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STANFORD'S
GEOLOGICAL ATLAS
GREAT BRITAIN
[Based on Reynolds's Geological Atlas]
WITH PLATES OF CHARACTERISTIC FOSSILS
PRECEDED BY A
DESCRIPTION OF THE GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF
GREAT BRITAIN AND ITS COUNTIES; AND OF
THE FEATURES OBSERVABLE ALONG THE
PRINCIPAL LINES OF RAILWAY
HORACE B. WOODWARD, F.R.S., F.G.S.
LONDON: EDWARD STANFORD
12, 13, & 14, LONG ACRE, W.C.
1904
PREFACE
REYNOLDS's Geological Atlas has long been regarded as a useful
companion and guide to those, journeying on business or
pleasure in Great Britain, who take interest in the geology of
the country. The first edition, issued in 1860, was prepared
with the assistance of Professor John Morris; and the second
edition, published in 1889, was revised by Mr. Robert
Etheridge.
In the present volume the general plan of the older work has
been followed, but the text has been entirely re-written; fuller
descriptions of the geological formations with lists of localities
for fossils have been given; the particulars relating to each
county bave been amplified, regard being paid to the more
interesting geological facts, irrespective of the size or industrial
importance of the county, and notes on sea-side resorts have
been appended ; finally, descriptions of the geological features
observable along the main lines of railway have been added.
A few of the original text-illustrations have been retained ;
others have been borrowed from Sir Andrew C. Ramsay's
Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. The figures
of fossils are reproduced chiefly from Lowry's Tabular View of
Characteristic British Fossils and from his Chart of Characteristic
British Tertiary Fossils ; others are taken from the Chart of
Fossil Crustacea, arranged by Mr. J. W. Salter and Dr. Henry
135435
PREPACE
Woodward, and a few are from Ramsay's Physical Geology.
These illustrations will serve to indicate the forms of the
leading fossils that are to be met with in our stratified
formations.
The maps in the original atlas were based to a large extent
on those of the Geological Survey, and they have been revised,
as far as the scale has permitted, from the later published maps
of that institution, with the help also of Sir Archibald Geikie's
Geological Map of Scotland.
The writer is indebted to Dr. John Horne, Mr. E. T. Newton,
Mr. F. W. Rudler, and Mr. B. B. Woodward, for friendly
advice and assistance.
H. B. W.
HAMPSTEAD.
12th April, 1904.
CONTENTS
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
•
PAGE
1
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN
IGNEOUS Rocks
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC Rocks.
T
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN-
ENGLAND .
ISLE OF MAN
WALES
SCOTLAND.
102
103
106
FEATURES OBSERVABLE ALONG THE PRINCIPAL LINES
OF RAILWAY
I. LONDON, TILBURY AND SOUTIEND
II. GREAT EASTERN
. . .
III. GREAT NORTHERN; Nontı EASTERN; AND NONTI
BRITISHI
IV. MIDLAND; GLASGOW AND SOUTI WESTERN . .
V. LONDON AND Nortu WESTERN ; CALEDONIAN; HIGH-
LAND .
VI. GREAT CENTRAL
VII. GREAT WESTERN
VIII. LONDON AND SOUTH WESTERN .
IX. LONDON, BRIGHTON AND SOUTI COAST
X. SOUTH EASTERN AND CHATHAM
INDEX . . . . . .
113
118
120
131
135
LIST OF SECTIONS AND VIEWS
PAGE
FIG. 1. SECTION FROM TIE GRAMPIANS TO THE LABIMENMUIR HILLS
,
,
2. SECTION ACROSS TIE PENNINE ANTICLINE
3. SECTION FROM NORTH WALES ACROSS TIE MALVERN HILLS
TO THE Essex COAST .
4. SECTION ACROSS TIIE WEALDEN AREA
.
,
,
5. DIAGRAM SECTION ACROSS TIIE LONDON BASIN
.
6. SECTION OF PURBECK Beds, ISLE OF PORTLAND.
7. VIEW IN THE PASS OF LLANBERIS
8. SECTION NEAR REDRUTII SHOWING METALLIFEROUS VEINS.
, 9. BLUE JOHN MINE, CASTLETON
, 10. THE LANDSLIP OF DOWLANDS AND BINDON, BETWEEN AXMOUTII
AND LYME REGIS
, 11. SECTION ACROSS THE ISLE OF PURBECK .
,, 12. SECTION IN THE FOREST OF Dean
, 13. SECTION ACROSS THE ISLE OF WIGHT.
14. THE STIPEN STONES
15. SECTION ACROSS TIIE SILURIAN Rocks OF WENLOCK EDGE .
,, 16. SECTION ACROSS THE SOUTI WALES COAL-FIELD. .
17. Diagram SECTION OF THE ROCKS IN SUTHERLAND AND
CAITINESS
. .
100
LIST OF GEOLOGICAL MAPS
INDEX TO GEOLOGICAL MAPS--PRINCIPAL ORGANIC REMAINS OR Fossils
Folding Table. PAGE 1
GREAT BRITAIN
. . Frontispiece. PLATE 1
ENGLAND:
PLATES
PLATES
PLATES
BEDFORDSHIRE . . HUNTINGDONSIIRI 4 RUTLANDSIIRE
19
BERKSHIRE, . . 3 ISLE OF WIGIT
.
.15 SCILLY ISLES . .
BUCKINGHAMSHIRE . 2 KENT . . . . 17 SIROPSHIRE, .
CAMBRIDGESHIRE . 4 LAKE DISTRICT . . 8 SOMERSETSHIRE
CILESDIRE, . . 5. LANCABIIRE, . . 18 STAFFORDSHIRE
CORNWALL . . . 6 LANCASHIRE, NORTA . 8 SUFFOLK.
CUMBERLAND, NORTI 7 LEICESTERSHIRE, . 19 SURREY, . .
CUMBERLAND, SOUTII 8 LINCOLNSHIRE . . 20 SUBSEX . . .
DERBYSHIRE . . I LONDON . . 2, 13, 17, 28 WARWICKSIIRT .
DEVONSHIRE . . 10 MIDDLESEX . . . 2 WESTMORLAND .
DORSETSDIRE . . 11 MONMOUTIISIIRE . . 16 WIGIT, ISLE OF ..
DURIANI
. 12 MONMOUTISHIRE, WEST 32 WILTSHIRE, NORTTI 14
EssEx. . . 13 NORFOLK. . . .21 | WILTSHIRE, SOLTI
GLOUCESTERSHIRE . 14 NORTIIAMPTONBUIRE .22 WORCESTERSHIRE
HAMPSHIRE. . . 15 NORTIVMBERLAND . 23 YORKSHIRE, WEST 18
HEREFORDSHIRE . 16 NOTTINGHAMSIIRE 21 YORKSHIRE, EAST . . 30
HERTFORDSIIRE . 2 OXFORDSHIRE. . . 3
• 29
PLATRS
ISLE OF MAN .
WALES, NORTI
WALES, SOUTI
SCOTLAND, NORTII
SCOTLAND, SOUTII
·
.
·
.
31
32
.
3.3
LIST OF PLATES OF FOSSILS
PLATES
PLATES
PLATES
ORDOVICIAN AND CAM LOWER OOLITIC AND UPPER CRETACEOUS .
BRIAN . . . . 351 LIASSIC . . . . 40
LOWER EOCENE .
SILURIAN. . . . 30 LOWER OOLITIC . . 41
DEVONIAN AND OLD RED MIDDLE OOLITIC , 42 UPPER EOCENE .
SANDSTONE . . . 37 WBALDEN-PURBECK AND OLIGOCENE .
CARBONIPEROU8. 38 UPPER OOLITIC . . 43
PLIOCENE
LASSIC, TRIASSIC AND I UPPER AND LOWER CRE-
PERMIAN , . . 39! TACEOUS . . . 44 PLEISTOCENE. .
INDEX TO GEOLOGICAL MAPS.
D
20
DER
2
ASE
21
BA
1
999
NORI
1991
40
AR
!
WA
WE
22
.
LS
.
31
00
OLIGOCENE : Fluvio-marine Series .
PRINCIPAL ORGANIC REMAINS OR FOSSILS.
( NEOLITHIC and newer implements of man: Mollusca (Recent species); Mammals (Brown Bear, Wolf, Beaver EIL
EOLITHIC and PALÆOLITHIC implements : Mammals (Mammoth, Rhinoceros, Hippopotamus, Hyæna). GLACIAL DRIFT : Fossils derived from many formations,
Bryozoa (Fascicularia, Cellepora): Mollusca (Astarte, Cardita, Nucula, Tellina, Trophon, Scalaria); Fishes, Mammals (Mastodon).
Insects, Mollusca (Corbula, Curena, Cytherea, Bulimus, Cerithium, Limnæa, Planorbis); Crocodiles, Chelonians (Trionya, Emys); Mammals (Anoplotherium, Palæotherium).
Plants (Aralia, Ficus, Sequoia); Nummulites, Insects, Mollusca (Cardita, Crassatella, Cerithium, Conus, Fusus, Rostellaria, Voluta); Reptiles (Chelone, Palomphis); Mammals (Lophiodon).
Plants (Nipadites); Crustacea ; Mollusca (Cyprina, Cyrena, Corbula, Pectunculus, Pleurotoma, Voluta, Nautilus); Fishes, Crocodiles, Turtles, Birds, Mammals (Hyracotherium).
Foraminifera ; Sponges (Ventriculites) ; Echinoderms (Echinocorys, Galerites, Marsupites, Micraster); Brachiopods ; Mollusca (Inoceramus, Ostrea, Pecten, Ammonites, Belemnitella, Scaphites) ;
Fishes, Saurians, Birds (Enaliornis).
23
SI
28
19
MIOLUSU
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24
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8
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CHALK
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.
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C
UIT
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Lower GREENSAND .
Sponges; Crustacea (Meyeria); Brachiopods ; Mollusca (Exogyra, Perna, Trigonia, Ammonites).
Usunced
Pla
Cyrena
turlans
C
ALI
1
*
TU
.
UStracod.
PURBECK BEDS . . . .
UPPER OOLITE : Portland Beds, Kimeridge Clay.
os
A
Corals (Isastræa); Brachiopods (Lingula, Rhynchonella); Mollusca (Cyrena, Erogyra, Ostrea, Pecten, Trigonia, Cerithium, Ammonites) ; Fishes, Saurians.
**
*
2
LA
L
!
201
A
LOWER OOLITE : Cornbrash, Great Oolite Series, Inferior Oolite Series
2
.
13
12
JO100
22
i
WI
is!
.
Corals, Echinoderms (A piocrinus, Clypeus) ; Bryozoa. Brachiopods (Rhynchonella, Terebratula, Waldheimia); Mollusca (Ceromya, Lima, Pholadomya, Trigonia, Nerinæa, Ammonites) ; Fishes, Turtles,
Corals, E
Saurians (Ceteosaurus, Megalosaurus) ; Mammals (Amphitherium, Phascolotherium).
Corals, Insects, Crustacea (Eryon); Brachiopods (Rhynchonella, Spiriferina); Mollusca (Cardinia, Gruphom. Hinna
Plesiosaurus).
Phyllopods (Esthería); Mollusca (Avicula, Myophoria, Pecten, Protocardium); Fishes (Acrodus, Hybodus, Ceratodus); Labyrinthodonts, Saurians, Mammals (Microlestes).
A
.
4
.
saurus,
.
WWW
.
19
LE
)
1991
.
L
10
Lower Trias: Bunter Sandstone and Pebble Beds
PERMIAN: Magnesian Limestone .
OSON
RAMA
:
19
Faldon SCUS,
Plants ; Bryozoa (Fenestella); Brachiopods (Productus, Spirifera); Mollusca (Bakevellia, Schizodus, Turbo) : Fishes (Palmon
Few fossils.
4
PERMIAN
erate
&
I
**
COAL MEASURES
:
)
4
TEL
Jorvomeco
UN
WW
19
SERIES
SC
VOT
13
Y
11
16
.
WARUNINNROUS
Annelides (Spirorbis) ; Myriapods, Arachnids, Crustacea (Prestwichia); Mollusca (Anthracomya, Carbonicola);
Fishes, Amphibia.
(Plants ; Radiolaria ; Mollusca (Aviculopecten, Posidonomya, Goniatites).
Corals (Lithostrotion, Syringopora); Orinoids (Actinocrinus, Cyathocrinus) ; Bryozoa (Fenestella); Brachiopods (Productus, Spirifer); Mollusca (Conocardium, Murchisonia, Pleurotomaria,
Cælonautilus, Orthoceras) ; Fishes (Psammodus).
| DEVONIAN : Hydrocoralline (Stromatopora); Corals Calceola, Favosites); Trilobites (Bronteus, Phacoos) :
eus, Phacop); Brachiopods (Rhynchonella, Spirifer, Stringocephalus); Mollusca (Cucullæa, Megalodon,
Murchisonia, Clymenia). OLD RED SANDSTONE : Plants ; Crustacea (Pterygotus, Stylonurus) ; Fishes (Pa
Irlobites (Calymene, Encrinurus, Phacops); Brachiopods (Atrypa, Pentamerus, Rhynchonella); Mollusca
1 (Cardiola, Eromphalus, Orthoceras) ; Fishes (Onchus, Pteraspis);
| Radiolaria ; Graptolites (Dicellograptus, Didymograptus) ; Trilobites (Asaphus, Homalonotus, Ogygia, Trinucleus); Brachiopods (Leptona, Orthis, Strophomena); Mollusca (Ctenodonta, Bellerophon,
Murchisonia, Orthoceras).
S
IT
WE
.
2
2,9
27
NO
32
194
ELS
.
**
*
WA
.
*
PS
:
SILURIAN (with limestones): Ludlow, Wenlock and Llandovery Beds
ORDOVICIAN : Bala, Llandilo and Arenig Beds , ,
S
WDLUS
Ah
WAME
1 TV807
*
Llenadoc
do
enellus); Brachiopods (Kutorgina, Lingulella, Obolella); Mollusca (Bellerophon, Hyolithes, Maclurea, Cyrtoceras)
DIACIO
19
www
*
*
2
Worm-burrows and trails.
.
.
HER
.
.
LE
ANDESITES,&c
VolcanicSeries
of Borrowdale;
Cheviots, &c.
SERPEN-
99
BASALT,
GREEN-
STONE,
&c.
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
GREAT BRITAIN, the largest island of Europe, is an outlying portion
of the mainland, with which it is intimately connected in geological
structure. The Straits of Dover form but a notch in the great Chalk
formation which there extends below the Channel, and is 80 well
shown in the white cliffs on either side. Other geological formations
are probably persistent beneath the sea-bed, and while some ancient
links are now dissevered, there is abundant evidence of former union.
An elevation of six hundred feet would connect all the British Isles
with the mainland, and less than half that uplift would restore the
bond across the eastern part of the Channel.
From Beachy Head to Cape Wrath the length of Great Britain is
587 miles, while its breadth from the Land's End to the South
Foreland is 316 and to Lowestoft 367 miles.
Over this large area of 88,006 square miles there is a great variety
of rocks, noticeable to all who travel through the land ; granite, schist,
and slate and other hard rocks in mountain regions, clays and lime-
stones, sands and gravels chiefly in the lower lands. It seems natural
that the barder and usually older rocks should form the higher
grounds, which attain an elevation at Ben Nevis of 4400 feet, while
the lesser hills, the vales and plains are formed of softer and, for the
most part, newer strata. So on the coast, which in England and
Wales extends to 2350 miles and in Scotland to 2500 miles, the
alternation of harder and softer rocks has led to the production of
headlands and bays—the relative hardness rather than the age of the
rocks being the important factor. We may agree with Tennyson
that
"No rock so hard, but that a little wave
May beat admission in a thousand years,"
but the harder rock will form a promontory if it be bordered by rocks
more easily worn away by the breakers, aided as these are in all cases
by the action of rain and frost on the cliffs.
Inland while relative hardness is important, so also is the texture
of the strata, whether porous or impervious. Thus rain sinks through
sands and gravels, and erodes clays; and in areas composed of these
strata the dominant features may be formed of the looser materials.
The object of geology is not merely to explain the origin of the
present physical features, but also to picture the many changes in the
distribution of land and water and in the forms of life which have
occurred in the past. The present is but the latest phase of geo-
logical history, and a study of all that is going on now over the surface
of the earth enables us to explain what has happened in our own
country in the bygone periods. Here as elsewhere we obserre con-
tinual change. The waste along the sea-coast is almost everywhere
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
apparent, and in some parts disastrous. The waste inland is not
always so manifest. Muddy streams in times of heavy rain, occasional
landslips, the screes of tumbled rock below scarps of hard rock, tell
of waste and of material that may be rolled into gravel and transported
along the river courses. The inland caverns whence limestone has
been removed by dissolution, the mineral springs, and the materials
held in solution as well as in suspension by our rivers, bear testimony
to ceaseless destruction.
Everywhere, whether in organic or inorganic nature, there is growth
and decay, the accumulation of material in one area and its removal
from another; and our stratified rocks are mainly old sediments worn
from the land and spread out on the sea-floor, together with shells,
bones, and other hard parts of various animals, and remains of plants.
If in this country we have no deserts, no active volcanoes, no
glaciers, no modern coral reefs, yet we have evidence that in past
times the area occupied by the British Isles exhibited now and again
these conditions.
If we have no actual volcanic cone we have the “basal wrecks” and
other evidences of great centres of eruption, in masses of granite and
gabbro, in piles of lavas and ashes. Moreover, we have evidence of
the increased heat beneath the earth's surface from the records
of deep mines where the temperature rises 1° for every sixty feet,
and in hot springs like those of Bath.
In Great Britain there are representatives of all the principal
geological periods. Permanent as our land seems now to be, except-
ing for the waste of its surface, the area has been a very unstable one
in the past owing mainly to repeated upheaval and depression of
the solid crust; but partly perhaps to fluctuations in the sea, for under
certain physical conditions its actual level does vary considerably in
different areas.
Throughout geological time, that is of those periods of which we
have evidence in the rocks exposed at the surface or proved in deep
borings, there is no doubt that the agents were similar in kind, and
there is no certain proof that they were more powerful and violent
in the early than in the later epochs. Great volcanic activity affected
our area in the Ordovician, Devonian, Carboniferous, Permian and
early Tertiary periods, and some of the chief mountain systems have
received uplifts of great magnitude in these later times, when, for
instance, the Chalk of the Dorset Coast and the Isle of Wight was
tilted into a vertical position. We must not, indeed, judge of the
past simply by what is going on in this country at the present time.
One of the earliest of geological lessons is that all kinds of sediment
are being laid down in various subaqueous areas, from coarse detritus
to fine mud, and to deep-sea ooze which is mainly organic. Moreover,
there is a gradual change in the character of the fauna existing on
rocky ground or on mud or sand, at different depths, and at varying
distances from the sea margin.
Thus when we come to consider our stratified formations, some
composed of great masses of clay, others mainly of sandstone or
limestone, and some of mixed character, we must recognize that only
limited portions of the sea-bed and of the life of the period can be
TA
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
C
represented in the rocks. In considering the history of England,
Wales and Scotland we have the same partial record of events, local
and general, materials derived from parish and county and those
relating to state and rulers : portions only of the history of the world.
We divide our history into Norman, Tudor and other periods for
convenience without any thought of a break or cessation of events,
unless that which in England was marked by the incoming and
occupation of the Romans. So in our geological history the great
formations are grouped together in larger and smaller periods without
implying any pauses or sudden and universal changes. Some of the
larger chronological terms are used all the world over--such group-
names as Silurian, Carboniferous, Jurassic : but when we come to
the formations composing these systems we must necessarily be
local, and each country finds it needful to have its own nomenclature,
because the beginnings and endings of the formations do not
correspond over large areas. Even in this country we have to
sub-divide differently in distant areas, and a great and increasing
number of stratigraphical names is a necessary consequence. There
is, however, a means of correlation.
Certain genera have been found to have a wide distribution in
space and a comparatively limited distribution in time so far as the
species are concerned; and they have been chosen to distinguish
life zones in the strata. Among these forms of life, trilobites,
graptolites and ammonites have proved of the greatest service, while
belemnites, brachiopods, echinoderms and other organic remains have
likewise been found useful.
As these zones are independent of the lithological characters of the
strata, so they cannot be expected to correspond with the strati-
graphical divisions or formations which mark the persistence over
restricted areas of certain physical conditions. The limits of zones
depend on the occurrence of fossils, hence they are Palæontological
or Zoological rather than stratigraphical, because they cannot be
defined by sediment. In all field-work, however, an intimate
knowledge of the local characters and succession of the strata is of
the utmost importance. The succession of life is established from
the succession of the strata.
In the oldest rocks we find only the lower organisms, the great
groups of invertebrata differing for the most part largely from the
genera now existing ; but as we ascend the series of strata higher
and higher forms of life, fishes, amphibians, reptiles, birds and
mammalia gradually appear, alongside the modified forms of inverte-
brates, all approaching more and more in character to the living
animals and plants.
This history extends over a period that is estimated at about
100,000,000 years--a period during which geological events succeeded
one another without pause, but with repeated change, when land
areas became submerged or sea-beds were upraised to form dry
land.
Thus while the story told by British geology is no more identical
in detail, with that of other regions of the earth's surface, than is
that of British history, there are yet many features in common in
1 *
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN
ILITA
I.
the life-history, and perhaps more in common during the earlier than
the later epochs.
The fossils or organic remains are variously distributed in the
rocks, being sometimes very abundant as in the Crag, in the earlier
Tertiary strata of the Isle of Wight and Hampshire, in the Chloritic
Marl of Dorset, the Inferior Colite of Dorset or of Stroud; but in
many a famous locality good specimens are only to be obtained after
prolonged labour.
The older rocks occupy the northern and western parts of Great
Britain. In this country they are, as a rule, much harder than the
succeeding (Secondary and Tertiary) strata. Naturally they have
been subject to more compression, to more alteration by igneous
intrusion and chemical agency, than the later formations. Gneiss and
granite, greenstone, schist, slate, sandstone and grit with subordinate
limestone, characterize the rocks known as Archæan and the lowest
Palæozoic ; limestones, sandstones, and shales, with many igneous
rocks, prevail among the higher Palæozoic. The older form the Outer
Hebrides or the Long Island, the Highlands and Southern Uplands
of Scotland (Fig. 1), the Lake District, the Wrekin, Charnwood
Forest, Malvern, and the mountainous parts of Wales and the Isle of
Man. The newer occupy the midland valley or central trough of
Scotland between Highland and Southern Upland (Fig. 1), with many
a crag of harder igneous rock; they rise up in the Fells of North-
umberland which extend from the western borders of Cheviot south-
wards to Derbyshire, forming the broad and locally faulted anticline
of the Pennine range (Fig. 2); they constitute the Brecknock
Beacons and the higher grounds of Glamorganshire, the Mendips,
Quantocks, and great part of Devonshire and Cornwall.
The older of these rocks are much folded, highly inclined, often
crushed, and sometimes overthrust; the newer Palæozoic as a rule
(except in Devon and Cornwall) are bent into comparatively gentle
folds, such as the Pennine anticline (Fig. 2), the syncline of the
South Wales Coal-field or the Forest of Dean, the anticlines of the
Mendips.
These disturbances were effected prior to the deposition of the
Permian and newer strata, as the Magnesian Limestone, which some-
times appears locally conformable, in reality rests indifferently on the
disturbed and greatly eroded surfaces of various members of the
Carboniferous rocks. The Permian, though often grouped with the
Palæozoic, forms the natural base of the Secondary group, and is
succeeded with general conformity by the overlying Trias, and the
Jurassic divisions. These strata form the broad belts of hills and
vales which characterize the central parts of England, extending to
Dorset on the south, east Yorkshire on the north, to the Dee Valley,
the Vale of Clwyd, and the Vale of Eden on the north-west.
In this group we have a series of escarpments facing generally the
porth-west or west, and including the Cleveland and Hambleton
Hills in Yorkshire, the Lincoln Cliff, Edge Hill in Warwickshire,
and the Cotteswold Hills, with intermediate vales.
These are followed in an easterly or south-easterly direction by the
Chalk Wolds of Yorkshire and Lincolnshire, and by those of Roystou,
S
N.W.
Grampian Mts.
Lammermuir Hills
S.E.
2 1
Firth of Forth,
-
-
-
2
3
.
•
3
er 2..
1 A
Fig. 1.-SECTION FROM THE GRAMPIANS TO THE LAMMERMUIR HILLS. (Rumusay.)
1A. Ordovician and Silıurian.
3. Carboniferous.
1. Highland schists with bands of quartzite, &c. 2. Old Red Sandstone with volcanic rocks, 2A.
ks.
CN
YAL
E.
W.
4
(11
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Fig. 2.-SECTION ACROSS THE PENNINE ANTICLINE. (Ramsay)
S.E.
N.W.
Snowdon.
Malvern.
8
10
9
S
.
BEI
L
.
t
.
.
FIG. 3.-SECTION FROM NORTH WALES ACROSS THE MALVERN HILLS TO THE ESSEX COAST. (Ramsay.)
3. Old Red Sandstone.
11. Chalk of Chiltern Hills.
1. Ordovician, Cambrian, and Pre-Cambrian,
9, 10. Volites of Cotteswold Hills.
+ Eruptive rocks.
3. Scarps of Millstone Grit.
2. Yoredale Shales.
1. Carboniferous Limestone.
6. Trias.
5. Magnesian Limestone (Permian).
4. Coal-ineasures.
12. Eocene.
2. Silurian.
7, 8. Lias.
g. Gneiss of Malvern.
6. Trias.
5
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Luton and Dunstable, which merge into the Chiltern Hills. Further
south the Chalk ranges are prolonged into the Wiltshire and Dorset-
shire Downs, and eastward into the North and South Downs, which
border the anticline of the Weald (Fig. 4).
ALLA
24
- Cameo.. b
adagnonnencremena
Fig. 4.-SECTION ACROSS THE WEALDEN AREA. (Ramsay.)
all, Upper Cretaceous strata, chiefly Chalk, forming the North and South Downs,
underlaid by Upper Greensand and Gault. (b, escarpment of Lower Green-
sand with a valley of Ganlt between it and the Chalk. CC, Weald Clay,
forming vales. d, hills formed of Hastings Beds. The Chalk, &c., once spread
across the country, as sliown in the curved and dotted lines.
The Tertiary strata occupy synclines in the Chalk, known as the
London and Hampshire Basins, and are highly tilted in the Isle of
Wight (p.54) and South Dorset. They form a low plain in East Anglia.
The various groups of strata have been affected by uplifts in diverse
directions, and these disturbances have been grouped into (1) the
Caledonian, with the axis of folding or lines of faulting in a N. E. and
S. W. direction, corresponding with that of the Great Glen of Scot-
land; (2) the Malvernian, having the direction N. and S., as in the
Malvern Hills, the Pennine anticline; (3) the Armorican (of Brittany)
having an E. and W. direction, as in the Mendip anticlines and in
that of the Weald ; (4) the Charnian, corresponding with the trend of
the folding in Charnwood Forest, N. W. and S. E. These terms are
used by Prof. Lapworth to indicate the direction of movements irre-
spective of their age, movements whether of folding or faulting having
taken place along the same lines or planes of weakness or in the same
directions at successive periods.
While the strata from the Permian and Trias (New Red rocks) to
the Purbeck and Wealden appear everywhere generally conformable,
the succeeding Lower Greensand stretched irregularly across an
eroded plane of these earlier formations, and is thus found on the
Kimeridge clay in Wiltshire and on the Corallian rocks in Oxford-
shire. The Upper Cretaceous strata again extended over a much wider
area, overstepping all the Jurassic divisions, as in Dorsetshire, resting
immediately on the New Red rocks in Devonshire, and irregularly
overlapping the Lower Greensand in the Vale of Wardour, also near
Swindon and Oxford.
The uptilting of the Jurassic rocks presents features of interest as
we proceed northwards from Dorsetshire to Warwickshire. In the
south the escarpment of Forest Marble is the most prominent among
the ranges of hills, near Bath the Great Oolite is conspicuous, near
Cheltenham the Inferior Oolite dominates in the Cotteswold Hills,
and further north the Marlstone in Edge Hill. These rocks were to
some extent folded and faulted, as in Dorset, prior to the submergence
which led to the Cretaceous overlaps.
The Tertiary deposits, except in the Bovey Basin in Devonshire
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
and in the Inner Hebrides, rest on Chalk which must have spread at
one time far and wide over the area of South Britain. The Eocene
pebble-beds are almost wholly formed of flint, except in West Dorset
where an ancient river from the regions of Devon brought other
materials.
The history of our rivers is a complex subject. Looked at from
the present point of view the mountains and uplands form the chief
sources, the glens and valleys the channels. The Highlands and
Southern Uplands of Scotland with an off-shoot through the Cheviots;
the Pennine Chain with the Lake Mountains; the group of mountains
in North Wales, extending southward to Plynlimmon and other hilly
regions in South Wales; the Cotteswolds and to some extent the
Oolite escarpment that ranges from Bath to the southern borders of
Somerset, form watersheds, and these are diverted westwards through
the hilly ground of North Devon and Cornwall, and eastwards through
Wiltshire and the Weald. Yet there are notable exceptions in these
water-partings. The Lower or Bristol Avon rises along the dip-slopes
of the Cotteswolds and turning round from a south-easterly to
a westerly course it cuts through the Oolite escarpment between
Bradford-on-Avon and Bath, and through the Carboniferous Lime-
stone in the rocky gorge of Clifton ere it reaches the Bristol Channel.
The Thames intersects the great Chalk range at Streatley and Goring.
Evidently these rivers must have commenced their courses before
the bordering low-lands were widely excavated.
If we follow the teachings of Jukes and Ramsay, and the nomen-
clature of Prof. W. M. Davis, we may infer that the rivers took their
primary or “consequent” courses over plains of deposition and erosion
in accordance with the general tilt of uplifted tracts. Lateral
drainage produced “subsequent” streams, approximately at right
angles to the main river; and again these tributaries were fed by
"obsequent” brooks, that may have flowed parallel with or directly
opposite to the course of the main river. The cutting back of the
diverse courses of such a river system led to the connection of some
previously distinct drainage areas and to the partition of others, for
by the extension of lateral streams other consequent rivers were
“beheaded." This subject furnishes almost endless interesting
problems, because there are many possible solutions owing to modi-
fying influences due to the character of the geological formations,
to the folding and faulting to which they have been subjected, and
likewise to the ancient surfaces of erosion, which have been revealed,
as in the lower course of the Bristol Avon, by the denudation of
later times.
The Miocene period appears to be unrepresented by deposits in
this country, and it was probably a period of extensive land waste,
when escarpments were formed or initiated by subaërial erosion. In
our midland areas in England Jurassic escarpments were produced
after much erosion of the Chalk and other Cretaceous strata, which
formerly spread over them. By this erosion, which commenced in early
Tertiary times, and was partly subaërial and partly marine, much of
the Chalk was planed down or removed from the western counties.
If we fill up the valleys that have since been excavated in the
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Jurassic rocks to the level of what may have been the original plane
of marine denudation, the amount to be removed in the formation of
the escarpments is by no means great. So when the dome of the
Weald was planed down (see Fig. 4, p. 6) the Chalk has not neces-
sarily been wasted back over very extensive areas by subaërial erosion,
in order to form the present escarpments; but it is clear that the
present rivers must have taken their courses north and south from
the central watershed before the escarpments of the North and South
Downs were formed.
Outliers afford some indication of the former extent of scarps,
when the strata are but slightly inclined. Their severance may be
attributed to the effects of subterranean drainage and erosion,
whereby channels were produced in the impervious clays which
underlie the permeable strata, such as sands and limestones, of which
so many outliers are composed. Slight subsidences took place along
the lines of underground erosion, paving the way for the disconnection
of portions of the main mass of strata to form outliers. Faults and
dislocations, as well as gentle synclinal structures, have sometimes
aided in their preservation. Of such outliers, Brent Knoll, Glaston-
bury Tor, and Dundry Hill in Somerset, Robinswood Hill, Church-
down, Dumbleton Hill, and Bredon Hill in Gloucestershire, are
examples.
There is no doubt that the broad outlines of our escarpments were
marked out before the Glacial period, before the main Boulder-clay
was laid down. We find this glacial accumulation alike on upland
and in vale, at any rate, in the Midland Counties-though when we
come southwards its progress seems to have been barred to some
extent by the Chiltern Hills, and more definitely by Edgehill and the
northern Cotteswolds.
Again, there has been considerable denudation since the Boulder-
clay was spread over the land, as valleys have been scooped through
it, and the Glacial Drift has been separated into many an outlying
mass. In East Anglia especially, the minor features are largely
due to the erosion of the thick coverings of Drift. Boulder-clay
likewise filled up many an old valley, more especially in the Northern
Counties, and the subsequent river erosion has sometimes followed
quite different courses, while here and there the buried channels have
been proved by mining or well-boring operations.
The absence of outliers along the borders of the Lincolnshire cliff
is noteworthy. The region was one subjected to glaciation, and when
we find large transported masses of Lincolnshire Limestone and Marl-
stone in the Boulder-clay to the south, it is not unreasonable to infer
that such masses are relics of outliers which formerly existed to the
north.
The great sequence of formations has been ascertained from actual
observation in quarries, cuttings, and cliffs, and from the records of
wells and deep borings. That the Secondary and Tertiary strata of
the Midland, Eastern, and Southern Counties rest on a floor of folded
and eroded Palæozoic rocks has been proved in many a deep boring.
Ancient slaty rocks of unknown age have been found in Suffolk at
Stutton, and in Essex near Harwich, beneath the Gault. Similarly,
2
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Silurian rocks have been proved at Ware, and Devonian rocks at
Cheshunt, in Hertfordshire. Further south, Oolitic rocks intervene,
and under London, after penetrating the Made Earth, Thames Valley
gravel, London Clay, and Lower London Tertiaries, the Chalk, Upper
Greensand and Gault, there have been found at a depth of about one
thousand feet, strata of Great Oolitelike those which come to the surface
about one hundred miles to the west, while below these are rocks of
the character of the Devonian. Again, at Chatham, Oxford Clay has
been reached at a depth of 943 feet; and at Dover, beneath Chalk
and other Cretaceous and Jurassic strata, Coal-measures have been
prored at a depth of 1100 feet 6 inches. No one can say how far that
coal-field may extend, nor can anyone say what other tracts of Coal-
measures may be preserved in the south and east of England in the
large areas as yet unexplored.
Our object, however, is to consider the surface areas where the
various formations are exposed, the limits of which are depicted on
the geological maps. These maps show mainly the “ solid” forma.
tions, as they are termed, irrespective of the superficial coverings of
Boulder-clay and gravel which enter largely into the surface geology
of the Eastern, Midland, and Northern Counties of England, and of
large parts of Scotland and Wales.
To depict these drift deposits with any approach to accuracy on the
small scale of the maps in this volume has been found impracticable.
It will be observed that the great groups of strata, the Archæan,
Palæozoic, Secondary and Tertiary, have each had special influence
on the character of the land and on its population. In the two older
groups the fractures and crevices of the rocks have in certain tracts
been filled with metalliferous deposits, while elsewhere masses of
granite, slate, paving and building-stone, and large tracts of produc-
tive coal-measures have been preserved. In these regions the popu-
lation has grown in accordance with the development of industries.
Large areas of the old rocks, where little soil can accumulate, or the
conditions are unfavourable for agriculture, forming mountainous
grounds, great moorlands and fells, happily remain as upland pas-
tures, woodlands, deer forests and grouse moors, invaluable as health
resorts and areas of recreation and sport. In those regions the
houses are mostly stone-built, and the land is divided by stone-
fences.
Among the Secondary rocks we find some of our chief pastoral
regions. The strata are soft and readily decomposed into soils. The
clay-Fales give rise to rich pastures and orchards, and they form the
more famous hunting-districts, from the Vale of Blackmore in Dorset,
to that of White Horse in Berkshire, Bicester, Whaddon, Pytchley,
Quorn, Cottesmore, and the Vale of Belvoir. Alternating with the
vales are the stonebrash hills, fertile arable lands adapted for cereals
and roots; and along these belts we find many valuable building-
stones, those of Portland, Bath, Ancaster, &c., and the chief sources
of our iron-ore, as near Wellingborough, Kettering, Grantham, Frod-
ingham, and the Cleveland Hills. In this Secondary region we find
groups of villages for the most part stone-built with stone-tiled roofs
and porches, and stone-fences, intermixed with other villages brick-
10
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
built, and with luxuriant and well-timbered hedgerows on the clay
tracts. In these areas, as at Peterborough, some of our largest brick-
yards are found.
In Tertiary tracts, formed largely of gravels, sands, and clays, and
in the districts covered by Glacial Drifts and valley gravels, the
ground is chiefly agricultural, but with good hedgerows, much wood-
land, and pleasant breezy gorse-covered commons. The beneficial
effects of the Glacial Drifts are noticeable in the north-east of Scot-
land, where oats and barley are largely cultivated.
In England and Wales about three-quarters of the land is under
cultivation, apart from woods and plantations, in Scotland about
one-quarter; while the population in England is reckoned at 540,
in Wales 203, and in Scotland 135 per square mile.
The soil is the top covering of earth from a few inches to a foot or
more in depth, made up most largely of weathered subsoil, with an
admixture of decayed animal and vegetable matter or humus, and
with a certain amount of wind-drifted material, the whole acted upon
in various ways by plant-growth, earthworms, and micro-organisms.
While soils thus largely owe their mineral ingredients to the sub-
jacent strata or subsoils, they have in many cases been washed down
slopes over the surfaces of strata with which they can have but
a partial relationship, or, perhaps, no relationship at all. The depth
of soil is greatly influenced by the nature of the subsoil, and the
configuration of the ground.
Strictly speaking, the subsoil is the geological formation which lies
immediately beneath the soil, although the term has sometimes been
restricted to the weathered and disintegrated portions of the sub-
jacent rock. This restriction cannot, however, be maintained. On
the Chalk formation, for instance, the soil is sometimes exceedingly
thin; a ploughed field may look brown and loamy, but an adjacent
Chalk-pit may show but a few inches, or hardly a perceptible trace of
soil. In such instances the Chalk is clearly the subsoil. On stiff
clays again there is often but a skimming of soil. This is the case in
areas of London Clay, and it may be experienced in some London
gardens where London Clay is distinctly the subsoil. Clay-vales
locally have their heavy soils ameliorated by downwashes of lighter
materials from bordering hills, so that on isolated hills and on the
brows of uplands less soil and a less amount of weathered subsoil are
to be expected than on plateaus or in vales.
That subsoils possess infinite variety in structure and composition
may be gathered from a study of the lithological characters of the
many geological formations, which include limestone, slate, sand-
stone, conglomerate and other hard rocks, as well as marl, clay, loam,
sand, gravel, and other soft and loose materials. Some formations
are fairly uniform masses of strata of considerable thickness; others,
like the Forest Marble, the Reading Beds, and the Glacial Drifts,
exhibit great diversity of character within narrow limits, and yield
mixed soils. All are more or less subject to modification where they
approach the surface, through the influence of frost and rain; harder
rocks are broken up, calcareous rocks are partially dissolved away,
while those which are grey or dark blue at a depth become a rusty
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
brown through decomposition of the iron-salts which they contain.
The depth of the weathered rock beneath the actual soil thus varies
considerably in different areas even on formations of similar age and
character. To estimate fully the agricultural capabilities of an estate,
it is not enough to know the general characters and depth of the
soils, to have chemical analyses of them, and to be acquainted with
the nature of the subsoils, while due leed is given to the conditions
of elevation, aspect, and rainfall. We must also have “mechanical
analyses" of the soils, or a determination of the size and composi-
tion of their finer constituents, as the available plant food, upon
which their natural fertility is dependent, is influenced by their
texture and power of absorbing and retaining moisture. Only when
due heed is paid to these varying conditions and circumstances is it
possible to determine the kind of natural or artificial manures by
which the fertility of the land may be maintained or increased.
Rain sinks into the porous strata, gravels, sands, sandstone, and
limestone, or into crevices of hard rocks, and flows off the clays and
other dense strata. The porous strata become charged with water
.
Springs.
Dunstable.
Springs.
Ilampsteari.
Artesian Well.
4 Sydlenham.
Springs.
North Downs.
Springs.
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PALEOZOIC ROCKS.
FIG. 5.-DIAGRAM SECTION ACROSS THE LONDON BASIN.
until they can retain no more, and the surplus flows away in springs.
This overflow depends on the position of the porous strata. If they
form the capping of a hill, and are based on impervious rocks, there
can be no great storage of water, except in hollows and irregularities
of the floor. The water sinks and escapes around the margin of the
hill, in definite springs or by weeping or "seepage.”
Where the porous strata under similar circumstances occupy
extensive tracts, large villages and towns may bave grown up,
supplied with water from wells and pumps, until either the demand
was too great for the limited yield of water, or because through
defective drainage the soil had become so polluted that the supply was
condemned. Thus many shallow or ordinary surface wells have had
to give place to deeper wells or distant sources of supply.
