is a-weigh, cauſes the cable to gird againſt the lee
bow, and the ſtock of the anchor is very apt to catch the cut-
water. To avoid this embarraffment, let the fhip (if you are near
the land) get offing enough to wear and bring the anchor on the
weather bow.
I WAS once in fuch a fituation as is here mentioned, and was
obliged to perform this manœuvre, which is not difficult to con-
ceive; becauſe the ſhip, lying to leeward of the anchor, or ſtand-
ing on under an eafy fail, drifts, and confequently leaves the
anchor disengaged to windward; which enables us to heave it up
with facility.
ARTICLE
NAVAL TACTICS.
71
•
ARTICLE
PROBLEM III.
To get under fail with a spring-
III.
SOLUTIO N.
Ir a fhip be in a place too much confined to caft under her fails
only, or if one is obliged to put to ſea in a gale of wind, without
lifting the anchors; you muſt, for greater ſafety, and in order to
facilitate the falling off, caft a ſpring out, to be clapped on the cable
by which the ſhip fwings, by getting a hawfer or a ſtream-cable to
paſs through the aftermoft port, on the oppofite fide to that you
mean to caft; and, after that ſpring is well heaved taught at
the capftern, hoift the jib and fore-top-maft ftay-fails, loofe, and
ſheet home the fore-top-fail; then, when that is done, and if
the weather permits, brace quite cloſe the head fails on the fame
fide with the ſpring: and, when this is executed, flip or cut the
cable, heaving briſkly at the ſame time on the ſpring, till the ſhip
has paid off fufficiently. Then, when you find fhe has enough,
you fill the fails, in fetting the mizen-top-fail and every other fail
you mean to employ, and flipping the fpring if you have time
enough, for if you have not you muſt cut it off inſtantly. Care
muiì. be taken, in performing this manœuvre, not to let the ſhip
fall off too much before the fpring is cut; becauſe, having no way
through the water, the cannot be brought. to. the wind fo foon as
might be wiſhed; which may be productive of bad confequences in a
narrow place: and, for the fame realon; the fpring muſt not be cùt,
till the ſhip has fallen off as much as is neceffary; becauſe, although
ſhe has no other Lotion bt that of falling off, the veſſel might
perhaps not wear enough to anſwer the purpoſe.
1
DEMONSTRATION.
72
AN ESSAY ON
DEMONSTRATION.
THE reaſons having been fhewn before why the head fails are
braced up on the oppofite fide to that which the fhip cafts, they
ſhall not be repeated here; although we ſuppoſe the wind ſo ſtrong
as to keep the fhip wind-ridden. I fhall only undertake to prove,
that the fhip turns almoft on the middle of her length; fince the
moment the fore part begins its movement of falling off on one
fide, the after part makes another to approach the point from which
the head is receding. Now, fhe turns fo much the more furely on
her center, and her evolution is fo much the more rapid, as the
force uſed in heaving at the capftern is ftronger: becauſe the more
powerful the heaving is, the more of the haufer comes in, and con--
fequently the more eafily and with the greateſt rapidity will the
after part approach the point the head of the ſhip has left.
WHEN ſhe has fallen off enough to fill the fails properly, flip the
fpring, becauſe ſhe gathers head-way in proportion as the fails are
filling, and in that cafe the hawfer would only hinder the ſhip
going a-head, or cauſe her to fall off more, which would be pre-
judicial to the evolution. The hawſer or ſtream cable is paſſed aft
as far as poffible; becauſe, being at the extremity of the ſhip, the
capſtern ſtrains leſs, and the veſſel turns with more celerity.
OBSERVATIONS.
If this manœuvre is performed when it blows hard, you muſt
not ſheet home the fore-top-fail: for, if the wind is abfolutely too
ſtrong, you muſt content yourſelf with only looſening this fail,
and hoisting the fore-top-ftay-fail: but, if the weather is pretty
tolerable, it will be found fufficient to ſheet home the fore-top-fail
without hoiſting it.
ARTICLE
NAVAL TACTICS.
73
ARTICLE IV.
General remarks on getting under fail.
WHENEVER a ſhip is going to fail onward, fhe muft, before
her fails are ſet up, and as foon as the anchor begins to quit the
ground, have her top-fails at the maft-head ſtopped with rope-
yarns. And indeed any veffel which is proud of maneuvering with
propriety and velocity, ought to obferve this precaution when the
weather will permit, no matter in what latitude ſhe may be. Such
manœuvre is general, when the wind is not too powerful.
WHEN the tide takes the fhip on the beam, and ſhe is to caft
the other way, it is evident that the tiller in the firſt inſtant muſt
Be put on the fide the current runs from, becauſe the rudder will
be in ſuch a fituation as to receive very obliquely the impulfe of the
fluid, and confequently will but little oppoſe the ſhip's falling off,
provided the ſhip's velocity does not exceed that of the current.
WHEN in a fituation where cafting is indifferent, one way or the
other, always let it be to leeward of the anchor, that there may be
no riſk of its getting foul of the cut-water.
CHAPTER II.
PROBLEM.
To tack a ship, in getting to windward as much as poffible.
SOLUTION.
To execute this manoeuvre with propriety, care muft be taken
that the fhip does not yaw, that ſhe is not too much from, or
near, the wind; becauſe both fituations are equally prejudicial to
the
74
ON
AN ESSAY
•
the evolution: and when that preciſe point is attained, which is
not very difficult, haul the mizen out, if it be brailed up, (the
power of which is carefully to be preſerved*), while you put at the
fame time the helm a-lee, and brace the bow-line quite to leeward,
that the mizen may be as much as poffible expoſed to the wind:
and, when the ſhip is come to the wind, fo as to cauſe the ſquare
fails to ſhiver, let go the jib and all the ftay-fail fheets before the
main-maſt: then, the moment all the fails catch a-back, and par-
ticularly the mizen top-fail, let it be braced tharp about the other
way; hauling up, at the fame time, the weather clue of the main
fail; and immediately (the wind being right a-head, or even a
little before) fill up the main-top-maft's fails: and trim ſharp for
the other tack as faft as poffible.
"L
THE jib and ſtay-fail ſheets are alſo to be ſhifted over at the fame
time, in righting the helm, whether the ſhip has loft her way, or
even ſtill advances a-head. Then, as ſoon as ſhe has paffed the
direction of the wind 45°, in continuing her evolution, ſhift the
fore-maft's fails, which are to be trimmed with all the ſame cele-
rity in putting the helm a-lee, if you fear the fhip (which muft
ftill go a-ftern if the maneuvre be flowly executed) will not fall
off fufficiently: for, if the fails are braced about briſkly, ſhe will
never have ftern-way; on the contrary, fhe will get a great deal to
windward. Thus, every thing before directed being exactly exe-
cuted, and the fails well trimmed on the oppofite tack, the problem
is folved.
DEMONSTRATION.
* For, the mizen operates as it were another rudder, by the action of the current of
air upon its furface, and ought confequently to have its impulfe pr: ferved as much
and as long as poffible. Moreover, it acts on a very long and neceffarily very pow-
erful arm of a lever to turn the ſhip. True it is, that part of its effect tends to leffen
the celerity of failing; but, is not the helm in the fame predicament, and in a pro-
portion to the magnitude of their ſurfaces, and of the denfities of the fluids to which
they are expoſed? TRANSL.
NAVAL TÁC TIC S
75
DEMONSTRATION.
I SAID, and it remains now for me to prove, that it is prejudi-
cial to the evolution, to be too near to, or too much from, the
wind, previous to tacking a ſhip. In the first place, if too near
the wind, when the helm is put a-lee, fhe will probably miſs ſtays;
fince the ſhip, not having a ſufficient velocity, the rudder will not
have all its neceffary effect to cauſe the ſhip to double upon the
critical point where all the fails fhiver. For, the power of the
rudder to turn the ſhip, is proportional to the force with which
the water ſtrikes it (n. 58). Hence it follows, if the ſhip has not
ſufficient way through the water, the rudder will not have force
enough to cauſe her to force over the point, or any thing elſe which
can increaſe or keep up the rapidity of ſteering; and, of courſe,
the power of the helm will ceaſe, the fails being all fhivering.
The ſhip muſt then unavoidably fall off again, fince the helm is
a-lee, and not one of her fails tends to fhoot her a-head. On the
contrary, her mizen-fail being out, and braced quite to leeward,
forces the ſtern and the ſhip athwart (n. 40.); while, by the wind
which ſtrikes her fails, rigging, and hull, fhe is but too ready to
drive a-ſtern; as a fhip always finds great difficulty to divide the
fluid laterally. Thus it is clear that, every thing being difpofed
for driving the ſhip the ftern-way, fhe muft infallibly both go
a-ſtern and lee-ward (n. 58). This is confirmed by experience;
for, whenever a fhip miffes ftays, fhe is vifibly perceived to fall
abaft.
If a ſhip is too much away, ſhe is much longer in ranging to
the wind. Confequently, lee-lurches, previous to tacking, are
diſadvantageous and uſeleſs to the evolution, fince they retard it.
I SHOULD not have mentioned this cuftom, had I not feen many
ſeamen, through mere habit, put it in practice, and fail, by this
L
movement,
76
AN ESSAY ON
movement, in their evolution; which would however have fuc-
ceeded, had they not had the habit of letting go the fore-jib, and
ſtay-fail ſheets. When, as I faid before, theſe have been kept
faft, the edging away can only prolong the time of the evolution;
but, if the fore, jib, and ſtay fail ſheets be let go, as a great many
do at every turn (and as in fome particular cafes it is really found
neceſſary), care must be taken by fuch officers, not to ſuffer the
fhip to fall off too much: becauſe the velocity of the fhip not
being fufficiently kept up (n. 46.), when the fhip comes to the
wind, it follows that ſhe has loft a good deal of it, before ſhe is
come to the critical part of the evolution, where all the fails fhake
or fhiver. So that, when the fhip is at that point, the velocity is
fo much diminiſhed, that the rudder has not power enough to caufe
her to double it: on the other hand, the fore part of the ſhip is
no longer carried to the wind with the fame force, fince the veffel
no longer ſhocks the fluid (n. 47.) with her firſt velocity.
THE mizen is hauled out to help the rudder; becauſe theſe two
forces act together in impelling the after part of the ſhip to lee-
ward (nn. 40. & 50.), when the helm is a-lee, and the ſhip of
courſe head to wind; which after part continues that circular
motion, firſt by the effect of the rudder, till the head-way ceaſes;
and then by that of the mizen, till the other fails take the wind
from it. Therefore, when the mizen is becalmed by the other
fails, the evolution is fure, as this could not happen if thoſe fails
were not taken a-back.
You must wait till the fquare fails begin to fhiver, before letting
go the jib and all the ftay fail fheets, which are before the main-
maft; becauſe, till that moment, theſe fails concur to maintain an
equilibrium with the others, and keep up the ſhip's velocity; fince
it is the difpofition of the different fails fet on the different parts of
the ſhip, which gives her more or lefs way through the water
(n. 46.), and becauſe then they are the only ones which tend to
make
{
1
NAVAL
77
TACTIC S.
make the ſhip fall off (n. 31.), fince they are the only fails fit to
be filled, the others being fhivering. It is then abfolutely necef-
fary at this moment to fupprefs their effect, fince it is contrary to
the movement of the fhip, the being to turn now with nothing
but with the fole effect of the rudder and the mizen, as her velo-
city has been maintained till this inftant by all the fails together,
and which fails ought, by all that has been ſaid, to cease acting all
at the fame time, the mizen excepted, the action of which is to be
preferved as long as poffible, in order to help the rudder, which,
in keeping up the movement of rotation of the fhip, will foon
make her clear with activity the critical point of the evolution.
EXPERIENCE has often taught me, that the motion of the ſhip,
in coming to the wind, at the moment the jib and ſtay fail ſheets
are all let go, is very rapid, provided the other fails ſhiver; becauſe,
the velocity of the fhip, at that moment, is as great as when al
the fails were expoſed to the impulfion of the wind. Confequently,
the effort of the rudder is likewife very powerful (n. 50), fince the
rapidity of failing has not diminiſhed.
THE mizen fail is to be braced up fo far as to join the main
ſhrouds to windward, becauſe in that ſituation it is expoſed as much
as it poffibly can to the wind, and receives confequently a ſtronger
and longer impulfion*; and, again, becauſe it is trimmed for good,
and keeps fo, even after the evolution has been performed. It will
not be difficult to conceive that reafoning for any one of thofe who
are acquainted with the ſituation of that fail, and who must know
it cannot be braced but between the aftermoft main ſhrouds.
THE mizen top-fail fhould be filled as foon as it is taken a-back,
becauſe, being fuddenly cloſe hauled about for the other tack, it
forces
* This is only neceffary in light winds, when the fhip's ſtaying is doubtful; and
and then the ſpanker boom kept well to windward is.of the higheſt utility.
L 2
TRANSLI
78
AN ESSAY ON
forces the ftern to leeward, as well as would the mizen (n. 44.),
and, by this new difpofition, accelerates the evolution. Whereas,
if it were left longer in its firſt fituation, it would retard that evo-
lution, by impelling the after part to windward (n. 45). Another
reaſon for not ſuffering the mizen top-fail to lie longer in its firſt
fituation, is becauſe it is ready fet and trimmed, fit to be inflated
by the wind, when turned about on the other tack, after the ſhip
is fallen off, and thus become very uſeful, in moderating the ftern
and lee-way of the fhip.
AT this fame time, the weather clue and fheets of the main-fail
are to be hauled up, in order that all may be ready to brace round
for the other tack.´
THE main-fails are to be filled when the wind is right a-head
becauſe, ift, at this time the fails on that maſt are becalmed by
thoſe of the fore-maft: 2dly, ſhould they be left longer in this
fituation, they would counteract the head-fails (nn. 37, 38, 44,
& 45.) which are braced up for the fame tack, and in the fame
manner; and, finally, becauſe, were it not for this manœuvre, the
fine of incidence of the wind on them would be continually in-
creafing as the flip were falling off, which would more and more
retard her bearing away. It is therefore neceffary they ſhould be
changed at the moment when the fine of incidence of the wind
which ftrikes them is lefs than would another greater, by which
they would undoubtedly be ftruck if they were continued longer
without being braced about, and than would likewife have been
the other ſtill greater fign of incidence by which they muſt have
been ftruck, had they been hauled as foon as they were taken
a-back; which would have increaſed their power, in giving the
ſhip ftern-way. So that, the moment the wind is right a-head
is the moſt favourable to haul about, and fill the fails, on the main-
maſt; for, if this were done fooner, they would more fuddenly
ſtop the ship's head-way, and make her fall to leeward in decreaſing
the
J
NAVAL TACTICS.
79
the effect of the rudder. It is, notwithſtanding, not untrue, that
the evolution ſhould be more rapid, if the fails on the main-maſt
were filled as foon as they are taken a-back: becauſe (n. 44.)
they would impel the after part of the ſhip to leeward. But, this
effect of the after fails ought never to be attended to, except when
the ſhip has loft her velocity, and the rudder its power. Whence
it muſt be derived as a conclufion, that the ſhip will always fall off
with great celerity, as foon as the main-fail is hauled.
THE jib and ſtay fail ſheets are alſo to be ſhifted at this very fame
time, if they have not been lowered before; becauſe, if ſooner,
they would take the wind in again, which muſt not be done before
the ſhip has fallen off fufficiently to clear over the direction of the
wind.
THE helm is to be righted if the fhip has loft her way; becauſe,
if it were continued a-lee, as in the first inftant, and the ſhip
fhould get ftern-way, the rudder (n. 58.) would oppoſe the evolu-
tion, which cannot mifs being finiſhed with fufficient rapidity by
the fole effect of the head-fails, as theſe are now fully expofed to
the
power of the wind. For great care must be taken not to flack
the bow-lines, as is often done by people who act more from cuſtom
than reflection.
THE head fails are to be filled, when the fhip has got over the
direction of the wind by 45°, or thereabouts; becaufe, if they
were left longer a-back, the motion of falling off the ship would
become too rapid, and too great. If they are braced about brifkly
at the time before mentioned, they may be made to fhiver, which,
by diminiſhing their effects, will moderate the great velocity of
falling off the fhip has acquired (n. 37).
THE helm ought to be put a-lee (n. 58.) if the ſhip goes a-ftern,
in order to affift her falling off, which is now carried on by the
mere vis inertia only, which cauſes her to continue to bear away,
and by the jib and ſtay fails before the center of gravity. Thus the
ſhip.
३०.
AN ESSAY ON
fhip falls off moderately, in yielding to the wind by 12° or 20° only,
more large than if cloſe hauled; becauſe the after fails, being
trimmed ſharp, foon bring the ſhip to the wind, and give her head-
way (n. 41). Let it not be forgotten, that the helm ought not to
be put
a-lee in hauling off all, unleſs you judge the ſhip not ſuffi-
ciently inclined to fall off, which ſeldom happens when ſhe is come
to this point.
OBSERVATION S.
THE demonftration of this evolution comprehends the whole
play of the fails and of the rudder; fo that all other demonftrations
might be confidered as fo many corollaries deduced from it.
REMARK S.
THERE are circumftances fometimes when it is found neceffary
to tack, without caring much whether the ſhip looſes to windward.
For example; when a fhip is found fuddenly to be cloſe to the
land; in the night, or in foggy weather; near a danger, or ſome
veffel, which muſt inſtantly be avoided by ſtaying the fhip, becauſe
you find yourſelf to windward and too near the object from which
wish to recede. In this cafe, when it is neceffary to deaden the
ſhip's way, and tack at the fame time, you muſt fuddenly put the
helm hard a-lee; and, in the fame inftant, let go the jib, fore, and
ſtay fail's fheets, without touching the bow-lines *; and when the
you
fails
* Care must be taken that the effect of the mizen is preferved as much as poffible;
if the head fails take properly a-back and bring her round, the reſt of the evolution
is the fame as in the foregoing problem; but ſhould the ſhip miſs ſtays, proceed
according to the ſecond method of veering, called box-hauling +. TRANSL.
† Vide (n. 2.), Chap. III.
·
NAVAL TACTICS.
81
fails begin to fhiver, the mizen is to be hauled quite in the lee
braces: then, if the ſhip takes well the wind a-head, the remainder
of the manœuvre must be executed as before directed in the other
cafe: but if you ſhould come to miſs tacking, we ſhall adviſe what
is to be done in the ſecond method of veering.
DEMONSTRATION.
It is eaſily conceived that, in letting go the fore, the jib, and
the ſtay-fails ſheets, the ship's head-way will be diminiſhed (n. 46),
while, at the fame time, almoſt all the forces forward are taken
away which might hinder her coming to the wind (n. 31.): there-
fore, the ſhip must come to it rapidly by the effect of her after
fails (n. 41) which are trimmed ſharp, and by the power of the
helm (n. 50), till all the fails ſhake. It is alſo eaſy to conceive
that when the mizen is hauled in the lee braces, it has a greater
power to impel the after part of the fhip to leeward, and the fails
conſequently to take a-back. So that the ship's head-way will the
fooner be ſtopped; and, the fore ſheet being gone, the fail to wind-
ward makes a large cavity between the maft and ſhrouds; which
very much contributes to fend the fhip a-ftern. Attention ought
therefore to be paid to catch the inftant, when the head-way ceaſes,
to ſhift the helm and aid the fhip in her evolution; as we hinted
already. The reaſon this method is not always practiſed, is becauſe
the ſhip would lofe a deal of ground in driving to leeward, in
wearing thus. It ought, therefore, never to be uſed but when
neceffity obliges, and the veffel has good way through the water;
for, if ſhe has not, fhe will generally by this manœuvre miſs ſtays;
in which cafe, you are to act according to the fecond problem in
the following Chapter *.
CHAPTER
* The head bow-lines are never to be checked; the reafons are obvious to every
thinking feaman; there is therefore no occafion for further comment. TRANSL.
82
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER III.
ARTICLE I
PROBLEM I.
To veer a ſhip, without loofing the wind out of the fails.
SOLUTION.
To execute this evolution, both the main-fail and mizen muſt
be hauled up, the helm put a-weather, and the mizen top-fail a-
ſhivering, which will be kept fo till the wind be right aft, ſup-
preffing for that purpoſe the effect of all the ſtay-fails abaft the
center of gravity. As the fhip veers (which fhe will do very
rapidly), round in the weather braces of the fails on the fore and
main maſt, in keeping them exactly trimmed to the direction of
the wind, and remembering alfo the bow-lines are not to be ſtarted
till the ſhip begins to veer. Then, as fhe falls off, eafe away the
fore ſheet, raiſe the tack, and gather aft the weather ſheet, as the
lee one is eaſed off; fo that, when the fhip is right before the
wind, the yards will be exactly fquare, or perpendicular to the
keel. Then ſhift over the jib and ſtay-ſail ſheets; and the ſhip
continuing her evolution, haul on board the fore and main tacks,
and trim all ſharp fore and aft, remembering to haul aft the mizen
and mizen ſtay-fail fheets as foon as they will take the right way,
or when the fhip's ftern has a little paffed the direction of the wind.
When the wind is on the beam, right the helm, to moderate the
great velocity with which the hip comes too; the fails being
trimmed, ftand on by the wind.
·
DEMONSTRATION.
NAVAL TACTIC S.
83
DEMONSTRATIO N.
THE main-fail and mizen are hauled up, and the mizen top-fail
ſhivered, in order to favour and facilitate the evolution (nn. 40. &
41). The main-fail, however, might be excepted from this rule,
by letting go the main-ſheet (n. 49.), and manœuvering it like the
main top-fail. The helm is put a-weather, becauſe, in that fitua-
tion, the rudder (n. 50.) cauſes the ſhip to fall off, or yield to the
impulſe of the wind, by impelling the after part of the fhip to
windward with fo much the more velocity as the power of the
head fails exceeds that of thoſe abaft (n. 47), and as, the rapidity of
failing increaſing, the effect of the helm augments in the ſame pro-
portion. The fails are trimmed to the direction of the wind, as
the ſhip veers, to increaſe her head-way, and of courſe the power
of the rudder (n. 58.); which, in great evolutions, is the chief
mover, and principal agent of the movement of the fhip. So that,
its effects being augmented, the ſhip's circular motion is of courſe
accelerated in the fame ratio; and, if the wind be well followed,
every
fail will be found properly trimmed when the evolution is
finiſhed. It follows alfo that, fince the fails muſt be kept in a
proper fituation with reſpect to the wind, except the mizen top-
fail, which, from its fituation on the after extremity of the ſhip,
would retard her veering; the fore ſheet muſt be eaſed off to lée-
ward, and gathered aft to windward, but in proportion as the ſhip
falls off. It is alfo evident, for the fame reaſon, that the bow-
lines must not be ſtarted, till the fhip begins to veer. When the
wind is right aft, the jib and ſtay-fail ſheets, which are then be-
calmed by the fquare fails, are fhifted, becauſe the fhip coming to
the wind, they are ready trimmed, and are thereby highly ſervice-
able in keeping her under command.
M
(
THE
$4
AN ESSAY ON
THE mizen is hauled out as foon as the fhip's ftern has paffed
the direction of the wind, to accelerate her coming to (n. 40.);
and the fails fore and aft ought to be trimmed fharp at the ſame
moment, in order to keep to the wind without lofing any time.
For the above-mentioned reafons is the main tack got on board,
and the fheet aft, when the wind is on the quarter. 2, E. D.
ARTICLE
II.
PROBLEM II.
To box-haul a ſhip, or the second method of veering.
SOLUTION,
In the performance of this evolution, the moſt rapid execution
is effential. It is done by brifkly, and at the fame inftant, hauling
up both the main-fail and the mizen; fhivering the main and mizen
top-fails; putting the helm hard a-lee; raifing the fore tack; let-
ting go the head bowlines, and bracing about the head yards ſharp
the other way; and letting the jib and ſtay-fail ſheets go in the
fame inftant. When the ſhip has fallen off 90°, fill the after ſails-
by bracing them ſquare, in order to give the ſhip a little way, and
to help her (with the rudder, the fituation of which muſt be
changed) to double the point where all the fails fhiver; and, when
the wind is aft, you will maneuver for the reft of the evolution as
in the firſt problem of this Chapter.
OBSERVATION.
If the circular motion of the ſhip, after he has fallen off 90°,
ſhould be ſtill ſufficiently rapid, the filling of the after fails, to give
the ſhip head-way, may be difpenfed with; becauſe fhe continues
to turn by the effect of her helm, which muſt not be ſhifted (n. 58),
fince
NAVAL TACTICS.
85
fince the veffel ftill continues her ftern-way. Therefore, after
having veered a few degrees more, the wind will fill all the fails,
and the ſhip, confequently, will have head-way (nn. 35. & 43).
Then the fituation of the rudder muſt be changed (n. 50.), to
bring her before the wind; and finiſh the evolution by maneuvering
as before.
DEMONSTRATION.
RATIO
I SAY this manœuvre ought to be performed with the utmoſt
promptitude, becauſe it is never practiſed but in critical fituations;
ſuch, for example, as finding the ſhip unexpectedly cloſe to the land,
or being under neceffity to act in prefence of an enemy; or, again,
becauſe every thing acts together and at the fame time, or becauſe
the ſhip miffes ftays.
THE reaſons for hauling up the main and the mizen fails, and
ſhivering the mizen top-fail, having been given before, we have
only to add, that the reaſon why the main top-fail is ſhivered, is,
that if it were kept full, it would bring the fhip to the wind
(n. 41.), by fhooting her a-head, fo that he would almoft be laid-
to. If this fail were braced a-back, more than perfectly ſquare or
perpendicular to the keel, it would ftill keep the ſhip to the wind,
fince it would be braced the fame way with the head fails. There-
fore, it would impel the after part of the ſhip to leeward (n. 44),
and act in conſequence againſt the power of the head fails, which
ought to cauſe the fhip to veer rapidly, becauſe they receive the
wind on their anterior ſurfaces (n. 37. & 38.) with a very great fine
of incidence. Whence it must be concluded, that it is abfolutely
neceffary to keep the after fails fhivering till the ſhip has fallen off
90°, or thereabouts; becaufe, then, all the fails are trimmed and
ſhivering in the fame direction, fince the head fails were fuddenly
braced ſharp a-back in the beginning of the evolution to promote
the fhip's veering; and the after fails have alſo been changed at
M 2
the
Gang
86
AN ESSAY ON
the fame time, by bracing them by little and little to the wind, to
keep them fhivering, as the fhip falls off. So that, if the fails have
been well manœuvered, they will all be found ſhivering at the fame
time; and, in this fituation, they no longer act on the fhip, which
will not double this point by the fole effect of the helm, which
was put
hard a-lee in the beginning of the evolution, to heave up
in the wind, with all poffible expedition, the fhip, which, foon
after getting ftern-way, falls off rapidly, both by the effect of her
fails, and by that of her rudder, which is well diſpoſed, it is true,
for this movement (n. 58), but has not always fufficient force to
cauſe the ſhip to double the point where all her fails ſhiver, becauſe
the wind, being then on her quarter, acts on the whole machine,
to fend her a-head; fo that, if one ceafed manoeuvering here for a
moment, the fhip would be motionleſs for a time, having loft her
ftern-way. Now, to put her again in action, and prevent her from
driving more than is neceffary to leeward, fill the after fails, as
mentioned above, to give her head-way, in order that, by ſhifting
the helm (n. 50.), the wind may be quickly brought aft.
THE jib and ſtay-fail fheets are let go, becauſe they tend to draw
the ſhip a-head (n. 31).
REMARK.
In a cafe abfolutely dangerous, or when it might be neceffary to
go a-ſtern and fall off ſtill more rapidly, the helm muſt be put alſo
as before, and brace all the fails a-back, having attention not to
brace the after fails more than fquare or perpendicular to the keel,
that they may not counteract the head fails, which are braced ſharp
a-back to pay the fhip's head off; becauſe, the effect of the after-
fails, in this fituation, is to impel the fhip exactly abaft in the
direction of the keel (n. 36.); which, with thoſe forward, con-
tributes to give her freſh ſtern-way, in order to cauſe the ſhip to
veer (n. 58.) with greater celerity, the helm being a-lee.
The
jib
NAVAL TACT I C S.
87
jib and ftay-fail ſheets before the main maft being hauled flat over
to windward, will affift the fhip in falling off and going a-ftern,
(n. 31).
OBSERVATION S.
WHEN a fhip makes a chapel *, that is to fay, is taken a-back,
by bad ſteerage or a fhift of wind, fhe will be brought to the fame
tack again, by inftantly bracing fharp round the head fails, and.
keeping faft the jib and ftay-fail fheets. One must recollect, alfo,
the after fails are not to be touched (n. 45.) till the fhip has ſuffi-
ciently fallen off; and, when that ſhall be the cafe, trim the fails
and ſtand on as before. The rudder is to be uſed, as occafion may
require, according to the 50th and 58th (nn.), whether the ship
has head or stern way.
CHAPTER IV.
"
Of lying-to.
THE lying-to is the art of difpofing the fails in fuch a manner,
as that, by counteracting each other, they render the ſhip as it
were immoveable with reſpect to the diſpoſition fhe has, by her
form, to divide the fluid, at either extremity, with facility.
BUT,
*)
* A ſhip is faid to be chapelling, when ſhe is turned round in a light breeze of
wind, being cloſe hauled, ſo as that ſhe will lie the fame way ſhe did before. This
is commonly occafioned by the negligence of the fteërfman, or by a ſudden change
of the wind. TRANSLAT.
D
88
AN ESSAY ON
BUT, as this manœuvre is feldom practiſed but under the three
top-fails, it is indifferent whether the fore or main top-fails be
braced a-back, or kept full; becauſe, as theſe two fails have fur-
faces nearly equal, which, by right, fhould be abfolutely fo, they
have the fame power either to stop the fhip's way, or to cauſe her
to run a-head; their pofition being fuch, that when theſe two fails
act together, or one againſt the other, there is always one tending
to pay the ſhip's head off, and the other to keep her to the wind
(nn. 32, 37, 41, & 44). But there are alſo other confiderations
to be attended to, when neceffity requires this manœuvre to be put
in practice. For example, when you bring-to to the windward of
a fhip which you wish to avoid drifting near, the main top-fail
muſt be braced ſharp a-back, keeping the fore and mizen top-fails
full; becauſe the wind acts with a very ſmall fine of incidence on
a fail when full clofe hauled, in compariſon to that with which it
ftrikes it when braced fharp a-back. So that the fore top-fail,
being full, draws the fhip a-head, and its power of impelling the
ſhip from the wind is ſtopped by the main and mizen top-fails.
She will of courſe not fall off much; nor will her lee-way be very
confiderable; for the ſhip is well kept to the wind, by the difpo-
fition given to her fails.
IF occafion requires to bring-to under the lee of a ſhip, the fore
top-fail ought to be braced ſharp a-back, the main and mizen top-
fails kept full, becauſe theſe two laft-mentioned fails tend to give
the fhip head-way, and keep her to the wind; befides, they may
be affifted by the mizen, which is naturally difpofed to act againſt
the falling off which the ſhip receives from the effect of the fore
top-fail, which is braced a-back, and maintains an equilibrium by
counteracting the after fails. So that, fhould the ſhip to windward
fall off violently, or drift too much, you are more ready to veer
ſhort round, and avoid being boarded; becauſe the fore top-fail
being braced ſharp a-back, the impulfe of the wind on it is much
greater
NAVAL TACTICS.
89
1
greater than if it were full; and is, as a fail, well difpofed to veer
fuddenly, as foon as the power of the other fails fhall be fup-
preffed.
ARTICLE
I.
I.
PROBLEM
To bring-to with the fore or main top-fails a-back to the mast,
or filled..
SOLUTION.
To execute this manœuvre, the fore or main top-fails muſt be
braced ſharp a-back, and the lee bowline hauled up a little: the
other two top-fails trimmed ſharp; with the mizen hauled out,
and the helm a-lee..
DEMONSTRATION..
It has already been demonſtrated, that if the fore or main top--
fail be braced ſharp a-back, while the other remains full by the
wind, the fhip ftands as if it were immoveable, with refpect to
her velocity, in the direction of the keel; fince one of theſe fails
prevents the effects of the other, whether to cauſe the ſhip to fall
off, or to come to the wind; for, their actions are abfolutely con-
trary with reſpect to the center of gravity (n. 18.), and very nearly
equal; therefore, in this fituation, the fhip can but drive to lee-
ward, and will do it at the rate of half a league an hour for the
utmoft.
REMARK S.
IF
If you bring-to with the fore top-fail to the maft, you may do
it by bracing the head yards only fquare, which otherwiſe is called
perpendicular to the keel. Then, the wind will act obliquely on
the
go
ON
AN ESSAY
}
the fail, and the fhip will fall off but little, becauſe its effect is
only in the direction of the keel from forward aft, and the fails
::
abaft keep the ſhip to. The main top-fail may be maneuvered in
the ſame manner, if you wiſh not to expoſe yourſelf much to the
wind.
ARTICLE
II.
PROBLEM II.
To bring-to with the three top-fails a-back.
SOLUTION.
THE jib and ſtay fails being hauled down, brace ſharp round at
once all the fails you wiſh to lay a-back in hauling up, the lee bow-
lines, the better to expofe the fails to the action of the wind; haul
out the mizen, and put the helm hard a-weather.
DEMONSTRATION.
THE jib and all the ſtay fails are hauled down, becauſe they are
before the center of gravity (n. 31.); and the head fails being
braced ſharp a-back, have force enough (n. 37.) to balance the
effect of thoſe abaft (n. 44.); which, being braced in the fame
manner, receive the wind with the fame fine of incidence as thoſe
forward. But, as, in that fituation, the head fails have more power
to cauſe the ſhip to fall off (n. 12.) than thoſe abaft (which are a
little becalmed by thofe forward) have to bring her to the wind,
the mizen is hauled out (n. 40.), and the helm is put a-weather
(n. 58.), becauſe the ſhip goes a-ſtern with all the top-fails to the
maſt. It is then proved, that, in this fituation, the fails, affifted
by the rudder, act the one against the other, and balance recipro-
cally their effects of ſpringing the luff and falling off: and, although
the
NAVAL TACTICS.
.91
J
the ſhip goes a-ſtern and drifts a great deal, ſhe is layed-to; be-
cauſe, in that fituation, fhe yields but with great difficulty to the
impulſe of her fails, on account of the refiftance of the water
(n. 5.) which oppoſes the very great furface of the bottom under
the lee.
REMARK S.
Was there any occafion to wiſh to keep the mizen top-fail full,
it might be done with advantage; becauſe the effect of its acting
againſt the other fails is fo inconfiderable, that it cannot admit of
a compariſon, as its furface is hardly half that of the main top-fail.
If you wiſh to go a-ſtern without falling off, the fore-fails are
IF
to be laid ſquare only.
CHAPTER V.
ARTICLE
I.
•
PROBLEM I.
To fill, when lying-to, with the fore top-fail to the maſt.
SOLUTION.
To fill, and ſtand on, when the fore top-fail is braced fharp
a-back, you muſt brail up the mizen, hoiſt the jib and fore-top-
maft ftay-fail, ſhiver the main and mizen top-fails; and, when the
ſhip has fallen off 20° or 30°, fill the fore top-fail, which was a-
back before, and ftand on.
DEMONSTRATIO N.
THE mizen is hauled up,
the wind may ceafe (n. 40).
are hoiſted, to aid the ſhip in
that its effect of keeping the ſhip to
The jib and fore-top-maft ftay-fails
falling off (n. 31). The main and
N
mizen
92
AN ESSAY ON
mizen top-fails are fhivered, becauſe their effects are contrary
(nn. 41. & 4.4.) to the movement expected from the fhip. There-
fore, every thing, which may caufe her keeping to the wind, ceafing
to act, and every thing, which can promote her falling off, now
operating, it follows ſhe muſt fall off with a celerity ſo much the
greater, as the helm is ſtill a-lee (n. 58.), becauſe the ſhip goes
a-ftern, fince her head-fails are braced a-back, and her after-fails
ſo diſpoſed and ſhivering, that, when ſhe has fallen off fufficiently,
the head fails fill, and you ſtand on directly.
ARTICLE
PROBLEM
II.
To fill, when lying-to, with the main top-fail to the mast
II.
SOLUTION.
BRACE fharp and brifkly the fore top-fail a-back; ſhiver the
main and mizen top-fails; hoift the jib and fore-top-maſt ſtay-
fails, and brail up the mizen, all at the fame time; and, when the
ſhip has fallen off 20° or 30°, fill the fore top-fail, that the ship
may ſtand on her courſe.
DEMONSTRATION.
THE fore top-fail is braced fharp a-back, in order to cauſe the-
veffel to fall off with greater promptitude, as then it receives a very
ftrong impulfion from the wind (n. 37.); as for the reft of the
demonſtration, it is the fame as in the foregoing problem.
REMARK S.
If you are obliged to keep the wind on the fame tack as that on
IF
which you are lying-to, you have only to right the helm, fill the
top-fail which is a-back, and trim it sharp, to continue your
courfe.
ANOTHER
-%
NAVAL TACTICS.
93
ANOTHER method would be to trim the top-fail which was to
the maſt, in order to give the fhip way through the water, and
be able to tack, or run large, according as may be found neceffary.
But this method is very tedious, unless you mean to heave in ſtays,
in which cafe it will be moſt expeditious.
WHEN you lie-to with the main top-fail a-back, you may fill
and continue your courfe by fhivering it, and the mizen top-fail,
keeping the top-fail full, righting the helm, and running up the
jib and fore-top-maſt ſtay-fail at the fame time. As foon as the
ſhip has fallen off enough to get head-way, fill the after-fails, and
keep the ſhip in the direction you mean to follow. It is eaſily ſeen
that this method, though the moſt common, is not the moſt expe-
ditious, when you have to veer confiderably.
ARTICLE
I
III.
PROBLEM
III.
To fill, when lying-to with all the fails to the mast.
SOLUTION.
LET the mizen be brailed up, lay the after yards fquare or per-
pendicular to the keel, and ſhift the helm a-lee. When the ſhip
has fallen off fufficiently to fill, by her movement, the after-fails,
thofe forward are then to be braced about and trimmed full alſo,
in order to ſtand on in the direction you with to fteer.
DEMONSTRATIO N.
THE mizen is brailed up, because its effect is to keep the hip
to the wind (n. 40). The after yards are braced perpendicular to
the keel, becauſe, in that fituation, they have no other effect than
that of giving the fhip ftern-way (n. 36.), which caufes her to fall
off, fince they increaſe her velocity in the laſt-mentioned direction,
N 2
the
94
AN ESSAY ON
the helm being a-lee ſo as to turn the ſtern to windward (n. 58).
The head fails are braced about and filled at the fame time as the
after fails are fo, that the fhip may not be as it were laid-to, and
that ſhe may get head-way to continue her courfe.
CHAPTER VI.
Of lying-to in a gale of wind.
To lie-to, when it blows hard, is to keep as cloſe as poffible to
the wind, under one fail only, well trimmed, with the helm laſhed
a-lee as much as may be requifite for the fhip. And as fhips com-
monly bring-to from the ftrefs of contrary winds, which will not
admit of carrying other fails, care ought to be taken of lying-to
under that which will leaſt ſtrain the fhip; becauſe there are ſome
ſhips which behave better under the fore-fail than the main-fail 0
others are more eafy under the laft-mentioned fail; fome are found
to do very well under a
well under a mizen; and many veſſels lie-to beſt under
a main ftay-fail.
LYING-TO under a fore-fail is advantageous for veering (n. 32.)
when you are well to windward; but it augments the lee-way, and
is more fubject than any other fail to cauſe the ſea to break on board,
on account of the fhip's continual falling off: becauſe, in that
movement, fhe gathers way by yielding to the impulfe of the gale,
and is afterwards recalled to the wind by the helm (n. 50): ſo that
in the ſpringing of the luff fhe goes up to and meets the wave
which comes from to windward, and, as ſhe reſiſts it powerfully,
that mutual ſhock cauſes it to riſe, and fall on board the ſhip.
LYING-TO under a main-fail does not fuffer the fhip to fall off
ſo eaſily as the laſt-mentioned mode, becauſe its effect paffes abaft
the center of gravity of the fhip (n. 41); but it keeps the fhip
more to the wind, and confequently occafions lefs lee- way.
UNDER
✓
NAVAL TACTIC´S.
95%
UNDER the mizen, fhips keep better to the wind, than under
any
other fail, becauſe this fail is farther abaft the center of gravity.
(n. 40.) than any of the reft; confequently ought to keep the veffel·
from drifting more than any of the others; but is inconvenient,,
ſhould you have occafion to veer ſuddenly.
UNDER the main ſtay-fail, a ſhip will not make ſo much lee-way
as under a fore-fail, becauſe its effort paffes very near the center of
gravity of the veſſel; but it will however cauſe her to drift more
(n. 31.) than the main-fail (n. 41.): fo that. this mode of lying-to
is a mean between the two others, and is preferable when it blows
ſtrong enough for that fail to fupport the rolling of the fhip. It
ought farther to be preferred, becauſe the ſhip will veer under that
fail, the action of which paffes at a ſmall diſtance from the center
of gravity (n. 31.), and the power of which furpaffes the reſiſtance
which all ſhips meet from the fluid under their lee; a refiftance
which always gives them a great inclination to fly up in the wind,
when it blows hard, or when under a heavy prefs of fail.
ALL thefe different modes of lying-to have, as we have obferved,
their different and peculiar faults: that is the reaſon why, for my
part, I prefer being under the fore ſtay-fail, the main ſtay-fail, and
mizen ſtay-fail; becauſe, under theſe fails, the ſhip will ſteer
(n. 46.), and is in a better fituation for veering than under any
other fail; for you have only to haul down your mizen ſtay-fail, and
put the helm a-weather; the two other fails being before the center
of gravity (nn. 30. & 31.) of the ſhip, will cauſe her to fall off,,
ſhe will then foon gather way, and fteer eaſily.
SHOULD the gale continue very hard, and one of theſe ſtay-fails
be blown away, the lofs is not of a very great confequence, as you:
have the courſes, in cafe of an emergency, ready to fet; whereas
it is not always in your power to replace any one of theſe, when
you come to looſe them, and you find yourſelf much embarraffed,
particularly in thoſe moſt violent and ſudden ſhifts of wind, when
:
O
fhips
6
AN ESSAY ON
Q
Thips generally loofe every rag of canvas they have fet*. So that to
lie-to under the three fails above mentioned, to me appears pre-
ferable in every refpect, whether you wish to veer, or keep your
wind becauſe, if you find the fhip does not fufficiently keep the
wind, you may haul out the mizen (n. 40.), (which by this time is
Suppoſed to be balanced,) or take in the fore ſtay-fail (n. 31.), or
even the main ſtay-fail. One of theſe ſtay-fails, before the center
of gravity of the ſhip, is fufficient to make her veer as ſoon as the
after ones are fuppreffed. There are befides theſe other confidera-
tions ftill for fo doing. The fhip will carry fail better; becauſe,
as the center of effort of thoſe on her is very low, the drifts lefs,
holds a better wind, and goes faſter through the water (nn. 25. &
46.); and theſe three or four fails are fituated in fuch a manner as
to give the whole body of the fhip play; which will ftrain her lefs
than when under one fingle fail, which cannot by itſelf work it
from aft forward.
:
DEMONSTRATION.
THE object of lying-to being to keep to windward as much as
poffible, when foul winds, and tempeftuous weather, prevent you
from purſuing your courfe, it follows, as much fail fhould be car-
ried, as is conſiſtent with ſafety; and, as you are often unable to ſet
more than one fail, it is trimmed ſharp, that the ſhip may keep
her wind as much as poffible. It is alfo for this reafon the helm
is at the fame time put a-lee; becauſe the fhip having but very
little way (n. 46.), fhe falls off, in yielding from time to time
to the impulse of the wind, which acts on her without ceafing;
but,
*If the fate of the Ramilies, when lying-to under a main-fail, be recollected,
thoſe who loofed theſe fails only may deem themſelves extremely fortunate.
SHOULD the ſea run too high for the lower ftay-fails to keep the ſhip ſteady, a
cloſe-reefed main-top-fail (particularly if it has four reefs in it to come cloſe down
to the cap) will be found to anſwer the purpoſe admirably.
(
NAVAL
97
TACTICS.
but, as foon as ſhe has fallen off, the veffel is brought to again by
the effect of the rudder (n. 50), which cannot fail acting upon her:
if the water has but ever fo little power upon it.
THE fame thing happens in lying-to under the three ftay-fails-
(though the ſhip makes more headway under any other ſail), becauſe
the effect of theſe fails is better diftributed (n. 46.) than when
there is but one of them only fet; notwithſtanding they have not:
power enough to procure the ſhip much velocity, nor to make her
ſteer properly; the helm is therefore put a-lee as in lying-to under
any other fail.
There are fine failing fhips, which ſteer very well
under theſe fails, which muſt be very attentively taken notice of:
for, it is always more advantageous to keep the ſhip under way and
lively, than to let her lay motionleſs at the mercy of the wind and
waves.
WHEN the wind is fo violent that no fail can be carried, you lie-
to a-dry; that is to fay, under bare poles and ropes, which ſerve as »
and inſtead of fails, and lafh the helm a-lee as ufual *.
PROBLEM.
* THERE are hurricanes in the Weft-Indies which are fo dreadful, and which have ·
cauſed fuch damages to fhips, that I think it is not improper to ſay a word of them
here, eſpecially as I am of opinion that, with a little more caution, care, and ſkill,
in the officers who had the manoeuvering of them, a great many accidents might
have been avoided, nay, even prevented, by obferving ſome of the precepts above deli-
vered by the learned Author of the preſent Work, and ſome of our beſt ſhips could
have been faved and brought back to Europe, which have been totally loft in thoſe
latitudes.
G
•
IT is in the months of Auguft, September, and October, thoſe moſt dreadful
ftorms are always to be expected. And, notwithſtanding this previous and general
knowledge, which they, who frequent thofe feas, have of what they are to expect,
at ſuch a ſeaſon, I have known a ſhip attacked by one of thoſe hurricanes which
hardly knew where to find a grating or tarpaulin for the hatches; by which neglect
the ſhip was very near being fent to the bottom, had it not been for the utmoſt exer-
tions of pumping and baling, and a relief ſtill more efficacious, I mean the main,
quarter-deck, and forecaſtle guns, as well as the main and mizen mafts, which went.
naturally;
་
•
~998
AN ESSAY ON
·
•
naturally over the fide at that time. Had it not been, indeed, for thefe lucky cir-
cumftances, the fhip muft infallibly have foundered. It is very clear to me that a
number of our veffels have fuffered from nothing but a want of attention to the
important point of the hurricanes fo common in thofe feas. For, the examples I have
ſeen of that, are fufficient to convince people more incredulous than I am, that,
with ſkill, attention, and proper provifions to guard againſt thoſe accidents, they
might fave the ſhip from being loft. As a proof, I will quote the very fame ſhip, which,
Strange to tell! the year following, was, if poffible, ftill worſe provided for than
the firſt time againſt the hurricane by which fhe was attacked. And, to illuftrate this
matter, I will attempt to give here a ſhort account of twelve hours proceedings.
"
THE fhip riding in Bluefields, in the South-Weft of the island of Jamaica,
with one third of a cable on the fmall bower, and top-gallant yard acrofs, it came on
to blow between the hours of three and four in the afternoon; and it gradually
freſhened more and more till fix, when it blew very hard. The ſteps taken to rid
the fhip were fingular, and fuch as, I dare ſay, a ſeaman would little dream of.
Inſtead of making the neceſſary preparations uſual in blowing weather, and giving
the ſhip more cable, another anchor was let go under foot (top-gallant yards ftill
acroſs). Then, at feven, fhe parted the fmall bower, took the beſt bower on her
houlder, and drove off the bank. Now, it was thought expedient to get down the
top-gallant yards, which was performed with ſome difficulty, as the fhip was then lying
along fo that the main-deck guns almoſt touched the water. The top-gallant maſts
· were next attempted, but too late; for, the gale raged at that moment ſo violently that
no man could go aloft. The beſt bower anchor was heaved up; but, for want of being
able to fecure it properly, it was foon found neceffary to cut the cable and let it go.
All the neceffaries for battening down the hatches were now, as the year 'before, to
be looked for. The gratings were however, after a deal of trouble, muftered up
from the different parts of the ſhip to their reſpective places, and the hatches were
battened down juft as might have been expected from fuch a fituation, which was
very unfit for that operation; fince it required the whole and conftant effort of the
pumps to free the ſhip of the water which was pouring down through the hatchways.
But
PROBLEM.
To veer fhip when lying-to under a main-fail.
SOLUTION.
ADVANTAGE muſt be taken of the ſhip's falling off to put
the
helm a-weather, and eaſe away the main ſheet roundly; and when
the
•
!
NAVAL TACTICS.
·
99
the fhip has fallen off about 30°, the bowline is to be let go, and
the weather brace rounded in, taking care to keep the fail full.
When
But, what elſe could be expected in fuch a circumftance? This fo effential piece of
ſervice had never been thought of till the ſhip was almoft on her beam ends from the
violence of the wind; and much indeed cannot be expected from the execution of
the carpenter's hammer, when he himſelf, amidſt fuch a dreadful warring of the
elements, and the horrors of a night as dark as Erebus, is deprived of all the facul-
ties of his foul by fear, and of his body by the rolling of the ſhip; for no one can
ftand faft.
By this time, the hurricane was become dreadful beyond conception; its action
was like that of fire: every thing difappeared which oppofed it; and the maſts,
notwithſtanding their fize and folidity, powerfully ſupported by the rigging, were
no longer able to refift its unremitting fury. The mizen maſt went first; in about
two minutes afterwards the main maft followed; and, inftantly after, went the fore-
maſt and bowſprit. This moſt diſtreſsful fituation of the ſhip is undoubtedly more
eafy to conceive than to defcribe: terror and aftoniſhment, for an inftant, feized
every mind, oppreffed every heart. But, this ftupor was only momentary, and
was foon overcome by that intrepidity and indifference to danger which ſo eminently
characteriſes Britiſh ſeamen; and the wreck, confidering the tremendous concurrence
of the winds and waves againſt ſuch an operation, was however cleared away with
wonderful alacrity.
ABOUT this time, the wind chopped round to the Southward, and raiſed a moſt
dreadful fea. The tiller was now carried away; but its place was ſoon ſupplied by
the ſmall one in the cabin. The fhip continued to drift all night, with the pumps
inceffantly going. At the break of day, the land was feen right under the lee,
about two miles diftance. The afpect of this land was however far from being
pleaſant, as it was high fteep rocks, and there were no foundings near them. Of
faving the ſhip, hardly a ray of hope now remained; for, the wind, though much
abated, ftill continued to blow with great violence dead on fhore. The fore-maft,
on which was hoiſted a mizen top-gallant fail, was gone about twelve feet above
deck.. The ſtumps of the main and mizen mafts were about the fame height; upon
which, while employed to get fails fet, the wind providentially fhifted from South
to Eaft, which, co-operating with a moft rapid Wefterly current running on fhore,
cleared the fhip of the rocks, by making her paſs them within about two cables
lengths.
Now, notwithſtanding the dreadful violence of thofe hurricanes, let us examine
whether, by proper precautions, their tremendous effects might not be greatly pal-
O
liated.