Where the porous strata extend in a syncline below a large
area, and are overlain and underlain by impervious strata, they may
yield copious supplies for wells, as in the case of the Chalk beneath
London (Fig. 5). This formation receives the rainfall on the Chiltern
12
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Hills and Dunstable and Royston Downs on the north, and on thi,
North Downs to the south. Springs are given out at the surface
from the saturated Chalk both near its base at the junction with the
clayey Chalk marl, and at top where the covering of Eocene clays or
lower ground likewise causes an overflow. When deep wells are
sunk through the London Clay into the Chalk, and encounter one or
more fissures in it, the water freely enters the well or bore-hole, and
naturally rises to about the level of the plane of the saturation in the
Chalk (see Fig. 5).
Pumping operations, however, tend to diminish the flow of the
springs, the plane of saturation in the Chalk becomes lowered, and
after a time the water, which can percolate but slowly through the
Chalk, may not be supplied in the centre of the basin in quantity
equal to the many and increasing demands made upon it. In some
cases the water, which naturally overflowed into one drainage area,
may be pumped up and conveyed elsewhere to find its way as waste
water into a distinct area.
The deep wells above noted are known as artesian, and the water
having to travel some distance below ground through the Chalk
becomes filtered. When, however, it is obtained from harder rocks,
like the Carboniferous Limestone, where the joints and fissures may
be open to the surface, dependence cannot be placed on the purity of
the water.
In mountainous regions, formed of hard and for the most part
impervious rocks, the rain is rapidly drained off, unless stored to
some extent in peaty beds. Reservoirs formed by the damming of
valleys are usually necessary to provide a suitable supply of water
to the larger towns and villages in the lower lands bordering these
areas.
The diversity of our formations, and the varying elevations and
aspects of the land, furnish many and almost bewildering varieties of
sites for those able to choose their place of residence.
It must be remembered that most of our geological formations
vary a good deal in character, and that even those which are naturally
commended for their dryness, are likely to be water-logged in low
situations. Thus gravels and sands may be damper in low situations
than clays. In hilly tracts the surface waters drain rapidly off a clayey
surface, and only tend to accumulate or flow away sluggishly in the
lower grounds.
The driest tracts are those composed of porous strata of gravel,
sand, sandstone, or limestone, well above the open watercourses, and
in masses sufficiently thick for the surface waters to be carried to
some depth below the foundations of the buildings.
Such tracts may be found at Brentwood, St. Albans, Watford,
Rickmansworth, Bromley, Croydon, Sutton; or, to go further, in
places like Woking, Hindhead, Reigate, Tunbridge Wells, Woburn
Sands, or Devizes.
There are many who seek a country house on a dry soil, well
elevated, with bracing air, a good water supply, fine trees and
good garden land, near a main line, and perhaps in the vicinity of
a hunting country. The hunting grounds are, of course, mainly the
T
GEOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF GREAT BRITAIN.
IWAL
13
clay vales with their meadows and pastures; the driest grounds are
"neither favourable for the production of fine trees, excepting firs, nor
* for gardens.
There is, perhaps, hardly a locality in town or country where
? a damp insanitary house may not be found. On the other hand,
there are comparatively few large areas in which healthy sites may
not be met with. Much depends on the building itself and the water
supply, the aspect, and the general surroundings : and a great deal
on the tastes and occupations of the individual
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
DUTY
1. I
Thicknesses
in feet.
up to 60
Quaternary
Caenozoic
Tertiary
( Alluvium with peat, Estuarine and
RECENT Or
Marine beds; of Neolithic and
HOLOCENE |
later ages
River Gravel and Brickearth, Raised
Beaches: of Eolithic and Paleo-
PLEISTOCENE,
lithic ages
Glacial Drift
(Cromer Forest Bed Series
PLIOCENE Norwich and Red Crags
Coralline Crag and Lenham Beds
Hamstead Beds
Bembridge Beds Fluvio-marine
OLIGOCENE
Osborne Beds
1 Series
Headon Beds )
Barton Sands 1
Barton Clayo
30
200
30
up to 150
40 to 80
260
110
100
150
' } Upper Bagshot Beds
Brackleshain Beds
Lower Bagshot Beds
EOCENE
London Clay
Oldhaven and Blackheath Beds
Woolwich and Reading Beds
Thanet Beds
Chalk
Upper Greensand Selbornian
CRETACEOUS
Gault
(Lower Greensand
Weald Clay
WEALDEN-
Wealden
Hastings Sands
PURBECK | Purbeck Beds
Portland Beds
Kimeridge Clay
Corallian Beds
Oxford Clay and Kellaways Beds
Cornbrash
OOLITIC
Forest Marble, Bradford
SERIES
Clay, and Great Oolite / Great
Clay
Dolite
Great Oolite and Stones- Series
field Slate
Inferior Oolite Series, including Mid.
ford Sand (passage-beds)
Upper Lias
LIASSIC Middle Lias
(Lower Lias
Rhætic Beds
Red Marl and Sandstone (Keuper)
TRIASSIC
Red Sandstone and Pebble-Beds
(Bunter)
Magnesian Limestone Series
PERMIAN Red Sandstone, Breccia, and Con.
glomerate
400
400 to 650
100 to 600
50 to 490
10 to 60
15 to 150
20 to 60
up to 1750
40 to 120
100 to 250
250 to 600
1500
50 to 400
80 to 300
100 to 1200
50 to 200
300 to 600
5 to 30
Secondary or Mesozoic
Jurassic
130 to 350
15 to 250
25 to 200
50 to 350
450 to 960
30 to 120
500 to 1500
New Red
Sandstone
1000 to 2000
500 to 1500
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Thicknesses
in feet.
2000 to 8000
up to 4000
800 to 4000
2000 to 4000
Primary or Palæozoic
1 Coal-measures
I CARBON-
Millstone Grit
IFEROUS | Carboniferous Limestone Series and
1 Calciferous Sandstone
OLD RED
| Upper Old Red Sandstone
SANDSTONE
Devonian
and DEVON-
Lower Old Red Sandstone)
IAN
(Ludlow Series
SILURIAN Wenlock Series
(May Hill or Llandovery Series
( Bala and Caradoc Series
ORDOVICIAN Llandilo Beds
"Arenig Series
(Tremadoc Series
CAMBRIAN
Lingula Flag Series
Menevian Series
\Harlech Series
700 to 1400
2000 to 4000
2000 to 3000
3000 to 4000
1000 to 2500
1000
4000 to 5000
600 to 750
3000 to 8000
Pre-Cam-
brian and
Archæan
TORRIDONIAN Torridon Sandstone and Longmyn.
dian
URICONIAN Wrekin Volcanic Series, Pebidian,
&c.
DALRADIAN Highland Schists
LEWISIAN Hebridean or Fundamental Gneiss
IGNEOUS ROCKS.
Acid. Granite, Quartz-porphyry, Rhyolite
Interinediate. Syenite, Diorite, Andesite, Trachyte
Busic. Gabbro, Diabase, Dolerite, Basalt
Ultra-basic. Serpentine
In the following brief account of the geological formations, the
figures and names in clarendon type refer to those which are dis-
tinguished on the accompanying maps.
IGNEOUS ROCKS.
Igneous rocks are naturally of all ages, from the very earliest
periods of which we have records until the present time. In Great
Britain the more ancient of these rocks have been subject to so much
alteration by earth movements, whereby through the effects of
crushing, shearing, and re-crystallization their structure and mineral
character have been greatly changed. Granite has thus become gneiss,
and dolerite (one of the greenstones) has become hornblende-schist.
In these schistose rocks the chief mineral ingredients have been re-
arranged into more or less regular layers, simulating bedding a struc-
ture known as foliation. Many of these great masses of crystalline
rock are of a complex nature and may have originated from sedimentary
rocks pierced by plutonic rocks or interbedded with ancient volcanic
rocks. Complex rocks comprising gneisses and various schists, such
as mica schist, graphite schist, andalusite schist, &c., characterize
the oldest known group, the Archæan, and are not separately dis-
tinguished as igneous or sedimentary--all are metamorphic. The
latest of our igneous rocks are those of Lower Tertiary age.
The grouping adopted on the maps is one of convenience.
IGNEOUS Rocks.
15
G. Granite consists of felspar (orthoclase), quartz, and black and white
mica.
Large masses occur in Cornwall and Devon, at Lundy Island,
at Mount Sorrel in Leicestershire, the Cheviot Hills, Shap and
Skiddaw, the Isle of Man, Dalbeattie and south of Creetown, Arran,
and in the Highlands, including Aberdeen and Peterhead.
V. Andesites, &c.
This is a group largely composed of bedded Volcanic rocks. It
includes the “Green Slates and Porphyries” or Borrowdale series of
the Lake District, a great mass of lavas of more or less altered
andesite (felspar, with augite or hornblende, &c.), ashes and
agglomerate; also the andesitic lavas of Old Red Sandstone and
Carboniferous ages in the Cheviots and along the borders of the
central trough of Scotland, where they form many bold moorland
crags and ridges.
T. Basalt, Greenstone, &c.
In this group of Trap rocks, intrusive bosses, sills, and dykes, as
well as some bedded-volcanic rocks, have been included. Nor has it
been possible to separate the dark gabbros (plagioclase felspar and horn-
blende) of the Cuillin Hills in Skye from the granophyre (granitic rock)
of the adjacent Red Hills, both rocks of plutonic character. The dykes
and sills which traverse the northern counties, such as the Cleveland
Dyke, and the Great Whin Sill, the interbedded bands of “ toad-
stone" in Derbyshire, and the altered greenstones in Cornwall, of
which the Penlee Stone, near Penzance, is an example, are all
included under the same heading.
S. Sepentine is an altered ultra-basic igneous rock (see p. 39).
All the igneous rocks are found to shade more or less imperceptibly
from the deep-seated or plutonic types such as (1) granite, (2) syenite
and diorite, and (3) gabbro, which are coarsely crystalline, into the
finer grained (1) elvan or quartz-porphyry and rhyolite, (2) trachyte,
felsite, and andesite, (3) dolerite and basalt; and thence into the glassy
types, such as (1) the pitchstone of Eigg and parts of Arran-the
differences being due to the effects of more and more rapid cooling.
The rocks (1) represent the Acid type, having over 65 per cent. of
silica, (2) the Interinediate type, having 65 to 55 per cent. of silica,
and (3) the Basic, with 55 to 45 per cent. of silica. The plutonic
rocks were consolidated at a depth, having been intruded among the
rocks as bosses, dykes, sills and lenticular masses (laccolites), and
subsequently revealed by denudation ; but the plutonic rocks merge
into the volcanic which, although partially intrusive, were erupted
to the surface as lavas and ashes, with often much agglomerate.
4.
.
.
....
.
.
.
.
.
SEDIMENTARY AND METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
27. Archæan (Pre-Cambrian) and Metamorphic. 27a. Torridonian.
The most ancient rocks which form the “Foundation Stones of
the Earth's Crust," and which through disturbances in that crust and
the effects of vast and prolonged erosion appear at the surface over
considerable areas in Great Britain, are a complex group comprising
16.
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN
gneiss and various schists, with some definite slaty beds and sand-
stones, limestones and volcanic rocks. They have for the most part been
highly altered not only by intrusive igneous rocks, but more especially
by prodigious earth movements whereby the rocks have been folded
and crushed, cleaved and sheared, faulted and overthrust, so
that older sometimes appear above newer rocks. Thus gneisses
and other crystalline schists have originated from the shearing and
foliation of granitic and other plutonic rocks, and some schists are due
to similar effects on groups of igneous and sedimentary rocks, or of
volcanic ashes and lavas. (See p. 14.) Some of the earliest sandstones,
such as the Torridonian, are composed largely of broken up granitic
rocks (arkose), and of sands the characters of which do not differ
materially from deposits of recent age. No fossils excepting possible
worm burrows have been found in these sedimentary strata, and for
the most part the rocks have been subjected to so many stresses and
to chemical as well as mechanical deformation, that organic remains
if formerly present in the sandstones or limestones have been dissolved
away or obliterated by crushing.
Gneiss forms the mass of the Outer Hebrides and portions of the
north-west Highlands of Scotland, it forms the core of the Malvern
Hills, and appears at Primrose Hill in Shropshire. The schists occupy
the main portion of the Grampians or central Scottish Highlands ;
other rocks, largely volcanic, appear near St. David's (Pebidian), in
Charnwood Forest, in the Lower Lickey (Barnt Green series), at
Caldecote near Nuneaton, and in the Wrekin (Uriconian).
The Torridon sandstone, with some slaty beds, occupies much of the
coast of the north-west Highlands. The oldest rocks of the Long.
mynd may belong to the same era.
All these rocks form rough mountainous and heathery country, but
the sandstone scenery arising from the effects of erosion on rocks more
uniform in texture and more prominently jointed, has many rugged
scarps and clefts and terraced slopes.
26. Cambrian. Fossils : Plate 35.
This, the most ancient system of fossiliferous rocks, comprises slates,
flags and sandstones with some limestones, formed under marine con-
ditions. Marine plants and nearly all classes of invertebrata are
represented excepting corals and insects. The more noteworthy are
the brachiopods (Kutorgina, Obolella, Lingulella), and the trilobites
(Olenellus, Paradoxides, Olenus). The trilobites indeed appear to
have been the Lords of the Creation, Paradoxides fourd near St.
David's, being sometimes nearly two feet in length.
Among the rocks are the Harlech Grits and Llanberis Slates, the
quartzites of the Wrekin and Hartshill, and other beds in Sutherland,
slaty rocks near St. David's, the Lingula Flags of Festiniog and
Dolgelly, the Malvern Shales, the Manx Slates, and part of the
Skiddaw Slates.
The Tremadoc Slates, which form the highest portion, are now
sometimes grouped with the Ordovician, and in this case the Durness
Limestone of Sutherland would be partly Cambrian and partly
Ordovician. Orthoceras and Cyrtoceras appear in these strata.
54
ORDOVICIAN-SILURIAN.
17
Moorland and mountain characterize much of the ground occupied
by this group of rocks.
Localities for fossils : St. Daviils, Tremadoc and Portmadoc, Malvern, Shineton
(Shropshire), Durness (Sutherland).
25. Ordovician. Fossils : Plate 35.
In this system, again, we have a great series of marine sandstones,
flags and slates, but also in the higher part important beds of lime-
stone, and, more striking still, a great series of volcanic rocks. The
forms of life are more diversified Branched types of graptolites are
found to characterize various stages in the series. Radiolaria have
formed bands of chert. Bryozoa and corals appear. The trilobites
include Illanus, Ogygia, Asaphus and Trinucleus. Brachiopods such
as Orthis and Strophomena, and mollusca such as Conularia, Pleuro-
tomaria (which has survived to the present day), and the cephalopod
Lituites, appear.
The rocks of Arenig, the quartzite of the Stiper Stones (See Fig.
14), a part of the Skiddaw Slates, and the Ballantrae group of Ayrshire
belong to the lower portion of the system. The Llandilo and Bala
beds of Wales, with thick volcanic beds and some limestones, the
Caradoc Sandstone of Shropshire, the great mass of “green slates and
porphyries” (Borrowdale Volcanic series) and the Coniston Lime-
stone of the Lake District, likewise the lower portion of the Moffat
series in the Southern Uplands of Scotland, belong to the higher
portion of the Ordovician.
The mountainous region of Snowdon, the moorland district of
Shelve, the rougher mountains of the Lake District, the Carrick and
Moorfoot Hills in South Scotland belong mainly to this group.
Localities for fossils: Ilaverfordwest, Llandilo, Builth, Bala, Caradoc, Shelve, Chirbury,
Coniston, Keisley (Westmorland), Moffat.
24. Silurian. Fossils : Plate 36.
In this system the rocks comprise a series of sandstones and shales,
important beds of limestone, grits and flags, all of marine origin.
Slates are not prominently developed.
The Llandovery beds and May Hill Sandstone, the Tarannon
Shales, the Woolhope and Wenlock Limestones and Shales, the
Denbighshire Grits, Ludlow beds and Aymestry Limestone, together
with the Downton Sandstone, form the main divisions in Wales and
the English border counties. In the Lake District the Stockdale
Shales, Coniston Grits and Flags, Bannisdale Slates, and Kirkby
Moor Flags, and in the Southern Uplands of Scotland the beds of
Birkhill and Gala, Riccarton and Lesmahagow, are the divisions
recognized in the Moffat district, and in parts of the Pentland Hills.
Among the fossils graptolites have proved of great importance in
indicating the successive zones; they die out at the close of the era.
Corals and crinoids are abundant in the limestones. The trilobites
include Encrinurus, Calymene, Phacops, and Homalonotus. In the
higher divisions the large crustacea, Pterygotus and Eurypterus,
appear. Brachiopods are well represented by Atrypa, Pentamerus,
Spirifer, and Leptæna; the mollusca include Cardiola, Bellerophon,
Euomphalus, Murchisonia, Orthoceras, and Trochoceras. Among
18
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
I
III
noteworthy additions to the fauna are the fishes Auchenaspis, Cepha-
laspis, and Onchus. Land-plants also are found. In the fauna of the
higher divisions the Silurian is intimately linked with the Old
Red Sandstone. The rocks form pleasant upland regions of moor
and hill pasture,
Localities for fossils : Llandovery, Woolhope, Ludlow, Leintwardine, Malvern, Wenlock
Dudley, Lesmalagow (Lanarkshire), Birkhill (Moffat District), Pentland Hills.'
23. Devonian and Old Red Sandstone. Fossils : Plate 37.
In the earlier periods of which records are preserved in this
country, the fossiliferous strata were marine. In Silurian times we
have evidences of coral-growths and of a fairly warm temperature,
with waters of no great depth. These marine conditions were
perpetuated during the time when the Devonian rocks were laid down.
Grouped with them is a large tract of clay-slates or “killas” in
Cornwall, which has not at present been divided and grouped.
Ordovician rocks occur at Veryan Bay, and Silurian rocks possibly
elsewhere. Of the Devonian, the older fossiliferous rocks are the purple
and green slaty beds at Watergate Bay and Looe with fish-remains,
and the grit beds near Torquay with Homalonotus. The former are
correlated by Mr. Ussher with the Dartmouth slates.
At Plymouth, Torquay, Newton Abbot, and Chudleigh there are
massive beds of limestone which yield a rich marine fauna : coral-
beds with Favosites, Heliolites, and Calceola, numerous crinoids,
brachiopods such as Spirifer, Rhynchonella, Stringocephalus; mollusca
such as Megulodon, Murchisonia, Clymenia, and Orthoceras; and the
trilobites Bronteus and Phacors. Volcanic beds, slates, and sand.
stones occur also, and the region is so much folded and faulted that
it is difficult to separate Upper from Middle and Lower Devonian
where the beds are unfossiliferous.
In North Devon a sequence has been more regularly traced, but
even there the beds are violently folded, and one division, the Morte
Slates, formerly regarded as Devonian, has yielded fossils of Silurian
type. The Ilfracombe beds, with thin bands of limestone, are
equivalent to the limestones of South Devon, while the strata at
Baggy, Marwood and Pilton yield Upper Devonian Fossils, which
are intimately linked with the Lower Carboniferous. In these higher
beds we find the brachiopods Spirifer disjunctus, S. Urei, Rhynchonella
pleurodon, and Productus, the trilobite Phacops, and Entomis
(Cypridina).
'The Devonian rocks form the high moorlands of North Devon and
West Somerset, broad rounded hills with steep slopes. In South
Devon the country is more cultivated, and the region of the South
Hams on soft slates with bands of volcanic rock, is rich agricultural
land.
At Salcombe and Bolt Head, south of Kingsbridge, there is an area
of highly metamorphosed micaceous slaty rocks, the age of which is
a debated question.
Localities for fossils : Looe, Plymouth, Torquay, Newton Abbot, Chudleigh, Watergate
Bay, Bedruthan, Launceston, Ilfracombe, Combe Martin, Pilton,
UU
OLD RED SANDSTONE-CARBONIFEROUS.
19
The Old Red Sandstone comprises a great series of red sandstones,
quartzose conglomerates, and red and mottled marls with beds of
calcareous sandstone or concretionary limestone, known as “corn-
stones." These are regarded as indicating lacustrine, and in part
estuarine conditions.
The upper beds are intimately linked with the Lower Carboniferous
strata, and in some parts of the Lake District and the Scottish
Borders there are basement conglomerates which may be of Upper
Old Red age.
In the lower beds the fossils comprise the crustacea Pterygotus
and Stylonurus,'and the fishes Pterichthys, Pteraspis and Cephalaspis;
the higher beds vield Asterolepis, Bothriolepis and Holoptychius.
The strata have a wide range in South Wales and the western
borders of England, also in the Cheviot Hills and the lowlands of
central Scotland, where great masses of volcanic rock (andesite, &c.)
are present.
The rocks extend from Loch Lomond to Stoneharen, fringe the
Moray Firth, and occupy much of Caithness and the Orkney Islands.
The ground is of varying character, mountainous in parts of
Carmarthenshire and Brecknockshire, elsewhere on the Welsh and
English borders a land of pasture and orchards. High moorlands
characterize the Cheviot country, the Ochil and Sidlaw Hills ; and
moor and mountain prevail in northern Scotland, with good arable
land near Elgin and in the Black Isle of Cromarty.
Localities for fossils : Leominster, Rowlestone (Herefordshire), Farlow (Shropshire), Dura
Den (Fifeshire), Forfar, Cromarty, Elgin, Thurso, Orkney.
22. Carboniferous Limestone. 21. Yoredale Rocks. Fossils :
Plate 38.
The Carboniferous system embraces a great group of coal-bearing
strata, of limestones, sandstones, shales, with seams of coal and bands
of ironstone, and with evidence of volcanic action in Devonshire, as at
Brent Tor, also in Derbyshire, and in the Scottish lowlands. All
conditions are indicated in the system, from purely marine to
estuarine, freshwater, and terrestrial.
In the West of England and Wales, and in the midland counties of
Leicestershire and Derbyshire, the lower portion of the system is
chiefly - Mountain Limestone” in massive beds, which form the fine
inland cliffs of Cheddar, the Gorge of the Avon below Bristol, the
sea cliffs of Gower and Tenby, and the picturesque dales of Derby-
shire. The rocks contain many corals, crinoids, bryozoa, brachiopods,
as well as trilobites, fish remains, &c. (see Table, p. 1).
The Carboniferous or Mountain Limestone is locally underlain by
the Lower Limestone Shales, and overlain by the Upper Limestone
Shales or Yoredale Rocks (represented by the Pendleside group in
Lancashire), which contain bands of radiolarian chert. From Derby-
shire northwards the distinction between the Carboniferous Lime-
stone (and associated shales) and the Yoredale Rocks becomes lost,
and we have a Carboniferous Limestone series, which forms a region
of high moorlands and fells, with many a “scar” of limestone.
Moreover, shales, sandstones, and layers of coal are found at various
2 *
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
:.:.:.:.
:.:.
:
horizons, the coal-seams becoming more important as we proceed
through Northumberland into Scotland.
The limestone regions are for the most part picturesque craggy
lands with fresh and sweet herbage, but with few surface streams
except in the low lands or in Drift covered areas. They furnish dry
healthy uplands, with much bare and weathered rock, and in places
open joints, swallet-holes and many caverns.
Localities for fossils : Clifton (Gloucestershire), Gower (Glamorganshire), Castleton, &c.
(Derbyshire), Wensleydale, &c. (Yorkshire), Poolvash (Isle of Man), Burntisland, &c.
(Fifeshire).
20. Millstone Grit. Fossils : Plate 38.
In the West of England and Wales this is often a hard and
compact siliceous rock, with subordinate bands of shale, but it
includes in midland and northern areas a great series of flags and
sandstones and coarse grits with quartz pebbles, as well as shales,
and occasional seams of coal. In the West of England and South
Wales it is known as the “Farewell Rock," as it forms the founda-
tion of the productive Coal-measures. It yields the silica-stone for
fire-bricks at Dinas in the Neath Valley, and many building and
paving stones in Yorkshire and Lancashire.
As a rule it forms high moorland regions, including many famous
health resorts, with picturesque crags as at Ilkley and the Brimham
Rocks near Pateley Bridge.
The sandstone rocks hold a good deal of water, and the rainfall
and springs of the moorlands are utilized for many a reservoir.
Fossils are not especially numerous.
19. Coal Measures. Fossils : Plate 38.
The productive Coal-measures occupy a number of basins, the
result of disturbance and erosion, in Glamorganshire and Pembroke-
shire, the Forest of Dean, Bristol and Somerset, and other tracts in
the Midlands, North Wales, the northern counties, and the Lowlands
of Scotland. The strata consist of shales, sandstones, with seams
of coal and bands of ironstone. In the Lower Coal-measures of
Lancashire there are hard siliceous beds known as Gannister.
The scenery is varied : as a rule, the ground is hilly and somewhat
barren though well-wooded in places. In South Wales much of the
coal-field is an elevated table-land formed of the central division of
hard sandstones known as the Pennant Grit, with deep and pictur-
esque valleys, along the borders of which the coal has been worked
in many places by means of levels. In the smelting region of
Landore by Swansea, the scene is black and dreary. In Somerset,
where the Coal-measures are largely concealed by New Red rocks.
and Lias, we find fertile pastures and arable land intermixed with the
mining tracts. In South Staffordshire the furnaces and factories
have produced the desolate " Black Country," while in North Staf-
fordshire the charms of the natural scenery are locally effaced by
“ the Potteries." Here as elsewhere, in Lancashire, Derbyshire and
Yorkshire, in Durham and Northumberland, in West Cumberland,
in the Glasgow-Edinburgh coal-fields, large centres of population
PERMIAN-TRIAS.
21
have grown in connection with the mining and manufactures.
Conspicuous artifical hills have in many parts been introduced by the
great tips of waste material, shale and sandstone, from the coal-
mines. The water from the Coal-measures is not usually good, and
in the Somerset coal-field it is occasionally saline.
The leading fossils of the Coal-measures are noted in the Table,
p. 1, and in Plate 38. The plants include club-mosses, horse-tails,
and fern-cycads.
Localities for fossils : Radstock (Somerset), Coalbrookdale (Shropshire), Stoke-upon-Trent
(North Staffordshire), and other coal-fields.
17
18. Permian: Sandstone and Conglomerate. 17. Magnesian
Limestone. Fossils : Plate 39.
This group of red conglomerates and sandstones, with clays and
marls and some volcanic rocks in South Devon, is grouped as Permian.
Certain breccias in the Midland Counties, formed of angular and
partially rolled scree material, are also regarded as Permian, as well
as the older red rocks, conglomerate (brockram) and Penrith Sand-
stone of the Vale of Eden.
The chief rocks of this age are the beds of Magnesian Limestone
which form an important belt from Nottingham to North Shields and
Tynemouth, and yield much valuable building-stone.
The beds yield Labyrinthodont remains, fish remains such as
Palæoniscus and Platysomus, the brachiopods Productus, Strophalosia,
Athyris, &c., and the mollusca Schizodus and Bakevellia. The
fossils serve to connect the Palæozoic with the Mesozoic eras. They
indicate inland-sea conditions.
Some of the granite masses, as in Devon and Cornwall, and the
lavas near Exeter, are probably of Permian age.
The Permian red sandstones and conglomerates form picturesque
hilly ground with deep combes near Torquay, Teignmouth and
Dawlish, a dry healthy country, much cultivated, with red fields, and
deep red lanes. The Magnesian Limestone is largely under cultiva-
tion, The waters are hard.
Localities for fossils : Doncaster, Brodsworth, Cadeby (Yorkshire), Marsden, Ferry Hill
and Fulwell (Durham).
LIL
16. Lower Trias: Bunter Sandstone and Pebble-beds.
This group, composed of red sandstones, red loamy sands and pebble-
beds, is recognized in the cliffs of Budleigh Salterton in Devon and
inland in part of West Somerset. It extends over large areas in
the Midland Counties forming dry healthy and picturesque sites, as
near Sutton Coldfield, on Cannock Chase and Sherwood Forest. It
occurs also in the Vale of Eden, and at St. Bees.
15. Upper Trias: Rhætic Beds, Keuper Marls and Sandstone.
Fossils : Plate 39.
The sandstones at the base of the Keuper occur at Sidmouth and
form a pleasant, dry and hilly country with many a deep red lane,
in the district which extends northwards to Wellington and Williton
in West Somerset. They occur at St. Anne's by Bristol, near
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
i
DU
ILU.
Malvern, in many parts of the Midland Counties, in Nottinghamshire,
Derbyshire, Chesliire, and near Carlisle.
Triassic Sandstones occur in Arran, also at Dumfries and Elgin.
Localiting for fossils : As a rule organic remains are few--they are mostly of Labyrintho.
donts and Repliles; Elyin, Storeton Hill near Birkenhead, Runcorn, Grinshill, Warwick,
and Sidmoutlı, have yielded remains.
Both Bunter and Keuper Sandstones yield plentiful supplies of
water, but occasionally those in the Keuper are found to be strongly
saline.
The Keuper Marls which contain thin beds of sandstone, veins and
nodules of gypsum, and impersistent beds of rock salt, extend, with
some interruptions, across the country from Axmouth and Sidmouth
to the mouth of the Tees. They form vales of undulating red ground
in the south and west of England, the Vale of Taunton, and to the
east of the Malvern range, regions where there is much rich pasture
and orchard land. In the Midland Counties the character of the
ground is modified by drift deposits.
Much of the land is of a clayey nature and the strata are not
water bearing, except where the included bands of sandstone, as near
Leicester, are locally of sufficient thickness to hold a supply.
The Bunter and Keuper indicate inland sea and desert conditions,
with much wind-drifted material.
The Rhætic beds follow the upper limit of the Keuper Marls, and
comprise grey marls, black shales, and locally White Lias, of no
great thickness. They form low escarpments to the east of Taunton,
in the Polden Hills of Sedgemoor, and elsewhere.
The fossils link the Keuper with the Lower Lias, and indicate the
incoming of marine conditions, the fishes having Triassic affinities,
while some of the mollusca extend into the Lias. Avicula contorta
is characteristic, and among other fossils are Cardium Rhæticum,
Pecten valoniensis, and Myophoria postera. Teeth of Microlestes, the
oldest British mammal, have been found in this formation.
Localities for fossils : Axmouth, Watchet (Somerset), Aust and Westbury-on-Severn
(Gloucestershire), Penarth (Glamorganshire).
2
14. Lias. Fossils : Plates 39 and 40.
This is a great group of marine clays and limestones with import-
ant local beds of ironstone.
The Lower Lias is formed of a mass of limestones alternating with
clays or shales (Blue Lias), overlain by clays and shales. These
beds occur at Lyme Regis and extend to the Yorkshire coast near
Redcar. They occur also in Glamorganshire, at Broadford in Skye
and elsewhere in the north of Scotland. At Frodingham in Lincoln-
shire there are beds of iron-ore.
The Middle Lias consists in its lower part of sandy beds and
shales, and in its upper part of hard iron-shot limestone (Marlstone)
which passes into a valuable iron-ore in parts of Oxfordshire,
Leicestershire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire (Cleveland Hills). Else.
where, as on Edge Hill, a useful building-stone is obtained. This
LIAS-OOLITE.
23
11
rock-bed contains Rhynchonella tetrahedru and Terebratula punc-
tata,
The Upper Lias, mainly clay, extends, like the other groups, from
Dorsetshire to Yorkshire and the Inner Hebrides.
The fossils of the Lias are numerous and varied, notably the
Ammonites, which characterize various stages. In the Lower Lias
(Plate 39) we find in upward succession 4. planorbis, A. angulatus,
A. Bucklandi, A. semicostatus, A. oxynotus, A, armatus, A. jamesoni,
and A. capricornus ; in the Middle Lias, a. marquitutus and A.
spinatus ; and in the Upper Lias, A. annulatus, A. serpentinus, A.
bifrons, and A. communis. A. heterophyllus and Leda ovum also
occur (Plate 40).
The huge reptiles Ichtliyosaurus and Plesiosaurus, many fishes and
crustacea, brachiopods, corals, and other fossils are met with.
The Lower Lias limestones and the Marlstone form síarps over-
looking vales in the softer clays, mostly pasture land. The harder
rocks are water-bearing, the Marlstone more especially where well
developed, as in Northamptonshire, but the waters of the Lower Lias
are seldom copious, and often impregnated with sulpliuretted
hydrogen. The Middle Lias forms picturesque hilly tracts, witlı
many orchards, in Dorset, Somerset, and Gloucestershire.
Localities for fossils : Lower Lias; Lyme Regis, Watchet, Street, Shepton Mallet,
Keynsham, Bridgend, Rugby, Barrow-on-Soar, Robin Hood's Bay, Broadford (Skye),
Raasay, Pabba.
Middle Lins; Golden Cap, near Charmouth (Dorset), Yeovil, Ilminster, Glastonbury,
Banbury, Grantham, Yorkshire.
Upper Lias; Yeovil, Ilminster, Dumbleton (Gloucestershire), Northampton, Lincoln,
Whitby.
13. Lower Oolite. Fossils : Plates 40 and 41.
The Colites form a series of stonebrash hills and clay vales which
extend from Dorsetshire and Wiltshire to Lincolnshire and Yorkshire.
The rocks are all more or less fossiliferous. The limestones and
sands form water-bearing strata.
The group under consideration includes the Inferior Colite series,
the Great Dolite series, and the Cornbrash, in which marine con-
ditions prevailed in the south and west of England, while estuarine
conditions are met with in some of the strata in the Midland Counties,
in Yorkshire, and the north of Scotland.
The Inferior Colite series, comprising sands with overlying lime-
stones, extends from Burton Bradstock and Bridport to Yeovil, Bath,
Dundry, and the Cotteswold Hills, forming dry healthy uplands, for
the most part under cultivation. Some beds are rich in Ammonites,
such as A. opalinus, A. murchisona, A. humphriesianus, and A. Par.
kinsoni; also brachiopods; and local coral-beds are met with in the
Cotteswold Hills (see Plate 40). Famous freestones also occur at
intervals. East of the Cotteswolds the series is represented in part
by the Northampton sands and ironstone, and in Lincolnshire by the
Lincolnshire limestone, together with local estuarine beds. In
Yorkshire the strata are largely of an estuarine character with beds
of lignite. In Skye and Raasay brown and white sandstones
prevail.
The Great Oolite series comprises the Fuller's Earth (or Fullonian),
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
the Great Oolite, and the Forest Marble. The Fuller's Earth extends
from Dorsetshire to Gloucestershire, and is a mass of grey clay or
marl with bands of soft limestone and occasional beds of economic
fuller's earth near Bath. The clay beds form pasture lands in
vales or on the slopes of escarpments. The Great Oolite appears
near Bradford-on-Avon, and extends in a series of dry elevated tracts
along the Cotteswold Hills to near Minchinhampton. It yields the
famous Bath freestone. The overlying Forest Marble is a very variable
group-the base near Bradford-on-Avon, and also in Dorset and in
parts of Gloucestershire, is a fossiliferous layer known as the Bradford
Clay. Here vicula costata, Terebratula coarctata, Waldheimia
digona, Apiocrinus Parkinsoni, and Acrosaleniu spinosa may be
found. Higher up the formation comprises slabs of shelly limestone
and oolite, together with clays and shales and sometimes beds of sand
and sandstone, yielding a very mixed soil. At the base of the Great
Qolite in parts of Gloucestershire, and more especially at Stonesfield
in Oxfordshire, there are flaggy beds of sandy and oolitic limestone,
which have long been worked for roofing, and are known as Stones-
field Slate. These beds have yielded mammalian remains, such as
Stereognathus and Phascolotherium, remains of turtles and other
reptiles, fishes, and many mollusca, plants, &c.
In Oxfordshire we lose the Fuller's Earth formation, and its place is
taken by coloured clays and sands known as the Upper Estuarine
series. The Great Oolite becomes a white marly limestone, and the
Forest Marble contains few hard stone bands, and passes into the
Great Oolite Clay made up of coloured clays and sands. This series
extends through Bedfordshire and Northamptonshire into Lincoln-
shire. In Yorkshire the only representative appears to be the Upper
Estuarine series, which no doubt embraces a longer period of time
than the Upper Estuarine series of the Midland Counties. In Skye
the Loch Staffin series represents beds of Great Oolite age.
The Cornbrash is a rubbly limestone usually with many fossils,
especially bivalve mollusca, and brachiopods. The principal ammonite
is A. macrocephalus. Among other fossils are Avicula echinata,
Myacites decurtatus, Ostrea flabelloides, Pecten vagans, Pholadomya
lyrata, Waldheimia lagenalis, W. obovata, and Echinobrissus clunicu-
laris. The formation extends from near Weymouth to the Yorkshire
coast.
Localities for fossils: Inferior Oolite; Burton Bradstock, Bridport, Bradford Abbas,
Sherborne, Dundry, Cheltenham, Northampton, Blea Wyke (Yorkshire), Skye.
Fuller's Earth; Eype (Dorset), Milborne Port, Shepton Montague, Bath.
Great Oolite ; Bath, Minchinhampton, Stonesfield, Northampton, Bedford.
Forest Marble; Eype and Langton Herring (Dorset), Bradford-on-Avon, Malmesbury,
Cirencester.
Cornbrash ; Radipole near Weymouth, Closeworth, Wincanton, Trowbridge, Chippen-
ham, Cirencester, Fairford, Witney, Rushden (Northamptonshire), Peterborough.
S
S
12. Middle Oolite. Fossils : Plate 42.
In this division are included the Oxford Clay and Kellaways beds,
and the Corallian.
The Oxford Clay comprises a mass of stiff clay with septarian
podules, and shales; and at the base beds of shelly calcareous sand.
OOLITE.
stone, spheroidal masses or “doggers ” of sandstone, sands, and loams
known as the Kellaways beds, from Kellaways, in Wiltshire. The
formation has yielded many fossils-large saurians, fishes, also
mollusca, especially Ammonites modiolaris, A. calloviensis, A. jason,
A. Lamberti, A. cordatus, Belemnites Oweni, Gryphæa dilatata, and
crustacea. The strata were formed under marine conditions.
They extend in a series of vales from Weymouth through Wiltshire
to Bedfordshire, Lincolnshire, and Yorkshire, and they occur also at
Uig, in Skye.
Localities for fossils : Weymouth, Chippenham, Oxford, St. Neots, Peterborough,
Hackness (Yorkshire).
The Corallian formation comprises a series of marine oolitic lime-
stones, marls, coral rag, calcareous sandstones or “grits” and sands.
It extends from the neighbourhood of Weymouth to that of Oxford,
and thence, with the exception of the limestone of Upware near Ely,
the formation is represented mainly by clays (Ampthill clay) in its
extension to Lincolnshire. In Yorkshire the stone-beds are again
well developed in the Tabular hills west of Scarborough.
The fossils of this formation include many corals such as Isastroa,
Thamnastræa, and Thecosmilia ; echinoderms such as Cidaris, Hemici-
daris; and mollusca including Ammonites perarmatus, A. plicatilis,
Bourguetia (Phasianella) striata, Chemnitzia heddingtonensis, &c.
The strata form a scarp between the vales of Oxford and Kimeridge
Clays, as at Sturminster Newton, in the Vale of Blackmore, at Wootton
Bassett, and in Yorkshire where they form a scarp on the north side
of the Vale of Pickering. Again, on Clyne Hill near Brora the beds
are well shown. They form dry healthy sites. The strata are water-
bearing-the water being held up by the Oxford clay.
Localities for fossils : Weymouth, Steeple Ashton, Calne, Marcham near Abingdon,
Oxford, Upware (Cambridgeshire), Filey, Malton, Brora (Sutherlandshire).
11. Upper Oolite. Fossils : Plate 43.
The highest portion of the Oolitic series includes the Kimeridge
Clay and Portland beds, and with them the Purbeck beds are
often grouped.
The Kimeridge Clay comprises beds of dark shale with numerous
bands of cement-stone and septarian nodules. The shale is frequently
bituminous, and at Kimeridge in Dorset it has been utilized for the
preparation of mineral oils, while one layer known as Kimeridge coal
has been used locally as fuel. Highly bituminous shale occurs in
Lincolnshire and also in Sussex, as proved by the Sub-Wealden boring
(see p. 73).
Large saurians, fishes, many mollusca such as Ammonites alternans,
A. biplex, Ostrea deltoidea, Exogyra virgula, Rhynchonella inconstans,
and other fossils, are met with. The conditions were marine.
Like the Oxford Clay this forms a series of vales-rich pasture
lands in places with many dairy farms in Dorset and Wiltshire,
while the famous Vale of Aylesbury is largely composed of it.
Localities for fossils: Kimeridge, Ringstead Bay, Swindon, Shotover Hill, Ely, Market
Rasen, Vale of Pickering, Helinsdale (Sutherlandshire).
26
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
In the Portland beds we have a variable series of colitic and
chalky limestones with beds of chert, calcareous sandstones and sands,
and occasional beds of clay as at Swindon and Hartwell, all exhibiting
marine conditions.
The beds yield many fossils notably the huge Ammonites giganteus,
Cerithium portlandicum, Cardium dissimile, Trigonia gibbosa, T.
incurva, Lucina portlandica, Pecten lamellosus, and the coral Isastræti
oblonga.
They form the rugged cliffs from Durlston Head to St. Alban's
Head and the headlands near Lulworth, the mass of the Isle of Port-
land with its quarries of colitic freestone, and they are seen in
quarries at Upway near Weymouth.
They reappear at Tisbury and Chilmark in the Vale of Wardour,
where the freestone is a calcareous sandstone; again at Swindon there
are large quarries whence hard sandstone is extracted; and outlying
masses extend to near Oxford and Aylesbury.
The strata afford many dry healthy sites. They are water-bearing,
the water being upheld by the Kimeridge Clay or at higher levels
where local bands of clay are present.
Localities for fossils : Portland, Upway, Tisbury and Chilmark, Swindon, Aylesbury,
10. Purbeck Beds. Fossils : Plate 43.
These strata consist of a mass of shelly limestones and clays, shales
or marls, with occasional sandy layers. The famous Purbeck Marble
formed largely of shells of Paludina, occurs in the upper part at
Swanage. The building stone of Swanage occurs at a lower horizon
and is mined extensively. Gypsum locally occurs near Swanage and
it was proved in the Purbeck beds near Battle in Sussex.
The strata follow the outcrop of the Portland beds in Dorset, in
the Vale of Wardour, at Swindon and onwards to Aylesbury.
Fig. 6.-SECTION OF PURBECK BEDS, ISLE OF PORTLAND.
Freshwater Limestone
(Aish).
Dirt Bed.
NN
**
finner
Freshwater Limestones
" Caps” overlying
Portland Beds.
The fossils are largely freshwater and estuarine, but there are some
marine forms; they include mollusca such as Paludina, Cyrena, Unio,
Ostrea and Trigonia; also many insects, ostracods, the isopod Archæ-
oniscus, fishes, crocodiles and turtles ; and mammals such as Spalaco-
therium and Plagiaular. Silicified remains of Cycads, including the
so-called “ Bird's nest,” Mantellia nidiformis; and coniferous trees, are
especially noteworthy in the “ Great Dirt Bed” of Portland (see
Fig. 6). The strata occupy but limited tracts in the country. They
extend along the higher ground bordering the coast from Swanage to
near St. Alban's Head, and on the coast near Lulworth, where the
picturesque coves have been hollowed out of the softer Purbeck
strata after the sea had broken through the protecting Portland
strata.
Localities for fossils : Swanage, Lulworth, Teffont Evias near Tisbury, Swindon.
WEALDEN-LOWER GREENSAND.
9. Wealden: Weald Clay. 9a. Hastings Beds. Fossils : Plate 43.
This comprises two great groups, the lower, termed the Hastings
beds, embraces a series of freshwater sands and sandstones with
subordinate clays. They form the elevated tract in the Weald at
Tunbridge Wells, Crowborough and Ashdown Forest, Mayfield and
Heathfield, and the cliffs near Hastings. Picturesque wooded and
cultivated areas, which furnish charming residential sites, characterize
this region. The sands are locally hardened and masses weathered
by rain, frost and winds form the well-known Toad Rock, the Eridge
and High Rocks, near Tunbridge Wells. The clays in this lower
series (Wadhurst Clay) yielded much iron-ore in old times, having
been worked from the time of Henry III. until the last furnace at
Ashburnham was extinguished in 1828 (see p. 73).
The upper division is mainly clay with occasional sandy layers and
bands of Sussex Marble with Puludina. It forms the great vale
below the Lower Greensand scarp of Leith Hill and Hind Head, ex-
tending to the north, west and south of the central dome of Ashdown
Forest (see Fig. 4).
Wealden beds undivided, and comprising alternations of coloured
clays and sands, occur on the south of the Isle of Wight and also
fringe the bay north of Swanage and some of the coves near
Lulworth.
Localities for fossils : Fossils are not very abundant if we except the cyprides which
occur in the Wealden shales. Bones of Iguanodon have been obtained in the region of
Tilgate Forest, and in the Isle of Wight. Plant-remains, including Endogenites crosa
(Tempskya Schimperi), occur in places.
T
.
8. Lower Greensand. Fossils : Plate 44.
This formation, essentially a marine sandy group, presents varied
characters in different areas. In the south-east of England it fringes
the great Wealden area, having a base of Atherfield clay, overlain by
the Hythe beds, alternations of hard Kentish Rag (cherty limestone)
and “hassock” largely quarried near Maidstone. These beds are
overlain by the Sandgate beds-clayey beds with fuller's earth at
Nutfield. Higher still are the Folkestone beds, white and sometimes
coloured sands with indurated masses; the white sands being
extensively dug for glass making and other purposes near Aylesford,
Godstone and other places.
In mass the strata form some of the more picturesque regions in
the South of England -a land of gorse-covered heathery commons.
and pine-woods, including the well-known heights of Leith Hill and
Hind Head, and the country near Midhurst, Petworth, Fittleworth,
and Pulborough.
In the Isle of Wight again we have the pleasant country around
Sandown, and the cliffs and chines of Shanklin, Blackgang, &c.
The sponge-gravels of Faringdon in Berkshire, the iron-sands of
Shotover near Oxford, the glass sands of Hartwell near Aylesbury,
the various sands at Leighton Buzzard, and the sands and fuller's
earth beds of Woburn, all belong to this series. The high grounds.
are everywhere healthy sites, notably the Woburn Hills, which extend
to Ampthill and onwards into Cambridgeshire. In Norfolk the sands.
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
of Sandringham, the brick clays of Snettisham, and the carstone of
Hunstanton belong to this series.
In Lincolnshire there is again a varied series beginning in the
Spilsby sandstone (probably of Upper (olitic age) and extending
through the clays and limestone of Tealby to the carstone which
forms the highest bed. In Yorkshire the Speeton Clay is partly of
Wealden and partly of Lower Greensand age.
The fossils of the Lower Greensand are varied in character and
in distribution. Iguandon remains occur near Maidstone. Among
other fossils are Ammonites Deshayesi, Gervillia, Trigonia, &c., and
in the Atherfield Clay Perna Mulleti and Erogyra sinvata. In
Lincolnshire and Yorkshire Ammonites noricus, Belemnites lateralis,
Pecten cinctus, and other fossils are found.
Localities for fossils : Hythe, Maidstore, Nutfield, Sandown and Atherfield (I. of Wight),
Faringdon, Leighton Buzzard, Potton, Tealby, Speeton.
17. Upper Greensand and Gault (Selbornian). Fossils : Plate 44.
These formations are grouped together as they are phases of one
period. In some areas, as at Burham in Kent, they consist wholly
of clay, in Devonshire almost wholly of chert beds and sand, while
in parts of Norfolk, Lincolnshire and Yorkshire they are represented
by Red Chalk. In all cases they are marine deposits.
Over much of the south of England, however, the higher beds are
of Upper Greensand character and the lower of Gault clay. Upper
Greensand thus fringes the Chalk escarpment-being quarried for
firestone and hearthstone near Godstone and Betchworth. Generally
it overlooks a vale in the Gault clay which is worked for bricks in
many places.
The beds are well developed near Selborne and other parts of
Hampshire, in the Isle of Wight, on the Blackdown and Haldon Hills
in Devonshire and near Lyme Regis, at Shaftesbury, the Vale of
Wardour, Warminster, Devizes and onwards to Wantage and the
base of the Chiltern Hills to near Tring.
The fossils of the Blackdown Hills and Haldon are largely replaced
by chalcedony-echinoderms and mollusca are thus well preserved.
Warminster has been a noted locality for sponges.
The Gault clay is well seen in the cliffs of East Wear Bay,
Folkestone, a noted locality for fossils. In the Isle of Wight it fornis
the “ Blue Slipper” at Ventnor, the foundation over which Upper
Greensand and Chalk have subsided and produced the picturesque
landslip or Undercliff.
Among the Gault fossils are ammonites, A. interruptus, A. lautus,
A. inflatus, Belennites minimus, Nucula, Inoceramus; also crustacea,
&c. "The Upper Greensand yields Exog yra conica, Pecten asper,
Pectunculusumbonatus, and many brachiopods, echinoderms,
sponges, &c.
Localities for fossils : Folkestone, Burham, Merstham, Isle of Wight, Blackdown and
Haldon Hills, Warminster, Hunstanton, Speeton.
6. Chalk. Fossils : Plate 45.
This great formation consists of white limestone with layers of
nodular flint, and bands and veins of tabular flint, which as a rule are
CHALK-EOCENE.
more prominent in the upper portions. The entire formation is
marine, largely of organic origin, and formed in a deep ocean. The
lowest division or Chalk marl is in many places found suitable for
the manufacture of Portland Cement. Elsewhere, as along the
Medway above Rochester and near Gravesend and Grays, higher
beds of Chalk are used for this purpose when mixed with river mud.
Extensive levels or tunnels have been driven into the Chalk for the
sake of working it without removing the overlying strata, as at
Chiselhurst, Norwich, Beer, and other places.
The Chalk from its general uniformity forms smooth rolling downs
-the North and South Downs, Salisbury Plain and the Dorsetshire
heights, the Chiltern Hills and Royston Downs, and the Wolds of
Lincolnshire and Yorkshire.
Numerous fossils are to be obtained, though not as a rule in great
profusion except locally, as in the basement bed of Chloritic marl which
is well seen in many parts of Dorset and at Chard in Somerset.
The fossils vary at successive stages and the beds have been
grouped, according to one characteristic and abundant form, into
zones as follows:-
ZONES.
(Belemnitella mucronata
Middle Chalk 2
Terebratulina lata
Actinocamax quadratus
Rhynchonella Cuvieri
Upper Chalk Marsupites
Lower Chalk { Holaster subglobosus
Micraster
| Ammonites varians
(Holaster planus
In addition to the above the common fossils are the echinoderms,
Echinocorys scutatus (Ananchytes ovatus), Galerites albogalerus,
Cardiaster; the brachiopods, Terebratula carnea, T. semiglobosu;
and the mollusca, Inoceramus, Pecten nitidus, &c.
The higher beds of Chalk, as elsewhere noted (p. 11), form one of
our most important sources of water-supply. The Upper and Middle
Chalk are so porous that rain readily sinks below ground in the hilly
regions. After long-continued rain the plane of saturation in the
Chalk rises, and streams then flow at higher levels in the upland
valleys. The Croydon “ bourne” is a notable example.
In certain situations on the high chalk downs, especially in Sussex
and Hampshire, “dew-ponds” have been formed. A shallow pit is
dug, sometimes 6 feet deep; this is clayed, and water is conveyed
into it. Some of these ponds retain water for extended periods.
The supply is of course partly maintained by rain, but chiefly by dew.
Localities for fossils : Seaton, Ringstead Bay (Dorset), Chard, Isle of Wight, Arundel,
Lewes, Margate, Rochester, Gravesend, Grays, Norwich, Bridlington.
5. Lower Eocene. Fossils : Plate 46.
This group includes the following sub-divisions :-
London Clay
Oldhaven and Blackheath Beds
“Lower London Tertiaries.
Woolwich and Reading Beds
Thanet Beds
The Thanet beds, well seen in the cliffs east of Herne Bay, consist
of fine sands and clayey sands of marine origin.
Mollusca are not uncommon; they include Cyprina Morrisi,
Corbula regulbiensis, Cytherea orbicularis, Thracia oblata, &c.
V2
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
The Woolwich and Reading beds comprise a series of mottled
clays, coloured sands, and pebble-beds-a very inconstant assemblage.
Westwards in the area of the London Basin, as at Reading and in
the Hampshire Basin, they are mainly freshwater, and yield plant-
remains. Eastwards of London they contain freshwater and
estuarine mollusca, such as Cyrena cuneiformis, Potamides funatus,
Melania inquinata, &c. Ostrea bellovacina is widely distributed.
In Hertfordshire the pebble-beds are locally cemented into a hard
siliceous conglomerate known as the Hertfordshire pudding-stone.
The London clay is a mass of bluish-grey marine clay which
weathers brown at the surface: it contains numerous septaria, and
these were formerly utilized near Harwich for the manufacture of
cement. The fossils include remains of plants such as palms, many
mollusca, such as Nautilus, Volutu, Pholadomya, Pectunculus, and
remains of crustacea, turtles, birds and mammals, of somewhat tropical
character.
The London clay forms a pleasant undulating country to the north-
west of London, well-timbered, and mostly grass land—but the soil
is naturally stiff. In north Middlesex and eastwards it is largely
covered with drift deposits.
The Thanet beds, and locally the sandy beds of the Woolwich and
Reading beds and the Oldhaven beds are water-bearing. Some of
the earlier artesian wells under London drew supplies from these
Lower Eocene strata.
Localities for fossils : Sheppey, Oldhaven, Upnor, Chiselhurst, Bognor, Isle of Wight.
G
AI?
JUUUUU
4. Upper Eocene. Fossils : Plate 47.
This comprises the Bagshot and Bracklesham beds, which exhibit
marine, estuarine and freshwater conditions. In the London Basin
we have a series of Upper and Lower Bagshot sands with inter-
mediate loamy and clayey Bracklesbam beds. Outliers of the Lower
Bagshot sands occur in East Essex, on Highgate, Hampstead and
Harrow Hills, while the mass of the strata occupies a considerable area
from Chertsey and Weybridge westwards to Woking, Aldershot,
Chobham, Bagshot, Ascot, and Sandhurst, and again between Reading,
Newbury and Kingsclere. In the Hampshire Basin the beds occur
over much of the New Forest and westwards to Wareham, and they
extend in a narrow belt across the Isle of Wight from Alum Bay to
near Culver Cliff. The district is characterized by many heaths,
commons and pine-woods, as near Weybridge and Bagshot, and on the
coast at Bournemouth, with its picturesque chines.
In Dorsetshire the beds yield the famous pipe and potters' clay
shipped at Poole. Somewhat similar clays are extensively dug near
Newton Abbot, and in the same district at Bovey Tracey the Bovey
coal or lignite is found.
The fossils are of a tropical character. The Bracklesham beds have
yielded remains of palm (Nipadites), nummulites, mollusca such as
Cardita planicosta, Cerithium giganteum, Voluta, Conus, &c., remains
of sharks, a marine serpent, turtles, and mammals. The Barton clay
of Hampshire has yielded many fossils of like character, including
S
w
OLIGOCENE--PLIOCENE.
31
the mollusca Crassatella, Conus, Murex, Fusus, Voluta, Rostellaria,
&c.
Localities for fossils: Bracklesham Bay, Alum and Whitecliff Bays (Isle of Wight),
Bournemouth (plant-remains), Barton, Ilordle.
3. Oligocene. Fossils : Plate 48.
This group which occurs in the northern part of the Isle of Wight
and on the Hampshire coast bordering the New Forest, comprises
a series of freshwater and marine limestones and clays known (in
ascending order) as the Headon, Osborne, Bembridge and Hamstead
beds. They are richly fossiliferous, yielding freshwater, estuarine and
marine forms--the mollusca including Cytherea, Cyrena, Corbula,
Limnæa, Planorbis, Bulimus, Cerithium. Remains of mammals
(Palæotherium and Anoplotherium) likewise occur.
_Localities for fossils : Bembridge, Whitecliff, Colwell and Totland Bays (Isle of Wight),
Hordle, Brockenhurst.
2. Pliocene: 2a. Coralline Crag. Fossils : Plate 49.
The Pliocene or Crag series is a group of shelly sands and gravels
with occasional seams of clay, of marine, though shallow water
origin. The lowest portion, the Coralline crag, occupies limited
areas near Aldeburgh and Orford in Suffolk. It is a pale shelly sand
and passes into indurated beds of calcareous sandstone, from which
the shells have been for the most part dissolved away. Among the
fossils are the mollusca Astarte Omalii, Cardita senilis, Pectunculus
glycimeris, Venus casina, Pecten pusio, P. Gerardii, Trophon alveo-
latus, Turritella incrassata; the brachiopod Terebratula grandis,
many bryozoa, and some echinoderms.
Localities for fossils : Orford, Aldeburgh.
The succeeding division, the Red crag, is a red shelly sand much
current-bedded. It occurs at Walton-on-the-Naze and over great
part of eastern Suffolk from Felixstow to Aldeburgh. At its base and
also at the base of the Coralline crag is a bed with phosphatic nodules,
at one time largely worked for artificial manure. Here many
vertebrate remains have been found. The upper part of the Red
crag beyond Aldeburgh passes into pale shelly sand and gravel,
which together with newer deposits of like character are grouped as
the Norwich Crag series. These beds extend from Dunwich to
Norwich and Weybourn.
The fossils include the mollusca Tellinu obliqua, T. prætenuis,
Mactra, Lucina borealis, Cardium edule, Cyprina islandica, Natica,
Purpura, Littorina, Trophon, &c., also remains of Mastodon and
other mammalia, and fish remains.
Localities for fossils: Walton-on-the-Naze, Sutton near Woodbridge Felixstow, Hollesley,
Butley, Dunwich, Southwold, Bramerton and Thorpe near Norwich, Weybourn.
At St. Erth in Cornwall, and in pipes of the chalk at Lenham and
other places in the North Downs, remnants of Pliocene deposits have
been preserved. The Cromer Forest bed forms the highest portion of
the Pliocene series in England. It consists of ferruginous gravel,
clayey beds, with estuarine mollusca, and black peaty layers with
L
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
freshwater shells and plant remains. It is especially noted for its
fossil mammalia such as Elephas meridionalis, E. antiquus, Hippo-
potumus, Rhinoceros etruscus, Trogontherium, Hyæna, Machærodus,
many remains of Deer, &c. This bed has been exposed beneath the
Glacial Drift at the base of the cliffs and in places on the foreshore,
at Kessingland and Corton in Suffolk, and near Cromer in
Norfolk.
1. Recent and Pleistocene: Alluvial Drift; la. Glacial Drift.
Fossils : Plate 50.
The formations previously considered have regular outcrops and
are disposed in fairly regular sequence-the older for the most part
in the west and north of Great Britain, and the newer in midland,
south-eastern and eastern regions.
The deposits now to be described occur irregularly on any of those
stratified or igneous formations, as they have been accumulated since
the main features of the country were sculptured. The more ex-
tensive of these drift deposits were due mainly to the influence of
ice-to local glaciers in the mountains and to widespread sheets of
ice over the greater part of the country. Originating in vast
accumulations of snow which were gradually converted into ice
and welded to the ground, these ice-sheets moved outwards by
reason of the impulse of the pressure, aided and directed locally by
glacier ice from the more elevated regions. With the movements the
superficial weathered strata and portions of the more solid substrata
were shifted, and carried in many instances to higher levels in the
ice, by the numerous shear-planes or overthrusts which are produced
in masses of ice when they encounter obstacles. In this way the
rubbly rock, the flints and other hard stones, were some of them
shattered and crushed together, and the limestones, pieces of cement-
stone and hard chalk were scored and scratched by sharp fragments.
The boulder-clay due to the melting of the ice was perhaps again
and again over-ridden by ice and pressed into the tough stony clay of
which it mainly consists. Glacial deposits thus comprise stiif clay
with erratic stones (boulder-clay or till), and this passes through a
kind of earthy drift into sand and gravel. The boulder-clay is the
more direct product of the ice agents, the sands and gravels as a rule
being due to streams and floods arising from the melting of the ice.
These Glacial Drifts are not represented on the maps.
The records of this Ice Age are well marked in Scotland, the Lake
District, the Northumbrian, Yorkshire and Lancashire moorlands, the
Isle of Man, and Wales, where the vestiges of glacial action are to be
seen in the accumulations of boulder-clay with ice-scratched stones,
in the striated pavements of rock, in the rounded and polished rock-
surfaces (roches moutonnées), the perched blocks, and transported
boulders that may be easily recognized by those familiar with modern
glacial action. (See Fig. 7.)
Deposits of this period are likewise spread far and wide over the
Midland and Eastern Counties, burying up the more solid strata to the
depth sometimes of 200 feet, and thus exercising great influence on
the agricultural character of the country. Even as far south as
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level than the ordinary alluvium and formed at a time when the rivers
had not cut so deeply into their valleys. In the Southern and Midland
Counties these deposits usually contain palæolithic implements, also
remains of mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c., and in places
Unio littoralis, Corbicula fluminalis, and other mollusca (freshwater
and land).
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parts of Scotland the valley gravels pass into the newer raised
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34
FORMATIONS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
belong to an earlier part of the Pleistocene period, prior to the closing
scenes of the Glacial episode.
The ordinary alluvium is the belt of flat land that borders the
rivers and streams and would be flooded if they overflowed their banks.
It is composed of silt or mud, loam, peat, and sometimes gravel.
The organic remains found in it are recent freshwater mollusca,
including also animals like the wolf, bear, beaver, reindeer, elk or
moose, and others which have been exterminated in historic times.
In the Thames Valley at Tilbury Docks the alluvium is nearly
sixty feet thick, and a human skeleton was met with at a depth of
thirty-two feet. Here and in other localities the depth of alluvium
indicates the subsequent depression of the land.
Alluvial tracts form rich meadow lands and in other places marshy
tracts.
The peaty areas in Engand are found in Sedgemoor in Somerset, in
the Fenland, at Chat Moss and Carrington Moss on the borders of
the Mersey, and in the Solway Moss on the Scottish borders. In
the more mountainous districts of England, Wales, and Scotland
peat occupies not only old marshy tracts in the low grounds, but
there is much on the hill-sides due to the decay of heather and
grasses. In Highland regions and in many of the Scottish isles the
peat is extensively dug. In many cases peat and alluvium occupy
the sites of old lakes.
Blown Sands occur in areas where there is an expanse of sea sand
at low tide, and the wind drifts the material inland where it becomes
heaped up in dunes, which sometimes rise to a height of sixty or
eighty feet. In some places, as in Cornwall, much of the blown sand
is largely made up of comminuted shells, elsewhere it is mainly
quartz sand. Marram or sand grass is cultivated in places to
protect the sand hills from drifting.
The later geological records are intimately connected with the
history of man. The earlier monuments, like those of Avebury and
Stonehenge, were erected from loose blocks of stone, for the most
part obtained in the neighbourhood, such as the masses of sandstone
known as greywethers that lie scattered about the surface of the
Wiltshire Downs. A few of the blocks at Stonehenge were brought
from a distance, and the greywethers were hewn into more definite
shapes.
The earlier stone-implements were fashioned from large water-worn
flints or other stones that were found along river-courses, in natural
banks of gravel, or in the surface-soil. In later times excavations
were made in the Chalk to obtain the flints from their natural position.
The construction of pit-dwellings and of dene-holes for refuge or
for storing grain, the formation of camps and other earth-works, the
digging of graves and sinking of wells, led to the acquirement of
some knowledge of the strata beneath the surface-soil, as did also
the processes of mining for gold, tin, and iron, and the digging of
clay for pottery.
Ďuring the Roman occupation quarrying must have been exten-
sively carried on for the construction of bridges, paved roads, and
villas.
35
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
ALUM.-A double sulphate of aluminium and potassium (or other base) formerly made
from the alum-shale of the Upper Lias near Whitby in Yorkshire; now prepared from
shales in the Yorkshire Coal-measures.
AMBER.-A fossil resin met with occasionally on the shores of Norfolk and Suffolk,
and perhaps derived from Oligocene deposits beneath the North Sea, of the age of the
strata on the shores of the Baltic.
AMETHYST.-Quartz crystals having a purple tinge due perhaps to the presence of
manganese or iron salts.
ANTIMONY.-Sulphide of antimony (stibnite) has been obtained from veins in North
Cornwall, and in the Southern Uplands of Scotland.
ARSENIC.-Obtained as a by-product from arsenical ores of iron, copper, and tin, but
chiefly from arsenical pyrites (mispickel) in Cornwall and Devon.
ASBESTOS.-A thread-like variety of hornblende which occurs at Moel Hebog in
N. Wales, and in serpentine at the Lizard in Cornwall, at Portsoy in Banffshire, and at
Glenelg in Inverness-shire. Some asbestos is fibrous serpentine.
BARYTES.-Sulphate of barium (heavy spar) occurs in Carboniferous and older rocks
in Devonshire, Shropshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Westmorland. The carbonate
of barium (witherite) occurs in Northumberland, Durham, Westmorland, and the Isle
of Man. These minerals are also obtained in Montgomeryshire and Renfrewshire.
BAUXITE.-A mineral from which aluminium is obtained, as at the Falls of Foyers in
Inverness-shire. The material occurs among the volcanic rocks of Antrim. It is
composed of alumina and peroxide of iron.
BISMUTH.-Sulphide of bismuth (bismuthine) is found in some of the mines in
Cornwall and Devon, also in Cumberland.
CAIRNGORM.-Quartz crystals, tinged yellow or brown, formed in drusy cavities of
granite veins.
CARNELIANS.-Banded varieties of chalcedony tinted by peroxide of iron. Pebbles
derived from Glacial Drifts are found in the beaches along the Eastern coasts from
Scarborough southwards to Suffolk.
CHERT.--An impure variety of flint. It occurs in veins, irregular nodules, and layers,
sometimes largely made up of radiolaria as in the Ordovician rocks of Mullion Island,
Lizard, and Ayrshire. Radiolarian chert also occurs in the Lower Carboniferous
rocks at Coddon Hill near Barnstaple; in the same rocks chert is found at
Leyburn and other places in Yorkshire, Derbyshire, and Flintshire. In the Portland
beds of Dorsetshire, and in the Upper Greensand of the Isle of Wight and western
Counties, chert for the most part derived from sponge spicules is prominently developed.
CLAY.-Chiefly hydrous silicate of aluminium. The purest form, Kaolin or china clay,
has been formed by the decomposition of felspar in granite, as at St. Austell in Cornwall.
Less pure forms, to a large extent derived from accumulations of Kaolin, occur in the
Eocene strata of Bovey Tracey and Newton Abbot in Devonshire, and Poole in
Dorsetshire, where the varieties known as pipe or potters' clay are dug.
Terra cotta clay is obtained in the Permian at St. Mary Church and Torre near
Torquay. Terra cotta bricks are made at Hathern in Leicestershire from the Keuper
marls.
Fire-clay, a refractory clay obtained from the Coal-measures at Stourbridge, Wortley
near Leeds, and many other places, is employed in the manufacture of crucibles, fire-
bricks, &c.
Clays for the manufacture of pottery, bricks, and tiles are found in many geological
formations.
3 *
36
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Modelling clay is obtained from the clays at Watcombe, Poole, and Stoke-on-Trent,
and is prepared for use by being mixed with wax, stearine, glycerine, or oil.
COAL.-There are several varieties of coal, and almost the whole of that obtained in
Britain is from Carboniferous rocks. In the Midland and South-Western Counties of
England and in Wales the Coal-measures yield the coal, and this is the case in the Lan-
cashire and Yorkshire coal-fields. Further north, the Lower Carboniferous rocks, as
well as the Coal-measures, are productive, as in Northumberland and in the Scottish
coal-fields. Coal of Oolitic age has been worked at Brora in Sutherlandshire, and
a Tertiary brown coal or lignite has been worked at Bovey Tracey and near Chudleigh
in Devonshire.
Ordinary house coal, known as “bituminous" coal, is rich in volatile hydrocarbons.
It contains about 75 per cent. of carbon and passes into the varieties known as free-
burning or steam-coals. These again merge into anthracite, which has a shining
conchoidal fracture, and contains 90 to 93 per cent. of carbon, having but little volatile
matter. Culm is a shaly variety of anthracite. Cannel or parrot coal, which contains
80 to 84 per cent. of carbon, is a hard dull coal with much volatile matter; it is used for
gas-making.
The total yield of coal in tons for the past four years is as follows:-
1903
England............... 159,314,365 | 153,451,070 | 158,557,585 | 160,562,348
Wales
1900
1901
1902
32,618,995
***********
32,686,631 34,303,240 / 34,665,991
Scotland...
33,112,1041 32,796,510 34,115,309 34,992, 240
This is a considerable portion of the coal now annually raised throughout the world,
which amounts to about 725 million tons.
COPPER.-Copper-ore is obtained chiefly from Cornwall, Devon, and Anglesey. In
smaller quantities it is obtained from Carnarvon and Merioneth-shires, while Cheshire,
Lancashire, and Cardiganshire have also yielded supplies. Copper-pyrites or chalco.
pyrite (sulphide of copper and iron) is the principal ore.
DIATOMITE.--Diatomaceous deposits which have been accumulated in lakes, in Skye
and other parts of Scotland, have been utilized for fire-proof linings and in the prepara-
tion of dynamite.
DOLOMITE.-Magnesian limestone, which occurs in the Permian formation of Notting-
hamshire, Derbyshire, Yorkshire, and Durham. The rock often exhibits curious
concretionary structures. The Carboniferous limestone and the Durness limestone are
frequently dolomitic.
FLINT.--This occurs in nodules and veins in the Chalk, and has been worked in pits
and shafts near Brandon and also near Norwich, and at Beer Head in Devonshire, for
gun-flints. It is used more extensively for road-metal and for building purposes; andi
also in the manufacture of porcelain and glass.
FREESTONE.-The term is applied to limestones and sandstones which can readily be
cut into blocks.
FLUOR SPAR.-Fluoride of calcium occurs in many localities, but more abundantly
in Derbyshire, where it is worked for the manufacture of vases and other ornamental
objects. “Blue John" is a purple variety from Castleton.
FIRE-STONE.---Stone capable of resisting the action of fire has been obtained from the
Carboniferous and other formations.
In Surrey the Upper Greensand has yielded a rock known as fire-stone, a calcareous
sandstone, some varieties of which are used for hearth-stone.
FULLER'S EARTH.-A variety of clay which, owing mainly to its physical character, is
not plastic, but falls to a powder under water. It occurs in the Lower Greensand at
Nutfield near Reigate and at Woburn, in the Oolitic series at Midford and Wellow near
Bath, and occasionally in the Silurian rocks.
GARNETS.-A group of minerals consisting of double silicates of aluminium and iron
or calcium, &c., met with in various metamorphic rocks.
GOLD.-Gold was worked by the Romans at Gogofau near Llanpumpsaint in Car.
marthenshire. A declining amount has in recent years been obtained between
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Dolgelly and Barmouth-in 1900, 14,000 ounces of bar gold ; in 1901, 6225 oz. ; in 1902,
4181 OZ., and rather less in 1903. In Sutherlandshire and in the Leadhills in the
Southern Uplands of Scotland gold has also been obtained in small quantities.
GRAPHITE.-Plumbago or Black Lead (carbon with a small amount of iron-oxide) was
formerly worked at Borrowdale in Cumberland.
GREYWETHERS.-Hard masses of sandstone, sometimes with flint-pebbles, and with
purely siliceous matrix, found in the Reading beds and Bagshot beds. Blocks derived
from these formations are found on the Downs of Wiltshire and elsewhere in the South.
wethers. They are also known as Sarsen Stones.
GYPSUM.-Hydrous sulphate of lime occurs in crystalline form as selenite in many
clays and other deposits. Elsewhere it occurs as semi-crystalline nodules and veins,
especially in the Triassic marls of Cumberland, Westmorland, Durham, Derbyshire,
Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire, and Somersetshire, and in the Purbeck beds of Sussex
and Dorset. The finer granular kinds, known as Alabaster, are wrought into various
ornamental articles. Plaster of Paris is prepared from calcined gypsum, and this is
used in the manufacture of other cements.
IRON.--Iron-ore was formerly obtained from the Wealden strata in the South-East of
England, and subsequently, when coal came to be worked, it was very largely mined in
the form of clay ironstone (impure carbonate of iron) from the Coal-measures, where it
occurs in nodular layers. The black band ironstone (carbonaceous ironstone) is still
extensively worked in Staffordshire and Scotland.
The chief part of our iron-ore is, however, now obtained from t
“brown iron-ore" or limnonite, and earthy carbonate of iron. The ore occurs in beds in
the Middle Lias of the Cleveland Hills in Yorkshire, and of Lincolnshire, Leicestershire,
and Oxfordshire; in the Lower Lias of Frodingham in Lincolnshire; in the North-
ampton sands; and in the Corallian rocks of Westbury in Wiltshire,
Bog iron-ore is an impure limonite formed in marshes, &c.
The Carboniferous limestone of Cumberland and Lancashire, the Forest of Dean and
Llantrissant in South Wales, yields the red iron ore or hæmatite; wbile the Morte
slates of the Brendon Hills and the Carboniferous rocks of Weardale in Durham have
yielded Spathose iron-ore (carbonate of iron).
Magnetic iron-ore occurs at Hey Tor in Devonshire and at Rosedale in Yorkshire,
Iron-pyrites (bi-sulphide of iron) is valuable mainly for the manufacture of sulphuric
acid and sulphate of iron.
JET. -Formerly obtained in considerable quantities in the Upper Lias near Whitby
in Yorkshire. It is usually regarded as a compact variety of lignite.
LEAD.-Obtained chiefly from veins and cavities in the Carboniferous limestone
series in Northumberland, Cumberland, Durham, Yorkshire, Derbyshire, Flintshire,
Denbighshire, and from the refuse of old mine-works on the Mendip Hills.
It occurs also in the older rocks in Shropshire, Cardiganshire, at the Foxdale and
Laxey Mines in the Isle of Man, and in the Lead Hills of the Southern Uplands of
Scotland. The more important ore is galena (sulphide of lead), which usually contains
silver. Cerussite (carbonate of lead) is also of economic value.
LIGNITE.-Lignite or brown coal has been formed fronı vegetable matter, less
mineralized than coal. It has been worked occasionally at Bovey Tracey and near
Chudleigh. It there contains a good deal of iron-pyrites.
LIMESTONE.-Nearly all the limestone formations have been quarried for economic
purposes. Some, like the Carboniferous limestone and the Chalk, yield a very pure
lime, suitable for chemical and agricultural purposes.
Other and argillaceous varieties yield a natural hydraulic lime, such as the “Blue
Lias" and the Chalk marl. Elsewhere, Chalk mixed with river-mud is largely used in
the manufacture of Portland Cement, and soft white Chalk is used for whiting.
Hard and somewhat sandy beds of Chalk have been employed for building-purposes,
as at Beer in Devonshire and Totternhoe in Bedfordshire,
Various Oolitic limestones furnish our most valuable freestones, as the Portland
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Stone of Portland; the Great Oolite of Bath, Minchinhampton, and Milton near Burford
in Oxfordshire; and the Inferior Oolite series at Ham Hill, Doulting, and Dundry in
Somerset, at Painswick and other places on the Cotteswold Hills, at Weldon, Ketton,
Casterton, Stamford, Ponton, and Ancaster in the Midland Counties and Lincolnshire.
The Magnesian limestone of Nottinghamshire, Derbyshire, and Yorkshire yields
famous building-stone, as at Mansfield, Bolsover, Anston, Roche Abbey, Doncaster, &c.
Some of the harder rocks, as the Carboniferous and Devonian limestones, are exten-
sively quarried for road-metal. These limestones also yield marble, the Carboniferous
limestone of Derbyshire and elsewhere affording many ornamental varieties, among
which may be noted a shelly limestone known as the Hopton Wood stone, near Wirks-
worth, and a coral limestone from Frosterley in Durham.
The Devonian limestone at Newton Abbot, Ipplepen, and Torquay yields many
varieties of coral and other limestone, suitable for polishing. The Purbeck Marble of
the neighbourhood of Swanage, formed mainly of Paludina, has in old times been
extensively quarried. The Forest Marble, shelly limestone, has been polished for local
use. The Landscape (arborescent) marble of Cotham near Bristol is utilized for the
manufacture of small ornaments. In Scotland the marble of Tiree is of Archæan age,
and that of Skye is Cambrian.
MANGANESE.-Not uncommon in many geological formations. Pyrolusite (binoxide
of manganese) is the most abundant ore. It is worked near Llanbedr and Barmouth in
Merionethshire, and has been obtained in smaller quantities in Carnarvonshire, Derby-
shire, Devonshire, and Cornwall.
MARBLE.-(See under Limestone and Serpentine.)
OCHRE.---Earthy varieties of iron oxide, obtained in various places, as in Anglesey, at
Shotover Hill in Oxfordshire, Winford in Somerset. Reddle or raddle is a highly
ferruginous clay.
PEAT.-An accumulation of vegetable matter, slightly mineralized, and formed in low-
lying marshy areas or in pools and boggy places on moors and mountains. Near the
surface peat is usually light-brown in colour, and spongy, while the plant-remains are
little altered; deeper down the material is darker in colour, denser, and the plants are
more decomposed. Peat is composed of Mosses, Reeds, Rushes, Sedges, Heaths, Ferns,
and other plants.
PETROLEUM and OIL SHALE.--The bituminous shale of the Kimeridge clay of Dorset
has at various times been worked for the production of naphtha, &c.
In Lincolnshire the clay is locally bituminous. At Heathfield in Sussex natural gas
has been found in the Wealden-Purbeck strata, and has been utilized without need of
any refining. From the Coal-measures of Torbane Hill in Linlithgowshire, which have
yielded the famous “Bog Head Cannel," and from similar strata in Fifeshire, and at
Leeswood in Flintshire, paraffin oil has been produced by distillation.
Albertite, an asphaltic variety of cannel coal, occurs in Ross-shire.
PHOSPHATES.-Nodules and phosphatized fossils containing much phosphate of lime,
and in some cases true coprolites, have been obtained from the Bala beds, from the
Lower Greensand, from the base of the Chalk, and from the base of the Crag in Suffolk.
Phosphatic Chalk bas also been found at Taplow.
ROAD STONES.-Stones of variable quality are employed locally. Better stones are
more and more extensively used, as the granite of Mount Sorrel, various greenstones
and other igneous rocks from Guernsey, Rowley Rag, Clee Hill (Dhu Stone), &c.; also
the quartzite (Hartshill stone) of Nuneaton, and the Carboniferous limestone or so-
called “Mendip Granite." Slag from iron-furnaces is locally used.
ROTTENSTONE.-A porous siliceous material due to the decomposition of cherty lime-
stone. It is derived from the Lower Carboniferous rocks of Derbyshire, Flintshire, and
South Wales, and is utilized for polishing purposes.
SALT.- Common Salt (chloride of sodium) was formerly prepared from bay-salt, which
was obtained by evaporation from sea-water along many parts of the coast.
Rock Salt has been worked at Northwich in Cheshire, where two beds occur eighty
to ninety feet thick, and in Lancashire and Staffordsh
but the Su
OILUISWOOV
MONU
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
39
obtained from brine springs in Cheshire, Worcestershire, and on the borders of Durham
and Yorkshire, near Middlesbrough. In both cases the material is obtained from the
Triassic marls.
SANDS.--Clean quartzose sands suitable for glass-making occur in the Lower Green-
sand of Reigate, Godstone, Aylesford, Berstead, Hartwell, &c. ; also in the Headon Hill
sands. Leighton Buzzard furnishes a variety of sands in the Lower Greensand-silver
sand, filter sand, sand for mortar, &c. The Bagshot sands of Alum Bay are noted for
their many colours.
The so-called silica clay or stone of the Vale of Neath yields the Dinas fire-bricks.
Moulding sands are largely obtained from the red loamy sands of the Bunter. The
Thanet beds also furnish good foundry loam.
Bath-bricks are made from the siliceous (partly diatomaceous) silty sand of the River
Parrett at Bridgewater, and were so named after the original manufacturer.
SANDSTONE.-Rocks made up of grains of quartz with often fragments of felspar,
mica, &c. The matrix or cementing material may be carbonate of lime, silica, or ferru-
ginous matter. Where the rock contains tiny pebbles or conspicuous angular frag-
ments the term “grit” is sometimes employed. Beds of Millstone grit were originally
used for millstones.
Fissile or flaggy varieties of sandstone have been extensively used for paving-stone,
especially from the Coal-measures of Yorkshire, but the introduction of artificial pave-
ment has much affected the industry there, and also in Caithness, where the Caithness
Flags (Old Red sandstone) have for long been quarried.
Other varieties have been used for grindstones, as at Newcastle and Bilston, while
the cherty sandstones of the Blackdown Hills have especially in old times been utilized
as whetstones.
Hard sandstones suitable for building are obtained in the Millstone Grit and Coal-
measures, and other Carboniferous rocks, among which are the Dean Forest stone
(Pennant Grit), the Darley Dale stone near Bakewell in Derbyshire, the Bramley Fall
stone near Leeds, the Craigleith stone of Edinburgh, and other rocks in Fifeshire.
The New Red (Keuper) sandstone yields a good building-stone in the Midland Coun.
ties near Nottingham and Derby, at Hollington near Uttoxeter, and at Runcorn; and
New Red sandstone is quarried at Dumfries, in Arran, and at Elgin.
Red and white dolomitic sandstones of the age of the Magnesian Limestone are
quarried at Mansfield Woodhouse.
Old Red sandstone yields building-stone at Cradley near Malvern, at Cupar, Elgin,
and many other places.
SEPTARIA.--Nodules of argillaceous limestone or cement-stone with cracks or septa
filled with carbonate of lime. These occur in the great clay formations, such as the
London clay, Kimeridge clay, and Oxford clay. Those from the London clay were
formerly utilized in the manufacture of “Roman" cement, and even for building-
purposes in the old walls of Colchester.