100
AN ESSAY ON
When the ſhip is before the wind, get on board the main tack,
and right the helm, to moderate her coming-to, and trim all fharp
in order to keep her to.
IF,
liated. For example, let us fee what fhould have been done before the gale was
become outrageous, for there was time fufficient to do a great deal of bufinefs, as it
came but flow, and gradually. Firſt, on finding the approach of this dreadful tem-
peſt, inſtead of driving to ſea with top-gallant yards acroſs, the top-fail yards fhould.
have been taken down upon deck, and the top-mafts lowered clofe down, and their
heels well fecured. The rigging ſhould have been made fnug and firm on the tops ;.
the ſprit-fail yard and jib-boom taken in; and the croſs-jack and mizen yards low-
ered down. Good down-haul tackles fhould have been fixed to the fore and main.
yards, to get them down and ſecured clofe to the gunwale as ſoon as they are found
of no further uſe than to ſtrain the mafts. The fhrouds alſo ſhould have been well
fwifted if flack, the booms and boats well frapped, the hatchways well fecured, the
lower-deck guns double breeched, coined, and fecurely muzzle-lafhed. The ſpare
tiller ſhould have been at hand, with the relieving tackles ready in the gun-room,
in caſe of accident to the tiller rope. The fore locks of the main deck, forecaſtle,
and quarter-deck guns ſhould have been loofened, ready for their being thrown over--
board, in cafe the hurricane fhould continue any confiderable time, and by its vio-
lence much weaken the fhip; as was the cafe, to a moft perilous degree, with his
Majeſty's fhip HECTOR, in the violent hurricane of the year 1780; when, in order
to prevent her foundering, ſhe was obliged to throw every gun fhe had into the ſea.
✔
EVERY thing being now thus in order, and quite ready or prepared againſt any
accident which may happen, if you think, from the appearance of the weather, you
have time to lift your anchor, let it be done, as it may be of effential ſervice before
the gale is over; if not, cut and run, for fear, by a ſhift of wind, you fhould get
dangerouſly land-locked.
THE lower yards are ftill to be kept aloft, that the courſes may be ſet if the force
of the wind will admit, to enable you with all poffible expedition to get clear of the
land. Then, when you find you have got a fufficient offing, the yards are to be
Jowered down and fecured to the gunwale.
BUT, ſhould the gale be too far advanced to allow the courſes to be fet, the fhip
may run off before the wind under the lower ſtay-fails, as the ſea is yet (compara-
tively ſpeaking) tolerably fmooth, fince the wind is off the land. And, when the
gale becomes too powerful for the ftay-fails, they are to be hauled down, and fecurely
ſtowed, to prevent their being blown away. Then the ſhip, under her bare poles, will
run
ma
NAVAL
101
TACTIC S.
IF, in the beginning of the evolution, the ſhip is difficult to
veer, the fore-ſtay-fail may be hoifted and the fheets hauled well aft:
but it is to be hauled down as foon as the ſhip is before the wind.
DEMONSTRATION.
run before the wind with a fufficient rapidity to get at the neceſſary diſtance from the
fhore. That point being obtained, lafh the helm a-lee, and wait for the event.
WHAT is here recommended to be done, in ſtriking maſts and yards, and carrying
fails off fhore, muſt be confidered as a mere intimating of what might have been
executed on board the ſhip first mentioned, confidering the fituation of the land and
the progreſs of the gale; for, we are well apprifed that different times and different
fituations render different manoeuvres neceffary.
ONE thing, however, is brought by experience to a very great point of certainty;
viz. that the weight aloft muſt be very much diminiſhed if you want to ſave the
lower maſts: that is to ſay, that the top maſts muſt be lowered down as well as thè
lower and top-fail yards. If this cannot be done, they muft, if poffible, be cut
away, or the loſs of the lower maſts is unavoidable; a weighty confideration, as,
(not to mention the riſk the ſhip runs from a total inability to manoeuver, while the
violent ſwell, which always is the confequence of thoſe tempefts, continues,) if we
confider again how often the extreme motion of the fhip renders all attempts to get
up the jury-mafts abortive, it will appear moſt evident that the prefervation of the
lower mafts is of the higheſt conſequence abroad.
GETTING the lower yards down and fecured to the gunwale is certainly in the
power of every ſhip, if it be, but in proper time, put in execution, and eſpecially
as (which is another confideration of the higheſt importance) a line of battle ſhip's
main-yard very frequently cannot, in a remote country, be purchaſed, and even
granting it might be had, fuch a purchaſe cannot fail being attended with loſs of
time and delay; and that is always prejudicial to the fervice.
In order ftill farther to evince the indifpenfable neceffity of relieving the lower
mafts, let us now recollect how in the year 1780 there was not a veſſel, which came
within the ſweep of the hurricane, but was diſmafted; among which were reckoned
eight or nine fail of the line*; a proof that the largeſt ſhips are not the more able
to ſtand its fury. The following year, the very fame thing happened again; and,
out of three men of war which were at fea on that ſtation, one was abfolutely loít,
and the other two, after being diſmafted, were faved but by the moſt miraculous
interpofition of Providence+.
HAD
* Admiral Rowley's fquadron.
+ His Majeſty's fhips ULYSSES and SOUTHAMPTON. The PELICAN was loft on Morant's Keys
on the ſame night, being the 1st of Auguſt, 1781.
O 2
102
AN ESSAY ON
DEMONSTRATION.
THE reaſon why, to execute this evolution, an opportunity muff
be taken of the ſhip falling off, is becauſe that motion of the ſhip
gives her way, and makes her of courſe better diſpoſed to gather
way. For that very fame reafon alfo the helm is then put a-wea-
ther (nn. 50. 58.), and the main ſheet eaſed off roundly (n. 49.);
that that part only of the fail which is before the center of gravity
of the ſhip may be left to act. The main bowline is kept faft tilb
the ſhip has fallen off 30° at leaſt, and then let go directly, becauſe:
the wind is then more eaſily kept in the fail, the velocity of the
fhip increaſed, and confequently the power of the helm (n. 58.)
and the movement of evolution are alſo accelerated (nn. 16. 17. 18.)..
By hauling in the weather brace, you follow the wind with the
fail;
C
HAD the precautions, I have juſt before mentioned, been taken, I cannot help.
thinking the mafts might all have been preſerved, and the ſhip and her crew leſs.
expoſed to a lee-fhore, which was like to have proved fatal to the whole..
THE fea being then covered with wrecks, againft which fhips are very apt to run:
in the night, there wants but ſuch an accident happening, joined with the violent
motion of the ſhip, to make a butt-end ſtart; and if, in ſuch a caſe, a quick remedy,
is not found, it is clear that, in ſpite of all the pumps, the confequences muſt be.
fatal. On this occafion, I muſt here mention what (as I have been informed),
anſwered once moſt admirably. the purpoſe of remedying fuch an accident.
A RECEIPT.-Take a ftudding fail, or fome fuch ſmall fail; then take a quantity:
of oakum, horſe-hair and wool, if they can be got, which chop ſmall and well mix
together when done, make a compound of it with hay or ſtraw, cut very fine, and:
mixed with lime and any dung or filth you may happen to have on board : then ſtick.
this in handfuls to the fail as lightly as poffible. The fail being thus prepared, haul.
it under the ſhip's bottom with ropes fo faftened to the fail as to keep it extended.
The fuction which promotes the rapid entrance of the fluid into the leak will draw.
the compofition from the furface of the fail and force it into the fracture, in fuch a.
quantity as, if not intirely capable to ſtop it, will generally however keep out fa
much of the water as to render the danger very trifling.
·
N. B. This Note is not in the Original, nor is it the Tranflator's own production; but has been
furnished by an Englifli Officer diftinguiflied for his nautical abilities.
I
NAVAL
103
TACTICS.
fail; and, when the wind is right aft the yard, that fail will, by
that means, be found perpendicular to the keel, or, in other words,
fquare. To trim it, you have but to eaſe off the brace and bring
the tack on the ſame board as you take the wind; an operation for
which you have full time fufficient, as, by righting the helm, you
moderate the velocity with which the hip flies to the wind, fince
by that action the effect of the rudder is totally ſuppreſſed.
REMARK S.
THERE is another method of veering fhip under a main-fail,
which may eaſily be practifed. You make faſt a three or four inch
rope (in proportion to the fixe of the veel) to the flings of the main
yard; and, when the fhip comes-to, fo as to fhiver the main-ſail,
bring it down before the fail to the top-fail-fheet bits, and let it be
hauled well taught and belayed. Then, as foon as the falls off,
the helm is to be put a-weather, as above mentioned, and the main
fheet let go. By that means the lee part of the fail no longer has
any power to keep the ſhip to the wind, and the weather part act-
ing before the center of gravity will caufe her to veer faſter than
by the first manoeuvre; though, in general, that first manoeuvre
will hardly once mifs to anſwer the purpoſe.
To veer a ſhip under a hull or her bare poles, the fore-ſtay-fail
muſt, if circumſtances will allow it, be hoifted (n. 31.). But, if
that cannot be done, the head yards are to be braced up as ſharp as
poffible, and thofe abaft pointed to the wind, or parallel to its
direction. Then, if the ſhip veers, fhe will fteer under the maſts
and ropes only. A certain quantity of feamen, fent up and placed
cloſe to each other in the fore ſhrouds to windward, will, in a cafe
of this kind, be found alſo of very great ſervice..
→
CHAPTER
104
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER
ARTICLE I.
PROBLEM I.
Of founding in fair weather.
VII.
SOLUTION.
IF cloſe hauled, brail up the mizen and mizen ſtay-fail, let fly
the main ſheet fo as to have the fail fhiver, put the helm a-lee,
and back the mizen top-fail by bracing it perpendicular to the
keel. The head-fails, as well as the jib and ftay-fails, are to be
kept in their firſt fituation; one muſt only have care to haul taught
and belay the lee braces; and, as foon as the fhip has very nearly
loft her headway, though continuing ftill to come to the wind,
you catch that moment to heave the lead, and haul it in again with
all poffible diſpatch as foon as you have touched the ground. Then,
you may fill and ftand on again by hauling aft the main fheet;
trimming the mizen top-fail, and righting the helm.
DEMONSTRATION.
THE mizen and mizen ſtay-fail are brailed up, becauſe their effect
to bring the ſhip to the wind would be too powerful (n. 40). It
is alfo for the fame reafons the main fheet is let go (n. 41.), though
there is another befides this which is that it deftroys the equilibrium
which existed between the fails forward and the fails aft (nn. 46.
49.); whence the rapidity of failing is diminiſhed, as well as the
effect of the helm, which acted (n. 50.) to bring the ſhip to the
wind, while at the fame time it oppoſes her velocity (n. 59). The
mizen top-fail is braced a-back, and perpendicular to the keel, to
impel the ſhip a-ftern in the direction of her length (n. 36.); fo
that her headway being now much diminiſhed by the new difpofi-
tion
NAVAL TACTICS.
105
tion given to the forces which are to produce it, the ſhip, by the
effect of the rudder, ranges to the wind ſo far as to cauſe to ſhake
the main top-fail and the fails on the foremaft, which, to that very
moment, had acted to keep up the celerity of failing (nn. 32. 41).
But, as the effect of the rudder is very faint, fince the velocity of
the ſhip is greatly diminished (n. 58.), when the fails have loft
their action, it follows the fhip muſt ſtop, and is not able to come
fufficiently to the wind, to bring her about, becauſe the jib's and
ftay-fail's fheets being hauled aft, oppofe the effect of the helm
(Art. 31.); fo that the refts as it were motionleſs for an inftant,
which muſt be feized to throw the lead with the greateſt diſpatch;
becauſe, ſhould the ſhip come to fall off by the effect of her jib
and ſtay-fail, which are the only ones in action, the other fails
might fuddenly fill and give her headway, which would prevent
you from getting foundings, were you too dilatory in throwing the
lead. Whether you do, or do not, find any bottom at all, in haul-
ing in your line as faſt as poffible, you muſt ſeize the opportunity
of the ſhip falling off, to fill and ſtand on again.
SHOULD the fhip, in fpite of the difpofition here given to her
fails, come head to wind (which could not happen but from her
having preſerved ſome velocity), the helm muſt continue to be kept
a-lee, but the head-fails fhould quickly be laid fquare or perpen-
dicular to the keel, and the jib and ſtay fails hauled down; then
the ſhip will foon after be found to veer.
RE M MAR K S.
In going large, you have only to put the helm a-lee, without
forgetting to brail the mizen up, and to belay the lee braces quite
taught, to prevent the yards having too much play when the fails
are ſhivering. It is impoffible ever to tack in this fituation, as the
jib and head fails are always in action (n. 31.); and the fquare fails
ſoon coming to ſhake, on account of their ſheets not being tacked,
they
106
ESSAY ON
AN
they lose all their power: therefore, nothing working for the fteer-
age way, the ſhip is ſoon at a ſtand.
ARTICLE II.
Another method, preferable to the former.
Ir the depth of water were confiderable, as 80, 100, or 200
fathoms, and you wish to found fmartly and with exactness, you
had only to brace the head-fails perpendicular to the keel, when
going large, haul down the jib and ſtay fail, without ftirring the
after-fails, and put the helm a-lee; and, while the ſhip has ſtill a
little headway, you heave the lead from the fame place you haul it
in; that lead will go firſt a little a-ftern; but the ſhip being head
to wind, will herſelf go a-ſtern likewiſe right upon the line which,
by its own proper gravity, happens then to be juſt a-peek: and, as
the helm is a-lee, the fhip eafily veers. But, if you wish to keep
her to longer, you have only to right the helm, and haul the mizen
out, to prevent the fhip's falling off.
IF you have ſtudding fails fet, they muſt be hauled down, par-
ticularly the lower ones; becauſe, fhould the wind take them
a-back, their power on the boom might bring the ſhip round
entirely for, they act on a lever without the fhip, the fulcrum of
which is on the outfide of the veffel before the center of gravity.
If, however, the helm is continued a-lee till the ſhip falls off, fhe
will not come about, becauſe then the veffel goes a-ftern with great
velocity, and the rudder acts powerfully to make her veer; but
the fact is, that the fhip will go a great deal ftern-way, and con-
tinue ſo much longer.
IF cloſe hauled, or a very little from the wind, the helm is to be
put a-lee; and, the inftant the fails are taken a-back, the head-
fails are to be filled by bracing them briſkly perpendicular to the
keel, without waiting for the wind being right a-head; then, a
little before the ſhip has loſt her way, you heave the lead from the
fame
1
NAVAL TACTICS.
107
***
fame place you haul it in; and as for the reft you manoeuver as
before mentioned.
CHAPTER VIII.
On chafing.
THAT a ſhip might chaſe another, ſhe ought to have the advan-
tage of failing. We ſhall therefore always ſuppoſe that the chaſer
fails better than the veffel chaſed; becaufe, were the fhip chaſed as
good a failer as the chafer, ſhe never could come up with her, if
they manoeuvered equally and at the fame time, however full of
ſkill and ability the manœuvre of the chafer might be. It is then
uſeleſs to follow a ſhip over which you have not the ſuperiority in
failing, unleſs you find, from the manœuvre of the chaſe, ſhe does
not know how to take the benefit of her equality.
To know if your ſhip has any advantage in failing, you muft get
on the fame tack, under the fame fails, and keep the fame courſe
with the veffel you mean to chaſe, and ſet her exactly with a com-
paſs. If you fail beſt, the chafe will foon be drawn a point more
aft; but, if ſhe has the advantage, you will in a fhort time bring
her a point farther forward than the firſt bearing: if you fail'
equally, he will remain on the point you fet her at firft, fuppofing
you keep the fame courfe*.
*
Exm
نیم
ARTICLE
* THIS method, it is true, will fhew the difference of velocity between two fhips
´under certain fails; but, though the chaſe may have the advantage under a certain
particularly-difpofed portion of canvafs, fhe may not have the fame fuperiority with
all fails fet. For, it is well known that fome fhips fail (within a very little diffe-
rence) às well under their three top-fails, as with all the furface they can expoſe to
the action of the wind; while the celerity of others will be multiplied two or three
times, and frequently more. Without trying this experiment, fail ought therefore,
in my opinion, to be made inſtantly, and with the greateſt celerity poffible, on dif
covering any ſtrange veffel.
W
208
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE
I..
PROBLEM.
To chafe a ship to windward, and the shortest method of joining her,
SOLUT I ON.
WHEN the chafer finds himſelf to leeward of the veffel he means.
to purſue, he ought to continue on the fame tack as when the
enemy was firſt perceived, till he brings her to bear exactly per-
pendicular to his courfe (if he has not however already paſſed that
point): then tack, and continue the fecond board till he again
Brings the chafe, perpendicular to the direction on which he is
Atanding by the wind (or on his beam), or he muſt then heave
about again; and always continuing the fame manoeuvre, by tacking
every time he brings the chafe perpendicular to his courſe on
either board and, by manoeuvering in this manner, it is very cer-
tain that the chafer will, by the fuperiority only of his failing, join.
the other by the ſhorteſt method.
DEMONSTRATION.
WHEN the ſhip A (fig. 20.) chafes the fhip B, which is three-
leagues to windward, with one fourth advantage of failing, the
chafer is not to tack till he reaches the point c; becauſe he will
then have the ſhip в, right on the beam at the point D. He is,
then, to continue, on the tack CE, till he brings the chafe per-
pendicular to his courſe at the point F. The ſhip A is to continue
thus to maneuver every time fhe brings the veffel в right a-breaſt
of her, whether the chafe continues on the fame tack or not;
and thus the chafer will join the other at H, fo that ſhe will be
able neither to change her courfe, nor recede from him.
You continue on the fame tack as when the enemy was firſt feen,
firft in order not to lofe time, becauſe there is no fear of your
bringing always the fhip you are in chafe of right on your beam,
when
NAVAL TACTICS.
·700
when you have a fuperiority of failing, whatever may be the tack
ſhe is on, provided you are always particularly careful not to paſs
that point; for, if you did, there would not be a moment to loſe
before you get on the other tack with all poffible diſpatch.
THE chafer heaves about as foon as the veffel he is in purfuit of
is perpendicular to his courfe, or on the beam; becauſe the is, at
this time, at the ſhorteft poffible diſtance, if he chaſes on the fame
tack and fteers the fame courſe with the veſſel chaſed. If the chafer
runs on a different tack from the veffel chaſed, he is ftill to tack
when the flying ſhip is on his beam, becauſe the diſtance is the leaſt
poffible between them on the different boards they hold. It is then
evident the chafer cannot better manoeuvre than by tacking every
time he brings the fhip which is avoiding him perpendicular to
his courſe, fince he never paffes the ſhorteſt diſtance poffible be-
tween the two veffels on the fame or different boards they hold
with reſpect to each other.
&
REMARK S.
In manoeuvering, as we recommended above, you will be under
the neceffity of making a good many more boards than if you
chaſed by the ordinary methods: but, this quantity of evolution's
is always advantageous to the chafer if the hip be well managed,
and the fails hauled fmartly; then ſhe will always gain to wind-
ward, in ſtays, as is found from experience, when the above prin-
ciples are adhered to, and the ſhip handled with fufficient dexterity.
THE manœuvre here preſcribed for the chafing ſhip, is preferable
to all others, not only becauſe it is the ſhorteſt, but becauſe you
force the ſhip you are in chaſe of to fly from you clofe upon a wind,
in preffing her more and more from the leeward, by never paffing
that point before mentioned, the ſhorteſt way poffible between the
two veffels in plying to windward.
P 2
-
ARTICLE
110:
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE II.
Obfervations for the ship to windward, which is chafed
THE weather ſhip, which flies, will always be joined by the
chafer, notwithſtanding every manœuvre fhe may execute, fince it
is granted fhe does not go fo well as the veffel which purſues: it is
therefore to her advantage conftantly to keep the fame courſe with-
out loſing her time to heave about, as tacking cannot be ſo favour-
able to her as to her adverſary, whofe failing is fuperior.
If the chaſer ſhould fo little underſtand his profeffion as to ſtand
on a long way, and tack in the wake of the chaſe, the beſt thing
ſhe can do is to heave in ftays, and paſs to windward of him on the
other tack (unleſs you ſuppoſe your veffel would have a fuperiority
large); for if the chafer perfifts in tacking in the wake of the other
ſhip, it is an unquestionable fact, that the chaſe will be very much
prolonged.
I SHALL not here pretend, to forefee or give a detail of all fitua…..
tions in which a fhip may be engaged in being chafed, either by
one or more veffels; it would be an abfurdity in me to attempt it.
I fhall, therefore, content myſelf with offering fome of theſe preff-
ing and general circumſtances, perfuaded the genius of an atten,
tive officer will always fuggeft to himſelf the propereſt means of:
extricating his fhip from the moſt difficult fituations.
A R T I C L E
PR. O B. L E M.
To chafe to leeward.
SOLUTION..
WHEN to windward of a veffel you wiſh to chaſe, keep the fhip
away to cut her off; and, fteering continually in the fame direction,
you come at laſt together at the point where the courſes run by the
two
III.
NAVAL TACTIC S.
1111
པ་
two veffels interfecting each other. This principle will be exactly ·
executed by the chafing ſhip, if, in the courſe ſhe has choſen, ſhe
conftantly keeps the veffel fhe is in chaſe of, on the fame degree of
the compaſs, as in the beginning of the chafe. This principle is
always the fame in all the courſes the retreating ſhip ſteers; for, no.
overtaking can be executed but by keeping on a ftrait line, which
is the ſhorteſt poffible which can be drawn between any two points.
**
DEMONSTRATION...
SHOULD you take another courſe than that which keeps you in
the fame point of bearing you were in with reſpect to the veffel
purſued, at the beginning of the chafe, you would miſs your aim,
by being too far a-head or too far a-ftern; that is to fay, if the
chafer keeps his wind too clofe, he will be too much a-head, and :
confequently prolong the chaſe; and, if he keeps too much away,
he will be too far a-ftern. Theſe are the only two confiderations
to be made when this problem is to be executed; confiderations
eaſy to be obſerved, and corrected, with an azimuth compafs;.-
becauſe, when you fee that at, the end of a certain time
you bring
the chafe more aft, than her first point of bearing, it is evident
you keep your wind too much; if, on the contrary, you draw her
forward, it is a certain proof you keep too much away. Now, theſe
inconveniencies are very eafily remedied, by fteering for the firft
caſe, ſo as to ſee that the ſhip chafed is always kept exactly on the ·
fame degree of the compafs; and, for the fecond, you keep your
wind a little more, till you fee that you reft always on the fame
point of bearing with respect to one another. Then, it is evident,
you chafe by the ſhorteſt and moſt certain method, fince you reach
the chafe, in running on a ftrait. line.
REMARK."
As, in the cafe propoſed, the chafer is to the windward of the
fhip chafed, he veers as much as poffible, and fo as to keep the
enemy always in the fame point of bearing; but it might happen,
that
❤
·
A
•
1112
AN ESSAY ΟΝ
that (by veering on the fhip which flies) having found the pofition
in which the remains always on the fame point of the compaſs,
there could exift, by veering yet more, a pofition ſtill more advan-
tageous than the first; becauſe your velocity may be increaſed, as
much as you prolong the lines which you run over between the
parallels of like bearing which you make in the courſe of the chafe,
to ſee if you do not fwerve from the firſt.
ARTICLE
IV.
Remarks for the ship which is chafed.
general,
WHEN a fhip, being to leeward of another veffel which gives
her chafe, is obliged to fly, he ought to run on the courſe that
will carry her moſt immediately from the chafer, and, in
confult which is her best fituation with reſpect to the wind, that
The may move with the greateſt rapidity poffible from the ſhip which
purfues her. For, fome veffels have more advantage in going large
than others; fome with the wind right aft; and others, again, are
to be found which go beſt cloſe hauled. So that attention ſhould
-be paid by the officer to the known qualities of his ſhip, in order
to take the moſt advantageous and convenient directions capable
to effect a retreat. However, it is near a certainty, that if the
chaſe does not fail at leaſt at an equal rate with the chafer, whatever
-manœuvre ſhe may put in practice, ſhe will always be overtaken by
a fkilful chafer adhering to principles. But, that there may be no
room left for ſelf-reproach, every thing poffible is however to be
done to avoid finking under a fuperior force, by taking advantage
of every occurrence which offers: and, when you ſee the enemy
will unavoidably come up with you, and that the event can no
longer be deferred, heſitate not to attack with confidence and refo-
lution, and put to proper ufe the little force you have. Thus, it
often happens that the heat of the enemy is cooled by fuch
an anticipated attack, and that intrepidity, fupported with ſome
favourable circumftances, fucceeds.
·
CHAPTER
NAVAL TACTIC. S..
M33
CHAPTER
Of Boarding..
BOARDING, in the fenfe in which it ought to be understood, is
at once an action of vigour, and the art of approaching the ſhip of an
enemy ſo near, that you can eaſily (and in ſpite of him) heave on :
board your graplings, which are to be ready on the lower yard-arms,
forecaſtle, gangways, &c, &c, for the purpoſe of being thrown
into the enemy's fhip by hand, as foon as along-fide, in order to
confine the veffels together, and give the people an opportunity of
getting on board, to carry the adverſe ſhip fword in hand.
BUT, it muſt be confidered that, between two ſhips which are
engaged, it is generally the cafe that bearding is more advantageous
to one than to the other; fo that the one has an intereſt in endea-
vouring to board, and the other in avoiding being boarded. This
difference of force, and way of thinking, renders the execution of
this manœuvre difficult; whence it follows, that for both parties
there are difpofitions which may be better concerted than others.
This is what I mean to diſcuſs in the following Problems, which
cannot be fufficiently extended to take in all the many and various
incidents infeparable from fituations of this kind. It will, there-
fore, be the bufinefs of the officers to avail themſelves of the
advantages which occafions and circumſtances will offer them-
naturally, or to procure them by their skill and the fuperiority of
their manœuvres.
ARTICLE
IX.
1.
PROBLEM.
To board to windward, or avoid being boarded.
Ma
La
J
A SOLUTION DEMONSTRATED.
If a ship wishes to board another which waits for her in keeping
her wind under an eafy fail; or one which does not ſhorten fail,
but..
114
ON
AN ESSAY
}
but over which ſhe has the advantage of failing; fhe must get on
the weather quarter of the ſhip fhe means to board, within half a
piftol ſhot. Then ſhe muſt begin the action, and continue it with
a fteady vivacity, to cover her manoeuvre by the ſmoke of the can-
non and mufquetry of both ſhips; then, under the cover of this
cloud, let her make more fail if ſhe has not way enough, in order
to augment the velocity of the ſhip and the rapidity of her move-
ments, that ſhe may with greater promptitude lay her enemy on
board on the weather fide, exactly a-breaft, or a little abaft, no
matter. This is very eafily executed, by edging down unexpectedly
upon her fo as not to expoſe yourſelf however to be raked by the
enemy's fire from to leeward. The ſhip boarded by this manœuvre
can hardly ſuſpect that defign but at the moment, or very little
before, the grapnels will be on board of her. In this fituation
the boarded veſſel has but one doubtful expedient to try, in order
to extricate herſelf from the perplexity in which ſhe is engaged,
and which even will be of no fervice if the boarder obſerves her
well. For, the moment the braces ſharp a-back her head-fails, to
cauſe the ſhip's falling off (n. 37.), and ſquares thoſe aft (n. 36.)
to give her ftern-way, the boarder has only to perform briſkly the
fame manœuvre, and they will then be both as near for boarding
as before, provided the boarder be very quick in feeling the impulſe
of her fails and helm, which ought to be put a-weather (n. 50.)
and kept fo till the fhip's headway ceaſes, when it is to be put a-lee
(n. 58.), to affift her in falling off, in manoeuvering as in box-hauling
(Chap. III. Art. 2.), in order to board the enemy to leeward; for,
the boarder ought to be on the quarter of the other, fince at the
moment the two fhips were right before the wind, fhe who was
first to windward, and wished to board, had only to continue her
movement of rotation, and render her velocity equal to that of her
adverſary, by ſhortening fail in order not to pass her. Now, if
the circular motion is kept up by the boarder, which at firft caufed
him
NAVAL TACTIC S.
115
him to fall off, and now brings him to the wind on the other tack, he
will join the enemy to leeward; for, it is evident that if this motion
of turning be more rapid than that of the ſhip which wiſhes to
avoid boarding, the boarder will clofe her before the can range to
the wind on the other tack, fince he (the boarder) comes round
with greater celerity. However, if the ſhip which fears boarding
was preffed as clofely as is here demonftrated, fhe would have no
other ible manœuvre to execute, but to throw once more all her
fails to the maſt, by bracing them only perpendicular to the keel
to give her ſtern-way (n. 36.), and putting the helm a-weather, to
keep her to the wind, as ſoon as her head-way ceaſes (n. 58.);
obferving that, the being to windward, this manoeuvre may cauſe
her to drive on the boarder, as he is then looking for her under
her lee. As there is no other refource, neceffity obliges her to
hold to this expedient; becauſe, could the ſhip which is attacked
go a-ſtern with a fufficient velocity, the might let the boarder paſs
a-head, veer under his ftern, and rake him, if he is not as quick
as the other to foreſee this manœuvre, and as nimble in manœuver-
ing in the fame manner as the enemy's fhip: becauſe, the great
velocity with which he comes to the wind and goes a-head (his
fails being ſtill all full), puts him in this bad fituation, which may
prevent his perfifting in the inclination of boarding. It is how-
ever very clear that the boarder will attain his purpoſe, if he takes
care to throw all his fails a-back at the ſame time as the fhip to
windward; becauſe, the attacked fhip dropping to leeward, and
having ftern-way firft, approaches a little the boarder, who has ftill
preſerved his pofition on the quarter, and longer kept his luff, by
having gone a-ſtern ſomewhat later than the weather ſhip. But, it
is farther to be obferved, that when the two fhips are right before
the wind, if the veffel which fears boarding moves quicker to the
wind than the one which attacks, fhe will avoid it, as the retreat-
ing ſhip will be cloſe to the wind before the other, and able to get
е
a-head
•
116
"
AN ESSAY ON
a-head of her by making all fail to keep her wind, or to heave in
ftays and get upon the other tack. But, it must be confidered that
this laſt movement is an unfavourable one; as, by fo doing, you
will
prefent your ftern to a fhip, which no doubt will take advantage of
your fituation, and rake you; which might be more deſtructive
to you than a well-cppofed attack by boarding.
THERE is however no doubt that if the ſhip inclined to board,
fails better than the other, it will always be in her power to execute
that defign, if ſhe has as great a knowledge of manoeuvering as the
ſhip which flies.
TICLE
PROBLEM.
To board to leeward, when close to the wind, or to avoid being boarded..
ARTIC
II..
SOLUTION DEMONSTRATED.
In order to execute this manoeuvre, the boarder is to come within
piſtol ſhot, cloſe in the wake, or, at moft, to the weather quarter,
of the ſhip he means to attack; taking care to continue fteering,
as much as poffible, fo as not to be raked by fome of the guns
which belong to the quarter he ftands on. Then, to come up with
his adverſary, he muft edge away a little, and range round aft fo
cloſe upon the enemy's lee quarter, that his cat-head may almoſt
touch her quarter gallery. Now, when you have heaved ſhort ſuf-
ficiently a-head, and fo (your fhip being ranged parallel to your
adverfary's) as to bring your forecaſftle abreaſt of your enemy's main-
maft, the mizen and mizen ſtay-fail fheets are to be hauled well aft,
the helm put hard a-lee, and the head fheets let fly; then, your
ſhip, coming rapidly to the wind (nn. 40, 50, & 31.), ſhivers her
fails, and cloſes the oppofing veffel fide to fide. This manœuvre is
infallible when you have the advantage of failing, provided very
great attention is paid to it. I fay here great attention is neceffary:
for,
NAVAL
117
TACTICS.
for, if at this moment the weather fhip, which wiſhes to avoid
boarding, fets her courfes, or lays all thofe flat a-back which ſhe
had fet, fhe may by one of theſe two manœuvres break the grapnels
you have thrown on board of her, unleſs you had the care to dif-
poſe
your fails in the fame manner as hers: becauſe the boarded
ſhip, by making more fail, will, if the wind be a little freſh, ſhoot
a-head through the water, and the boarder will be dragged with
fuch a violence as to break the chains or hawfers with which the
ſhips are confined together. By laying all flat to the maft, the
boarded veffel has ftill a better chance of fucceeding, fince the fails
of one of the two fhips will be full while thoſe of the other are
a-back.
SUCH a fort of boarding may, as has been demonſtrated, be anti-
cipated and avoided, if the boarder does not pay the ſtricteſt atten-
tion to his own manoeuvres as well as to thofe of his adverfary:
but it may be with ftill more advantage avoided, if the laft men-
tioned veffel braces her head-fails fharp a-back, fetting only, if
neceffary, the fore-fail (n. 37.), laying at the fame inſtant all thoſe
abaft to the maſt perpendicular to the keel (n. 36.), or fhivering, as
you may have more or lefs occafion for ftern-way, and putting at
the ſame moment the helm hard a-lee (n. 58.) All this is to be
executed when the boarder is ftill about a fhip's length (more or
lefs) a-ftern of the veffel which is to perform this manœuvre. The
quickness of this evolution, and the rapid veering of the weather
ſhip which puts it in practice, may bring the veffel inclined to
board, and who is a little to leeward or a-ftern of the other, into
the most dangerous fituation, if fhe does not manoeuver in the fame
manner and with equal celerity; as the boarder's fails, being full,
keep up his velocity, and may, before he can veer, engage his
bowſprit in the main ſhrouds of the enemy, who pays ſhort round
on her head.
THIS terrible and dangerous fituation is infinitely to be dreaded;
and it is of the higheſt importance to pay the ftricteſt attention to
Q 2
your
**
F18
AN ESSAY ON
|
your own manœuvres and to the movements of your opponent,
which you are to endeavour always to forefee and avoid as much as
poffible for, on that alone, depends the fuccefs of all the mancu-
vres you have to execute.
WES
REMARK
S.
IT is not difficult to conceive, that if you wish to board a fhip.
and to engage the enemy's bowfprit in your main ſhrouds, you have
only to get a little to windward of her, and about one or two ſhips
lengths a-head, more or lefs, as (from the knowledge you have of
the celerity of your fhip's movements) you judge may be fufficient;
then brace ſharp a-back your head-fails, and fhiver the after ones,
or lay them flat to the maft, by bracing them perpendicular to the
keel with the helm a-lee. This manœuvre, well executed, and
covered by a ſteady and briſk fire, will very feldom fail; but care
muſt be taken not to veer too foon, and to come very cloſe to your
adverſary; becauſe, if you ſhould not be a-head enough of him,
you might very well mifs your boarding by paying too ſhort round
him, and you would infallibly get your bowfprit foul of his fore
fhrouds, which would be very much to your difadvantage.
IF too far a-head, the defign of boarding will be again fruftrated,
becauſe you cannot then avoid paffing under the bowfprit of the
enemy, who is however thereby expoſed to receive from you at his
head a good raking, as you pass athwart his fore foot, if he does
not manœuver in the fame manner and with equal ſwiftneſs as the
affailer, who has the great advantage of priority in this tranſaction.
I SAY it is abfolutely neceffary to range very cloſe to the fhip
whoſe bowfprit you wish to engage in your rigging; becaufe, if
you attempted to execute this manoeuvre at a fhip's length large.
only and to windward of your opponent, he had only, the inftant
he perceives your defign (and if he does not chooſe to act in the
fame manner as you do), to put the helm hard a-lee and heave in
stays.
NAVAL TACTICS.
119
ปี
ſtays. If this evolution is properly executed, the two ſhips can
but range very near each other and exchange their broadfides, and
the lee fhip will immediately gain the wind of her adverſary.
Therefore, to execute properly and to a certainty this manœuvre,
the veſſels muſt be nearly yard-arm and yard-arm.
If the boarder be at a certain diſtance aft on the weather quarter,
the ſhip endeavouring to avoid boarding must take care to heave in
ſtays, as ſoon as ſhe obſerves the other veffel in the act of veering,
in order to cloſe her to leeward. By this manœuvre they are head
to head, and ftem feemingly for each other, fo that they have an
opportunity of firing reciprocally their broadfides to advantage in
paffing on oppofite directions, and the lee fhip will get the weather
gage of his enemy.
ARTICLE
III.
To board with the wind large.
Ir two fhips engage with the wind large, the veffel inclined to
board ſhould keep as clofe as poffible on the lee quarter of the fhip
ſhe means to attack, that ſhe may execute this defign, as has been
ſhewn before, by coming rapidly to the wind, and taking very
great care not to paſs a-head of her opponent.
THE weather fhip, to avoid being boarded, muft maneuver as
directed in Art. II. according to circumſtances, or the deſign of the
commanding officer.
/
A SHIP may alſo be boarded on the weather fide, by conforming
to what has been faid of boarding to windward.
WHEN two veffels are in action with the wind right aft, the ſhip
defirous of boarding ought to drop a-ſtern of the enemy, in order to
run up cloſe along-fide of him, if ſhe (the boarder) has the advan-
tage of failing; for as ſhe advances towards her retreating adverfary,
this has nothing in her power but to range rapidly to the wind on
the other tack, as foon as the bowfprit of the affailant is a-breaft of
her...
120
AN ESSAY ON
}
·
her ftern, and gain the wind of him, in order to be in a fituation
to extricate herſelf with greater facility by a good manœuvre.
I SAY the ſhip inclined to evade boarding fhould let her
орро-
nent come a-breaft of her ftern: becauſe, if he were hauled to the
wind fooner, experience fhews, and it is demonftrated, that the
ſhip a-ftern (were ſhe at a ſmall diſtance) would board her perfectly
well, even if they fail equally fwift, fince the aggreffor would be
to windward, and run large longer than the other, in ranging more
flowly to the wind, and continuing to ftem a-head of the flying
ſhip. What makes this more evident is, that the boarder coming
from windward preferves longer his velocity, and never trims his
fails but as the ſhip comes to the wind, and cuts the courfe of his
adverſary with a line lefs curved than that deſcribed by the retreat-
ing ſhip.
IF, by coming too foon, or too faſt, to the wind, the boarder
choſe to abandon his enterprize, he might do it in veering a little
on the other tack, and leffening his fail: in which caſe the retreat-
ing fhip will not fail fhewing her ftern, and the boarder has it
immediately in his power to rake his opponent in paffing under his
ftern, if he hauls to the wind.
WHEN you attack a fhip cloſely to leeward, you may keep away
a little, when you are a-breaſt of her, to make it appear as if you
yielded under her fire. Then, if the oppofing ſhip be dupe enough
to give credit to your movement, and to veer without caution, with
intent to keep you more under her guns, you have only to heave
rapidly to the wind, by putting the helm a-lee, trimming all fharp
abaft, and fuppreffing the effect of the head-fails; all of which is
to be done in the fame inftant you perceive the enemy bears down
upon you. The promptnefs of this manœuvre, and the priority of
the movement you gain thus unexpectedly on your enemy, will foon
cloſe the two ſhips; and, if proper attention be paid, and the
diſtance judiciouſly meaſured, it may very probably happen that the
enemy's
1
NAVAL TACTIC S.
121
enemy's bowsprit will be engaged in your fore or main rigging;
which would be the most advantageous thing which could happen
to you
in your attempt to board: but much confidence is not always
to be put in this, as you do not every day fall in with people ſo
liable to be duped: it may even happen that it will no longer be in
your power to board, if the weather ſhip, inſtead of bearing away,
plied to windward more and more; for, this feint manœuvre may
bring you fufficiently far off to leeward of your adverfary. If you
ſhould happen to be a fhip's length to leeward, and about the fame
diſtance a-head of the veffel with which you are engaged, you may,
under cover of a ſteady and well-directed fire, heave in ſtays. By
this manœuvre you come right athwart the enemy's hawfe, rake
him fore and aft, and board him, his bowfprit being right over
your gangway: and, let him do what he will, he never can avoid
your broadfide; for, if he heave all a-back and make a-ftern board,
which is his only refource, he may undoubtedly avoid being
boarded, but will nevertheleſs be in a very bad fituation..
g
ARTICLE
IV.
Boarding at an anchor.
If it be intended to board a fhip which is at an anchor, riding
head to wind, the manoeuvre must be executed under fail; for if
you cannot approach the enemy but by hauling yourſelf to head,
you will never be able to board her againſt her will; fince it will
always be in her power to annoy the boats which are laying out
the tow-lines. It is therefore difadvantageous to attempt boarding
a veſſel at her anchor, unleſs you are under way. To perform this
with fuccefs, you muſt be ſufficiently to windward to approach her
by a little falling-off, without expofing your ftern to her fire, which
ſhe could play on you with great advantage in this fituation. Sup-
pofing therefore the boarder to be in fuch a proper pofition to wind-
ward,,
122
AN ESSAY ON
ward, as to be able to approach his opponent at anchor, the affailant
in this cafe ought to ſtop his head-way by taking a-back his mizen
top-fail and fore ftay-fail, and, when he is come about a fhip's
length a-head of the veffel he means to board, let go an anchor;
then manœuver in ſuch a manner that, as foon as the mizen top-fail
is taken a-back, the mizen clofe aft, the top-fails clued up, and
the fore-top-inaſt ſtay-fail hauled down, he may come head to wind,
and veer away cable till, by falling off, he comes board and board
with his opponent, who is ſtill riding at her moorings, and who
at that inſtant ought alfo to be raked by the boarder.
WHOEVER ſhall have read our next Chapter, on anchoring, will
eafily conceive that the ſhip inclined to board has no other way of
manoeuvering but that just mentioned; becauſe, as foon as the
anchor is gone, the ſhip acquires ftern-way, and when the cable is
checked ſhe comes head to wind, in which ſhe is greatly affifted by
the mizen and mizen top-fail, which impel her ſtern to leeward
(nn. 40. & 44.) till the wind is right in the direction of the keel;
and as you ought to have veered away the cable till you are exactly
along-fide the ſhip at anchor, and your own anchor is right a-head
of the veffel you mean to board, it follows that, as foon as your fhip
comes to be head to wind, ſhe is in a proper fituation to throw her
grapnels, and fend her crew on board of the other, if they are the
ſtrongeſt.
THE ſhip at anchor ſhould never wait for the enemy in that fitua-
tion, as it is always a very diſadvantageous one, and there is always
a much greater probability of getting clear under way, provided
your ſhip be tolerably good, and you know how to work her. But,
if, for fome unforeſeen caufe, you are obliged to continue at your
anchors, you are to take advantage of the moment when the thip
which attacks lets go her anchor, to cut the cable by which you
ride. By this manoeuvre you fall athwart, rake your adverſary,
avoid
NAVAL TACTICS.
123
avoid being boarded, and bring up with your lee anchor. Befides,
if time will admit before the attack, it will not be improper to caft
two ſprings out, one on each fide of the cable by which the vefiel
rides, if you have not had time before to lay out two anchors, in
order not to be furpriſed, in cafe the fhip which attacks has it in
her power to paſs on either fide of you: and, when you perceive
for which fide ſhe is determined, you heave on the fpring which is
on the fame fide ſhe has let go her anchor if ſhe be a-head, and cn
the oppofite if ſhe be a-ftern, veering at the fame time on the other
ſpring and cable, till you bring the affailant right a-breaſt of you.
Then, you may rake him at pleaſure; as he has no way of getting
out of this dangerous fituation but by preventing it, if he can; as
he has a ſpring alfo, and may, under cover of a brifk fire, veer upon
that Spring and cable, and lay the enemy handsomely on board. If he
has neglected this precaution, he muſt cut his cable, and drop on
board of the ſhip to leeward; who, on the other hand, has no way
to avoid being boarded, but by cutting, to get under way, or to
run on fhore.
庭
​It is always eaſy to board a ſhip at anchor, when the wind will
allow you to approach her under fail; and the best way to proceed,
is to run her along-fide, or to bring-to to windward of the fhip
you wish to attack; and, keeping her exactly to leeward of you,
drift on board of her, by maneuvering your fails in fuch a manner,
as to keep, as much as poffible, your broadfide oppoſite to that of
the adverſe ſhip, in order to keep annoying her with your guns till
you can cloſe her, and that your conftant cannonading may prevent
her fire being fo well ferved as it might otherwiſe be.
This ma-
nœuvre is, in my opinion, the beſt which can be executed in fuch a
cafe as this.
WHEN you are under way, and purpoſe to board a veffel moored,
care muſt be taken to let go an anchor at the time of boarding:
for, if the ſhip attacked fhould at this moment cut her cables to
· R
drive
124
AN ESSAY ON
drive on fhore, you would by this means prevent your running
a-ground together *.
CHAPTER X.
On coming to an anchor.
As ſhips are often obliged to anchor with any kind of winds and
weather, in ports and places of infinite diverfity, with refpect to
their fituation and extent, I fhall here produce the folution of a few
problems relative to various circumſtances which most generally
occur; laying down as a firft principle that a ſhip ought never to
come to an anchor unlefs under an eafy fail, that is to fay, generally
under the three top-fails and fore-top-maft ftay-fail, and fometimes
the mizen, according as the veffel has more or leſs inclination to
fall off, or come to the wind. There are, no doubt, caſes in which.
you may have occafion to keep more fail fet; and theſe are excep-
tions to the principle, which are to be admitted as fuch, without
deftroying the folidity of the fame principle which remains, how-
ever, no leſs founded; becauſe, a great deal of fail fet is always
embarraffing, ſhould your fhip's crew be ever fo numerous. Very
feldom, therefore, is anchoring attempted with all the fails fet
(unleſs it cannot poffibly be avoided), as the velocity of the ship's
movements renders that manoeuvre very difficult, and demands the
utmoſt attention: befides, you may happen not to have fufficient
room to ſtop the veffel's head-way; in which cafe, you would run
the
S
* ALL which has been faid in this Chapter about Boarding is hardly practicable
but in fmall fhips, and ought never to be attempted without a known and evident
fuperiority of number. The moſt ſtrict attention is to be paid alfo to the fwell of -
the fea; as otherwife, from a mutual fhock, the two veffels might be in danger of
finking. There are, however, to be found in this very Chapter many good ma-
noeuvres for fingle fhips of any fize (without boarding) which, in all probability
(were the caſe doubtful), might turn the ſcale of battle.
妻
​NAVAL TACTIC S.
125
the riſk of getting foul of the anchor, by running over it; a cir-
cumftance which would prevent it from catching and holding faſt,
and requires therefore the greateſt attention in bringing up.
It is farther neceffary, in manoeuvering to come to an anchor,
to take care not to drop to leeward of the place in which you mean
to bring up; becauſe you would then be obliged to do it as you
could, in the ſame ſituation, good or bad, in which you would find
yourſelf, and very often to caft two anchors at once, for fear of
dropping ftill more to leeward.
ARTICLE I.
PROBLEM.
To anchor in fine weather, in a place where you are to ride head to
wind, the ship being clofe hauled.
SOLUTION.
BEING clofe hauled under the three top-fails, fore-top-maft
ſtay-fail, and mizen, ſtand on until you are within two ſhips lengths
(more or leſs, according to the qualities of the veffel) of the place
in which you mean to drop your anchor; then put the helm a-lee,
and haul down the fore-top-maſt ſtay-fail. As foon as the top-fails
ſhiver, clue them up briſkly in loofening them before you lower
them; lay the mizen top-fail to the maſt, and haul aft the mizen
ſheet, the inſtant the ſhip begins to heave ftern-way, with the wind
being a-head. Then is the time to ſhift the helm from leeward to
windward, and let go the anchor, veering away the cable to give it
time to ſettle in the ground, or until the veffel falls off, when ſhe
is to be checked, in order to bring her head to the wind. When
that is done, you right the helm, and brail up the mizen, to com-
plete the evolution.
DEMONSTRATIO. N.
THE ſhip is heaved up in the wind by hauling down the fore-
top-maſt ſtay-fail (n. 31.), when nearly two ſhips lengths from the
R &
ſpot
126
AN ESSAY ON
❤
fpot you mean to drop your anchor in, becauſe the fhip's head-way
is fufficient to ſhoot her that diſtance; and as by this movement
the ſhip generally ſtops a little to windward of the place where you
mean to bring up, you wait till fhe begins to go a-ſtern a little
before you let go the anchor, and the helm is at the fame time
ſhifted hard over the other way (n. 58.), to moderate the ſhip's
falling off when he is head to the wind. The top-fails are clued
up as foon as they begin to ſhiver, not only becauſe it can at that
time be done more eafily, fince they come in of themfelves as they
lower; but becaufe, if they were delayed longer, the ftern-way
would become too rapid (fince the fails would be all a-back), and
would quickly drive the ſhip to leeward of her intended anchorage.
Befides, the celerity of her falling off would be fuch, as to caufe
her to drag the anchor before it could have had time to get a proper
hold of the ground; a reaſon why the cable is veered away, in
order to give the anchor time to fink into the bottom by its weight.
The mizen top-fail is braced perpendicular to the keel; becauſe,
in that ſituation, the fhip is impelled (n. 36.) a-ſtern exactly in
the tendance of her keel. The mizen ſheet is hauled flat aft, to
bring the ſhip's head fooner to the wind (n. 40.); and, as foon as
fhe arrives at that point, that fail fhivers; in which cafe it is im-
mediately brailed up, as being no longer of ufe. The helm is
righted, as having no longer any power; fince the veffel is now
brought up, and all the fails are furled, except the mizen top-fail,
which is flat a-back on the maft, to keep the fhip fteady at her
anchor. All being fo, the problem is reſolved.
REMA R K S.
If you were to run for any anchoring-place with the wind large,
whether on the beam, or more aft, your manœuvre would be ftit
the fame, only hauling up a little fooner to keep to windward,
becauſe it is always in your power to drift as much as you think it
requifite, and becauſe the fhip will be entirely ftopped as foon as
all
NAVAL
1 27: *
TACTIC S.
all her fails begin to catch a-back, and you will have done cluing
them up when they begin to ſhake. The mizen top-fail is next to
be heaved to the maft, the helm put a-weather (n. 58.), and the
anchor let go, as foon as the head-way ceafes: then, after giving
her a fufficiency of cable, bring the fhip up. It is evident that,
as ſhe has been going large, fhe will not range preciſely head to
wind, fince her head-way ceaſes as foon as the fails are taken a-back,
and the effort of the wind acts on the hull and rigging of the ſhip
to impel her both a-ftern, and to leeward, which is in fact aug←
menting the effect of the rudder, as the helm is a-weather to bring:
the veffel to the wind (n. 58.): but, as the power of the wind is
very great to pay the fhip's head off, it balances wholly or partly
the effort of the rudder (according as the fhip goes a-ſtern with
more or leſs velocity) and that of the mizen: thus fhe drifts, and
remains as it were lying-to with all her fails a-back. It is the reafon
why we keep a little to windward, and let go the anchor, to bring
the ſhip head to wind when the moment is come, which ſhe will
obey rapidly, being withheld only forward by the cable, while the
wind on her fide forces her to leeward...