SERPENTINE.---Hydrous silicate of magnesium and iron, red and green in colour, with
veins of steatite or soap-stone. It occurs at the Lizard in Cornwall, near Holyhead, and
at Portsoy in Banffshire, and has been polished as marble for various ornamental
purposes.
SILVER.-- Mainly obtained from argentiferous galena, as in Devonshire, Cardigan-
shire, the Isle of Man, the Leadhills.
SLATE.- A hard argillaceous rock which, through pressure, has been made to cleave
in a direction independent of the original planes of deposition, though sometimes corre-
sponding with them. The best slates are obtained in North Wales from quarries in the
Cambrian rocks at Penrhyn and Llanberis, and they are mined in the Ordovician
ocks at Festiniog. Others occur in the Devonian rocks at De la Bole and in the Car.
boniferous at Tracebridge near Ashbrittle in Somerset. Slates are quarried at Balla.
chulish and Easdale in Argyllshire, many having cubes of iron-pyrites in them. The
“green slates” of Borrowdale have been used for roofing purposes. Slate pencils have
been made from the Skiddaw slates.
40
MINERAL PRODUCTS OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Hone stones are hard, smooth-grained slaty or ashy rocks (usually much altered), of
which the Charley Forest stone of Charnwood Forest, the Welsh oilstone, and the
Water-of-Ayr stone are examples.
The so-called Stonesfield and Colly weston “slates” are in reality flagstones or tile-
stones that split along the planes of bedding. The stone is raised when wet and kept
damp until there is a frost, when it naturally splits into thin slabs, which are dressed
for use. In the Forest Marble stone-tiles are also obtained.
STBATITE.--Soap.stone, a variety of talc found in association with serpentine.
STRONTIUM.-Obtained in the form of Celestine (sulphate of strontium) at Wickwar
and Yate in Gloucestershire.
TALC.--Hydrous bisilicate of magnesium : flexible, but not elastic.
TIN.-Tin-ore occurs in veins traversing the granite and killas of Cornwall and Devon,
mostly as Cassiterite or tin-stone (peroxide of tin). It has also been worked in the
Cornish alluvial deposits, and "stream-tin” works were established to obtain it.
TOPAZ.-Silicate of aluminium with silico-fluoride of aluminium: occurs in Cornwall
and in the Scottish Highlands.
TOURMALINE.-Borosilicates of aluminium, magnesium, iron, &c. Under the name
of schorl the black variety is abundant in the granite of Cornwall and Devon.
UMBER.Earthy oxides of iron and manganese : have been obtained in the Forest of
Dean, the Isle of Man, and Anglesey.
URANIUM.-Uranium ores are worked near Grampound in Cornwall. Pitchblende
(oxide of uranium, &c.), has become famous on account of the discovery in it of the
new element Radium.
WOLFRAM.--This is a double tungstate of iron and manganese, and has been worked
in Cornwall. It is used for making tungsten-steel, &c.
ZINC.-Calamine (carbonate of zinc) was at one time obtained from the Mendip Hills,
also from Northumberland and the Leadhills.
Blende, or “Black Jack” (sulphide of zinc), is found in Cumberland, Derbyshire,
Denbighshire, Cardiganshire, and Cornwall.
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
ENGLAND.
Bedfordshire. Map 2. Area 298,494 acres.
The Chalk range of the Chiltern Hills occupies the southern part
of the county, forming the Dunstable and Luton Downs, whence rise
the Lea on the south and tributaries of the Ouse on the north.
Freestone, suitable for inside work, has been largely quarried and
mined at Totternhoe in the Lower Chalk. A vale of Gault clay
extends below the Chalk escarpment, and northwards rise the Lower
Greensand hills of Woburn, Aspley Guise, and Ampthill-a salubrious
region largely formed of sands, with beds of fuller's earth at Woburn,
and some tracts of boulder-clay. In the eastern part of this area
phosphatic nodules were at one time worked in the Lower Greensand
at Potton, and many phosphatized fossils were to be obtained. The
sands are extensively worked near Leighton Buzzard, for filter-beds,
mortar, silver-sand, &c. At this locality a bed with many brachiopods
has been discovered by Mr. G. W. Lamplugh, between the Lower
Greensand and Gault. The fossils have affinities with those of the
Upper Greensand.
Still further north is a broad vale formed mainly of the Oxford
Clay, with scattered deposits of boulder-clay and gravel, and with
valley gravel yielding palæolithic implements and remains of
S
BERKSHIRE_BUCKINGHAM.
mammoth, rhinoceros, hippopotamus, &c. In the Irel Valley at
Biggleswade, where there is much valley gravel, the district is famed
for its market-gardens. Near Ampthill the Ampthill clay of Corallian
age occurs between the Kimeridge and Oxford clays. The lower
part of the Oxford clay—the Kellaways beds has been well exposed
near Bedford, where it contains sandy beds and large doggers of
calcareous sandstone. The Cornbrash is represented by a thin band
of limestone, and this and the Great Oolite clays and limestones
below are well shown in quarries bordering the Ouse Valley near
Bedford. Large forms of Nautilus are met with. At Flitwick there
is a spring of chalybeate water, derived from the Lower Greensand.
Berkshire. Map 3. Area 462,224 acres.
The southern part of the county is occupied by the Eocene clays
and sands with cappings of Drift gravel, and with river gravel and
peat along the Kennet Valley. The country is pleasantly diversified
with commons, but there is an admixture of light and heavy lands.
Reading gives name to the Reading beds which contain important
beds of mottled plastic clay, utilized in brickworks and tile-kilns.
The residential districts of Ascot and Sunninghill and the higher
grounds of Windsor Forest are on Bagshot beds.
North of Newbury and Reading the Chalk gradually rises to the
White Horse Hill above Wantage, and to the Chiltern Hills, which
may be said to extend north-eastwards from the gorge of the Thames
between Pangbourne and Goring. The Chalk occupies a syncline
south of Hungerford, and rises southwards into the high down of
Inkpen Beacon (1011 ft.). At Kintbury it is largely quarried for the
manufacture of whiting. Eastwards the Chalk is upraised in an
anticline at Windsor, and is exposed in the ice-house in the Castle
grounds.
The Vale of White Horse beyond Wantage is formed partly of
Gault and Kimeridge clay. Notable are the Lower Greensand pits
at Faringdon, where sands and gravels full of sponge-remains and
other fossils are met with. The Corallian beds form pleasant hilly
tracts from near Faringdon to Abingdon, Cumnor, and Wytham
Hill, and in the numerous quarries, as at Marcham, many ammonites,
corals, and other fossils may be obtained.
The Oxford clay extends northwards over a broad vale traversed
by the River Thames.
Buckinghamshire. Map 2. Area 475,694 acres.
This county extends from the valley of the Thames to that of the
Ouse. In the southern portion the Reading beds and London clay
extend from Colnbrook to Beaconsfield, and are covered in the
Thames valley by gravel and brickearth, the brickearth being
extensively dug for brickmaking at Langley. Northwards the
ground rises and forms a plateau covered with Drift gravel. In the
deeper valleys the Chalk appears, as on the borders of the Burnham
Beeches, and further west at Taplow it contains phosphatic layers.
The Chalk rises into fine uplands with occasional Eocene outliers,
near High Wycombe, Amersham, and Chesham, and to the north-
42
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
west it forms the bold escarpment of the Chiltern Hills near Princes
Risborough and Wendover, rising to 852 feet at Combe Hill. This
is a region famed for beech trees, and the wood is largely utilized for
chair-making.
To the north-west the Gault and Kimeridge clay form the Vale of
Aylesbury, a tract rendered fertile by outlying hills of Portland
beds, Purbeck beds, and Lower Greensand, as at Brill, Quainton,
&c., down-washes from which have ameliorated the heavy soil of the
vale. There is a chalybeate spa at Dorton near Brill.
The Lower Greensand contains white and coloured sands, some-
times cemented into a hard rock. The sands at Hartwell have been
used for glass-making. Coprolites (phosphatic nodules) were at one
time worked at Brickhill, and they have also been worked in the
Gault at Towersey.
Hartwell is a famous locality for fossils, as there are quarries in
Portland stone, with large ammonites, &c., and other specimens
may be obtained from clay pits in the Hartwell clay (Lower
Portland) which overlies the Kimeridge clay. Further north a broad
clay tract, much covered with boulder-drift, extends from Bletchley,
by Winslow and Whaddon Chase to Marsh Gibbon--a famous hunting
ground. At Buckingham, Stony Stratford, Newport Pagnell, and
Olney the Lower Oolites appear. They may be observed in quarries.
bordering the Ouse Valley, but the plateau, as at Stowe Park, is
largely covered with houlder-clay.
Cambridgeshire. Map 4. Area 549,749 acres.
The southern part of the county is formed of Chalk which occupies
the higher grounds from Royston on the Essex borders to Great
Chesterford, Linton, the Gogmagog Hills (300 feet), and the neigh-
bourhood of Newmarket.
The lower beds of Chalk marl are largely quarried for cement-
making at Shepreth ; while the basement bed, with many phosphatic
nodules and fossils, known as the “Cambridge Greensand” was
extensively worked for “coprolites” near Cambridge, and also at
Soham and other places. Higher up a band of freestone, known as
Totternhoe stone, has been dug at Burwell and Cherry Hinton, together
with overlying beds of Lower Chalk, which are quarried for lime-
burning. The Totternhoe stone holds much water, which is thrown
out by the Chalk marl below in copious springs, which are utilized
here and there for water-cress beds. The Melbourn rock of
Melbourn is a band of hard and nodular Chalk which has been
traced through inany counties at the base of the Middle Chalk.
This division, and portions of the Upper Chalk with the Chalk rock
at its base, occur near Royston and Heydon.
The Gault forms a low-lying tract to the north-west of the Chalk,
at Soham and in the vicinity of Cambridge. The Lower Greensand
beyond rises into hilly tracts, as at Caxton, Haddenham and Ely.
Coprolites have been worked in it at Wicken.
The Kimeridge clay occupies part of the low land near Willingham,
and has been exposed in the famous Roswell or Roslyn Hole at Ely,
CHESHIRE-CORNWALL.
43
where it is overlain by boulder-clay with a transported mass of Chalk.
Corallian limestones with fossils occur at Upware, and the forma-
tion is partly represented by the Ampthill clay at Gamlingay, and by
rock-beds at Elsworth and elsewhere.
The Oxford clay occurs in the western part of the county near
Long Stanton. Boulder-clay and drift gravels are scattered over
much of the ground; and Pleistocene gravels with mammoth,
rhinoceros, &c., occur at Barnwell. The northern part of the county
is mainly Fenland, a portion of the Bedford Level, with peat at
Chatteris, and marine gravels at March. Wicken Fen has been
preserved as a natural tract of Fenland.
Cheshire. Map 5. Area 657,068 acres.
By far the larger part of this county is a plain formed of New Red
rocks and covered with much boulder-clay and shelly drift gravel.
In the western part of the county, as in the Wirral promontory,
the Bunter sandstone and pebble-beds are overlain here and there
by the Keuper sandstones. The latter are quarried for building-
stone, and noted for footprints of Labyrinthodonts at Storeton, about
three miles south of Birkenhead.
Keuper sandstones resting on the Bunter constitute the chief
water-bearing strata. Together they form the Peckforton Hills with
Beeston Castle Hill, and also the scarps of Alderley Edge, where
galena, copper-ore and cobalt-ore have been found.
The eastern part of the county is formed chiefly of the red Keuper
marls with rock-salt and brine springs at Northwich, Winford,
Middlewich, Sandbach, Church Lawton and Nantwich. The salt bas
been mined, but most of it is obtained by the pumping of brine. At
Northwich especially the mining and pumping have led to disastrous
subsidences of the land; and some of the meres in the county are
probably due to this cause. Rhætic beds and Lower Lias, much
concealed by drift, occur near Audlem.
Coal-measures appear in the east, at Macclesfield and Stockport, in
a productive coal-field which forms a prolongation of that of South
Lancashire. Traces of Coal-measures also occur along the borders
of the Dee Valley near Great Neston. East of Macclesfield, and at
Congleton Lower Carboniferous rocks form high moorlands with
patches of shelly drift at heights up to 1250 feet. There are lime-
works at Astbury, in the Carboniferous limestone on the borders of
Congleton Edge.
Carrington moss in the valley of the Mersey has been found useful
and profitable as a receptacle for the solid organic refuse of Man-
chester. There are tracts of blown sand at New Brighton, Hoylake
and West Kirby. The coast at Leasowe Castle has suffered much
from marine erosion.
Sea-side resorts : Hoylake with West Kirkby (sands), New Brighton (sands).
Cornwall. Map 6. Area 868,208 acres.
Cornwall consists mainly of a great mass of clay slates or killas
with numerous bands of “greenstone," the whole greatly disturbed and
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
contorted, and penetrated by enormous masses of granite which have
altered the bordering rocks. The bolder features in the county
are due to these granite tracts. One partially submerged mass has
formed the Scilly Isles, about fifty in number, St. Mary's being the
chief; another mass occupies the Lands End, with its Logan Rock;
a tiny tract rises up in St. Michael's Mount, and other tracts rise
eastward at Breage, Carnbrea and St. Day near Redruth, Penryn,
Hensburrow, and at Bodmin Moor with Brown Willy (1364 feet) and
the tor or weathered pile of rocks known as the Cheesewring.
The chief metalliferous regions at Camborne and Redruth, St. Ives
and St. Just, lie on the margin of the granite: there lodes or veins of
tin and copper ores occur with some lead and iron-ores. These veins
mostly have an E.N.E. direction, while the “cross-courses," filled
with quartz, &c., run N. and S. The lodes and cross courses are
mostly planes of faulting. Dykes of Elvan (quartz porphyry, &c.)
traverse both granite and killas, and extend for considerable distances.
The killas includes representatives of the Lower, Middle and Upper
Devonian. The lower beds, with fish-remains, occur at Watergate
Bay, Looe and Polperro, and the higher beds along a belt of country
from South Petherwin near Launceston to the coast near Minster.
Along some horizons there are thin fossiliferous limestones. Slates
have been quarried at De la Bole, west of Camelford, and near
Tintagel. Oīder beds of Ordovician age occur at Veryan Bay and at
Mullion Island, where radiolarian chert is found.
Newer beds of Culm-measures appear on the coast at Bude and
Boscastle, and inland. They contain chert with radiolaria and beds
of culm.
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Fig. S.-SECTION NEAR REDRUTH SHOWING METALLIFEROUS VEINS.
An interesting porphyritic granite with a ground mass of schorl
and quartz, known as Luxullianite, occurs at Luxullian near
Lostwithiel.
Serpentine is well dereloped at the Lizard, where the picturesque
many coloured rocks appear in pleasing contrast with the white sands
of the bays. This rock is manufactured into ornaments, and so are
certain serpentinous rocks known as the Duporth and Pollaphant
stones. Phonolite occurs at the Wolf rock, south of the Lands End,
and gneiss forms the foundation for the Eddystone Lighthouse.
The decomposed granite, as at St. Austell, yields great masses of
Kaolin or china clay, and the washings from the works cause the
streams to be a milky white. The granite has been decomposed in situ :
and perhaps by the agency of hydrofluoric acid through fissures, the
felspar has been decomposed into clay. Veins of tin-stone with schorl
occur in the china clay at Carclaze, St. Austell, and the ore was
worked in the time of Edward IV.
CORNWALL-CUMBERLAND.
45
At St. Erth fossiliferous Pliocene strata occupy a small area, and
deposits probably of the same age occur at St. Agnes' Beacon.
Raised beaches and ancient talus known as “Head,” fringe the
coasts in places, and there are also extensive tracts of blown sand
at Lelant, Phillack and Gwythian, near Hayle, and at St. Piran
(or Perran in Sabulo) where the church, smothered for seven centuries,
was uncovered in 1835. Evidences of Palæolithic man have lately
been noticed at Prah Sands, east of Penzance, by Mr. and Mrs.
C. Reid.
Much tin-ore has been obtained from old river-gravels, in the stream.
tin works. Native gold was obtained from those of Carnon.
Sec-side resorts : Boscastle (cliffs), Bude (sands and cliffs), Carbis Bay (sands and cliffs),
Falinouth (sand and shingle, cliffs), Fowey (estuiary); Lizard, Coverack Cove, Kynance
Cove, Mullion (cliffs and sandy bays); Looe (cliffs), Marazion (sands), Newquay (sands,
cliffs), Penzance (sands and rocks), Porth Towan (sandy bay, cliffs), Portreath cliffs),
St. Ives (sand, cliffs), Tintagel (cliffs), Watergate Bay (sands, cliffs).
Cumberland. Maps 7 and 8. Area 970,161 acres.
The principal mountain-group in England occupies the central
part of this county, and is formed of two main divisions of rocks.
The Skiddaw slates extend over much ground on the borders of
Bassenthwaite and Crummock Water and around Keswick, and being
fairly uniform in character, the hills and mountains, Skiddaw
(3058 ft.) and Saddleback (2847 ft.), are smoother in outline than those
of the newer Borrowdale series, which is made up of " green slates
and porphyries" of volcanic origin. These igneous rocks form the
rough crags of Borrowdale, of Scafell (3210 ft.) and Wastwater,
Honister Crag, and Hellvelyn (3118 ft.). The Falls of Lodore and
other waterfalls are in this region. Masses of syenite occur at
Ennerdale, and granite at Eskdale, at Wastdale along the borders
of Wastwater, and in Skiddaw Forest.
The Skiddaw slates are not very fossiliferous, but they have
yielded some graptolites, and the rocks have been utilized at Keswick
in the manufacture of slate pencils. Graphite or plumbago occurs in
Borrowdale, and this has been employed in making lead-pencils.
Many minerals have been obtained at Caldbeck and Carrockfells north
of Skiddaw Forest.
The Carboniferous limestone series, with basement-conglomerate,
occurs on the borders of Ulleswater, and forms a belt along the
northern margin of Skiddaw Forest at Hesket Newmarket, and
westwards to Cleator, where much iron-ore is found. On the eastern
side of the Vale of Eden the Lower Carboniferous rocks again appear
alongside the Pennine fault, forming Crossfell (2892 ft.), Alston
Moor, famed for its lead mines, and other fells northwards by
Gilsland Spa to the Northumberland and Scottish borders. The
western portion of the county includes the coal-field of Whitehaven,
which extends beneath the sea off Workington, and has there been
worked. The Vale of Eden is formed of Permian red sandstones
and various divisions of the Trias well seen in the cliffs at Wetheral;
and these red beds form the foundation of the coast at Silloth and
Allonby, at St. Bees Head, and thence to the Duddon estuary, a
region much obscured by drift deposits and blown sand. An outlier
46 GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
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of Lower Lias, almost wholly concealed by drift, occurs west of
Carlisle.
The “green slates "--green, ashy volcanic beds, having a rude
cleavage-have been found suitable for roofing, as well as for
ordinary building purposes.
Sea-side resorts : Allonby (sands), St. Bees (sands, cliffs), Seascale (sands), Silloth (sands).
Derbyshire. Map 9. Area 658,876 acres.
This county comprises in the north-west a tract of Lower Carboni.
ferous rocks with Millstone grit, in which are included the
picturesque Dale and Peak Districts. Dove Dale lies on the western
borders near Ashbourne; other dales, such
as Miller's Dale, with fine crags of Car-
boniferous limestone, lie along the Derwent
Valley below Buxton. Buxton is a health
resort situated over 1000 ft. above sea level,
and it is noted for waters that have a
temperature of 82º. At Matlock there are
mineral waters with a temperature of 68°,
and also“ petrifying” springs. Numerous
caverns occur, as near Matlock and Castle-
ton, and there are fissures and caves with
bones of Pleistocene and other remains.
Especially noteworthy is a fissure contain-
ing remains of the Pliocene Mastodon, lately
described by Prof. Boyd Dawkins. Ores
of lead and various other minerals occur,
notably the Fluor Spar or “ Blue John” of
Castleton. The Carboniferous limestone
also contains bands of volcanic rock (mostly
dolerite) locally known as “Toadstone."
The Peak District is formed partly of
Yoredale grits and shales, which appear in
the “Shivering Mountain" of Mam Tor
(1700 ft.), while Kinderscout (2088 ft.) is
formed of a platform of Millstone grit.
The Derbyshire coal-field, the southern
Fig. 9.--BLUE JOHN MINE, part of the great Yorkshire coal-field, ex-
NEAR CASTLETON. part ove great
tends on the eastern side of the county from
Chesterfield to Clay Cross and Ilkeston. On the north-eastern borders
there are coverings of Magnesian limestone, quarried, as at Bolsover,
for building-stone. The southern part of the county is formed of red
rocks, partly of Bunter and Keuper sandstones, the latter yielding
building-stone, with more extensive tracts of Keuper marl, yielding
gypsum at Chellaston. Part of the Leicestershire coal-field extends
into this region. Drift deposits are scattered over the country, and
more especially in the lower grounds.
Devonshire. Map 10. Area 1,667,097 acres.
Devonshire gives name to the Devonian system, which comprises
grits and sandstones, slates, and limestones. These rocks enter into
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DEVONSHIRE.
47
that part of Devon which lies north of Barnstaple and South Molton
--a region of bold swelling moorland hills and fine and often
inaccessible cliffs. The hard slates and grits of Lynton and the
Valley of Rocks, the contorted slates of Combe Martin and
Ilfracombe, with thin bands of fossiliferous limestone, the Pickwell
Down sandstones, and the slaty beds of Baggy Point and Pilton, all
belong to this great Devonian system. The fine headland of Morte
is formed of slates that are probably Silurian.
On the south the Devonian rocks are characterized by more
important masses of limestone, at Chudleigh, Newton Abbot, Torquay,
and Plymouth-beds largely made up of fossil corals and other
organic remains (see Plate 37). The stone is polished for marble at
Ipplepen and Babbacombe, near Torquay. Iron, lead, and copper
ores occur in places.
At Bolt Head and Salcombe, on the borders of a picturesque
estuary, we find highly altered rocks, micaceous and chloritic schists,
which may be metamorphic Devonian, if not of much higher
antiquity.
The central part of Devon, from Exeter to Bampton, Oakhampton,
Bideford, Clovelly, and Hartland, is formed of a trough of Culm-
measure shales and grits, a somewhat barren group of Carboniferous
rocks which form steep hills and an undulating, well-wooded country.
The rocks themselves are much contorted. Near Bideford they
contain beds of culm, and at Coddon Hill and other localities there
are beds of radiolarian chert. At this horizon along the base of the
formation there are beds of limestone and some manganese ore. The
limestones appear near Bampton, and are more prominent near
Burlescombe, where they are remarkably contorted. Brent Tor is
formed of volcanic materials erupted in Carboniferous times.
Perhaps the main feature in Devonshire is the elevated granite
area of Dartmoor Forest, characterized by the weathered rocks of
Hey Tor, Hound Tor, and Helmen Tor. Lundy Island is almost
wholly formed of granite with slates only at the south-eastern
end.
To the travellers by rail the red rocks which appear along the
coast from Dawlish to Teignmouth form a striking feature. Near St.
Mary Church there are clayey beds which have been utilized in the
Watcombe terra-cotta works. Along the coast Watcombe and other
combes are excavated in bold masses of red conglomerate, which
extend to Teignmouth, the pebbles formed mainly of Devonian lime-
stone. Near Exeter and Crediton there are volcanic rocks.
Eastwards of Exmouth higher beds of red sandstone and marl occur.
At Budleigh Salterton there is a famous pebble-bed formed of hard
quartzites with Ordovician fossils, the bed itself probably of Bunter
age. Further east, at Sidmouth, we find red sandstones and marls of
Keuper age, which appear along the base of the cliffs, and at
Axmouth are covered by Rhætic Beds, while at Uplyme and
Axminster there are quarries. in Lower Lias. In this eastern part of
Devon the hill tops are capped by Upper Greensand, and also by
Chalk at Beer and Seaton. The Greensand extends northwards to
form the fine range of Blackdown Hills, flat topped with steep
48
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
valleys, where the beds in old times have been extensively worked for
scythe-stones. They have yielded here, and also on the Haldon
Hills south of Exeter, numerous fossils, mostly replaced by
chalcedony. The Lower Chalk at Beer has been extensively mined
as a freestone.
Beds of Eocene, probably Bagshot age, occur in the Teign Valley
above Newton Abbot. These are the Bovey beds of Bovey Tracey,
famed not only for lignites, but for the valuable pipe and potters'
clay which is shipped at Teignmouth (see p. 129).
The Devonian limestones of South Devon contain several
celebrated caves and fissures, those of Kent's Hole, near Torquay,
and Brixham have yielded many Pleistocene mammalia and imple.
ments of man. Ossiferous fissures have been met with also at
Oreston, near Plymouth.
Raised beaches occur at Hope's Nose and the Thatcher Stone, near
Torquay. A find pebble ridge occurs at Northam, near Bideford, and
blown sands at Northam Burrows.
At Bindon and Dowlands Cliffs, near Axmouth, a famous landslip
occurred in 1839, after an exceedingly wet season, masses of Chalk
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k. Sand,
Upper Greensand.
and Greensand breaking away from the cliff and foundering over the
inclined and slippery base of Lias, Rhætic beds, and Keuper marls
(see Fig. 10).
Sea-side resorts : Babbacombe (pebble-beach and cliffs), Beer (pebble-beach and cliffs),
Bideford (sands), Budleigh Salterton (pebble-beach, cliffs), Clovelly (cliffs, 400 ft.), Dawlish
(sands, red sandstone cliffs), Exinouth (sands, red sandstone cliffs), Ilfracombe (rocky,
cliffs), Lynmouth and Lynton (cliffs), Morte (cliffs), Paignton (sands), Salcombe (rocky
estuary), Seaton (shingle, cliffs), Sidmouth (shingle, sand, cliffs), Slapton (sands), Teign-
mouth (sands, cliffs), Torquay (sands, cliffs), Woolacombe Bay (sands).
Dorset. Map 11. Area 632,272 acres.
This is a pleasantly diversified agricultural county, and one of
considerable geological interest. The more prominent features are
formed by the Chalk hills, which extend from Melbury Down on the
borders of Cranborne Chase to Blandford, Maiden Newton and
Dorchester. Chalk likewise extends across the so-called Isle of
Purbeck from Lulworth by Corfe Castle to Ballard Down, north of
DORSET.
49
Swanage; here it forms a somewhat narrow ridge, as the strata, like
those which traverse the Isle of Wight, are highly tilted, and they are
also displaced by remarkable overthrust faults. An ancient figure of
a giant with club has been formed by removing the turf from the
Chalk near Cerne Abbas, and a figure of George III. on horseback has
been cut on the slope of the downs north-east of Weymouth.
Resting on the Chalk in the eastern part of the county are the
Eocene gravels, sands and clays which form a westerly extension of
the Hampshire Basin. Near Verwood on the borders of the New
Forest the Reading beds and London clay may be seen, and at Afl-
puddle Heath and Puddletown there are large swallet-loles in the
Chalk on the margin of the Eocene strata. A great part of the
Tertiary area consists of Bagshot sands and clays, with coverings of
gravel, which form the extensive heaths and commons about Ware-
ham and Wimborne. Near Studland, the Agglestone rock, is an
indurated mass of Bagshot beds. A notable feature is Creech Barrow,
a hill of Bagshot sands, protected, as Mr. W. H. Hudleston has
shown, by a thin capping of probably Oligocene limestone. Black-
down near Portisham is formed of Eocene gravels, and in this neigh-
bourhood there are many greywethers.
9
10
11
.
.
.
..
.
.
Fig. 11.-SECTION ACROSS THE ISLE OF PURBECK (Ramsay).
11, Bagshot beds ; 10, London clay ; 9, Reading beils ; 8, Upper Chalk : 7, Middle and
Lower Chalk ; 6, Upper Greensand, Gault, and Lower Greensand; 5, Wealden; 4, Purbeck
beds; 3, Portland stone ; 2, Portland sand ; 1, Kimeridge clay.
Beneath the Chalk there is a belt of Upper Greensand, which forms
prominent hills in the western part of the county from Shaftesbury,
which stands boldly on the crest of the escarpment formed by these
strata, to Beaminster and Shipton Beacon east of Bridport. West-
wards the Upper Greensand forms the outlying gorse-covered or
wooded hills of Pillesdon and Lewesdon Pens, the high grounds
above Lyme Regis, and the yellow top of Golden Cap. The basement
bed of the Chalk, known as the Chloritic marl, is very fossiliferous in
places, as at White Nore, east of Ringstead Bay, between Weymouth
and Lulworth. The Upper Greensand is also fossiliferous, and Gault
clay has been observed above the Lower Lias clays at Black Ven near
Lyme Regis. Lower Greensand occurs also at Punfield, north of
Swanage and westwards in the Isle of Purbeck. Wealden beds,
consisting of coloured clays, sands and grits, are well seen in Swanage
Bay. They directly overlie the Purbeck beds, a group of shelly
limestones and clays, well seen in Durlston Bay, at Lulworth and
other coves, including the well-known Stair Cove with its contorted
bands. The famous Purbeck marble with Paludina occurs in the
upper beds at Peverel Point, Swanage, the building-stones of Swanage
in the middle beds, and marls with gypsum in the lower beds.
Purbeck strata occur also at Upway and Portisham. Many fossils
may be found (see p. 26 and Plate 43).
50
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
The Portland beds form the bold cliffs of Durlston and St. Alban's
Heads, and the mass of the Island of Portland. The celebrated free-
stone occurs in the uppermost portion, below which are limestones
with many bands and nodules of chert and soft sandy beds. They
rest on the Kimeridge clay, made up of dark shales with cement-
stones, which are well seen in the cliffs and on the foreshore at
Kimeridge and Ringstead Bay, and at the base of the northern cliffs
of Portland. Beds of bituminous shale, including the “Kimeridge
coal," occur at Kimeridge, and they have been worked for the
production of naphtha, &c. Discs of shale known as Kimeridge coal-
money have been found in this neighbourhood ; they are considered
as waste materials from ornaments or utensils that had been shaped
from the shale. Many fossils occur in the shales and in hard bands
at the base of the formation. Below come the Corallian strata so
well developed at Weymouth, by Sandsfoot Castle and again near
Osmington. Richly fossiliferous layers occur in the cliffs and in reefs
on the foreshore-beds with Trigonia being especially noteworthy.
Iron-ore occurs in the upper beds at Abbotsbury, where red fields and
red banks in the lanes are very conspicuous. Freestones have been
worked in this series at Marnhull and Todbere near Sturminster
Newton. Beds of oolite and pisolite also occur. The Oxford clay below
is well seen in cliffs and cuttings north of Weymouth, and it occurs
in the Vale of Blackmore. In this formation large Gryphæa and
other fossils as well as Septaria occur. The Cornbrash beneath is
very fossiliferous, and may be seen along the borders of the clay
region near Stalbridge, Bishops Caundle, &c., and southwards near
Radipole. The Forest marble, with a basement fossil-bed full of
Rhynchonella and other fossils, occurs next in succession, and is well
shown on the borders of the Fleet at Langton Herring near the
Chesil Bank, at Eype, and inland, as at Long Burton, where the lime-
stones have been quarried. These beds form a bold scarp, which
overlooks the clays of the Fuller's earth. This lower formation
contains a band of Fuller's earth rock, locally quarried, as at Thorn-
ford, near Sherborne. In it many fossils occur. The clays appear
in the cliffs west of Bridport Harbour. Again we have a richly
fossiliferous formation in the Inferior Oolite, well shown in quarries
near Sherborne and Bradford Abbas, near Beaminster, and also
near Bridport and Burton Bradstock. Ammonites are very abundant,
as well as brachiopods. Underlying the Colite come the Midford
sands, yellow sands with hard bands of calcareous sandstone, which
form the main portion of the picturesque yellow cliffs from Bridport
eastwards to Burton Bradstock. These beds are also seen inland in
many deeply cut sandy lanes or “hollow ways.” Dorset, again, is
noted for its development of Lias, so well shown in the cliffs below
Thorncombe Beacon and Golden Cap, and westwards to Charmouth
and Lyme Regis. Remains of the great saurians Ichthyosaurus,
Plesiosaurus and Dimorphodon, were first brought to notice from this
region-and numerous other fossils, fishes, crustacea, ammonites and
belemnites are to be obtained. The higher portions of the Lias
consist mainly of marls and clays—the lower beds of limestones
worked at Lyme Regis for hydraulic lime and cement. Beneath this
DORSET-ESSEX.
“ Blue Lias" are beds of White Lias of Rhætic age which are exposed
at Pinhay Bay, west of Lyme Regis.
The Chesil beach, formed largely of chalk flints and greensand
chert, contains also many stones from the pebble-bed of Budleigh
Salterton. It connects the Isle of Portland with the mainland, and
is noted for the gradual diminution in size of its pebbles westwards
to Bridport Harbour. Much iron-pyrites occurs in the Lias shales at
Black Ven, and this has at times been collected during the winter
months for economic purposes. In 1755 the decomposition of the
pyrites led to spontaneous combustion of the bituminous shales at
Charmouth, and in 1890 there was a similar combustion pictured in
the Daily Graphic of February 19th, as the “Eruption of Golden
Cap." Sulphurous waters, due to the decomposition of pyrites, occur
at Nottington and Radipole.
Sea-side resorts: Bridport Harbour (West Bay), (shingle, cliffs), Lulworth (shingle beach,
cliffs), Lyme Regis (stony beach and cliffs), Swanage (sandy and stony beach, cliffs),
Weymouth (sands, pebble beach, cliffs).
Durham. Map 12. Area 647,281 acres.
Durham is largely a mining county. The greater part of the land
is formed of Carboniferous rocks. The lower strata of Carboniferous
limestone and Millstone grit belong to the Pennine Chain, and form
the moorlands of the west, at Staindrop and Barnard Castle, and over
the forests and valleys of Tees Dale and Wear Dale, with their lead
and iron-mines. Silurian rocks occur over a limited area above
Middleton-in-Teesdale, where there was a slate-pencil mill; and here
occur sills and dykes of basalt, one of which extends in an east-north-
easterly direction to Quarrington. In the central part of the county
the productive Coal-measures occur, and they no doubt extend beneath
the Permian and other New Red rocks in the eastern part. The
Coal-measures form the southern part of the Newcastle coal-field
extending from Gateshead and Jarrow to Lambton, Hetton-le-
Hole, Durham, and Bishop Auckland, and beneath the Permian
rocks at Monk Wearmouth and other places. The Magnesian
limestone covers a large part of East Durham, and is exposed in
the fine cliffs of Marsden and southwards to Hartlepool. It exhibits
many curious concretionary structures, which simulate coralline and
other organic forms. Much of the rock is dolomitic, and is used in
the manufacture of sulphate of magnesia. Elsewhere there are large
limeworks. Remains of fossil fishes have been found in the lower
beds of marl slate at Ferry Hill and other places. Red marls and
sandstones, with gypsum and important beds of rock-salt, have been
proved at Seaton Carew and elsewhere between Port Clarence and
Hartlepool. In this district, and indeed all over the county, there is
much glacial drift.
Sea-side resorts : Marsden (rocks, cliffs), Roker (sandy, cliffs), Ryhope (shingly, cliffs),
Seaton Carew (sands), South Shields (sands).
Essex. Map 13. Area 987,028 acres.
This agricultural county occupies a part of the London Basin, with
the Chalk on the north rising into the Downs south-east of Royston,
near Barley, Chisball, and at Saffron Walden. The Chalk appears
4
*
52
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
again through disturbance at Purfleet and Grays, where it is exten-
sively worked for lime, cement and whiting. Some of the largest
pits in the country are to be found here. Southwards of Bishops
Stortford and Great Yeldham the foundation of the county is mainly
London clay with underlying Reading and Thanet beds, but their
outcrop is largely concealed by boulder-clay and glacial sands and
gravels which are distributed over the greater part of the county.
Between Epping and Dunmow especially there is a great tract of
boulder-clay, and latterly it has been traced as far south as Horn-
church beneath the Thames Valley gravel. Connected with the
boulder-clay is a deeply eroded trough in the Cam Valley, near Great
Chesterford, while on the summit of the scarp near Barley the Chalk
has been greatly disturbed by glacial agency. Apart from the Drifts
there are outliers of Bagshot sands and pebble gravels at Highbeech,
Brentwood, Langdon Hill, and Rayleigh. These are picturesque
tracts, and the view from Langdon Hill is most extensive. Patches
of fossiliferous Red Crag occur at Walton-on-the-Naze and inland at
Oakley and Beaumont.
The Thames Valley deposits of gravel and brickearth have yielded
mammoth, rhinoceros, and other remains at Ilford and Grays; while
similar deposits of like age have been met with at Clacton-on-Sea and
Copford, near Colchester. More recent deposits, with remains of
beaver, &c., have been met with at Walthamstow, and thick alluvium
occurs at Tilbury (see p. 34).
Septaria occur in the London clay, and were formerly dredged off
Harwich for the manufacture of Roman cement.
Sea-side resorts : Brightlingsea (estuary of Colne), Clacton-on-Sea (sandy and shingly
beach, low cliffs), Dovercourt (sand), Frinton-on-Sea (sandy), Southend (sandy and
muddy, low cliffs), Walton-on-the-Naze (sandy, cliffs).
Gloucestershire. Map 14. Area 795,734 acres.
This county contains a longer list of geological formations than any
other. The gneiss at the south end of Malvern, and certain old grits
at Huntley, are pre-Cambrian.
Silurian rocks with bands of limestone occur at May Hill and
near Tortworth, and these are bordered by the Old Red sandstone.
The picturesque and wooded tracts of the Forest of Dean are
formed of Carboniferous limestone and Millstone grit, which occupy a
basin supporting the Dean Forest coal-field. Fine cliffs of lime.
stone border the Wye, and in some parts the rocks are repositories
of iron-ore, which fills great cavities.
The Bristol coal-field extends northwards from Bristol towards
Wickwar, and it is bounded by the Millstone grit and Carboniferous
limestone, which, however, are much concealed in places by over-
lying New Red rocks and Lias. The older rocks are seen in the Avon
Gorge. Coal-measures were penetrated in the Severn tunnel.
These older rocks were bent, disturbed, and eroded prior to the
succeeding New Red rocks, which stretch irregularly over them.
Sulphate of strontium is worked at Wickwar in the Keuper marl. The
Rhætic beds, with bone-bed and other fossiliferous layers, are well
seen at Aust Cliff and Garden Cliff near Westbury-on-Severn. Near
GLOUCESTER-HAMPSHIRE.
53
Bristol the Cotham or Landscape marble occurs in the upper part of
this division. Above comes the Lias, which forms a belt of lower
ground beneath the bold escarpment of the Cotteswold Hills. The
Vale of Gloucester is formed partly of Lias and partly of the Red marls,
with coverings of gravel. Rich fossil localities occur in the Lower
Lias near Gloucester and Cheltenham, and in the outliers of Middle
and Upper Lias at Dumbleton and Churchdown Hills.
w.
Fig. 12.-SECTION IN THE FOREST OF DEAN (Ramsay).
4, Coal-measures ; 3, Millstone grit ; 2, Carboniferous limestone series ; 1, old Red
sandstone.
The Cotteswold Hills form a fine range, with a prominent crest
here and there marked by ancient camps and beacons. Wotton-under-
Edge, Stinchcombe and Dursley, Stroud, Painswick, Leckhampton,
Birdlip, Crickley, and Cleeve Cloud are all famous localities for fossils,
freestones and other varieties of rock. The strata are inclined to the
south-east, and are overlaid by Fuller's earth clays and Great Oolite.
Minchinhampton is the most noted locality for fossils of the Great
Oolite, but other quarries near Cirencester are rich in organic remains,
corals, brachiopods, &c. The Forest marble and Bradford clay are
well developed near Cirencester, and the former extends through
Tetbury and Badminton. The beds are worked for slates at Poulton
and other places. The Cornbrash, again, is well exposed near Ciren.
cester and Fairford, fossiliferous as usual. This is overlain by the
Kellaways beds, which were well exposed in the railway cutting at
South Cerney, where they contain large doggers of calcareous sand-
stone. In the same tract, and bordering the Thames to Lechlade, the
Oxford clay occurs.
Much rubble of colite borders the Cotteswolds at Leckhampton,
Syreford, Bredon Hill and other places, and this may be due to
subaërial waste during the glacial period. Traces of boulder-clay
occur in the vale of Moreton, south of Chipping Campden. At Chal-
ford and Dursley there are “petrifying” springs, and at Dursley the
tufa has been used for building purposes. At Clifton there are hot-
wells (70° to 76°), at Cheltenham saline and chalybeate waters, and at
Gloucester saline waters.
Hampshire. Map 15. Area 1,037,764 acres.
This county is formed entirely of Cretaceous, Tertiary and newer
strata, In the northern part there is a tract of Reading beds, London
clay and Bagshot beds, which occupy a portion of the London basin.
These strata extend from Farnborough to the old Roman town of
Silchester and westwards to Kingsclere. Here the Chalk is highly
tilted and bent into an anticline, the eroded summit of which leaves bare
the Upper Greensand of Burghclere. Southwards there is an undula-
ting expanse of Chalk, from Basingstoke to Andover and Winchester.
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Eastwards from near Alton to Petersfield on the borders of Surrey,
Upper Greensand, Gault, and Lower Greensand appear, in a picturesque
region which includes Selborne, the home of Gilbert White, Woolmer
Forest on the Gault, and the Lower Greensand hills of Bramshot.
South of Winchester we again enter a Tertiary area, the Hampshire
Basin, which includes the Reading beds and London clay along the
Chalk borders. These are bent into a gentle anticline near Havant
and Fareham, which has been much planed down and concealed by
Pleistocene gravel and brickearth. Remnants of an old sea-beach
occur below Portsdown Hill. The New Forest is situated on a tract
of Bagshot and Bracklesham beds, and partly on Oligocene clays and
sands. On the coast at Barton the Barton clays are richly fossilifer-
ous, and many fossils have also been obtained at Hordle (or Hordwell).
Westwards the Bagsbot beds of Bournemouth have yielded many
plant remains, including fig, cinnamon, palm and aralia.
The northern part of the Isle of Wight is formed of the Oligocene
and Eocene strata. Here are many famous localities for fossiis
(Plates 47 and 48). Along the central part of the island the Chalk
and other strata are highly inclined and even vertical in places :
notably the many-coloured Bagshot sands of Alum Bay and White-
cliff Bay.
e....ma
Alum Bay
Solent.
e
FIG. 13.-SECTION ACROSS THE ISLE OF WIGHT (Ramsay).
é', Oligocene, Bracklesham and Bagshot beds; e, London clay and Reading beds ;
C, Chalk, Upper Greersand and Gault ; g, Lower Greensand and Wealden.
The Chalk, which is so much tilted in its range from the Needles to
Culver Cliffs, occurs also in an outlier on the high grounds above
Ventnor. The Upper Greensand is well seen beneath it, and the
strata have broken away over the slippery foundation of Gault forming
the famous and picturesque landslips that border this coast. The
Lower Greensand is well seen on either side of Sandown, and in the
lovely chines of Shanklin and Blackgang. At Shanklin there is
a chalybeate spring. Wealden beds are exposed on the coast
near Brixton; they have yielded remains of Iguanodon and other
saurians.
Sea-side resorts: Alum Bay (sands and cliffs), Bembridge, Brading and Cowes (low cliffs),
Freshwater (chalk cliffs), Ryde (low cliffs), Sandown (sands, cliffs), Shanklin (sands, cliffs),
Totland Bay (sands, cliffs), Ventnor (stony beach, cliffs); Barton-on-Sea, Boscombe (sands
and cliffs), Bournemouth (sands and cliffs), Hayling Island (sands), Southsea (shingly).
Herefordshire. Map 16. Area 537,363 acres.
Herefordshire is largely formed of Old Red sandstone, which
extends from the grand scarp of the Black Mountains on the south-
HEREFORD-HUNTINGDON.
55
west to the borders of the Malvern range, and from Tenbury on the
north to Goodrich on the borders of Dean Forest. It comprises
a group of red and yellow sandstones, quarried at Cradley and other
places, of red marls, calcareous sandstones and limestones known as
cornstones, as well as beds of quartz conglomerate.
Older rocks protrude in places. In the Malvern range at the
Herefordshire Beacon the Archæan gneiss appears to be thrust
over Silurian rocks which extend westwards to Ledbury, while
further south Cambrian shales and quartzites intervene. At
Woolhope an inlying mass of Silurian strata, mainly shales with
bands of Woolhope, Wenlock and Aymestry limestones, protrudes in
a denuded anticline, in old days termed a “valley of elevation.”
Silurian rocks also enter the county on the borders of May Hill, and
again to the north at Ludlow, Aymestry and Leintwardine, localities
famous for fossils and classic in the history of geology (Plate 36).
The Carboniferous limestone appears in fine cliffs along the W ye
valley, at Great Doward south of Whitchurch, noted for King
Arthur's cave, an old hyæna den, in which bones of cave-lion,
rhinoceros, mammoth and reindeer have been found. Valley gravels
border the Wye at Hereford and other places.
Hertfordshire. Map 2. Area 406,161 acres.
This county occupies a part of the London Basin and bordering
tracts on the north. The oldest formation at the surface is the
Gault, which, together with the Chalk marl, forms the low ground
north of Baldock and Hitchin. Near Arlesey the Gault has been
extensively worked for brickmaking, and the Chalk marl for cement.
The Chalk rises to form the Chiltern Hills near Tring, Kensworth
(904 feet) and the Royston Downs eastwards of Baldock. The Upper
Chalk at Barley and Reed has been locally disturbed by glacial
action. Thence to the south-east there is a broad dip-slope of Chalk
covered with much clay-with-flints, drift gravel and boulder-clay,
and near Rickmansworth, Watford, Hatfield and Hertford by the
Reading beds, and London clay. Outliers of these formations occur
in the picturesque region of Welwyn. The Reading beds comprise
sands, mottled clays, and also pebble-beds made up of flint-pebbles,
that are sometimes cemented into a hard rock known as the Hertford-
shire pudding-stone.
The clay-with-flints rests on a very irregular “piped” surface of
Chalk, as may be seen near St. Albans and elsewhere.
Patches of pebbly drift gravel occur on the London clay at Barnet,
Totteridge, and other places; and tracts of valley gravel border the
Lea, and its tributaries from Harpenden, to Hertford and Ware, and
southwards.
In deep borings Silurian rocks were proved at a depth of 795 feet
below the Gault at Ware; and Devonian rocks were proved at
a depth of 980 feet beneath Gault at Turnford by Cheshunt.
Huntingdonshire. Map 4. Area 234,218 acres.
This is for the most part a low-lying county of clay and fenland
formed largely of the Oxford clay. This is well exposed in the
56
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
large brickyards at Fletton by Peterborough, and there are pits near
Ramsey, St. Ives, and St. Neots, where bands of limestone occur in
the clay. At St. Ives there is a band of Corallian rock. Much of
this ground is covered with boulder-clay, and there is no more tena-
cious soil than that which, as in the vicinity of Warboys, is derived
from Oxford clay and boulder-clay. Transported masses of Chalk
of considerable extent have been observed in the boulder-clay at
Catworth, north of Kimbolton.
In the southern part of the county the Lower Greensand appears
at Waresley, south-east of St. Neots.
At Yaxley there is an iplier of Cornbrash, and the same formation,
with Great Dolite clays and limestones, appears on the borders of the
Nen Valley near Overton Longville, and also at Alwalton, where
the shelly limestones have been polished as marble.
Stilton, near Yaxley, gave name to the famous Stilton cheese, not
because it was made in the district, but because it was formerly sold
at that locality to passengers travelling by coach on the great north
road. Much of it is made in Leicestershire.
Bordering the Ouse and the Nene there are belts of valley gravel,
and fertile alluvial meadow's; and in the fenland there are tracts of
peaty ground with occasional meres.
Kent. Map 17. Area 995,344 acres.
The strata in this county are but little obscured by superficial
drifts, which so greatly mask the eastern and many of the midland
and northern counties. The northern part of the county is occupied
by Eocene strata, the lowest division of which, the Thanet beds,
takes its name from the so-called Isle of Thanet. The sands of
which this formation is composed occur near Minster and on the
borders of Pegwell Bay. They are well seen in the cliffs betweeri
Reculvers and Herne Bay, where many fossils have been obtained,
and also in pits at Erith and elsewhere.
The Woolwich and Reading beds have been exposed in pits at
Charlton near Woolwich, near Chiselhurst, and at Upnor near
Rochester, where the fluvio-marine type of Woolwich beds occurs.
Above these strata there is a land of sands and pebble-beds, known
.as the Oldhaven and Blackheath beds, the pebble-beds occurring
about Blackheath and Bromley, and sands near Oldhaven Gap, east of
Herne Bay.
The London clay occupies much ground in the south-eastern part
of the London area, as at Sydenham and Forest Hill. It is well
seen in the cliffs of Sheppey, where many landslips have occurred
and where many fossils have been obtained, notably plant remains,
mollusca, crabs, sharks, turtles, and birds.
The Chalk is brought to the surface along the borders of the
Thames near Greenwich, and was exposed in several old pits at Loam
Pit Hill near Lewisham, and at Charlton. It is seen also at Erith
and in many pits at Northfleet and Gravesend, localities famous for
Upper Chalk fossils. Here and also along the Medway Valley, as at
Halling, above Rochester, there are many lime and cement works.
The Chalk is well exposed in the cliffs of Thanet from Birchington
KENT.
57
by Margate to Broadstairs and Ramsgate, and again from the south
of Deal by Dover to the Warren, near Folkestone.
At the depth of 1204 feet below the surface Coal-measures have
been proved at Dover, beneath Jurassic and Cretaceous rocks.
Oxford clay has been reached beneath Lower Greensand and higher
strata at Chatham, at a depth of 943 feet.
The Chalk gradually rises from the north towards the south, where
in a long stretch of country it forms the North Downs from Knock-
holt and Chevening eastwards to the sea-coast north of Folkestone :
an escarpment which is trenched by the rivers Stour, Medway, and
Darent. Remnants of Crag, preserved in “pipes” of the Chalk
occur at Lenham, near Charing, and other places. Below the Chalk
there is a thin outcrop of Upper Greensand, which may be traced
from Westerham to Otford ; it overlies the Gault clay and is replaced
by that formation at Burham and further east. The Gault forms
a low-lying tract of pasture land, and it is worked in places for
brickmaking. Many fossils are to be obtained, and Folkestone in
particular is a noted locality.
From the Gault vale the Lower Greensand gradually rises towards
the south and forms a fine escarpment overlooking the vale of Weald
clay, south of Sevenoaks, and thence by Ashford to the coast at
Hythe and Sandgate. The highest portion, or Folkestone beds, is
composed of sands, often pure siliceous sands that have been used
near Aylesford and Berstead for glass-making. A lower division,
known as the Sandgate beds, contains clayey bands, then come the
Hythe beds, made up of soft, sandy layers or “hassock” and hard
siliceous limestones known as Kentish Rag. These beds are well
seen in quarries near Maidstone, where the Rag is used for building-
stone and road metal. Here many fossils occur, notably Iguanodon.
The rock is much jointed and fissured, and in fissures at Maidstone
and Ightham many Pleistocene mammalia have been obtained.
A thin band of Atherfield clay is found at the base of the Lower
Greensand, and below is the Weald clay, which forms a low lying
but undulating wooded tract. On both Lower Greensand and Weald
clay are many hop grounds. Beneath the Weald clay, but rising to
form hilly ground, is a group of sands and clays known as the
Hastings beds, which extend from Tonbridge to Tunbridge Wells
and thence to Cranbrook and Tenterden. They form a pleasant
residential area. Hardened masses of sandstone stand out in places,
as near Tunbridge Wells, the Toad Rock being a well-known
example. At Tunbridge Wells chalybeate waters are met with; and
iron-ore occurs in the Wadhurst clay, one of the divisions of the
Hastings beds.
Romney Marsh is an old alluvial tract, while at Dungeness there
is a great tract of shingle. Valley gravels and brickearths border
the Thames and tributaries, near London, at Dartford, and Crayford
near Erith; and palæolithic implements and remains of mammoth,
rhinoceros, &c., have been found. The neighbourhood of Ightham is
noted for the earlier Eolithic implements made known through the
researches of Sir Joseph Prestwich and Mr. Benjamin Harrison.
At Shellness in Sheppey and at Shellness by the River Stour, north
58
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
of Sandwich, considerable accumulations of recent marine shells
occur, and these have been worked for making paths, &c.
Sea-side resorts: Birchington-on-Sea (shingle and sands, chalk cliffs), Broadstairs (sands,
chalk cliffs), Deal (shingle), Dover (shingle, chalk cliffs), Folkestone (sands, shingle,
cliffs), Herne Bay (sands, cliffs), Hythe (shingle), Margate (broad sands, chalk cliffs), Rams.
gate (sands, chalk cliffs), St. Margarets (shingle, chalk cliffs), Sandgate (shingle, sand, cliffs)
Sheerness-on-Sea (shingle, sand, cliffs), Westgate-on-Sea (sands, chalk cliffs), Whitstable
(shingle and sand).
This is a region of mountain, moorland and plain. On the northern
and detached portion of the county, including Furness and a part of
the Lake District, older Palæozoic rocks are developed. On the
north-west borders at Seathwaite we find the volcanic series of
Borrowdale with Coniston Old Man, bordered by the Coniston
limestone (Ordovician).
Silurian rocks extend southwards on the borders of Coniston
Water and Windermere to Cartmel and Ulverston. These include
the Coniston flags and grits, with the Braythay flags; and they
yield many graptolites, trilobites, brachiopods and mollusca.
Carboniferous limestone occurs on the southern tracts of Furness,
at Ulverston and Dalton-in-Furness, also at Cartmel and Grange.
Rich hæmatite ore occurs in pockets and fissures in the rocks. The
limestone, with its characteristic “scars ” or crags, is well seen near
Carnforth, at Clitheroe, Whalley, and other places. High moor-
lands of Millstone grit occur east of Lancaster, at Pendle Hill
east of Clitheroe, and between Blackburn, Bolton and Rochdale, as at
Haslingden, famous for flagstones.
The Lancashire coal-field extends from Burnley and Blackburn on
the north to Wigan, St. Helens and the neighbourhood of Manchester
on the south. Wigan is noted for its cannel coal. A small part of
the Ingleton coa)-field is also included in the county.
Permian sandstones and Triassic rocks border the Mersey from
Manchester to Liverpool and fringe the eastern coast by Ormskirk,
Preston and Garstang-a tract much covered with Glacial drift and
newer deposits, such as the Shirdley Hill sand, which is largely
wind-drifted. The Bunter sandstone is quarried for building-stone,
east of Liverpool.
The boulder clay, is well seen in the cliffs at Blackpool. Elsewhere
from Seaforth to Southport, at Lytham and Fleetwood, sand dunes
fringe the flat coast-lands. Peaty tracts occur at Chat Moss, and
Glazebrook.
Sea-side resorts : Arnside (sand and shingle), Blackpool (sands, cliffs), Fleetwood (sands),
Grange-over-Sands (sands, limestone rocks), Lytham (sands), Morecambe or Poulton-le-
Sands (broad sands), St. Anne's-on-Sea (sands), Southport (sands).
Leicestershire. Map 19. Area 527,124 acres.
In this county we find one of the most ancient mountain groups in
England, that of Charnwood Forest, whose peaks of slaty rock and
hornstone, grit and agglomerate, with intrusive masses of granite,
syenite and porphyroid, stand out in curious rocky eminences, like
kopjes, from a mantle of Keuper marls and Drift. This is a fine bracing
Tor, is formed of porphyroid. Elsewbere near Woodhouse Eaves, at
LEICESTER-LINCOLN.
Swithland where slates were largely worked, in Bradgate Park, at
Markfield, Beacon Hill, at Whittle Hill, where the Charley Forest
hone-stones are obtained from hard fine-grained volcanic tuffs,
the old Charnian rocks are to be seen; while masses of syenite
appear at Markfield and Grooby, and further south at Croft and
Enderby; and granite is largely quarried at Mount Sorrel. These
intrusive rocks are employed for road-stone and paving setts, while
the waste chips are utilized in places for the manufacture of artificial
pavement. Attention has lately been called by Prof. W. W. Watts,
to the smoothed and furrowed surfaces of the granite at Mount Sorrel,
that have been exposed by the removal of Keuper marls. Evidence is
here furnished of wind-erosion of the old mountain-ridges in Triassic
times, before they were buried by the Keuper marls.
West of Charnwood Forest the Coal-measures come to the surface
at Ashby-de-la-Zouch and Moira ; and tracts of Carboniferous
limestone, with much dolomite, appear at Grace Dieu, and at
Breedon, where there are fine quarries. Brine springs occur at Ashby-
de-la-Zouch.
The Keuper marls occupy the country about Market Bosworth
and Hinckley and eastwards to Leicester, where there are intercalated
bands of sandstone, and occasional beds of gpysum. The eastern
part of the county is occupied by the Lias with extensive coverings
of boulder-clay, and drift gravels.
The Rhætic beds, which intervene between the Keuper and the
Lias, have been exposed at Wigston and near Leicester.
The Lower Lias is noted for its Blue Lias lime and cement prepared
at Barrow-on-Soar, and utilized in the manufacture of artificial
pavement. The limestones at the base of the Lias have yielded
many fossils, saurians, fishes and crustacea, as well as mollusca, &c.
The Lias and boulder-clays form a famous hunting country, of
which Melton Mowbray is the centre with Market Harborough on
the south and the Vale of Belvoir on the north. Westward on the
borders of the red marl lie Loughborough and the region of Quorn.
The Middle Lias occurs at Billesdon and Tilton, and locally contains
iron-ore at Tilton and at Eastwell and Eaton. Northampton sands
and Inferior Oolite occur at Waltham-on-the-Wolds. Saline waters
have been met with at Shearsby, and saline-chalybeate waters at
Neville Holt.
Lincolnshire. Map 20. Area 1,693,547 acres.
In this county the strata outcrop in fairly regular belts from north
to south. Coal-measures, Permian and Bunter have been proved in
a boring at South Carr, near Haxey, but the oldest formation exposed
is the Keuper, which rises from the alluvial flats bordering the
western side of the Trent to form the Isle of Axholme at Epworth and
Crowle, where gypsum occurs. Eastwards of the river the red marls
form the base of the low escarpment of the Lias from Burton-upon-
Humber to Gainsborough and further south. Rhætic beds have
been observed in the railway cutting at Lee. The Lias forms for the
most part a vale, bordered on the east by the fine escarpment of the
Lincolnshire limestone (Inferior Oolite), which is cut through by the
60
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Witham at Lincoln. Along the summit of the escarpment, which is
known as The Cliff, the Ermine Street runs, while the vale extends
southwards to Grantham. In the Lower Lias there occurs the iron-
stone so largely worked at Frodingham, while in the Middle Lias
there is the iron-ore of Denton and Caythorpe. The Upper Lias, a dark
blue clay, is worked for brickmaking at Lincoln. All these divisions
are fossiliferous. In the basement portion of the Inferior Oolite at
Greetwell iron-ore has again been worked. The limestone above-the
Lincolnshire limestone-occupies a broad belt of country: uplands
with stone fences, and it yields famous freestone at Ponton and
Ancaster, and other building-stone at Lincoln, and also at Kirton
Lindsey where the stone is employed in the manufacture of lime and
cement. The limestone is an important water-bearing formation, and
wells sunk into it at Bourne and elsewhere have yielded abundant
supplies. The eastern tract of Lower Oolite is formed of the Great
Oolite series with the Cornbrash-all more or less fossiliferous. Then
there is a belt of low-land formed of Oxford, Corallian and Kimeridge
clays. The lowest portion on the west includes sandy Kellaways
beds, and the clays in general are locally worked for bricks. There
are many brickyards at Market Rasen in the Kimeridge clay, with
iridescent fossils. Woodhall Spa, noted for its iodine, derives its
waters from a deep well. Some of the shales in the Kimeridge clay
are highly bituminous. These beds on the east are overlain by a
group of Lower Cretaceous rocks, the Spilsby sandstone and Tealby
beds with the Claxby iron-ore. The Red Chalk represents the Gault
at the base of the White Chalk which forms the Lincolnshire Wolds.
Here and there bands of reddish Chalk occur higher up in the White
Chalk.
Boulder-clay occurs plentifully on the Chalk tracts and elsewhere in
the northern part of the county, where there is also much Glacial sand,
some of it wind-drifted. Boulder-clay also extends around Ponton,
where it contains huge boulders of Volite. The eastern part of the
county is largely fenland formed of silt and peat, as on the borders of
the Wash, at Spalding, and Boston. The tidal warp of the Trent and
Humber is due to the waste of Holderness Cliffs. Blown sand occurs
on the coast.
Sea-side resorts : Cleethorpes, Mablethorpe, Skegness and Sutton-on-Sea (sands).
Middlesex. Map 2. Area 181,301 acres.
The foundation of this county, which occupies a part of the London
Basin, is largely London clay, resting on the Reading beds which
outcrop at Pinner and Northwood, and again on the Chalk, which is
well seen in pits at Haresfield north of Uxbridge.
The London clay forms an undulating grass country around
Harrow, Wembley Park, and Edgware. Some of the higher grounds at
Harrow, Hampstead and Higbgate are capped by Bagshot sands;
Stanmore Hill, the highest in Middlesex (500 feet), is formed of
pebble gravel, perhaps of Eocene age, while other hills, as at Finchley
and Hendon, are covered by boulder-clay, sand and gravel. A small
patch of gravel also occurs on Mill Hill. The broad valley of the
Thames is occupied by brickearth and gravel, which stretches from
MIDDLESEX-MONMOUTH.
OT
61
Uxbridge to Southall, Ealing, Paddington and Islington and south-
wards to the Thames; and similar deposits occur eastwards along the
Lea Valley to Tottenham and Enfield. There are many brickyards
between West Drayton and Southall, while market gardens and fruit
grounds extend to the south at Heston and Hounslow. The older
settlements were made on the valley gravels and on the patches of
sand and gravel on the hills, as they readily yielded supplies of water
in spring or well. The clay tracts from Regent's Park to Camden
Town and north-westwards to Kilburn, Harrow and Edgware were
but thinly populated until supplied from a distance by water
companies or locally from deep wells.
The Thames Valley deposits have yielded palæolithic implements,
and remains of mammoth, hippopotamus, rhinoceros, &c.
At Meux's Brewery, Tottenham Court Road, a deep boring has been
carried through the Chalk and Gault to Colite and Devonian rocks,
the latter having been reached at a depth of 1066 feet. At Kentish
Town red clays and sandstones were encountered at a depth of 1113
feet, and penetrated to the depth of 1302 feet. Their age, whether
Triassic or Devonian, is uncertain.
Monmouthshire. Maps 16 and 32. Area 341,688 acres.
In this county we have the eastern portion of the great South
Wales coalfield, which is connected with the important docks at
Newport. The oldest rocks are the Silurian, which appear near
Rumney, and occur over the Usk district, where they are bent into
a gentle anticline. They are bordered by the Old Red sandstone,
which comprises red marls and concretionary limestones (cornstones),
red sandstone and quartz conglomerate. The Sugar Loaf, north-west
of Abergavenny, is formed of these rocks, and rises to 1954 feet.
Skyrrid Fawr lies to the east. Somewhat steeply inclined are the
rocks bordering the coal-field, for there is but a narrow outcrop of
Carboniferous limestone and Millstone grit-the latter rock, how-
ever, forms a fine escarpment in the Blorenge on the north-east.
The Coal-measures occupy the ground from Pontypool to Tredegar,
including the Ebbw Vale and Sirhowy Valley, and the borders of
the Rhymney Valley, the upland portions of which are highly pic-
turesque regions, especially in the tracts formed of Pennant Grit.
More extensive areas of Carboniferous limestone appear in the
eastern part of the county, stretching southwards from the Wye
Valley at Tintern and Chepstow. New Red marl and Dolomitic
conglomerate occur near Portskewet and westwards towards Newport,
and Lower Lias at Liswery, east of Newport, where the “Blue Lias"
limestone is burned for lime and cement. Here saurian remains and
other fossils have been obtained. Between the red marl and the
Lias, the Rhætic beds occur, with black shales and representative of
Cotham marble. These beds have been exposed in Gold Cliff, now
largely concealed by masonry, where the iron-pyrites in the Rhætic
shales gave name to the cliff. There is a bone-bed here in the green
marls below the black shales. Extensive mud flats border the
Severn alongside of fertile alluvial meadow-lands.
62
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
.
Norfolk. Map 21. Area 1,308,440 acres.
This is essentially an agricultural county. The foundation is
mainly the Chalk which is well shown in the cliff at Hunstanton, and
occupies the country southwards to Swaffham, Stoke Ferry, and
Thetford, and eastwards to Wells and Weybourn, Norwich and Diss.
Over this tract it is covered largely by boulder-clay and drift sands
and gravels, less so in West Norfolk than in Central Norfolk Near
Aylsham and Norwich the Chalk is exposed only in the river valleys.
The general dip being eastwards, we have an ascending series in the
Chalk from Hunstanton and Stoke Ferry to Norwich, and various
groups of fossils are found in successive divisions. Large tubular
flints known as Paramoudras occur in the Upper Chalk. The highest
beds are those observed on the coast at Trimingham, where the strata
are disturbed by glacial action. Beneath the White Chalk is the
remarkable Red Chalk of Hunstanton, a bed about three feet thick,
containing many fossils of the age of the Gault. Lower still comes
the Lower Greensand, consisting of a brown carstone in Hunstanton
Cliff, including beds of sand and clay near Snettisham, and extending
southwards to Sandringham, near Lynn, and Downham Market.
The Lower Greensand forms a picturesque escarpment overlooking
the Wash and fenland, with many tracts of common and heathland.
The strata overlie the Kimeridge clay, which is exposed here and
there on the fen borders and is dug for brick-making at Downham
Market. At West Dereham coprolites have been worked in the
Gault clay.
Above the Chalk at Yarmouth there are beds of London clay and
Reading beds, not exposed to the surface. Along the Waveney
Valley at Aldeby, in the Yare Valley at Norwich, Thorpe, and
Bramerton, in the Bure Valley at Horstead and Coltishall, and along
the coast at Weybourn, there are beds of Norwich Crag, with many
fossil mollusca, and remains of mastodon, &c. These beds on the
coast are overlain by the Forest-bed series of Cromer, in which
remains of fossil mammals, and other vertebrates, mollusca, plants,
&c., are to be found.
The Glacial Drifts form the mass of the Cromer cliffs and extend
over the greater part of the county. Fertile loams occupy much of
north-eastern Norfolk, lighter lands of sand, gravel and marl occupy
the northern and western borders, and heavy land of chalky boulder-
clay extends over much of central and southern Norfolk.
Large tracts of boulder-gravel, made up chiefly of flints, occur on
Mousehold Heath, Norwich, at Poringland, near Holt, Fakenham,
Dereham, and other places.
The coast formed of soft strata, except at Hunstanton, has been
subject to great waste by the sea, aided by landslips. Blown sands
fringe the coast in places north of Yarmouth, and near Wells and
Burnham.
At Grimes Graves, near Weeting All Saints, neolithic flint-pits
have been discovered. The flints in that neighbourhood along the
Ouse Valley near Thetford, have indeed been utilized since palæo-
lithic times; some implements having been fashioned from gravel-
flints, others from flints taken directly from the Chalk. Gun-flints
NORFOLK-NORTHUMBERLAND.
63
were until recent years manufactured at Whitlingham near Norwich,
and there also flints were dressed for building-purposes. Many of
the round church towers were built of gravel-flints, as there is no
durable freestone suitable for corner work in the county.
Sea-side resorts : Cromer (broad sands, cliffs), Hunstanton (sands, rocks, cliffs of white
and red chalk, sandstone), Munilesley (sands, cliff:), Runton (sands, cliffs), Sheringham
(sands, cliffs), Wells-next-the-Sea (sands), Yarmouth (sands).
(D
Northamptonshire. Map 22. Area 641,992 acres.
In this county the geological structure is simple. On the west
a vale of Lias extends from the neighbourhood of Banbury to
Daventry and Market Harborough. An upland region of Colites
stretches through the heart of the county from Brackley to North-
ampton, Rockingham and Peterborough; and a belt of Oxford clay
occurs on the eastern margin from near Rushden to Peterborough.
A great portion of the upland region and eastern portion is concealed
by boulder-drift, which forms good wheat land. The Lias tracts
especially constitute a grass country, famous as a hunting field. The
Lower Lias clays are opened up in brickyards at Braunston, and
they were traversed in the great Kilsby tunnel on the London and
North-Western Railway, and more recently at Catesby on the Great
Central Railway. The Middle Lias, with its rock-bed or marlstone
on top, is a ferruginous limestone, and an important water-bearing
stratum in the Northampton area. It is overlain by fossiliferous
limestones and thick beds of blue clay belonging to the Upper Lias.
At the base of the Colites the Northampton sands yield important
beds of iron-ore near Towcester, Blisworth, Northampton, Welling,
borough, Kettering, and Thrapstone. In some parts, however, as at
Duston, the equivalent strata yield flaggy freestone. These beds,
with overlying estuarine clays, occupy the Oolitic regions of the
:southern part of the county; while north-eastwards from Maidwell,
north of Northampton, the division known as the Lincolnshire lime-
stone is developed, and this forms the famous building-stones of
Weldon, and the Barnack Rag near Stamford. Locally at its base is
the Collyweston slate, a flaggy bed used for stone-tiles. At
Wittering there is a chalybeate spa. The Great Oolite series
comprises an Upper Estuarine series of coloured clays and sands, and
of shelly limestones and clays, with the Cornbrash famous for fossils
at Rushden and other places. The Oxford clay is well exposed at
Peterborough.
Northumberland. Map 23. Area 1,289,756 acres.
This county is largely formed of Carboniferous rocks, extensively
covered with drift deposits, and although much of the ground
on the eastern borders is somewhat monotonous, it is diversified by
the picturesque wooded river channels. The Lower Carboniferous
rocks, including the equivalents of Lower limestone shales, Carbon-
iferous limestone, and Yoredale rocks or Upper limestone shales,
form one great series. They contain beds of workable coal at
Scremerston, and other places, south of Berwick, and are also worked
for lime-burning. Many fossils have been obtained at Lowick.
64
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
In the western part of the county the Cheviot Hills, which rise to
2676 feet in a tract of granite, are elsewhere formed largely of
andesites, volcanic material of Old Red sandstone age. Traces of
Silurian rocks occur on the Scottish borders, while the hills to the
south-west are Lower Carboniferous, Carter Fell rising to 1815 feet.
Moorland tracts extend southwards to Haltwhistle and Allendale,
where lead and zinc mines have been worked in the Lower Carbon-
iferous group.
In the south-eastern part of the county we have the true Coal-
measures forming the Newcastle coal-field. In this district the coal
was used as fuel in the time of the Roman occupation, but it was
not worked to any extent until the thirteenth century. Wallsend
lies to the east of Newcastle, where the Roman wall ends on the north
of the Tyne. Grindstones are manufactured to the north of the
city.
Notable intrusions of igneous rock (mostly dolerites) in the form
of sills and dykes appear in the Great Whin Sill, which extends from
the neighbourhood of Haltwhistle to Dunstanburgh, Bamburgh, and
the Farne Islands; and in the Acklington dyke which extends from
the coast at Acklington inland to the Cheviot volcanic rocks.
Near Tynemouth, at Cullercoats and Whitley, there are remnants
of Magnesian limestone.
Sea-side rescrts : Alnmouth (sands), Bamburgh (sands and cliffs), Cullercoats (rocky),
Tynemouth (sands, cliff's), Whitley-by-the-Sea (sands, rocks).
Nottinghamshire. Map 24. Area 539,752 acres.
In this county the strata outcrop from west to east in fairly regular
belts. On the west the Nottingham coal-field appears at the surface
in the Erewash Valley ; it is the eastern portion of that of Derbyshire,
and both are connected with the great Yorkshire coal-field. How
far to the east and south-east the Coal-measures may extend is
a subject of much practical importance. Coal-measures have been
reached at Owthorpe on the south and at Collingham on the east.
The beds are overlain unconformably by the Permian and newer
strata. The Permian rocks comprise the Magnesian limestone, an
important building-stone worked at Mansfield Woodhouse, where
limestone and white and red dolomitic sandstones are obtained. The
Magnesian limestone is burnt for lime at Mansfield, Bulwell, and
other places, and overlying marls are employed for brickmaking.
The Bunter beds include soft and earthy sands much used for
foundry purposes. They comprise also pebble-beds and pebbly
sandstone, which extend from the cliff on which Nottingham Castle
stands to Sherwood Forest and northwards between Worksop and
Retford to Bawtry. This is a fine residential tract known as “the
Dukeries." Keuper sandstones overlie the Bunter and are used as
building-stone.
The eastern part of the county is for the most part clayey and
agricultural. The Keuper marls extend north-eastwards and north-
wards from Trent Junction to Southwell and Newark, where the beds
are largely worked for gypsum. Rhætic beds occur along the
borders of the Lower Lias, and this latter formation, which is quarried
NOTTINGHAM-OXFORD.
65
for lime and cement at Barnstone, extends eastwards into the Vale of
Belvoir. At Orston there is a chalybeate spa. Drift gravel and
boulder-clay are found in various parts of the county; much valley-
gravel occurs on the borders of the Trent, while the alluvium forms
rich meadow lands.
Oxfordshire. Map 3. Area 483,614 acres.
This county is formed of a series of Jurassic and Cretaceous strata.
The lowest beds, those of the Lower Lias, appear in the upper parts
of the valleys of the Cherwell above Banbury, and of the Evenlode
above Charlbury. Shelly beds have been polished for marble at Ban-
bury. The Middle Lias with its (marlstone) rock-bed is well developed
near Banbury, and is extensively quarried as a building-stone at
Hornton near Edgehill, where it occurs as a brown and green
ferruginous limestone. At King's Sutton and Adderbury it is an iron-
ore that has been largely worked, and the same is the case at Fawler,
near Charlbury. The soil is a rich brown friable loam. Next comes
the stiff blue Upper Lias clay which borders the Oolites and occurs
in the Windrush Valley above Burford. A boring made a little south
of Burford was carried through the Lias and New Red rocks to the
Coal-measures, which were reached at a depth of about 1200 feet.
The Oolites form the uplands, which extend from Burford to Wood-
stock, Chipping Norton, and Bicester. The Inferior Dolite series,
including the Chipping Norton limestone, is found in some of the
outlying hills and scarps on the north-west, but it is far thinner and
less important than in the Cotteswold Hills. It contains sands as
well as limestones, with fine examples of Trigonia and other fossils.
The Great Oolite series extends over much of the Oolitic uplands, as
a white limestone with marls, and with underlying freestone at
Taynton and Milton near Burford. The white limestones are rich in
corals and other fossils. Above comes the Forest marble, so named
from the Forest of Wychwood north-east of Burford, where layers
of shelly limestone were in old times polished for mantel-pieces.
Near Kirtlington remains of the huge Ceteosaurus have been obtained.
Locally at Stonesfield the lowest beds of the Great Oolite consist
of flaggy Oolitic and sandy limestone, mined for stone-tiles, and
known as the Stonesfield slate. These beds have yielded remains of
mammals, reptiles, fishes, mollusca, plants, &c. The neighbourhood
of the village of Stonesfield is riddled with shafts. The Cornbrash
which overlies the Forest marble is as usual fossiliferous and is well
exposed at Witney, Kidlington, Bicester, &c., and in faulted tracts at
Islip, &c. The Oxford clay forms a belt of low-lying ground along
the borders of the Thames from Lechlade to Bampton and Oxford,
and to the north-east of the city, as at Otmoor. Large brickyards
have been opened up near Oxford, where many ammonites and other
fossils occur. The Corallian beds overlie the Oxford clay and have
been quarried for stone (of poor quality) at Headington and Wheatley.
Kimeridge clay succeeds and is to be seen at the base of Shotover Hill.
Here Portland beds overlie and are covered by Lower Greensand.
Other tracts contain Portland and Purbeck beds, as at Garsington
and Great Haseley; and Portland beds occur at Thame. The Lower
al
66
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Greensand near Oxford is a mixed formation of sands with beds of
ochre and fuller's earth, and some freshwater mollusca occur in the
lower strata. Gault occurs at Culham and in the vale which extends
to Tetsworth. The Upper Greensand outcrops in a minor scarp
along the foot of the Chiltern Hills. These Chalk hills form a fine escarp-
ment, extending from Goring and Whitchurch towards Stokenchurch,
with, on their flanks, an occasional outlier of Reading beds and
London clay, as at Nettlebed (607 feet), and on the lower part of the
dip-slope, as near Caversham and other places. Along this slope to
near Henley-on-Thames, tracts of clay-with-flints, brickearth and
gravel are scattered over the Chalk surface. Valley gravels border
the Thames from Bampton to Oxford and lower down along its course.
Oxfordshire contains little glacial drift except in the north-
eastern part on the borders of Buckinghamshire.
Rutlandshire. Map 19. Area 97,273 acres.
The small county of Rutland consists wholly of Lias and Dolites.
The Lias occupies the Vale of Catmoss, to the west of Cottesmore, and
is a well-known hunting field. The lower beds of clay occur about
Whissendine; while the brown rock or marlstone of the Middle Lias
occurs around Oakham. The Upper Lias borders the ramifying
Oolitic hills and is worked for bricks at Luffenham, Seaton and other
places. The Northampton sands at the base of the Inferior Oolite
Occupy the hills about Uppingham and have yielded iron-ore locally
at Cottesmore and Manton. The Lincolnshire limestone above
yields a useful freestone at Clipsham, Casterton, and Ketton.
Estuarine beds and Great Dolite limestone occur at Essendine, and
boulder-clay and drift gravels are scattered over much of the area.
Shropshire. Map 25. Area 859,516 acres.
In this county there is great variety of geological formations and
physical features. The Wrekin, a dome-shaped bill which rises to
1335 feet, has been claimed by Dr. C. Callaway as the oldest mountain
in England; on its borders the gneiss of Primrose Hill and the
schists of Rushton may represent some of the oldest known rocks,
while the Wrekin itself is largely formed of rhyolitic lavas (Uriconian)
of Pre-Cambrian age. Similar rocks occur at Caer Caradoc, and
a granitoid rock is found at Cardington Hill. In the charming
moorland regions of Church Stretton, the Longmynd is formed of
purple slates, grits and conglomerate, also of Pre-Cambrian age, and
these Longmyndian rocks occur in Haughmond Hill.
Flanking the Wrekin, Cambrian quartzites form the base of the
Comley (Hollybush) sandstone, which yields Olenellus and Para-
doxides, and above come the Shineton shales (Tremadoc) with
Dictyonema.
West of the Longmynd rise the Ordovician rocks of the Shelve
district; at the base thé Arenig Stiper stones are formed of quartzite,
with the overlying Llandilo series of Meadowtown and the Bala
series of Chirbury. Silver-lead and zinc-ores occur in this district,
and barytes bas been worked at Wotherton. To the east of the
Longmynd is the famous region of Caradoc, where Ordovician rocks
SHROPSHIRE.
rest unconformably on the Cambrian and older rocks, and comprise the
Hoar Edge grits, the Chatwall sandstones, and flags and shales, all
belonging to the Bala series.
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Fig. 14.-THE STIPER STONES.
Further east we find a succession of Silurian rocks (see Fig. 15),
from the Llandovery to the Old Red sandstone. The gorge of the
Severn between Buildwas and Ironbridge has cut through some of
these rocks which extend to the south-west in a series of scarps and
dales, including Wenlock Edge formed of Wenlock limestone.
Fuller's earth occurs in the Wenlock shales and also in the lower
Ludlow beds, and has caused landslips of the overlying rocks. The
Upper Ludlow beds contain bone-beds with remains of fishes and of
the crustacea Pterygotus and Eurypterus. The highest Silurian
rocks include the Downton sandstone, with Lingula cornea, and
tilestones equivalent to the Ledbury shales. They extend on the
borders of the Old Red sandstone, and occur near Bishop's Castle
and Ludlow.
o
S.E.
.
www
Fig. 15.-SECTION ACROSS THE SILURIAN ROCKS OF WENLOCK EDGE. (Ramsay!)
9, Old Red sandstone; 8, Lerlbury shales and Downton sandstones; 7, Upper Ludlow
beds; 6, Aymestry limestone; 5, Lower Ludlow beds; 4, Wenlock limestone ; 3, Wenlock
shale : 2, Llandovery beds; 1, Ordovician : Bala beds.
The Old Red sandstone occurs in Clun Forest and covers the
ground between Bridgnorth and Ludlow. It contains patches of
Coal-measures, capped by sheets of intrusive basalt (Dhu stone) in
the Clee Hills. A small coal-field occurs at Leebotwood, south of
Shrewsbury. The Carboniferous limestone and Millstone grit
border that part of the Denbighshire coal-field which extends to
Oswestry; the limestone being polished for marble near Llanymynech.
They fringe the western parts of the Coalbrookdale coal-field which
southwards overlaps on to the Old Red sandstone and joins the
Wyre Forest coal-field at Bewdley. Thin representatives of Carboni-
ferous limestone and Millstone grit occur at Farlow, N.W. of
Cleobury Mortimer.
5 *
68
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Permian breccias and sands occur at Alberbury and Shrewsbury, the
breccias containing fragments of Carboniferous limestone. Bunter
sandstones and pebble-beds occur over much ground in the north and
east, as well as Keuper sandstones which are worked at Grinshill,
the Hawkstone Hills and Market Drayton, Keuper maris occur at
Wem and Whitchurch. These beds are extensively covered with
shelly drift gravels, and boulder-clay, so that we see nothing of the
Rhætic beds and little of the Lias. The Middle Lias is, however,
exposed at Prees.