3
}
If you are obliged to ride with the head to the ſtream, you muſt,
IF
when it comes from to windward, put the helm a-lee in ſetting the
mizen, then clue up all the fails; and, when the fhip's head is right
in the direction of the ſtream, let go the anchor (provided you find
ſhe has quite loſt her head-way); for, elfe, you would get foul of
the anchor-ſtock by running over it. This is an attention you muſt
never neglect, in all cafes, unleſs you find yourſelf under the necef-
fity to bring up in any fituation in which you may happen to be,
which is almoſt always the cafe when you are taken too fhort and
too fuddenly to have time to ftop the veffel: a reaſon why there is
often a neceffity of cafting a ſecond anchor, which generally catches
ground by the affiftance of the firft, which has began to diminiſh
the velocity of the fhip; and as many of the fails are to be hauled i
down as you can, and as quick as poffible.
IN
.128
AN ESSAY ON
In a cafe when the current would come from to leeward, you
muſt keep the ſhip away till her head comes to the ſet of the ſtream,
and take in all the fails, to diminish with all poffible fpeed her
head-way, which always continues of itſelf long enough when the
wind is aft or very large; and when the fhip is ftopped by the effort
of the water, let go the anchor without (if the current is rapid)
waiting for the veffel gathering ftern-way; and, in this cafe, as well
as all thoſe wherein there is a fea, or blowing fresh, the ſhip
requires a great deal of cable.
If you come to an anchor when it blows fo freſh as to oblige
IF
you to reef your top-fails, you ftill act as above directed, taking
great care to foreſee the velocity of the fhip's movements, and pay-
ing more attention to the manœuvre, which now becomes more
difficult, every thing growing more unhandy as the wind freſhens;
becauſe the ſhip has got a ſtronger head-way, and that it is often
too late that we attempt to repair the fault of a bad manœuvering.
It is in fuch fituations, and in all thoſe which are critical, that we
diſcover the ſuperior feaman; who lets nothing eſcape, which can
poffibly contribute to the fpeedy execution and fuccefs of the
manœuvre intended to be made.
ARTICLE II.
PROB LE M.
To come to an anchor with the wind aft
SOLUTION.
You must begin first by handing the main top-fail, and then
lowering the fore top-fail down on the cap; and, when you are
within a reaſonable diſtance of the place where you mean to drop
your anchor (which diſtance is to be computed and judged from
the readineſs of the fhip in obeying the helm, and its velocity),
the tiller may be put either one way or the other (n. 50.), the fore
top-fail and fore-top-maft ftay-fail clued up and taken in, the mizen
top-fail
NAVAL TACTIC S.
129%
top-fail braced ſharp up, and the mizen ſheet hauled flat aft. When
the ſhip has ranged clofe to the wind, fhe is as it were lying-to-
under the mizen and mizen top-fails, with the laſt-mentioned fail
full, or a-back, according as you may have occaſion to ſhoot a-head
or drop a-ftern; fo that, if you are too much to windward of the
ſpot where you mean to bring to, you drift till you arrive at it:
if you are preciſely in the birth wiſhed for, you let go the anchor
in lowering down the mizen top-fail, which is to be furled as foon
as the veſſel is brought up; then the ſhip will come head to wind
by the
power of the mizen, which muſt be brailed up as foon as it
ſhakes.
*
DEMONSTRATION.
THE main top-fail is taken in, and the fore top-fail lowered:
down, to diminiſh the great velocity which a ſhip commonly has
when the wind is aft, in order to eſtimate the diſtance with greater
preciſion, and to have her movements under a greater facility of
command. When you think yourſelf at the neceffary diſtance thẹ
ſhip requires to ſtop cloſe hauled, at the place you wiſh to anchor,
you put the helm on board one way or the other (n. 50.); you..
brace ſharp the mizen top-fail for the tack you haul upon (n. 41.),
and haul the mizen out to bring the fhip rapidly to the wind.:
(n. 40).
..
IN the fame moment, the fore top-fail is to be clued up and
handed, and the fore-top-maſt ſtay-fail hauled down, becauſe they
appofe the movement of the fhip as (nn. 31, 32, & 33.) fhe is
coming to. When you are cloſe to the wind, the anchor is let go,
if you are in the birth you wish. If too far ftill to windward, you
can drift, keeping the mizen top-fail full; and, when you are to
windward, fhould you find yourfelf too far a-head, you have only
to lay the mizen top-fail a-back to go a-ftern (n. 44.), putting at
the fame time the helm a-weather (n. 58). When the veffel has -
drifted fufficiently, let go the anchor, and furl the mizen top-fail;
becauſe.
130
AN ESSAY ON
becauſe the cable might be fatigued, fhould-it come to blow freſh:
then the ſhip will-foon range head to wind, though the mizen be
ftill out (n. 40.); and, when that point is attained, the mizen is
brailed up to prevent the fhip fheering; and the helm is righted
for the fame reafon.
THE fhip being at anchor without fails, and without motion,
the problem is ſolved.
REMARK.
THERE are certain circumftances in which you are obliged to
come to an anchor with the wind aft, ftanding end on, becauſe
there is not always the fpace neceffary to deaden the fhip's way.
"In this predicament the fails are to be taken in as foon as poffible,
in order to leffen the great impetuofity of the ship's head-way.
WHEN you are come to your birth, the anchor is to be let go,
and the cable veered away plentifully, that the anchor may have
time to fink in the ground; then begin to check her gently, veer-
ing ſtill more cable in proportion as the ring-ropes or ftoppers, you
are to have placed on it before-hand, fnap; for they are to be
made of a ſnapping quality, that, by attempting to bring the veffel
up at once, you may not be expofed to drag your anchor.
OBSERVATION.
A GENERAL RULE.-When the wind is not violent, the top-
fails ought always to be clued up at the maft-heads; that is to fay,
the ſheets muſt be let go, the clue-lines and bunt-lines hauled cloſe
up and above the top; then lower away the top-fails roundly, ftill
hauling on the cluelines and buntlines to keep them clofe up, and
haul through the flack of the braces as the yards come down; ſo
that the fails, when on the cap, are found ready furled and well.
A
THIS method of taking in the top-fails is the moſt expeditious,
and does not expoſe them, when the wind is not abfolutely ſtrong,
fo as to oblige you to ftrike them down a-portoife: and, in manœu-
vering
•
NAVAL TACTICS.
131
vering in this manner, you run lefs riſk of ſplitting or tearing the
fails than by any other method.
ART
TICLE
PROBLEM.
Scudding under a fore-fail to come to an anchor.
SOLUTION.
WHEN obliged, by ftrefs of weather, to run under a fore-fail
only and come to an anchor, you must take it in before-hand,
and, the reſt of the way, run under bare poles *. When you are
come to the neceflary diſtance to ſheer to the wind, you execute it
by putting the helm hard a-lee: and, as foon as the fhip is come
to, let go the anchor. In this caſe, ſhe will require a great ſcope
of cable, and to be checked handfomely, with fnapping ring-ropes
put on before-hand, in order to make her ride head to wind: as
ſtopping her at firſt too short might very well endanger her cable
or anchor. Should the firſt not bring her up, a fecond muſt be let
go.
IN.
DEMONSTRATION.
As you cannot run for an anchorage under a fore-fail, unleſs
before the wind, or very free, you are neceffarily obliged to furl
that fail at a great diſtance; becauſe, in that pofition, the velocity
of the fhip will, by the violence of the wind, be but too much
kept up, ſo as to make you run the rest of the way, which may.
perhaps be a quarter or half a league, under bare poles, the wind
being
* During this interval, the lower yards and top-mafts are to be ftruck: long
ranges bitted of the two bower cables are to be got upon deck: the neceffary quan-
tity of water by the bitts, ſtoppers of every kind and ring-ropes are to be ready for:
fervice in their proper places: the ſheet anchor is now ſuppoſed to be over the fide
clear for letting go.
S
1
132
AN ESSAY ON
being nearly aft. If you were obliged to run at that diſtance cloſe
hauled, you would never reach your birth, fhould the fore-fail even
be ſet; becauſe, as was fhewn before, the fhip would be laid-to.
You put your helm over to ſheer to windward when you think you
are at the neceſſary diftance, that you may have time to deaden the
ſhip's head-way and as, when the ftops coming to, her head-way
ceaſes, you let go the anchor, and veer away a great extent of cable;
becauſe, when it blows hard, there is commonly a great fwell, and
the pitching motion it gives to the ſhip, joined to the effort of the
wind on the whole machine, would bring home the anchor. It is
therefore abfolutely neceffary to veer away a great length of cable,
to give the anchor time to fettle, and to cauſe the cable to make a
very acute angle with the ground, that the ſtrain may be more per-
pendicular on the flukes of the anchor which is buried in the
fand.
IV.
W
RTICLE
PROBLEM.
To anchor with a ſpring, in order to preſent the veſſel's fide fuddenly
to a place or ship you wish to cannonade.
SOLUTION
DEMONSTRATED.
THIS manœuvre is executed when you know that the wind or
current will bring your head, when at anchor, towards the object
you mean to attack: for, fhould the wind or tide bring your broad-
fide to bear on the object you mean to cannonade, the fpring would
be but a mere precaution, to get
under way with greater alertneſs,
in caſe you were ſo handled as to be obliged to retreat; or in caſe
the wind or tide ſhould ſhift.
IN the firſt caſe propofed, this evolution will be executed with
ſucceſs, if the attacking ſhip caſt a large fnatch-block in the aftermoft
port, on the fame fide you wiſh to preſent to the wind or current,
and on the fame fide with the anchor and cable with which you
mean
NAVAL TACTIC S.
133
mean to bring up; then, through the block, is to be reeved a
hawfer, the end of which is to be carried forward and clinched to
the ring of the anchor; the other part is to be brought to the after
capftern, after having first taken the neceffary ranges of the cable and
hawfer according to the depth of the water you are to bring up in.
That done, and the fhip being arrived at the birth, you are to
deaden her way according to circumftances: you let go the anchor,
and veer away enough cable and hawfer, now a little more of the
one, and then a little more of the other, according as you wiſh to
prefent more head or ftern; which you can do by heaving on the
fpring, or, what is the fame, veering away more cable; but ſhould
you find it requifite to fhift your pofition, you have only to veer
out more of the hawfer. All this ought to be eafily conceived,
after what has been faid before.
END OF THE SECOND PART.
S 2
ΑΝ
ΑΝ
ESSAY
ΟΝ
NAVAL TACTICS.
TACTICS.
PART THE THIRD.
Various Obfervations on the Marine.
THIS Part will prefent us the Mariner intirely taken up with
the care of foreſeeing, commanding, acting, regulating, and keep-
ing every thing in order within: enabling himſelf to operate after-
wards with celerity, accuracy, and no confufion. As for what
is to appear outwardly, it is the fruit of reflexion.
CHAPTER I.
Of the uniformity which ſhould be introduced among the ſeveral mafts
of fhips; of their height and fituation.
I. THE right height to be given to the mafts of ſhips, is ſtill,
for the builders, a problem which remains to be folved. Some con-
tend for more, fome for lefs. The moſt ſkilful among theſe
gentlemen have not paid attention enough to the folutions and
determinations which are contained in the Works of the late Mr.
BOUGUER
NAVAL TACTIC S.
135
BOUGUER on that fubject. It ſeems, on the contrary, as if they
had made it a point to deviate, as much as poffible, from the true
principles in that refpect, by railing the mafts a great deal more
than they were formerly, although they were already much too
high, as the learned Author I have juft mentioned has afferted.
An experience, confirmed by obſervations out of number repeatedly
made on my fide, has convinced me of the following truth; viz.
that "as foon as a ſhip inclines, her velocity diminiſhes in the fame
ratio as her inclination increaſes." I have not been the only one
who has made thefe obfervations: feveral officers, without any
participation of mine, have verified the fame principle on different
veffels, and at different periods of time, and in all thoſe various
courſes which are termed oblique with respect to the direction of
the wind. As I had no ſhare in thoſe various experiments, I can-
not be ſuſpected of partiality: but, as they have always fhewn to
thoſe who have condefcended to make them, that the preſent mode
of mafting is generally too high, I will not heſitate a moment
longer to deliver here an epitome of my own experiments on that
ſubject.
-
HAVING all the fails out, and being hurried on by a ſtrong gale,
I have ordered all the top-gallants, the ftudding, and the ſtay fails,
to be taken in, without the fhip lofing the leaft perceptible degree
of her velocity; moreover, I have feen it fometimes to increaſe by
a twentieth, and that even at a time when the fhip ran already at
the rate of nine or twelve knots an hour.
THESE trials, which I have made with care, and had executed
with celerity enough, that the wind ſhould not have time to increaſe
or diminiſh in ftrength, are fufficient to prove the neceffity of low-
ering the center of the effort of the fails in general, and therefore
all the mafts. I have repeated my experiments in augmenting the
number of fails, even at the riſk of fatiguing fometimes the mals
themſelves; and I have always found that the velocity did not
increaſe,
136
AN ESSAY ON
increaſe, when the ſhip was more inclined; but that ſhe laboured
more and more in all her parts, as her movements became ftronger
and the concuffions of her pitchings rougher, although the fea was
not more ſwelled than before. At other times, when the fhip
inclined pretty much, though the wind was not quite ſtrong enough
to hurt the mafts, I have ordered the fails to be diminiſhed; and it
happened that the ſhip, after that fuppreffion of the top-fails,
was eaſier in her movements, fteered better, and was more quiet,
though the fwells of the fea were ftill the fame; an attention which
muſt not be neglected in theſe kinds of obſervations, which cannot
be too often repeated before venturing on a decifion. How-
ever, our intention is not here to point out any diminution in
the ſurface of the fails, although we recommend a diminution in
their height. On the contrary, it will often happen that we ſhall
rather recommend increafing it upon the whole. For, the loſs
which is apprehended from the abating of the height, may eaſily
be regained, in my opinion, by the width. There will even reſult,
from that operation, another advantage: the top-fails, by this re-
form, being ſhorter and, thereby, proportionally wider than the
lower fails, will be more eafy to be shaped in cutting; and their
fides being formed with lines exactly ſtrait, the fail will be the more
taught, a principal quality by which it will always be found to
produce a much greater effect on the ſhip. The mafts being ſhorter,
and the fails wider, with lefs fall, the furface will be the fame:
but the effort of that furface will, with the fame wind, act on
fhorter levers, the fulcrum of which fhall not have been altered;
therefore, it will operate at a fhorter diftance from that fulcrum;
and therefore much leſs will be the power which cauſes the ſhip to
incline: and the ſhip, finding herſelf more upright, will ſteer with
more velocity, becauſe her water-lines will be then more advan-
tageous than when the heels. On the other hand, the lefs the fails
are inclined, the wider is the furface they preſent to the wind, and
the ſtronger, of courfe, the impulfion they receive from it: an
advantage
NAVAL TACTICS.
137
advantage which cannot fail to produce an increaſe of ſwiftneſs and
a decreaſe of drift. To this let it be again added, a real and im-
portant advantage, viz. that of trimming much better the fails, of
bracing them with more eaſe and command, and rendering the
whole maſting more folid in general, and more capable to reſiſt in
bad weather as well as in an engagement.
BUT, how are we to come to the determination of the right
height to be allowed to the maſts in fhips? or, which is the fame,
the right quantity they are to be ſhortened, according to the prin-
ciple of their prefent conftruction? The Treatifes on the Art of
finding the perfect point for the mafting and maneuvering of ſhips, by
M. BOUGUER, teach us that method. It is in thofe very Treatifes
I have imbibed the first notions of my principles on that ſubject.
But, in order to give an anticipated idea of that curious inquiry,
and to engage the builders and feamen to bring to perfection this
part both of the building and manoeuvering of fhips, from which,
as much as from their bottom, moft undoubtedly depends their
fteerage, I will mention here what M. BRUE, a very learned and
ftudious Officer, made me conceive on that head: and, for the fake
of doing juſtice to his inftruction, I will repeat his ow
repeat his own words:
"THAT mafting," faid he, " is abfolutely perfect, when the
"center of the effort of the fails is preciſely oppofite to, at the
"fame height as, or parallel with, the point-velique. Now, what
"is the point-velique? is the queſtion. The point-velique is that
"where a perpendicular, raiſed from the center of gravity of the
floating line of a ſhip, comes, in a direct courſe, to be interfected
by the direction of the abfolute impulfe of the ſea on the prow
"of the veffel."
.cc
•
IT is clear; there is no need of any great effort of imagination
to conceive this principle. As for my part, I find it fo felf-evident,
that I wonder how thoſe who make it their profeffional bufinefs to
build ſhips, have not yet made ufe of it. For, this point once
known, it is certain that of the center of effort of the fails will be
fo
1
138
AN ESSAY ON
fo too; and their right height, as well as that of the mafts, must
follow of courſe, and be determined. A little more calculation,
I confefs, will be required, as well as attention, on the plan of the
ſhip, in order to find out that determination of the direction abſo-
lute of the effort of the impulfion of the water on the prow. But,
it muſt not deter us from purſuing it. On the contrary, it ſhould,
I think, be an additional inducement for thoſe who, building fuch:
good veſſels as we are now poffeffed of, and as might ftill be of a
more advantageous form, will be defirous to make them ſtill more
perfect, in maſting them in a more advantageous manner. And this.
would undoubtedly be the cafe; as I could mention ſeveral veffels,.
the cutting ſhorter of whoſe maſts has been attended with the greateſt
fuccefs. Theſe facts, which could be attefted by many able fea-
men, will always fpeak highly in behalf of this principle; although,
when that ſhortening was made, they miffed having the atten-
tion of widening the fails in proportion, in order that they might
gain that way what ſurface they had loft by the lowering of their
heads.
Kaly
"Bur," continues M. BRUE," in carrying this inquiry farther
" than it ever was, we find that the interfection of the two above-
" mentioned lines, viz. that of the impulfe abfolute of the water on
"the prow, and that of the perpendicular at the center of gravity of
"the ſurface of the floating line of the fhip, cannot take place unleſs
"in a direct courfe; and that, as foon as the courſe becomes oblique,
56
they no longer meet. The center of gravity of the floating line's
"ſurface of the fhip paffes to the leeward of its axis, on account of
"the proportional inclination which always is the neceffary confe-
"" quence of that fort of courfe; and the direction of the fhock of the
fluid, which then takes its origin a little to leeward alſo of the prow,
"paffes in its prolongation to windward without meeting the per-
"pendicular at the center of gravity of the floating line's furface,"
(a circumftance not difficult to conceive, if we endeavour to repre-
ſent to our imagination the horizontal edge of that floating line's fur-
face
4.6.
NAVAL
TACTICS.
139
face but ever fo little inclined); "whence it refults that no point-
velique could be found in any courſe but a direct one: which is
unleſs the imagination could fancy ſuch a ſhip as would
neither drive nor incline in an oblique courfe: but none of that
"kind can, or ever will, be found; hence no perfect mode of maft-
true;
66
ing could be diſcovered in the laſt caſe of the oblique courſe."
THIS is true, rigorously speaking: for, each inftant of a courfe
has its particular and different point of the prow which is ſtruck
by the water; a variation which is owing to that of the ſtrength of
the wind, to the pitching of the ſhip, and to the greater or ſmaller
inclination which the rolling motion of the ſhip produces.
"BUT," ſays again M. BRUE," after having given an evident
“demonſtration of the laſt principle, unneceffary to repeat here,
"the point-velique, relative to the various circumſtances juſt men-
“tioned which accompany the courſe of a ſhip, varies therefore in
"the proportion of the almoſt infinite variety of thoſe ſame cir-
"cumſtances, that is to ſay, according to all the degrees of drift,
"all the degrees of inclination on either board, forward or abaft;
<
as many times, in fhort, as there are new points of the prow
"either ſtruck, or no longer ftruck, by the fluid, the point-velique
* afcends or defcends.
C
66
66
"I PASS over the minute examination I could make of each
fingle and particular cauſe which contributes to lower that point
"from its utmoſt height, as it were, which is in the direct courſe,
"to its loweſt, which never happens but in the moſt oblique courſe,
"accompanied with the greateſt lateral inclination of the ſhip:
"and I fay there is no method to get out of that common beaten
"road which is purſued in determining the dimenſions of the
"ſeveral maſts, but that of paying the greateſt attention to the
following confiderations; viz. Such a fhip being intended for
fuch a latitude, the wind fhe is moſt commonly to expect there,
"will be nearly of fuch a ſtrength, and generally oblique to her
T
"" courſe
·
八​の
​66
140
AN ESSAY ON
"courfe by fo many degrees: fo that her moſt common drift will
"be nearly ſo many degrees, and her lateral inclination fo many,
"&c; in order to give her, therefore, the moſt ſuitable maſting,
66 or,
in other words, the moſt perfect, relatively ſpeaking, we muſt
"feek for her point-velique in what fituation we ſhall think moſt
"convenient, and there place the center of effort of her fails".
Now, all this reaſoning tends evidently to recommend the ſhortening
of all the maſts, and to prove the neceffity of doing it, at the ſame
time as it determines their height. The moft difficult point, in that
operation, will be to find out the direction of the abſolute impulfion
of the water on the prow, when the ſhip ſteers a courſe cloſe hauled
or with the wind on the beam, with fuch an inclination as the ſhip
could be ſuppoſed to have in either of theſe two courfes, and
admitting alfo that the gale would allow to have four fquare-fails
out, along with the mizen top-fail. Granting theſe two fuppofitions
of the wind on the beam or clofe hauled, it will be eafy to deter-
mine the height of the mafts proper for that double fituation-;
becauſe, if the gale blows harder, one may leffen the number of
fails; if weaker, one may increaſe it by adding ſtay-fails, top-gal-
lant fails, jib, &c: if the gale ftrengthens, then the ſurface of the
fails may be increaſed again by adding the ſtudding and top-gallant
royal fails: finally, it is very clear that top-gallant and top-gallant
royal fails will always be of fervice when the center of the effort of
the fails will be wanted to aſcend.
PUTTING afide all the abfurdity of prejudicial habit, this demon-
ftration and our reaſoning muft, upon examination, appear evident,
provided the oppofition which the natural lazineſs of man muſt be
expected to throw into the fcale fhould alfo be rejected; for, there
is no doubt but calculations much more prolix than difficult, and
which are tedious enough, will most certainly be requifite: but,
they will be attended, in the end, with real advantage; and that
labour is certainly not to be regretted, which is to be followed by
the
NAVAL TACTICS.
141
the improvement of thoſe who fhall have condefcended to give
themſelves up to it. Befides, however repugnant it may be to any
one prejudiced againſt it, I do not imagine that prejudice can have
any power againſt a truth eſtabliſhed by all that we have juft faid,
as well as by the experience of many able feamen, more difpofed,
it is true, for making obfervations, than really learned on the fub-
ject, but in whom good fenfe and truth fpeak intelligibly enough
to deſtroy that obftinate prepoffeffion implanted by bad habit and
cuſtom, which fometimes operates powerfully on the minds of
many, who enter into the fea line, without the neceſſary previous
information.
J.
II. I AM going now to propoſe an idea relative to that ſubject
which appears to me as reaſonable as it is well grounded: I fay that
every thing which concerns the fore-mafts fhould be made in every
reſpect equal to, and uniform with, the main-maft. For, what can
be the uſe of that difference in height, in bulk, in fize, between the
maſts and between the fails? Of no other certainly but multiplying
difficulties, of which it might be very easy to get rid, by rendering
every thing uniform, the mafts, the tops, the yards, the fails, the
ſhrouds, the ſtays, and, in general, all the ſtanding and running
rigging. In obſerving, which is very eaſy, to preſerve the center
of the effort of the fails at the fame height as the point-velique, it
will be impoffible to loſe any thing of the impulfion or of the
direction, fince the furface will always be the fame and difpofed in the
fame manner. The advantage which will be deduced from it will be,
firft, an equality in the manoeuvres and in the manœuverers about
the various and diftinct parts of the fhip: fecondly, a great faving
will be the reſult, if put in practice; for, the rigging and the change
of any of the maſts, will ſerve for another maſt, which cannot be
the cafe in the preſent fituation of things; for, whatever is uſed
forward is too weak for abaft, and vice verfâ. There will be no
'need of different blocks, nor of ropes of different fizes; all will
<
T 2
be
142
AN ESSAY ON
be alike. The fore-fails and their yards will do abaft; there will be
need but of a double ſet of thoſe kinds of ſtores: this uniformity
will certainly be very advantageous; and its utility feems to me ſo
ftriking and fo effential, that I cannot imagine the leaſt doubt can
be entertained about it.
III. THE power, or the effort, of the fails on the ſhip ought to
be diſpoſed in ſuch a manner that, being all equally trimmed and
in the ſame way, they will be in equilibrium round a certain point,
on the axis which is determined by the union of the direct impul-
fions of each of the parts of the prow equally divided into two
parts by the axis of the floating line's furface. So that, the fection
on the axis of the directions of the effort of the fluid on each fide
of the prow in the direct courfe being known, and fuppofing
the ſurface of the fails a-head to be equal to that of the fails abaft,
the fore and after mafts will be reciprocally placed at an equal
diſtance from that point. But, if the courfe be oblique, then it
alters the cafe in a due ratio between the greateſt and the leaſt obli-
quity, as well as between the greateſt inclination of the fhip and
her moſt upright or horizontal fituation. So that, in order that the
maſts may, in fuch a circumſtance, be properly placed, it is necef-
fary to find out the middle direction, between the direct and the
lateral efforts of the fluid on the prow in the fuppofed oblique
courſe, and the inclination which will be conceived as being a necef-
fary confequence of it. Then, the point of ſection of the direction
of that middle impulfion on the axis, coming from leeward, will
be that round which it will be proper and neceffary to place in
equilibrium the effort of the fails at the time of ſtepping the maſts,
under the ſuppoſition however, as we have ſaid before, of a courſe,
or of an inclination of the ſhip which ſhall be the moſt relative to
the qualities wished to be given her.
In order to find out afterwards the direction of the effort, or
impulfion abfolute, of the prow in the oblique courſe, it is necef-
fary
NAVAL TACTICS.
143
fary to know firſt the direct, the lateral, and the vertical impulfions.
The two firft will ferve to draw a parallelogram, the diagonal of
which, ſtarting from the point of union of theſe two impulfions
on the exterior part of the leeward of the prow, will cut the axis
of the floating line's furface according to the fide of the ſhip; and
that point of ſection of the diagonal, or, what is the fame, the
direction of the impulfion, which is a middle one, between the direct
and the lateral with the axis, will be that where the ſet of maſts is
to be placed; for, it is round that point the effort of the fails is to
be placed in equilibrium.
❤
If, at the two extremities of the diagonal, formed by the direct
and the lateral impulfions, two perpendiculars be raiſed and made
ſo as to be equal to the vertical impulfion, (after having confounded
and united into one and the fame the three points of the prow's
furface on which they act); and if, afterwards, a line be drawn
along their extremities parallel to the firft diagonal, a fecond rect-
angle thereby will be obtained vertically fituated, the diagonal of
which, ftarting from the point. of union of the three impulfions on
the exterior ſurface of the prow, will give the direction of the effort
abſolute of the water on the prow of the ſhip: and this direction,
meeting (as we faid before) the perpendicular in the center of
gravity of the inclined floating line's furface, or on the horizontal
one which ſtarts from it on the windward fide, will mark, at the
point of this interfection, the height of the point-velique for this
particular oblique courfe, and confequently the height of the center
of effort of the fails, whence the height both of the lower and of
the top mafts is to be taken: for, as to the top-gallant mafts, they
ought to be arbitrary, as they are but ſuppliers to the want of wind, -
a quality they have in common with the top-gallant royal.
CHAPTER
144
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER
II.
Obfervations on the different inclinations given to the maſting of ſhips,
with respect to the water-line.
THE mafts are hardly ever ſtepped in the fame manner in every
hip. That operation is again one of thoſe which are rather ſub-
mitted to cuſtom than judgement. Some will have them perpen-
dicular, while others chufe to have them lean forward, and others
prefer to have them lean abaft. Each party bring, to the ſupport of
their opinion, reafons drawn from fome experiment or other which
chance has fometimes rendered fpecious enough to give room for
their favorite error.
IN difcuffing theſe various opinions, mariners, in general, feldom
care to examine whether the fhips are alike, and whether what they
· infift upon is conformable to principles, or not. So that, while
they repeat the fame thing in one ſhip as they have already practiſed
in another, they precifely do the contrary of what they want to
execute. But, without carrying this digreffion any farther, let us
return to our ſubject. In this refpect, confidence muſt be given to
the fagacity and judgement of the builder, who ought to know the
qualities of his ſhip even before he undertakes to put her on the
ftocks. If one has not an opportunity of taking directly from him
the neceffary inſtructions, it is proper, however, to take notice that,
if the leaning of the mafts is ſo calculated as to be forward, the
direction of the effort of the fails will be inclined towards the bot-
tom, obliquely with the horizon; whence it refults that they will
make the head of the ſhip to plunge whenever they receive a ſtrong
impulfe from the wind, which may diminish the head-way of the
ſhip, while it increaſes, at the fame time, the celerity of the pitch-
ing: the fails alſo will befides be with more difficulty trimmed,
eſpecially when circumſtances ſhall require them to be cloſe hauled,
fince
NAVAL TACTICS.
145
fince the bracing of the yards will be more confined. Therefore,
the only advantage which can be drawn from this oblique maſting.
of ſhips, is only to render the ſhips more ready to fall off.
If the maſts are ſtepped perpendicularly, the direction of the
effort of the fails will be horizontal, always fuppofing the fhip to
be in an upright pofition. Therefore, this effort not being diſcom-
poſed, it will preſerve a much greater action, and the ſhip will fail
with the greateſt velocity ſhe is capable of.
If the mafts are leaning abaft, the fhip will be more ready to
come to the wind, becauſe the fails will be a little more aft: theſe
will alſo be more eaſy to trim ſharp on account of the braces not
being fo much confined. Now, as this pofition of the fails will
raiſe obliquely above the horizon the direction of their effort on
the fhip, it reſults that, by their power, the ſhip will find herſelf
very much eaſed away from the water: for, it is moft certain fhe
ſhe
will not prolong her courfe, unleſs fhe leans by a great deal too
much; therefore, fhe will rife much lighter over the waves of the
fea, pitch leſs, keep better the wind, and tack quicker. Such is
nearly all that can be ſaid in reſpect to practice..
CHA APTE
R
III.
Of the cut or ſhaping of the fails: of their tenfion, and tendency to
fix themſelves perpendicularly to the direction of the wind.
I. STARTING from the principle of ſhortening the mafting of
ſhips by increaſing the length of the yards in general, and of courſe
the extent of the fails upon them, it will be very eaſy to cut the
top-fails; as thereby their fides will no longer be formed of any
other but frait lines. The courfes, or lower fails, will alſo have
the fame advantage. But, fometimes (though as feldom as poffible)
it will be found neceffary to cut them fo, that the foot of the fail
ſhould be narrower than the head or ſquare fide, in order that they
may
146
AN ESSAY ON
may be made more taught in trimming. (This mode of ſhaping
them, for example, will always be requifite whenever it is poffible to
place their chefs-trees perpendicularly, and to tack the clues of the
fore-fail on the forecaſtle inſtead of placing it on the knee of the head
or cutwater, under the extremities of the lower yards.) The top-
gallant, as well as the top-fails, will have nearly the form of a ſquare,
as their ſhape will be that of a trapezoid, the parallel fides of which
will be almoſt equal. But, in giving the dimenfions for the top
and the top-gallant yards, it will be proper to order the arms and
ends, where the cleats are made for the reefs, longer than they
uſually are; and to mark on it each cleat fo that a perpendicular
line, which would be drawn from the yard-arm at one of the cleats,
ſhould correſpond to the tabling of its own reef. By theſe means
it is evident as many ſuch cleats ſhall be requifite at the end of each
yard-arm (befides that uſed for the bending of the fail to it) as there
will be reefs to the fails. The reefs alſo ought to be marked, and
the reef-bands placed gradually. Thus, when the laſt reef is taken
in, it is neceffary, and it will ſo happen, that the top-fail will not
be hoifted more than a foot or two above the cap of the maft, that
the fail may be diminiſhed by, at leaſt, one half, or two thirds of
it: which manœuvre must be compriſed in three reefs for the top-
fails, and in one for the top-gallant, to which I fhould like to have
fome put likewife, in order to make a more advantageous uſe of
them when, in a ftrong gale, one is obliged to carry them hauled
lower down.
THE ftay-fails ought, generally, to be triangularly ſhaped, and ſet
in ſuch a manner that they ſhould not obſtruct the other fails; as
their uſe has been introduced only to fill up the vacancies in a cloſe-
hauled failing. They are to be trimmed in fuch a manner, that no
wind ſhould be able to pass between the mafts without meeting
fome canvaſs in its way. I have feen a top-ftay-fail trapezoidly
ſhaped, which had two fixed clues; the one on the edge of the
fore-
NAVAL TACTICS.
147
fore-top, between the two after treffel-trees; the other upon a ftrop
a little above the frame of the fore-bell: fo that nothing obftructed··
the fore-fail between the fore-maſt and the ſtay which came from
the top to the bell. But, the foot tack of fuch a fail ought to be
made moveable, that it may be trimmed ſharp when wanted.
THE top and top-gallant ftudding-fails ought always to be tri-
angularly ſhaped, that they may be eafily maneuvered, and that
they ſhould not obſtruct the top nor top-gallant fails. When they
are thus fhaped, it will be proper to haul out their tacks before.
hoiſting of them; then, their haliards paffing over the fore part of
the top-fail, you will hoiſt them behind that fail. When you want
to haul them down, you have but to looſen the haliard, weigh upon
the down-haul tackle, which, like the haliard, is fixed to the head -
of the fail, and is to go through a block placed towards the middle
of the fore-yard: at the diſtance of the fall of the outſide part of the
ſtudding-fail: then, with a piece of rope-band, you will furl the..
remains of the canvafs on the end of the lower yard.
THE lower ftudding-fails will moft generally be of the parallelo--
gram ſhape; and, for the fake of their being more eafily mancu-
vered in changes of winds, it will be proper to trim them on booms
made with hooks.
AFTER the fails fhall have been thus cut and completely made,
it will be proper, the firſt time you put to fea, to employ them for a
week or a fortnight, in order to work them and make them ſtretch
as much as the cloth, as well as head, leech and foot ropes, which
are all new, will permit; then, taking them out, you will replace
them with others to the fame purpoſe, and ſhape them a-new, in
order to make them, laftly, as little concave as poffible; for, it muſt
be taken for granted that a fail can never, at the firſt ſtroke, be cut
to its proper and true form and ſhape, becauſe it always ftretches
as it wears.
U
<
[
/
II. IT:
·
148
AN ESSAY ON
}
A
II. IT requires one to have but common eye-fight to be con-
vinced that fails are never perfectly flat. But, every one is not
perſuaded that the more extended is the fail, the greater is the im-
pulfion it receives from the wind which ſtrikes it perpendicularly,
and the more effectually, of courſe, the fail will afterwards act on the
veffel. It is a matter of aſtoniſhment to me how ſo many feamen
are ſtill of opinion that a bag muſt be left at the foot of the fail, to
lodge the wind in; and how, to fuch as propoſe to them objections
againſt that cuſtom, they give for the only reaſon, that it is the
feather which carries the bird off. This reaſoning is abfurd.
hauled-down top-fail has got as much diſplayed cloth in it as when
hoiſted up and well extended. In that fituation, it forms by its
convexity a very confiderable kind of bag in which the wind may
play at eaſe; and, notwithſtanding, it is obferved that the rapidity
of the failing decreafes very much; whence we are to conclude
that the power of the wind must have ftrongly diminiſhed, fince
the fail produces no longer the fame effect upon the veffel. Now,
if you wiſh to enter into further particulars, and know demonftra-
tively the cauſe of that diminution in the impulfe of the wind, you
have only to pay attention to the air which acts against the foot and
the head of the fail; and you will fee that the wind, which ſtrikes.
at the head part, makes an effort to re-act towards the foot in the
fame manner as and against that which, having ftruck at the fame
inftant at the foot, endeavours to re-act towards the head. From
this fhock reſults (though the air efcapes at each fide) a compref-
fion in the fail. But, after having acted inwardly in the fame man-
ner as if it were ſhut up, it happens that it finds itſelf more and
more compreffed by that which fucceeds to the firft; and, though
it eſcapes by the fides, it is evident that it tries to extend, and
that it impels confequently, with an equal power, all the parts of
the fail perpendicularly; which is the cauſe of the fail affuming
the form of a circle's arc. Therefore, the fail will produce no
greater
NAVAL TACTIC S.
149
greater effect than if it had no other height but the ſpace contained
between the two yards which ferve to trim it: and I fay that,
rigorouſly ſpeaking, it may even not have that whole effect; for,
that fort of whirlwind, which is procured in the center by the re-
action of the wind which ftrikes its upper and lower parts at the
fame time, cannot fail diminiſhing the fhock of the parts which,
fucceeding the former, would have ftruck the fail with all their
primitive power; while, on the contrary, this power is now almoſt
intirely deſtroyed by this barrier which oppofes for a while their
paffage. To all theſe reaſons may ftill be added, as a further argu-
ment, that the fail having the form of an arc, there can be but
very little wind capable to ſtrike it perpendicularly; for which very
ſtrong reaſon it muſt, of courſe, have much lefs effect than another
fail, of the fame height and width, which fhould be very exactly
ſpread every way.
I HOPE I have faid enough on this fubject to obviate the oppofite
prejudice, and to engage every reaſonable feaman to direct his
attention to the fails of his fhip, that they may be cut in fuch a
form as to prefent as flat a ſurface as poffible.
III. THE center of effort of the impulfe of the wind, on the
fails expofed perpendicularly to the courfe of the wind, anſwers
exactly to the center of gravity of the furface which is flruck in
that direct fituation. But, as foon as you prefent it obliquely to
the courſe of the fluid, and keep it fo to it, the center of effort of
the total impulſe will pafs on the weather fide of its center of gra-
vity; becauſe the particles of air, which at firſt met the ſurfáce,
have been re-acted, and by the very act of their re-action they ſtop
part of the paffage to the fucceeding ones, which diminiſhes of
courſe both the ftrength of the fhock and the impulſe they would
have given to the fail, had not their movement been interrupted.
But, this deviation of re-action in the firſt particles of air which
have ſtruck, is repeated afterwards. For, all thofe which ſucceed
U 2
them
150
AN ESSAY ON
them during the whole time the furface is kept obliquely to wind-
ward, continue to re-act to leeward: fo that, from the firſt vertical
line (taken from the fource of the wind) out of all thofe which
form together the furface, there is a continual feries of obſtacles
which change the fhock of immediate and fucceeding particles,
and which alters it fo much the more as they are to ſtrike the parts
moft to leeward of the fail, and fo much the lefs as they will ſtrike
thoſe which are moft to windward. Therefore, the leeward fide of
fuch fails as are obliquely expoſed to the wind is always leſs ſtruck than
that which ſtands to windward. Hence it reſults that the center of
effort of the abſolute impulſe of the wind on the fail, is lodged in
that weather-part of the fail which is fuppofed to be equally divided
in two, fince that is the part which receives more impulfion. There-
fore the fame center of effort is alfo to the windward of the center
of gravity of the furface; and the act of its removing from it
towards the wind keeps pace with both the impulfe received by
the weather fide of the fail, and that received by the lee fide of the
fame fail, and is in the fame ratio. The truth of this affertion is
continually demonftrated by daily experience of ſhips at ſea. The
fails are carried by the yards and by the mafts, which divide them
perpendicularly into two equal parts, from top to bottom, through
their center of gravity, fince they are of a trapezoid ſhape. When,
being placed obliquely to the wind, they are left at liberty, without
being confined by their arms or bowlines, they immediately range
themſelves perpendicularly to the courfe of the wind, becauſe their
weather fide receives more impulfion than the lee fide; and there
they remain conftantly, unleſs they are compelled to alter their
pofition, becauſe all their parts are ftruck equally, which keeps an
equilibrium always among them; for, the power of the wind,
whether it increaſes or decreaſes, acts always the fame on them all.
THIS proof, which eſtabliſhes a wide difference to be made
between the center of gravity and the center of effort in the fails,
requires
*
NAVAL TACTICS.
151
requires that a great deal of attention ſhould be paid to the uſe of
that knowledge in the practice. For example, fome fort of cleats
might be fixed in the middle and on the after part of the yards,
which, in oblique courfes, pufhing them to leeward, would eaſe
them out of the fhrouds, and facilitate their bracing in carrying
their center of gravity, as well as the center of the abfolute effort,
to leeward; which operation would of courſe draw that center of
gravity alſo nearer to the axis of the ſhip, from which it is ſo effen-
tial to remove as little as poffible.
CHAPTER IV.
General Obfervations on the effect of more or less furface of fails
expofed, in various weathers, to the wind.
I. WHEN a ſhip, under a certain ſet, or trimming, of fails,
has acquired the utmoſt velocity with the power which then puts
her in motion, it is certain that, whenever the furface of the fails
is either increaſed or diminiſhed, the rapidity of the head-way will
likewiſe augment or leffen in a very complicated ratio. In order to
find out the degree of impulfion of the wind on the fails, you
muſt multiply their furface by the fquare of the excefs of the velo-
city of the wind on that of the ſhip, or, which is the fame thing,
by the ſquare of the apparent velocity of the wind. Then, a fecond
multiplication of that product is to be made by the fquare of the
fine of the angle of incidence abfolute, or, in the fecond cafe, by
the ſquare of the apparent fine of incidence. Now, this fecond
product will give the degree of the abfolute impulſe of the wind
on the fails, in the actual ſtate which we have fuppofed.
IF you want to know in what ratio you are to augment the fur-
face of the fails, in order to make the ſhip acquire a certain degree
of velocity above that which ſhe poffeffed under fuch a particular
quantity of fail which you may fuppofe, you must first know by
how
1
152
AN ESSAY ON
how much the velocity of the wind exceeds that of the fhip: then,
knowing by how many degrees you with her to accelerate the pro-
grefs of her head-way, you will increaſe the ſet or the trimming
of the fails in the ratio of the fquares of the two velocities of the
ſhip; viz. that which was known before the alteration of the fails,
and that which he is to have acquired fince. But, as the ſhip
recedes fo much the more from the action of the impulfe of the
wind as her velocity increaſes, it is evident the furface of the fails
muſt be increaſed alfo in the ratio of the fquare of the two exceffes,
I mean the different excefs of the wind over that of the ſhip both
before and after the increaſe of the fails: then, the fhip will un-
doubtedly acquire, by thefe means, the wiſhed-for velocity; pro-
vided, however, no other caufe happen to oppofe it, as we have
already hinted before, and as we ſhall have an opportunity to fhew
more particularly hereafter.
SUPPOSE the wind has 12 degrees velocity, and the ſhip, under
a certain ſet of fails, has 3; the velocity of the wind, in the direc
courſe, will exceed that of the ſhip but by 9 degrees. If, in this
cafe, the velocity of the ſhip is wanted to come up to the third part
of that of the wind, and take 4 degrees for her ſteerage or head-
way; then the fails are, to this effect, to be increaſed in the ratio
of the fquares of the two velocities 9 to 16, becauſe the oppofition
of the water on the prow will increaſe in that very proportion.
But, in the firſt caſe, the velocity of the wind exceeded that of the
ſhip by 9 degrees, while in the ſecond cafe it exceeds it no more
than 8. Hence it reſults that the impulſe of the wind on the fails
has diminiſhed in the ratio of the two fquares 81 to 64: and, in
order to repair that lofs in the impulfion of the wind, the expanfion
of the fails is alfo to be increaſed in that laft ratio of 64 to 81:
then the ſhip will be able to run with the right degree of velocity
which ſhe was wiſhed to have.
II. WHEN
NAVAL TACTIC S.
153
II. WHEN the maſting ſhall be perfect, that is to fay, when the
ſhip which is to be worked fhall be maſted according to the point-
velique, fhe will rife from the water parallel to herſelf by a certain
quantity relative to her velocity, and that rifing will always increaſe
more and more in proportion as ſhe will acquire new degrees of
velocity in her head-way. The reafon of this is, that fuch a fhip
is moved by forces which ſtand exactly and continually in equi-
librium with the action of the water on her prow, the forward
inclination of which is fo much the more contributing to that rifing
out of the water as it is more remote from the perpendicular. For,
then, the vertical impulfion must have more power, fince it acts
more directly on a very oblique prow than it would on a vertical
one. With the fame exactneſs, this reaſoning may be applied to the
direct impulfion, the abfolute effort of which may be decompoſed,
fince it acts leſs againſt the velocity of the failing on an oblique
prow than on a vertical one, while the other part of its action joins
with the vertical impulſe to raiſe the head of the ſhip, which ſhocks
the water with great ftrength when the is arrived to a very great
velocity, a water which oppoſes her fo much the more as it is
fhocked with a greater violence. So that it is eaſy to conclude that,
in any ſhip whatever, the more rapid is the head-way, the more
parallel to herſelf the rifes above the water when the center of
the effort of her fails is at the fame height as the point-velique:
for, the point of the prow on which may be confidered as united
the action of the water which oppofes its progrefs, may be taken
alſo as that of bearing. So that all the fails acting from aft to fore
on various points of the axis of the ſhip, which herſelf may be
confidered as a lever in the directon of her length, they raiſe the after
part of that point and place it on a level with the elevation of the
prow; an operation which never can happen if the center of effort
of the fails is above or under the point-velique. If it is placed above,
the power of the fails, acting on too long levers, will raiſe the after
part
1
154
AN ESSAY ON
part of the point of bearing of the prow above the level of the eleva-
tion of the ſhip's head. If it is placed below, the power of the
fails, acting on too ſhort levers, the after part of the fhip will remain
plunged in the water without being able to riſe on a level with the
prow. Therefore, in either of theſe two cafes, when the center
of the effort of the fails is either above or below the point-velique,
however well-built a ſhip may be, ſhe will loſe ſome of her quali-
ties, either in ſteering, or in her readineſs to obey the helm, or in
fhort in her ſteadineſs to carry her fails, eſpecially if fhe is over-
maſted: for, in this laſt caſe, ſhe will gripe, incline eafily, and lofe
much of her head-way, fince her prow will plunge in the fluid,
or, which is the fame thing, her ſtern will riſe too much out of it;
which will diminish the action of the water on the rudder and
increaſe it on the prow. In the laſt caſe, an inconveniency of which
ſhip-builders ſeldom, if ever, have been guilty, the ſhip will be flow
to obey, and her head-way will be flackened, becauſe ſhe will never
be able to preſent her moſt advantageous water-lines to the fluid,
nor have a ſufficient furface of fails, as, although their width is the
fame, their perpendicular length is not fo. Hence we muſt, there-
fore, conclude that the true point of perfection to be aimed at and
obtained is only this, viz. when the center of effort of the fails is
placed at the height of the point-velique.
III. I AM now going to lay down a propofition which will appear
a monftrous paradox to many feamen. But, it ſeems to me too
felf-evident a truth to refrain from promulgating it; efpecially as
it can be oppoſed but by mere habit and cuſtom; and, indeed, ſuch
motives are little worth being regarded.
I MAINTAIN that there are many cafes in which the adding of
a few fails, inſtead of increaſing her velocity, pofitively retards a
hip's head-way. It is notwithſtanding an error in which all ſeamen
almoſt continually fall into, when, in a ſtrong gale, they want either
to recede from, or approach, a fhip they want to avoid or chafe.
When
•
S
NAVAL TACTIC S.
155
When their ſhip is arrived to a very great pitch of velocity (fometimes
of twelve and more knots an hour), if they have to do with an adver-
fary the rapidity of which is nearly equal to that of their own ſhip,
they fancy that, by adding more fails to thofe they have already, at
the time when their fhip is perhaps beſt diſpoſed and arrived at
its utmoſt degree of fwiftnefs, they will increaſe the rapidity of
her head-way; and, accordingly, they hoift up fome additional ſtay
or ſtudding fails, eſpecially if the wind happens to be on the beam
or a little more aft. But, there happens then quite the reverſe of
what they expected; for, the ſhip becomes more inclining, her
head plunges, and, the reſiſtance of her prow increaſing in the
direction of the keel more than the effort of the fails in the direc-
tion of the head-way, the rapidity decreaſes in fo much as the
water acts more powerfully than the fail does relatively to the obfer-
vations we have just made. Befides all this, thofe forward and
lateral inclinations of the ſhip, produced by the effort of the
new-added fail, which have caufed the center of effort of the fails
to aſcend, and the point-velique to defcend (if the new-added fail has
been fet above it), caufe alfo the fhip not to rife from the water
parallel to herſelf; the rifes her ftern and plunges her head; whence
it reſults that ſhe becomes griping from two cauſes: first, becauſe,
as her ftern lies lefs in the water, the rudder is of courſe, expofed
to a lefs fhock; and the ftern, which always acts as good as any
fail, is more eaſily maſtered by the wind which ſtrikes it then on
the beam with a great deal more efficacy than it does her head;
on the other hand, as the lateral part of the refiftance of the water
on the leeward part of the prow has been increaſing by the inclining
of the head, which has plunged that part of the fhip which is the
moſt ſwelled and bellied in its careen, and thereby increaſed alfo
the furface on which the water acts, which has both diminished the
head-way and increaſed at the fame time the lateral impulfe on the
fide of the prow; fo that lateral impulfion forces the ſhip to wind-
ward more at the head, than he is impelled to fall off by the lateral
X
part
156
AN ESSAY ON
part of the effort of the new-added fail. Whence it follows that
the ſhip becomes ftill more griping, which is an additional caufe of
her head-way's decreaſe; becauſe, the helm of the rudder being
more a-weather in order to keep the fhip more on her ſtanding on,
a great deal more of the rudder itfelf is offered to the run of the
water, by the great furface it offers more directly to its fhock; and,
by fuch means, oppofes the current of the water-ftreams, and retards
the velocity of the ſhip. Whence we are to conclude that as ſoon as
any more fails are added to a ſhip which carries already a fufficient
quantity of them, fhe will lofe her qualities of ſteering well and
making a good head-way through the water: whether thofe addi-
tional fails are fet forward or a-ftern, it is indifferent; they will
always be equally noxious and detrimental.
CHAPTER
V.
Particulars to be obferved in the fitting-out of a ship, in order to
accelerate the execution of it.
WHENEVER celerity is required in the bufinefs of fitting-
out a ſhip for the fea, order muſt be introduced in the difpofition
of the different branches of that operation as well as in the attend-
ing cloſe the execution of them. So that, when you have once
begun a certain particular object, fuch as rigging, ballaſting, or
ftowing, &c, &c, &c, you must attend it cloſe till it is finiſhed,
before you attempt another which, in its turn, muft likewife be
attended the fame.
AMONG the various operations which are to be executed in the
courſe of the equipment, there are a few things of mere obſervation
or detail, which may be either prepared before-hand, or fo'difpofed
as to be ready for the time it will be proper to fet about them.
Accordingly, you have only to felect a ſmall number of failors, or
other workmen, fuch as are known to be the moſt affiduous and
ſkilful, under the command of an intelligent mechanical officer, and
thefe
NAVAL TACTICS.
157
theſe people will forward the preparations without its being hardly
perceived; fo that, when you come to fet about the bufinefs for
good, every thing goes round and eaſy, without being ſtopped at
every inſtant by a thouſand minute particulars.
THE officer on duty, or charged with the inſpection of the works,
will report to the Captain in the evening every thing which fhall
have been done in the courfe of the day, and agree at the fame time
on what is to be done the next. When this is once agreed on
and fettled, the order muſt ſtand good and ſubſiſt without its being
allowed or permitted to be interrupted at any time during the courſe
of the work, unleſs fome unforeſeen accident and of great moment
ſhould happen.