The drift contains granite from Criffel and Eskdale, and the sandy
beds contain marine shells sometimes at high elevations, as at Gloppa
near Oswestry (1120 feet). Some of the meres occupy shallow
basins in the drift sands and gravels, which appear in esker-like
knolls and ridges.
Somerset. Map 11. Area 1,043,485 acres.
This county is one of the most varied with regard to its geological
formations and types of scenery. In West Somerset there are high
moorlands formed mainly of Devonian slate and sandstone, thickly
wooded in places. On Brendon Hills there are ironstone mines.
Exmoor Forest with Dunkery Beacon (1707 feet), is the home of the
red deer. The rocks stand out boldly on the coast at Culbone and
between Porlock and Minehead, they also form the Quantock Hills,
between Watchet, Taunton and Bridgwater. They are much
faulted and folded, and here and there fossils have been found, more
especially in some of the limestone bands. At Hestercombe, north of
Taunton, a vein of granite has been observed. At Cannington Park
a mass of Carboniferous limestone appears. This rock constitutes
the chief part of the Mendip Hills from Frome to Bleadon and
Uphill, and the Holmes islets in the Bristol Channel. The strata
form a series of anticlines with the Old Red sandstone appearing in
places, as north of Shepton Mallet and Wells and on Blackdown
(1068 feet); and with eruptive rocks at Downhead, Wrington, &c. The
Old Red sandstone is separated from the Carboniferous limestone
by a belt of Lower limestone shales. The limestone is famed for
its rocky crags and combes and caverns, notably the Cheddar Cliffs,
Ebbor Gorge, the combes of Vallis and Nunney, near Frome, and the
caverns of Cheddar, Wookey, Banwell, &c. Those of Cheddar have
fine stalactites. The limestone appears at Weston-super-Mare,
Clevedon, and thence to the Avon Gorge, also near Wrington, where
Cleve and Brockley combes are famous. The Coal-measures are
largely worked around Radstock, near Bristol and at Nailsea. The
vale of Taunton, the slopes of the Polden Hills, and the lower grounds
bordering the Mendips are composed of red sandstones and marls,
with the Dolomitic conglomerate, a beach deposit formed of Carboni.
ferous limestone, &c. Lead and zinc-ores have been worked on the
Mendips, the former mainly from veins in the Carboniferous lime-
stones, the latter in the Dolomitic conglomerate. Gypsum occurs in
the red marls at Watchet and other places.
The Rhætic beds, formed of black shales and White Lias, with
landscape marble, fringe the red marls and are overlaid by the Lower
SOMERSET.
69
or Blue Lias. The Lower Lias is extensively quarried for flags and
building-stone, lime and cement, at Street near Glastonbury, near
Somerton, Watchet, Keynsham, Saltford, and many other places.
Numerous fossils have been obtained, notably saurians at Street, and
many ammonites at Keynsham, Watchet, and elsewhere. At Shepton
Mallet there are beds of pale granular limestone. The Middle
Lias with its fossiliferous rock-bed occurs at Glastonbury and Pennard
Hill, and higher beds of Upper Lias with many fossils occur also at
Glastonbury, and at Ilminster where numerous fossil fishes have
been obtained.
The Inferior Oolite series, with the Midford sands as its base,
extends from near Crewkerne by Ham Hill and Yeovil to Bruton and
Doulting. The sands cap the isolated hills of Glastonbury Tor and
Brent Knoll, and the Inferior Oolite again extends from near Frome,
to Radstock and Bath, and forms the summit of Dundry Hill, famous
for its ammonites and other fossils. At Ham Hill, with its Roman
encampment, at Doulting and Dundry, the beds have yielded excellent
freestones. Somerset, however, is especially noted for the Bath stone,
quarried on Combe Down, and mined eastwards on the Wiltshire
borders. This belongs to the Great Oolite, and it is separated from
the Inferior Oolite by the Fuller's earth formation which contains
valuable beds of fuller's earth at Midford and Wellow.
Above the Great Oolite is the Forest marble, a variable formation,
of clay, limestone, and sand. It appears along the bold scarp, which
extends from Templecombe by Wincanton to Frome, where the
oolitic limestone is quarried for building-stone; and it outcrops at
Charterhouse Hinton, where sands with masses of hard sandstone
occur. The Cornbrash above, extends from Templecombe to near
Frome; and the Oxford clay occurs on the eastern borders of the
county in the vale south of Frome, formerly part of Selwood Forest.
In the same neighbourhood the Gault and Upper Greensand of
Penselwood, and the Chalk at Long Knoll (945 feet), extend into the
county from near Maiden Bradley in Wiltshire. The Chalk with its
fossiliferous basement-bed or Chloritic marl, and Upper Greensand
occur at Chard.
The alluvium forms the flat meadow lands and moorlands of the
Bridgwater levels and Sedgemoor, and peat is extensively dug
between Glastonbury and Highbridge. The valley gravels of the
Avon, near Bath, have yielded pleistocene mammalia, and other
remains have been found together with palæolithic implements in
caves and fissures bordering the Mendips from Wookey to Banwell and
Uphill. Blown sands occur along the coast near Burnham, and raised
beaches are met with near Weston-super-Mare. Sands with marine
shells are found at Burtle and other places in the alluvial moorlands.
No Glacial Drift occurs.
Bath is noted for its thermal waters, varying in temperature from
104° to 120°. They contain from 144 to 168 grains of mineral matter,
chiefly sulphate of lime, per gallon. They also contain radium.
They probably rise from the Carboniferous rocks at a depth esti-
mated at 3500 feet. Chaly beate waters nccur at Glastonbury, and
sulphurous waters at Queen Camel.
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Sea-side resorts : Burnham (sands), Clevedon (stony beach, cliffs), Minehead (pebbly
beach, cliffs), Porlock (stony beach, cliffs), Watchet (rocks, cliffs), Weston-super-Mare
(sandy, cliffs).
Staffordshire. Map 26. Area 749,601 acres.
In this county we have two important coal-fields, that of South
Staffordshire or the Black Country, which extends from Dudley to
Walsall and Cannock Chase, and that of North Staffordshire or the
Potteries, with its adjunct the Cheadle coal-field, which is not of great
commercial importance. In the South Staffordshire coal-field the strata
are bent into anticlines with cores of Silurian rocks. Thus at Sedgely
the beds from Llandovery to Ludlow are exposed ; at Walsall and
Great Barr, Llandovery to Wenlock, with the Woolhope (Barr)
limestone yielding Illænus barriensis; and at Dudley the Wenlock
(Dudley) limestone is exposed at Dudley Castle and the Wren's Nest,
yielding many trilobites, corals, brachiopods, &c. The limestones are
largely burnt for lime, and they have been extensively mined in the
Dudley district. The Coal-measures in this same district are noted
for the ten-yard seam, which is due to the coalescing of a number of
seams elsewhere parted by shales and sandstones. This thick coal
has been proved in deep borings and worked north of Birmingham.
Here and there the coal has been invaded and burnt by intrusive
sheets of basalt or dolerite ; that known as the Rowley Rag at
Rowley Regis has been extensively quarried for road-metal. In North
Staffordshire the Coal-measures are much folded and faulted. In the
lower strata the best coals are found, higher up there are coals and
black-band or carbonaceous ironstones. Numerous bands of lime-
stone occur in the upper strata, which yield entomostraca, Carbonicola,
Anthracomya and fish remains. Grey marls in the black-band series
are used for the manufacture of saggers and bricks, and at a higher
horizon the red and mottled Etruria marls are largely used for brick-
making and rough pottery. The highest known division is a mass of
red sandstones and marls, named by Mr. W. Gibson the Keele sand-
stone series, and this contains limestones with Spirorbis and Coal-
measure plants. The clays used for the best pottery are imported
from Cornwall, Devon and Dorset.
Millstone grit and Lower Carboniferous rocks occur north-east of
Biddulph and the Cheadle coal-field ; and in this region white clays
are found in pockets of the Carboniferous limestone on the Weaver
Hills, and on the moorlands which extend eastwards into Derbyshire.
In the western part of the county there are Permian breccias at
Enville, west of Stourbridge.
The central parts of the county are formed partly of Bunter
and Keuper sandstones, with an extensive tract of Keuper marls,
which yield gypsum at Uttoxeter. Fauld and Tutbury, and brine-
springs at Stafford. Cannock Chase, which, extends into the South
Staffordshire coal-field, is a picturesque, hilly and heathery tract of
Bunter pebble-beds, the quartzite pebbles of which yield Ordovician
and Silurian fossils. Bunter and Keuper sandstones border that
coal-field from Lichfield to Birmingham, at Wolverhampton and Stour-
bridge. The Bunter stands out boldly at Abbot's Castle Hill and at
STAFFORD-SUFFOLK.
71
Kinver Edge, where artificial caverns have been excavated in the
rock.
On Needwood Forest outliers of Rhætic beds occur, and here and
elsewhere over the county there is much boulder-clay and drift-
gravel.
Suffolk. Map 27. Area 952,709 acres.
This is a comparatively flat county with no conspicuous hills, but
much of it consists of a plateau which rises from about 150 to 400 feet,
and the main features lie along the lower courses of the rivers which
drain into the North Sea. The Chalk forms the foundation of the
entire county, if we except certain tracts beneath the Fenland near
Mildenhall, where Gault and Kimeridge clay may be present. On
the east and south-east the Chalk is covered by Eocene strata, by
Thanet sands near Sudbury, and by Reading beds and London clay
from Sudbury to Lowestoft and Gorleston. These Eocene strata are
again overlain along the eastern borders by the Pliocene (Crag) series,
which overlaps the Eocene and rests on the Chalk northwards by
Halesworth and Beccles. Scattered irregularly over all these strata
are accumulations of boulder-clay, brickearth, sand and gravel. The
boulder-clay is a stiff, stony and chalky clay, the product of ice action,
and this occupies much of central Suffolk, forming somewhat heavy
land, good for wheat and beans. Along the eastern coast sands and
shelly Crag beds prevail, and there we find light lands and many
picturesque heaths and commons. In western Suffolk the Chalk is
less thickly covered with Drift, and much of this is loose sand, apt to be
wind-drifted, as near Brandon.
The Chalk is best exposed in the west. At Brandon many pits and
shafts have been dug for flints to be used for the manufacture of gun-
flints (now almost a lost industry) and for blocks for building purposes.
Other pits may be seen near Mildenhall, Newmarket, Bury St.
Edmunds and at Needham Market and Claydon, near Ipswich. The
London clay is seen on the borders of the Stour, Orwell and Deben,
and it contains septaria, which were formerly used for the manufacture
of cement. The Crag formation is probably the most interesting, as
it yields so many fossils. The oldest portion, the Coralline Crag, is
best seen near Aldeburgh, Sudbourn and Orford. It consists of
yellowish sandy marl and shelly and sandy limestone, with many
mollusca, bryozoa or polyzoa, &c. The Red Crag, as its name implies,
is a red shelly sand, with also numerous mollusca, and at its base a
bed rich in phosphatic nodules and phosphatized bones and other
remains. It is well seen above the London clay in the cliffs at Felix.
stow and Bawdsey, and in many inland localities, notably at Sutton,
Hollesley, Butley and Chillesford. The still newer Norwich Crag
occurs at Dunwich, Easton Bavent, Wangford and other places
(see Plate 49). On the coast at Pakefield and at Corton the Cromer
Forest bed series may be observed at the base of the cliffs. This
includes gravelly beds with freshwater shells and mammalian remains,
black peaty layers and a rootlet bed.
Overlying these deposits at Kessingland and Pakefield are glacial
sands and pebble gravel and chalky boulder-clay. Similar heds occur
172
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
TNINT
TITAT
II.11
9
to the north of Lowestoft ; and at Gorleston and other places the sand
contains fragmentary shells in abundance. Pebble gravel occurs also
at Westleton, Halesworth and Henbam. Later deposits formed prior
to the present rivers occur at Hoxne and near Brandon, where palæo-
lithic implements occur. The gravels bordering the present rivers
also contain implements of this character along the valleys of the Lark
and Ouse.
In a trial boring for coal at Stutton, a hard slaty rock, of Silurian
or older age, was met with beneath the Chalk and Gault at a depth of
994 feet.
Sea-side resorts : Aldeburgh (shingle), Felixstow (sandy low cliffs), Gorleston (sands,
cliffs), Lowestoft (sands and
is ana shingle, cliffs on south), Southwold (shingle and sand, low
cliffs).
Surrey. Map 28. Area 485,128 acres.
Surrey occupies a part of the London Basin, with the Chalk hills of
the North Downs rising to the south in the fine scarp which extends
from Farnham along the Hog's Back to Guildford, where the Chalk is
highly inclined, and eastwards to Dorking, Box Hill, Merstham and
Caterham. Along the borders of the shallow basin the Thanet and
Reading beds outcrop at Croydon, Ewell, Epsom and Leatherhead,
and thence to the north of Guildford and Farnbar, while the London
clay occupies an undulating tract further north at Ockham, Malden,
Surbiton, Upper Norwood, &c., with inlying Woolwich beds at
Dulwich. Epsom is noted for its saline waters. The Bagshot beds,
comprising sands and loams, occupy a large tract of picturesque fir-
clad and heathy country from Esher, Weybridge and Chertsey,
westwards to Woking, Bagshot, and the Chobham Ridges ; and there
is a small outlier at Wimbledon.
Along the borders of the Thames there are tracts of valley gravel
and loam which extend to Mitcham and near to Croydon.
To the south of the Chalk range we find the diversified country of
the Weald. The Upper Greensand, quarried for its firestone and
bearthstone, near Godstone and formerly at other places, occurs along
the base of the escarpment. Then follows a narrow vale of Gault
clay worked for bricks at Merstham.
South of this we come upon the divisions of the Lower Greensand:
the Folkstone sands dug near Godstone for glass sand and silver sand;
the Sandgate beds, which yield fuller's earth at Nutfield and may be
represented by pebbly beds (Bargate stone) near Godalming; and the
Hythe beds, which include layers of Kentish Rag, siliceous limestone
and chert. These forni the crest of the Lower Greensand hills, as at
Reigate, the pine woods of Abinger, Leith Hill and the high grounds
of Hind Head, with the Devil's Punch Bowl, near Haslemere. A
belt of Atherfield clay forms in places the base of the Lower Green-
sand, but it gives rise to no feature distinct from the Weald clay,
which occupies a broad, undulating and well-timbered vale at the foot
of the scarp, as at Ockley, Horley and Crowhurst. The Hastings
sands rise over a small area in the south-eastern part of the county.
Sussex. Map 28. Area 933,269 acres.
In Sussex the geological formations outcrop in fairly regular
SUSSEX.
sequence. In the north a considerable portion of the Wealden area
is included. The oldest rocks exposed are the Purbeck beds, which
occur along the summit of the anticline of the Weald, in a faulted
tract which lies to the north-west of Battle. A deep boring at
Netherfield, in Mountfield parish, was carried to a depth of 1,905 feet
into Oxford clay, through Purbeck and Portland beds and Kimeridge
clay. Valuable beds of gypsum were found in the Purbeck beds.
Elsewhere these strata comprise grits, shales and limestones, some of
the shales being highly bituminous. The natural gas which has been
found at Heathfield appears to escape from the thin sandstones in the
Lower Wealden strata and from the Purbeck beds. The Kimeridge
clay which occurs at some depth below is looked upon as the chief
source of natural gas and oil, as it contains thick bands of bituminous
shale. It may be that stores of gas are held in the overlying Portland
sands, and that the gas is partly fed from this source.
The Hastings sands form avaried area of bold hill and deep valley, and
while the strata are largely of a sandy nature there is also much clay
and shale. Lignite also occurs in places. The beds are seen in the
cliffs near Hastings, and there are sandstone quarries here and there
inland, as near Heathfield, in the Ashdown sands, which occur over
Ashdown Forest, and rise in Crowborough Beacon to a height of 800
feet. The Wadhurst clay above contains much iron-ore, worked
until 1828 for the Wealden furnaces, and up to 1720 the chief source
of our iron. The Tunbridge Wells sands are more regularly bedded,
but the sands are often so fine and interbedded with clay that water
lies on the flat surfaces of hills and the roads are sticky and muddy
in wet weather. Despite this, the Hastings sands form an attractive
residential county, as near Mayfield, Heathfield, Crowborough, Bal-
combe, &c. The overlying Weald clay forms a tract of lower ground,
much of it heavy, but lightened by sandy veins and bands of Sussex
marble with Paludina. Blocks of this rock are used for causeways.
The Lower Greensand, a series of sands, sandstones and clays, forms
the picturesque region which extends from Midhurst to Petworth,
Fittleworth, Pulborough, Storrington, Hassocks Gate, Ringmer and
the north of Eastbourne. Pleasant tracts of heath and woodland
characterize this region.
The Gault clay forms a belt of lowland to the south, with the
Upper Greensand above. Higher still rise the South Downs, a range
of Chalk hills extending from the cliffs of Beachy Head westwards by
Ring and Amberley to the hills north of Goodwood Park. Along this
course, and especially at Lewes, many Chalk pits are met with. Chalk
cliffs extend from Beachy Head by Seaford to Brighton. Near Wil-
mington the figure of a giant or Long Man of Wilmington has been
cut through the turf on the Chalk scarp. West of Brighton the low
grounds which border the sea for some distance inland, are formed of
brickearth and chalky gravel (Coombe rock). These beds conceal a
tract of Reading beds, London clay and Bagshot and Bracklesham
beds, which occupy a syncline at Chichester. Reading beds occur at
Newhaven. The London clay contains hard bands of calcareous
sandstone, which form the Bognor Rocks. The Bracklesham beds
74
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
are shown on the foreshore at low tide west of Selsey Bill, at Brackle-
sham Bay, where many fossils are to be obtained. Here, too, are
beds of drift containing erratic blocks of granite, greenstone, &c.,
brought by floating ice. These beds are overlain by marine clay and
by estuarine mud with plant remains at West Wittering. Remains
of mammoth and rhinoceros also occur. The Coombe rock is newer,
and is due to subsequent erosion of the Chalk tracts at a time when
the surface of the Chalk, as pointed out by Mr. C. Reid, was frozen
and thereby rendered impervious.
Sea-side resorts : Bexhill-on-Sea (sands), Bognor (sands and shingle), Brighton (shingle,
sand at low tide, chalk cliffs to east), Eastbourne (shingle and sand, cliffs), Hastings
(sands, rocks, cliffs), Littlehampton (sandy and pebbly), St. Leonards (sands and shingle),
Seaford (shingle, chalk cliffs), Selsey (shingle and sand), Shoreham (sand and shingle),
Worthing (sands and shingle).
Warwickshire. Map 29. Area 577,462 acres.
While most largely an agricultural county, there is a small coal-field
to the north between Tamworth and Bulkington, and on the eastern
margin of it there is a belt of ancient rocks, including the Caldecote
Volcanic series, which is Pre-Cambrian, and the Cambrian quartzite
of Hartshill, near Nuneaton, which is largely quarried and distributed
as a road metal. In the upper part is a limestone band with Hyoli.
thes and Kutorgina. The overlying Stockingford shales contain
Obolella, Agnostus and Dictyonema.
A considerable portion of the county is occupied by the New Red
rocks and by the Lias, and these formations are partially concealed
by Drift deposits of gravel, sand and boulder-clay. The age of some
of the Red rocks is under discussion, and it has yet to be decided
how much of the area that has been regarded as Permian, near
Coventry, may belong to the Coal-measures or to Trias. Bunter beds
occur to the west of Sutton Coldfield.
In the Keuper sandstones of Warwick saurian and fish remains,
and in the upper beds at Shrewley some mollusca have been obtained.
At Leamington there are saline waters. The Keuper marls occupy a
large area, and they are succeeded by the Rhætic beds, which, how-
ever, are nowhere well exposed. They extend over a part of the old
Forest of Arden. The Lower Lias is developed at Rugby, where the
Blue Lias limestones are worked for lime and cement. This is the
case also at Stockton, near Southam, Harbury, Kineton and Stratford-
on-Avon. These beds include limestones, which range from the lowest
portion with Ammonites planorbis or A. Johnstoni, as at Stratford-on-
Avon, to higher beds with A. Bucklandi, as at Rugby. Fine examples
of the crustacean Eryon are found in the lower beds. Above the
series of limestones are clays yielding many fossils, as at Fenny
Compton, where ammonites and belemnites abound, and at Cherring-
ton, where many corals have been found.
The Middle Lias forms the crest of Edge Hill, and yields good
building-stone; it occurs also at Burton Dasset. The basement
portions of the Inferior Oolite series appear in the county near Long
Compton, overlying the Upper Lias. Valley drifts yielding Pleisto-
cene mammalia occur along the borders of the Avon.
WESTMORLAND-WILTSHIRE.
Westmorland. Map 8. Area 500,906 acres.
This picturesque and mountainous county includes the south-eastern
portion of the Lake District. Ambleside, with Rydal Water and
Grasmere, Bow Fell (2960 ft.) and Langdale Pikes, lie to the west ;
Helvellyn (3118 ft.), Ullswater and Haweswater, and the granite mass
of Shap Fells (1853 ft.) lie to the north-west among the Borrowdale
volcanic series, with a mass of Skiddaw slates west of Shap, and
a fringe of the Coniston limestone series on the south. Beyond this,
on the borders of Windermere, at Bowness, eastwards to Stockdale
and Bannisdale, and southwards from Kendal to Kirkby Moor and
Kirkby Lonsdale, Silurian rocks occupy the land.
Lower Carboniferous rocks with scars of limestone extend from the
west of Kendal to Kirkby Lonsdale, and north-eastwards from
Lowther Castle, south of Penrith, to Ravenstonedale and Mallerstang,
south of Kirkby Stephen. On the eastern side of the Vale of Eden
they occur over Milburn Forest, Dufton Fell (2137 ft.) and Stain more
Forest (1689 ft.); a range of Fell country with Millstone grit over-
lying the Carboniferous limestone in the south-eastern part, and an
intrusive sheet of dolerite, part of the Great Whin Sill, overlooking
the Vale of Eden below Milburn Forest and Murton Fell (2206 ft.).
The Vale of Eden from Kirkby Stephen to Appleby is occupied by
Permian red sandstones and conglomerate (brockram), with Bunter
Sandstone on its eastern side, and faulted belts of Ordovician and
Silurian rocks at Dufton and Keisley.
Much drift occurs, and blocks of Shap granite from Shap Fell have
been scattered over the heights of Stainmore. At Shap Wells there
are saline waters.
Wiltshire. Maps 11 and 14. Area 880,248 acres.
This is almost wholly an agricultural county which extends over a
wide area from near the head of the Thames on the north to Cranborne
Chase on the south, and it includes many geological formations. The
oldest strata are those exposed in the north-west from Bradford-on-
Avon to Malmesbury. Lias occurs in the deep valley near Box, with
overlying Inferior (olite and Fuller's earth. The Great Oolite series
comprises the famous Bath freestone, which is quarried at Bradford-
on-Avon and more largely at Box. To the north and north-east the
stone is less important, as at Yatton Keynell, Castle Combe. It is
overlain at Bradford-on-Avon by the Bradford clay, a fossiliferous
band yielding the crinoid Apiocrinus, or Pear Encrinite, and many
brachiopods. Above is the Forest Marble, comprising oolitic lime-
stones, shales and sandy beds, well exposed near Corsham and
Malmesbury. The Cornbrash, a fossiliferous rubbly limestone,
overlies, and this outcrops at Trowbridge, near Chippenham, and
Malmesbury. The Oxford clay, with sandy Kellaways beds at base,
forms a great clay vale which stretches from near Trowbridge through
Melksham, Chippenham, past the famous fossil localities of Kellaways
and Christian Malford to the old Forest of Braydon, Brinkworth,
Minety and Cricklade. Saline waters have been encountered at
various points in this tract, as at Melksham Spa and Purton near
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Cricklade. The Corallian beds form a scarp overlooking the clay vale.
They comprise marls and oolites with brown iron-ore at Westbury,
the coral bed of Steeple Ashton, freestones and fossil beds at Calne,
where also the lower beds of calcareous grit yield Ammonites
perarmatus and other fossils. The beds appear also at Wootton
Bassett and Highworth. The Kimeridge clay succeeds and forms
a belt of clayland with many dairy-farms from near Westbury to near
Seend, and from Wootton Bassett to Swindon, where the clay is
extensively dug for brickmaking, and yields many saurians and other
fossils. It occurs also at Semley in the Vale of Tisbury. Portland
sands and stone-beds overlie and furnish famous building-stone at
Tisbury and Chilmark, mostly calcareous sandstone, but there are
fossiliferous limestones here, near Potterne, and at Swindon, where
also hard sandstone is quarried. The Purbeck beds comprise clays
and limestones, the latter worked near Teffont Evias in the Vale of
Wardour. The beds yield fish-remains and many other fossils,
notably a crustacean, the Archæoniscus. At Swindon the Purbeck
beds rest irregularly on the Portland rocks. There are traces of
Wealden beds at Dinton in the Vale of Wardour.
The Lower Greensand oversteps the earlier formations. It is
thinly represented by sandy strata near Dinton. It appears again
west of Devizes as ferruginous sands, yielding iron-ore at Seend. The
Gault clay occurs uniformly at the base of the Upper Greensand and
Chalk, on the margins of the Vale of Wardour, near Mere and Stour-
ton, at Edington near Westbury, and thence along the foot of the
downs above Swindon. It is worked for brickmaking. The Upper
Greensand likewise forms a belt bordering the Vale of Wardour, rising
into picturesque high ground at Fonthill Abbey, and furnishing locally
a green sandstone used for building. Ipliers appear at Bower Chalk
to the south. Northwards it forms a broad belt of sandy uplands
from near Mere, by Maiden Bradley to Warminster, a region famous
for remains of sponges and other fossils. It extends along the
escarpment by Lavington, occupies an elevated plateau with deep
sandy lanes at Devizes, forms the foundation of the Vale of Pewsey,
and fringes the Chalk escarpment to Swindon.
The Chalk occupies a considerable tract in Wiltshire, including the
undulating plateau of the Marlborough Downs and Salisbury Plain,
with their ancient monuments of Avebury and Stonehenge, formed
largely of greywethers-relics of Tertiary sandstone. Fine Chalk
hills occur in the south, notably at Winklebury Hill, on the borders
of Cranborne Chase.
To the south-east of Salisbury there are tracts of Reading beds and
London clay on Clarendon Hill and near Downton, with overlying
Bagshot beds near the borders of the New Forest. Reading beds also
occur in outliers near Great Bedwin. Palæolithic implements have
been found at Knowle Farm, on the borders of Savernake Forest.
Patches of colitic gravel occur in the vale near Cricklade and along
the borders of the Avon from Kellaways to Limpley Stoke. Other
drifts occur near Salisbury. There is a Pleistocene brickearth with
mammalian remains at Fisherton, and palæolithic implements occur in
the low-level river-gravels, while Eolithic implements occur in the
CT
I
WORCESTER-YORKSHIRE.
plateau drift at Alderbury, and also at Brinkworth, near Wootton
Bassett.
Worcestershire. Map 29. Area 480,560 acres.
In this county the most prominent features are formed by the
older rocks of Malvern. The core consists of Archæan gneiss,
bordered on the south-west by Cambrian Hollybush sandstone and
quartzite, Malvern black shales with Olenus, and overlying grey
shales with Dictyonema. Silurian rocks from the Llandovery to the
Ludlow occur on the western side, and in these many trilobites and
other fossils have been found.
Permian breccias, formed of ancient scree material, mostly igneous
rock, appear on the Abberley and Clent Hills (1028 ft.).
In the Lickey Hills (900 ft.) we again find Cambrian quartzite,
overlain by Llandovery sandstone, while in the same district there
occur at Barnt Green Pre-Cambrian volcanic grits and flaggy beds,
probably Uriconian.
The Old Red sandstone occurs on the west of Malvern and extends
to Tenbury. The passage-beds from the Silurian through the Downton
sandstones and Ledbury shales have been well exposed at Ledbury.
The Coal-measures of Bewdley, part of the Wyre Forest coal-field,
occur to the north-west, and a part of the South Staffordshire coal-
field enters the county south of Dudley. To the east of this tract,
and faulted against the Malvern range, are the Triassic rocks. The
soft Bunter sandstones and the pebble-beds occur near Kidder-
minster, and on the Lickey Hills, where the quartzite pebbles are
partly of Cambrian and partly of Llandovery age.
The Keuper sandstones have been quarried at Ombersley and other
places. The overlying Keuper marls occupy a large area, and they
yield the famous brine springs derived from rock-salt at Droitwich,
and also at Stoke Prior.
Rhætic beds have been traced along the borders of the Lower Lias,
as near Upton-on-Severn and Dunhampstead.
The limestone beds at the base of the Lias are quarried in many
places, as at Strensham, Croome D’Abitot, Cleeve Prior, &c. The
higher clayey beds are very fossiliferous near Evesham and Persbore,
and they are covered in places by gravel, in this famous market
garden and fruit region.
Bredon Hill is an outlier of Inferior Oolite based on Upper and
Middle Lias, and much faulted. The Oolite is there shattered and
weathered. The valley drifts have yielded mammalian remains, and
in some localities marine shells, which may have been derived from
glacial drifts.
Yorkshire. Maps 18 and 30. Area 3,882,848 acres.
Geologically this county is best divided into two portions, East and
West Yorkshire, with a line of division through the vale of York.
This division does not correspond with the topographical areas of
West, North and East Riding, neither does it correspond more than
approximately with the above-mentioned maps. Nevertheless, it is
useful to adopt it.
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
WEST YORKSHIRE.
The main mass of this western part is formed of Carboniferous
rocks, a portion of the Pennine chain : including the Carboniferous
limestone with numerous outliers of Millstone grit rising up in high
moorlands and fells, with rugged scars and weathered surfaces of
limestone, with numerous pot-holes or “sinks," as Helm Pot north-
east of Ingleborough. These rocks stretch from the borders of
Teesdale with its Great Whin Sill and inlier of Silurian, across Lune
Forest and Bowes Moor to Swaledale and Wensleydale, with its
waterfall of Aysgarth Force. Westward the rocks extend to
Sedbergh, where again Silurian rocks appear, and there are inlying
tracts of the Coniston limestone series (Ordovician). Dent is famous
as the birthplace of Sedgwick.
Eastwards Bow or Baugh Fell, to the south Whernside (2414 ft.),
and again Ingleborough (2373 ft.) and Penyghent (2273 ft.) are
mountainous outliers of Millstone grit. Near Ingleton there is
a small tract of Coal-measures, and at Horton-in-Ribblesdale
a faulted inlier of Ordovician. To the south agaip lies Settle, famed
for its picturesque scars of limestone and its Victoria cavern, with
mammalian remains probably older than the local boulder-clay. On
the high moorlands eastward lies Malham Cove, whence issues the
river Aire from an underground supply fed from Malham Tarn. To
the south-west is the Forest of Bowland. Thence eastward by Gisburn
to Skipton the rocks belong to the Carboniferous limestone series.
Beyond lies the broad and elevated moorland region of the Millstone
grit, which forms a belt on the margin of the Yorkshire coal-field,
extending from the west of Sheffield across Penistone Moors to Holm.
firth and Blackstone Edge, and through Keighley to Ben Rhydding
and Ilkley, Harrogate, Pateley Bridge, where the Brimham rocks
are noteworthy, to near Leyburn and Richmond. Here are famous
health resorts, Harrogate being noted for its sulphurous and
chalybeate waters.
The coal-field extends from Sheffield, through Barnsley, Silkstone,
Huddersfield and Wakefield to Bradford and Leeds. Wortley, to the
south-west of Leeds, is noted for its fire-clay, which is manufactured
into glazed bricks and tiles and fire-bricks. Eastwards the coal-field
lies buried beneath Permian and Triassic rocks. The great uncon-
formity between the Permian and older rocks is shown by the fact
that the Magnesian limestone series extends on these eastern borders
from South Anston to Tickhill, Doncaster, Pontefract and Ferry-
bridge on the Coal-measures, to Tadcaster, Knaresborough (with its
“petrifying springs "), Ripon and Bedale on the Millstone grit, to the
Tees Valley, where it rests on Lower Carboniferous rocks.
The Vale of York from Bawtry through Doncaster and Thorne to
Selby and York is occupied by New Red rocks, Bunter and Keuper,
but both are for the most part concealed by coverings of glacial drift
and alluvium.
YORKSHIRE.
East YORKSHIRE.
In this area are included the East and part of the North Riding.
from the Vale of York near Thorne, to the River Tees below Croft, with
Yarm and Middlesbrough.
The Vale of York is a belt of New Red rocks with Bunter and
Keuper sandstones on the western side and Keuper marl on the
east of Thorne, Selby, York, Boroughbridge and Middlesbrough; but
these red rocks are thickly covered in places by alluvial and glacial
drifts, including extensive deposits of lacustrine brick-clays.
Below the mass of red and variegated Keuper marls, red and white
sandstone with red marl, rock-salt and gypsum have been proved
below Eston Junction and at North Ormesby, east and south-east of
Middlesbrough. Rhætic beds have locally been traced near North-
allerton. Further east, there rises the great mass of Lias and Oolites
which form the East Yorkshire Moors. The northern scarp, capped
by Estuarine beds of the Lower Oolites from the east of North-
allerton to near Guisbrough, forms the Cleveland Hills, along the
margin of which the famous iron-ore is obtained from the Middle
Lias. In higher beds at the base of the Colites (Dogger series) the
magnetic iron-ore of Rosedale is worked in one of the deep inlying
valleys in the central part of the moorland region.
The Hambleton Hills (1289 ft.) form the scarp of the Corallian
rocks east of Thirsk, and extend to the Tabular range above Pick-
ering and near Hackness. On the south side of the Vale of Pickering
the Corallian rocks are well seen near Malton, which is noted for
a chalybeate spa.
The Oolites form a fringe along the eastern side of the Vale of
York to South Cave and the borders of the Humber. Here the
Upper Cretaceous strata have transgressed across their outcrops, so as
to largely conceal them in places.
The best region for the study of the Lias and Oolites is undoubtedly
along the fine coast line between Redcar and Filey. At Redcar there
are reefs of the Lower Lias limestones. From Saltburn to Whitby
the cliffs are of Middle and Upper Lias. Whitby is famed for its
Upper Lias ammonites, the supply of which being unequal to the
demand, fossils from Lyme Regis are sold also to visitors. Jet,
too, is not so abundant. Alum has been largely obtained from the
shales, as at Saltwick. Hawsker Cliffs show the Estuarine beds and
Dogger overlying the Upper Lias, which in descending order com-
prises the Alum shale with Ammonites communis, the slaty shales with
jet-beds and Am. serpentinus, and shales below with hard nodules
and Am. annulatus. Lower still is the Middle Lias (ironstone-beds),
with Am. spinatus, and (sandy series) with A. margaritatus. Robin
Hood's Bay exhibits in the cliffs at low tide a foreshore of Lower
Lias shales with Am. capricornus, A. Jamesoni and A. armatus,
Boulder-clay also occurs. The Peak Cliffs on the south, and Blea
Wyke display the Estuarine beds with coaly seams on top, also the
Dogger, with much iron-ore, resting on sandy (Blea Wyke beds) and
Upper Lias.
Scarborough Castle stands on the Corallian (calcareous grit with
80
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
doggers) and Oxford clay with Kellaways rock, faulted down on the
east side so that lower beds of Cornbrash and Upper Estuarine appear
westwards on the north side of the headland.
White Nab, south of Scarborough, forms the northern horn of
Carnelian Bay, where the cliffs of boulder-clay have yielded many
carnelians. The southern horn of the bay is formed by Osgodby
Nab, beyond which is Cayton Bay. Here the Lower Calcareous grit
caps the Oxford clay, the full thickness of which is shown, with
Kellaways beds and Cornbrash at base.
Red Nab (Calcareous grit over Oxford clay) forms the headland
south of Cayton Bay, beyond which is Gristhorpe Bay, where the
Upper Estuarine beds, with lignite bands and many remarkable
irregularities in deposition are observable; the Grey limestone, the
Middle Estuarine beds, and the Millepore bed are also to be seen.
Here many plant-remains have been obtained.
Southwards again higher beds of Corallian and Oxford clay and
Cornbrash appear above the Estuarine series. The Corallian beds,
capped by reddish-brown boulder-clay, extend to Filey Brigg--the
Brigg being a reef of hard Lower Calcareous grit, surmounted by
a bed with large spheroidal concretious or doggers. Filey Bay is
fringed by the Kimeridge clay which extends beneath alluvial
deposits over much of the Vale of Pickering. Towards Speeton the
Kimeridge clay is overlain without unconformity by nodular phosphatic
beds, probably representing the Portland beds, and clays and shales
with marine fossils which yield Belemnites lateralis, and higher up
Bel. jaculum and Erogyra sinuata. These are marine equivalents of the
Purbeck-Wealden and Lower Greensand. Red Chalk, representing
Gault and Upper Greensand, overlies the Speeton clay, beyond which
the Chalk forms the fine cliffs with sea-caves of Bempton (300 ft.) and
Flamborough Head, and the Wolds of East Yorkshire, which above
West Heslerton rise to 620 feet.
The south-eastern portion of the county which extends over
Holderness to Spurn Head (a spit of blown sand and shingle) is thickly
covered with glacial drift, shelly sands and boulder-clay. Some of
the shelly beds at Bridlington were at one time regarded as Crag.
Kirkdale Cave is a hyæna-den in the Corallian limestone near
Kirkby Moorside on the north side of the Vale of Pickering.
Sea-side resorts : Bridlington (sand and shingle, chalk cliffs) Filey (sands, rocks, cliffs),
Hornsea (sand), Redcar (sands), Robin Hood's Bay (rocks, cliffs), Runswick' (sands, cliffs),
Saltburn-by-the-Sea (sandy, rocks, cliffs), Sandsend (sands, cliffs), Scarborough' (sands,
cliffs), Whitby (sands, cliffs), Withernsea (shingle and sand).
Isle of Man. Map 7. Area 145,325 acres.
The Isle of Man is formed chiefly of a mass of slates, grits and flags,
grouped together as the Manx series, equivalent to the lower part of
the Skiddaw slates of the Lake District, and probably of Cambrian
age. They rise to a height of 2034 feet at Snaefell, and form rugged
precipitous cliffs on the coast. No definite organic remains have been
found in them. As Mr. G. W. Lamplugh has pointed out, the rocks
have been greatly folded, and in places so much broken and affected by
earth movements that fragments of hard rock have been rounded so as
to form a crush-conglomerate. These broken-beds are well seen in
ISLE OF MAN-ANGLESEY.
Sulby Glen, between Peel and Ramsey. Numerous igneous dykes
penetrate the rocks, and they are affected also by the intrusion of the
masses of granite at Foxdale and Dhoon, the bordering Manx rocks
being more or less metamorphosed. Metalliferous veins occur, with
argentiferous galena and blende (sulphide of zinc). The lead-mines of
Foxdale and Laxey are the most important.
Carboniferous rocks with basement conglomerate at Langness occur
at the southern end of the island at Castletown and Poolvash (Poyl-
vaaish) where limestones and shales, and beds of black marble, are
found. Goniatites, brachiopods and other fossils may be obtained.
Volcanic rocks occur in the series at Scarlet Point. At Peel there are
beds of sandstone and conglomerate which are probably of the age of
the basement Carboniferous. They contain derived Ordovician fossils.
Permian and Triassic rocks have been proved in borings beneath
the Drift in the northern part of the island. That region is thickly
covered with glacial sand, gravel, and boulder-clay, while a raised
beach occurs at the Point of Ayre and adjacent coast. The greater
portion of the island exhibits evidence of glaciation, and the drift
deposits have helped to render fertile the glens in the central parts.
Recent deposits contain remains of the Irish Elk.
Sea-side resorts : Castletown (rocky), Douglas (sand and cliffs), Peel (rocks and cliffs),
Ramsey (sands, cliffs and rocks), Port Erin (sands, cliffs).
WALES.
Anglesey. Map 31. Area 175,836 acres.
This island county, which nowhere attains any considerable eleva-
tion is for the most part a gently undulating region, very largely
formed of slates, grits, and schists. The quartz schists of Holyhead
Mountain (719 feet), and the contorted schists of the South Stack islet
are well known, and rocks of this nature occupy much of the western
coast, and appear in belts in the central and eastern parts. These
schists are of Pre-Cambrian age.
Serpentine (Mona marble) occurs to the north of Rhoscolyn, on
Holyhead, and on the adjacent mainland; while a belt of granitic rocks
traverses the island south of Llanerchymedd, and a patch appears at
Parys Mountain, south of Amlwch, where copper-ore, ochre and umber
have been worked.
Ordovician grits and slates, in places fossiliferous, elsewhere much
broken and crushed, and Silurian rocks (Llandovery), occur on the
north coast at Amlwch and westwards to Carmels Point. Ordovician
rocks are again met with north of Beaumaris. In the northern tract
there are also green schists and slaty rocks partly made up of volcanic
materials, that may be of Pre-Cambrian age. Old Red sandstone (or
basement Carboniferous conglomerate) occurs at Dulas Bay and south-
wards towards Llangefrie. Carboniferous limestone with fossils,
occurs to the east, also on Puffin Island, on the mainland adjoining,
and on the borders of the Menai Strait, south of the Tubular Bridge.