We muſt remain intimately perfuaded of this truth, viz. that
it is always attended with the lofs of a vaſt deal of time when we
are obliged to paſs on a fudden from a buſineſs begun to another
which is juſt ordered, and then to quit this to paſs again to a new
one or to return to the firſt. This buſy uncertainty alone puzzles
the workmen, and difgufts the very leaders themſelves of the works;
and the want of order can never produce but dilatorineſs in the
execution of an operation, let it be whatever it will.
I AM not unaware that more than one object may fometimes be
undertaken at once; and I even adviſe to put it in practice when-
ever there will be any poffibility fo to do. But, I nevertheleſs
return to my first principle laid down, that all works begun ought
to be conducted to their end, without interruption, by the fame
hands as undertook them, before thofe hands are put about any
other fort of buſineſs.
ONE muſt feldom fet about doing any kind of buſineſs, when
every thing is well ordered, unleſs one is morally fure of being able
to bring it to conclufion without any interruption. It is a general
principle that no mariner is allowed to be ignorant of. There are
notwithstanding fuch moments and intervals of labour which are not
to be waſted. In thefe circumstances, the hands are to be fet about
X 2
certain
158
AN ESSAY ON
certain preparations or certain fmall operations relative to works
one forefees or knows to be foon undertaken. It is at fuch times
activity is not to be abated, nor any hand ſuffered to remain unem-
ployed; for, if inaction and idleness is once fuffered to lay hold of
them, it can in the end but make them weak, flothful, indolent,
and effeminate.
-
CHAPTER
VI.
Of the careening and Scupper-nail-fheathing of ships.
I WILL not attempt to give here an account of all the particulars
concerning the difpofitions neceffary for, or the act itſelf of, heaving
down a fhip in order to careen her. Seamen are fo well verſed in
theſe operations, and they are fo fimple and fo eafy to be conceived
by thoſe who never have ſeen them done, that it is better to refer
people to experience than to undertake here a deſcription of the
fubject. But, we ſhall make it our bufinefs to defcant on what might
beſt be done for the preſervation of ſhips and preventing them from
being worm-eaten.
It is a great while fince the means have been fought for to pre-
vent worms from eating the wood, lodging themſelves in it, and
boring it, as they do, in all the ſhips which have gone long voyages,
or which remain in harbours and roads the ground of which is oozy
and fit to produce, or favour, thofe gnawing infects. Every thing
which has hitherto been attempted in that reſpect has proved
unſucceſsful; and nothing but the nail-fheathing has been yet
known capable to preſerve the ſhips from that accident. Therefore,
we will direct our thoughts to that fort of expedient of fheathing
ſhips; but we propofe to improve upon it, and to adviſe to do it a
new way: for, I am fully convinced that the preſent method of doing
it, which is by covering the bottom with fcupper nails, is very
defective, for the following reafons. As the ſurface of a fhip's
bottom is very uneven, the head-way of a ſhip, thus fheathed with
nails,
NAVAL TACTICS.
159
nails, decreaſes very much, owing to the increaſe of reſiſtance of the
fluid; the firſt objection. The ſecond is, that if the fhip happen
to leak, either through the looſeneſs and play of fome of her parts,
or through the want of oakum, which rots in time, within the
feams of the planks, you muſt lofe in the careening all the ſheath-
ing and the nailing, which is attended of courfe with a great addi-
tional expence. And a third objection is, again, that it often hap-
pens a ſhip comes out of the harbour quite tight and dry, and is
no fooner offward but the leaks, becauſe the labour of the parts
which are covered with the nails occafions, frequently, the fcarfs to
give way.
To remedy, therefore, all theſe inconveniencies, I would propoſe
to fheath the ſhips with nails on the free planks of their bottoms,
and to employ for that buſineſs nails one inch and an half·long,
with heads at leaſt one inch diameter, and nearly like thoſe which
ſerve to faſten the iron bands on the waggon wheels. Such nails
ſhould be placed alſo in ſuch a manner as would admit of two or
three lines diſtance between each nail's head, ſo that the ruft might
communicate from nail to nail and occupy all the diſtance between
them; for, ruft is the only thing which really prevents the worms
from getting into the wood. And, in order to remedy the uneven-
nefs of the bottom's furface, it will be proper to make with a gouge
a cavity in the plank of the fame depth as the thickneſs of thoſe
nails heads, that they may be funk in it and thereby appear on a
level with the furface of the wood.
ON each ſcarf, or on each plank's end, I would alfo have two
iron cramperns, with pikes, vertically placed, and fo incruſted into
the wood as not to appear above it. All this being done with care,
and the ſhips being next well caulked with the horfing-iron, ſo that
the feams be as narrow as poffible, you will pay the whole bottom
all over with a liquid pitch, this fpecies of brown coat being pre-
ferable to the paler fort, as it ſticks better.
THE
160
AN ESSAY ON
THE advantage which will refult from that mode of careening
ſhips will take lefs time in fheathing, and will render careening
itſelf more eaſy; befides, it will facilitate the vifiting and examin-
ing of the ſhips, whenever it may be found neceffary, without
being ſtopped in the operation by the fheathing or the nails: there
will be no need of employing fo many carpenters; in fhort, in the
Colonies, the expence will be found much leſs than it is now.
ONE might again, after the method of the inhabitants of Surata,
build and careen ſhips fo as to laſt a hundred years, by paying their
bottom all over, and even on the free planks, with a coat of gal-
galle* well-made after their own way, and the feams covered with
farangoufti.
If you want abfolutely to fheath your fhips, it will be better to
IF
do it with ſheets of copper as thin as paper. The English have
tried it, and it has fucceeded. The first expence will appear coſtly,
but that copper is melted a-new for each careening. It is to be
obſerved this fort of ſheathing never becomes foul, and muſt be
nailed with copper nails, becauſe the iron ones becoming ruſty
would all fall off.
CHAPTER
VII.
Of the fcantling in men of war, and in general of the
Strengthening-pieces.
THIS is a fubject for the general cry of all the Navy, and not
the leaſt reaſonable is it I must confefs.
THEY
* Galgalle is a compofition of oil, quick lime, and oakum, mixed together, with
which they grave and pay a fhip's bottom in India.
+ Sarangoufti is a kind of maftick, fuperior to any other, ufed in India for the
purpoſe above mentioned.
:
1
NAVAL TACTICS.
161
THEY have of late years built exceeding good veffels, and they
continue, it is true, to build ſuch now; but I cannot help obferving
that thoſe ſhips might ſtill be improved in their form. After having
blamed the exceſs of height in the mafting, of ſhips, I think
myſelf authoriſed in pointing out the defects of their fcantling:
and I think I am fo much the better grounded in doing it, as it is
from a perfect knowledge of the error, that I embrace this oppor-
tunity to reprobate it.
It muſt be allowed that the ſhips which are built now on the
modern principles are in every refpect fuperior to thofe of former
times; they are undoubtedly learnedly built. But, nevertheleſs,
if they go on much longer on the plan they have adopted, it cannot
be denied but they will ruin Government at laft by the ſhortneſs of
their duration. They cannot ftand an action as long as our old fhips
uſed to do, through the body of which the bullets formerly did
not pafs, but remained in the planks. Experience has fufficiently
proved it, and the Tonnant, an old ſhip, ſhews it ſufficiently to all
the Navy, while thirty others of the modern conftruction witneſs
at this time, in every part of the world, that there is not one of
them but may be pierced at the water-line by a twelve-pounder.
A diſadvantage which might eaſily be remedied, if, inſtead of giving
them 17 or 19 inches fcantling perpendicular to the lower battery
they had 24 or 28; and if, befides, they were built full of wood
from eight feet lower than the water-line up to the ſecond deck,
as it ſhould incontestably be in fhips which are deſtined to carry
twenty-four and thirty-fix pounders, and to fire in line. A fhip thus
built will have undoubtedly a great advantage in cannonading over a
thin ſhip expoſed to be pierced through and through at every broad-
fide ſhe receives, and who cracks in ſhivering under the iterated con-
cuffions occafioned by the quick firing of her own artillery. On the
other hand, theſe kind of veffels, thus ftrengthened, might be made
tighter than the others; becauſe it would be eaſy to faften their
feveral parts one upon another with iron fcrews, beginning at one
end
162
AN ESSAY ON
end and continuing thus to the other. The timber-work holding
in this manner all together, could not eafily labour in one place
without being fupported by the remainder: fhould two parts tend
to divide, they could not do it without breaking feven or eight
fcrews, and without forcing upon the other neighbouring parts.
When fuch a fhip would come to board another of a weak ſcant-
ling, whatever might be the weather or fea, fhe would prefent her
a mafs, which, without being of a much larger fize, would be of
a very different folidity, a folidity which would fave her from fuf-
fering fo much as a weak veffel, all the parts of which play if ſhe
is ever fo little hurt, as feamen have many a time experienced it,
in fundry fimilar events of this kind, and as it is eaſy to verify it
whenever we navigate modern fhips which are weak, not only
through their ſcantling being unable to ftand its own iron-work,
but alſo through the fault of their interior ſtrengthening-pieces,
and the great diſtance there is between a broad thin beam and
another, and the over-weakneſs of theſe fame beams, which being
neither thick nor wide enough are not capable to ſupport the fore-
caftle nor the quarter-deck, on account of the weight of the iron
artillery with which the men of war are obliged to be loaded. So
that, after a campaign of fix years in the Colonies, and fometimes
lefs, thefe veffels are at their return home expoſed to be rebuilt or
condemned. The fame happens with the flutes or ftore-ſhips, the
ribs of which being all looſe, leak every where, between decks and
the hold, as foon as they are toffed about by a heavy fea, which,
in a ſtrong gale, they very often ſhip by over the waiſt.
If they thought to get much in the building of fhips by the
lightneſs of their weight, they have certainly fucceeded to admi-
ration in that refpect. Notwithſtanding, I believe that, if naval
architecture had received no other improvement but this, we ſhould
be ftill expoſed to be bleffed with no better than hawkers little fit
to go with rapidity from one place to another, and to maneuver in
prefence of the enemy. For, it is evident that a light fhip, made
on
NAVAL
163
TACTICS.
on the fame pattern as another more heavy, has no better difpofi-
tions to divide the fluid than the other, fince the offers the fame
furface, and ſhe has the fame quantity of water to overcome, being
both obliged to take a fufficient and proportional quantity of ballaſt
in order to fink both equally to the fame water-line. Moreover,
how much more do you think the heavieſt-built ſhip will fink into
the water on account of its greater quantity of wood? Two or
three inches only, and no more. For, fuppofe there ſhould be in
the conſtruction of the one about thirty or forty tons of wood and
iron more than in the other, any one may take notice that when
ſuch a ſhip (which I fuppofe to be a ſeventy-four or eighty gun
fhip) is ready to take the fea, forty tons more or lefs will not be
capable to make a difference of two inches in its finking. Befides,
the ſize of the veſſel may eaſily be increaſed in the fame proportion
as the weight of wood and iron which will be ſuſpected to enter in
her conſtruction, without its being any way detrimental to her good
quality, whenever ſhe ſhall be commanded by an able Officer, who
will know how to manoeuver his ſhip to the beſt advantage. Such
was and is ftill the fhip Comte de Provence, built at Port l'Orient
by Mr. Coulon. This fhip has been the admiration of all the
mariners who have feen her navigate, either alone or in fquadron.
At fix feet under her lower deck ſhe had all the good qualities which
can be wiſhed for in a ſhip of the line; at fix feet eight inches, ſhe
loft none ftill. The only fault one has been able to reproach that
unparalleled ſhip with, is the weakneſs of her ſtrengthening-pieces
and of her fcantling, which was but nineteen inches thick in the
middle of her lower tier perpendicular to her fide, with too
much room and ſpace between her ribs; fo that eight pounds fhot
pierced her through and through, even in the gangway of the orlop.
That ſhip, fay they, would have loft fome of her good qualities,
had ſhe been ſtronger in her fcantling as well as in her ftrengthening-
pieces. But, what an effect, I fay, could forty tons have produced
on fo confiderable a careen?
Y
AGAIN;
164
AN ESSAY ON
AGAIN; ſhould one be afraid, in the prefent fituation of things,
to increaſe too much the weight of the upper works, it is eaſy to
take part of that weight away from the height of the dead works.
Five feet two inches height between decks under the beams, for
ſuch ſhips as carry thirty-fix pounders, are full fufficient to ferve
the artillery with eaſe. (Care alſo may be taken, by the bye, to
garniſh the part above the vents of guns with only tin plates.)
Now, five feet for the height of the gunwale, and a little more than
that aft, under the quarter-deck, will certainly do very well. Next,
let there be on the poop neither ward-room nor cabin, that is to fay,
neither top-gallant poop nor poop-royal, and let every thing elſe
thus be proportionally diminiſhed which belongs to the upper works ;
it will foon be eaſy to get back that way what might have been loſt
on the other: for, the artillery of the ſecond deck, as well as that
of the forecaſtle and quarter-deck, will be a little lower, by which
means the center of gravity will perhaps have lowered rather than
it will have heightened through the increaſe of wood and iron.
After all, the builder cannot evidently fail, in calculating his plan,
to know to a tittle what he can get or loſe in reſpect to the qualities
of his ſhip; and that will be a trouble attended rather with
of time than with difficulty.
expence
It will be again very eafy to diminish the top weight by the
mode of rigging, as we ſhall fhew it hereafter. On the other hand,
there will be likewiſe a poffibility of lowering the center of gravity
in not taking on board to ſea ſuch a quantity of uſeleſs anchors,
which only fatigue the ſhip; two of them are ſufficient there. The
others may be placed in the hatchways, and their ftocks, between
decks, ready to hoiſt up at the approach of land. In ſhort, there
are a thouſand ways to lighten the upper part of fhips, and to
ftrengthen them in their timber, without expofing them to lofe any
one of their good qualities.
THE lives of the men, which one ought always to have in view
to preſerve as much as poffible, is an object of the firſt confideration
and
NAVA-L TACTICS.
165
and importance. It is clear, from what I propofe here to do, that
the gunners who ferve the artillery will not be fo much expoſed in
the battering of a fhip, the fcantling of which will be ſtrong, as in
thofe of the modern fhips; for, very few bullets will be able to get
through her fides. Theſe men will therefore be able to refift longer
againſt fuperior forces, and to ftand with more advantage againſt
equal ones; and eſpecially at this time when boarding is no
longer practiſed, and all its advantages unknown; when long,
tedious and flaughtering cannonading is preferred to coming to a
fhort, decifive and more courageous way of fighting, which is at
the fame time infinitely more ſuitable to the temper and natural
vivacity of our Nation, which has not the phlegmatic coolneſs of
her competitors in that mode of fighting. In short, let us render
our men of war ftronger, and they will gain by it in action: let
us render our flutes or ftore-fhips more folid, and they will be
more fit for trade.
THE fhips may be ſtrengthened in their length by making what
are generally termed the strengthening-pieces ſtronger than they are
now ufually made; by indenting, befides, the deck-planks with
two more, one of which on the beams, like the binding ſtrakes;
and by making the decks ftrait from one end to the other without
any ſheer, and the beams likewife without any rounding-up or
convexity. It will be eafy to give them that degree of convexity
neceſſary for the water to run off, by adding a piece of wood on
the middle of each beam, cut in fuch a manner as to make it
a fegment of a circle, over which the planks will be fixed. One
may again in the holds place fome iron bars acrofs, in form of
buttreffes, four inches fquare, which will prop arch-like in croffing
each other from the top of the ftanchions, which carry the weight
of the deck, to the foot one of another. Such a contrivance would
prevent the play of the whole machinery in general, by the ſtrong
oppofition it would make to the top part weighing down, without
obſtructing in the leaft the ftowage. It will be proper to join the
Y 2
quarter-
166
AN ESSAY ON
quarter-deck and forecaſtle together, and to leave between the
gang
ways only the ſpace neceffary for the paffage of the boats; which
will give two rows more of binding ſtrakes from one end of the
ſhip to the other. Such binding ſtrakes might again be placed
from one end of the ſhip to the other on each fide of the ſtanchions,
rifing five or fix inches above the decks in order to augment the
ſtrengthening the length-way without obftructing the guns. All
theſe additions of wood and iron works will perhaps render the
whole maſs more heavy, eſpecially if care is not taken to do as we
ſaid before; I mean, to take off one way the weight that is added
the other, by diminiſhing the lading. But, as the qualities of a
ſhip depend but upon her ſhape, more or lefs advantageous for fail-
ing, fteering, carrying her fails more or lefs ftiff, &c, and on the
perfection of the trimming of her fails with refpect to the various
impulfions to which he is expoſed; it is evident that more or lefs
mafſiveneſs in her can have no influence over thofe qualities,
fince in both cafes the quantity of water ſhe is to diſplace is the
fame, as well as the refifting impulfe, fince the water-lines at the
prow are alſo the fame in every circumftance. I go ftill farther:
let the outſide of the outer beam be increaſed in thickneſs equal to
that which will be added to the fides of the ſhip, and let the length
abfolute of that beam be four or five times that addition in the
ftrength of the ſcantling; all that put together will never come to
fix or eight feet in the feventy-four gun fhips, becauſe their addi-
tional width will not be more than fixteen or twenty inches, which
will not alter in the leaft the center of gravity; but the volume of
water he is to difplace will be more confiderable, in proportion,
than the total of the weight added to the fhip; whence, confe-
quently, her folidity will be increafed alfo, as well as her
power to
carry her fails, without lofing the leaſt advantage of her water-
lines, which will always have the fame fine of incidence with the
meeting of the fluid; a truth which it would be eaſy to prove to a
demonſtration.
CHAPTER
NAVAL TACTIC S.
1671
CHAPTER VIII.
Of the housing-in of the top-timbers.
THE houfing-in of the dead works in men of war is fo confi--
derable, that the guns of the ſecond tier or deck have hardly room
for their neceffary recoil between the long-boat and the board: fo
that one is obliged to put the ſpare top-mafts on the gallows bits,.
where generally they feldom fail being foon cut to pieces by the
ſhot. And, if they happen to be thus treated during an action,.
they fall on the deck when the gangways are not cloſe to the boats..
Then they encumber the guns in ſuch a manner as to make it
impoffible to uſe them for a good while. The Officer who com-
mands the battery, and thoſe above who occupy various ſtations,.
find a deal of trouble to go from one end to the other to give orders
and to attend to every thing. That fact is well known; nor are
the builders without foreſeeing it in their conftruction: but, as they
themſelves do not get on board, they are not fenfible enough of the
abſolute neceffity of allowing fo much more room as what they are
wont to do. There have, notwithſtanding, been able builders who
have built exceeding good fhips with very little of what they call
tumbling-home; for, this mode of building adds nothing to the
qualities of a fhip; but they have not made any profelytes, and
that form ſo preferable to ancient practice has not yet got the better
of the old way.
THE Regulations on Cruizing, publiſhed in 1757, encouraged
boarding, while in all the fea-ports of France all the builders
ſeemed to have made a compact together to build frigates and men
of war with ſo much houfing-in that it was next to impoffible to
execute boarding, as there was a ſpace of ten or twelve feet to leap
over between the waifts of the two fhips faftened together with
grapnels, a circumftance which adds again a new difficulty to the
boarding
•
159
AN ESSAY ON
boarding by the perpetual and inceffant motion of the fhip it occa-
fions in rolling and pitching. Was there no oppofition or defence
to be met with on the fide of the flip attacked, one might perhaps
find means of boarding her, and yet it would not be without trou-
ble: à fortiori, when, inſtead of being able to ſtretch the hand
one to another, one is received with fwords and piftols, and fo
many other ways which are made ufe of to repel the enemy, and
render it impoffible to fucceed in that attempt. That way of
housing-in muſt therefore be diminiſhed as much as poffible, in
order to facilitate that mode of fighting which of all is the moſt
advantageous and the lefs fanguinary.
1
N
If little or no houfing-in comes to be given to the frigates and
men of war, then it will be very proper to increaſe alfo the ſtrength-
ening-pieces in the direction of the length; by which means
their artillery will become more at a diſtance from the axis, but
not more above the center of gravity. The fhip will therefore
poffefs the fame quality of carrying her fails very ftiff: fhe will
poffefs that other alfo of rolling more eafy, and not fo hard as,
through that immenfe weight of the artillery of the upper deck,
quarter deck, and forecaſtle, ſhe did before; and which, being now
carried on each ſide of the point round which the balancing is made
on levers which have increaſed in their length by all that which
has been diminished of the tumbling-home of the top timbers,
will enable her of courſe to oppofe better the motion, fince ſhe
will form larger arches. Therefore, there is nothing pofitively to
lofe, and on the contrary a great advantage to gain, by the diminu-
tion of that trimming home; for, the fhip will prefent a wider
ſpace for engaging, ſhe will roll eafier, and her mafting will be
better fupported; advantages which are various, and on the reality
of which there is no reaſon to doubt.
In the extreme and utmoſt inclination poffible (fuppofing that a
weffel well-built and well-ftowed ſhould ever be liable to it) the
fhip
NAVAL
169
TACTICS.
[+
ſhip which ſhall have no houfing-in will preſent a greater and
greater ſurface to the water in proportion as, in heeling, ſhe will
get deeper and deeper into it: fo that the direction of the vertical
impulſe of the water will always be above the center of gravity of
the ſhip in cutting the line on which it is placed with the meta-
center. By this mean the effort of the water will always fet the
ſhip up again, however inclined ſhe may happen to be; a property
which no other ſhip with a great houſing-in can ever poffefs; for,
if fuch a one, in coming to heel, fhould ever come to pafs her
extreme breadth, then the vertical impulfe of the fluid ftrikes her
under her center of gravity, and compels her immediately to over-
fet.
I was once in a large veffel which had but little houſing, but
which, on the other hand, was in every reſpect fo badly built, that
I may well ſay ſhe had no other quality but that of being able to
take a large cargo. She inclined eafily, though (very luckily for
her maſting) ſhe was fo large. One day, among others, as we had
all the fails out, we were caught by a violent gale which turned us
on a fudden on our fide, even ſo much that the guns of the lower
deck went to the water, though they were ftill nine feet higher
than the level of the ſea, which was at that moment as fmooth as a
glaſs on the weather fide. We remained above twenty minutes in
that diftreffing fituation, from which we were not relieved but by
the lofs of almoſt all our fails, which were carried away by the vio-
lence of the wind. Had that ſhip had much houſing-in, with ſuch
an inclination of near thirty-five or forty degrees, there is not the
leaſt doubt but he would have turned clean over: for, if her cen-
ter of gravity was high, the metacenter was a great deal more ſo
ftill, fince the water always met with more fwelled parts which
oppoſed it; but if he had notwithſtanding carried her heeling
beyond her fwelling and as far as her houfing-in, which was very
high though of very little depth, it is moſt likely it would have
been attended with worfe confequences for us.
CHAPTER
1
1,70
AN ESSAY ON
+
CHAPTER IX.
Of the ballaft and lading.
WHEN a fhip is in lading, one muſt firſt admit of the truth
of this principle, viz. that the foftnefs or hardneſs of the rolling
and pitching depends not altogether fo much on her ſhape and form
alone, as on the more or less advantageous diftribution of the hea-
vieſt parts of her cargo.
1
THE moſt particular attention, for example, is to be paid to the
moderating of her pitching, as that is what fatigues moſt a ſhip
and her maſting; and it is moftly in one of theſe motions that mafts
are ſeen to break, particularly when the head riſes after having
pitched. Although the rolling be proportionably more confiderable
a movement than pitching, it is but feldom any accident is ſeen to
arife from it, as it is always a flow one. Notwithſtanding it is not
leſs proper to prevent it as much as poffible. This will eafily be
obtained, without being any way detrimental to the ſhip's ſtiff
carrying of her fails, if, when the ballaft is in iron, you ſtow it on
the floor-timber's fcarfs; becauſe it will recall the fhip with leſs
violence after her having inclined, and will act on a point a little
diſtant from the center of gravity. It will be proper to obſerve
Jikewiſe not to make it afcend too high on each fide of the ſhip,
and to fill up the vacancies which are between the firſt and ſecond
plank of the wood ballaft, then to flow the remainder ſmooth and
Next to this, when all the ballaft is well difpofed round
and under the center of gravity of the ſhip in the form and manner
juſt laid down, and drawn a little (that is to fay, between 20 and
30 feet) fore and aft that point, fo that the ſhip ſhould find herſelf
juſt at the draught of water marked by the builder, you will ſtow
over it in a folid manner the cargo, in obferving to begin by placing
first and at the bottom the loads which are moft heavy and capable
to ſuſtain the weight of thoſe which are to be ſtowed over them.
even.
WE
#¹
NAVAL TACTICS.
171
WE place the ballaſt round and very near the center of gravity
of the ſhip, becauſe it will prevent the motion of the pitching
being fo hard as it would, were that weight more diſtant either afore
or abaft that point. Whenever the fea runs a little high, the ſhip
is never carried by a fingle wave; there are two or three always
paffing under at the ſame time, unleſs it is when the ſea is extremely
long and the fwells come from a great diſtance, and in latitudes
vaftly remote from land: for, then, it happens that the largeſt ſhips
are ſometimes carried by one fingle wave. But, in either circum-
ſtance, I maintain the ballaft ought not to be ſtretched afore or
abaft the center of gravity, as foon as the ſhip is in the parallel to
her draught of water marked for the ballaft, which it is abfolutely
effential to pay great attention to. To prove what I lay down here
as a principle, I will ſuppoſe in either cafe a long or ſhort furge,
and that the water comes and hits the ſhip afore, that thereby the
may be conceived as expoſed to the circumſtance of the greateſt
and hardeſt pitching, as I myſelf have experienced many a time:
for, in this cafe, when the wave takes the fhip under the ftern,
her motions, if ſhe has got a little head-way, are not dangerous;
becauſe, as ſhe flies before the wave, fhe recedes in fome meaſure
from its impulfe; while, in the other hypothefis, fhe increaſes on
the contrary that fame impulſe in the ratio of the fquare of all her
velocity.
FIRST, the ship whofe extremities are light or lefs loaded, being
ſuppoſed to run with any velocity whatever againſt the wave which
comes to her a-head, ſhocks that wave undoubtedly with a force
expreffed by the fquare of the fum of the two velocities: fhe
divides it and goes through it at the fame inſtant as ſhe is raiſed by
the vertical impulfe of that column of water which oppofes her a
weight more confiderable than is the difplacing of it: the wave
which follows produces the fame effect in receiving the fall of the
ſhip, becauſe the first is already under the middle of the ſhip,
Z
whence
172
ESSAY ON
AN
whence it paffes to the ftern, which is fupported by it, while the
fecond has already taken its place in the middle, and the third is
come to ſupport the head by a continual and uninterrupted fucceffion
of waves.
This motion continuing thus as long as the fea is in
agitation, it follows the ſhip is never at reft: no fooner has ſhe been
raiſed by a wave, but ſhe falls again when that wave is gone, which
falling is proportionably leſs ſharp as her head is lefs heavy: the
ſhake is then lefs violent, fince the fhocks the water with a leffer
maſs, which prevents her pitching fo deep as he would, was fhe
more heavy; confequently, the mafting does not fuffer, and the
velocity of the ſteering is lefs delayed, as the moſt ſwelled part of the
prow is not ſo much expoſed to the ſhock of the water.
SECONDLY, when the fhip is carried by one fingle wave, it ftands
to ſenſe that her fall is ftill lefs fharp, if little loaded a-head, when
ſhe is no more carried but by the middle. She rifes, therefore, more
eafily at the moment the other wave comes to meet her, and the
ſhake is not ſo violent. Was fhe to plunge deeper into the fluid, it
might happen that the column of water would be higher than her
head, and, paffing partly over it, would expofe her to the imminent
danger of foundering.
REMARK.
In the ftowing of the cargo, it is proper to place the heaviest part
of the ftowage as low as poffible, and to take care to preſerve the
draught of the ſhip which is moſt advantageous for her qualities,
whether on her ballaſt or when laden. Thoſe points are marked
both at the head and ftern; and they ſhould be fo likewiſe in the
middle, in order that one ſhould not be expoſed to deviate from
the water line and from that fituation of the ſhip which is moſt
favorable to every thing which may be required of her, as ſhe muſt
be placed in the fituation moſt advantageous for dividing the fluid,
and to behave well at fea in all kinds of weathers. In a word, the
great art of ſtowing, lies in endeavouring that each of the vertical
parts
}
NAVAL TACTIC S.
173
parts, in which the extremities of a ſhip may be ſuppoſed to be equally
divided, be lighter than the weight of the maſs of water they are to
difplace; and fhould the penetration of any one be ever fo weak,
it is impoffible not to diſcover a multitude of advantages in it. We
are not to forget, however, to take notice that the vertical parts of
the middle admit of being loaded heavier than the weight of the
volume of water they are able to diſplace.
CHAPTER X.
Of the rigging in general.
THE art of rigging ſhips is the higheſt pitch of ſkill in the ſea
Officer and in the failor. Therefore it is a kind of knowledge too
effential to be diſpenſed with by the Officer; for, the rigging not
only ferves to fupport the mafts, but alſo to manoeuver the fails, fince
at every moment it ferves to difpofe of them one way or the other,
in order to give the fhip the various motions which are requifite.
It is therefore indiſpenſably neceſſary to have a perfect knowledge of
the rigging.
MANY Officers are thorough mafters of that bufinefs, but none
have yet turned their thoughts to the reform which this branch of
the manœuvre is fufceptible of, for the beft. This is, therefore,
preciſely what we are going to undertake here, in treating of this
fubject at large, and without entering too minutely into particulars.
THE diminution of weight and bulk will be our principal object,
perfuaded that both the one and the other are inconveniences very
unfavourable to the qualities of a ſhip.
THE first thing which I would, therefore, remove in the rigging,
is that prodigious quantity of ſervice which is employed about every
thing and every where. The ſheets and tacks of the courfes, as
well as thoſe of the top-fails and their tyes, are ſerved and parcelled
in fuch a manner that, through that abuſe, they are generally a
quarter bigger than the rope with which they are made. So that,
Z 2
when
174
AN ESSAY ON
when you come to haul aboard or tally thofe fails, the friction
becomes fo confiderable, and fo hard, that it is not without the
greateſt pain and labour you execute it. If theſe ropes, which I
could with always to be fingle, with reſpect to the lower fails, and
without any
other block on the clue of the fail than that of the clue-
garnet, were ferved but at three feet diſtance from the clue, they
would not be inferior in point of goodneſs for it. The ferving of a
rope does not ſtrengthen it; it is ufed only to prevent its being
chafed in the block through which it is reeved: therefore, ſhould
theſe ropes be ſerved no more than we fay, they would be ſtill
fufficiently fo; fince there is but one point of them which is to reſt
on the fheave. As for the ropes of the lower fails, their refting
point is inceffantly changing, as they are veered away more or leſs,
according to the fituation of the tacks and ſheets* they belong to,
and which ſhould always be fingle; for, if they are employed double
as cuſtomary, they are nevertheleſs always fingle on the fheaves,
which, after all, comes fill to the fame point, with reſpect to the
power of refifting.
THE tyes of the top-fails are nothing more than running ropes,
which are to be fuch as to admit of being eafily reeved in the blocks:
therefore they muſt by no means be ſerved, unleſs they be fixed and
faſtened on the yard: and, in that cafe, it will be proper to ferve
them about the length of three or four feet from the yard. The
fame may be faid of the ſheets and tyes of the top-gallant fails.
THE ſhrouds and ſtays ought abſolutely to be ſerved no where elſe
but at their collar and catharpings; the ftrops and pendants, of all
denominations, at their collar only.
In men of war, as well as in any other kind of ſhips, I would not
abſolutely have any parrels nor running tackles at the lower yards :
they
* In England the tacks only are fingle, and the fheets always double.
NAVAL TACTICS.
175
they are only ſo much more weight above, and fo much uſeleſs
rigging which ſhould abfolutely be fuppreffed, and fupplied by 5, 6,
7 8, 9, or 10 inch-ropes, according to the ſize of the ſhip. This
is the manner in which I have ſeen it executed upon fome large ſhips.
You place on the yard a ftrop on each fide of the maſt, with a
thimble, or bull's eye, wide enough that the rope may be introduced
in it with fufficient facility. When that is done, you introduce
each end of your rope in one of the thimbles, fo as to go out abaft
the maſt and acroſs one of the other, in order to be brought afterwards
on each fide of the yard between the maft and ſtrops; then you hook
a ſmall tackle on the bight of the rope which defcends along and a
little abaft of the maft. That tackle ferves to tighten or eaſe the
parrel,* according as you think fit, and as the weather requires.
If it is very bad, you haul it very taught, and the yard then has no
play. Let the ſhip pitch, roll, or tofs about as much as the will,
the yard is fo well fixed that there is neither play nor ſhake from it
on the maſt. Befides the handineſs which reſults from fo fimple a
machinery, it has again the advantage not to weigh the
quarter of
our ordinary parrels, nor to have the eighth part of their bulk. It
requires no great difficulty to make it; for a piece of rope is all that
is required for it; and if, by chance, a fhot comes to ſtrike it, there
is however no apprehenfion of being knocked on the head by a rib
or a truck, as is the cafe with other forts of parrels.
THE parrels of the top and top-gallant yards, fuch as they are
generally made, are not good for any thing. A common rope of 2,
3, 4, 5, or 6 inches, according to the ſize of the hips, with fix or
eight trucks upon it, is quite fufficient; you have but to faſten it
on each fide to the yard, when on the cap, without making it too
taught upon the maft. Such a parrel will be infinitely more fimple,
leſs heavy, and more eaſy to handle, than the other kind.
IT
* Parrels have not been in ufe for the lower yards in the Britiſh ſervice theſe
thirty years.
176
AN ESSAY ON
It is again cuſtomary to fix at the head of the lower mafts two
main gear-blocks, with two or three fheaves each, for the ufe of
hoiſting the lower yards, on which they ſtrop alſo two other blocks
which correſpond with the two firft. All this is abfolutely uſeleſs :
it is only a very confiderable weight on the head of the mafts, as
well as a very great bulk, both of which muft abfolutely be
fuppreffed. It will be fufficient to hoift the lower yards with two
fmall winding tackles, which fhall be always kept in readineſs for
ufe, in order to hoift them up, or haul them down, according as
circumſtances require; and, when the yards ſhall be up and carried
by their flings, then you take your winding tackles down. The
two ftrops over the yard, which you rack with the flings, being well
placed in the middle of the yard, this will be much better balanced
and labour much lefs when the tacks come to be hauled aboard.
Now, no fuch advantage can be obtained when there are any ftrops
over the yards; for, a certain diftance is neceffarily required between
each of thoſe ftrops; whence it refults, that the yard can never be
well balanced except when the wind is right aft.
AFTER the lower yards ſhall be well balanced on their flings, you
will belay their lifts and make them quite faft for good. (We need
not ſay that we ſuppoſe thoſe lifts to have previouſly been made
ſo ſtrong as to be able, when the tacks are got on board, to ſtand
the effort which requires the heaving taught of the weather bolt-
ropes, before hauling the bowlines). I have feen a fhip fo well
rigged, that I cannot forbear mentioning her here as an example of
what I have always confidered as being the beſt method of rigging.
INSTEAD of fixing two ftrops at the head of the top-maſt to reeve
the top-fails tyes through, you make the treftle-trees of the top-
gallant croſs-trees a little thicker, and fufficiently large to admit of
a fmall block on each fide, in which there is a fheave to receive the
tye. That block is to be ferved with a deal cheek rounded by the
top and gouged underneath, and fufficiently large and eafy, that the
rope
NAVAL TACTIC S.
177
rope which is ftropped on the block ſhould not rub againſt the wood
of the cheek as it flides up and down. That very wooden fervice
will be alfo as a fupport to the rigging of the mafts heads, and
prevent, at the fame time, the water from getting to the faid fmall
block. By fuch means two large blocks may very eafily be fuppreffed,
and nothing is ſeen at the head of the mafts.
THEN the tyes fhould be fixed for good on the yard; and, in
fuch men of war as have but a fmall crew, or in time of peace, you
may place one block only on the yard in which the tye will be
reeved, to make it run more eaſy.
In the treftle-trees, afore the firft top-gallant croſs-tree, fhould
be introduced, on each fide, a fmall block with two fheaves, on
which ſhould be reeved the top-fails, bunt-lines, and leech-lines;
fo that, by this operation, you would have eight blocks lefs on the
top-ftay's collars. Afore this laft fmall block, on the main-top-
maſt treſtle-tree, you might place another with a fingle fheave, the
uſe of which would be to receive the braces of the fore-top-gallant
fails, which thence would go back again to, and continue along, the
top-maſt-ſtay as ufual. Áback the top-maft croſs-tree which goes
athwart the treſtle-trees, abaft the fore-top-maft, must then be
placed, on each fide, over and upon thoſe trestle-trees, a ſmall
oblique block, with a fingle fheave, to receive the bowlines of the
main top-gallant fail.
THE top-gallant and top-gallant-royal tyes fhould be reeved
at the head of their reſpective mafts, in nicks cut in the knobs, and
which would be contrived for that purpoſe; and, in order not to
weaken the mafts too much, the main and fore-top-gallant lifts
(whenever you mean to rigg any top-gallant-royal), might be
reeved in ſmall blocks fixed at the head of the maſt for that purpoſe,
without cutting any more nicks befides thofe which ſerve for the
tyes.
In order to reeve the ftay-fails, halliards, and ſtays, nicks with
ſheaves muſt be contrived in the top-mafts caps: all kinds of mere
leading
178
AN ESSAY ON
leading blocks, hitherto uſed for the top-gallant clue-lines, lifts,
and ſheets, fhould then alſo be fuppreffed from the ſhrouds, and be
fupplied by thimbles or wooden travellers.
THEN the mizen top-fail's braces fhould be brought on the tenon
of the main-maft, its bow-line on the edge of the main-top, and
the croſs-jack brace to the main catharpings: then the fore braces
will come under the main-top and at the foot of the main-maſt,
and the fore-preventer braces on the gang-ways.
WHEN mafting fhall be made lower than it is now, it will be
proper to fet the main-top-maft's ſtays fo as not to incumber the
fore-maſt; which object in order to obtain, they ſhould be made to go
the one to the ſtarboard and the other to the larboard fides of that maſt,
in fixing their looſened dead-eyes preciſely even with the gammoning
of the bowſprit, ſo that they will not fatigue any of the mafts, nor
the fore-ftays.
THUS have we fulfilled the main point of our object; and, as
for the reſt, I believe I have ſaid enough to make any one conceive
that he may eaſily find a full ſcope to exerciſe his imagination, in
diminiſhing, wherever it will be practicable, both the bulk and the
weight which will certainly not be very difficult for fuch as will
but give themſelves up to that intereſting object, with ſome fort of
attention, and a fincere defire for the intrinfic benefit and advantage
of the art of manoeuvering.
I SHALL therefore not expatiate any longer on an article which is
ſo arbitrary in itſelf, that, ſhould it be ever fo well, it is almoſt
impoffible not to find means how to do ftill better.
CHAPT
PTER
XI.
Thoughts on the method of forming feamen, and on regulating the feveral
duties of the officers and crew at fea.
IN all ſhips of war the fervice is diſtributed; but, as the King's
Statutes concerning the Marine do not prefcribe any thing particular
concerning
NAVALY TA¿CIT ICS.
179:
J
1
concerning the diſtribution of that fervice, the Captains difpofe of this
matter as they think fit, which is generally according to the eſtabliſhed
cuſtoms. It might however be worthy of our confideration, to try
whether the common practice is not ſuſceptible of improvement.
"
I HAVE bot the prefumption to imagine myfelf capable of giving
decifive principles on a fubject, which would require in the writer
more knowledge of the great art of governing mankind than I
pretend to have. Therefore, I muſt folicit my Reader's indulgence
for what I fhall venture to advance in this Chapter, where I offer
my reflections..on abfubject which may be looked upon as the firſt.
talent neceſſary to every man who is to command others..
THE fcience of a Captain does not confift, as many would
infinuate, in doing every thing himself. To fatter one's felf with
being able to do foris.abprefùmption; to attempt to perfuade others
that one is able to do it, is another no leſs ridiculous pride: befides,
the detail is the function and duty of the Officer next in command
to the Captain who is only to. direct thoſe who act under his
immediate orders, and to exact an account from thoſe he has thought
proper to employ, according to their capacity. If thoſe who affect
to inſpect every thing with their own eyes, and viſit every quarter,
were thoroughly convinced of this truth, that "a mind fitted to
"defcend to the minutiæ of bufinefs is only qualified for a fubor-
"dinate rank;" I make no doubt pride and felf-love would reſtrain
them, and they would find their vanity more fully gratified by
obferving a different conduct; for, it is nothing but their vanity which
prompts them to this frequent appearance, perfuaded that the
oftener they are feen, the greater authority and reſpect they fhall
acquire from their inferiors; a moft egregious error, which fhews
evidently they never had any idea of what a celebrated Author
obferves, "that the true genius in the art of commanding is he
"who, without any mechanical operation of his hand, gets every
"thing done; who reflects, difpofes, plans, directs, and is careful
A a
" to
•
1
1.80
AN ESSAY ON
"to leave nothing to the power of chance; whoſe principal attention
"is to have a thorough knowledge of the talents of thoſe who act
"under him, in order to employ them uſefully in the execution of
"his defigns."
THE Conduct of a Captain, at ſea, fhould be calculated to inſpire
the ſhip's crew with a confidence in the officers placed over them.
He himſelf ſhould therefore appear as feldom as poffible, unleſs on
general occafions; for example: he ſhould always be preſent at all
the exerciſes of naval evolutions; all the anchorings and getting
under way; in chaſes and engagements; in a word, at all times when
reſpect is to be inſpired, and the manœuvres require diſpatch. But
in all other ordinary matters, fuch as reefing, diminiſhing or
increafing the quantity of fail to be carried, according to the weather;
changing courſe, and winding about, &c, during the time of a
paffage; all this, I fay, fhould be executed by the Lieutenant, and
the Captain ſhould have no farther concern in all this buſineſs, than
fo far as it relates to the orders he may have given him. By theſe
means the crew not being accuſtomed to ſee him but on important
occafions, his appearance is then fufficient to inforce refpect, and
to perfuade the men that the buſineſs required is effential; confe-
quently they exert themſelves with more ardour and confidence,
eſpecially as they are farther excited by the Officers difperfed in the
different quarters of the ſhip, who, on thoſe occafions, call forth their
utmoſt vigour and activity.
SUCH regular conduct in the Captain inſpires the crew with
confidence in their Officers, with whom they uſe themſelves, as
they perceive they have been judged capable of the detail of buſineſs,
fince it has been left to them; a thing which is the moſt oftenſible,
it is true, but not, however, of great confequence. This practice
forms alfo the Officers themfelves; by exercifing the crew, they
acquire what is called the coup-d'œil, or quickneſs of diſcernment,
which is of the greateſt importance in the preſence of an enemy:
they
•
NAVAL TACTICS.
181
they learn to meaſure with more exactnefs the distances required
between the different evolutions, and the time which each of them
takes in its execution; and they become better acquainted with their
own fhip's motions. By thefe means, the number of Officers ſkilled
in the art of maneuvering is confiderably increaſed: but, on the
other hand, unhappy is the Officer who happens to fall under an
improper diſcipline; for, he then lofes much of his own knowledge,
if he had any; and, fhould he be totally ignorant at his firft entrance
upon duty under fuch command, he will forever remain fo, becauſe
he finds no incentive to emulation.
THE most frequent and moft dangerous obftacle to the improve-
ment of the Navy is the command, which abforbs and haraffes the
young Officers, inftead of forming them. It renders the fervice
diſguſting, by making it as languid as troubleſome ; languid, becauſe
nothing is to be done without the Captain's orders, who, by fhewing
not a fufficient degree of confidence in his own perſon, is fure to fill
thoſe under him with fear and irreſolution. So that, whilft they are
waiting for orders, they frequently remain inactive, which is very
unpleaſant to a well-informed Officer who is qualified to diſcharge
his duty.
Know not what could induce the greater part of our Sea-Com-
manders, to regulate the duties of the Officer under them in ſuch
a manner as to leave him very little time for profeffional ſtudy, when
off duty. Would it not be the fear of ſeeing the common practice
laid open, and the prejudice which fupports it overcome by the
knowledge of more rational principles? If that is the caſe, I muſt
allow this fear is not fo ill founded, in many reſpects: for, how much
ignorance would then be expofed! how many erroneous principles
would be deſtroyed, through a practice enlightened by the fimpleft
theory!
As I think differently from the Commanders, and other Officers
who adhere to the mechanical routine, of whom there is a very con-
A a 2
fiderable
182
AN ESSAY ON
fiderable number in the Navy, I venture to oppofe this general
obftinacy; and I infiſt that, in any fhip where the formation of
Officers for the fervice of the State fhall be at heart, every one of
thoſe who compoſe the body of Officers of that ſhip, ſhould mount
five guards at ſea, which are called watches, in order to qualify
themſelves for the command, by being frequently expofed to fee and
to practiſe what part of the ſervice they ſhall have theoretically before
ſtudied and confidered in the intervals from duty. From this diſtri-
bution of the watches, there would refult other advantages, which
are, that the Officer having more reft, would be more capable to ſet
and paſs the whole night on watch duty, when ſuch circumftances
require it, as bad weather, or the appearance of an enemy; on which
occafion the Officers of the watch might be doubled or kept upon
up
duty: for, it is upon them that every thing depends on thofe inftants,
when they are, more rigorously than ever, refponfible to the Com-
mander, for whatever may happen, by keeping an eye ftill more
vigilant over the ſentries, and on the execution of the manœuvres ;
whereas the labouring part of the crew, difperfed about in the
different quarters of the fhip, may fnatch ſome moments of repofe
one way or another upon the deck, and recruit their ſtrength, which
is frequently exhauſted by labour and bad weather, to which they
are more immediately expoſed than the Officer who commands them,
and who is to direct the failors in the execution of the different
manœuvres.
Not that I mean to exempt the Officer from all manual labour
an thoſe melancholy occafions, which but too frequently happen
when he is under the neceffity of acting the part both of a feaman
and of an Officer. I am only ſpeaking here of the fituation of a new
fitted ſhip, failing on thoſe ordinary voyages, where ſickneſs, death,
fight, and ftormy weather, have not yet exerciſed all their deftructive
ravages. It is, therefore, in this fituation of health and vigour, that
activity is to be excited and cherished, regularity and emulation
promoted.
NAVAL TACTICS.
183
promoted. Eafe and comfort even, I fay, is to be procured to the
Officer, and confidence inſpired to him, that, in cafe of neceffity,
he may
be the more able to refift any future fatigue; and he ſhould
be exhorted, and even obliged, to apply himſelf to profeffional ſtudy,
ſhould he not be naturally fo difpofed.
OFFICERS are all fubordinate one to another on fervice; fo that
there never is, nor can be, any equality among them. Thus the
inferior muſt always obey the fuperior, and the latter is anſwerable
for the duty of the former. Nevertheleſs, with fubmiflion to better
judgement, I imagine that the inferior Officer who commands the
watch ſhould be confidered, by the Officer above him, as a fentry
who cannot be releaſed from his poft until his duty is over, or by a
direct order from the Captain, from whom he derives the authority
of his command, when at the head of his guard. So that the fuperior
Officer neither 'can, nor ought to command the manoeuvre, or
change the ſhip's courfe, without an order from the Captain; he
cannot even move the leaſt thing without acquainting the Officer of
the watch; and the reafon of this is, becauſe the Captain is on
board, and all authority, with refpect to the fervice, is derived from
him in his abfence the next in rank has the chief command, and
fo the reſt in order,
ܢ
WHEN there are two Officers on the fame watch, the youngeſt of
the two ought always to be forward at the time of any evolution,.
and the other ought to be on the quarter deck.
ALTHOUGH the Captain be on deck, the Officer of the watch
ought to be no leſs exact in the execution of his duty; but, then
he ought not to order any thing to be done to the fails without
previouſly informing the Captain of his intention.
EVERY principal Officer has a right to go his round every where,
at all times, and as often as he thinks proper.
In the execution of any ordinary evolution no Warrant-Officer
whatever ought to be allowed to put his hand to the manœuvre, in
order.
184
ΟΝ
AN ESSAY
order to affiſt in any part of it (unleſs it be fometimes to fhew his
people the way to execute it), becauſe he is there only to command
and ſend every one to his poſt.
EVERY Warrant-Officer ought to obey, in every thing, the prin-
cipal Officer, fhould he even have a contrary order from another
Officer, to whom then he is obliged to fend word immediately of
what happens.
1
THE top-fails must not, upon any account, be ſuffered to be
hoifted otherwife than hand-over-hand, without running and
without jerk.
THE whole body, both of failors and warrant, petty, and mecha-
nical Officers together, is generally divided into two equal parts, in
order to mount the guard or keep the watch alternately thefe two
divifions are diſtinguiſhed by the names of ftarboard and larboard
watches.
Now, each watch ſhould be divided into three other parts. The
firft to be compoſed of the pilots, their mates, and the helmſmen,
whoſe buſineſs is to keep an eye over the rudder, the way, and the
courſe, under the Officer of the watch, to whom they are to give an
exact account. In each ſquadron, they ſhall have for additional
employment, that of keeping an eye to the fignals, and to every
thing which concerns the navigation.
THE fecond part to confift of thoſe who work on the quarter-
deck, about the manoeuvres to be performed both aloft and below;
and to be compoſed of all the mechanical Officers of the watch, and
other petty Officers of the manœuvre, along with failors, and even
foldiers when there are any, in order to execute whatever may be
ordered by the Officer, either with refpect to the working of the
fhip, the good of the fervice, or mere cleanlineſs.
THE third part to be compofed of none but petty Officers of the
manœuvre and failors only, without any mixture of other people,
but ſuch in ſufficient quantity, however, as to be able to execute
all the commands which ſhall come from abaft forward.
THE
NAVAL TACTIC S.
18
THE forces muſt be divided in fuch a manner that there should
be no more a-head than a-ftern, and in number proportional to the
manœuvres which are to be executed at either place, and vice versa.
A DISTRIBUTION is ſuch as it ought to be, when every thing
is ſo diſpoſed that the command is executed with the utmoſt alacrity.
And, in order to obtain more efficacioufly that most favourable
difpofition, I think the different fets of petty Officers of the
manœuvre ſhould be particularly ſpecified, who, with a certain
determined number of men, alfo named and ſpecified, were on ſuch
or ſuch an occafion to get the command executed on fuch or fuch
rigging; ſo that, by fuch a precaution, no more and no lefs men
would ever be employed than juſt requifite for any evolution what-
ever. For example, in order to brail up a lower fail, ſo many men,
once for all named beforehand, would come immediately and range
on the clue-garnets to leeward; fo many on the leech-lines, and fo
many on the bunt-lines, with one or two petty Officers pre-appointed,
and who would be experienced in what is to be commanded in ſuch
a cafe: the fame diftribution and order would be obferved likewife
with respect to the weather-brails: whatever would be determined
in that matter, concerning the lower fail, would be underſtood to
be the fame concerning the top-fail, with a certain fixed number
of men for the weather-brace; and the top-fail would be intrufted
to a particular petty Officer of the manœuvre, appointed on purpoſe
for the work aloft, the others being always underſtood to be affigned
to inſpect and command nothing but the work below. When it
will be to furl the fails, fo many men fhall be affigned for the
lower, and fo many for the top ones, with each of them their par-
ticular Officers well known.
3
-
".
:
IF
you want to put or tack the ſhip about, you muſt take care to
diftribute your people with method, in placing proper petty Officers
every where; appointing fo many men to the lower fheets, fo many.
to the tacks, fo many to each brace, fo many to the mizen and to
the
?
186
AN ESSAY ON
:
7
¿
the mizen top-fail. Then, thefe men will be diftributed after-
wards about the braces and fheets of the other fails. Finally,
whenever particular parts fhall be allotted to any particular ſet of
men, fo as to make thereby their peculiar ſtation and employment
diſtinct and conftantly the fame; and whenever fuch particular
allotments ſhall be rigouroufly kept up and obferved, eſpecially in
the beginning of each paffage, you will always have the fatisfaction.
to fee afterwards every thing ranging as it were of itſelf to order, and
the manœuvres will be executed not only with more method and
exactneſs, but alſo with much more fpirit: a point, all this, very
effential to be obtained in the evolutions which are to be executed
before an enemy, as well as in many difficult cafes, from which
one could never be extricated without a fingular celerity and alert-
neſs, which no one but a ftudious mariner can ever be acquainted
with; for, how many have been killed for want of executing their
evolution with fufficient alertnefs! How many, who have never
been heard of fince, have perifhed for want of vivacity and
difcipline!
ARTICLE
Of the clearing the ſhip for an engagement, or, Up all hammocks.
In this operation all the cloaths of the crew are to be diftributed
in the nettings, which are to be firmly feized to the iron cranes;
and, when that is done, the whole is to be covered with a tarred
four-threads cloth, fo diſpoſed that, after having covered the whole
with it, it may be faftened underneath with bits of lafhings fixed in
fmall eye-let holes. Such a covering has the advantage of preſerving
from rain and fire the beds and cloaths which belong to the failors,
fo that every thing may remain in that fituation without incon-
veniency. For, in a battle, the bullets make no more than their
hole, and nothing falls into the fea: and if the wind blows fome
fparkles
!
#!
I.
S
NAVAL TACTICS.
187
1
fparkles by fending ſome wads in fire, they fall back and do not fet
fire to the netting.
JUST before coming out of the harbour, you will obferve to rig,
once for all,* the intervals between the ports, the tiers, and the
fore-caſtle and quarter-deck, with foxes nailed on the edges, in
order to deaden the ſplinters occafioned by the bullets when they
pierce the fides of the ſhip.
In the cable ſtage, which is under the orlop, you muſt take care
to keep fpare top-mafts and fails, ready prepared and fitted with
their points, rope-bands, earings, &c, that you may have them
ready at hand when wanted, either during or after the battle.
You muſt have a particular care alfo to keep the orlops very
ſpruce, and cable tiers quite clear at the main hatch-way, that the
Surgeons and wounded may have all the room neceffary. It is a
piece of humanity which does not allow any neglect on that head.
THE wings are always, and at all times, to be kept empty and
clear of every thing whatever, except the plugs or rollers of the
calker, ready fitted and tallowed, to ſtop the holes made by the
bullets at the water-line. You keep alfo, ready at hand, ſome
leaden plates and nails, with ftages prepared for fufpending the
workmen without board, when the cafe requires. It is the bufinefs
of the Officer who commands the lower tier to keep an eye over
theſe things, and bring an account of their being all right to the
Captain.
THE Boatswain's bufinefs is to fee all the fpare running-ropes
(which muſt be kept by double and triple fets) properly reeved.
Theſe are the braces and preventer-braces, which are to be placed
afore and aback of the yards in general, fo that there ſhould be fix
braces to every yard: the ftoppers, which are alſo to be placed on
B b
the
* Not practiſed in the Britiſh Navy.
188
AN ESSAY ON
the clews of the top-fails, on the tyes and falſe tyes, on the ſtanding
parts of the braces, ftays, and preventer-ftays, with puddenings
under every parrel, which are to be ftrengthened in making them
double: the guys of the lower yards are alfo to be made double 3.
and the chains which are to go round the yard muſt be placed in
fuch a manner that they ſhould not obftruct any thing.
MOREOVER, you muſt have ready on the quarter-deck, the fore-
caftle, and the tops, ftoppers of all kinds and denominations,
hatchets, tallow, marline, blocks, and ropes ready to reeve as, and
in the ſtead of, what may be cut by the ſhot.
You must put a two-inch rope along the top-fails bolt-ropes,
which is to be fixed on little tablings placed on purpoſe to receive
it; it will prevent the fail from tearing athwart, in cafe the bolt-
rope
fhould be cut.*
THE boarding grapnels fhould always be kept ready at each extre-
mity of the yards, with their chains: many more of theſe muſt
alſo be kept on the quarter-deck, fore-caftle, and gang-ways, to
throw with the hand and join better the two fhips together. Theſe
laft grapnels ought to be very light, that they may be more eafily
handled. Some fpare ones muft alfo be preferved, to fupply thoſe
of the yards, in cafe the firſt ſhould be cut down.
THE fails not in ufe are to be rope-yarned, that they may be the
more readily unfurled when wanted.
WHEN you ſhall be about fighting, in a line of battle, or in a
body, you muſt take care to have ready on the quarter-deck, fore-
caſtle, poop, and gang-way, fome feruled fire-booms, light and
handy, to repel the fire-fhips: fome others are to be placed alſo
in the windows of the ward-room, and of the quarter-galleries.
All theſe particulars are the concern of the petty Officer of the
manœuvre
*Not done in the British Navy..
NAVAL
TACTICS.
189
manœuvre, who is to go and give an account of it to the Captain
before the engagement begins.
Too many precautions cannot be taken against fire. Therefore,
you muſt have a particular care that there ſhould be nothing on the
outfide of the ſhip ſuſceptible of catching fire; the fame attention
muſt be paid likewiſe to the nettings, which are to be covered as we
faid before. Behind each gun are to be kept in readineſs two half
tubs full of water, with their fwabs.
THERE fhould be kept in every fhip two fire-engines, and always
in good order. I cannot conceive how, in our Navy, fuch a pre-
caution could be neglected; for, it is of the utmoſt importance in
many circumſtances, either to procure water for putting out the
fire, or to wet the fails in dry weather.
THE Gunner's bufinefs is to prepare, and fet in order, every thing
which concerns the fervice of the artillery. He must pay the
greateſt attention to fee that the cartridges fhould not be wanting
during the time of an engagement which may be lafting and warm.
He is to cauſe to be diftributed, in every poft, iron cringles, to
ſupply the deficiency of the rings and hooks which may chance to
break. He is to deliver the grenades and grenade-tubs, in the tops,
quarter-deck, fore-caſtle, poop, and gang-ways, with the matches
for the grenadiers. The Gunner has alſo the charge* to ſend down
in the ftore-rooms, and in the chefts, aback and afore under the
Boatswain's, thoſe who have the charge of diftributing the powder
under the orders of the Captain's Clerk: then he locks the hatch-
ways and gives the key to the Officer who commands the deck, to
diſpoſe of it according to the Captain's orders.
THE Officers of each deck are to keep a clofe
eye to
every thing;
and, before the fight begins, to give an account to the Captain of
the
Bb 2
*Not in the Britiſh fervice,
190
AN ESSAY ON
the good order which reigns every where through the ſhip. Then
the Captain is to go his round himſelf in every place, when time
will permit, before the engagement, and fay fomething agreeable to
animate the crew and engage them to do their duty with ſpirit.
THE Maſter-Pilot and his mates are to prepare every thing
belonging to their department, viz. the fignals; the truffes, ropes,
and tackles; the ſpare tillers; the helmſmen; the fteering tackles
in the gun-room; compaffes, glaffes, &c. He turns the three or
four-hour glass at the moment the engagement begins; marks the
courfe when the fight is in chafing or retreating; fets down the
time of the various events, and the circumftances of the engagement:
he watches over the helmſmen and whatever is ordered at the binacle
concerning the rudder, by the Captain and the Warrant-Officer of
the manœuvre, on whom he is to have continually his eye fixed,
that he may not loſe the leaſt ſyllable or fign of the command..
AFORE the binacle is to ftand conftantly an axiometer, vulgarly
called the tell-tale of the tiller, which is to fhew on what board is
the helm, and by how much it is either way. It is again one of
the charges of the Mafter Gunner to fee that this inſtrument is in
good order, and has nothing wanting.
In caſe of any founding, it is proper the buckets which hold the
leads, lines, and plummets, ſhould be ready to leeward of the mizen-
maft, if the fight is on one board only.
THE Maſter-Carpenter's buſineſs is to viſit all the galleries and
wings, in order to keep them clear and ready, fo that, in caſe of
neceffity, he may work in them with eaſe. He will keep all the
hatchets in readineſs, and diſtributed in different parts of the ſhip,
and hang fome by their laſhes to the mafts. He muft keep alſo in
readineſs all his fpare implements, that he may inftantly replace
whatever may happen to fail.
THE Calker, after having well rigged, tried, and vifited all the
pumps and their fpare ftores, fhall place ropes outward and alt
around
?
NAVAL TACTIC S.
191
around the ſhip above the water-line, ſtopped with iron ftaples, to
keep one ſuſpended to them by a gird, when required, particularly
about the rifings of the ſhip's floor afore and abaft, where the blows
are moſt dangerous. He fhall keep in readineſs wooden plugs,
wads of oakum, tallow and afhes, leaden plates fitted and bored
ready for nailing; all theſe things are to be dealt out in different
places of the ſhip, in order to have them at hand, as well as the
hand baſkets, knapſacks, and cork jackets, to fling one's felf over-
board. He and his mates are to be perpetually on the watch and
liſtening, to diſtinguiſh the ſhots which come to or under the water
line, in order to remedy them inftantly.
SCUTTLED cafks, filled with freſh water, fhould be carefully
placed on the decks and fore-caſtle, to refreſh the crew during the
fight; and, in order that no body ſhould quit his poſt to go and
drink, a tub ſhould be carried about by two men appointed on
purpoſe for that particular buſineſs, and who muſt go from deck to
deck and from poſt to poft.
arms.
'THE Mafter at Arms fhall take care of the mufkets and piftols,
which he is to keep ready loaded and freſh primed, fit for firing.
He ſhall inſpect and keep in readineſs the cutlaffes, the battle-axes,
pikes, halberds, and eſpecially every thing which concerns the ſmall
He ſhall deal them out about the different pofts, with the
ammunition, ſuch as balls, grenade-matches, flints, and rammers :
all theſe things are to be kept from accidents as much as poffible.
The fame Maſter at Arms fhall keep in readineſs alſo a certain
quantity of ſpare cartridges, and full cartouch-cafes, fit to be
delivered, in proportion as they fhall be wanted, at the different
quarters.
ARTICLE
II.
Of what is to be obferved during the engagement.
DURING the fight the greateſt filence is to be obſerved. No one
ſhould quit his poft upon pain of death. The wounded muſt be
carried
192
AN ESSAY ON
carried or conduced to the Surgeon by thoſe who ſhall have been
appointed by the Captain for that purpoſe. Should any one dif-
cover an advantage to be taken, he shall inform of it the Officer who
ſtands neareſt to him. No kind of rigging whatever is to be touched
without order. Should any dangerous thot be received at the water-
line of the ſhip, fuch of the calkers, or carpenters, or any other
perfon as perceives it, ſhall inform, in private, the Captain with it,
without faying a word of the ſame to any one elfe on pain of death,
unleſs it be a fuperior Officer: the fame precautions fhall alſo be
obſerved about any part of the ſhip catching fire.
No gun
is to be fired unless it be well loaded and levelled. It is
better not to fire than to fire too rafhly and at hazard. A gun ought
to be re-loaded as foon as fired, and none are to be left empty
although one ſhould go from one fide to the other fide; in which
cafe, three men are to be left to re-load it, and return afterwards to
join their comrades. When there want people to execute the
manœuvre, one may take fome, with the Captain's orders, from the
different guns, chufing by preference thoſe who were affigned for
boarding.
IF, towards the middle of the fight, one ſhould think there are
not a fufficient quantity of cartridges and primes ready, people muſt
be employed inftantly in filling more of them in the magazines.
SHOULD any one happen to refuſe obeying an Officer during the
engagement, he ſhall be put to death on the fpot; the fame fhall be
done to any one who will hide himſelf or feign to be wounded.
SHOULD one of the Enemy's fhips, or a fire-fhip, approach to
board you, the greateſt filence is to be obſerved at that moment, in
order to hear the commands of the manœuvre. You muſt ceaſe
your firing on any other ſhip, to keep it for the veſſel who is coming
up to you, and on whom you are to direct your whole broadfide
loaded with bullet and cafe-fhot. If your boats are out, as they
ought to be when the weather permits, they fhall take care to be in
readineſs
1
NAVAL
193
TACTICS.
readineſs to execute whatever fhall be ordered them, in order to
repel the fire-fhips by throwing grapnels on board them to tow
them off, and trying to take their guard-boats in order to prevent
the retreating of their crew. Befides, you are to try to fink them
with firing them under water, ſhould they even board
you at laſt:
and, if you ſee you cannot avoid catching fire, you muſt try to fling
every thing you can overboard, that it may help to fave ſomebody;
then wet the powders, after having, through the main hatch-way,
fired ſome ſhot from your lower deck in the hold of the fire-ſhips, to
fink them if poffible.
WHETHER you board, or are boarded by another ſhip, you muſt
take care to let fall the ports of the lower tier, to prevent any body
getting in, and throwing grenades or fetting fire to your ſhip that
way but the ports are not to be fhut but when the guns can no
longer be of uſe, by the two fhips being fo cloſe as to touch, as when
you run along-fide one of another.
WHETHER you are to windward or to leeward, failing large,
fhould you fee the firing of your enemy decreaſing, you muſt feize
the opportunity to board him fiercely, and take advantage of his
confufion, which can but be augmented by your attempt; then,
throwing as many of your crew on board him as you can, you will
undoubtedly complete his ruin.
A R RTIC LE
III.
Of the order to be obferved for an engagement; and of the exercife.
In our ſhips, the crew, numerous as they are, are notwithſtanding
weak, on account of the incapacity of the individuals: both failors
and foldiers ſhould, therefore, be often exerciſed in the practice of ··
the different manœuvres, the managing of the artillery and ſmall
arms, and in the throwing of the grenades. The command of that
exerciſe ought to be the fhorteft, cleareft, and moft concife poffible.
1
Such
194
AN ESSAY ON
1
Such an application in training and bringing up beginners is, un-
doubtedly, the moſt important duty of a Commander: for, expe-
rience muſt have often fhewn us that, between two men of war
equal in crew and guns, the difference arifing from more or leſs
dexterity in the execution, and celerity in the manœuvering, as well
as in the uſe of the artillery and muſketry, is fuch that it is with
very great difficulty it can be any wife balanced by any other circum-
ſtance whatever. And, indeed, it is but by means of a very ſuperior
fire, and as judiciously as ſkilfully ferved, that we may overcome
our enemy, eſpecially in the cafe of boarding, fince it is impoffible
to force an admittance in his ſhip at any other moment but when the
fuperiority of our fire has compelled thoſe who defend her to yield.
We are not therefore to think ourſelves ftrong becauſe we have a
numerous crew, the most part of whom are but too often quite
unexperienced: but we are to take pains in the forming and in-
ftructing of them, in difpofing them alſo in ſuch a manner that
fuch as know more ſhould teach thoſe who know lefs, and that no
one ſhould be uſeleſs.
In order to come at that diftribution of men in a crew, and to
draw all the advantage poffible from thoſe who compofe it, this is
what I think ſhould be done: every Captain of a ſhip, in time of
war, ſhould, before ſtirring out of the harbour, be ready for
fighting. Now, in order to enable himſelf to do it with more
efficacy, he ſhould begin by making his quarter-bill, and divide all
his people into four claffes, that he may afterwards be a better judge
how to make any alterations in it, and place every one in that parti-
cular ſtation where his private difpofition naturally calls him; which
cannot be done without ſtudying and inceffantly trying to penetrate
and diſcover the true inclinations of every individual which compofes
his crew, in order, whenever the occafion offers, to reap all the
advantage poffible of the whole.
THE
NAVAL
195
TACTIC S.
Theſe
THE first claſs fhould be compofed of the maneuverers.*
men ought to be the moſt nimble and active, the moſt intrepid, the
youngeſt, the moſt ſkilful in firing a mufket; and hence the fittest
for boafding.
THE ſecond claſs ſhould be compoſed of mature men, capable of
being at the head of a poft, and to command guns. Theſe maſters
of ordnance ought to have been long exerciſed in their buſineſs,
and have often ſhot at a mark; and it would be right they ſhould
all be at leaſt gunners-adjutant.
THE third claſs ſhould be compoſed of muſketeers, who are to
know how to fire with dexterity, load quickly, and every thing elſe
relative to the handling of fire-arms.
THE fourth claſs ſhould be deſtined to fill up the vacancies, when
any happen, during an engagement, and to procure the people
neceffary in the hold and the wings. This clafs fhould abfolutely
be compoſed of none but mechanical Officers: and, in ſuch ſhips as
will have a great number of people, thoſe who are ſupernumerary
ſhould make part of this fourth claſs, when the other three have got
their full complement.
WHEN a whole crew fhall have been thus divided into four fuch
claffes, and the men placed in each of thoſe which were thought
moſt ſuitable to their difpofitions; it will be very eaſy to diſtribute
them afterwards in the various ftations which are to be furniſhed
with people. In order to render this difpofition more ſtriking, we
ſhall ſuppoſe here a 74 guns ſhip,
28 of which are 36 pounders,
30
18 pounders,
8 pounders,
16.
with 800 men on board.
* In the Engliſh fervice, feamen.
Cc
•
1
THE
196
ON
AN ESSAY
THE first class, compofed of manoeuverers, muft furniſh 166
men, who are to be diſtributed in the various ſtations where they
are wanted, as follows :
:
Men'
On the fore-caſtle, including the mechanical Officers, 60
On the quarter deck, including ditto
On the poop,
THE fecond class must furniſh,
1
40
IÓ
On the main-top,
16.
On the fore-top,
On the mizen-top,
16:
8
On the fore-braces, including the mechanical Officers, 16
Li
On the fore-castle,
On the gang-way,
On the poop,
* J
k
For 14 thirty-fix pounders,
For 15 eighteen pounders,.
To carry the cartridges (younkers).
For 8 eight pounders,
Mafter Gunners, walking on the tiers,
་་་་】:』
م .
TOTAL 166. --
Men.
210–15 pucaZ-
165: 11 men a couch
1 bey to sach
M
TOTAL 462.
THE third class, compofed of muſketeers, ſhall furniſh,
Men.
29.
56.
2
20.
20.
60
TOTAL 100.
164
Frack gu
2.
A
THE
€..
247
NAVAL TACTICS.
-197
THE fourth class, compofed of thoſe who are to be diftributed
below, fhall furnish,
•
Men.
I
For the direction of the powder (the Captain's Clerk), 1
To the ſtore rooms abaft and amid-fhip,
20
Ditto afore, called the Boatswain's,
12
10
12
Carpenters and Calkers in the wings,
At the Surgeon's birth, including the Chaplain,
For the diftribution of arms (the Armourers and the
Mafter at Arms),
Spare helmſmen, for the time of action,
!
TOTAL
62
WHEN the crew is divided in the form above ſpecified, it will
be proper to make it a point to place the Officers according to their
merit, and to obſerve the fame attention in reſpect to the foldiers
and failors. For, in the diftribution of the various employments, a
Captain is not obliged to pay any regard to rank; a confideration of
this fort in a ſhip would be attended with too bad confequences.
When preferments become the neceffary confequence of ſeniority
alone, emulation withers, and the fervice fuffers, becauſe an Officer
for being the fenior is often not better. Therefore, the only rule
to be adhered to in theſe cafes is always to appoint to the moſt
difficult places fuch as are moft capable to hold them.
ACCORDINGLY there muft be,
On the fore-caſtle, including the ſecond Captain,
On the quarter-deck, including the Captain,
On each tier, 5; for both,
At the flag on the
poop,
Cc 2
1
TOTAL
3
4
Officers.
3
4
10
I
18
So
198
AN ESSAY ON
So that, in order that ſuch a ſhip ſhould be well manned, ſhe muſt
mount 808 men if ſhe is to fight in a line; though, if nothing but
a cannonading was expected from her, 650 might do.
RECAPITULATION.
The commiffioned Officers,
Manoeuverers clafs, or failors,
Gunners clafs,
Mufketeers clafs,
Fourth clafs,
#
Officers, 18
Men, 166
Ditto, 462.
•Ditto, 100.
Ditto, 62..
TOTAL AMOUNT OF THE CREW, 808 Men.
If it be poffible to increaſe the number of principal Officers, it
muſt not be neglected, in order to be able to multiply them. at, the
feveral ſtations. That a Captain may reap a greater advantage from
the Officers, he ought never to fail ſpecifying the, number of guns
he is to command on the tier where he is placed. The Officers
commanding the different decks have no other fixed birth but the
whole extent of the tier intrufted to their care...
NEXT to thefe difpofitions, which are known to every feaman,
the companies for boarding are to be formed. Theſe are to be com-
pofed of
50 men each, and make ſo many fuch companies as to take
up three-fourths of the crew. At their heads are to be placed
Officers of ardent and intrepid difpofitions: each of thofe companies
are to be diftinguiſhed one from the other, in order to raiſe emula-
tion in them, and they must be excited to do well: in order to
obtain all which, the first company fhall be compofed of petty
Officers, and of fuch of the failors as are moſt vigourous and
intrepid; the fecond fhall confift of choice foldiers, all nimble,
briſk, and bold: this company fhall fupport the first, and fight
along with it. Theſe two companies fhall be ſupported by all the
others compofed either of foldiers or failors, drawn proportionally
from
{
NAVAL
199
TACTICS.
from the different quarters, fuch as the guns, the muſketry, or the
manœuvre. All theſe companies in general ought to be armed with
a piſtol, a cutlafs, and a pole-ax. The two firſt, in leaping on
board, fhall be provided with two grenades per man; and, in that
circumftance, they fhall receive matches ready lighted, which they
ſhall wear in their hats, reeved in brafs pipes as are contrived for
that purpoſe.
Ar all times the greateft attention muſt be paid to maintain order
and diſcipline, for it is of the utmoft confequence to be able to keep
every man at the ſtation which ſhall have been affigned to him. If
all the individuals know how to obſerve rigorously the diſcipline,
there will never be found any difficulty in ftrengthening the ſtations
which ſhall have fuffered any diminution, by drawing men from
thoſe which have not fuffered fo much; fo that, after an engage-
ment, one may make as good a figure as if none had been loft,
although, in fact, more than a quarter of the crew may have been
difabled. All this may eaſily be executed when there are on board
able and intelligent Officers, who take care to replace the men who
are wanting by ſome others from the ſtations which can beſt ſpare
them. By fuch means, every Officer acting the fame in the depart-
ment which is intrufted to him, it reſults that one is always in the
beſt order poffible, and nearly equally ftrong at every part.
SUCH difpofitions once fet up, and the whole crew informed of
them, they muſt be made familiar with them, by frequent and re-
peated exerciſes, till they are perfectly trained: and, when they are
fufficiently fo, to know, and to handle their arms with dexterity;
when they are capable of executing the command with celerity and
precifion, (either in refpect to the manoeuvre, which confifts in
throwing well with the hand the boarding grapnels, and thofe from
the yards extremities; or in reſpect to the artillery, the firing of
the muſketry, and the lancing of the grenades); they are made to
execute ſeveral ſham engagements, various forts of boardings, fup-
pofed
1
200
AN ESSAY ON
$
pofed deftructions of men at different ftations, &c, in order to uſe
them beforehand to the changes and variations which fuch events
may produce in a real engagement.
At the time of exercifing the crew, you muſt not neglect ſpeaking
to them often of boarding, in order to uſe them to view it without
fear and in cool blood, to execute it with warmth and courage, and
to confider it as rather ſerviceable, and an incident of
greater fecu-
rity to themſelves; for, prepoffeffion has a great influence over the
greatest part of men's actions. And, indeed, it is very true that
this mode of fighting is not only more expeditious, but alſo, in
general, lefs flaughterous than a cannonade, eſpecially for thoſe who
board, and for the French Nation who have always found themſelves
fuperior in that kind of fighting.
THE ufual method practiſed for exercifing the crew in the art of
fighting, is extremely defective,* by the quantity of uſeleſs time
which is taken up in the exercife of the great guns, and by the
omitted part of the exerciſe in the art of throwing the grenades.
In the 6th and 7th Articles of the preſent Chapter, I ſhall preſent
my
* The very fame obfervation is made by Falconer, in his Marine Dictionary,
at the article EXERCISE, where he fays, "The exercife of the great guns has,
"till the late war, been very complicated, and abounding with fuperfluities, in
❝ our navy, as well as all others. The following method was then fucceſsfully
"introduced by an Officer of diftinguiſhed abilities."
For the fake of a readier compariſon with the method here propofed by Mr.
BOURDE', we ſhall copy that mentioned by Falconer, which confifts of the fourteen
following commands only :
Silence.
1.
2.
3. Level your guns.
4. Take out your tompions.
5. Run out your guns.
6.
Prime.
7. Point your guns.
Caft loose your guns.
་
8.
9.
10.
Fire.
Spunge your guns.
Load with cartridge.
Shot your guns.
II.
12. Put in your tompions.
13. Houſe your guns.
14. Secure your guns.
NAVAL TACTICS.
201
my Readers with an example of thofe exerciſes contracted with the
greateſt precision poffible.
COULD the great guns be fhortened without diminiſhing their
range, there would refult many great advantages for the Marine.
Firſt, one might put under fhelter at leaſt fome langrage and fmall
bullets; the ſpare top-mafts and yards, which one is always forced
to place on the gallows, fore-caftle, and quarter-deck, becauſe
otherwiſe they would obftruct the recoil of the guns of the ſecond
tier. In the fituation they are now placed they are elevated above
the gang-ways and expoſed to all the poffible injuries from the fight.
So that, after an engagement in which one ſhall have been diſmafted
or loft fome yards, one is very often unable to repair the accident.
I was once witnefs of the two fpare top-mafts being cut to pieces by
the muſketry: fuch an accident could not have happened, had one
been able to keep them on the tier along the ftrakes of the coamings,
of the hatch-ways. Befides, in keeping, as we do, thefe fpare
yards and top-mafts on the gallows, we caufe the fhip's center of
gravity to rife, and we retard her velocity, fince the carries a lefs
quantity of fails, and fhe is more difpofed to incline.
SHOULD the great guns be fhorter, one might introduce artillery
of a certain ſize on the light frigates, which are generally provided
but with very light ones, on account of the uſual weight and length
of the great guns.
On the large ſhips which mount 36 and 18 pounders, 36 and 24
might be introduced, and even 48: becauſe this laſt would not have
more weight than the prefent cuſtomary 36, on account of the
fhortening of the pieces, which I here propofe partly from Mr.
Dulacq's opinion only.
IF, content with the preſent ufual fize of the pieces, one fhould
not care to put 48 for 36, nor 36 for 24, then there would be a
very great difference in weight to be obtained from the propofed
ſhortening. And, the whole of the artillery of a man of war being
lighter
202
AN ESSAY ON
lighter and ſhorter, the fervice of the great guns would become
infinitely more eafy and quicker; fo that, even upon a fuppofition
of equality, in every other refpect, between the two engaged ſhips,
fhe who ſhould be provided with the ſhorteſt guns would foon get
the better of her enemy by the fuperiority of her firing, whence
would foon refult that of the combat: a truth fo much the more
grounded as it is undeniable, a ſhort piece is a great deal better and
fooner levelled than a long one.
HAVING all thoſe advantages in view, I have confidered that a
fhort piece, the charge of which would be inclofed in a chamber
with the bottom made like an hemiſphere, on the largeſt circle of
which the touch-hole would be bored, would reach farther than
another piece longer of the fame fize, and the touch-hole of which
would be even with the bottom of the chamber: becauſe the in-
flammation of the charge, in a fhort piece, would be not only
greater but quicker than in a piece of the ordinary fize; as the firſt
and ſecond inftant of the inflammation carry the fire in all the
points of the maſs of powder contained in the hemiſpheric chamber.
Now, as it is proved by experience that the bulk of that inflamed
globe is at leaſt four thousand times bigger than before the inflam-
mation; it follows that the axis of its flame is about fixteen times
as great as that of the globe of powder before it was inflamed; for
16 is the cubic root moft approaching to 4000.
"So," fays Mr. Dulacq, "that if, on a very ſmooth table, you
"place, on one and the fame line, three heaps of powder of an
equal diameter, and eight times that diameter diſtant from each
"other, then fet fire to the center of the middle heap, you will
"fee that it will communicate to the right and left heaps."
""
THERE refults from that experiment, that if the extenfion of a
globe of powder reaches on each fide a diſtance eight times the
diameter of its ſphere, when it is inflamed without being confined,
that extenfion will be much more confiderable when it ſhall be
oppoſed
NAVAL TACTICS.
203
oppoſed by ſolid ſurfaces which will refift its dilatation. For, the
powder, which has been inflamed in the first and in the ſecond inftant,
finding itſelf confined and not able to dilate, it will be repelled from
all the points of the concave fuperficies which refifts it by the oppo-
fition it offers to the power of extenfion. And, as the inflamed fluid
muſt needs extend, it will go, in a re-acting direction, through all
the intervals which exift between the grains which compofe the
remainder of the charge, towards the leaft refiftance, viz. the air
which furrounds all thofe divided particles. This firft inflamed
matter envelopes then, in the third inſtant of the inflammation, all the
grains of powder which are contained in the ſpace of its extenfion,
and confequently beyond the whole quantity of powder incloſed in
the chamber of the gun, fuch as we propoſed and deſcribed it above.
It is therefore evident, that if the fire inflames the powder as foon
as it touches it, the whole charge muſt be inflamed at the fame
inſtantж“And," fays again Mr. Dulacq, "if we conſider that
"each grain of powder may be compared to a balloon, which a
"fudden wind inflates quickly, and in the ſpace of time which
"is taken by the inflammation of a grain of powder, fo that it
"ſhould become equal to the bulk of a grain of powder inflamed
"at liberty, it will appear evident that theſe balloons will tend, all
"at the fame time, to inflation; and as they cannot fucceed on
"account of the fides of the chamber which oppofe a fuperior re-
"fiftance, they will re-act, in dilating their ſpring towards the
weakeft fide; and all of them together, with a velocity increaſed
"in ratio of their multiplied and momentaneous re-action, will
expel the bullet from the chaſe, along with the column of air
"which oppoſes their iſſue.'
BUT, as the refiftance of the metal of the breech has compelled
the totality of the powder to inflame and to re-act towards the chaſe,
there reſults from it the recoil of the gun, which will be fo much
the more violent, as the powder which took fire in the first moment
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204
AN ESSAY ON
of the inflammation has communicated it to the inferior part of the
firſt ſphere, and to another portion of the remaining part of the charge
compriſed within the ſpace of its extenfion: fo that, in the ſecond
inſtant, the fluid is expelled with violence, fince the greateſt part
of the charge is inflamed, and the effort of the inflammation,
which is nothing but an hemifphere, could not be fufficient to put
in motion the remaining portion of the powder, the bullet, and the
tompion which faſtens it.
FROM that delay, there refults a greater inflammation; and it
would be eaſy to demonſtrate, that the little quantity of powder which
remains in its natural ftate, gets inflamed in the chaſe by a third in-
ſtant of operation, at the moment when the ſhot begins to ftir:
whence it follows, that the range of the gun muſt be increaſed,
and the fhot carried a great deal farther than it would, by a piece
in which the inflammations would not be fo ftrong nor fo quick,
on account of the cylindric form which is generally given to the
chamber, and the touch-hole of which is bored at the back, or
farthermoft extremity of that chamber.
FROM all this reafoning are to be deduced the motives which are
to determine to bore the chamber of the gun hemiſphere-like, by
preference to the cylindric form, and to place the touch-hole on the
great circle.
REPEATED experiments having proved, in the ordinary pieces,
that, to obtain their longer range, the charge of the powder muſt be
proportioned, in reſpect to its weight, to the third part of that of the
fhot to be expelled by it, we ſhall adhere to that quantity of powder;
as our object is not here to increaſe, the range of the gun, but to pre-
ſerve only the fame range undiminiſhed, although the piece itſelf be
much fhortened, in order to make it lighter.
SHOULD the touch-hole be bored in fuch a manner as to fet the
fire on the center of the axis of the charge, it is clear the inflamma-
tion of the powder with which it is compofed, and the expulfion of
the
NAVAL TACTIC S.
205
the ſhot, would both receive an increaſe of velocity; becauſe the
extenfion of the powder meeting with a greater compreffion and pre-
cipitation at the ſame time, the inflamed balloons would ſpring looſe
more in number at once in the ſame ſpace of time, and would confe-
quently produce a greater rapidity in that kind of action; whence
their impulfion on the ſhot would be ſtronger, not only on account
of the greater number of the particles of powder which would
act together and at the fame inſtant, but again on account of the
multiplied elaſticity and velocity of the re-action. This reaſoning
proves to a demonſtration, that a recoil much greater and much more
violent muſt be the refult of this operation, fince there is a greater
quantity of powers acting together on the concave parts of the
chamber. Hence, it is eaſy to conceive that the carriage of the gun
muſt be much agitated, and expoſed at laſt to be broken to pieces,
by fuch repeated efforts of the piece during an engagement. It would
be then neceffary to loſe ſomething on the range, in order to avoid
an accident of that dangerous confequence in a ſhip, where all thoſe
refources and conveniencies cannot be had which might be procured
on land. Let us therefore conclude, that the touch-hole cannot be
bored at a better place than on the large circle of the hemiſpheric
interior cavity of the breech; becauſe, if it were placed on the
center of gravity of the charge, it has been just demonftrated that
the recoil would be too violent.
If the communication of the touch-hole were placed directly over
the farthermoft part of the cavity, the recoil, it is true, would be
much leſs, but there would be too much lofs on the range; becauſe
the grains of powder at the bottom being the firſt inflamed, the
greater oppofition they meet with from the breech, obliges them to
re-act towards the ſlighteſt reſiſtance: accordingly they drive before
them, in proportion as they catch fire, the remaining part of the
charge, in inflaming only but a portion of it, the effort of which,
being fuperior to the reſiſtance of the ſhot and the tompion, expels
Dd 2
them
206
AN ESSAY ON
}
both from the chafe before the whole is totally inflamed. This wit
appear evident, if we confider that, when the fire communicates to
the charge by the breech-fide, it inflames the remaining part but by
that one end only; when, on the contrary, if it communicate,
nearer the center of gravity, it inflames both ends at once: therefore
it has been preferred to lofe on the range, rather than to be expofed
to an accident.
We hope we have ſufficiently demonftrated, that the hemifpheric
form of the chamber of the propoſed great gun, may produce the
effect we wish for, viz. a more copious and a quicker inflammation.
Now we are going to enter upon the range of the piece, to which we
allow but 12 calibers in the length of the chaſe to contain the pow
der, the ſhot, the langrage, and the wads which are put over the
charge; becauſe we have demonftrated, that the powder which fills
up the chamber is almoſt all inflamed when the hot begins to ftir,
and is quite fo when it comes out of the chafe. It is then evident
that, if the piece were longer, the moving power ceafing to act as
foon as the powder is confumed, the friction and jolting of the ſhot
againſt the exceeding part of the length of the gun, would diminiſh
the range. Befides, the remaining part of the powder which follows
the ſhot, completing its inflammation, when the flame, of that
which began to kindle is, after a fufficient dilatation, juft extinguiſhed;
and after the air, at firſt rarefied, is deadened on that fide (fince
the ſhot, by yielding to its effort, has left it all the neceffary room
for extenfion), the ſhot can no longer receive any impulfion but
from the remaining part of the powder by which it is followed im-
mediately; but this portion of powder expels it only with a very faint
force, fince it has the opportunity of re-acting towards the vacuum
which exifts now between the fhot and the breech, in fuch a man-
ner that, were the piece to be longer, all moving power ceafing to
act, the velocity which the moveable body would have acquired by
the impulfion of the powder in its various ftages of inflammation,
would
·
་
NAVAL TACTICS.
207
I
would be employed partly in driving off the column of air which
would refift it ſtill in the remaining part of the piece's chafe, which
would be again an additional and confiderable cauſe of the diminu-
tion in the range. Therefore, there is an abfolute neceffity of
ſhortening the gun,
and to allow it but juſt the length which is
neceffary for the powder of its common charge to complete its in-
flammation preciſely at the moment the ſhot quits the mouth of the
gun.
THEY uſe, in the navy, all forts of pieces of artillery, from 4 to 48
pounders incluſively. Thoſe great guns are diſtributed on the ſhips
conformably to their ſize and ſtrength. They are ſet on four-wheel
carriages, the ſhape of which need no detail, as it is fufficiently
known to fea-faring men. The beſt carriages are thoſe which are
floped underneath, becauſe they are the lighter.,
THE English have invented a kind of carriage more advantageous
than any other, in ſo much as the upper part turns along with the
two cheeks on a pivot, and as a fingle man may alone level a gun
from right to left.. Although a carriage of fuch a conftruction be
much heavier than the others, it would not however be very difficult,
in adopting the contrivance, to give it more lightneſs.
i
A R T F C L E
IV:
Of the exercife of the great guns.
THE Cannoneers having repaired to their quarters in a fufficient
number to manage well each gun, they are to be made to obey the
command in giving a filent attention to it.
ift COMMAND.——— -Caft loofe aprons and tackles..
EXECUTION. THIS command is executed by the Captain of
the gun, who loofens the apron, and by two other men, who alſo
caft loofe, both together, the lashing tackles on each fide of the
piece,
208
ON
AN ESSAY
/
piece, laying their falls on the deck, ready to be overhauled by the
recoil of the gun after firing.
2d COMMAND.
Uncover the vent.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun takes off the leaden
apron which is on the vent, and places it more forward on the gun,
ſo that it may not obftru&t the priming.
3d COMMAND.Prick the cartridge.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun takes the wire with his
right hand, and introduces it into the vent of the gun, forcing it on
the cartridge, and makes it go up and down two or three times, in
order to be certain that it is broken.
4th COMMAND.
Prime.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun takes the powder-horn
with his left hand, after having opened it, and pours fome powder
on the vent, in which he makes it go down with the priming-wire;
obferving, at the fame time, not to cram it too hard. When the
vent is full, the ſcore which leads to the pan is to be filled alſo with
powder; or, when there is no pan, a train of gun-powder is to be
made from the vent to the baſe-ring and ogee; then this part of the
priming is to be bruifed with the horn.
5th COMMAND.Point your guns.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun, and all thoſe who are
to handle the crows and hand-ſpikes, take each their ſtation: then
the former takes off the apron from the gun, that it may not obſtruct
the pointing.
6th COMMAND.
Cannoneers! point forwards:
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun orders the breech of the
gun to be heaved down aft; or, he turns it fo himſelf, if the gun is
mounted on a carriage with a pivot.
*6th COMMAND.
-Point aft.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun orders the breech to be
heaved forwards, till the muzzle comes in a line with the object on
which it is to fire.
**6th
NAVAL TACTIC S.
209
**6th COMMAND.
Point a-beam.
N. B. This is the best method of firing at fea; becauſe the object is always
1
taken by its middle, especially if you use your cannoneers to take always the mid-
ſhip for their mark.
EXECUTION. THIS Command is to inform' the Captain of the
gun, that he is to fire abreaſt his fhip: he executes it by placing his
gun ftraight in the middle of the port, and pointing to the upper
works of the adverſary.
*
1
:
*-**
*6th COMMAND.Point for finking.
*
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun raiſes the breech ſo as to
be able to fire the ſhot below the water line of the fhip on which
he fires. When that way of firing is executed, it is proper to be
very cloſe to the enemy, in order not to loſe the fhot.
7th COMMAND.Fire.
{
EXECUTION. HE who is to execute this command, fteps to the
left fide of the gun, holding with his right hand the match; and,
as foon as the Captain of the gun has finiſhed pointing it, he fets
fire to it himſelf, if the gun has a lock, or he gets it done quickly
by him who has that office.
8th COMMAND.-Fix the crow before the trucks, and fasten the
train-tackles.
EXECUTION.
ONE of the men places the crow under the fore
truck of the carriage after the gun has fufficiently recoiled, while
others haul taught the train-tackle, and feize it in making with the
falls an half-hitch over the inner block.
9th COMMAND.-
•
Traverse the gun.
EXECUTION. THIS movement is done to procure eafe to the
man who loads the gun; and is executed in placing the muzzle of
the gun almoſt on one fide of the port: this command may be very
eafily executed with the new kind of carriage we have mentioned
before; for, then the gun might be loaded abfolutely on the infide
of the hip, and under the cover of the ship's fide,
10th
210
CAN ESSAY ON..
10th COMMAND.Ram down the Spunge.
EXECUTION. THE loader takes the fpunge and rams it down
to the bottom of the chamber, while the Captain of the gun holds
his thumb on the vent, in order to extinguish the fire which might
have remained at the bottom of the cartridge in the bore of the gun.
IIth CoMMAND. -Draw back the Spunge.
EXECUTION. THE loader turns round quickly the fpunge in
the chamber of the gun, and then draws it back, continuing to
turn it..
.{
•
12th COMMAND.Put in the cartridge and wad.
'EXECUTION. ONE of the men, who has the charge of keeping
the cartridge boxes, introduces the cartridge into the gun, and the
loader places over it a wad; it is to be obſerved, that when the car-
tridge is taken out of the box, it muſt be done very near the mouth
of the gun.
13th COMMAND.
Ram down the charge.
EXECUTION. THE loader, who, during the execution of the
laft command, has quitted* the fpunge to take the rammer, puſhes
down with it the charge into the chamber of the gun, and ſtrikes
it ſtrong enough to make himſelf fure that it is home, which is
proved by the priming-wire which the Captain of the gun introduces
through the vent, in order to feel the cartridge; and when he is
fure of it, the rammer is drawn out.
14th
* In the Britiſh Navy, the fpunge and the rammer are but one and the fame
rod, at one of the ends of which the fpunge is fixed, while the other ferves to
ram down the charge: fo that, without any lofs of time, the loader, after
having fpunged the gun, only turns the rod, and is ready prepared to ram down
the cartridge with the other end, which he executes with the greateſt celerity,
as ſoon as the man has placed it, with the wad fixed to it, at the entrance of the
gun's muzzle.-TRANSLATOR.
NAVAL
211
TACTICS.
14th COMMAND.-Shot and wad your gan.
EXECUTION. ONE of the men introduces the ſhot a little way
into the gun, and the loader places the wad over it which he has
received from another; then he rams it down home to the powder
with a ſtroke, and draws back the rammer.
15th COMMAND.-Range yourself to the tackles, to run out the guns.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun ranges his men equally
on each fide of the piece, along the tackle-falls, which are to haul
and fecure the gun to its port; and, immediately after, he puts the
breech on the axle-tree, that it may not be cumberſome.
B
16th COMMAND.- -Run out your guns.
EXECUTION. THE Crow is to be taken out from afore the trucks,
and every man hauls while another eaſes the half-hitch of the train-
tackle; and the Captain of the gun directs, from aback, his gun
ſtraight through the middle of the port.
C
17th COMMAND.-Cover the vent, and make faſt apron and tackles.
EXECUTION. THE Captain of the gun covers the vent with the
apron; then, two men make each a turn and a hitch round the
pomiglion with each of the tackle-falls, and reeve the bight
between the gun and the taught tackle; after which the Captain of
the gun faftens the apron on the tackle-falls which are on each fide
of the
gun, in making a knot over the middle of the apron.
•
ARTICLE V.
Obfervations on the exercise of the great guns.
WHEN the guns have got mufket locks, you muſt abfolutely
take care, after every firing, to wipe the upper and under part both
of the flint and of the pan.
IT would be better to make ufe of tubes in lieu of common
priming: the firing would be much quicker, becauſe one would
always
E e
212
AN ESSAY ON
always take care to pierce the cartridge before trufting the tube
into the vent; and, in that cafe, a train only of gunpowder might
be made from the vent to the pan.
My opinion is, one fhould never make uſe of bar-fhot, flail, nor
of any other thing of this kind; becaufe a bar-fhot never does much
injury in the upper works. I had rather make uſe of a round ſhot,
becauſe wherever it ftrikes it gets in much more eafily than any
other, and weakens therefore, ſo much the more, the ftrength of
the wood; befides, the ſplinters occafioned by it deſtroy often a
great many people.
I SHOULD Wiſh likewife no other langrage was made uſe of but
grape-fhot, formed with ſmall bullets, of two, one, or half a pound
weight, according to the caliber of the guns. This may be fired
at a quarter or a third part of a common range. When the two
ſhips are near, and within piftol fhot, I should have the guns
charged with fmall bags of canvas filled with leaden two-ounce
balls, and always, befides, a fhot of the caliber of the piece.
WHEN muſket-locks are fixed to guns, they are ſet in a wooden
flock, in the fame manner as they would for a muſket. To that
ftock they are made faft with two good fcrews, the heads of which
are either on the outfide or infide of the ſtock, but fo well let in,
however, as not to exceed the fuperficies of the wood, becauſe they
would prevent this ftock from joining quite close to the gun, which
muſt be very carefully guarded againſt; for, ſhould there fall any
powder between the ſtock and the gun, when it is priming, there
would be a danger of blowing up that machinery. From the pan
of the lock to a quarter of an inch of the vent, there must be a braſs
channel, to convey the fire to the charge by means of a train of
powder
* The tubes uſed in the Britiſh Navy are fo contrived as to be fufficiently
peaked at their end, for pricking the cartridge at the fame inftant as they are
trufted into the vent. -TRANSLATOR,
NAVAL
213
TACTIC s.
powder which will fill it. That channel muſt be bent in the infide
of the ſtock on which it will be mounted, fo that the
pan. fhould
join it exactly, without there being any pòffibility for a grain of
powder to drop between them.
THERE is to be a mortice in the ſtock through which is to paſs the
trigger, which is to be fixed in that mortice, at the collar of the
two perpendicular branches which compoſe it, by a little round pin,
on which it will turn, to make the cock go when you want to fire.
A LINE ſhould be faſtened to the vertical branch of the trigger,
that the pointer' may the more eaſily fire from aback the piece,
without ſtirring, or having any thing to fear from the recoil.
THE objections which might be made against the ufe of locks
applied to the great guns, fall of themſelves to the ground, by the
experiments we have feen in trying them. They are mounted,
as we ſaid before, on a concave piece of wood fitted to the piece,
and long enough for one of its extremities to be even with the
after-part of the breech of the gun, and made fecure to the pamiglion
with a laſhing, and the other extremity faſtened round the cylinder
of your metal, at about eight inches forward from the vent, with
lafhings of the fame fize as that abaft.
THE depth of the ſtock muſt be ſuch that the fire-lock may be
incruſtated in it eafily; and its thickneſs ought to be of three inches
or thereabouts.
ARTICLE
VI.
Exercise for throwing grenades.
Ift COMMAND.-Take up the grenade.
EXECUTION. THIS Command is executed by taking the gre-
nade with the right hand, ſo that the fuſe ſhould be upwards between
the thumb and the fore finger.
E e 2
2d
214
AN ESSAY ON
2d COMMAND.-Uncap the fuse.
EXECUTION.-Ar this command the paper which covers the
fufe is torn off with the left hand.
3d COMMAND.-Take the match.
EXECUTION. THIS movement is again executed with the left
hand, by taking the match, which ought to be lighted in a brafs
pipe, and fixed to the hat with the lighted end behind. It muſt be
put out immediately after ufing.
4th COMMAND.-Fire the fufe.
EXECUTION. THE fire is put to the prime with the match;
and, as ſoon as it is well lighted, the grenade is to be thrown with
all the ftrength of the arm, in fuch a direction as to fall where
intended. The fuſe muſt be neither too long nor too ſhort.
THIS exerciſe is neither long nor difficult; nor indeed is any
thing which may ferve for the inſtruction of the crew. Such
exerciſes are therefore not to be neglected; and to be well executed,
they require but a common fhare of underſtanding. But, thoſe who
execute the command beft, and who fhew the greateſt difpofition to
do well, are to be noticed and rewarded, which will infpire the one
with emulation, and the other with jealouſy. In order to uſe more
cafily, thoſe who are intended for throwing grenades, to this exer-
cife, they ſhould in the beginning be made to throw fome not loaded,
and only with primed fufes: and, when they are found to fucceed
according to wish, they should have fome papier-mafhee grenades
charged, which they are to practice throwing as they did the
former. If they throw theſe with dexterity and boldness, they may
then be tried to throw fome iron ones in the fame manner, and to
make ſome burft: if that trial fucceeds likewife as well as in the
precedent exerciſes, there is fome likelihood of having got good
grenadiers.
As this kind of fire is of material confequence in boarding, where
it cannot be too much multiplied, it is abfolutely neceffary that
the whole crew ſhould be uſed to the exercife of throwing grenades.
IF
NAVAL
215
TACTICS.
Ir, in all the exerciſes of the manoeuvre of the canon, and of the
handling of the other fire-arms, a Captain fhews refolution, ability,.
equity in rewarding merit and puniſhing indolence, it is likely he
will not be long before he acquires the confidence of his crew:
and hardly fo much as that is wanting to make bright ſtrokes.
This ſhould be a very powerful reaſon to excite, in that reſpect, the:
emulation of the principal Commanders, could they be well per-
fuaded of it.
THE fecurity and the negligence of the Captains is the true caufe
why our crews are not fo good as they might be made for, they
fail not on the fide of courage; the Barth, the Duguay-Trouin, and
many more, have proved it enough to all Europe; and it has been
proved alfo in all the circumftances, where they have been com--
manded by men who knew how to excite their emulation.
We think it our duty to repeat here an obſervation of Marſhal
Saxe, who knew fo well how to conduct men. "A continual.
"exerciſe makes good foldiers" (and good failors), "becauſe it
"fills them with ideas relative to their fituation, and teaches them
"to defpife danger, as it makes them familiar with trouble and
"labour. The tranſition from fatigue to reft enervates them: it
"offers comparative points which it is difficult to join, without
occafioning that fo common and fo powerful paffion incumbent on
“ man, idleneſs, to grow, without inciting murmur, and weaken--
"
ing the foul after having weakened the body.”
To this reflection I fhall add another. During the peace the
Royal Navy remain inactive; while the mercantile marine trades
quietly without any warlike idea. So that, after a peace of ſome
duration, the State poffeffes, it is true, good failors, but fuch failors
as have not the leaft idea of what is to be done in a fhip of war;
they know not even the arms which are uſed in ſuch a circumſtance..
Now, fince merchant-ſhips are thoſe which form the failors, they.
fhould.
"
-
W
•
216
AN ESSAY ON
ſhould then exerciſe them in the handling of arms alfo and
:
every
ſhip which goes to fea, fhould make it a point of custom to practice
twice a week up all hammocks, and the exercife, be the weather
whatever it would. This would coft nothing, and would compleat
the training of the crews, by offering them inceffantly an idea of
war, which is analogous enough with the rough difpofitions of a
fea-faring man.