Coal-measures and Permian rocks extend through Malldraeth Marsh,
and the former fringe a portion of the coast opposite Carnarvon.
...
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
.!:..
2
Everywhere the island presents evidences of glaciation, and there is
much boulder clay and drift gravel and sand, which constitute the
more fertile areas.
Blown sand occurs here and there in large tracts between Holyhead
and the Menai Strait.
Sea-side resorts: Amlwch, with Bull Bay (sands and rocks), Beaumaris (stony and
sandy shore), Benllech Bay, west of Red Wharf Bay (sands), Cemaes (cliffs).
Brecknockshire. Map 32. Area 475,224 acres.
Ordovician rocks occupy the north-western part on the borders of
the Elan Valley, to Llanwrtyd Wells.
The Builth Wells consist of saline, chalybeate, and sulphurous
waters, and they issue from the Llandilo Flags with igneous rocks,
which cross the Wye to the north-west of the town.
From Builth to Llangammarch, and to the south-west, Silurian rocks
outcrop in a belt. The main mass of the interior is formed of Old
Red sandstone from Talgarth and Brecknock, eastwards over the
Black Forest (2624 feet) to Crickhowel, southwards to the Brecknock
Beacons (2907 feet), and south-westwards to Fforest Fawr or the
Black Mountains with Brecknock Van (2632 feet). On the southern
borders of the county there is a scarp of Lower Carboniferous rocks
and Millstone grit, disturbed at the head of the Neath Valley, and
portions of Coal-measures occur at Brynmawr and along the Tawe
Valley at Drim.
The Llangammarch Wells are situated at an elevation of about
600 feet on the slopes of the high moorlands of the Mynydd
Eppynt range. The waters contain much chloride of sodium, also
chlorides of calcium and magnesium, but they are noted for the chloride
of barium, which they hold in small quantities. The Llanwrtyd Wells
(about 800 feet above sea level) are sulphurous and chalybeate
waters.
Glacial drift occurs in many places, and there is much gravel in the
broad valleys.
Cardiganshire. Maps 31 and 32. Area 440,630 acres.
In this mountainous county we have an extensive area of Ordovician
and Silurian grits, shales and slaty rocks, generally folded and often
inverted. Graptolites appear to be the more abundant fossils. Much
of the land is boggy, and there are many small lakes. Plynlimmon
(2468 feet) stands on the borders of Montgomeryshire, and is formed
of grits which occupy a syncline.
Tregaron is the chief town of a mining district, where lead, copper and
zinc ores have been obtained. Boulder-clay, sand and gravel extend
over much of the country. Agates, jaspers, and other pebbles obtained
from the beach at Aberystwith are polished for sale.
Sea-side resorts : Aberaeron (pebbly beach), Aberporth (sands, rocks), Aberystwith
(shingle, sand and rocks), Borth (sands), Cardigan (near mouth of Teifi), Gwbert (sand,
rocks, cliffs), New Quay (sand and boulders, cliffs), Traethsaith (sands, cliffs), Ynyslas.
on-Sea (sands).
Carmarthenshire. Map 32. Area 587,816 acres.
In this county a large tract of Ordovician slates, sandstones and
CARMARTHEN-CARNARVON.
grits, and possibly also Silurian rocks, extend from the borders of the
Teifi at Newcastle Emlyn, southwards to Carmarthen and Llandilo.
Llandilo gives name to the Llandilo Flags, which include occasional
limestones, and yield trilobites, such as Ogygia Buchi and Asaphus
tyrannus, and other fossils. Gold was worked by the Romans at
Gogofau, near Llanpumpsaint. Lead-ore has been worked near
Carmarthen.
Llandovery, to the north-east of Llandilo, gives name to the Llan-
dovery beds, the base of the Silurian, which locally have yielded
lead-ore. To the south of Llandilo, and fringing the base of the Old
Red sandstone, is a narrow belt of highly inclined micaceous flags or
tilestones. Eastwards, the Old Red sandstone rises up in Carmarthen
Van (2632 feet), and extends westwards to Ferryside and Laugharne.
These rocks are bordered by uplands of Carboniferous limestone and
Millstone grit, which form part of the Black Mountains, and stretch
from the neighbourhood of Llandebie to the coast near Kidwelly,
reappearing at Pendine on the north of Carmarthen Bay. Coal-
measures occur here, while eastwards they extend from Kidwelly to
Llanelly, and north-eastwards to Ammanford, forming the western
portion of the main coal-field of the Swansea region.
Glacial drift is found at various elevations, and the broad flat valleys
are occupied by gravels and alluvium.
Blown sands stretch on either side of the estuary of the Towy,
forming Laugharne Sands on the west and Pembrey Burrows on the
south-east.
Sea-side resorts : Ferryside (sands), Llanstephan (sands, cliffs), Pembrey (sands), Pen-
dine (sands, cliffs).
Carnarvonshire. Map 31. Area 361,097 acres.
Cambrian rocks occupy a considerable part of this county from
Bangor to Bethesda, with the Penrhyn slate quarries on the borders
of Nant Francon; and they occur south-eastwards to Llyn Padarn and
Llyn Peris, to the north of which lie the Llanberis and Dinorwic slate
quarries. Thence the rocks extend to the coast near Penygroes station.
The higher Cambrian (Tremadoc) slates appear between Portmadoc
and Criccieth, to the south-west of Tremadoc; and other Cambrian
rocks occur on the south-eastern horn of the Lleyn promontory. The
south-western portion of that promontory and Bardsey Island are
formed partly of metamorpbic rocks, schists and igneous rocks of Pre-
Cambrian age, with also sedimentary rocks and rhyolitic lavas of the
Ordovician system.
Ordovician rocks, with many volcanic and intrusive rocks, extend
over the eastern portion of the county, including the more mountainous
tracts, with Snowdon (3560 feet), Y Glyder fawr (3279 feet), Moel
Siabod (2860 feet), the neighbourhood of Capel Curig, and Bettws-y-
Coed, Dolwyddelan, Beddgelert and the western side of the Pass of
Aberglaslyn, with Moel Hebog (2566 feet). In the Lleyn promontory
there are notable quarries at Nevin of granite porphyry. Similar
rock also occurs at the Rivals (Yr Eifl); while at Penmaenmawr there
is enstatite-diorite, which is extensively quarried.
Carboniferous limestone occurs at the Great and Little Ormes
6 *
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Heads, where the Productus giganteus is abundant; and also south of
the Tubular Bridge.
Evidences of glacial action are conspicuous in the district around
Snowdon in perched blocks, roches moutonnées, moraines and other
scattered drift deposits (see Fig. 7, p. 33). The cliffs west of
Criccieth are formed of boulder-clay, and in places there are contorted
beds with fine gravel, sand and silt. On Moel-y-Tryfan, south of
Carnarvon, there is drift with marine shells at an altitude of over
1300 feet.
Blown sand occurs on the Ormes Heads, likewise west of Carnarvon,
at the entrance to the Menai Strait, and on the coast at Pwllheli and
St. Tudwal's Road, on the west of Tremadoc Bay. At Trefriw there
are chalybeate waters.
Sea-side resorts : Bangor and Carnarvon on Menai Strait), Criccieth (sandy and stony,
cliffs), Llandudno (sands and shingle, limestone cliffs), Llanfairfechan (sands), Nevin (sands,
cliffs), Penmaeninawr (sands), Pwllheli (sands).
Denbighshire. Map 31. Area 423,477 acres.
This is largely a moorland country, formed of Silurian grits, sand-
stones, flags, and shales, which extend from the borders of the Conway
at Llanrwst and Pentre Voelas eastwards to Denbigh and Llangollen.
The rocks belong chiefly to the Wenlock series (Denbighshire grits
and flags). Ordovician rocks enter the southern part of the county
in the valley above Bettws-y-Coed, in the Fairy Glen, and at the
Conway Falls; and extend from near Yspytty Evan, Cerrig-y-
Druidion and the Berwyn Mountains (2716 feet) south-eastwards to
Llanrhaiadr, which is noted for its fine waterfall. Carboniferous
rocks occur on the east, with a basement conglomerate, referred
sometimes to the age of the Upper Old Red sandstone.
Carboniferous limestone outcrops east of Llangollen and forms a fine
scarp, the Eglwysegle Rocks, overlooking the famous Vale of
Llangollen. Further east lies the coal-field of Ruabon, Wrexham,
and Minera, with coal-mines and iron-works.
New Red rocks occur along the eastern margin of the county.
Further north the Vale of Clwyd lies mainly in Denbighshire, with
a belt of Carboniferous limestone on the west and Silurian rocks
bordered by Carboniferous limestone on the east. The Vale itself is
occupied by New Red rocks and drift, and the red rocks and
occasional fringes of Carboniferous limestone are faulted on the east
against the Silurian strata. Coal-measures appear near St. Asaph
and Abergele. The Carboniferous limestone here, as elsewhere, has
numerous caves, as at Cefn and Plas Heaton on the western side of
the Vale of Clwyd, where remains of mammoth, rhinoceros, hippo-
potamus, &c., have been found. Lead, silver, and zinc-ores occur in
the limestone near Minera.
Sea-side resorts : Abergele with Pensarn (sands), Colwyn Bay (sands).
Flintshire. Map 31. Area 164,050 acres.
This is largely a mining county, the Flintshire coal-field extending
from the northern end of the Vale of Clwyd near Prestatyn, and along
the Dee Valley by Holywell, Flint, and Mold to Hawarden. The
cannel-coal and oil-shale of Leeswood are noted ; fire-clay is also
worked in places.
FLINT-GLAMORGAN.
85
West of Mold the Carboniferous limestone series with the
Millstone grit rise up in Halkin Mountain and extend to the high
ground above Prestatyn. The “Millstone grit," which in North
Flintshire immediately overlies the Carboniferous limestone, com-
prises beds of chert, which are used in the Staffordshire potteries.
These chert-beds pass elsewhere, as observed by Mr. A. Strahan,
into fine-grained sandstone and quartz-grit; and the group is overlain
by the Holywell shales which contain Posidonomya, Aviculopecten,
and Goniatites. Higher still is the Gwespyr Sandstone, which is
regarded as equivalent to the Gannister or Lower Coal-measures of
Lancashire. To the north-west of Holywell, lead and zinc-ores are
worked, the principal mines being those of Talacre and Talargoch.
At Holywell there is a healing spring known as St. Winifred's Well.
That portion of the Vale of Clwyd which lies in Flintshire, near
Rhyl and St. Asaph, is mainly formed of New Red rocks covered
with glacial drift. On the eastern side of the Vale, near Tremeirchion,
in the Carboniferous limestone at Ffynnon Beuno and Cae Gwyn,
there are caves with Pleistocene mammalia and palæolithic imple-
ments, and these remains occur in deposits overlain by boulder-clay.
Sea-side resorts : Prestatyn (sands), Rhyl (sands).
Glamorganshire. Map 32. Area 516,959 acres.
In this county we have the great mass of the South Wales coal-
field, extending from Swansea to Neath, Maesteg, Pontypridd,
Merthyr Tydvil, and the Rhymney Valley. The northern borders of
the basin are formed by the Millstone grit, which appears near the
faulted head of the Neath Valley, and near Merthyr Tydvil. In
the interior of the coal-field the main features are the fine wooded
and moorland hills of Pennant grit, which separates the Lower from
the Upper Coal-measures. Caerphilly Castle is a prominent object
on the southern borders of the district, north of Cardiff.
The coals are bituminous on the east, and anthracitic on the west.
On account of the deep valleys the coal has in many places been
worked by levels driven into the hillsides. The southern boundary
of the coal-field is marked by the Millstone grit and Carboniferous
limestone series, which here form far less prominent features than
on the north.
The Gower promontory is a picturesque region with its cliffs of
Carboniferous limestone, its fine sandy beaches, and open country
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Fig. 16.--SECTION ACROSS THE SOUTH WALES COAL-FIELD (E. Hull).
A, Coal-measures ; B. Millstone Grit; C, Carboniferous Limestone Series ; D, Old Red
Sandstone.
IIU
extending from the Mumbles to Langland, Caswell, and Oxwich Bays
and Worms Head. Caves with mammalian remains occur at
86
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Paviland, Bacon Hole and other places. The ossiferous deposits are
newer than the raised beaches and older than the local glacial drift.
A belt of Upper limestone-shales, and cherts beds with radiolaria,
occurs at Bishopton, separating the Carboniferous limestone from
the Millstone grit and Coal-measures to the north. Old Red
sandstone, and even a trace of Silurian rocks, appear in the central
part of Gower.
In the southern part of the county, south of Bridgend and Cardiff,
the Vale of Glamorgan is a fertile agricultural region formed largely
of Lower Lias. The Carboniferous limestone is exposed in places
on the coast near Porth Cawl, Southerndown, and St. Brides, with also
Old Red sandstone near Cowbridge, while to the east of Llandaff
Silurian rocks appear. Red marls and Dolomitic conglomerate also
occur in the Vale of Glamorgan along the southern margin of the
coal-field near Cowbridge, St. Fagans, and at Sully Island, where
bands of magnesian limestone are met with.
The Rhætic beds which form passage beds between Keuper and
Lias, are well shown in the cliffs between Penarth and Lavernock.
The upper part comprising grey marls and limestones, the central and
main portion black shales with Avicula contorta, &c., and the lower
part grey and tea-green marls which merge into the red and variegated
Keuper marls. Traced westwards we find sandy beds, quarried for
building-stone near Bridgend, and including near Pyle red marly
beds on the horizon of the Upper Rhætic formation.
The Lower Lias is largely worked for hydraulic lime and cement
at Bridgend, while more especially in the early part of last century at
Aberthaw, the beach pebbles of argillaceous Lias limestone were
locally burnt or exported to other districts for the manufacture of
hydraulic lime. Fine cliffs of these limestones fringe the coast west-
wards to Dunraven and Southerndown. There the lower beds of Lias
are conglomeratic, and pale granular limestones, known locally as the
Sutton Stone, occur at the base.
Considerable deposits of glacial drift: sands, gravels, boulder-clay,
and earthy boulder gravel are found near Cowbridge, St. Fagans, and
northwards in the coal districts. Fine hillocks of blown sand occur
near the mouth of the Ogmore at Candleston Castle, and north-
westwards at Kenfig, along the coast of Swansea Bay, and also in
Oxwich Bay.
Sea-side resorts: Caswell Bay, Langland Bay and Mumbles (sands, rocks, fine cliffs),
Penarth (stony beach, cliffs), Porthcawl (sands, rocks), Southerndown (sandy beach, rocks,
cliffs).
Merionethshire. Map 31. Area 427,810 acres.
In this county a great expanse of Cambrian rocks stretches from
the neighbourhood of Festiniog, where the alates of the Lingula
flags are extensively quarried, and Maentwrog where the Rhaiadr-Du
(or Black Cataract) is a notable waterfall, across a mountainous tract
of Harlech grits to Barmouth and Dolgelly. On these southern
borders the Lingula flags again occur, and we have an auriferous
belt which has been profitably worked near Dolgelly, while near
Barmouth manganese ore has been obtained. In this region an
occasional lava is found, and there are many intrusive igneous rocks.
1
MERIONETH-PEMBROKE.
87
Other eruptive rocks, with many interbedded masses, occur in the
Ordovician which fringes the mass of Cambrian strata in what is
known as the Merioneth anticline.
Aran Mowddwy (2970 feet) forms part of the Ordovician volcanic
range, which extends to the south of Dolgelly and rises up in Cader
Idris (2929 feet), where the volcanic ash-beds have been reckoned as
over two thousand feet thick. Southwards from Dinas Mowddwy to
the coast at Towyn and Aberdovey the Ordovician strata are free
from volcanic beds. Near Towyn lead and copper-ores have been
worked. On the north Moelwyn (2527 feet), Cynicht (2370 feet), and
Manod Mawr (2166 feet), and on the east the Arepig range (2800 feet),
are largely volcanic. Beyond lies Bala with its picturesque lake, and
the Bala limestone which is largely quarried for lime-burning.
A synclinal belt of Silurian rocks further east crosses the Dee Valley
and extends to the north of Corwen.
Glacial drift, river gravels and alluvium are among the later deposits.
Much blown sand borders the coast, forming the links below Harlech
Castle, and continuing further south towards Barmouth, and again
at Aberdovey. A diatomaceous earth has been observed at Llyn
Arenig Bach.
Sea-side resorts : Aberdovey (sands, rocks), Barmouth (sands), Harlech (sands), Towyn
(sands).
Montgomeryshire. Map 31. Area 510,111 acres.
Ordovician and Silurian rocks occupy the greater part of this
county. The former rocks extend from the Berwyn range on the north
with its bands of felsite and andesite, through Hirnant and Llanfyllin
to Welshpool; they appear at Criggion, among the Breidden Hills;
and at Corndon Hill with its laccolite of dolerite, east of
Montgomery. Ordovician rocks again form a belt on the south-west
from Machynlleth to Llanidloes and the borders of Plynlimmon, the
source of the Severn. Through the central portion the Silurian rocks
extend in a syncline from the neighbourhood of Lake Vyrnwy (which
supplies its waters to Liverpool) in an irregular tract to Tarannon,
Llanfair, Welspool, Newtown, Montgomery, and the Long Mountain,
and southwards to Kerry Hill on the borders of Clun Forest, where
Old Red sandstone is met with.
Lead, silver, and zinc ores are worked near Newtown and
Machynlleth, and there are slate quarries at the latter place.
Glacial and alluvial deposits occur over considerable areas.
Pembrokeshire. Map 32. Area 395,151 acres.
This is a boldly undulating county, with a picturesque and diversified
coast-line. The region of St. David's contains some of our oldest rocks,
the Archæan granitoid rock (Dimetian), which is seen also on Ramsey
Island; and volcanic rocks (Pebidian) which form the foundation of the
old cathedral city. These rocks are fringed by Cambrian strata, which
have yielded the large trilobites Paradoxides, and other fossils.
Another tract of Cambrian lies to the north-west of St. David's.
Much of the county to the north of Haverfordwest and Narberth,
and from St. David's Head to the borders of the Teifi near Cardigan
88
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
is Ordovician, with many igneous rocks at Fishguard and Newport,
on the Precelley Hills (1760 feet), and elsewhere. Some of the
decomposed basaltic rocks, as near Little Newcastle, are water-bearing
and give rise to springs.
The southern portion of Pembroke is a folded series in which
Silurian, Old Red sandstone and Carboniferous rocks appear in belts.
The shores of Milford Haven are for the most part Old Red sandstone;
Pembroke, Carew Castle, Tenby and Gowan's Head are Carboniferous
limestone, and Caldy Island exhibits both Carboniferous limestone
and Old Red sandstone with the intermediate Lower Limestone
shales. The coast at Tenby is remarkably picturesque, and the lime-
stone exhibits many folds there and at Stackpole near Gowan's Head.
North of Tenby is the Pembrokeshire coal-field, the western end of
the great South Wales coal-field, which extends to the shores of
St. Bride's Bay. The coal is anthracitic.
Glacial drift occurs here and there, and blown sand fringes Fresh-
water Bay south of Milford Haven.
Sea-side resorts : Amroth (stony beach, cliffs), Broad and Little Haven (sands, cliffs), Fish-
guard and Goodwick (sands, cliffs), Manorbier (pebbly and sandy beach, cliffs), Milford
Haven (stony beach), Newport (sands, rocks, and cliffs), St. David's, Caerfai (sands, cliffs),
Saundersfoot (sands, cliffs), Tenby (sands, limestone rocks, and cliffs).
Radnorshire. Maps 31 and 32. Area 301,164 acres.
In this picturesque and hilly county Ordovician rocks occur at
Rhayader on the west, and in a disturbed tract which, with many
igneous rocks, extends through Llandrindod to the Wye Valley north
of Builth. The Llandrindod Wells, which are situated in an open
moorland region at an elevation of about 700 feet, are chaly-
beate, saline, and sulphurous waters. The Llandilo Flags which
occur on the north of Builth yield the trilobite Ogygia Buchi and
other fossils. Silurian rocks occupy the heart of the county, extending
over Radnor Forest through New and Old Radnor, where graphic
granite, quartz felsite, and dolerite occur, to Presteign and Knighton.
Eastwards the Silurian rocks are bordered by the Old Red sandstone.
Glacial drifts are met with in various places, and alluvial deposits
occupy the valleys.
S
SCOTLAND.
Aberdeenshire. Maps 33 and 34. Area 1,251,451 acres.
A highland county embracing some of the wildest and grandest
scenery; it also comprises extensive tracts under cultivation. The
rougher tracts, which westwards rise into the Grampians, are formed
of schists, with great intruded masses of granite, such as the red
granite of Peterhead, and the grey granite of Aberdeen which is
quarried at Rubislaw. South of Peterhead, the Buller of Buchan is
a hollow formed by the erosion of granite inside the sea-cliff, the
entrance to which is through a sea-cave. In rough weather the waters
are greatly agitated within the hollow. The Aberdeen granite so
extensively quarried to the west of the city, extends to Ballater and
forms the mountain Ben Macdhui (4296 feet). Old Red sandstone
occurs at Strath Bogie above Huntly and at Turriff.
S
ABERDEEN --AYR.
89
The fertile character of the eastern tracts is due partly to the
extensive coverings of Drift, in places one hundred feet thick, and
consisting of boulder-clay and other clays, sands, and gravels; and
also to the excellent system of farming. The drifts are of interest in
containing relics of formations not preserved otherwise in the north-
east of Scotland, such as the Pliocene (Crag) deposits, and the Chalk,
and other Cretaceous strata as at Moreseat. Gravel ridges or Kaims
form the Kippet Hills by the Loch of Slains.
Blown sands overlie peat in the Links at Aberdeen, and extend
northwards.
Sea-side resorts : Aberdeen (sands, cliffs), Cruden Bay (cliffs).
Argyllshire. Map 34. Area 2,092,458 acres.
This is a land essentially of Highland schists, traversed by count-
less dykes of Tertiary basalt-especially in the region south-west of
Loch Awe and the district of Cowal. There is, however, considerable
diversity in the formations represented, though some occupy a very
restricted area. The Island of Lismore is formed of limestone,
possibly Pre-Cambrian, in which no fossils have been found : slates
occur at Ballachulish and Easdale.
Ben Cruachan (3689 feet) forms part of a large granite area: the
Ross of Mull is likewise formed of granite.
In the vicinity of Oban and on Kerrera the Old Red sandstone is
represented, and the conglomerates with large boulders are well seen
in the cliffs at Dunolly and Dunstaffnage. Associated with this
formation there are extensive tracts of andesite. There is a small
area of Carboniferous rocks near Campbeltown. Schists, with here and
there blown sands, occupy the greater portion of the Mull of Kintyre,
and practically the whole of Jura, Islay, Colonsay, Gigha, Iona, Coll
and Tiree (see p. 38).
The rugged promontory of Ardnamurchan is formed of gabbro, like
the Cuillin Hills of Skye, and the same rock forms a core at Ben
More (3172 feet) in Muil.
Mull is largely formed of Basalt, with Tertiary leaf-beds at Ardtun,
overlain by old river gravel with chalk flints. Lower Lias occurs near
Tobermory and elsewhere. Fingal's Cave, in Staffa, is noted for its
cliffs of columnar basalt. Basalt occupies a part of Morven, on the
borders of the Sound of Mull; and there, as well as in Mull, there are
Cretaceous sandstones.
Sea-side resorts: Ardrishaig (on Loch Fyne), Dunoon, Inellan (Firth of Clyde), Oban
(Firth of Lorn), Tighnabruaich (Kyles of Bute--mostly with stony beaches and low cliffs).
Ayrshire. Map 34. Area 729,186 acres.
In this county the geological structure is diversified and somewhat
complex by reason of faulting. In the southern part the Ordovician
rocks extend from near Ballantrae to the district of Carrick, forming
a part of the Southern Uplands. Portions of a great granite mass
appear at the head of Loch Doon. The Ordovician strata are faulted in
this region-the southern great boundary fault of the midland valley
stretching north-eastwards from near the mouth of Loch Ryan.
Numerous subsidiary faults traverse the region near Girvan, amid
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
tracts of Silurian, Old Red sandstone, and Lower Carboniferous, with
volcanic rocks. The Lower Carboniferous strata form an irregular
and broken belt around the Coal-measures with ironstones of Ayr
and Kilmarnock, and here again we meet with igneous rocks.
Andesites of Lower Carboniferous age extend on the north from
Ardrossan to Wemyss Bay, and inland. New Red rocks (Permian
or Trias), with volcanic beds in places, occur on the coast near
Ballantrae and inland east of Ayr. There is much blown sand on
the coast from Ayr northwards by Troon and Irvine to Saltcoats.
Ailsa Craig (1097 feet), off Girvan is an islet of riebeckite-granite.
Sea-side resorts : Ardrosssan (sands, rocks), Ayr (stony and sandy), Ballantrae (rocks
cliffs), Barassie (sand), Girvan (stony beach and sands), Largs (stony beach, cliffs), Salt-
coats (sands, rocks), Troon (sands, cliffs)-on the Firth of Clyde.
Banffshire. Map 33. Area 412,258 acres.
This is largely a Highland county stretching southwards along
Glen Avon, a tributary of the Spey to the granite region of Cairn-
gorm (4084 feet).
There the cairngorms have been obtained from veins of decomposed
fine-grained granite. Schists of diverse character, with some lime-
stones, occupy much of the country from the coast at Banff and
Macduff inland by Keith.
A large mass of granite occurs to the south-west of Dufftown,
rising in Ben Rinnes (2755 feet). Serpentine is found to the west of
Portsoy.
Old Red sandstone occurs at Gamrie south of Troup Head, and far
inland at Tomintoul.
Extensive deposits of drift occur and give rise to more cultivated
tracts in the lower lands. The boulder-clay at Blackpots, west of
Banff, has yielded many derived fossils.
Berwickshire. Map 34. Area 296,362 acres.
In this border county the oldest rocks are the Silurian of the coast
between Burnmouth and Evemouth, St. Abb’s Head and Fast Castle,
and they extend inland to the borders of the Lammermuir Hills.
The Old Red sandstone with andesites, occupies the central parts
by Greenlaw and across a part of the Lammermuir Hills on the
north, appearing also on the coast at St. Abb’s Head and Eyemouth.
The lowest Carboniferous rocks, the Calciferous sandstone series
or Tuedian, occupy the Tweed Valley and spread over a considerable
tract from Coldstream to Greenlaw and Duns. These together with
higher Carboniferous rocks, belonging to the limestone series, also
appear in the fine cliffs from Berwick northwards to Burnmouth.
Sea-side resorts : Berwick (sands, rocks and cliffs), Burnmouth (cliffs).
Buteshire. Map 34. Area 139,440 acres.
In this island county, which embraces Bute and the Cumbraes,
Arran, Holy Isle, Inchmarnock and Pladda, schists with numerous
dykes of basalt predominate ; but volcanic rocks of Lower Carboni-
ferous age occur in places, and at Millport, on Great Cumbrae, both
Old Red sandstone and Carboniferous are met with.
BUTE-CLACKMANNAN.
II
The fossiliferous Clyde Valley beds which occur on the Kyles of
Bute, comprise clays which contain Pleistocene shells. These have
a northern character, comparable with that of Greenland, and include
Pecten islandicus, Panopæa norvegica, Cyprina islandica, Saxicava
rugosa, &c. (see Plate 50).
The clay is worked at Kilchattan, in Bute, for brick-making.
Arran has been classic ground for the geologist since the days of
Hutton. The dominant feature, Goat Fell (2735 feet), is granite,
which has protruded through the schists that occupy much of the
northern part of the island. Old Red sandstone and Lower Carboni-
ferous rocks appear in the central parts at Sannox Bay and
near Brodick Bay, while in the southern half of the island, on the
eastern borders, and in the north at the Cock of Arran there is red
Triassic sandstone. This has been quarried at Corrie and Brodick.
Igneous rocks, quartz-porphyry and basalt appear in the centre and
south, and a large volcanic vent, with agglomerate, south of Machrie
Water, has proved to contain remnants of Rhætic, Liassic and
Cretaceous strata, a fact made known by the late W. Gunn.
Sea-side resorts : Rothesay in Bute (cliffs), Millport in Great Cumbrae (rocks, cliffs);
Brodick, Corrie (cliffs), and Lamlash, in Arran.
Caithness. Map 33. Area 438,878 acres.
This is a dreary looking region of moor and morass, redeemed
by a grand coast line, the cliffs rising to three hundred feet and
more.
Schists occupy the western and south-western portions of the
county, with masses of granite, one of which forms the Ord of
Caithness, while a larger tract extends from Kinbrace towards Reay.
The main portion of the county is formed of the Old Red sand-
stone which constitutes the fine cliffs all round the coast from
Berriedale and Lybster to Wick, Duncansby Head, Dunnet Head
and Thurso. Thurso has been the centre of the Caithness flag
industry, to some extent a decaying industry, inasmuch as artificial
pavements have checked the export trade. The town is famed as the
home of Robert Dick, who so assiduously collected the fossil fishes
found in the flags which naturally pave the foreshores and rise up in
the rugged cliffs. Many of these fossils are found in a highly
bituminous condition, and Hugh Miller used the soft material in old
times for sealing letters. Holburn Head, west of Thurso, is a weird
headland with a grand stack of rocks, while awful chasms formed
along joint-planes in the strata, extend inland from the coast.
The fine and prominent mountains of Morven (2313 feet) and the
Maiden Pap (1587 feet) are formed of Old Red sandstone resting on
schists.
Much boulder-clay and extensive peat-mosses occur over the
county.
Sea-side resort : Thurso (sands and cliffs).
Clackmannanshire. Map 34. Area 30,477 acres.
This small county is mainly formed of Coal-measures, as at Alloa,
and of Lower Carboniferous rocks at Culross. The northern part is
an upland region on the southern slopes of the Ochil range.
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
Dumbartonshire. Map 34. Area 154,542 acres.
This county extends into the Highland borders near Ben Vorlich
(3092 feet), and thence southwards it includes a broad neck of schists,
bordered by Loch Long on the west and Loch Lomond on the east,
with Gareloch between.
Old Red sandstone appears at Craigendoran, and in a belt from
near Helensburgh to the shores of Loch Lomond. South-east of
Helensburgh there are Lower Carboniferous rocks, and again as we
approach Dumbarton we find Old Red sandstone as well as Lower
Carboniferous rocks and andesites, which form the Kilpatrick Hills.
Dumbarton Castle stands on a rock of volcanic agglomerate. There
are mines of coal and iron stone in the neighbourhood of Kirkintilloch.
Sea-side resorts : Helensburgh, and Kilcreggan (cliffs) at the mouth of the Clyde.
Dumfries-shire. Map 34. Area 680,217 acres.
This is largely a county of Silurian rocks, including a part of the
Lowther Hills in the north with Queensberry (2285 feet), and with
infoldings or eroded anticlines of Ordovician strata. The district
forms an essential part of the Southern Uplands, and it includes the
fossiliferous tract of Dobb's Linn, in Moffatdale, rendered famous by
the researches of Prof. Lapworth. It is drained by the waters of
Nithsdale, Annandale, Moffat, and Eskdale, which trench the Silurian
rocks, while the Nith rises far away to the north among the mass of the
Ordovician rocks. Along both the Nith at Thornhill and the Annan
below Moffat and Beattock, there are New Red rocks, regarded as
Permian. Special interest in these strata was aroused by Sir William
Jardine's folio work entitled The Ichnology of Annandale, or Illustra-
tions of Footmarks impressed on the New Red Sandstone of Corncockle
Muir. These red rocks, which comprise sandstone and breccia with
volcanic rocks, are largely concealed by Drift, but red sandstones are
quarried for freestone at Dumfries, and they appear also at Annan.
Ecclefechan stands on Lower Carboniferous rocks, which extend
eastwards to the Esk Valley, where coals are worked at Canonbie,
and are bordered on the north by Old Red sandstone and andesites.
At Sanquhar, on the north-west, there are coal-mines in the Coal-
measures; and at Wanlockhead, on the borders of the Leadhills,
there are lead mines in the Ordovician strata. Moffat is noted for
its sulphur waters, and Hartfell Spa for chalybeate waters.
On the southern niargin of the county, east of Gretna Green, is the
Solway Moss, where peat has been extensively dug.
Edinburghshire (or Midlothian). Map 34. Area 231,724 acres.
This county stretches southwards to the Ordovician grits and
shales of the Moorfoot Hills, which lie to the south of the faulted
boundary of the great Midland Valley.
The Coal-measures, with “flat coals," stretch southwards from
Musselburgh and Dalkeith, and are bordered by Lower Carboniferous
rocks, which being in places highly inclined, yield the "edge coals."
These extend westwards to Portobello and Leith, and south-westwards
to West Calder, where oil-shale occurs. In the shales of this lower
division, as at Wardie, Newbaven, many fisb-remains and other
EDINBURGH-FIFE.
93
fossils have been found. In overlying strata at Craigleith and Granton
the sandstones yield famous building-stone. At Burdiehouse, south
of Edinburgh, the limestones contain ostracods, and many fish and
plant-remains.
The volcanic rocks (basalt and dolerite) of Arthur's Seat (822 feet)
and Salisbury Crags, of Calton Hill, and the Edinburgh Castle rock,
belong to Lower Carboniferous times.
Southwards and southwestwards from the city the Old Red sand.
stone, with masses of andesite, and occasional patches of Silurian,
rise to form the Pentland Hills.
Boulder-clay and other relics of the “Great Ice Age” are met with
over much of the county, and on the coast at Musselburgh and Leith
there are links of blown sand.
Sea-side resort : Portobello, on the Firth of Forth.
Elginshire (or Moray). Map 33. Area 304,606 acres.
The southern part of this county, formed of Highland schists, is
traversed by one of the grander of Scottish rivers, the Findhorn,
which, from Relugas to near Forres, flows through a most picturesque
rocky gorge of schists and Old Red sandstone. It is a river whose
notable floods of 1829 were recorded by Sir Thomas Dick Lauder.
Westwards of its mouth are the famous Culbin Sands, which over-
whelmed, towards the end of the seventeenth century, some of the
more fertile tracts of Moray. Blown sands occur also along the
shores of Burghead Bay.
Eastwards through Elgin there is a tract of Old Red sandstone,
bordered on the north by the Triassic sandstones, which have yielded
reptilian remains. Rocks of both ages are quarried, but the Old Red
sandstone yields the finer freestone. The newer rocks form the cliffs
from Burghead to Lossiemouth.
The Drifts are in places of special interest, as at Linksfield Rhætic
fossils were long ago observed. Elsewhere boulder-clay and gravels
cover great part of the lowlands, and extend in places over the
upland.s.
The lower part of the Spey traverses the eastern side of the
county.
Sea-side resort : Lossiemouth (stony and sandy beach, and cliffs).
Fifeshire. Map 34. Area 314,952 acres.
In this county there is a broad tract of Old Red sandstone and
volcanic rocks in the north. The sandstone which has been quarried
at Dura Den, a defile north of Pitscottie, joining the River Eden east
of Cupar, is noted for the fossil fishes Bothriolepis, Holoptychius, &c.
This tract is separated by the Howe of Fife from the southern area
of Lower Carboniferous rocks, which extend from Dunfermline to St.
Andrews, and contain the great volcanic masses of the Lomond Hills
(1713 feet), and eastwards those of Largo Law (965 feet) and other
prominent heights. The Lower Carboniferous rocks are worked for
coal at Kirkcaldy; they also yield oil-shales. The sandstones are
quarried for building-stone in many places, and the limestones are
94
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
quarried for lime-burning. The limestone of Burntisland has yielded
many fossil fishes, ostracods, plants, &c.
Coal-measures occupy the surface at Dysart and Leven, and there
is much Drift.
Blown sands fringe the coast from Tayport to the Links of
St. Andrews.
Sea-side resorts : Aberdour (sands, rocks) and Burntisland (sands, rocks), on the Firth of
Forth; Ferry Port (sands and cliffs) and Newport (rocks), on the Firth of Tay);
St. Andrews (sandy and rocky, cliffs).
Forfarshire. Map 34. Area 560,087 acres.
This is in part a Highland county, extending northwards through
Glen Clova into the Grampian region of schists, and to the granite,
west of Kincardine. The more cultivated tracts lie on the Old Red
sandstone which occupies the main portion of the county; it has
yielded many remains of large crustaceans Eurypterus, Pterygotus,
and Stylonurus. Volcanic rocks of this age form the Sidlaw Hills,
and extend to the coast near Montrose. Glacial drift covers con-
siderable areas, and blown sands fringe the coast from Carnoustie
to Broughty Ferry, east of Dundee.
Sea-side resorts : Arbroath (sands and rocks), Broughty Ferry (sands), Carnoustie (sands
and rocks), Montrose (sands).
Haddingtonshire (or East Lothian). Map 34. Area 173,298 acres.
In this county there is a varied assemblage of Old Red sandstone,
Carboniferous and volcanic rocks; with belts of Ordovician and
Silurian rocks in the Lammermuir Hills, which rise to the south, Says
Law (1749 feet) being the highest point. Andesitic lavas of Lower
Carboniferous age extend around Drem junction, while North Berwick
Law (512 feet), a part of the Garlton Hills, the rock on which Dunbar
Castle stands, and the Bass Rock (350 feet) are formed of materials
(basalts and trachytes) which may have filled volcanic vents. The
volcanic rocks constitute fertile agricultural land.
Coal is worked in the Lower Carboniferous rocks.
Sea-side resorts : Dunbar (cliffs), North Berwick (rocks and cliffs, with links to west).
Inverness-shire. Maps 33 and 31. Area 2,616,498 acres.
In this grand county there is no great variety of geological forma-
tions on the mainland, excepting among the Highland schists which
occupy the chief part of the rugged and mountainous land.
The Monadhliath mountains to the north-west of Kingussie rise to
upwards of three thousand feet, while Glen More or the Great Glen-
with the Caledonian Canal extending through Lochs Linnhe, Lochy
and Ness-traverses for the most part the schists.
The dominant features are formed by the great granite masses.
Cairn Toul (4241 feet) rises east of Kingussie and is a part of the mass
to which Cairn Gorm and Ben Macdhui belong. Ben Nevis (4406) is
another mass to the south-west of the county, and minor tracts occur
here and there.
Old Red sandstone occurs at Beauly and Inverness ; it extends
over Culloden Moor, and is met with on the eastern side of Loch
Ness.
INVERNESS-KINCARDINE.
95
Glacial drifts occur over much of the region and present many
features of interest. Thus in the parallel roads of Glen Roy
(Lochaber) to the east of Loch Lochy, there are ancient lake-
terraces, the highest beach being 1155 feet above sea-level, and they
were formed when ice, during the glacial period, dammed up the
waters in the glen.
In the Outer Hebrides, Harris, a part of the Long Island, and
joined to Lewis, is reckoned a part of Inverness-shire. This and most
of the islands to the south are formed of gneiss. The Shiant Isles
belong to the Skye regions of basalt, while St. Kilda is formed partly
of gabbro and granophyre, also Tertiary igneous rocks.
Many of the Inner Hebrides are included in Inverness-shire. Raasay
is formed in part of gneiss at the northern end, and Rona is formed
entirely of that rock. Torridon sandstone is seen at Brochel Castle
further south in Raasay, and the adjacent ground is formed of
terrace-like tracts of this rugged and picturesque rock. The southern
parts of the island are formed of Jurassic rocks, Lias and Oolites,
well developed in the grand cliffs on the eastern side, where also
a small tract of red Triassic marls and conglomerate appears.
Volcanic rocks, granophyre and basalt occupy much of the interior,
and appear on the western and southern coasts ; Dun Caan is formed
of basalt.
Pabba is formed of Lower Lias shales with many fossils. Scalpa
is chiefly formed of Torridon sandstone with Middle Lias on the east,
and some traces of Cretaceous strata have lately been found.
Skye is mostly formed of basalts with gabbro forming the rough
and rugged Blaven and the Cuillin Hills of which Scuir na Gillean
(3167 feet) is the highest peak, while the Red Hills of conical form
are shaped out of granophyre. Torridon sandstone occurs in Soay
and Sleat, and schists are developed along the south-eastern shores
of the promontory. At Broadford there is a broad belt of Lower
Lias limestones, sandstones and shales; and various Jurassic rocks,
as high as the Oxfordian, occur thence towards Strathaird, along
the coast from Portree to Loch Staffin, and again at Uig and
elsewhere. Tertiary lignite has been dug on a small scale in the
so-called Portree coal-mine. Diatomite is worked north of the Storr
Rock. Durness limestone is met with to the south-west of Broad-
ford, and it has been polished as marble.
Canna is largely formed of basalt; Rum of Torridon sandstone,
gabbro and granophyre; Eigg of basalt, with a turretted mass of
pitchstone which rises up in the Scuir; and Muck is formed of
basalt.
Sea-side resorts: Broadford, Kyle Akin, and Portree in Skye, and Glenelg on the mainland
--all rocky coasts with fine mountain scenery.
1
Kincardineshire. Maps 33 and 34. Area 245,346 acres.