ARTICLE VI.
Obfervations on the attack.
BEFORE attacking, every Frenchman ought to be perfuaded that
it is neceffary for him to combat very cloſe, becauſe the vivacity of
the Nation makes her always fuperior in muſketry, and, beſides, one
is more able to take the advantage of boarding when the opportunity
offers; an occafion which never ought to be neglected, but, on the
contrary, fought for, becauſe the ardour of fighting and the coup-
de-main are the peculiar characteriſtics of the Frenchman. When-
ever, therefore, an occafion for fighting fhall offer, it will be
neceffary to make every thing ready for boarding; and the way of
doing it with fuccefs is to fpeak conftantly of it to the crew, and to
excite them to it by the hope and attraction of plunder, which muſt
be allowed to a certain degree, though with moderation, whenever
you happen to take poffeffion of a ſhip by that always decifive and
never failing method.
ANOTHER Confideration is, that it is always advantageous to be
the affailant, becauſe it makes the adverfary fuppofe you have nothing
to fear; therefore it fills him with terror and your crew with
confidence, both at the fame time. For, generally, when you
attack, it is conformably to a plan you have formed to your-
felf, and which your adverſary can feldom gueſs at but in the courfe
of
NAVAL
2:17
TACTICS.
of the engagement; and then it may be too late to try to break.
meaſures which have been thus premeditated.
WHEN a Commander is going to attack a fhip, he must not be.
wholly taken up with his project of attack or manœuvre he muſt
alſo think of and guard himſelf againſt all the ſurpriſes of manœuvre
which his enemy might attempt, and judge, by the pofition where
his adverſary is, of all thoſe he might try in order to draw him into
fome fnare, or to avoid thoſe he might lay out for him,. and not to
lofe at the fame time his principal object in view ;. for it is a point
which he muſt not lofe fight of, whatever may be the fituation he
is în.
*
I SHOULD not be of opinion to receive the first fire of an enemy,.
unleſs it be at a diftance: for, when clofe to each other, the firft
broadfide is always the moſt dreadful. It may ſtrip you of very:
effential rigging, kill a great many of your crew,, and expofe you
thereby to furrender for mere want of being able to manoeuver.
The greateſt advantage is then moft certainly for him who fires firft
WHEN CLOSE TO EACH OTHER.; for, if you are but tolerable markf-
men, you diſable partly your adverfary, you kill many of his
of his people,.
very often you flun him, and the broadfide which he returns is
feldom well pointed.
If the ſhip you are attacking pops and pops again at a diſtance,
let him do fo without return; for he will never caufe you much
damage that way: but, you must maneuver fo as to approach him
as fast as you poffibly can, that you may ftun him by a fire well
ſerved, and falute faſhion, that is to ſay with ſhot fired quickly one-
after another and well pointed.
WHEN you come to boarding, no one is to be fuffered to leap on
board before the fire of the mufketry and grenades has made the
enemy abandon the fore-castle, quarter-deck, and poop: and when
you ſee
your adverſary begin to yield or be frighted, you redouble
your efforts, and then let go boldly on board thofe who were deftined:
for:
✔
218
AN ESSAY ON
for boarding, provided however you fee they may paſs in a fufficient
number together to stand on and make a good reſiſtance to the repulſe
they muſt expect to meet with.
WHEN you fight in line, or fingly, you must be well perfuaded
that the most dangerous thing is to yield, fhould it be ever ſo little;
becauſe, on the one hand, this motion emboldens your adverſary,
who, in ſuch a cafe, redoubles generally the vivacity of his fire;
while on the other, your crew flacken, and loſe their ſpirit and
confidence; your fire diminiſhes, and your people always imagine
that your cafe is of a more dangerous confequence than often it is ;
for, the leaſt act of timidity or intrepidity in a Captain influences
powerfully the difpofitions of his crew, either for the worſt or for
the beſt.
THIS is the place for propoſing an idea, the putting of which into
execution feems to me of very great importance, could it be admitted.
Every one allows that a Captain is the foul of his fhip: the whole
crew fix their eyes upon him and examine him in all the perilous
circumſtances. He alone is the true mover of the actions of each
individual, eſpecially in an engagement, when every thing good or
bad is charged to his account. It would therefore, methinks, be
very effential that ſuch a principal man at leaſt ſhould be a little
more ſheltered againſt the blows than any other Officer or foldier
who has nothing but his own perſon to anſwer for, and whofe loſs
is not of fo dangerous tendency for the remainder of the crew. I
could then wish that the Captains of fhips fhould, during an en-
gagement, be covered with a good armour muſket-proof, which
would be a great advantage, for they would then have hardly any
thing elſe to fear but the great ſhot. This armour could not be
cumberſome to them, becauſe they are not expofed to leap on board
the adverſary as thofe of the crew who are under their command;
they are bound never to quit the deck on which they are acting, and
they are not to go from one place to the other: thus, an armour
could
+
NAVAL TACTICS.
219
could not hinder a Captain from executing with eaſe all the motions.
neceffary in the courfe of an engagement. The utility and advantages
reſulting from ſuch a precaution can therefore not be denied; for,
how frequently have ſhips been taken, who never would, had not
the Captains been killed, and had not their death filled the crew with
difmay and confufion! And, indeed, it muſt be allowed that, in
ſuch a circumſtance, a general difcouragement feizes on the minds
of all the crew, who no longer make any but falſe manœuvres; the
fire is badly ſerved, and the end is always a furrender. After all, it
is lefs for one's felf than for others and the State, that a Captain
is bound to take care of himſelf: therefore, he ſhould not be
aſhamed of wearing armour; for he muſt before have given ſufficient
proofs, when he was a fubordinate Officer, that fear is not the
motive which induces him now to think of his preſervation. Pre-
judice ſhould not then prevail here againſt reafon ſupported by the
motive of public good.
I
CHAPTER
XII.
How to brail up a top-fail and a lower-fail in ftrefs of weather; with
the method of fetting them.
IN order to clew up a top-fail in ſtreſs of weather, with the wind
either large or clofe hauled, without running the riſk of ſplitting it,
you muſt lay hold of the weather brace and faften it very taught,
without looſening the bow-line, which is to be made faſt as ſoon as
the top-fail is on the cap; next to this, you range your people on
the two bunt-lines, the leech-line, and the weather clue-line, which
is to be made faſt, in looſening on the weather fide: then, all the
failors acting with ftrength on all the brails, you eafe off the bow-
line, and when the clue-line is up on the weather fide, you call
the failors who were on that fide, as well as thoſe of the leech-lines,
F f
*
to
220
AN ESSAY ON
+
to the leeward fide; and when they are ranged on the leeward brails,
you loosen the ſheet on that fide, and haul all up as quick as poffible,
that you may after that be able to brace the top-fail taperly, that
is to fay, on the parallel to the direction of the wind, in order to
furl it more eaſily. This mode of clewing up is certainly the beſt,
the quickeſt, and the ſafeft, whatever may be faid to the contrary by
thoſe who know no other rule but cuftom, and who are not therefore
fenfible of the phyfical cauſe of this operation, which we hope we
have fufficiently made evident and clear, when we fpoke of the
natural tendency the fails have to range themſelves perpendicularly
to the direction of the fluid.
WHEN, in ftrefs of weather; you find yourfelf obliged to fet a
top-fail, you muſt firſt begin to haul home the lee fheet, after
having braced the yard fo as the fail may take the wind in; and,
when that ſheet is home, you will paſs to the weather fide, where
you will do the fame. This method is grounded on the fame prin-
ciple as the preceding one in brailing it up.
WHEN you wish to brail up a lower-fail, the lee-clue garnet, as
well as the leech-line and bunt-line, are to be brailed up firft ;
and when that clue ſhall be up, you will pass to that of the weather
fide, and haul up the weather-clue of the main-fail: a little while
after you will eaſe off the bow-line, and haul in the weather brace,
in order to prevent the fail from fixing itſelf on the ſtay; and the
brails ſhall be in the mean while hauled up as faft as poffible; for
all kinds of manœuvres ought always to be executed with quickneſs
and celerity. When, in ftrefs of weather, you want to fet a lower-
fail, you muſt begin by hauling its tack aboard, eafing away at the
fame time the weather brace, in order to keep the fail fhivering:
then immediately after, you will make it faft; but, let it fuffice
to ſay, that the method of ſetting a lower-fail is exactly the contrary
of what is done in the fame circumftance to fet a top-fail; which
difference arifes from the difpofitions of things, and from the
riggings, which are alfo very different.
THE
NAVAL TACTICS.
221
THE execution of most of the manœuvres which are practiſed in a
ſhip, either for the difpofition of the cables, the effects of the
capſtern in heaving up the anchors, or getting in or out the boats;
to bend fails to their yards; take-in reefs; rig the top-gallant-
yards, or maſts; put tops to them, or take them off; fet up ſhrouds,
and many other things of this nature; all this, I fay, will be much
better and much fooner learnt in the courfe of a voyage, than by
all that could be faid here to give an idea of them. All theſe opera-
tions are fo merely practical, that they must abfolutely be ſeen
performed in order to be well conceived and underſtood. One fingle
voyage will therefore inftruct better, in that reſpect, than all that
could be written on the ſubject.
END OF THE THIRD PART.
-
Ff2
AN
ΑΝ
ESSAY
ΟΝ
NAVAL TACTICS.
PART THE FOURTH.
On Naval Evolutions.
THIS part of the Manoeuvre properly concerns the commanding
Officer failing at the head of a ſquadron or of a fleet. It may be
confidered as a natural continuation of the evolutions of a fingle ſhip,
fince it is not poffible to be a good Commander without being
previouſly maſter both of the theory and practice of the movements
of every ſingle ſhip in particular.
THE Naval Evolutions have been fo compleatly treated of
towards the end of the last century by Father HOSTE, that we may
with juftice declare he has exhaufted the fubject in the very firft
attempt. Many fince have, notwithſtanding, undertaken to write
on the fame matter, among whom in particular is to be reckoned
Mr. BIGOT DEMOROGUES, Captain in the King's Navy, who has
juſt publiſhed an excellent Work on EVOLUTIONS and SIGNALS.
Theſe learned Authors, in writing on Naval Tactics, have all con-
tented themſelves with defcanting very minutely on the various
orders
NAVAL
223
TACTIC S.
orders of failing of a whole fleet; but none of them have fufficiently
d. fined that which I would propofe for the common order of ſailing,
I mean the ORDER of CONVOY; as this order appears to me the
molt fimple and the only one a fleet ought to be in at all times;
becauſe, firft, this order is eafily preferved; fecondly, it cannot be
diſcompofed in twenty out of the thirty-two fhifts of wind, and is
easily re-eſtabliſhed in the twelve other changes; finally, it is eaſy
to paſs from that order to thoſe proper for the fecurity of a fleet, in
all poffible cafes, either to preſerve one's felf, to attack, or to defend.
This is therefore what we are going to endeavour to demonſtrate in
this fourth part of our Work. As for the movements of a fleet in
the five orders of failing, as well as for the changes of fquadrons
in thoſe various orders, we refer to the Treatiſes of Father HOSTE
and Mr. DEMOROGUES, contenting ourſelves with fpeaking of
that only which feems to us effential, and practicable in all kinds
of events.
To facilitate the underſtanding of what we have to fay, we fhall
give the definitions and figures only of the different orders; and
dwell upon nothing more than a few particulars which are relative to
the three ORDERS, of CONVOY, of BATTLE, and of RETREAT,
that we may ſhow young Officers how it is poffible to paſs from the
two laft-mentioned orders to the first which we propofe, and vice verfâ;.
which will reduce NAVAL TACTICS to the greateſt fimplicity..
CHAPTER I..
Of the manner of dividing fleets; with obfervations to render it
eafily practicable.
FLEETS, however numerous, ought to be divided into three
fquadrons or divifions; and theſe again may be fubdivided according
as the fervice requires; as, for example, when it is found neceffary
#
to
-224
AN ESSAY ON
to form a detachment of the beſt-failing fhips, either to obferve the
enemy cloſely, to bring him fooner to action, to diſturb him in
his order of failing, or to come up with him in a fuperior num-
ber, in order to deſtroy him more eafily; as again, when, at other
times, a certain number is wanted to guard the entrance of a port,
or keep the fea to obſerve what paffes in the offing.
WHEN the fleet is divided into fquadrons, each of them has a
commanding Officer. The firſt ſquadron, which forms the center
divifion in the order of battle, ought, when the failing is divided in
three files or columns, to keep its poft between the two others.
The ſecond ſquadron ought, in that cafe, to form the ſtarboard
column; and, in the line of battle, is to keep the van or the rear,
according to the Admiral's orders, or as circumſtances may require.
Then the third fquadron is to form the larboard column; but,
ſhould the three fquadrons fail together in two files or columns, that
which is the third is to be divided equally between the other two;
and when the ſecond fquadron leads, the third is to be in the rear,
ſo that they never can intermix, but always keep diſtinct from one
another in the order of battle.
THE firſt ſquadron, which is commanded by the Admiral him-
felf, ought to carry the mark of diſtinction at the main top-gallant
maſt head, where the first Admiral carries his own flag or broad
pendant; and all the fhips of that fquadron are to have common
pendants at the fame place without a vane.
THE fecond fquadron is to carry the diſtinguiſhing mark at the
fore top-gallant maft head, where the fecond or Rear-Admiral
carries his own broad pendant; and all the fhips under his command
are to have common pendants at the fame maft's head, but without
vanes.
THE third fquadron, in fhort, is to carry the mark of diſtinction
at the mizen top-gallant maſt head, in the fame form and manner
as has been explained of the two former fquadrons.
慧
​THE
NAVAL
225
TACTICS.
THE three fquadrons of a fleet ought to be equal in point of
numbers; and the ſhips ftronger or weaker, large or fmall, ought
to be diſtributed equally throughout the three fquadrons, in order
that the one may be able to oppoſe the enemy as effectually as the
other. For, in certain cafes, it will happen fo that fuch fquadron
as was to have the van will needs be forced to be placed in the rear;
and when the fquadrons are of the fame ftrength, their ſtations become
indifferent, and fewer evolutions are confequently required; which
is always a great advantage in prefence of the enemy.
The floops,
fire-fhips, hofpital-fhips, victuallers, and ftore-ſhips, are to be
poſted to windward of the fleet; becauſe, in that pofition, they can
eafily veer on the fhips which fupport them, and are in a better
fituation to obey the fignals which may be made to them. Befides,
there will always be fome frigates of war on the wings, to windward
of the van and rear of the convoy, to look out, and keep theſe veffels
in their ſtations.
WHEN the fleet ſhall be ranged in order of battle in preſence of
the enemy, all the ſhips unfit for action, are to be placed out of the
range of the guns, on the other fide of the enemy, and as far diftant
from the repeating-frigates as thefe repeaters are from the fleet.
THE fire-fhips and frigates are to be to windward, if the fleet in
the action has the weather gage of the enemy; but, if the fleet has
the lee gage, they are to keep a-head of the Admiral of their reſpective
divifions, no farther than to be able, by tacking, to fetch them
eafily.
IN the order of retreat, the fleet being formed on the ſtarboard
and larboard lines of bearing, and including between them the obtufe
angle of 135 degrees, the veffels of the convoy are to keep a league
a-head of the fleet, in order not to obftruct them in their ma-
· nœuvres.
In the order of convoy in three columns, the Admiral of each
divifion is to have his repeating-frigates a little a-head of his divifion
to
226
AN ESSAY ON
to windward; and, to leeward, in the intervals of the columns.
During the action, they are to be on the beams of their respective
Admirals, out of gun-fhot of the enemy, and on the other fide of
him, to repeat the fignals with promptitude and exactneſs.
ARTICLE I.
Of the order of convoy.
THE order of convoy is that which a fleet holds in making a
ftraight courſe; the ſhips being all in the wake one of another,
ſteering on the ſame point of the compaſs, and forming a right line.
If the fleet be numerous, they may be divided into three columns,
which are to be ranged parallel to each other, that of the Admiral
occupying the middle, and fteering all three the fame courſe.
THE order of convoy ſhould be formed fo as to keep the ſhips
as much as poffible cloſe to one another; that they may protect
without obftructing each other in the courſe of their navigation,
which ought to be the moſt rapid poffible.
ARTICLE II.
Of the order of failing.
-
THE order of failing is generally held when the enemy is ex-
pected to be met with. This order is to be ſuch as may, with the
greateſt eaſe and celerity, be changed for that of battle, keeping the
fleet at the ſame time as much collected as poffible, in order that
the ſhips may mutually protect and affift each other, without lofing
any thing of their headway; for, it is neceflary that this order of
failing ſhould contribute to accelerate the fteering of the whole
fleet.
'
ARTICLE
NAVAL TACTICS.
227
1
th
ARTICLE III.
Of the order of battle.
THE order of battle is to be preſerved in the preſence of the
enemy.
It ought to be formed ſo that the hips may reciprocally protect
and ſupport one another; preſerving, nevertheleſs, the neceffary
diſtance for maneuvering eafily during the engagement, and can-
nonading the enemy with facility, without expofing each other, or
committing miſtakes while they are engaged.
RTICLE
IV.
Of the ftarboard and larboard lines of bearing.
THERE are two lines when clofe hauled, diftinguiſhed by the
Starboard and larboard lines of bearing. The line by the wind on
the ſtarboard tack, called the ftarboard line of bearing, is when the
ſhips, whether failing or lying-to, are fo fituated with reſpect to
each other, that the bowfprit of the one ſhould exactly point to the
ſtern of the headmoſt throughout the whole line, preſerving all the
fame bearing, and hauling their wind clofe with the ftarboard tacks
on board.
THE line by the wind on the larboard tack, or the larboard line
of bearing, is the fame with reſpect to the ſhips reſpective ſituation
to each other, except they haul their wind clofe with their oppofite
tacks on board.
THE order of failing of a fleet, on one of the lines of bearing, is
that which they hold in going from the wind, preſerving the fame
direction, with refpect to each other, as on one of the lines of
bearing. A numerous fleet is divided into ſquadrons; and every
fquadron is ranged in the order of failing on the fame tack as the
divifion of the Admiral, and ſtanding on the fame courfe with him.
ARTICLE
G g
228
AN ESSAY ON
ARTIĊ LE V.
Of the advantages and difadvantages of fleets which come to action with
the lee or weather gage.
THE order of battle is that which a fleet maintains when ranged
on a line cloſe by the wind, on the ftarboard or larboard tack, and
all the ſhips lying-to, or ftanding-on, at a cable's length diſtance
more or less from each other, in order that, during the action, they
may have a ſpace ſufficient for manoeuvering, and to avoid running
foul on the ſhip a-head, ſhould ſhe ſuddenly have any of her maſts
or yards ſhot away, as it is often the cafe in fighting with the fails
filled. We mention a cable's length, or one hundred fathoms
between every two fhips, becauſe that ſpace is fufficient for ma-
noeuvering with facility, and to avoid running foul of the veffel a-head,
by paffing to windward or to leeward of her, were ſhe unluckily
difabled in the midft of the fire and fmoak. Befides, with this
diſtance, the ſhips are always in a fituation reciprocally to fupport
each other, as the interval is not great, and the line not exceflively
prolonged; for, you must take it as a maxim, that there is as much
danger in being too much extended as in being too cloſe in the order
of battle.
As fleets never ought to engage but in a line, and cloſe to the
wind, it reſults that one of the lines muft neceffarily be to wind-
ward of the other; and that both lines have confequently their
peculiar advantages and diſadvantages reſulting from their reciprocal
pofitions in reſpect to the wind. This is what we are going to
examine here candidly, in expoſing fairly whatever is favourable or
unfavourable in either of theſe two pofitions.
THE fleet which has the weather gage of the other, has the
advantage of determining the time and diſtance of the action; they
may board if they think proper, and follow the enemy cloſe when-
ever he gives way; they may eafily traverſe the enemy's line, fend
fire-fhips to their difabled veffels, and detachments to cut off the
van
1
NAVAL
229
TACTICS.
van or rear of the fleet to leeward; finally, they are never annoyed
by the fire or fmoak, as the wind carries it to the enemy. So much
for the advantages which the fleet to windward draws from that
pofition.
Now, the difadvantages of being to windward, are an inability to
quit the fight when once engaged, without being obliged to paſs
through the enemy's line, which is extremely dangerous; becauſe,
being already very much injured fince they are obliged to fly, they
muſt expect to be ſtill more fo; and, as they have no longer in their
power to form the order of retreat, it follows this manœuvre is
abſolutely a deſperate one. If the fleet to windward tack all together
in order to get off, the line to leeward may do the ſame, after having
raked the weather fhips in ftays, and follow them on the other
tack, with the advantage of having gained the wind of the center
and rear diviſions of the flying line. If it blows freſh, it is feldom
the caſe that the weather ſhips have their lower deck guns fufficiently
elevated; whence it reſults that the fhip being a little inclined on
her fide, the guns often run out again at their ports, after being
fired, which very much retards the fervice of the artillery, fince
the guns are obliged to be bowſed in again every time for loading.
Another diſadvantage is, that fuch of the ſhips as are fo difabled as
to be obliged to quit the line, cannot eaſily do it, becauſe in veering,
for want of being able to tack, they fall between the two lines,
where they are raked a-head, and by that means compleatly put in
diſorder. But, ſhould they be fortunate enough to be able to finiſh
their evolution, it is flill very difficult for them, difabled as they
are, to get to windward of their line; and very often they fall foul
of the next ſhips a-ftern to them, which have it hardly in their
power to prevent that accident, on account of the fire and fmoak,
eſpecially if the line is much contracted: and, fhould thefe
per-
ceive it, and try to avoid being run foul of by falling back on
their next ſhip a-ftern, and fo on thus fucceffively; it might refult
that from one to the other a great part of the fleet being obliged to
Gg 2
manœuver,
K
230
AN ESSAY ON
manœuver, their fire would leffen, and very often ceafe, by their
covering each other; when the diſorder increaſes, and all is loft if
the enemy take advantage of this critical moment.
BUT theſe inconveniences may be partly prevented, by having
the diſabled ſhips quickly towed out of the line by the boats of the
fleet, which, for that very purpofe, fhould always be hoifted out
from each ſhip before the engagement begins. Otherwiſe,
if the fhips in the weather line, not being too cloſe, have the
neceffary ſpace to obſerve what paffes a-head of them, and to ma-
næeuver, they ought to range themſelves to leeward of the difabled
veffel, in order to cover her, and approach nearer to the
the other ſhips bearing up alfo together to preſerve the line.
enemy; all
THE fleet on the lee gage have the advantage of ferving with
facility and effect their lower tiers of cannon, in all weathers proper
for fleets to come to action: they can quit the engagement at plea-
fure: their diſabled ſhips are at liberty to leave their ſtations without
difficulty, if neceffity requires it; thus they find themſelves under
cover by the reft, where they may foon be affifted by the frigates.
In this pofition, they can form the order of retreat with more
promptitude, or continue the action as long as convenient. In
fhort, the lee line of battle can alſo, if fuperior in number, double
the enemy, by making ſome of the ſhips in the van or rear to tack,
and put one of the extremities of the enemy's line between two
fires.*
ITs difadvantages are, being very much annoyed by the fmoak,
and a continued fhower of fire from the wads falling on board,
repelled by the wind; which, if not attended to, may be productive
of very great accidents. The fhips of the line to leeward cannot
attempt to board thoſe of the other, whatever may be their inclina-
tion for it: they can hardly do more than accepting the battle,
without
S
* And, if they are formed in time, they have the advantage of cannonading
the enemy while bearing down to the attack.
NAVAL
231
TACTICS.
without being able to determine either time or distance. It is but
with a great deal of difficulty they can avoid being boarded, or pre-
vent their line being broken, if the weather fhips are bent upon
doing it; and their fire-fhips very ſeldom are of uſe.
IT refults from all that has been faid, that the difadvantages of
the weather line are leſs numerous than thoſe of the lee; but, like-
wife, that they are more dangerous; and the advantages of that line
are, in general and in particular, more effential, eſpecially when
ſtronger by a few ſhips; for, it is only neceffary to keep in the line
a ſufficient number of fhips to oppoſe the fame number in the line
to leeward of them, and form a detachment of the furplus to attack
the ſhips of the rear of the enemy, and, by bringing them between
two fires, oblige them to give way. Then, theſe ſhips puſhing
forward from one to another, and being joined and affifted by fuch
of their comrades to windward as have juſt got rid of their op-
ponents, will foon be enabled to put the reft in confufion. I, there-
fore, conceive it is extremely advantageous to have the weather gage,
and that, unlefs compelled by fome very unfortunate circumftance;
a fleet ought not abſolutely to accept the battle while the enemy has
the advantage of the wind.
ARTICLE VI.
Of the order of retreat.
THE order of retreat is never formed but in prefence of the
enemy, and when he is abfolutely too ftrong. That order ought
therefore to be fo formed, that the retreating fquadron may have at
the fame time the greateſt poffible force to oppoſe to the purſuing
fleet; in order to put the fhips of war, and the convoy, if there
be any, in the moſt advantageous pofition against the attacks
of a victorious foe, and, at the fame time, to fly with celerity and
without breaking, in oppofing every where a fufficient reſiſtance to
prevent the fine failing chafers of the enemy from penetrating. The
retreating fleet muſt be able alſo with promptitude, and without
confufion,
!
*232
AN ESSAY
ΟΝ
confuſion, to paſs from their preſent order of retreat to that of battle
on both tacks.
THE order of retreat is that which holds à fleet flying before the
enemy, the ſhips being ranged on the ftarboard and larboard lines
of bearing, and forming with thoſe two lines an obtufe angle of
135°, the Admiral, or the largeſt ſhip, being at the angular
point; fo that the veffels on the ſtarboard wing of the ſhip at the
angle will be ranged in order by the wind on the larboard line of
bearing, while thofe on the larboard wing will be clofe hauled on
the ſtarboard tack and line of bearing.*
ARTIC
CLE
Of the naval Square.
Fig. 21ft. (EvoL. PL. II.) Order of failing in three columns, the ſhips being
cloſe hauled on the larboard tack, the columns abreaſt of each other.
VII.
LET the fquare ABCD be formed and traced on the middle of
the quarter deck; and let the line EF be drawn alfo, which will
divide the ſhip equally in two, precifely in the direction of her keel,
with the point. E towards the head: then, drawing the diagonals
AC and AB, theſe two lines will fhew the direction on which the
ſhip will lie after going about from the ſtarboard or larboard tacks,
running on GE; for, the angles DGE and CG E are each 135°, or
twelve
* In Fig. 1ft (EVOL. PL. I.) A B C fhews the angle of retreat and the ſhips
on the two lines of bearing, failing right before the wind w; the convoy are
included between the wings AB and AC, that they may be protected from the
purſuing fleet one view of this plate will, it is apprehended, ferve to give a
perfect idea of this order.
N. B. Neither this note, nor the plate which refers to it, are to be found
in the original of Mr. BOURDE': they are both the product of an Engliſh Officer,
a great admirer of our French Author, and who, with five more Plates hereafter
to come, communicated them to the Publiſher as an illuſtration not unneceffary
to the understanding of the text; wherefore we have given both the note and
the plate accefs here with pleaſure, and numbered the figure of this plate, 1, that it
ſhould not interfere with Mr. BOURDE's original plates, the next of which bears
N° 21.
:
NAVAL
233
TACTIC S.
twelve
points of the compaſs, equal to the two courfes when cloſe
hauled with the fame wind w: fo that AC will be the larboard
diagonal, becauſe the ſhip will have her larboard tacks on board,
after ſtaying and running on the courfe which that line indicated
before her going about; and BD will be the ftarboard diagonal,
becauſe the ſhip will have the ſtarboard tacks on board in failing on
the direction defigned by that line before the evolution.
FOR greater conveniency, let the two lines GH and GI be drawn,
making with GE an angle of 67º, 30', equal to fix points, on which,
admitting what is commonly practifed, the ſhips are always fup-
poſed to lie, when cloſe hauled; for, ſhips always ſhould, for greater
'velocity, be within 79° only; or, when keeping more to windward,
55º, as has been fhewn in the first part of this work.
WHEN, being clofe hauled, you wiſh to keep your ſhip in the
line of the wind, you fhall continue her exactly in the tendency of
GH or GI; but if you wish to have it exactly on the beam, you
muſt keep her in the bearing A B or DC.
;
THIS figure is extremely convenient for the Officer of the watch
for whenever he wishes to know if he is in his poft, in the order of
convoy cloſe hauled, or large, he will be able to ſee from the points
F and E if the ſhips of his column anfwer in the direction of his
courſe FE, while the line A B or DC will indicate to him thoſe which
ought to be on his beam in the other columns.
Fig. 22d. (EvoL. PL. III.) Order of failing in three columns, clofe hauled
by the wind; the columns coinciding in the direction of the wind, in order to
beat to windward with greater facility.
IF the fleet is in three columns cloſe hauled to ply to windward,
every ſhip will be obliged, for greater celerity in the evolution, in
fucceffion, to hold herſelf in the direction of the wind, with reſpect
to the veffels which are to coincide with her in the other columns,
which are to windward or to leeward; and the lines GH or GI
from the point G, will ferve for the Officer of the watch to ſee if he
is
$234
AN ESSAY ON
is in his poft; and he will be able to diftinguiſh, at the fame time,
if the ſhips of his column correfpond with his own directions GE
and GF.
Fig. 23d. (EvoL. PL. IV.) Order of failing in three columns, on the larboard
line of bearing, the ſhips being clofe hauled on the other tack.
IF the fleet, being in three columns, keep all together the wind
on the other tack, the ſhips being in the principle exactly abreaſt
of each other, the diagonals from the point G will ferve the Officer
of the watch to fee if he is in his poft: for, the fhips of his column
ought to anſwer one another in the direction of one of the diagonals
AC or BD, while thoſe of the other columns will be found directly
in the bearing BD or AC.
Fig. 24th. (EvoL. PL. V.) Order of failing in three columns, on the ftarboard
line of bearing, the fleet plying to windward, and the fhips going about
fucceffively when the columns are right abreaſt one of another.
In the fleet is in three columns, beating to windward, the van
fhips exactly abreaſt of each other (inftead of being in the direction
of the wind, as we recommend it to be done in fuch a cafe), the van
K of the lee column having tacked, the van L of the center columa
is to ftand on, till he brings the headmoft ſhip к of the lee file
(which is on the other tack), in the direction of the diagonal B D to
leeward of him: then he is to heave in ſtays, while the leading ſhip
M, of the weather column, ftands on till fhe brings in the direction
of BD the head moft ſhip L of the center file, which is alfo in the
ſame bearing with reſpect to K, the van fhip of the lee column,
fince they are both on the other tack; and then ſhe is to tack like
the other two, and the three fquadrons will follow, exactly in fuc-
ceffron, the flag Officer of their refpective divifions.
ARTICLE
VIII.
Of the counter-march, or manœuvre in fucceffion.
THE Counter-march, or what in the British Navy is called
manœuvre in fucceffion, is when a fleet, ranged in one of the orders
of
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Fig.234
EVOLUTIONS PL.IV.
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Publish'd 25th Aug 1787 by S. Hooper
NAVAL
235
TACTICS.
of failing, and ſtanding on in the fame line, caufes the fame ma-
nœuvre to be performed fucceffively by all the fhips, as they arrive
at the fame point of the wake of the van ſhip of the whole flect in
one fingle line, or of the van ſhip of each particular divifion, when
divided into ſquadrons: fo that a fleet tacks or veers in fucceffion,
bears away or comes to the wind in fucceffion, when all the ſhips of
every line execute one after another the fame movement, on the ſame
point of the wake of the leading ſhip of the file.
-
General obfervations on fucceffive evolution.
WHEN the ſhips are at a hundred or two hundred fathoms
diſtance from each other, and the next ſhip a-head heaves in ſtays,
it will be neceffary that the ſhip which is to tack immediately after
in her wake, fhould always, and in all cafes, when come to a
certain point, overſhoot a little that point, that ſhe may not incom-
mode the ſhip a-head of her, and which is head to wind in her
manœuvre; for, very often, it happens that the hundred or two
hundred fathoms are fooner run over, than the veſſel a-head has
been able to fill her fails on the other tack.
REMARKS.
Ir a fhip miffes ftays, when a fleet or a column is about getting
on the other tack in fucceffion, ſhe is immediately to file again on
the fame tack and make fail with all poffible diſpatch, taking care
to keep as cloſe as fhe can to the wind, and not to fall off to leeward
too much. By theſe means fhe will get a-head, and to windward
of the ſhips which follow and are a little to leeward of her; or
they will go and perform fucceffively their evolutions in the wake
of the ſhips which are already on the other tack, in ſtanding on a
little farther than they would have done, if the ſhip a-head had
not miffed ſtays.
Hh
BY
236
AN ESSAY ON
By theſe means the movements of the fleet will not be diſturbed,
which is of very great confequence; becauſe, the ſhip which
has failed in her evolution, will therefore pay more attention to her
manœuvre, in order to avoid running foul of her companions. She
will find herſelf to windward of thoſe which follow her, and be
confequently able to return fooner to her ftation, by making all
poffible fail to windward of her line.
SUCH a circumſtance as this is fufficient to make Officers fenfible
how important it is for them to pay a proper attention firſt to their
manœuvre, that their evolution may not fail, and then to that
of their ſhip a-head, that they may be able to act according to her
movements in all poffible cafes, in order to avoid thoſe accidents
which may happen from a want of attention in thoſe who have the
management of ſhips in a ſquadron.
CHAPTER II.
Of the manner of forming orders in general.
ARTICLE.
с
I..
How to form the order of convoy on a line.
To form the order of convoy, when the fleet is in no particular
order of failing, the leading fhip is to veer fufficiently for the others
to get in her wake and ſteer the fame courfe fhe holds. Generally,
it is the commanding Officer who takes this poft, when the fquadron
is not numerous.
THAT the order may be the fooner formed, every fhip of the
fleet or ſquadron fhall chafe at the fame time that which is to be
a-head of her in the line, taking care to maneuver in fuch a manner
as to avoid running foul of thofe which crofs her fore-foot in en-
deavouring to join their leaders in the file. Therefore, fuch as are
GE
1
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NAVAL
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TACTIC S.
237
to leeward of others fhall take care not to perfift obftinately in
weathering them; but, they muft back, or go a-ftern if necef-
fary, by keeping away a little more. Such as ſhall already be in
the column, and are to be more a-ftern, muſt bring-to till they are
in their poſts, or ſtand on under a very eaſy fail, that each ſhip in
particular may contribute to the celerity of forming the order.
ARTICLE
II.
To form the order of convoy in three columns.
To form this order with celerity, the leaders of each of the three
divifions are to poft themſelves in a line right abreaſt one of another:
and, in order to render the formation of the order more eaſy, they
muſt take care to keep a proper distance between themſelves, ac-
cording to the length of the columns, which will accelerate the
progreſs of the difpofition. Then every fhip of each particular
fquadron, chafing that which is next a-head of her in the file, will
come and take their ſtations a-ftern of another at the rear of the
leading ſhip of the divifion, and fteer directly after her.
THIS order, which in the practice is very eafily held, has the
advantage of keeping the fleet cloſe and connected, without caufing
any delay in its progrefs towards the intended deſtination; becauſe
the beſt failers can regulate their velocity by that of thoſe which are
inferior to them in failing, and, per contra, theſe on the other hand
may, with a little attention, carry as much fail as the weather will
admit, by which means all imaginable courfes may, without
breaking, be fteered.
ARTICLE
III.
To form the order of failing in one column.
To form this order, the ſhip which is to be farthermoſt of all to
leeward is to bear away, if too much to windward, and ſteer the
Hh 2
courfe
238
AN ESSAY ON
courfe which is directed to her; then all the other ſhips, chafing
each in particular that which is to be a-head of her in the line of
battle, will come and take their poſts to windward, on either of the
two cloſe hauled lines of bearing on which the order is to be formed;
fo that all the ſhips being now in their proper ftations, they will
find themſelves ranged what is called chequer-wife,* and the whole
fleet will be in compleat order.
Another Method.
THE leading ſhip, being to windward of all, is to keep her luff
under an eaſy fail, while all the reft make all poffible fail and turn
up to come and take their poſts in her wake: when each of them
has thus attained her ſtation, the fleet may ſteer what courſe may be
thought proper, and, by thefe means, they ftill get to windward in
forming.
IV.
ARTICLE
To form the order of failing in three columns.
If the fleet be confiderable, or if the Admiral wiſhes it to form
the order of failing in three columns, the three leading ſhips of the
divifions are to take their pofts a-breaſt of each other, in keeping
their wind under an eaſy fail, that is to fay, perpendicularly to their
columns when they fhall be formed. Then, the fhips of each
fquadron, making fail, will come and range themſelves a-ftern of
them in their proper ftations in the file, and keep the fame courſe
as they preferving, with refpect to the direction of the fhips one
from another, the fame line of bearing on which the order ſhall be
formed, whatever may be the courſe the fleet is to ſteer.
OBSERVATION S.
As this manner is not the most favourable for plying to wind-
ward, it will be neceffary that the two weather-columns fhould
make
* The French call this order en échiquier, which, for want of a more proper
term in English, we have rendered here chequer-wife.

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Publish'd 25th Aug 1787 by S. Hooper.
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NAVAL TACTI C S.
make fail till they are out of the direction of the wind of the file to
leeward, which, till this is effected, is to leffen its rate of failing.
ARTICLE
A principle for finding the distance of the columns as foon as their
length is known.
V.
Fig. 25th. (EvoL. PL. VI.) Order of failing in three columns on the larboard
tack; the ſhips ſtanding on large all together.
To determine, in either of the orders of failing, the diſtance of
the columns, and the poft of each fhip, the number of veffels which
compofe it, and the length of each column, muſt be known. Then
raiſe CG perpendicular to CF, making them equal to each other, in
order to draw F G, that you may make FHCF; and thus you will
have GH as the diſtance of the columns from A to B, and from B
to c: fo that the lines AE and BF, in the order of failing, being.
drawn from the rear of the weather column to the van of the leeward
column AD, will be perpendicular to the direction of the wind w.
D. EMONSTRATIO N..
SINCE the van F and the rear B are equally to windward, BF is
perpendicular to the courſe of the wind w, of which the angle
BFC, equal to the angle BCF, is 22°, 30'; therefore E CF is alfo
the half of the angle C F G of the right angled ifofceles-triangle CGF:
therefore the triangles BHF and BCF are fimilar and equal, and
therefore the line B C is equal to BH or HG; q. e. d.
COROLLARY.
IT follows that, to have the diſtance of the columns of which
the length is known, the fquare of the length of one column muſt
be taken, and then double it, in order to have the fquare of the
hypothenuſe FG of the right angled ifofceles-triangle GCF: then,
from
.
•
240
O N
AN ESSAY
from that fum take the fquare root by decimals, in order to come as
near it as poffible: then, taking from that root the length of one
column, what remains fhall be the distance between the columns.
For example.;´in fig. 25th there are 'four ſhips in a column at
one hundred fathoms diſtance from each other, and forty-fix fathoms
are allowed for the length of each fhip from the jib boom end to
the fly of the enfign; fo that every column will be 484 fathoms
long, the fquare of which will be 234256, and the double 468512;
which will give the neareſt root, 684 fathoms, from which taking
484, there will remain 200 fathoms for the diſtance requifite
between the columns. This rule will ferve as a formula for all the
files, however long they may be.
ARTICLE VI.
To form the order of battle.
To form the order of battle, the ſhip which is to lead muſt bear
away
till he is to leeward of the reft of the fleet, when ſhe will
haul cloſe by the wind under her three top-fails; while all the other
ſhips, chafing each before them thoſe which are to be a-head of
them in the line, fhall come with all poffible expedition to take their
ſtation a-ſtern one of another, and keep their luff directly in the
wake of their feconds a-head.
EVERY ſhip ſhall take care to keep exactly at a cable's length,
that is to ſay, one hundred fathoms diſtance from the ſhip a-head
of her and to preſerve that regularity in the diſtance, the beſt
failers muſt have the attention to moderate their head-way, and make
it conformable to that of ſuch as do not fail fo well, which on their
fide are not to neglect what can poffibly accelerate their progreſs,
that the diſpoſition may be uniform, and the diſtance between each
ſhip ſtrictly equal throughout the whole extent of the line of
battle.
ARTICLE
NAVAL TACTIC S.
241
,
ARTICLE
VII.
To form the order of retreat.
THE Commander in Chief, or the heaviest fhip, which ſhall be
deſtined to make the angular point, is to bring-to a little to leeward
of the other ſhips of the fleet, which by keeping away will come next
and place themſelves in their poſts, at equal diſtances on the wings;
fo that thoſe to the left of the fhip at the angle, are to range them-
felves cloſe to the wind on the ftarboard tack, with refpect to one
another, and thoſe on the right of the fame ſhip are to put them-
felves in order on the larboard tack: when the two leeward-moft
ſhips, and the moſt diſtant from the ſhip at the angular point, ſhall
be at their poſts on the different tacks forming the van of each
wing, the order is finiſhed, and the fleet may fteer the fame courfe
with the Admiral. The heavy going fhips ought always to make
every effort to encreaſe their rapidity of failing, and fuch as have of
themſelves a ſuperior progreffive movement are to regulate their fail
by the velocity of the reft, taking the greatest care not to fwerve
from the order.
A general Obfervation.
In all cafes and in all circumſtances, the ſhip a-ſtern is to keep
an eye on the veffel a-head, in order not to conftrict her manœuvres,
and to avoid running foul of her; therefore, it is the bufinefs of
the Officer of the watch always to maneuver conformably to the
movements of the fhip a-head of his, without attending to her
which is a-ftern, whofe bufinefs it is to have likewife the fame
attention to the veffel a-head of her.
THIS mode of keeping a look out, and of maintaining the ſtation ·
one is in, facilitates the movements and prevents accidents; becauſe,.
as every-one obferves the fhip a-head of him attentively, it follows
that
THE CONTENT THE
42
AN ESSAY ON
that all the veſſels execute their evolution in conformity to that
which is a-head of them, and thus no miſtake can happen. On the
other hand, general evolutions never take place till after all the fleet,
or divifion, which is to make the movement, is informed of it by a
fignal, which is always repeated by the frigates and the flags of the
divifions.
CHAPTER III.
Manner of changing orders.
·
ARTIC CLE
I.
To change from the order of convoy, in one line, to the order of battle,
continuing on the fame tack.
THE headmoſt ſhip is to haul cloſe by the wind on the fame
tack, and the reſt of the fleet are to make the fame movement fuc-
ceffively, obferving not to be more or lefs diftant from one another
than the length of a cable, in order that during the firing in the en-
gagement the ſhips may have the neceffary ſpace to manoeuver, and
avoid the accidents which the lofs of mafts or yards may occafion.
Whenever this method fhall be obferved, the line of battle cannot
mifs being foon formed.
ARTICLE II.
To change from the order of convoy, in a line, to that of battle on
the other tack.
THE headmoſt ſhip is to veer and to come to the wind on the
other tack: then, all the veffels of the fleet are to perform the
fame manœuvre in fucceffion. By this method the order cannot
fail being very rapidly changed.
Another
NAVAL
243
TACTICS.
Another Method.
AFTER having formed the order of battle on the fame tack, as
has been fhewn before, the van fhip is to tack; and all the fhips of
the fleet are to follow in fucceffion, to form the order of battle on
'the other tack.
OBSERVATIO N.
IF you are ſteering a courſe in the order of convoy, four points
large, the order of battle on the other tack may be formed at once,
by all the ſhips veering or ſtaying together.
ARTICLE
III.
To change from the order of convoy, in three columns, to the order of
battle on the fame tack.
WHEN the fleet ſhall have the wind on the beam, between cloſe
hauled and eight points large, the ſhips of the leeward-moſt column
are all to bring-to at the fame time, while thoſe of the other two
columns, continuing their courfe, will come and place themſelves
on either of the cloſe hauled lines of bearing of the column which
is lying-to, in obferving that the weather column is to make all
poffible fail; and when come to that point, the headmoſt veffel of it
is to take the lead in hauling cloſe by the wind, with every thing
fet: when that is done, all the ſhips of that column are to follow
in fucceffion.
WHEN the center fhip of the weather file ſhall have paffed the
point where the leading fhip of her divifion began the evolution,
the van of the middle column which is lying-to on the ſtarboard or
larboard line of bearing (which ever of them it may be that they are
going to ſteer on), and conſequently in the wake of the weather
column which is filing off, muſt now file and ſtand on by the wind,
I i
as
244
ESSAY ON
AN
as muſt alſo all the other fhips which are to follow her fucceffively,
keeping away large one after another on their first courſe, to get
into the wake of their leader. The lee column is to follow in the
ſame manner, after having filed when the center ſhip of the middle
column is cloſe by the wind; and, when the laft fhip of that file is
in her poft, the evolution is finished, and the order of battle
formed.*
If the wind be more than eight points, or right aft, the column
which is to form the van guard in the order of battle, is inſtantly to
begin manœuvering, by hauling fucceffively the wind with all fails
fet; while the two others, continuing their courſe, will
put them-
felves fucceffively by the wind, on one of the two lines of bearing
which is to be followed, and in the wake of the weather column
which is filing off, when, and at which point, they are to make
the fame movement in fucceffion, as foon as their leaders fhall have
arrived there under a very eafy fail, in order to compleat the line of
battle.
IF
* To illuftrate this by a figure, let us fuppofe A B C D (Fig. 2, EvoL. PL. VII.)
to repreſent a ſquadron in the order of convoy in three columns, which is their firft
pofition; then EFGHI will fhew the fhips in the fecond pofition, when the
middle column has brought-to on the leeward-moft line of bearing from G to K
and from H to L, while the veffels of the weather file ftretch on and haul their
wind in fucceffion at the point E, to form the line of battle from E to I: E fhews
the center fhip of the weather column having hauled by the wind, K the leading
fhip of the middle file, filing and ſtanding-on cloſe hauled, while the remaining
fhips of her divifion bear up fucceffively on their first courſe, from L to K, to
haul their wind in fucceffion, at the point K, in the wake of their leader: and,
when the center fhip.M, of the middle column has hauled her wind, the van
ſhip of the lee column at G is to file, and the others are to go through the fame
manoeuvre as the middle file, to compleat the order of battle.
If the wind be exactly eight points large, the two lee columns are to bring-to,
both at the fame time, and obferve they are not to file, nor come fucceffively to
the wind, till the center fhip of each column to windward has filed off to follow
the leader.
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NAVAL TACTIC S.
I the fleet be cloſe up on a wind, the weather column may
lie-to with their main top-fails to the maft, while the two other
files, having tacked both together, will come and ſtation themſelves
in their wake, by running two points large on the other tack, in
order by both columns to heave again about afterwards together and
file, after having poſted themſelves in the wake of the column which
is lying-to.*
You may get fomewhat more to windward, by making the two
lee columns keep cloſe by it as foon as they fhall be both on the
other tack, while the veffels of the weather one fhall continue to
keep their wind; and as foon as they ſhall have in their wake thoſe
of the other two columns, they will all at once heave in ſtays and
follow the van diviſion.
ANOTHER method again may be made ufe of, viz. by making
the middle column lie-to, while the weather one fhall take poft in
the van by bearing away two points large, and the lee file fhall run
alſo two other points large on the other tack, after having heaved
about, both at the fame time, to take their ſtation in the wake of the
column lying-to, which is itſelf now to tack with all the others
together.
In short, when the cafe is urgent, you may make the lee column
bring-to, while the two weather files fhall run together two
I i2
points
}
* THAT the idea of this movement may be better elucidated, let us ſuppoſe
ABCDEF (Fig. 3, EVOL. PL.VIII.) to repreſent the order of convoy in three columns;
then, the weather column A B having brought-to, the middle and lee columns
CD and E F tack all together to fetch the wake of the file to windward, which is
executed by the middle column running two points large on the parallels between
CK and CD, till they arrive all together at the points K, L, M, G, in the wake of
the weather column, where they are all at the fame time to heave about and
bring-to on the other tack, to wait the arrival of the lee column, which is by
this time to have reached the points n, o, p, i, in preferving their courſe towards
the extremity of their parallel N, O, P, 1, where they are to tack to compleat the
order of battle, as is exhibited from A to 1.
1
246
AN ESSAY ON
points large, to take one after the other their poft a-head of the
column lying-to.
ARTICLE IV.
To change from the order of convoy, in three columns, to the order of
battle on the other tack.
THE fquadron might be put firſt in order of battle, on the fame
tack; then, making the veffels ſtay in fucceffion, they would be
all at once in order of battle on the other tack. But, as this method
might be thought too long, the time of evolution may be dimi-
niſhed, by making the two weather columns bring-to when the
wind blows between the direction of cloſe hauled and eight points
large, while the fhips of the lee column fhall veer in fucceffion and
keep their wind on the other tack. And, when the center fhip of
that column ſhall have filed off, thoſe of the middle column fhall
file all at the fame time, the leader of that column running exactly
with the wind right aft, with the remainder of his ſhips following
him in fucceffion, till they are in the wake of the column which is
filing off. Then, that leader of the middle column is to haul by the
wind along with all the ſhips of his divifion, which are to follow
him in fucceffion; and when the center fhip of that column fhall
have alfo filed off, the weather fquadron is to file in turn, go
through the fame movement, and thereby to compleat the formation
of the order of battle.
If you are cloſe up on a wind, the line of battle on the other
IF
tack may
be formed by the weather column heaving in ſtays in ſuc-
ceffion, and keeping the wind on the other board, while the two
other ſquadrons, continuing their courfe, will come and execute the
ſame manœuvre in fucceffion, each of them at their feveral points.
of the wake of the van divifion, in order to compleat the order of
battle.
{
1
ARTICLE
NAVAL
24
TACTIC S.
ARTICLE
V.
To change from the order of convoy to that of retreat.
IF the fleet or fquadron be in the order of convoy in one line,
they are firſt to form in the order of battle on the fame tack; then
the van ſhip is to bear away four points, and all the fleet following
cloſe hauled, they will come to file off in fucceffion at the fame
point in the van fhip's wake, till the center fhip arrives at the angle
where the evolution began. Then, the order of retreat will be
formed, and any courfe whatever may be fteered, fince the two
wings will be equal and in order on the ſtarboard and larboard lines
of bearing, forming confequently between them an angle of 135
degrees.
If the fleet be in the order of convoy in three columns, they are.
to form the order of battle on the fame tack, as has been fhewn
before; then the van ſhip is to bear up four points, and all the fleet,
following by the wind, fhall perform the fame manoeuvre in filing
off in fucceffion, as far as the center fhip of the column, in order.
to form the order of retreat on the two cloſe hauled lines of bearing..
ARTICLE
VI.
To change from the order of battle to that of retreat.
THIS evolution is the fame as the preceding; for the head fhip.
is to bear away four points, and half the fleet are to perform the
fame manœuvre in fucceffion as far as the center fhip, which is to
form the angular point in the order of retreat, which will be then
formed in two wings ranged on the two cloſe hauled lines of
bearing of the ftarboard and larboard tacks, according to the
definition.
ARTICLE
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE
VII.
To change from the order of battle to the order of convoy, in one
line, on the fame tack.
THE Van ſhip is to bear away as far as the intended courſe, and
the reft are to execute the fame manoeuvre in fucceffion; fo that,
when the rear ſhip ſhall have made the fame movement, the evo-
lution will be compleated, and the order of convoy formed on the
fame tack.
ARTICLE
VIII.
To change from the order of battle to the order of convoy, in one line,
on the other tack.
THE van fhip is to tack and run one point large on the other
fide, till ſhe can bear up as far as the courfe which the fleet is to
hold, by paffing not a-head but under the ftern of the rear fhip.
All the ſhips are to perform the fame manœuvre at the ſame points,
to change the order and get upon the other tack, all of which will be
compleated when the laſt veffel ſhall ſteer her courſe in the wake of
the ſquadron.
1
OBSERVATION.
THE van ſhip, inſtead of tacking, may veer and run a little time
before the wind, before getting on the other tack: then ſhe will
heave to the wind on the fleet's courfe, without fear of breaking
through the rear. This movement is ſhorter, and to be preferred,
fince the order of convoy is never held to keep by the wind.
3
}
ARTICLE
IX.
To change from the order of battle to the order of convoy, in three
columns, on the fame tack.
THE three van fhips, or leaders of the columns, are to bear up,
together and ſteer on the intended courfe of the fleet; then the ſhips
of
་
NAVAL
TACTIC S.
·24.9
of each ſquadron are to execute the fame manoeuvre in fucceffion,. in
following the fame direction; fo that the three rear fhips, veering
at the fame time in the wake of their respective columns, will.com-
pleat the evolution.
OBSERVATION.
THE Columns will find themſelves too diſtant from each other;
but as there is nothing which diſturbs them, and they have the
wind right aft or very large, it will be eaſy for them to cloſe as much
as may be neceflary.
ARTICLE
X.
To change from the line of battle to the order of convoy, in three
columns, on the other tack.
THE three van or leading fhips of the divifions are to heave in
ſtays at the ſame time, and bear away on the perpendicular of the
wind on the other tack: then the ſhips of each fquadron are to per-
form the ſame manœuvre in fucceffion; and, when the rear ſhips
ſhall have turned about and be in a line with their reſpective
columns, and the leaders of the weather divifions fhall, by
crowding all the fails, have come a-breaſt of the van ſhip of the lee
fquadron, the evolution will be compleated.
OBSERVATION.
If the fleet is to fteer more large than the perpendicular to the
wind, it will be eafily formed, by making the leaders and their
columns bear away in fucceffion, then putting afterwards the files
at the neceffary diſtance from each other.
ARTICLE
XI.
To change from the order of retreat to the order of battle.
As, in the order of retreat, they fly commonly with the wind aft,
the fleet ſhould in that cafe range to the wind all together fix points
on
~250
AN ESSAY ON
on the tack on which they mean to engage; and, immediately
after, the ſame van fhip on the tack of which you have heaved to
the wind, ſhall haul clofe by the wind on the fame fide; then all
that wing filing off on the fame courſe ſhall make the fame move-
ment in ſucceffion, while the other wing,. continuing to run four
points large, will come without any difficulty to form the line all
at once in the wake of the weather wing, which is at that very
inſtant finiſhing to form in the order of battle, in facing the enemy's
ſhips which are attacking.*
•
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*
工
​4™
OBSERVATION S.
IF the fleet which flies is attacked by one detachment only, and
is not very much urged on, the wing attacked is to heave to the
wind fix points on the fame fide as the enemy; and the van ſhip is
at the fame time to haul cloſe by the wind on the fame tack, while
the ſhips of the other wing ſhall have come all together to the wind
on their line, to veer in fucceffion in the wake of the wing which
is attacked, in filing off at the angular point in order that the
enemy may be expoſed to a heavier cannonade, becauſe, as it is eaſy
to conceive, they will be kept longer between two fires, fince the
Thips form fucceffively in order of battle, in the wake of the van
ſhip.
Đạ
REMARKS.
* This being a manoeuvre at once effential and very ingenious, we fhall en-
deavour ftill more to elucidate it in Fig. 4, EvoL. PL. VIII, where, BAC repre-
ſenting an horizontal ſection of the order of retreat before the evolution, the parallels
between AC and B D are thofe on which the fhips of the wing A B fteer, to arrive at
their extremities, at which time they are in the wake of the wing A c, the veſſels of
which have hauled their wind fucceffively from c to E: then, the wing A B being
arrived in the wake of the wing A e (the laft fhip of which has firſt filed off at
the point c), the fhips of that wing are to haul their wind together, and thus
compleatly finiſh the order of battle D E.

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NAVAL
251
TACTICS.
1
1
REMARKS,
If you are preffed on both fides by the enemy, one of the wings
muft run four points large in the order of convoy, all the fhips in
the wake one of another, without any of the veffels going out of
their line of bearing; while the other wing fhall fteer clofe hauled
on the fame tack, and the fhips of that wing come fucceffively into
the wake of the other at the fame point of the angle, where they
are to bear away four points in fucceffion: and, when the laſt ſhip
is come close to the wind, at the point where the evolution began in
the wake of the fleet, which is fteering four points large in the order
of convoy, they are to bring, all at the fame time, their heads to
the oppofite point of the compaſs, by veering or ſtaying, and, by
that mean, they find themfelves at once in the order of battle.
However, I cannot help thinking this evolution will always be
very difficult to execute, when engaged with an enemy who is
really fuperior, or even with one who fhall only think himfelf fuch:
whereas, that which we have given before has certainly the advantage
of being quicker and more practicable, as it is more regular and
more fimple. Befides, the fhips which attack are expofed to the
action of two fires as foon as they begin to form in order of battle;
becauſe, fuch of the ſhips as are coming to the wind, prefent their
fides, while, at the fame time, thoſe who are failing four points
large play upon them alſo the whole of their artillery.
ARTICLE
XII.
To change from the order of retreat to the order of convoy, in one line.
ONE of the wings is to come all at once clofe by the wind, on the
fame tack as the line of bearing on which they are formed, in order
to file off fucceffively at the point of the angle in the wake of the
other
K k
252
AN ESSAY ON
other wing, the ſhips of which are to run together with the wind
four points large, on their line of bearing; and when the laſt ſhip
of the weather wing is in the wake of her line, the order of convoy
is formed.
If neceffary to fail more large, the van fhip and the reſt of the
fleet may bear away more, in fucceffion : and, ſhould you not wiſh to
keep away fo much, the fame fhips may keep their wind more, and
follow the van fhip fucceffively.
ARTICLE
XIII.
To change from the order of retreat to the order of convoy, in three
columns.
You are to form the order of battle in the fame manner as has
been directed before, in bringing the fleet all at the fame time to
haul up fix points, and the van fhip cloſe by the wind on the fame
tack, in order to range in her wake in the line of battle, that the
three leaders may then come together on the intended courſe, and
the ſhips of each divifion follow fucceffively in their wakes. Then,
the order of convoy will be formed in three columns on the fame
tack, becauſe, we fuppofe you fhall have had the attention to form
the order of battle on the fame tack as that you have preme-
ditated to give to the fleet when it is in the order of convoy.
CHAPTER
IV.
How to restore orders in shifts of winds.
ARTICLE
I.
To restore the order of convoy in one line, when the wind comes a-head
more than clofe hauled.
IT is eafy to conceive that the order of convoy cannot be
diſturbed by all the fhifts of wind, as long as it is more abaft than
the
i
NAVAL TACTIC S.
253
the ſtarboard and larboard lines of bearing; becauſe the fhips,
fteering large in the wake of each other, can eaſily maintain their
pofts, having only their fails to trim, whether the fleet be in one
line or in feveral columns. But, if the wind draws more a-head
than one of the lines above-mentioned, it is evident, the ſhips being
obliged to veer, or pay off, all at the fame time on the fame tack,
the order will be diſturbed. We shall now proceed to give the
method to reftore it on the fame tack, when the fleet is in one line
in the order of convoy. If we fuppofe the fleet fteering large on the
ftarboard tack, and the wind come fuddenly right a-head, which
would immediately throw all the fails flat aback on their mafts, the
van fhip is to caft inftantly to port and bring-to on the ftarboard
tack, while all the rest of the fleet are to box off, all together and
at the fame time, to ftarboard, and make all fail, in order to come
with celerity cloſe by the wind on the larboard tack, and get into
the wake of the van fhip, then to tack and take their ſtations fuc-
ceffively under an eaſy fail, and bringing-to likewiſe till the rear
ſhip, which has a good way to run, be in her poſt.
SHOULD You wish to get on the other tack, then the van fhip is
to caſt to ſtarboard, to bring-to on the larboard tack by the wind;
then the rest of the fleet would caft the other way, to tack afterwards
fucceffively in the wake of the ſhip which lies-to, and take their
ftation there, as has been faid before, with this difference, that,
after the reſtoring of the order, you would find yourſelf on the lar-
board tack.
If the ſudden ſhift of wind be not quite a-head, or if it be fix
points, or between fix and twelve, the van fhip is, nevertheleſs, to
bring-to on one tack, while the reft of the fleet, cafting on the ſtar-
board, make all fail to gain her wake, to tack there, and thus regain
their ftations.
ww
THE order of convoy may be reſtored by a ftill ſhorter and more
fimple method, but which will caufe the fleet to drop to leeward
Kk 2
more
254
ON
AN
ESSAY
more than the former does. In the fame cafe as the laft, when the
wind comes right a-head, the whole fleet is to pay off on the fame
tack, if the ſhips are all on one line, and the rear ſhip muſt bring-to,
while the reſt of the fhips, running five points large (if the wind
has shifted fix points beyond the direction of cloſe hauled), will come
and bring-to fucceflively a-head of the rear fhip on that of the two
lines of bearing which they are to hold, obferving that ſuch ſhips
are to carry a greater and proportionable prefs of fail, as, being nearer
the van fhip, have confequently more way to run before they can
regain their pofts.
1
OBSERVATION.
It will always be eafy to know how many points or degrees the
weather ſhips have to run large to get into their ſtations, by adding
eight points or ninety degrees to the half of the points or degrees
the wind has shifted beyond one of the two lines of bearing: and,
in regaining your pofts, you will have the quantity of points by
which you differ from the firſt courſe you fteered. For example,
if you were ſteering eaſt, and the wind fhift to that point of the
compaſs, it will have ſhifted fix points beyond one of the directions
clofe hauled, which you would have been able to preferve on the
fame tack; fo that, adding half of fix points to eight, you will have
eleven points difference from the Eaft courfe which you ſteered before,
and you will confequently fail NW N on one tack, to reſtore
the order or SW S on the other, to gain your pofts cloſe by the
wind in a line with the rear fhip, which bearing Weft before the
fhift of wind, ought now to bear SSW if cloſe to the wind on the
ftarboard tack, or NNW if pofted upon a bow-line on the larboard
tack. Therefore, to regain their ftations in the line, the fhips rum
five points large. Had the wind ſhifted four points only, it would
have blown ESE; and the fhips, taking their pofts on the ftar-
board tack, to the NE of the rear fhip which is lying-to, would
have
NAVAL TACTICS.
255
have ſteered NNW to fall into their stations, and reſtore the order
of convoy on the ſame tack.
1
ART I
ICLE
II
To restore the order of convoy, on three columns, when diſturbed by a .
Sudden ſhift of wind right a-head.
WHEN the wind fhifts on a fudden right a-head, or between
the two lines of bearing, the order of convoy is to be reſtored by
the whole fleet cafting the fame way all together, leaving the three
rear ſhips of the columns lying-to cloſe to the wind on the tack on
which you purpoſe to continue cloſe hauled; while the ſhips of the
three columns running large all together on a courfe (to leeward of
the first), which muſt always be determined by half the number of
points, or degrees the wind has ſhifted beyond the direction of cloſe
hauled, added to eight points or ninety degrees, will bear up with
eaſe for their ſtations in the cloſe hauled line of bearing, which they
are to hold to the windward fide of their rear fhip, where they will
arrive fucceffively, in carrying more fail according as they may be
nearer to the van, becauſe in that caſe they have a greater diſtance
to run.
ARTICLE
III.
To restore the order of battle on the fame tack, when the wind comes
four points a-head more or less.
up
THE rear fhip is to bring-to; and all the reft of the fleet are to
bear fix points large, if the wind has ſhifted four points forward,
and confequently ten points more to leeward than their firft courfe:
then, in proportion as they fhall come to the clofe hauled line of
bearing on the fame tack as the rear fhip which is lying-to, they
will
256
AN ESSAY ON
will range again fucceffively to the wind in order to bring-to, till
the van fhip has taken her poft, on the fame line of bearing.* But
as in this kind of evolution the ſhips nearer to the van have always
more diſtance to run than thoſe which are nearer the rear, it will be
proper for them, as much as poffible, to accelerate their motions by
a prefs of fail, that no time may be loft in reſtoring the order of
battle on the fame tack.
REMARK.
To know the number of points which the van of the fleet have
to bear up in a ſhift of wind a-head, add eight points, or ninety
degrees, to half the points or degrees the wind has fhifted; and
that fum will give the direction in which you ought to ſteer, in
reckoning from your first courfe: this principle is the fame we have
made uſe of for reſtoring the order of convoy.
Another Method.
ALL the fleet are to bring-to, the leading ſhip excepted, which
is to ſteer ten points to leeward of her first courſe, to take her poft
on the line of bearing of the rear fhip, with reſpect to the wind
which is then blowing. But, when the van fhip, running with all
fail fet fix points large, fhall have brought that which follows her
immediately on the parallel of the line of bearing on which the
fleet are to form in order of battle, that next fhip is immediately to
veer round fix points; and when this veffel is come likewife in the
line
* The frequency of this evolution rendering a perfect knowledge of it in-
difpenfable, we ſhall add a figure which may perhaps affift, in fome degree, the
conception of fuch as are not fo well verfed in naval tactics. In Fig. 5, (EvoL. PL.
IX.) lct A B be the line taken aback by the wind w, the rear fhip of which, after
boxing off, has brought-to atв: the reft of the fleet having veered round, ſteer on the
parallels to a c between A and B, to bring-to fucceffively in their poft in the line
of bearing B C of the rear ſhip at B, when the order of battle is reftored.
NAVAL
257
TACTICS.
line of bearing of the third fhip, fhe is alfo to keep away fix points
large fo that, all the ſhips of the fleet coming to file off fucceffively
as foon as they are in lines parallel to the line of bearing, on the
fame tack on which the order of battle is to be formed, will run on
parallels and preſerve their diſtances one from another, by coming
all together, and at the fame time, at their refpective points of the
line of bearing they are to hold; and the moment all the ſhips are
by the wind, the rear veffel, which is yet lying-to, is to file, and
the order of battle is reſtored.*
Another Method.
ALL the fleet are to veer round at the fame time, and fteer on the
exact oppofite point of the compafs from their former courfe; then
the rear fhip which is now become the van, is to veer and haul
cloſe by the wind on the fame tack as he did before; and all the
other hips will perform the fame manoeuvre in fucceffion: by this
mean the order of battle will foon be reftored on the fame tack.
OBSERVATIONS.
and·
* To render this more explicit, fuppofe the fhips in their respective pofts
between A and B (Fig. 6, EvoL. PL. IX.) to compoſe the fleet taken aback by the
wind w; there they are to bring-to from E to A in their reſpective ſtations, while
the van fhip at B bears up and fteers in the direction BC with all fails fet: and,
when that ſhip, in ſteering on the parallel BC, has arrived at the point D, ſhe is then
on the line of bearing ED of the ſecond ſhip at E, who is now to bear
up
fteer on the parallel to B c from E to F; and this ſhip being come to the point G,
the third ſhip at H is alfo to keep away on the parallel HI; and when arrived at
the point K in following the direction K1, the fourth fhip is to bear away on L M
parallel to B'c; and when ſhe has reached the point N, the fifth fhip at o is alfo to
fteer in the direction OP; and every fhip, when in the line of bearing of her
ſecond, is to execute the fame manoeuvre in fucceffion: and, when the ſhip at Q,
in ſteering on QR, has arrived at the point R (which he will do at the
very
fame inftant the van fhip в arrives at the point c, as do at that very fame inftant
the veffels from their former fituation at E, H, L, O, at the fame points F, I, M, r),
then the rear fhip at A is to fill, and the order of battle is perfe&tly reftored, fince
all the ſhips come in the fame inftant to their pofts in the line from A to c.
25.8
AN ESSAY O:N
OBSERVATION S.
THIS evolution, which inverts the van and rear, is no ways in-
convenient, and may be performed in very urgent circumftances,
ſuch as to get a-breaft of an enemy who wishes to avoid an engage-
ment, to double a cape in plying to windward, or to avoid fome
danger.
•
M
Ir in a ſhift of wind four points forward, you wish to reflore the
order of battle on the other tack, all the fhips of the fleet are ſtill to
veer round till their heads come to the oppofite point of the compafs;
and the rear ſhip, being now the van, is to haul clofe by the wind on
the fame tack: then all the other thips will come and execute the
fame manœuvre in fucceffion, to form the order of battle on the
tack, more to windward than the preceding, which would put them.
befides in a good fituation to paſs, in veering, in fucceffion, to the
fame order on the other tack; an evolution very eafy to execute
when the fquadron is not numerous.
ARTICLE
IV.
To restore the order of battle when the wind ſhifts twelve points
coming from forward.
THE order of battle will not be disturbed by this event, as the
fleet has only to brace ſharp round the other way, to be in the order
of battle with the oppofite tacks on board; and it will be again as
eafy to return to the fame order on the fame tack as before, by either
tacking or veering in fucceffion to haul cloſe by the wind.
}
REMARK S.
It muſt be obſerved that, if you know how to take advantage of
circumftances, it will often fave you a great many movements.
First, the wind will never be able to come a-head more than fix
points;

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EVOLUTIONS Pl.IX.
Fig: 5 th
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Publish'd 25th Aug 1787 by S. Hooper.
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NAVAL TAC T-I C S.
259
points; for, if it does feven points, you are then only to get on the other
tack: then, the rear fhip will bring-to as well as the fleet, if necef-
fary;
after which the van fhip will maneuver by bearing away ten
points and a half, or, what is the fame, fteering large four points
and a half, to re-affume the order of battle as has been fhewn be-
fore, and in the fame manner as if the wind had come five points
a-head.
SECONDLY, when the wind changes more than twelve points, it
does not come from forward but from abaft; for, if the wind were
to change fourteen points, you would be obliged to get on the other
tack as if it had ſhifted twelve only; and, as you would ſteer then
two points large, you would manoeuver in that cafe in the fame
manner as if the wind had come aft the fame number of points.
•
ART I
I CLE
V.
Another method of restoring the order of battle on the ſame tack, when
the wind ſhifts on a fudden four points more a-head.
THE whole fleet is to veer round till the heads of all the fhips
come to the point exactly oppofite to their former courfe; and the
rear ſhip, now become the van by her having got on the other tack, is
to haul up in the wind and run four points large; an evolution which
is to be followed by the rest of the fleet, whofe fhips are all to
get thus into her wake in fucceffion. And, when the laſt ſhip is
thus arrived in the wake of the head-moft in the line, all the fleet is
to veer together, that they may find themſelves all together in order
of battle on the fame tack as before.
OBSERVATION S.
IT
It appears very plain, by the preceding article, that if the wind
comes four points forward, the fleet may be reftored to the order of
battle on the fame tack by the evolution therein defcribed. But,
L1
fhould
260
AN ESSAY ON
1
į
ſhould the wind fhift eight points forward, the fleet must then
refume the order of battle on the other tack: for, all the ſhips after
being taken aback will veer round to the point oppofite to their
former courfe, and refume the fame tacks on board as when in order
of battle with the first wind, before the change. Then, the rear
fhip having become the van, and hauling the wind on the ſame
tack, all the ſhips of the fleet will perform the fame manœuvre in
fucceffion, to ſteer four points large in her wake: and, as foon as
the laſt ſhip ſhall be in her poſt, the whole fleet muſt tack or veer
together, and thus will form the order of battle on the other tack.
By this laſt movement the van ſhip will regain her poſt.
·
ARTICLE
VI.
To restore the order of battle on the fame tack, when the wind ſhifts
on a fudden eight points forward.
THE fleet being in order of battle, and fuddenly taken aback by
the wind ſhifting eight points forward, the fhips are to veer round
all together till their heads be on the point of the compaſs oppofite
to their former courfe. Then, the rear hip having, by this move-
ment, become the head, is to haul cloſe by the wind on the fame
board; all the other fhips will follow in fucceffion and range in the
wake of the leading ſhip; then, when the laſt ſhip is in her ſtation,
the order is reſtored on the ſame tack.
ARTICLE
VII.
To restore the order of battle when the wind fhifts aft.
THE wind ſhifting aft, the fleet will be in the order of convoy:
then, the headinoft fhip is to haul her wind on the fame tack, and
all the ſhips of the fleet muſt one after another execute the fame
manœuvre
NAVAL TACTIC S.
26J
J
manœuvre in fucceffion; thus, when all the fhips are cloſe hauled,
the order is reſtored.
OBSERVATION S.
THIS method is very fimple; and, though it may be a little
tedious, it is undoubtedly the only one which ought to be put t in
practice. For, if the van fhip, as well as all the ſhips which follow
by the wind, carry a prefs of fail, it will much ſhorten the time
of evolution; becauſe, the other fhips run large as many points as
the wind ſhifted, and thus are not long before they are able to haul
one after another cloſe by the wind.
Ir the wind were ſhifting large four points aft, then the fleet
ſhould all together go about at the fame time; and, the rear be-
coming the van, the order would at once be reſtored on the other
tack, without any of the fhips running large.
ARTICLE
To refore the order of battle, when the wind ſhifts fixteen points.
THE fleet being taken aback by a fixteen points ſhift of wind,
they are all to brace about their yards at once, with rapidity, the
other way;
then the van ſhip ſhall brace up ſharp, making all poffible
fail by the wind on the fame board her tacks are on this evolution
being followed by all the ſhips in the fleet which are to perform the
fame manœuvre in fucceffion, the order of battle will then be com-
pleatly reſtored and transferred on the other tack.
+
VIII:
Another Method.
A FLEET being taken aback by the wind fhifting fixteen points,
the yards are all to be hauled about with the utmoſt celerity for the
other tack, by which means the fleet will be failing four points
large:
L12
262
AN ESSAY ON
large: then all the ſhips tacking or veering inftantly, and all to-
gether, they will regain the order of battle on the fame tack as they
were before the ſhift of wind.
BESIDES the advantage of this evolution over the preceding, in
point of celerity in the execution, it brings the fleet more to wind-
ward than the other; which, in certain cafes, is of the utmoſt im-
portance, fince it may procure the means of gaining the wind of the
enemy.
ARTICLE IX.
To restore the order of retreat, when the wind fhifts fixteen points.
THE fleet being in order of retreat, and taken aback by the wind
ſhifting on a ſudden fixteen points, all the ſhips in it are to veer, all
at once, till their heads come to the point oppofite the former
courſe; to obtain which, the Admiral is to bring-to at the angular
point, while the two wings, having veered rourd, will run before
the wind and bring-to likewife in fucceffion, on the two different
lines of bearing of the then blowing wind, and to leeward of the
Admiral; obferving that the van fhips of the wings are to uſe all
poffible diligence, by carrying a prefs of fails, to get to their pofts.
Another Method.
THE fhips of the fleet, in this ſhift of wind, are to manœuver all
together and at once in cafting to port; and the wing which is to
the left of the Admiral is to haul cloſe to the wind with all fail fet,
in order to bear away fucceffively four points large in the wake of
the van fhip, which, in the very first inftant, muft have bore away
that fame number of points; while the ſhips of the ſtarboard wing
of the Admiral run four points large, under an eaſy fail, on their
own line, in order to haul clofe by the wind in fucceffion, in the
wake of the firſt line which is filing off; fo that, when the laſt
ſhip of the ſtarboard wing of the prior order fhall have come to
the
NAVAL TACTICS.
263
the point where the evolution began, and the Admiral is in the
center of the two wings where the firft fhip of the larboard wing
began to veer, the order of retreat will be restored, and, by this
movement, the ftarboard wing will become the larboard.
OBSERVATION.
THE order might again be reſtored on the other tack, by caſting
all the fleet at once to ftarboard inftead of port.
THIS method, it is true, would be longer in the execution than
the preceding one, but no lefs fafe and certain.
ARTICL
E
X.
To reſtore the order of retreat, when the wind ſhifts less than twelve ·
points.
THE wind fhifting feven points, the leading fhip of the wing
which by the ſhift of wind is become the leeward wing, is to veer
and run four points large on the other tack, by bracing the yards
the other way; and the reft of the wing having alfo all veered to-
gether, are to take one after another the fame courfe in fucceffion,
while the Admiral and the fhips of the weather wing, running on
the two lines of the prior order, will come and place themſelves
in each other's wake in fucceffion, at the points where each wing
began to file off; a.d, when at laft the Admiral is arrived at the
point where the lee wing began to file off, all that wing, as well as
the Admiral, muft haul cloſe by the wind on the tack they are on;
while the veffels of the weather wing, which have placed them-
felves in fucceffion in the wake of the ſhip at the angle, continue
their courfe large to come and haul by the wind fucceffively in the
wake of the Admiral, whom they ought always to follow in this
evolution fo that, when the laſt ſhip of that wing is arrived at that
point in the wake of the others, the lee wing, having hauled cloſe by
the
S
264
AN ESSAY ON
•
the wind in the ſame ſpace of time, and all at once, on the other
line of bearing with refpect to the reigning wind, the order is
reſtored.*
REMARK.
WERE the wind to fhift from twelve to fifteen points, the
Admiral, in hauling by the wind, would meet the other wing
filing off large on the other tack to get into his wake; therefore,
to avoid this inconvenience, he must continue to run four points
large, on the other tack, with the lee wing, till he fees evidently
that,
* This evolution might, in my opinion, be reduced to a greater fimplicity by
the method we are going to propofe. By that method the movements will be
fewer, and the diſtance which the van fhip has to run will be diminifhed more than
one third; therefore, it is clear that fo much time gained, and fo many ma-
nœuvres ſpared in a cafe of exigency, cannot fail being of the higheſt importance
for a fquadron ; as it may furniſh them an opportunity of extricating themſelves by
the rapidity of their motion. In Fig. 7 (EvoL. PL. X.), for example, if we ſuppoſe
A B C to repreſent an horizontal ſection of the order of retreat before the evolution,
the wind, having fhifted feven points, muft blow now from w: then, all the
ſhips of the fleet are to bear up feven points from their firſt courſe, ſteering
parallel to Ac, which is the wing, which by the change of wind is now become
the lee one, and the ſhips of which are now ftanding in the wake of each other, to
veer in fucceffion at the point c, where the van hip, in the firft inftant of the
evolution, veered round and hauled up four points on the other tack from c to D. By
the time the ſhip F of the lee wing fhall have veered and got upon the other board,
the Admiral, with the wing A B (continuing to run on the parallels to Ac between
BE and A c), will have arrived at the points c, G, H, I, K; then, the wing
from c to D (as alfo the Admiral), are all to haul by the wind on the fame tack;
while the fhips from G, H, L, K continue to run large on their parallels, in order
to haul their wind fucceffively in the wake of the Admiral (who is at the angle),
and take their respective ftations from c to E; after which the order of retreat
DCE will be re-established, and the fquadron being formed are to bear away
again together. By this method, the van fhip has only to run from в to E on a
ftraight line; whereas, in the former, fhe went firft from B to A, then from ▲ to
¤, and again from c to E, before ſhe attained her poſt.

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26.5
TACTICS.
;
that, by hauling by the wind, he cannot diſturb the weather wing,
the ſhips of which are getting into his wake.
Another Method.
To render the ideas on the ſubject ſtill more general and extended,
let the wind be ſuppoſed to have ſhifted nine points in this cafe, the
van ſhip of the wing to leeward ſhall run four points large on the fame
tack, and the other ſhips of that wing will come in fucceffion to take
the ſame courſe ; and, when the Admiral ſhall be arrived at the point:
where the evolution began, the veſſels of that wing are to veer round
all at the fame time, and bring-to in the direction of the line of
bearing, as well as the Admiral who forms the point of the angle.
As the other wing to windward have at the ſame time ranged them-
felves in the wake of the Admiral, in filing off at the angular point
of the prior order, they are now to bear up, all at the fame time,
right before the wind, in order to range themſelves on the other line
of bearing of the Admiral, on which the fhips will fucceffively
bring-to. So that, when the leading fhip of this line is pofted, the
order will be reſtored with this difference, that the wings change
pofition with reſpect to the Admiral, as that which was before to
ftarboard, will now be to port of the angle; but it cannot be
attended with any fort of inconvenience.
THE pofition of the wings might be preſerved, by making the:
van fhip of the lee wing to veer and run four points large on the
other tack, then making the reft of the wing file off in fucceffion
four points large alfo, till the Admiral arrives in the wake of that
wing, which is then to bring-to, while the weather wing files off
four points large in fucceffion on the other tack, till all the ſhips of
that wing are poſted on the fame line. By this means, the order
of retreat will be reſtored, and the poſts of the wings preferved with
reſpect to the Admiral; but the order of the weather wing will be
inverted, and the ſhip which was the van before will now become
the Admiral's fecond.
CHAPTER
+
1
:
1
266
AN ESSAY ON
CHAPTER V.
How to maneuver a fleet in its various orders without
altering them.
ARTICLE
I.
Of turning to windward in order of battle.
ALTHOUH a numerous fleet can gain but very little to wind-
ward by turning, it is however a manoeuvre which often is abſo-
lutely neceffary, and which never can be better executed than when
the ſhips are ranged in order of failing on one fingle line, or in order
of battle, which is nearly the fame : for, then they will be able to
tack and tack again, all together or in fucceffion, according as the
circumſtance of their fituation may require. For example, if a fleet
be turning to windward between two fhores, with the wind blowing
right through the ftrait against them, their different board can be
continued but to a certain point; for the leeward-moft fhips would
foon find themſelves cloſe to the fhore, were the whole fleet to go
about all at the fame time; which will neceffarily occafion a num-
ber of fhort tacks, if the ftrait be deep, becauſe elfe all the
weather ſhips would foon be in, likewiſe, with the land on the other
fide. But, if the Admiral, at the end of the fecond board, takes
the reſolution to make the fleet go about in fucceffion, he will gain
to windward as much as if five evolutions had been gone through
all together. By this mean, tacking twice will be avoided; and if
obliged to turn any time longer, he will not only get more to wind-
ward, but alſo lofe lefs time.
1
•
IF the fleet have fea-room, or be turning on a coaft with the wind
parallel to the land, they will gain much more by all the ſhips
going about in the fame inftant, and plying by fmall boards, the
one
NAVAL TACTIC S.
267
one in the order of failing in one line, on one tack, and the other
in the order of battle, on the other; becauſe, each fingle fhip
going about at the fame time as the others, the fleet muſt get to
windward as much as if a fingle fhip only was turning to windward;
whereas, if the fleet were to maneuver in fucceffion, it would
fhorten their stretches in fhore; and, every time they went about,
they would lofe ground, becauſe every veffel which is going to per-
form her evolution in the wake of that which went about first, is
obliged to keep away a little, in order to avoid obftructing the other
in her manœuvre, and to preſerve the neceffary diſtances. Befides,
the firſt ſhips which tack are always obliged to ſhorten fail, while
thofe in the rear are obliged to carry all they poffibly can; and,
again, this method requires a confiderable time when the fleet is
numerous if it is not, then the cafe is of no great confequence. But,
however, there is not the leaft doubt but the fquadron will gain
more to windward by manoeuvering all at the fame time, and con-
tinuing their boards both ways as long as poffible.
OBSERVATIONS.
It is always eaſy to judge very nearly of the time a fleet will
require to go about on the different tacks, as we find from experience
that nearly ten minutes are required for a line of battle ſhip to go
about and be properly trimmed on the other tack, and even no more
than fix, as I have fometimes been witneſs of.
It is eaſy to conceive that it is not poffible to beat to windward
with eaſe and advantage, in any other form than the order of failing
in one line, or the order of battle. We are now going, however,
to explain the method of doing it in the order of convoy cloſe by
the wind.
M m
ARTICLE
5
268
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE II.
To work to windward in the order of convoy, in three columns.
A FLEET being ranged on three columns in the order of convoy,
the van and rear of the files correfponding exactly in the direction of
the wind,* as well as all the fhips which form the columns, and
which are all cloſe hauled on the fame tack; it will be eafy to work
to windward, if all the fleet tack at the fame time at the end of each
board, as the veffels can eaſily keep their ſtations in the columns by
means of the naval fquare. In this manner, the fleet in general will
gain as much to windward as the worst failing fhips will do, becauſe
the beſt failing veffels will regulate their progrefs by that of the
others.
ARTICLE
III.
To turn to windward in making the columns go about in fucceffion.
THE Columns being on the parallels of one of the two lines of
bearing, the ſhips of the one correfponding to thofe of the other
exactly in the direction of the wind, with this diſpoſition it will be
eafy for the fleet to work to windward, by going about in ſuc-
ceffion, in making the three van fhips to tack at the fame time, and the
reft to perform fucceffively the fame manoeuvre at the fame point,
in the wake of their leaders a-head; fo that there will be always
three ſhips at the fame time in the act of going about; and the time
of the evolution will by this method be confiderably ſhortened.
THE van fhips of the lee columns, being exactly in the direction
of the wind of the leading veffel of the weather file, will neceffarily
be
* As in Figure 23.
ww
1
NAVAL TACTIC S.
269
be a-ftern, and of courfe have more diftance to run on the other
tack after having gone about, than the rear of the weather column,
which will confequently double them a-head, without being ex-
pofed to be interfected by the van of the lee columns, which will
paſs them a-ſtern: whence it follows, that a fleet, however nu-
merous, can turn to windward in the order of three columns, pro-
vided the diſtance between the columns be fuch as have been deter-
mined by the principle ;* for, if they were too cloſe together, the
van of the lee columns, on the other tack, would always interfect
the rear of the weather file.+
REMARK S.
THE van and rear of the columns will be in a very natural pofition;
for, the leaders, as well as all the fhips of the three columns, will
correſpond with each other exactly in the direction of the wind :
befides, they can fee at the fame time, and by another method, if
they are in the line of bearing with their ſeconds a-head and a-ſtern,
and will confequently be fufficiently able to preferve their poſts.
Secondly, the diſtance of columns will be well enough determined
for practice; becauſe, if the van of the lee column, after going
about and keeping by the wind on the other tack, have the center
ſhip of the weather column about half a point to windward of her,
the fleet will be tolerably well poſted for working to windward in
fucceffion. Thirdly, when all the columns fhall have come on the
other tack, the order will never be diſturbed in the leaft, fince the
ſhips of the one will ftill correfpond exactly with thoſe of the other
in the direction of the wind, and be cloſe hauled, befides, on the other
line of bearing. In fhort, I do not believe any thing can be
M m 2
offered
* See Chap. II, Art. V, p. 239.
—
+ Which have not yet ftayed.
270
AN ESSAY ON
offered better than this method, which has not always been much
approved, though long ago propoſed. We fhall, notwithſtanding,
content ourſelves with it here, without attempting to propofe any
other, which perhaps would be far inferior to it.
ARTICL E
To difpute the weather gage with the enemy.
THAT you may not be expofed in this conteft for the wind,
which never ought to be practifed but in prefence of the enemy,
you must take care always to be ranged in the order of battle, or of
failing on one line, that you may always be in a fituation to come
to action if the circumſtances ſhould require it. Being then in this
order to leeward of an enemy of whom you wiſh to get the weather
gage, your fleet is to be kept on the oppofite tack to that of the
enemy; becauſe, in that pofition, they will be obliged to edge
very much away ſhould they be inclined to come to action, and, by
that means, they may lofe the advantage of the wind, which they
fhould not run the risk of, though, ftrictly speaking, it may be
done without laying the fleet open, as fhall be fhewn hereafter.
IV.
IF
If your enemy perfifts in keeping to windward, without coming
to action, they will be obliged to keep upon the fame tack with you,
to prevent your getting into their wake, or doubling them by paffing
a-head and to windward, unless the whole of the weather fleet be
abfolutely excellent failers, which is very rare, though not im-
poffible. However, as fleets in general fail nearly upon an equality,
it will be impoffible for the lee fleet to force the other to action,
without a ſhift of wind; which is a very common event, which
every fucceeding inftant may bring about.
It is of the higheſt importance for an Admiral to be acquainted with
the pofitions of the coafts, as well as with the general and particular
reigning
+
NAVAL TACTIC S.
271
reigning winds in the track he is likely to meet the enemy, in order
to take advantage of its revolutions and changes, as well as of the
alteration of the tides, as, through fuch circumſtances as theſe, the
weather gage may often be gained, and the fate of a battle decided.
OBSERVATION.
THE lee fleet may turn to windward, and purfue the enemy ac-
cording to the principles of chafing, by tacking all at the fame
time, as ſoon as the center fhip brings the middle veffel of the
weather line exactly on her beam, in order to join them by the
ſhorteſt means poffible, without, however, deviating from the
order of battle, or failing on one line.
ARTICLE
V.
If the weather fleet be inferior, they ought to come to action while they
have the advantage of the wind.
THE fleet to leeward, which is endeavouring to get to windward
of the enemy, muft keep upon the contrary tack; but the fleet to
windward, which are in order of battle or of failing on one line,
are to tack all together to get into the fame poſition as the hips to
leeward, then bear away ſo as to approach the lee fleet near enough
for action, keeping a little a-head of them without breaking the
line, to prevent their getting far enough a-head to tack and double
the weather fleet's van to windward.
#
THIS is, in fact, the only refource the weather fleet have under
ſuch circumſtances, unless they have fome place of refuge; for, if
obliged to continue long in the prefence of the enemy, they will
fooner or later be obliged to come to action with much greater
diſadvantage.
OBSER-
272
AN ESSAY ON
t
OBSERVATION S.
If the weather fleet be in order of battle, and the wind draw
a-head, the lee fleet, if they be a-head and in order of battle,
ought to box off on the fame tack as before, in order to tack in
fucceffion in the wake one of another, to reſtore the order of battle
in drawing at the fame time a great deal to windward: this ma-
nœuvre may even be a means of weathering the enemy, if the wind
ſhould ſhift much for, they have no other method to regain the
order of battle, without lofing much ground; though they will
always lofe a great deal with refpect to the pofition of the enemy to
leeward.
C
;
If the lee fleet be a-ftern, and the wind fhifts aft, while they are
on the contrary tack with the enemy in order of failing on one line,
they ought to tack or veer all together, and at the ſame inſtant
becauſe this ſhift of wind will be a-head for all the fhips, in reſpect
to their tacks on board, and a-ſtern in reſpect to the order of battle.
When the van fhip is full on the other tack, as well as all the reft
in their former order of battle, the ſhall haul by the wind, while
the reſt of the fleet run large on their firft line of battle as many
points as the wind has ſhifted aft, to get into her wake fucceffively,
and reſtore the order of battle in approaching the enemy, and gain
the wind of him, and perhaps in doubling him even if the ſhift has
been great: for, the only mean they have of reſtoring the line of
battle is by the van fhip hauling by the wind, and the reft coming
into her wake in fucceffion. If the ſhift of wind was four points,
the fleet to leeward would be obliged ftill to perform the fame ma-
nœuvre, that they might go about, after a certain time, fucceffively
to windward of the enemy, who could only in the mean time have
tacked all together, to bring their fleet fuddenly in a line of battle
on the other board.
IF, when the wind ſhifts aft, you are a-ftern in order of battle,
and the enemy be on the other tack in the order of failing, the
leading
NAVAL
273
TACTICS.
leading ſhip muſt haul cloſe to the wind immediately, while the
other veffels will come in fucceffion and bear away as many points
as the wind has ſhifted, in order to perform the fame manœuvre
and reſtore the line of battle. By obferving this mode of manœu-
vering, you will approach the enemy, and gain as much to wind-
ward of him as poffible, or get even the weather gage of him entirely,
if the wind has ſhifted confiderably. The rear fhip of the fleet to
leeward may immediately keep cloſe to this new wind on the fame
board, while all the reft of the fleet, after having tacked together
and at the ſame time, will come and place themſelves cloſe by the
wind in her wake, where they are again to tack fucceffively, in
order to follow their rear fhip, which is now become the leader, and
which may break the enemy's line, or at leaſt gain the wind of him.
But, to be able to go through this evolution, you muſt have no-
thing to fear from the enemy; for, the fleet will be obliged to go
about twice before the order of battle can be reſtored. The weather
fleet ought to keep their wind as clofe as poffible, holding the
enemy always exactly to leeward of them, by keeping on the fame
tack as he; and if the wind fhifts a little, and becomes favourable
to the enemy which is to leeward, the weather fhips are then to
keep exactly their wind, without caring for the preſervation of the
line, unleſs the two fleets be abfolutely very near one another.
C
ARTICLE
VI.
To avoid coming to action when to windward.
THE weather fleet having it always in their power to preferve*
their advantage, can but with difficulty be forced to action; becauſe
they
* Unless the wind changes.
274
AN ESSAY ON
they may always hold the board on which they moft recede from
the enemy; while the fleet to leeward muft run in the order of
failing on one line, or in order of battle on the other tack, until
their Admiral have the center ſhip, or Admiral, of the weather line,
right a-breaſt of him, and perpendicular to his courſe, in order to
tack all together and follow the weather fleet by the principles of
chafing. For, if the lee fleet ftand on one tack till they can
weather the retreating fleet, they will foon be out of fight, fince
fleets in general fail nearly with equal celerity.
OBSERVATION S.
THE weather fleet may fly off in order of battle on the ftarboard
or larboard tack, while the lee fleet purfues them in the fame
manner, that is to fay, in order of battle likewiſe and on either tack.
But when they come to go about, they are to hold the order of failing.
If the lee fleet is fo much fuperior to the weather fleet, as to be
able to form a detachment of fine failing ſhips, in a fufficient number
to attempt any thing, let it be done; then this ſquadron is to chaſe
the flying enemy to winward, in the fame manner as one fingle ſhip
chaſes another over which ſhe has the advantage in failing; while
the remaining part of the fuperior fleet will ufe every poffible effort
to get to windward, as we faid before.
By this manœuvre, the detachment of the ſwift going veffels
having joined the enemy, will haraſs and diſturb their movements,
beſides keeping them in fight of the rest of the fleet, which will then
have the fuperiority in failing; for, when you are engaged in an
action, or when fome of your fhips are diſabled, it is impoffible to
manœuver properly unleſs ſuch ſhips be abandoned; and then it
becomes impoffible to get out of fight of a fuperior fleet which takes
that reſolution.
REMA R K.
If the conftancy of the winds could be depended upon, the
weather fleet might, with impunity, preferve their advantage in
prefence
་
NAVAL
275
TACTICS.
preſence of the enemy, were he not fufficiently ſtrong to detach a
ſquadron of ſuperior failers. But, as nothing is more frequent and
common than the variation of the wind, it is always best to keep as
far as poffible out of fight of a powerful adverſary, when you do not
find yourſelf abfolutely in a fituation to fight: and, on the contrary,
the fleet inclined to come to action ought to keep in fight and as
near as poffible, keeping always on the fame board as the enemy,
in order to catch the opportunity of the firſt ſhift of wind to force
him to battle.
ARTICLE
VII.
To avoid coming to action when to leeward.
THE lee fleet, which is wiſhing as much as poffible to avoid an
engagement, ought to form the order of retreat, to fly from the
enemy if they are in view of him, and run on the fame tack as their
chaſer. But, if he is yet out of fight, and they have intelligence of his
approach by their frigates, which are looking out, they may run
large from the hoftile fleet, without confining themſelves to keep
the wind exactly aft, unleſs they be in the order of retreat.
OBSERVATIO N.
THERE are circumftances when the lee fleet may run with the
wind aft, without affuming the order of retreat; as, for example,
when they wish to gain time, or come to action upon the enemy
perſiſting obftinately in his purſuit of them. Thefe extraordinary
caſes excepted, a fleet never ought to fly before the enemy, without
being in the order of retreat, as the rear is then in the beſt ſituation
to extricate themſelves in cafe of accident.
Nn
ARTICLE
276
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE
VIII.
To force the enemy to action when you are to windward.
IT has already been made evidently appear that, when
you are in
prefence of the enemy, an engagement is almoſt unavoidable. The
lee fleet, which is wishing to come at any rate to action, have
therefore, in that cafe, need of nothing but patience; for, in keep-
ing always on the ſame tack with the weather fleet, and taking care
to have them fo exactly a-breaft as to prevent the leaft danger of
lofing fight of them, you are ready to take advantage of the firſt
favourable ſhift of wind to make the attack.
NIGHT is certainly the time when an alteration of courſe may
beſt be attempted. But, the lee fleet is to have frigates on the look
out, which, by fignals, will continually give notice of the ma-
nœuvre and courſe of the retreating fleet to windward, which, by
theſe means, is always expoſed to be purſued without being able to
get off unfeen, and muft, fooner or later, be compelled to come to
action, unleſs they can get into ſome port, or a gale of wind fhould
come to reſcue them by difperfing both fleets, and thus furnish the
means of retreating in a ſtorm.
OBSERVATIO N.
It is eaſy to conceive that the lee fleet cannot fail bringing the
weather line to action, unleſs the commanding officer of the arma-
ment ſhould take the refolution not to fight but with the weather
gage; which will not be eafily gained without a fhift of wind, or
a very great fuperiority of failing.
ARTICLE
IX.
To force the enemy to action when you have the weather gage; or,
r, the
way to approach, in the best order, near enough for battle.
If the lee fleet keep cloſe to the wind in order of battle, with the
defign of bringing the weather line to action, the fleet to windward
are
NAVAL TACTICS.
277
f
are to ftand on in the fame manner till they are a-breaft of the
enemy; then, they are all together, and at the fame time, to bear
away, and ſteer exactly ſo as to bring their respective opponents in
the adverſe line, on the fame rhomb of the compaſs with them, in
obferving the principles of chafing, which are to be obſerved by
every chafer to windward. By that mean the fleets will foon be
near enough to begin the action, in prefenting the bow of each ſhip
to her opponent in the order of failing, which will be eaſily changed
for the line of battle, by all the hips hauling clofe to the wind
together, in the moment which precedes the beginning of the
action.
OBSERVATION S.
<la
THE fleet to leeward, inclined to engage, might bring-to to pre-
vent lofing time; as, by this manœuvre, lefs time will be requitite
for the weather fleet to join them: then they will file as foon as the
action begins, becauſe it is more favourable to a lee line to be ad-
vancing a-head; fince, if a ſhip be difabled in the weather line
(which is obliged to follow with the top-fails full), fhe will infai-
libly drop, and run foul of the next veffel a-ſtern of her, covered
with fire and ſmoak, which may be productive of great diſorder in
the fleet, as was the cafe with the Britiſh fleet in the year 1756, in
the action off Minorca.
As the lee fleet file and ftand on clofe by the wind, it is neceffary
that the weather line fhould be a-breaft and parallel to the other,
before they bear away to come within the requifite diſtance for
action; in order that the van fhip of the weather fleet fhould always
keep to windward of the leading ſhip of the lee line, and be guarded
againſt ſuch a ſhift of wind as might come a-head; which would
not be the caſe if they were a-ftern of the van ſhip in the lee fleet,
which would be able then to double them to windward, as well as
the reſt of the line, by tacking in fucceffion.
Nn 2
ANOTHER
278
AN ESSAY ON
ANOTHER reaſon for the weather line being right a-breaſt of the
enemy to leeward, and for every ſhip ſteering on the fame point in
approaching her opponent in the adverſe line of battle, under their
lee, is, that the fleets may be placed exactly parallel to each other ;
for, as the weather line muſt not be a-ſtern, becauſe of the riſk of
the winds coming more forward, neither muft they be a-head of the
line to leeward, left the wind ſhould come more aft; for then, the
lee fleet keeping cloſe by the wind in the wake of their leading ſhip,
might, by this ſhift, be as far to windward as the oppofing fleet, or
even get the weather gage of them.
BUT if the weather fleet keep exactly a-breaſt of the other, they
will always be in a fituation to preſerve their advantage, without ex-
pofing themſelves. It is, notwithstanding, true, that thoſe ſhips
keeping more away than the line to leeward, will find themſelves,
when come within gun-ſhot, in a very diſagreeable fituation, with
reſpect to the enemy's fhips, which will have it then in their power
to enfilade them obliquely, and fire on their bow as they bear
down; which may throw much diforder among the ſhips of the
weather line, which for that moment have it not in their power to fire
their whole broad fide at the enemy, who has the advantage of be-
ginning the action.
If the lee fleet bear up 45°, or four points, to move their order
of battle on the other tack and avoid the action, filing off in fuc-
ceffion in the wake of the van ſhip; the weather line, by bearing up
all together, and at the fame inftant, eight points, to preſerve the
order of battle, cannot fail (both fleets being ſuppoſed to fail
equally) to paſs through the middle of their line, and force them
to fight with difadvantage, if their extent be double the diftance
between the two fleets; for, if they be leſs numerous, they will not
be fo foon engaged, becauſe it will be more difficult to cut off any
part of them than if the line had four leagues extent, and the
diſtance between the fleets only two. A ſquadron, whoſe extent
fhould
"
NAVAL
279-
TACTIC s.
fhould not exceed two thirds of a league, would (fuppofing an
equality of failing) be able to file off in one half of the time the
other would take to join them; but, the weather fleet would ftill
have approached them two thirds of a league.
If the lee fleet bear up four points all together, and at the fame
inftant, being of equal extent with the line to windward, and their
diſtance from each other equal to half the length of one of the files,
ſhould the weather fleet bear up at the fame time eight points, they
will approach very near, it is true, the ſtern-moſt of the retreating
fleet; but they will not have it in their power to cut any of that fleet
off, even with an equality of failing: fo that the only advantage-
gained by this manœuvre will be an ability of attacking the rear,
and bringing it to action.
If the van ſhip and the reft of the weather fleet had a fufficient
velocity to keep the center fhip of the lee line on the fame point of
bearing; in that cafe, the leading fhip may break through the
enemy's line about the middle fhip of the center divifion; for, fup-.
pofing the fleets in order of battle, on the ſtarboard tack, ſteering
Eaſt with the wind at SSE, being at two leagues diftance from each
other, both the files being four leagues in extent; the lee line
bearing away all together four points large, will run NE, while
that to windward, bearing up all together and at the fame inftant,
will ſteer North, the van fhip of which will keep the center diviſion
of the lee line on the point of bearing NW: as fhe is fuppofed to be
able to continue in this pofition, it follows, the van of the weather-
file muſt cloſe the center of the flying line to leeward, after having
run four leagues. The time and diſtance neceffary to cut off a re-
treating fleet may always be known, according to the laft fuppo-
fition; becauſe, by the bearing of the two fhips from the van to the
center, we have the basis of a triangle which will be compleatly
formed by the two courfes fteered by theſe two ſhips, and in which
two angles and one fide at leaſt will always be known; which is
full
28.
ON
AN
ESSAY
full fufficient to find the reft, and conféquently to judge the diſtance
to be run before clofing the enemy.
SHOULD the lee fleet get upon the other tack, and run large,
ftill preferving the order of battle, they will be ftill fooner cloſed,
and forced to action by the weather fleet, who have only to keep
away from eight to nine points on the fame tack, or run right before
the wind.
THE weather fleet can always force the lee one to action, what-
ever movements they make: for, if they run with the wind right
aft, in order of battle, they cannot (in ſuppoſing an equality of fail-
ing) avoid being cloſed, or broken nearly about the center by the
weather line, which has only to ſteer two points on each tack nearer
the wind than the retreating fleet. So that the rear of the weather
file, having borne up no more than eight points, will find, at the
end of a certain time, to have approached extremely the center of
the retreating fleet, and, in a ſhort time more, will be able to bring
their rear to action.
THE weather fleet have yet another advantage; becauſe, as their
ſhips have the wind on the quarter, they fail with greater celerity than
thoſe of the lee fleet, which run before the wind. The lee fleet
being abfolutely determined to fly, has therefore no other expedient
left to prolong time, but to combat in the order of retreat, right
before the wind, or on the fame courſe as the purſuing fleet; for,
other advantages are not to be depended on, if purſued by a victorious
foe, and one of that fpecies, too feldom found, who let nothing
eſcape them which is any way favourable to them.
IF, from all that has been faid, it reſults that it is not poffible for
a fleet of equal force to avoid an action, how then muſt it be with
one much inferior? The more numerous has nothing to do but to
form a detachment of fuperior failers, which will chafe ftrait be--
fore them and begin the action, while fome others approach to
finiſh it. Whence we may conclude that, when in preſence of too
powerful
NAVAL TACTIC S.
281
powerful an enemy, it will never be poffible to avoid an action, if
he is determined to come to one.
ARTICLE X.
To double the enemy when fuperior to him, and to leeward of him.
THE lee fleet having the fuperiority in number, ought to endea-
vour to range exactly a-breaſt and parallel to the weather file, fo
that the van or rear may extend beyond their line, in order to over-
reach them, by tacking in fucceffion to double to windward their
van or rear, and bring them between two fires. Provided this ma-
nœuvre be properly executed, it will be impoffible for the ſhips in
the weather line, thus preffed, to continue long in their pofts; for,
there is no veſſel cloſely attacked by two others of equal force which
can long refift being overcome; fince it is always in the power of
one of them to get into ſuch a poſition as to be able, without much
danger on her fide, to deftroy the enemy in a very ſhort time.
BUT the question here to be difcuffed is, "Whether the moſt
advantageous evolution is to double the van or the rear ?" for, both
the one and the other have, in reality, fo confiderable an advantage,
that either of them may in a very little time determine the fate of a
battle.
""
C
If the fleet with which you are engaged be to windward, either
their van or their rear may be doubled; but, the van may with the
greateſt facility; becauſe, if they are engaged by the ſhips a-breaſt
of them, thoſe which are advanced a-head will be able, by making all
fail, to get on the perpendicular to the direction of the wind of the
van of the enemy, and tack in fucceffion to gain the wind of them
on the other board, in keeping them to leeward of them: and, when
they are come fufficiently to windward, they are again to go about,
in order to keep the two head-moft ſhips of the enemy's line conti-
nually
(
282
AN ESSAY ON
nually under their fire. If there be two or three ſhips to tack in
fucceffion and gain the wind of the enemy, they may edge down on
the van of the weather line at pleaſure, in keeping themſelves a little
to windward of her; and, as that van-guard is already engaged by
the other ſhips a-breaſt on the other fide, ſhe muſt neceffarily be foon
difabled. If they bear up, they must drop upon the line with which
they are engaged to leeward, while the fhips to windward ftill con-
tinue to cannonade them. If they attempt going about, in order
to attack more clofely the fhips to windward, they will be raked,
while in ſtays, by their opponents to leeward and to windward,
who enfilading them with whole broadfides, which they cannot
return, muſt abfolutely put a finiſhing ftroke to their diforder. If
they make fail in order to fruftrate the deſign of the ſhips inclined
to double, thoſe with which they are engaged a-breaft to leeward
have only to perform the fame manoeuvre, and keep them under
their fire; while the others, after having haraffed them as much as
poffible, will do their beſt to perform the fame manœuvre on the
fucceeding fhips.
THE Captains deſtined to double the enemy ought to be men of
known ability in the manoeuvering of fhips, as well as of approved
courage. They will not be ordered upon that expedition but by a
weather fit for failing at the rate of three knots an hour: and, for
the greater promptitude and certainty of fuccefs, none but the beſt
going ſhips are to be employed in that fort of manœuvre.
IF
If any of the ſhips in the van of the weather line happen to be
difabled in their mafts or yards, as will undoubtedly be the cafe after
having been between two fires, they will drop a-ftern and run foul
of the next which follows, and thefe again of their fubfequent com-
rade; at laſt, diforder will become prevalent, by fhips running
foul of each other, or maneuvering to avoid the fame accident; fo
that the order of battle will be broke, while, on the other hand, the
line to leeward is preſerved with all the advantage poffible. The
Tag
ſhips
NAVAL TACTICS.
283
ſhips which have gained the wind of the enemy, in continuing their
manœuvre will augment the confufion, and engage, however, no
more than they like: and, if by chance or misfortune they ſhould be
crippled, it will not certainly be an eaſy matter for them to extri-
cate themſelves. But as they may, on the other tack, drop a-ſtern
to windward of the enemy's line, or veer again like him, they muſt
extricate themſelves as well as they can, and always advantageously
enough, if, by doubling the van-guard, they are able to throw it
into diſorder.
If the rear of the lee fleet be extended beyond the ſtern-moſt ſhip
of the weather line, they will be obliged, if they want to double the
rear of the enemy to windward, to make fail and tack in fucceffion;
in which manœuvre, the head-moft fhip of thofe deftined for this
ſervice is to go about firft: then, continuing to keep up a brifk
cannonade as they come to the wind, they will go and heave about
again a little to windward of the rear of the enemy, in order to bring
their ſtern ſhips between two fires; and, fhould they have the good
fortune to oblige them to bear up, they must go on fucceffively from
one ſhip to another, as long as they find they fucceed in forcing
them to give way. Should diforder take place in the rear of the
weather fleet, it will not be near fo prejudicial to the enemy as if it
had happened in the van; on the contrary, it may turn out to be of
ſome advantage to them. But the veffels combating to windward
can easily withdraw from the fight, by backing a-ftern, when they
find themſelves too hard preffed.
OBSERVATION.
BEFORE proceeding any farther, it may not be amiſs to remark,
that ſhips diſmaſted, or even deprived of the uſe of a top-fail in the
weather line, cannot without great riſk retire from the order of
battle (when under neceffity to do fo), nor paſs to windward of
their rear, in order to refit; for, veffels fo circumftanced cannot
О о
ſtay;
284
ON
AN ESSAY
1
ſtay; and even if they could, their ſtern would be for a great while
expoſed to the enemy, who, in that pofition, would foon render
them motionless, by compleatly deſtroying the little rigging they
had left.
IF fuch fhips be obliged to veer, that manoeuvre making them
approach nearer the enemy, they got avoid preſenting their head
to their opponent, a fituation dangerous that nothing more is
wanting to compleat their total deftruction. But, fuppofing them
able to finiſh their evolution, they will not have it in their power to
paſs to windward of their ſecond a-ſtern, without running foul of
her for, one hundred fathoms diftance between the one and the
other ſhips, are not fufficient to give a diſabled veffel, which has
dropt above fifty fathoms to leeward in veering, fufficient time to
gain to windward the diſtance neceffary to paſs a-head of the ſhip
which immediately follows. Nothing but boats can therefore affift
her, by towing, to get under cover: and yet it will not be executed
without undergoing a very heavy fire from the enemy. If it a
van ſhip which is diſabled, being doubled to windward by one or
two of the lee line, it will be impoffible for her to difengage her-
felf: for, the two ſhips which have gained the wind of her will not
leave her, nor ſuffer her to receive the leaſt affiſtance from the boats
or frigates which may be fent to her reljef; and, fhould the fleet
ſhe belongs to bear up and paſs to leeward of her, which is the only.
manœuvre they have to execute in fimilar circumſtances, the diſabled
veffel will be facrificed, they being unable, without the utmoſt
difficulty, to give her the ſmalleſt fiftance; for, every ſhip is en-
gaged by the opponent which is a-breaft of her, and the leaſt remiffion
of their fire, by fighting on the other fide to affift, as they paſs, the
diſabled ſhip, would give the lee enemy a decided advantage.
'
ARTICLE
"
*
NAVAL TACTICS.
285
ما
ARTICLE
XI.
To double the enemy when to windward of him.
THE ſhips of the weather line, having extended their van beyond
that of the lee file, are to veer, in order to bring the head-moſt ſhips
of the enemy's order of battle between two fires. But, let them do
as they will, there never can refult ſo much advantage from this ma-
nœuvre as when doubling a fleet to windward; becauſe, the diſabled
ſhips can always veer with facility. True it is, they cannot fail
becoming at the fame time the prey of the enemy; for, both thoſe
which have doubled them, and thoſe with which they are engaged
a-breaſt in the weather line, will always have it in their power
jointly to preſs as cloſe upon them as they think proper.
If the ſhips which have doubled the van of the lee fleet, with
which they are engaged, be difabled, they will be obliged, as they
cannot make fail, to pafs along the lee line; and they cannot eſcape
being totally deſtroyed, if they do not bear up before the wind to get
out of gun-fhot; during which manœuvre they cannot avoid being
ſtill in a very difagreeable fituation.
SHOULD the ftern-moft hips of the weather fleet be diſabled, in
doubling the enemy's rear, they have only, if they want to extricate
themſelves, to drop a-ftern, and let the two fleets advance a-head; and,
after having refitted themſelves, they will re-affume their pofts.
REM AR K.
Ir has been propoſed, to avoid being doubled by a fleet fuperior
in numbers, to leave ſpaces in the length of the line, or to place the
ſhips at ſuch a diſtance from each other, as to render the length of
the inferior file equal to that of the order of battle, which is fuperior
in point of number of veffels. But neither theſe manœuvres, nor
any
other of the fort which might be contrived on that ſubject, will
002
ever
286
AN ESSAY ON
ever be of any fervice, if you have to do with opponents of ſkill and
ability; for, theſe will always difpofe their fhips in fuch a manner,
that ſeveral ſhips of the inferior fleet will receive the fire of
many at
onee, and will confequently be obliged foon to give way, or ſtrike.*
ARTICLE
XII.
To force or traverse the enemy's line.
THIS is a manoeuvre the lee fleet may execute to gain the advan-
tage of the wind. It is performed by the van fhip tacking when
perpendicular to the direction of the wind of the center ſhip of the
weather line you mean to traverſe; then all the file goes through
the ſame evolution fucceffively, when within gun-fhot; fo that you
may paſs through the center of the enemy's line, or perhaps a little.
more towards the enemy's van, to go about again in fucceffion to
windward of him. But, as he will not be long, without doubt,
before he performs the fame manœuvre, he will thus be able to
regain the wind, if you do not force him to give way under your
fire before his evolution is finiſhed. The enemy to windward may
even cauſe his van fhip to tack, as well as the reſt of the van-guard
to follow in fucceffion, as foon as the leading ſhip of the lee fleet ſhall
have paffed through his line and be ready to go about, by which
means he will bring them between two fires. This manœuvre well
executed might perhaps give no little trouble to the ſhip attempting
to force the line.
OBSERVATI, O N S.
THIS evolution may be performed with advantage, if, by fome
accident or fault in the manoeuvering, the center divifion of the
weather
* Or perhaps go to the bottom.
1
NAVAL TA C T 1 C S.
287
weather line be ſeparated from their van or rear. For example,
when the center divifion to windward is incumbered with diſabled
ſhips, then thoſe of the center divifion to leeward are, with all fails
fet, to tack in fucceffion, and force with promptitude through the
weather fleet, to augment their diforder, leaving their own van.
diviſion to engage that of the enemy on the other tack.
ARTICLE
XIII.
To prevent the line being forced.
WHEN the lee fleet go about fucceffively, in order to traverſe the
enemy,
the whole line to windward are to tack together and at the
fame time, to get upon the fame board as the enemy, who will
neither be able to join nor to traverſe them.
To perform this evolution with advantage, you muſt let ſome of
the van fhips of the traverfing fleet pafs to windward, then go all
rapidly about, in order to put and keep them between two fires;
thus you may fucceed in deſtroying them, without their own fleet
being able to give them any effectual affiftance.
O-B SER.VATION.
It is eaſy to perceive from what has been faid, that there is little
occafion to fear being traverfed, as fuch a manoeuvre may turn to
be more prejudicial than advantageous to thofe who perform it.
Nevertheleſs, it may and ought to be put in practice when the
weather fleet leave fuch vacancies between their divifions as to allow
ſome ſhips of the lee file to be inactive. In this cafe, the fhips
which are without opponents a-breaſt of them are made to tack,
with all fails fet, in fucceffion, and paſs through theſe intervals of
the weather line, in order to double the center divifion, or any
other part of it, and bring it between two fires; while the other
ſhips
288
AN Ě Š ŠAY ON
ſhips which are a-breaft, and on the other fide of it, cannonade
from to leeward.
✰
ARTICLE XIV.
To bring a fleet to an anchor.
the
A CONSIDERABLE fleet ought to anchor in three parallel lines, at
proper diſtance which the length of the columns generally re-
quire. The ships being a hundred fathoms from each other, in the
line of their head-moft ſhip, which is to be on one of the cloſe
hauled lines of bearing; the van and rear of the columns are to
correſpond with each other exactly in the direction of the wind, that
they may with cafe get under way, and form the order of battle
with facility, ſo as to be able to diſpute the weather gage with the
enemy, if there ſhould come one. As this evolution is to be per-
formed in moderate weather, the fleet being in order on three
columns, they are all at the fame time to bring their fhips head to
wind under their top-fails, and let go their anchors together, in
clewing up the top-fails, with all poffible diſpatch, head to wind;
putting the foot of the fails in the tops, and looſening the ſheets before
hauling them down; then veering away an equal quantity of cable,
to preſerve their diſtances.
OBSERVATION S.
WHEN it blows fo freſh as to require the top-fails being reefed,
two cables length diftance may be kept between the ſhips, and
even three if it be likely to blow hard.
If the fleet do not exceed twenty fhips, they may anchor on one
of the lines of bearing, or parallel to the coaft, in places where
trade winds are common, provided they blow in the direction of
the land; for, in all cafes, they must be in a condition to get under
way at the first fight of the enemy, whofe approach is never to be
waited
NAVAL TACTICS.
289
waited for at an anchor; becauſe, if it be dangerous for a fingle
ſhip, it muſt be ſtill more fo for a fleet, the movements of which
are interrupted by the difficulty there is in getting with celerity under
way fhips which are moored, and which, in that cafe, are not
much able mutually to fupport one another, as it is abfolutely re-
quifite in a fleet.
ARTICLE XV.
To get a fleet under way.
ALL the fleet being ſhort a-peek, the lee column is to get under
way firſt, and bring-to all at the ſame time, juſt as they find themſelves
after cafting. The center column is then to perform the fame ma-
nœuvre, and caſt likewiſe as ſoon as the other column is brought-to;
and both columns will remain in that fame pofition of lying-to as
the lee file, till the weather column which is ſtill a-peek, having.
weighed, ſhould be alfo under way.
OBSERVATIONS.
THE three columns may often be got under way all at once; but,
to execute this, the fleet muſt all act together, and with equal
ardour; for, the weather fhips must not at any rate be under way
before the lee ones.
If it be neceffary to get immediately in order of battle, the weather
columns are at once to bear up two points together, that they may
take their poſts in the line of battle a-head of the third column.
If the fleet be moored on a line and head to wind, the rear ſhip
may get under way firft, and haul immediately by the wind; the
others, in fucceffion, from the rear to the van, can eaſily take their.
ftation in her wake, fo that the rear fhip will become leader.
IF the fleet be moored in a line head to wind, they may all get
under way at the fame time; but the van fhip is to bring-to, while
the
.290
ON
AN ESSAY
the reft, cafting the other way, would ftand on by the wind on the
fame tack on which they have caft, and come to tack fucceffively
in her wake, to form the order of battle.
IF you wiſhed to be more to windward, the fleet having all at the
fame time got under way, and caft all on the fame tack, the van ſhip
might heave about under an eafy fail; and all the reft, continuing
cloſe hauled on the fame tack they got under way, will come, in
fucceffion, in his wake, when they are to stay. Obſerve, at the
fame time, the rear fhips are to carry all poffible ſail.
ARTICLE
XVI.
To put a fleet in a pofition of defence in a road-ftead.
WHEN a road-ſtead is fufficiently ſpacious, and the entrance not
too much extended, the ſhips are to be moored with ſprings, in two
parallel lines from the entrance to the bottom of the bay; the van
ſhip ſo near the land that it ſhould be impoffible for the
enemy to
paſs between them and the shore, and he may be obliged to pafs
between the two lines, the van fhips of which muſt be ſupported by
good batteries on fhore, at the two extremities of the boom, which
they must take care to have conſtructed from one fide to the other,
when poffible, or only before the ſhips if it cannot be done other-
wife. Befides this, there are to be gun-boats deftined to poft them-
felves at pleaſure a-head or a-ftern of the ſhips attempting to force
the port. There are alſo to be fire-ſhips moored within the points,
that they may be to windward of the enemy after they have got into
the port, fuppofing them to have been able to force the entrance.
-
ARTICLE
XVII.
Reflections on the best method of fighting at fea.
BOARDING ever was, for the French, the moſt advantageous
method of fighting. In the Second Part of this Work, I have
treated
NAVAL TACTIC S.
291
treated very minutely on the manoeuvres of boarding between two
fingle fhips. In the Third Part, I have entered into the particulars
both of the difpofitions of the fhip, and the exerciſe of the crew,
which are requifite to effectuate boarding. There remains therefore
for me, in the preſent Part, but to give it as a rule that our fleets
and ſquadrons ſhould adopt that mode of fighting which is ſo deci-
five for us in which cafe, this is the method I would recommend
to put it in execution.
WHEN, with an equality of forces, you find yourſelf to windward
of your enemy, and able to attack him by drawing near, within
piſtol-ſhot of him, according to the principle heretofore laid down,
and ſo as not to be enfiladed, as we have explained it already, the
Admiral ſhould give the ſignal for boarding at the fame time
as he gives that for beginning the engagement, provided the enemy
has not begun to fire firft. Then, each fhip, under the protection
of a ſtrong and well-ferved fire on its fide, would manoeuver the
proper way for boarding her opponent in the hoftile line, without
ſtriking her ſprit-fail, for fear of diſcovering her intention. This
bold and unexpected movement being executed at one and the fame
inftant, throughout the whole fleet or fquadron, could not but be
very advantageous to the affailants, ſhould there even be only a part
of that general boarding which turned out fucceſsfully; becauſe,
fuch of the ſhips as fhould have met with fuccefs would, however,
take away from the enemy a portion of their force, and fuch as
ſhould have been repelled would have, in all likelihood, done as
much damage to the enemy as they might have received, and might
alſo, in the end, be fupported by thoſe of their comrades which
ſhould have been conquerors. To conclude, I declare it here then
as my firm opinion, that fuch an attempt can in no wife be difad-
vantageous, eſpecially if, in fuch a bufinefs, care is taken never to
oppoſe to the enemy any but ſhips of equal force.
WHEN you are inferior in point of number, boarding is again the
only expedient you can take; as it is the only reſource of the feeble
Pp
10
292
AN ESSAY ON
to fhew audacity, and the only glorious manœuvre which can be
reſolved upon. It is received as a fact, no longer to be diſputed,
that you can be but worſted if you ſpend your time in cannonading.
If you are the ftrongeft, boarding is the quickeſt method of
putting an end to an engagement. By that mean you ſpare your
men and the maftings of your fquadron, which is much lefs in
danger of being diſabled in ſuch an attack, than when expoſed to
your enemy's broad-fide firing. In a word, I am fully perfuaded
that BOARDING is the only method of fighting in which the French
can come off with honour, advantage, and glory.*
ARTICLE
Of the convoy of merchant ships, under the protection of men of war.
To take the requifite care of a large fleet, there ſhould be in the
convoy a number of frigates, which are to be diftributed a-head,
a-ſtern, and on the wings of the fleet, who are always to be kept in
the order of convoy on three, four, five, or fix columns, according
to the number it may be compofed of: fome other frigates are alſo
to be ſent on the look-out, in order to be informed of what paffes
at a certain diſtance, and warned in good time of the approach of
the enemy.
IF the frigates which are fent to look out, fhould diſcover an
enemy of fuperior force, they will make it known by fignal, and
fteer a different courfe from that of the fleet, in order to deceive the
hoftile ſhips in fight.
THE men of war are to hold themſelves in the order of convoy a
little a-head and to windward of the weather column of the fleet;
becauſe, in that pofition, they will be able with promptitude to
attend
XVIII.
* And why ſhould it not be the fame for any other nation ?
NAVAL TACTICS.
TACTI
293
attend wherever their preſence may be neceffary. The frigates will
repeat the fignals from one to another with celerity and exactnefs,
that their purport may, with all poffible celerity, be made known
to the commanding officer, who, on the other hand, muſt not
neglect to have all fufpicious and neuter fhips chafed, and even
ſtopped, by the frigates about him, and which are always to be
fupported by one or two line-of-battle ſhips, according to the exi-
gency of circumſtances.
THE degree of celerity in the progreſs of the whole fleet will be
regulated by that of the worſt-going fhips, which, however, are to
be abandoned when found to caufe too great a lofs of time; for,
ſometimes it is better to riſk a ſmall lofs, than to expofe the whole
by delay.
THERE will be placed between the columns, floops of war, and
other fwift-failing light veffels, to maintain order, and keep the
ſhips in their ſtations. Their particular buſineſs will be to get the
tardy ſhips to make more fail, and to oblige thoſe which may be out
of their poſt to reſume it; in the evening they will give an account,
to the frigates having charge of going the round, of thoſe which
have not well manoeuvered; and theſe will make their report to the
Commodore.
DURING the night the fame order will be maintained, except
with reſpect to the look-out frigates, which are to be called in
within a certain diſtance of the fleet, and which are to be allowed
lights as well as the reſt of the men of war. They are to be parti-
cularly careful to oblige all ſtraggling fhips to return to the convoy,
and to fire, without heſitating, on all ſtrange veffels coming from the
main fea, in order to give the alarm. Every night they are to be
ſupported on the wings by fome line-of-battle ſhips.
Pp2
ARTICLE
294
AN ESSAY ON
ARTICLE
XIX.
To force the entrance of a port.
:
THE attack of the entrance of a well-defended port may be confi-
dered as a piece of the moſt exquiſite refinement, ſkill, and intre-
pidity, in the art of manoeuvering for, to execute it with any
degree of certitude in the fuccefs, a great knowledge of the ſtrength
and fituation of the place you are going to attack is abſolutely neceſ-
fary, that
your difpofitions may be made accordingly, by diſtributing,
on a plan of attack, the ſhips of the line, frigates, bomb-ketches,
and fire-fhips, to the greateſt advantage poffible, that not only they
may be but little expofed to the batteries which defend the port, but
alſo able, on the contrary, to deſtroy them and facilitate the paffage.
I am well aware that there are ports, the attack of which by fea
may be looked upon as impoffible, on account of the force of their
garriſon, of the elevation and proximity of batteries of all kinds,
which may be eſtabliſhed on both fides of a narrow entrance, which
may be farther fortified by a boom, ſupported by batteries at each
extremity, as well as by men of war, fire-fhips, and gun-boats,
properly difpofed; in ſhort, by all the means which naval and mili-
tary war can offer to the imagination of officers of experience and
ability, who have at heart to defend a poſt with which they were
intruſted. But, as, by the help of marine forces, there are a
number of ways by which fortifications, of the beſt and moſt ſkilful
conſtruction, on fhore and along the coaft, may be attacked; we are
going to treat in general of that ſubject, without confining our-
felves to a fingle occurrence, which can never be conclufive for all
occafions, when we come to confider the almoſt infinite diverſity of
places and fituations which may be met with.
WE have but few examples of harbours being forced when
well fortified and defended. We fhall, however, mention the
entrance
1
}
NAVAL TACTIC S.
295
entrance of Rio-Janeiro, in Brafil, which the celebrated GUAY
TROUIN forced in the order of convoy on one line, with his line-
of-battle ſhips a-head, and the frigates and ftore-ſhips bringing up
the rear.
THIS action alone is fufficient to prove that the entrance of any
port, which has no other fortification than batteries of cannon, may
at any time be forced, when affifted by a favourable wind to penetrate
into it. For, there is not a line-of-battle ſhip but can fupport the
firſt fire of a battery on fhore, which the with vivacity returns as the
paffes, befides her being fupported by her comrades a-ftern, which
begin to open their fire nearly at the fame time, in fucceeding one
another with promptitude, fince there ought not to be above one
hundred fathoms between a fhip and her fecond. Therefore, fup-
poſing there might be even no more than twenty fail of the line to
paſs a battery, it follows, that the rear fhips, which are always the
weakest, will not receive a very heavy fire, as the batteries on ſhore
muſt be extremely fhattered after being expofed to fo heavy a can-
nonade, particularly if the fhips were near enough, and ferved
their fire with.fhot and langrage; for, otherwife, they could not be
much injured.
AFTER all, guns on fhore are not fo confiderable an obſtacle to
the paffage; for, a fhip advances with great celerity, and hardly any
but
1
* The Author ſhould not have forgotten here that moſt eminent tranſaction of.
the fame kind by SIR GEORGE ROOKE, at Vigo, in the year 1702.
+ That of SIR GEORGE Rooke will prove alſo that neither a boom, nor the
moſt able difpofition of things, is proof againſt ſteady ability and reſolution,
when ſeconded by a leading gale, as the gallant HOPSON, in the Torbay, clearly
evinced on that occafion.
A cable's length, or lefs, is the meaſure, in which cafe no fort can withstand
their fire (red-hot ſhot apart). But, if the diſtance exceed a hundred fathoms, the
batteries will not be fo materially damaged.
•
·
卓
​296
AN ESSAY ON
but the first four or five fhips can fuffer confiderably from the
enemy's cannon: the very reaſon why fuch care is taken to employ
the heavieſt ſhips in the van, and to take advantage of a fair wind
and tide, without letting the land enemy have time to recollect
themſelves, and feizing the firſt moment of ſurpriſe occafioned by
the fudden appearance of a fleet, the rapid movements of which
cannot be foreſeen to be intended fooner for one particular part of
the coaſt than another, if they are all of a nature to be equally chofen
by the fleet for directing the attack upon. But the neck, or narrow
entrance of a port, forced under fail, has interior batteries which
are perpetually fucceeding one another, and the firft fire of which
the firſt ſhips a-head are inceffantly expofed to endure. This fer-
vice is fevere undoubtedly, and of long ſtanding out; but, after all,
it is not fuch an obftacle as not to be overcome; and certainly con-
queft cannot be expected without ftriking a blow; for nothing is fo
natural as to expect to meet with as good a defence as you make an
attack. The ſecond batteries must then be cleared like the firſt,
&c. &c.
If the neck, or entrance of a road-ſtead, harbour, or bay, be
fufficiently wide for two fhips to enter a-breaft without encum-
bering each other, the mouth of the port may be forced in the order
of convoy in two columns, the ſtrongeſt and heavieſt ſhips leading,
as they can beſt ſuſtain the firſt fire, which, in theſe circumſtances,
is the moſt dangerous. Then the fleet is to be formed in the order
of convoy on two lines, if the paffage and the depth of the water
permit; becauſe, then the fhips will be expofed to the fire of the
land batteries but on one fide only, and by that mean the riſk of
every ſhip will confequently be nearly one half diminiſhed. But,
in either of theſe two circumftances of attack, the Admiral ought
perfectly to know the poft he means to infult, the forces of the
enemy, the difpofition of their batteries on fhore, the face of the
country, and the fituation of the coaft; that he may be able to
judge
ļ
C
1
NAVAL TACTIC S.
297
judge of the value of the obftacles he has to furmount, and foreſee,
confequently, the difpofitions he will be obliged to give his fhips,
and preſcribe beforehand to every one in particular her manœuvre,
and what ſhe is to do during and after the attack. He is further
to inform them, alſo, that if in the entrance any of the ſhips of the
van, or others, ſhould be difmafted or funk, thoſe which follow
next are to paſs a little to windward or leeward of her, without
ſtopping, ſtill puſhing their aim, and cloſing the file to fill
up the
vacancy; warning them again, that in caſe any ſhould be diſabled,
ſhe is to retire from the paffage, in manoeuvering in the beſt and
moſt rapid manner in her power, that ſhe may not obftruct her
comrades; admoniſhing them all in general, to avoid, above all
things, running foul of each other, rather than which they are to
run a-ground on the enemy's fhore, if it can no longer be avoided,.
after having defended themſelves to the laſt extremity.
WHEN the entrance of a port is fufficiently narrow to be traverſed
by a boom, fupported by batteries at each extremity, men of war
poſted within, fire-fhips, gun-boats, and bomb-batteries on each
fide; then the attack muſt be carried on in a different manner.
Perhaps it will be found neceffary to warp the fhips to their ftations;
or they will be able to reach their pofts under fail, and anchor with
their ſprings, which would be more convenient and expeditious
than if obliged to be hauled by means of their boats in the night.
However it may be, the bombs are to be poſted as near as poffible
to the fortification they are to bombard, and fo fituated that the fire
from the forts may act as much obliquely as circumſtances will
admit, that they may be lefs incommoded in their operations.
Ships are to be anchored at the fame time with ſprings oppofite to
every battery of cannon and mortars, as well as againſt the veſſels
which are placed to fupport and defend the boom. This general
attack is to be feconded by ſhips ready, with the utmoſt celerity, to
take the poſts of fuch as may be diſabled, and in fuch a manner,
that
298
AN ESSAY ON
that the interval of firing may be as fhort as poffible. There are to be
gun-boats, fhips launches, and other boats of the fleet, manned and
armed with an Officer each, to aflift the fhips in quitting or refuming
their poſts, as alſo to tow fire-fhips clear out of the fleet. Every en-
deavour is to be uſed to deſtroy the epaulements of the enemy's
mortar-batteries, by levelling them and filencing their fire; for,
they are what is moſt dangerous for the fhipping, as one bomb of
thirteen inches may diſable
diſable a ſhip more than an hundred cannon-
ſhot. As foon as it is perceived that the fire ſupporting the enemy's
boorn begins to flacken, the fire-fhips and gun-boats are not to fail
to attack them with redoubled efforts, in order to break and force a
paffage to the fhips which defend the boom. The fire-fhips are
always to be placed to windward of the machines attacked; and,
if
you fucceed in clearing the entrance, you are to heave the lead to
try if there be water enough, or if there are not fome veffels funk
on purpoſe to retard the paffage of your line-of-battle ſhips, which
are immediately to fail to the attack of thofe which defend the pafs
within the boom. Thefe fhips are to be followed by the frigates
and gun-boats, which are to endeavour to take the batteries in
flank. If the mouth of the harbour can be forced in this manner,
the forts not yet reduced are to be abandoned, and, continuing your
entrance, you make your deſcent, if it has not been made from
fome other quarter by a detachment of the fleet, as might be the
cafe, fince it is always beſt to divide the attention of the enemy,
when circumſtances, pofition of the coaft, and the acting forces,
admit of it.
ARTICLE
To make a deſcent in an enemy's country.
DESCENTS are generally made in roads, bays, or inlets, where
the furf is not confiderable: for, if the fea run high, a landing
would
XX.
NAVAL TACTIC S.
299
would be nearly as impracticable as on a ſteep and rocky fhore,
unless effected by fome lucky and unexpected event. But as we are
here to ſpeak of a defcent made openly, and by force, notwith-
ſtanding it may be vigorously oppofed, it is neceffary that the
flat-bottomed boats fhould be fupported, before and during their
operations, by the fire from fome fhips. Therefore, when the
Admiral ſhall have made the neceffary difpofitions for the diſtribution
and arrangement of the flat-bottomed boats, on board the men of
war and tranſports which may have brought them, he will make
them all aſſemble together at a particular place, after he ſhall have
well examined the coaft, and fettled the plan of his real and feint
attacks: then, if along fhore, and at the place where he means to
throw the greateſt part of his forces, he perceives there are barricades
and ſmall batteries capable of preventing the landing of his boats,
he will fend line-of-battle fhips, frigates, and bomb-ketches, to
moor with a ſpring against every little battery, and every principal
fort, to cannonade them with all poffible vigour, and give them
orders, at the fame time, to redouble their fire where it is his inte-
reſt the enemy ſhould believe he means to make the real attack.
My
WHEN it is perceived that the fire from fome of the batteries, in
the places attacked, flackens, all the boats of the fleet improper for
landing troops, are to be detached to another place to make a feint;
while one fourth of the boats intended for the real deſcent, followed,
within muſket-fhot, by an equal number of fimilar boats rowing,
and failing if the wind permits, will go and range themſelves near
the ſhips which cannonade the place where the landing is to be
attempted, and by which they are to be afterwards fupported.
WHEN they are ranged in a line a-breaſt parallel to the coaſt they
mean to attack, at about two oars length diſtance from each other,
and ſupported at the center and on the wings by gun-boats, which
are to take care not to get a-ground; the fecond file is to form
a-ftern of them, in fuch a manner that every boat may ftem within
Qq
piftol-
:
}
300
AN ESSAY
ON
pistol-ſhot, for the middle of the interval between the boats of the
firſt line, without any of them being a-ftern of the gun-boats, who
are to have room to make a ftern board when they think proper, to
avoid grounding, and to be able to poft themſelves on the wings
while the flat-bottomed boats are landing. Theſe difpofitions being
carefully made, all this little fleet are to pull together and with ra-
pidity towards the ſhore, attentively preferving their order till they
arrive at the beach. If, in fpite of the fire of the ſhips, there be
troops to receive them from behind their retrenchments, the finall
pieces every boat carries on her ftern are to be fired; and the gun-
boats, running in as far as poffible, fhall ſupport them by every
effort in their power, while all the boats run on fhore, if the enemy
give way.
Then the foldiers fhall leap out of the boats, the water
not being higher than their knees, and form on the fhore as well as
circumſtances will admit, and the veffels will ceafe firing, unleſs
the enemy be at a diſtance from your troops. If the deſcent ſucceeds
in this manner, the boats of the fecond line are, with the utmoſt
fpeed, to run on fhore between thofe of the firft, and land alfo their
troops; and, without lofs of time, the whole referve fhould then
be ſent to the place to complete the deſcent.
SHOULD this firft attack meet with repulfe, you have nothing to
do but to feign a ſecond attempt at the fame place, by adding all
the rear boats to thoſe which had formed the former attack, and
giving, at the fame time, the ſignal to the launches of the fleet's
ſhips to come and join them, that thereby the enemy may be en-
gaged to vacate the place for which the referved boats are to make.
When that fecond attack, the difpofitions of which ſhould purpoſely.
have been dragged a little in length, begins to be engaged, then
the boats deſtined for the true and principal attack ſhould be
diſpatched, with the grenadiers of the troops on board, on two lines
parallel to the coafts, towards the intended fpot, under the pro-
tection of the fire from the fhips, frigates, and bomb-ketches, and
fupported
NAVAL TACTICS.
301
1
1
At
fupported on the center, and on the wings of the gun-boats.
the very moment that, under the protection of their own fire
a-head, the first line of thefe boats would run a-fhore, the fecond,
with all might and main, fhould do the fame, in the interval
between the boats of the firft; that thereby the troops may, in
proportion as they form reciprocally, affift each other in entrench-
ing themſelves: then, all the boats of the mock attack are to be
fent for, to come with all poffible fpeed, with fails and oars, and
join with thofe already landed, and increaſe the forces. The naval
officers who command the flat-bottomed boats, muft take care, as
foon as the troops are landed, to keep their boats a-float, ready to
receive and carry off the foldiers who might be repulfed; wherefore,
they are to have their heads off fhore, and their fwivels ready to
fire, if cafe require: as for the fhips, they are to remain with their
fprings on, till recalled by the Admiral's fignals.
OBSERVATION S.
If a fleet, which I fuppofe to confift of two hundred tranfports,
more or leſs, has no occafion to be more than two or three months
at fea; there may be put on board each fhip of three hundred tons,
deſtined to carry troops, two hundred foldiers, with their officers,
provifions, and ammunition neceffary for forty days at leaft, without
reckoning the ship's company. Every fhip must carry, befides her
long-boat, a flat-bottomed boat of thirty feet long; then, there
will confequently be, two hundred flat-bottomed boats, and a like
number of launches on board this fleet.
SUCH an expedition requires an eſcort of at leaſt ten fail of the
line, ten frigates from twenty to thirty guns, with fix bomb-ketches,
and twenty gun-boats decked: the fhips of the line muſt have, at
leaft, three boats, including the launch fit for this fervice, the frigates
two, and the bomb-ketches one; which will increaſe the number of
boats to ſeventy-fix. Such a convoy ſhould be fupported, alſo, by
Q q 2
a fleet
302
AN ESSAY ON
>
a fleet of obſervation, of forty or fifty fail of the line, fixteen frigates,
and fome fire-ſhips: with fuch difpofitions there are few coaſts
which might not be attacked with a moral certainty of ſucceſs.
EACH flat-bottomed boat ought to be lightly built, and fo difpofed
as to carry fifty foldiers with their officers, a ſmall chaſe-gun, two
gunners, ten rowers, a cock-fwain, and one fea-officer. According
to this diſpoſition, ten thouſand men may be landed at once, in
admitting, for premiſes, that the fecond line of boats may come
almoſt at the fame time, into the intervals between the firft, and
that the coaft (when the defcent is made) admits of a hundred boats
when they are all joined, being extended a-breaft of each other,
which is no more than fix hundred fathoms extent, if
you allow
thirty-fix feet ſpace for each boat in the line; fo that the troops
on the wings, at the greateſt diſtance from the center, on which
they may fall back if requifite, will not have above three hundred
fathoms to march, and re-affemble in order to form in feveral
columns, which can be done with fo much more advantage, as they
may be ſupported by the fire from the fhips, and that of the gun-
boats which are on the wings, and are at liberty to direct their fire
according as circumſtances require. At the time of landing, the
gun-boats of the center, are immediately to make for the wing
which appears moft in need of their affiftance.
IF the fhore where the attack is formed does not admit of
directing it on many places at once, or of any feints; or if the
general, ſhould deem it improper to divide the boats to make fuch
mock-affaults; all the boats of the fleet, loaded with troops, are to
follow within mufket-fhot, in order to land after the firft defcent, at
the place appointed by the general officers. The Admiral's majors
and major-adjutants ought to be provided with boats of a fuperior
fwiftnefs, to carry his orders wherever he may think neceffary,
during the action. When the landing is effected, and the
troops of
the firſt deſcent are pofted, all the boats are to be expeditioully fent
back
}
NAVAL TACTIC S.
303
back to fetch the remainder of the troops, and finish the landing;
for, in ſuch expeditions it is the rapidity of the execution which
decides the fuccefs.
Ar landing, in the firſt inſtant of a coup-de-main, the fear of
damaging the boat is not to be of any confideration; and they muſt
be run ſtem on to the beach, without caring whether they will be
ftranded or not; for it is no more than muſt be expected in thoſe
operations which require vivacity and courage, and which always
are as many occafions of triumph for the French Nation, whoſe
natural petulancy is an inceffant incitement to feek for glory, in..
every circumſtance where activity is required for attacking.
1
CHAPTER
A Plan of Signals.
SIGNALS are to be plain, fimple, and fufceptible of large
extent. I do not think there ever were any ſo complete and perfect,
in every reſpect, as thofe which were invented and practifed by
M. LA BOURDONAYE: he had made ufe of Pendants, as being, of
all the flags, the moſt eaſy to fix to any part of a ſhip. It was
agreed that each Pendant would mean a certain particular number;
and that ſeveral Pendants, meaning each a particular number, being
placed one above another, would ſtand as figures. Thus, it was eafy
to know the number of each fignal, becaufe the value of each:
Pendant was made to depend on its particular colour, as follows:
The Red Pendant was worth 1
The White
2
The Blue
3
The Yellow
4
The Red, with White Tail
5
VI..
!
The Red, with Blue Tail
The White, with Blue Tail
The White, with Red Tail
The Blue, with Yellow Tail
The Blue, with Red Tail
6
7
ico
8
*
9
O
A
WITH
304
AN ESSAY ON
WITH this management, an infinite number of fignals may be con-
trived and varied in the fame manner. You have only to provide
three or four pendants of the fame colour, that the fame fignal may.
be multiplied three or four times running, and produce, for example,
fuch fignal as 33, or 444, or again 8888, and finally, all the kinds
of fignals, which may be imagined and contrived by means of
numbers. Thoſe ſignals are to be hoisted to any maſt, or yard,
according as it is to ſuch or ſuch a ſhip you wiſh to ſpeak; and ſuch
parts are to be preferred to hoift them on, which are moſt expoſed
to view. The upward Pendant, for example, may ſignify 1, the
next under it will mean 2, the next in defcending 3, and the next 4.
Therefore, having agreed that N° 170, ſhould mean, Arm your
launch for a deſcent; that fignal is to be made by hoifting three
Pendants, one above another, at the fame gear; the first of which is
to be Red, the fecond, White, with Blue Tail, the third, Yellow,
with Red Tail; and then the fignal will be ſeen in the following
form:
Red Pendant
White Pendant, with Blue Tail
Yellow Pendant, with Red Tail
7
170-Arm your launch
for a defcent.
SHOULD YOU want to make ſeveral fignals at a time, and at the
fame gear; then each fignal is to be feparated from the other by a
ſmall red flag, without a point, which will ferve as a coma between
various fignals.
It will be proper to have thoſe Pendants of the deepeſt colours in
their kinds, ſuch as dark blue, fcarlet, orpiment, and white.
A TABLE of all the fignals must be compofed, in the first column
of which are to be inferted all the numbers regularly, and in their
natural
NAVAL TACTICs.
305
+
•
natural order; in the fecond column is to be fet down in the
alphabetical order what each fignal means: as for example,
575-Abordons l'Ennemi: that is to fay, let us board the Enemy.
576-Abandonnez le Vaiffeau que vous battez: that is to ſay,..
Abandon the ship you are engaged with.
You muſt carefully obſerve to referve for the ſignals of action, the
numbers which are formed with the first figures, that they may
be indicated with no more than one or two pendants.
ONE and the ſame particular colour, is to be given to all the ſhips.
of each divifion, by means of which it may, at any time, be known
which the belongs to.
NONE of the national flags, broad-pendants, or colours, which
ſerve to mark and diſtinguiſh the divifions from each other, are ever
to be made ufe of for, or underſtood as, a fignal.
As, when at fea, one is expofed to make a great many queſtions,.
the ſhip, to which thoſe queſtions are made, is to anſwer them
inftantly, by a fignal of affirmation, or negation, meaning a plain.
aye or no, without any preamble, &c. &c.
ARTICLE
I.
Of Day-fignals, when far a-part one from another.
M. la BOURDONNAYE, whofe genius always prompted him to
ſtrike out new and ufeful inventions, contrived this fpecies of
SIGNALS, for the handinefs of getting himſelf underſtood by a
whole fleet, by means of Pendants and Flags. Accordingly, you
are then to make uſe of the four colours, White, Red, Blue, and
Yellow, becauſe they are all very ftriking colours; and, to place
them by way of fignals, you are to make use of the enfign-ftaff,.
the mizen-yard, the mizen top-gallant maft, the main top-gallant
maft, and the fore top-gallant maft; obferving that the firft.
figure.
+
306
AN ESSAY ON
!
figure, that is to fay, that which is to be put up firſt, in making
the fignals, will be fignified by the White and Blue pendants
wherever they may be placed; the fecond will be known by the
Red and Yellow pendants; the third by the Yellow and Red flags.
The figure 1, of the first column, or that which makes the hundreds,
in the uſual way of fetting figures on paper, will be ſpecified by
the White Pendant at the flag-ſtaff; fig. 2, at the mizen-yard;
fig. 3, at the mizen top-gallant maſt; fig. 4, at the main top-gallant
maſt; fig. 5, at the fore top-gallant maft; fig. 6, by the Blue
Pendant at the flag-ſtaff; fig. 7, at the mizen-yard; fig. 8, at the
mizen top-gallant maft; fig. 9, at the main top-gallant maft;
fig. o, at the fore top-gallant maſt.
THE figure 1, of the fecond column (or that which in the ufual
way of writing is reputed the tenths), and which muſt be taken
down as the ſecond figure in the fignal, will be expreffed by the
Red Pendant at the enfign-ftaff; fig. 2, at the mizen-yard; fig. 3,
at the mizen top-gallant maft; fig. 4, at the main top-gallant
maſt; fig. 5, at the fore top-gallant maſt; fig. 6, by the Yellow
Pendant at the flag-ſtaff; fig. 7, at the mizen-yard; fig. 8, at the
mizen top-gallant maſt; fig. 9, at the main top-gallant maſt; fig. 0,
at the fore top-gallant maft.
THE figure 1, of the third column (according to the ufual way of
writing, where it is reputed the unites), and which is to be taken
down as the third figure in the fignal, will be expreffed by the
Yellow Flag a-ftern; fig. 2, at the mizen-yard; fig. 3, at the
mizen top-gallant maſt; fig. 4, at the main top-gallant maſt; fig. 5,
at the fore top-gallant maſt; fig. 6, by the Red Flag a-ſtern; fig. 7,
at the mizen-yard; fig. 8, at the mizen top-gallant maſt; fig. 9, at
the main top-gallant maft; fig. o, at the fore top-gallant maſt.
THIS once fettled and agreed upon, you may make as many
fignals as you pleaſe: for example, fhould you want to ſignal
Nº 105, you have only to hoift the White Pendant at the flag-ſtaff;
}
the
NAVAL TACTIC S.
307
the Yellow at the fore top-gallant maſt, and the Yellow Flag beneath
the Pendant of the fore top-gallant maft; in which cafe the fail is
to be hauled down, if it be fet, as well as the diftinguishing flag.
Should the ſignal 297 be wanting, the way to fhow it will be a
White Pendant at the mizen-yard, a Yellow one at the main top-
gallant maſt, and a Red Flag at the mizen yard, beneath the White
Pendant. The fignal 333 will be executed by a White Pendant at
the mizen top-gallant maſt, a Red one at the fame maſt beneath the
White, and the Yellow Flag beneath theſe two on the fame maſt.
Finally, were you to fignal 123, White Pendant a-ftern, Red at the
mizen-yard, and Yellow Flag at the main top-gallant maft, would be
the way.
ARTICLE
II.
Of Signals in misty or foggy weather.
IN mifty or foggy weather, fignals cannot be made otherwife
but by the firing of the great-guns, and mufkets; fometimes, alſo,
it is done by the ringing of the bells, and at other times by the
beating of the drums. The difference between the Admiral's, and
their reſpective divifions, is, in thoſe cafes, made fenfible, either by
the number of guns, or the mode of firing, or that of drumming.
ARTICLE
III.
1
Of Night-Signals.
NIGHT-SIGNALS are to be expreffed by lights, and gun-firings;
on the value of which it muſt have been agreed beforehand: for
example, each light will tell for one, and each gun-firing ſeven, more
or lefs, according as may be agreed upon; fo that, if you want to
fignal Nº 27, you fire two guns, after having put three lights
wherever
Rr
308
AN ESSAY, &c.
wherever you pleaſe, provided they are placed in the most con-
fpicuous place; and that fignal is to be repeated by the repeating-
frigate.-Six lights, and four guns will, therefore, make 34, and
fo on.
WHEN you wish not to be heard at a diſtance, you have but to burn
out fome flaſhes in the pan, or fire ſome muſkets, or ſwivels, inſtead
of great-guns.
WHEN you want to know how many fhips you are together, or
give your comrades notice of your being there, it may be done by
firing ſquibs, or ſky-rockets: but theſe muſt never be uſed as ſignals,
on account of their being ſo liable to mifs; and that, being obliged
to fet fire to fome others, it would only perplex the fignal; eſpecially
when the gale is ſtrong, and the ſea ſwelled.
THE mode of making night-ſignals by means of numbers, is
the cleareſt and plaineſt of all; for you have only to reckon the
number of lights to be informed of them, though ever ſo far at a
diſtance. Should you, on the contrary, content yourſelf with
placing your light in fuch or fuch a particular place of the ſhip, it
would often be very difficult to fee where they are placed, eſpecially
if your ſhip was ſeen obliquely, either from head to ſtern, or from
ftern to head. Now, again, fhould your ship have much pitching,
or rolling, it might happen thoſe to windward would have know-
ledge of your light, while thofe to leeward would fee nothing.
Hence many miſtakes might ariſe, which will never happen, if you
make your fignals as we have explained it.
FINI S.
#1
( 309 )
Page Line
ibid.
ibid.
34
72
73
777
70
77
for top-gallant, read top-gallant fail
for fore-top yard, read fore-top fail yard
35, penult. for in the main fore-top fhrouds, read in the fore-top-maft shrouds
66
dele quite home
69
71
78
79
80
87
91
93
97
103
116
129
130
131
132
135
149
170
171
174
185
201
7 for ones, read one
5
for furfaces only, when, read furfaces, only when
for diminiſhed: therefore, read fmaller: fo that
for theſe being confidered, read as being confidered only
dele little
13
16
24
25
26
9
9
21
ERRAT A.
for tally, read and ſheet home
for higheft, read greateſt
9 for fwings, read rides
17 for enough, read caft fufficiently
20 dele off
26 for fore-top ftay-fail, read fore-top-maft ftay fail
dele
up
5
4
20 for windward, read leeward
13 for filled, read hauled or braced about
30 for fill, read trim
3
5
for filled, read hauled
for off all, read of all
for makes, read builds
Note
11
16
8 for the top-fail, read the fore top-fail
for a-dry, read a-try
for to be chapelling, read to build a chapel
for fore-fails, read head-fails
for right aft the yard, defe the yard
1
22 for heaved fhort, read ſhot
19 for on board, read hard
1 for fatigued, read ſtrained
28 for furled, read brailed
14 for ride, read come
29 for caft, read fix
31 for fatiguing, read ftraining
25 between fide and of, add furface
4 for foftnefs or hardneſs, read eafinefs or violence
17 for hardeſt, read moft violent
1 for or tally, read the tacks or fheet of
2 for a-head than a-ftern, read foreward than abaft
29 for to put or tack, read to tack or put
5 for fhelter at leaſt, read ſhelter (at leaſt
ibid. for fome, read from
6 for bullets, read bullets)
212, Note, l. ult. for truſted, read thrufted
224
26 for Rear-Admiral, read Vice-Admiral
27 for broad pendant, read flag
232, Note, 1. 8, for five, read four.
277,15&23 for file, read fill
282
21 for by, read in.
DIRECTIONS TO THE BINDER.
to face Page 64
Plate I, II, and III, of Ta&ics,
I, II, III, IV and V of Evolutions
234
VI
239
VII
244
VIII
250
IX
258
X
264
||||
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
ditto
•
Just published, neatly printed in One Volume,
Price, in Boards, 6s..
ESSAY c
O.N
AN
SIGNAL S
4.
CONTAIN. IN G
Eleven Copper-Plate Prints of FLAG and BATTLE SIGNALS,
+
NEATLY COLOURED,
And Five Plates of NIGHT-SIGNALS upon a New Plan.
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