Schists and granite occupy the land in this county along the
borders of the Dee Valley and on the coast north of Stonehaven, the
granite rising to 2555 feet at Mount Battock.
From Stonehaven southwards to South Water Bridge, and for some
distance inland, Old Red sandstone and its accompanying andesite
96
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
extend over the country: the former constituting a comparatively
low-lying tract under cultivation, while the volcanic rocks rise up
into moorlands.
Sea-side resort: Stonehaven (rocks, cliffs).
Kinross-shire. Map 34. Area 46,485 acres.
In this small county the Old Red sandstone and andesites occupy
the high ground to the north-west, forming a portion of the Ochil
Hills, and they extend to the borders of Loch Leven.
Lower Carboniferous and volcanic rocks occur on the borders of the
Lomond Hills on the east, and form the southern parts of the county.
Kirkcudbrightshire. Map 34. Area 574,587 acres.
This large county includes a considerable part of the Southern
Uplands, with Ordovician strata around Carspbairn, Merrick (2764
feet), and other heights, and a broad belt of Silurian from New
Galloway to the rocky shores of Kirkcudbright and Castle Douglas.
There are many areas of peat over this region. On the coast between
Abbey Head and the mouth of the Nith, Old Red sandstone and
Lower Carboniferous rocks are exposed. From Dalbeattie eastwards
to Criffell (1866 feet), there is a great mass of granite, fragments
from which have been dispersed in southern regions in the Glacial
Drift. The rock is extensively quarried. Another mass of granite
appears at Cairnsmore of Fleet (2331 feet) to the south-west of New
Galloway. Further north the Kells Range above Loch Doon and
Loch Macaterick is formed of granite, and a small mass is found at
Cairnsmore of Carsphairn.
With Wigtownshire this county forms the old province of
Galloway.
Lanarkshire. Map 34. Area 564,284 acres.
At Lesmahagow the passage-beds of the Silurian yield Pterygotus
and other fossils.
This county contains much of the Glasgow coal-field from Glasgow
to Airdrie, Wishaw and Carluke; a region drained by the Clyde.
Lanark itself is on Old Red sandstone, and the Falls of Clyde
tumble over these rocks with included masses of igneous rock. To
the south the Tintu Hills (2335 feet) are formed of felsite. The
Clyde rises among the Silurian rocks south of the Lowther Hills,
but these Uplands include northwards the famous mining district of
Leadhilis in Ordovician strata. Some alluvial gold has been met
with in this district.
Linlithgowshire (or West Lothian). Map 34. Area 76,806 acres.
In this small county the rocks are mainly Coal-measures and Lower
Carboniferous strata, with many volcanic rocks; the older portion
extending in hilly tracts from Bathgate and Linlithgow to Dalmeny
and Queensferry, by the Forth Bridge.
Oil-shale occurs in the Coal-measures.
NAIRN-PERTH.
S
Nairnshire. Map 33. Area 127,905 acres.
Nairn, in part a Highland county, contains in the south along the
course of the Findhorn river, schists and masses of granite, while
near the coast the rocks are Old Red sandstone. The sea-margin is
bordered by sandhills, and the lower grounds are much drift-covered.
The town of Nairn is a famous watering-place, sometimes spoken of
as the “ Brighton of the North": from its neighbourhood the views
across the Moray Firth are charming.
Sea-side resort : Nairn (stony beach).
Orkney and Shetland. Map 33.
The Orkney Islands (area 240,476 acres) are formed almost
wholly of Old Red sandstone, with igneous dykes. There are few
trees, but oats are cultivated in places.
The Old Man of Hoy is a stack of Old Red sandstone, adjacent to
cliffs which rise 1100 feet, while the island of Hoy attains an elevation
of 1564 feet.
The Shetland Islands (area 352,876 acres) are formed largely of
schists in the central parts of the mainland, and in Yell. Unst and
Fetlar are formed of schists, with serpentine and gabbro. Old Red
sandstone occurs on the west of the mainland and at Lerwick.
There is but little cultivated ground.
Peebles-shire. Map 34. Area 226,899 acres.
This county extends southwards from the Pentland Hills, which
are formed of Silurian, Old Red sandstone, with volcanic rocks and
Carboniferous. The great boundary fault on the south brings in the
Ordovician rocks of the Moorfoot Hills; and also Silurian strata,
which extend from Peebles to Broad Law (2754 feet), and to the head
of the Tweed near Hart Fell (2651 feet), an important portion of the
Southern Uplands. There are mineral waters at Innerleithen.
Perthshire. Map 34. Area 1,617,808 acres.
In this Highland county are included large portions of the
Grampian Hills, drained by the Tay and its tributaries. The region
is one of Dalradian schists : a complex of highly altered igneous and
sedimentary rocks, with intrusions of granite, diorite, &c. The Loch
Tay limestone is included in this group, as well as some conglomeratic
beds. In the Forest of Athole, on the north of Blair Athole, Ben
Dearg (3304 feet) is formed of granite ; while Schichallion (3547 feet)
which stands up to the south of the Tummel, far west of Pitlochry,
Ben Lawers (3984 feet) which lies to the south-west towards Killin
and north of Loch Tay; Ben More (3843 feet) to the south of the
railway between Killin Junction and Tyndrum; Ben Vorlich
(3224 feet) to the south of Loch Earn ; and Ben Ledi (2875 feet) north-
west of Callender, are among the prominent heights formed of schists.
Among the same rocks, Loch Katrine and the Trossachs lie west of
Callender. To the north of Alyth and Blairgowrie, to the south of
Dunkeld, and thence north of Crieff, and from Callender to Aberfoyle,
is a tract of faulted ground where the schists on the north are brought
against the Old Red sandstone, and bands of andesite on the south.
98
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
These newer rocks extend to Doune and Dunblane, on the banks of
Allan Water; they form the Ochil Hills south-west, and the Sidlaw
Hills north-east of Perth, the latter overlooking the famed Carse of
Gowrie, an ancient beach level, which borders the Tay between
Perth and Dundee.
Throughout the deep valleys there is much drift, and some of the
higher mountains, as Schichallion, exhibit ice-marks near the summit.
Renfrewshire. Map 34. Area 156,785 acres.
In this industrial county, Lower Carboniferous rocks and volcanic
rocks (andesites, &c.) predominatemthe former at Gourock and
Greenock and around Paisley, the latter at Creuch Hill and thence
through the heart of the county to the south-east. On the borders
of the Clyde, near Renfrew, the marine clays known as the Clyde
Valley beds are dug for brick-making. Coal-measures with iron-
stones occur on the borders of Glasgow.
Sea-side resorts : Gourock (at the mouth of the Clyde), Wemyss Bay (cliffs), Firth of
Clyde.
Ross-shire and Cromarty. Map 33. Area 2,003,065 acres.
This dual county is essentially a Highland district, although the
eastern part, the main portion of Cromarty, is largely agricultural.
On the west from Enard Bay, by Lochs Broom, Ewe, and Maree
to Applecross, Plockton and Kyle, the shores and inland tracts are
formed mainly of Torridon sandstone; while the eastern coast of
Enard Bay, large tracts between Loch Broom and Gairloch, and
another tract at Jeantown on the borders of Loch Carron, are formed
of gneiss, and there are small tracts of gneiss along the borders of
Loch Torridon. The main road from Jeantown to Applecross crosses
the Torridon sandstone at a height of 2054 feet at Bealloch, and
thence descends to the coast, where there is a faulted tract of
Triassic sandstones and marls overlain by Lower Lias limestones with
oolitic bands. Traces of the same rocks appear on the northern side
of Loch Ewe and extend into Gruinard Bay.
Bordering the mass of Torridon sandstone eastwards are belts of
Cambrian rock-Durness limestone and quartzite, at Ullapool,
Kinlochewe, and Loch Kishorn; while in the interior is a mass of
Highland schists with occasional small areas of granite : a grand
country, as may be seen from the Highland railway between
Dingwall and Strome Ferry. Ben Wyvis (3429 feet) rises boldly to
the north of Strathpeffer, a spa noted for its sulphurous and
chalybeate waters, and situated on the Old Red sandstone. The
principal “sulphur waters" contain a good deal of the sulphates of
lime and magnesium. The raised beaches, with their level grass-
covered platforms, are well seen at the entrance to Loch Carron.
The eastern part of the region known generally as Cromarty, is
formed mainly of Old Red sandstone, with much boulder drift, which
extends from Dingwall to Tain and Tarbat Ness, and over great part
of the Black Isle, a famous agricultural region.
The Old Red sandstone is bordered on the west by schists, and
Ross-SUTHERLAND.
99
these old rocks rise up at the mouth of Cromarty Firth to form the
Sutors of Cromarty.
The Old Red sandstone of Eathie, south of Cromarty, is famed as
the scene of the early labours of Hugh Miller, who there worked as a
quarryman. He first called attention to the pavements of fossiliferous
Jurassic sbale on the foreshore-termed by him “ Lias," but now
known to be of Kimeridgian age. Northwards, beyond the northern
Sutor, beneath the grand cliffs of Shandwick, Lower Colites, with a
thin coal-bed occur.
Lewis, a part of the Long Island of the Outer Hebrides, is attached
to Ross-shire. It consists almost wholly of gneiss, with Torridon
sandstone at Stornaway, and a small granite tract on the north-west
coast. It is a bare and rocky region, with many lakes, and every-
where exhibits evidences of glacial action.
Sea-side resorts: Gairloch, Strome Ferry and Ullapool on the western Ross-shire coast,
and Fortrose on the Black Ísle.
Roxburghshire. Map 34. Area 425,657 acres.
Silurian rocks appear in the northern part of this county above
Melrose, and from Melrose southwards along the upper part of
Teviotdale at Hawick. Eastwards around Jedburgh the county is
largely formed of the Old Red sandstone and volcanic rocks
(andesites), while southwards in Liddesdale there are Silurian and
Lower Carboniferous rocks. These rocks extend to the Cheviot Hills
along the English borders. Glacial drift is found over much of the
area.
Selkirkshire. Map 34. Area 164,545 acres.
This is essentially a county of Silurian rocks and drift, extending
from Galashiels on the north through the valleys of Ettrick and
Yarrow to Ettrick Pen (2269 feet) on the borders of Dumfries-shire.
It forms part of the Southern Uplands, a pastoral region, with many
sheep-farms.
Stirlingshire. Map 34. Area 286,338 acres.
This county extends into the heart of the Grampians along the
eastern shores of Loch Lomond, with Ben Lomond (3192 feet), where
it is a region of schists, but this is bounded on the south, near the
lower end of Loch Lomond, by Old Red sandstone which extends
from Drymen to Kippen. The lowland tracts comprising Lower
Carboniferous rocks occur to the south-east, with volcanic rocks
(andesites) in the Campsie Fells, a basalt crag at Stirling Castle,
and other masses of basalt to the south. At Falkirk there are Coal-
measures, while alluvial tracts border the Forth to Grangemouth.
Sutherlandshire. Map 33. Area 1,297,846 acres.
In this grand Highland county there is a considerable variety of
geological formations. In the wild north-west, from Cape Wrath to
Loch Inver, the ground is largely gneiss (Lewisian) traversed by
many ancient dykes of igneous rock, that of Scourie exhibiting, as
Mr. J.J.H. Teall has shown, the metamorphosis of dolerite into horn-
7 *
100
GEOLOGY OF THE COUNTIES OF GREAT BRITAIN.
blende-schist. Torridon sandstone occurs here and there near Cape
Wrath, at The Point of Stoer, Quinag, Canisp, and Suilven, and it
rests on an irregular surface of the old gneiss.
This mountain region is a complication of disturbance with
much overthrusting; the more prominent heights are Ben More
(3273 feet), Canisp (2786 feet), and Suilven (2399 feet).
A broken belt of Cambrian rocks stretches from the Kyle of
Durness and Loch Eriboll to the region of Loch Assynt and
Inch-na-damph. These comprise the Durness limestone, with
Orthoceras, Maclurea, &c.; underlying quartzites with fucoid beds
and shales yielding Olenellus, and a lower quartzite, the Eriboll
quartzite including the “pipe-rock ” with worm-burrows.
The central portion of the county is a mass of schists rising more
prominently at Ben Hope (3040 feet) and Ben Clibreck (3164 feet);
these rocks extend along the northern coast from Loch Eriboll and
the Kyle of Tongue to Strathy Point, and approach the eastern coast
at Lothbeg near Brora and Helmsdale.
Granite masses appear at Ben Laoghal (2504 feet), and along Strath
Halladale at Kinbrace, Helmsdale, Rogart, Lairg, and near Bonar
Bridge.
At Kildonan above Helmsdale, gold has been found in alluvial
deposits.
W.
1
2
Fig. 17.-DIAGRAM-SECTION OF THE ROCKS IN SUTHERLAND AND
CAITHNESS (Ramsay).
5, Old Red sandstone ; 4, Schists (overthrust); 3, Cambrian rocks; 2, Torridon sand-
stone; 1, Lewisian gneiss; g, Granite.
Old Red sandstone and conglomerate form a belt of highlands
along the coast from near Dornoch and Golspie, where Ben Bhragie
(1256 feet) and Ben Smeoral are prominent.
The picturesque Golspie Burn is cut through these strata, and the
New Red rocks. The latter comprising marls and siliceous and
calcareous cornstones appear in the lower part of Golspie Burn and
on the shore near Golspie. Northwards near Dunrobin Castle there
are reefs of Lower Lias with Hippopodium ponderosum and other
fossils.
Thence at intervals we find south of Brora the Great Oolite series,
with the Brora coal, which is mined near Brora village. Above are
the Oxfordian shales, which are worked for brick-making. At
a bigher horizon, at Clyne Hill to the north, are hard sandstones
largely used for building purposes. These are Lower Corallian, and
they yield Ammonites perarmatus and many remains of cycads.
Further north rough reefs of sandstone, and great boulder beds
and breccias intercalated with shales occur. These are mostly of
Kimeridgian age, but they yield corals near Helmsdale of Portlandian
character, and near Culgower many plant-remains.
SUTHERLAND-WIGTOWN.
101
The belt of Jurassic rocks inland is mostly concealed by Drift
deposits and blown sands.
Blown sands occur at Dornoch and again at Durness.
Sea-side resorts : Brora (sands, cliff's); Golspie (stony beach).
Wigtownshire. Map 34. Area 310,742 acres.
In this county of promontories, the rocks are almost wholly
Ordovician and Silurian. The northern part of the Rhinns from
Corsewell Point to below Port Patrick, and the moors north of Glen
Luce, are Ordovician. From Balgreggan to the Mull of Galloway,
and from Newton Stewart and Glenluce to Wigtown and Burrow
Head, the country is formed of Silurian rocks. Over these areas
there is much peat, as well as glacial drift: and in the low lands,
below Newton Stewart, the Cree traverses a broad tract of valley
gravel and raised beach ere it enters Wigtown Bay. A small tract
of granite appears to the north of the Mull of Galloway on the
western part of that rocky coast; and a belt of New Red sandstone
(“ Permian") and Lower Carboniferous rocks appears on the western
shores of Loch Ryan at Stranraer and northwards. Blown sand
occupies the head of Luce Bay.
Sea-side resorts: Isle of Whithorn (cliffs), Port Patrick (cliffs), Stranraer (head of Loch
Ryan), Wigtown (head of Wigtown Bay).
The following works may be consulted for further particulars and
references to authorities on the Scenery and Geology of Great
Britain :-
Lord Avebury. The Scenery of England. 1902.
Sir A. Geikie. The Scenery of Scotland. Ed. 3. 1901.
comme The Ancient Volcanoes of Great Britain. 2 vols. 1897.
R. P. Grey and W.G. Lettsoin. Manual of the Mineralogy of Great Britain and Ireland
1858.
A. D. Hall. The Soil. 1903.
A. J. Jukes-Browne. The Student's Handbook of Stratigraphical Geology. 1902.
- The Building of the British Isles. Ed. 2. 1892.
W. J. Harrison. Geology of the Counties of England and of North and South Wales.
1882.
G. W. Lamplugh. The Geology of the Isle of Man. (Mem. Geol. Surv.) 1903.
Prof. C. Lapworth. An Interinediate Text-Book of Geology. 1899.
H. J. Mackinder. Britain and the British Seas. 1902.
J. E. Marr. The Scientific Study of Scenery. 1900.
Agricultural Geology. 1903.
B. N. Peach and J, Horne. The Silurian Rocks of Britain. Vol. I. Scotland. (Mem.
Geol. Surv.) 1899.
Sir A. C. Ramsay. The Physical Geology and Geography of Great Britain. Ed. 6.
1894.
C. Reid." The Origin of the British Flora. 1899.
J.J. H. Teall. British Petrography. 1888.
H. Woods. Elementary Palæontology. Invertebrate. Ed. 3. 1902.
H. B. Woodward. The Geology of England and Wales, Ed. 2. 1887.
FEATURES OBSERVABLE ALONG THE PRINCIPAL
LINES OF RAILWAY.
1
Our lines of railway have largely aided the progress of Geology not
only by opening up a ready means of communication with all parts of
the country, but by furnishing many instructive sections of the strata.
While, however, it would occupy too much space to attempt an
account of all the cuttings, it may be interesting to point out some of
the leading geological features observable on the main lines of
railway. With the aid of the geological maps, the traveller may thus
be led to notice how the character of the scenery and even the
buildings erected upon the land have been influenced by the
changeful geological structure. It must, however, be borne in mind
that in the country north of the Thames there is much glacial drift
which is not represented on the accompanying maps.
I. LONDON, TILBURY, AND SOUTHEND RAILWAY.
Starting from Fenchurch Street, we pass for the greater
MAP 13 part of our journey over Levels and Marshes of the Thames
Alluvium and over terraces of river gravel and brickearth
that represent a part of the Pleistocene period, when the land here-
abouts probably stood at a lower level. Remains of the mammoth,
rhinoceros, hippopotamus, hyæna, and other animals, and also
numerous shells including two species now extinct in Britain
(Corbicula fluminalis and Unio littoralis) are met with in these
deposits.
We cross the river Lea between Bow and Plaistow, and the
Roding at Barking. We pass over the Chalk at Purfleet, and near
the railway-station the line cuts through an old Chalk-pit, which
exhibits in places a capping of the Thanet Beds. Further on,
Grays Thurrock is noted for its Pleistocene brickearth, as well as
for its large Chalk-pits where whiting is manufactured. A little to
the north-east, at Hangman's Wood, there have been discovered
numerous chambers in the Chalk communicating with the surface by
vertical shafts. These openings are known as Deneholes, and it is
considered probable that they were made in early times to afford
places of security and refuge.
From Stanford-le-hope to Southend we travel, now on the London
clay, now on the Alluvium; and not far from the former station we
can see Langdon Hill, an outlier of Bagshot Sands and pebble-gravel,
from the summit of which may be obtained (in fine weather) a most
charming view of the Thames and of the country on either side of it.
LONDON, TILBURY AND SOUTHEND.
103
1
Southend itself is built on the gravel and brickearth belonging to
the older Thames Valley deposits, and these rest on the London
clay. The extensive foreshore is really a “ plain of marine denuda-
tion," formed of the London clay, with a thin covering of recent silt
and mud.
II. GREAT EASTERN RAILWAY.
London by Ipswich to Norwich.
Travelling from Bishopsgate by way of Colchester we cross
MAP 13 the Lea River between Coborn Road and Stratford, and over
some of the older Thames Valley deposits, which near
Ilford are famous for remains of Pleistocene mammalia.
Beyond Romford we journey across the bare London clay, capped
in the deep and long cutting at Brentwood, by the Lower Bagshot
beds and here and there by traces of boulder-clay. These Lower
Bagshot beds consist mainly of sands and pebble-gravel, the sands
passing down by alternations with loam and clay (worked for brick-
making) into the London clay below. They form the higher and
more picturesque tracts of Essex, with many fir-trees in places, as at
Brentwood and Warley, Billericay, and Stock.
Leaving Brentwood we continue on the London clay, capped here
and there with drift gravel and boulder-clay, through a deep cutting
near Widford, on to Chelmsford. Here the valley deposits of the
Chelmer have yielded remains of mammoth, and the brickearth has
been largely worked. Onwards again to Colchester the country is
for the most part formed of London clay covered in many places by
boulder-clay and gravel. At Copford, south-east of Marks Tey,
deposits of Pleistocene brickearth' have yielded land and freshwater
mollusca and remains of mammoth and hippopotamus.
Near Manningtree we cross the estuary of the Stour, and
MAP 27 afterwards traverse a tract of London clay capped by Red
Crag, and glacial sand and gravel. We pass through a tunnel
in the London clay before reaching Ipswich, and the estuary of the
Orwell. The town lies partly on Reading beds, London clay, glacial
gravel, and valley gravel.
At Bramford we come upon the Chalk, which here forms the
northern margin of the London Basin, and thence to Haughley
junction we traverse the same formation, much concealed by dritt.
Around Mellis and in the neighbourhood of Tivetshall the
MAP 21 ground is composed chiefly of the chalky boulder-clay,
and the cuttings at Florden are excavated in it. Some of
the houses in this area are built of clay-lumps or sun-dried masses
of “ brick ” formed of this boulder-clay ; but the buildings are usually
faced with brick. The soil is a favourable one for wheat and beans.
• South of Florden, there is a large ballast-pit in the glacial
“Cannon-shot gravel.” Before reaching Norwich the railway cuts
through a prominent wooded hill, formed for the most part of glacial
sand and gravel; then crossing the valley of the Yare, it passes
through cuttings of glacial sand and brickearth, and leads us to the
Victoria Station.
104
RAILWAYS.
Ipswich to Lowestoft and Yarmouth.
From Ipswich we cross a plateau of boulder-clay to Bealings
MAP 27 and Woodbridge, where the Deben Valley is cut through
glacial drift to Red Crag and London clay.
We leave this valley and cross boulder-clay and glacial sands at
Campsey Ash, thence traversing the valleys of the Alde and its
tributaries, over Crag with bordering hills of glacial drift to
Saxmundham. The region is picturesque with its mixture of heath
and arable land. From Saxmundham to Halesworth and Beccles
we pass over a great tract of rich corn land mainly of chalky boulder-
clay; but the scenery is diversified by the Minsmere Valley at
Darsham, to the east of which is Westleton with its flint pebble-beds.
We cross also the Blythe Valley at Halesworth, where again the
Westleton pebble-beds and underlying Crag are exposed. North of
Halesworth Station the cutting at one time showed a fine section of
the boulder-clay. As we leave Beccles for Lowestoft we pass along
the borders of the Waveney Valley, by Oulton Broad, and over tracts
of glacial gravel.
The route to Yarmouth continues direct from Beccles across
MAP 21 the alluvial meadows of the Waveney, and thence over tracts
of glacial drift, with underlying Norwich Crag which has
heen exposed near Aldeby. We again cross the Waveney, and,
passing near Fritton Decoy, over heathy grounds of glacial sands and
gravels and boulder-clay, soon arrive at Great Yarmouth.
7
IT
London by Cambridge to Norwich, Yarmouth, and Cromer.
MAPS
Proceeding from London by Cambridge we travel for some
distance along the valley of the Lea, filled with alluvial
deposits that near Walthamstow have yielded remains of
beaver, reindeer, elk, wolf and other animals. On the west a long
fringe of valley-gravel borders the river, and owing to its having
offered suitable ground and means of water-supply from springs or
shallow wells for the early settlers, a number of villages and towns
are found along it.
Eastwards the London clay makes the surface soil, and rising
gradually it forms the higher grounds of Epping, surmounted at
High beech by Bagshot sand. Much of Epping Forest is based on
London clay, the soil of which is well suited for the oak and the
hornbeam.
Leaving Broxbourne we enter the Stort Valley, bordered at first by
Reading beds and London clay, and higher up by glacial sands and
gravels, the adjacent plateaus being formed of chalky boulder-clay.
At Bishop's Stortford we again reach the Reading beds, and
shortly afterwards the Chalk, which is much concealed by drift.
Beyond Elsenham we enter the Cam Valley, with here and there
cuttings and tunnels in the Chalk from Newport, onwards to Great
Chesterford. Along this tract there is a deep channel of glacial drift,
no less than 340 feet thick at Newport, as described by Mr. Whitaker.
At Littlebury, to the west of Saffron Walden, we pass from the Upper
GREAT EASTERN.
105
to the Lower Chalk, and here the bordering hills being freer from drift
assume a Down-like character.
Thence we pass over the Lower Chalk by Shelford to
Map 4 Cambridge, with the Gog Magog Hills capped by Middle
Chalk to the east.
At Cambridge we find brickyards in the Gault, and there were at
one time coprolite-diggings at the base of the Chalk. Thence to Ely
the railway runs for the most part over alluvial flats. Eastwards
a low hill formed of the Corallian beds rises out of the marshes at
Upware. Just beyond Ely, whose grand Cathedral stands on Lower
Greensand, we may detect the celebrated excavation known as
Roswell or Roslyn Hole, where a fine section of Kimeridge clay is
to be seen, and where boulder-clay and a large transported mass of
Chalk have also been exposed.
The old Isle of Ely is a wide spreading tract of rising ground
formed of Kimeridge clay, with outlying masses of Lower Greensand,
and surrounded by the alluvial flats of the Fenland. From Ely to
Brandon the line crosses a wide expanse of this alluvium. Then at
vi Lakenheath as we approach Brandon we reach the Chalk
27, 21
again. Between this town and Thetford the valley of the
A Little Ouse or Brandon River contains valley-gravels and
brickearth, which have yielded many palæolithic implements. The
old neolithic pits of Grimes Graves lie north-east of Brandon. The
higher grounds are covered here and there by boulder-clay, and
drift gravel and sand. The sand predominates, and has at times
swept over the country in sand-storms or sand-floods, as at Santon
Downham, east of Brandon.
At Roudham Junction we are in the midst of an extensive tract of
heath-land and warren, which early in this century was the haunt of
the Bustard. Many picturesque and natural pools, called Meres,
occur in this neighbourhood and northwards towards Wretham.
They are most of them based on the Chalk, and serve to indicate the
plane of saturation.
Passing towards East Harling and Attleborough we come on to
the boulder-clay, and the scene changes to a highly cultivated
district. At Wymondham there are deep cuttings in the glacial
gravel and boulder-clay, and we continue mainly on boulder-clay
until we reach the Yare Valley, where the Chalk and overlying
Crag series are exposed, with valley-gravels at Trowse and Thorpe
Station, Norwich.
From Norwich to Yarmouth we follow for some distance the
Valley of the Yare, whose bordering hills consist of Chalk, supporting
the Norwich Crag, and various drift deposits.
Many old Chalk-pits in Thorpe village have been utilized in the
rear of the houses and turned into picturesque gardens. Further on
we cross a small low-lying mass of boulder-clay near Postwick Grove,
a locality famed for its shelly crag.
At Brundall the Norwich Crag was opened up in the railway-
cutting close to the Station. Thence to Acle the cuttings are mostly
106
RAILWAYS.
in glacial drift, and from Acle to Yarmouth we cross the alluvial
marshes, and have a peep at the estuarine broad of Breydon.
Yarmouth is built on blown sand and recent marine shingle : but
below these the London clay and Reading beds have been proved to
overlie the Chalk in a deep well made for Lacon's Brewery.
From Norwich to Cromer we pass, just beyond Whitlingham
Station, the noted Crag-pit of Thorpe, where the Črag is seen reposing
on the Chalk. The shelly-beds occur at the base, and there also
remains of mastodon and other mammalia may be found: higher up
there is pebbly gravel, with layers of iron-sandstone containing casts
of shells. Thence to Cromer we traverse a comparatively flat
agricultural tract formed of glacial sand and brickearth, but inter-
sected at Wroxham by the Valley of the Bure, on the borders of
which the pebbly gravels of the Crag series are exposed, while along
the valley are many picturesque broads.
The cliffs at Cromer are formed of glacial clay, sand, and gravel,
often much contorted; and these beds rest on laminated clays, shelly
sands, gravels with peaty beds and occasional tree-stumps, known as
the Forest-bed series, which has yielded many mammalian remains.
Ely to Hunstanton.
From Ely to Lynn the railway traverses the eastern margin
MAP 4 of the Fenland, through which the Ouse takes its course;
we proceed by Littleport, situated on an island of Kimeridge
clay capped by boulder-clay and gravel, to Denver and Downham
Market which are also on Kimeridge clay, with higher
MAP 21 grounds to the east formed of Lower Greensand, and inter-
sected further north by the Nar Valley.
At Lynn we again border the picturesque Lower Greensand hills
which extend to Sandringham and Snettisham, and we traverse
several cuttings in the sands. Westwards we overlook the waters of
the Wash.
The building-stone of this neighbourhood, largely quarried near
Snettisham, is a brown ferruginous sandstone (Carstone), popularly
called “Gingerbreadstone." It is easily worked, and is chopped into
shape with an axe, but hardens on exposure. Most of the houses of
the neighbourhood bear witness to its use.
At Hunstanton the chief geological attraction is the cliff (about
a mile in length) formed of White Chalk, below which is a band of
Red Chalk, and these are based on the brown Carstone of the Lower
Greensand, which forms a pavement on the foreshore.
III. GREAT NORTHERN RAILWAY.
London to Aberdeen.
Leaving King's Cross we trarerse two tunnels excavated in
MAP 2 the London clay, the second passing beneath the old Copen-
hagen Fields. Onwards past Finsbury Park we continue on
the same formation with here and there cuttings and tunnels as far as
GREAT NORTHERN.
107
Hatfield, traversing an undulating and well-timbered grass-country,
the bordering hills, as near Muswell Hill, Southgate, Barnet and
Potter's Bar, being capped by boulder-clay and drift gravel. As we
approach Hatfield we cross the outcrop of the Reading beds, and
thence proceed over a broad tract of Upper Chalk-with drift gravel and
sand and occasional Eocene outliers. Much of the land is arable, but
it is well wooded and pleasantly diversified. We cross the Lea Valley,
north of Hatfield, and beyond Welwyn pass through tunnels and cut-
tings in the Chalk. The country becomes more undulating, while the
fields are larger and the hedgerows thinner as we get into the more
open Chalk country. The cuttings show here and there irregular
cappings of clay-with-flints ; an occasional Chalk-pit is seen, while
superficial deposits are indicated by gravel-pits and brickyards, as we
pass Knebworth and Stevenage, and reach Hitchin Station, where
there is a fine Chalk-pit with overlying drift gravel. Hereabouts we
cross the escarpment of the Middle Chalk, which forms more prominent
downs towards Luton on the south-west, and Royston on the north-
east.
Entering a low-lying agricultural, and in places, fenny tract, we pass
at the Three Counties Station the Arlesey Lime and Portland Cement
Works, where the Chalk marl is worked, and further on the Arlesey
Brickfields, where the Gault is dug.
We then traverse the fir-clad range of the Lower Greensand
between Biggleswade and Sandy, and in this formation phosphatic
nodules were at one time worked at Potton. Hereabouts it consists
mainly of brown and white false-bedded sands.
We now enter the vale of Oxford clay, a well-timbered country of
arable and pasture land. The clay may be seen in a brickyard near
Sandy, and it extends along our course by the eastern side of
MAP 4 the Ouse, through St. Neots and Huntingdon to Peter-
borough, covered in places by valley-gravel and by much
boulder-clay, and near Holme by the alluvial deposits of the Fenland.
Fletton, near Peterborough, is noted for its extensive brickyards in
the Oxford clay.
DE North of Peterborough Station, the Cornbrash is exposed for
20 some distance and thence we proceed across the Lower
Oolites as far as Grantham. From a flat country with rich
looking pastures we pass to one with bolder features, with
a red-brown soil and much arable land, and with stone-built houses
and stone fences dividing the fields. Cuttings mainly in the Great
Oolite series, comprising limestones and Estuarine clays, are passed
through as far as Essendine and towards Little Bytham, where
we also traverse cuttings in the false-bedded and massive freestones
of the Inferior Dolite (Lincolnshire limestone). Onwards past
Corby to Great Ponton, we again traverse Great Oolite and a deep
cutting in boulder-clay, and then reach the great cuttings and tunnel
in the Lincolnshire limestone of Great and Little Ponton.
As we approach Grantham we leave the wooded escarpment of the
Lincolnshire limestone and enter a great vale of Lias, a clay-country
of meadow and pasture with some arable land, and where red bricks
replace the stone in the buildings. The blue clays of the Upper
108
RAILWAYS.
Lias are exposed near Grantham; and in this neighbourhood iron-ore
is worked in the Middle Lias.
The lower beds yield Blue Lias limestones and form a low
MAP 24 escarpment, which we traverse before reaching Newark-on-
Trent, and entering upon the New Red marl. Newark is
noted for its alabaster and plaster works, the gypsum being
obtained from the Red marls.
Onwards past Tuxford to Retford we cross flat tracts and undula-
ting arable lands, and through cuttings in red marl with occasional
beds of sandstone and gypsum. At Retford the Lower Keuper
sandstones rest on the Bunter sandstone and pebble beds. Thence
over the Bunter formation, with drift sands and gravels by Bawtry,
we traverse a low-lying tract of arable ground, pasture and woodland.
The red sandstone of the Bunter is exposed near Doncaster,
MAP 30 beyond which, through Selby and York to Northallerton, we
proceed through the drift-covered area of the vale of York.
In this flat or slightly undulating agricultural country there are
curious moraine-like ridges of drift, as at Escrick, north of Selby,
and these practically conceal the underlying New Red rocks.
North Eastern Railway.
At York there are extensive deposits of sand, gravel and laminated
clay (" warp"), the clays being worked for bricks and tiles. Thence
towards Thirsk we pass on to the New Red marl, bordered eastwards
by Rhætic beds and Lias, much concealed by drift.
From Northallerton we continue for a space on the Red marl, with
the Lias escarpment and the high Oolitic range of the Hambleton and
Cleveland Hills to the east, and then pass on to the drift-covered New
Red sandstone of the Tees Valley, by Croft, which is noted for its
sulphur-spa.
A little further on is Darlington with its iron-works, situated
MAP 12 on the Magnesian limestone (Permian); and we continue on
this formation over a country more diversified. There are
deep cuttings, for the most part grass-covered, but we pass quarries
and limeworks at Aycliffe, and quarries and fine cuttings in the
irregular beds of Magnesian limestone at Ferry Hill-a locality
noted for its fossil fishes.
At Ferry Hill we leave the escarpment of Magnesian limestone,
and pass on to the Coal-measures. Thence through Durham to New-
castle we traverse an undulating, grassy and agricultural country, with
somewhat stunted trees in the hedgerows. Iron-works and coal-works
are passed here and there, and cuttings in hard sandstone, while many
picturesque wooded ravines and dells are crossed.
From Newcastle onwards to Berwick-on-Tweed the country is
MAP 23 fairly flat, but it is pleasantly diversified by deeply cut
wooded dells. Through Morpeth and as far as Chevington,
we travel over Coal-measures, while beyond we cross the Millstone
grit at Warkworth on to the Lower Carboniferous rocks which also
are coal-bearing. Near Warkworth we have a first view of the sea
across Alnmouth Bay, with Coquet Island to the south-east.
GREAT NORTHERN-NORTH EASTERN.
109
Beyond Longhoughton we cross the Great Whin Sill, which extends
to Dunstanburgh Castle on the coast. Further north at Belford we
again traverse the Sill, which is met with also at Bamburgh and in the
Farne (or Fern) Islands. We now pass near to the coast, with Holy
Island (Lower Carboniferous) standing out a few miles distant from
the broad expanse of sands. Thence by Scremerston, with its coal-
works, large quarries and lime-kilns, we reach Tweedmouth and
Berwick-upon-Tweed.
North British Railway.
From Berwick to Burnmouth we continue at a high level above
MAP 34 cliffs in the Lower Carboniferous rocks, here mostly red sand-
stone, with Silurian slaty rocks on the west. We now passinland
on to the Old Red sandstone at Ayton and Reston Junction, and over
portions of the Lammermuir Hills, formed of Silurian rocks, by
Grant's House. From Cockburnspath to Dunbar we traverse the
Lower Carboniferous rocks, and hereabouts we may have glimpses of
the Bass Rock. From East Linton we traverse a region of eruptive
rocks which extend to Drem Junction, and include North Berwick
Law, a volcanic vent which rises to the north. Thence we pass over
Lower Carboniferous rocks to Edinburgh, with a tract of Coal-
measures the Midlothian coal-field) at Musselburgh. The noble
heights of Arthur's Seat and other crags in the vicinity of the city
are formed of igneous rocks of Lower Carboniferous age.
From Edinburgh to the Forth Bridge, and onwards for some
distance past Dunfermline, we continue on Lower Carboniferous strata
with many eruptive rocks. On the borders of Loch Leven and at
Kinross we are on the Old Red sandstone, while eastwards rise the
volcanic rocks of the Lomond Hills; and we proceed on the Old Red
sandstone to Cupar, crossing a volcanic area before reaching the
Tay Bridge.
From Dundee to Stonehaven we again traverse Old Red
MAP 33 sandstone, with sand-hills between Broughty Ferry and
Carnoustie, and volcanic rocks near Montrose. Beyond
Stonehaven we come into the region of Highland schists, and finally
reach Aberdeen with its huge quarries of grey granite.
S
IV. MIDLAND RAILWAY.
London to Glasgow and Manchester.
Starting from St. Pancras, we travel through tunnels and
MAP 2 cuttings of the London clay past Haverstock Hill and South
Hampstead, onwards by the Brent Reservoir to Hendon.
Thence we pass through an undulating grass-country with well-
timbered hedgerows, by Mill Hill which has small cappings of pebble-
gravel, until we reach Radlett, where the Reading beds appear, with
à capping of London clay and drift gravel. In a pit in the adjoining
110
RAILWAYS.
park the Hertfordshire puddingstone (Reading pebble-bed) was at
one time exposed. The outcrop of the Reading beds here forms
a low scarp overlooking the Chalk country which we now traverse;
a region where much of the land is under arable cultivation. The
Chalk here and for some distance onwards to St. Albans and
Harpenden is much concealed by drift gravel, sand, loam and clay-
with-flints, accumulations which fill irregular cavities or “ pipes” in
the Chalk. Beyond Harpenden we reach a more open country in
the Luton Downs and the Dunstable Downs to the south-west, an
extension of the Chiltern Hills, where the middle beds of Chalk form
a fine escarpment. There are lime-works in the Chalk marl north of
Leagrave, beyond which at Harlington we cross the flat clay-country
of the Gault. From near Flitwick to Ampthill we traverse the
elevated sandy range of the Lower Greensand, which extends to
Woburn on the west; a healthy region with fir plantations.
The cutting and tunnel at Ampthill were excavated through grey
and blue clays that lie between the Kimeridge and Oxford clays.
They represent the Corallian stone-beds of other localities, and are
designated the Ampthill clay. On emerging from the tunnel we cross
a vale of arable and pasture land formed by the Oxford clay and
soon reach Bedford. The gravels of the Ouse Valley have yielded
remains of hippopotamus, and palæolithic implements, discovered
many years ago by James Wyatt.
Both to the south, and at Oakley to the north, of Bedford the
Kellaways beds, comprising loams and sands with large doggers of
calcareous sandstone, have been exposed. These beds overlie a thin
band of Cornbrash which rests on the Great Oolite clays and lime-
stones also worked at Bedford. We traverse these formations with
cappings of drift as we advance northwards, repeatedly
MAP 22 crossing the Ouse. Near Irchester we come upon the
Estuarine series at the base of the Great Oolite, with underlying
Northampton sand, while at a lower level the Upper Lias clay is
exposed along the borders of the Nen Valley and of the Ise tributary
along which we trarel past Wellingborough. In this neighbourhood
the Northampton sand is extensively worked for iron ore, and onwards
to Kettering we pass numerous iron furnaces. The bordering hills
for some distance are formed of Northampton iron-ore with coverings
of Estuarine beds, Great Oolite, and drift, while the deep valleys are
excavated in the Upper Lias. After traversing cuttings in the
Northampton sands we reach Desborough and thence leave the
Dolitic escarpment for the great vale of Lias, a famous hunting
country, which extends from Market Harborough north-
Leicester. There is much drift here as elsewhere in the
Midlands. At South Wigston, near Glen Parva, a fine section of
boulder-clay, Rhætic beds and Red marls has been opened up in
a brickyard.
At Leicester we pass over the New Red marls which are
MAP 24 worked for brick-making and locally yield gypsum, nodular
masses of which appear in the cutting near Syston. Further
on, at Barrow-on-Soar, the Lower Lias limestones are largely worked
MIDLAND.
for hydraulic lime and cement, and many fossil saurians, fishes,
mollusca, and crustacea have been obtained.
At Mount Sorrel there are large granite quarries, the stone being
extensively used for road-metal and for paving, while the waste
material is utilized with Barrow cement in the manufacture of
artificial pavements, &c. Further west lie the ancient slaty and
igneous rocks of Charnwood Forest.
Passing Loughborough through the Quorn hunting country, we
proceed over the Red marls near Hathern with its terra-cotta brick-
works, and across the broad alluvial tract of the Trent Valley to
Trent and Long Eaton.
We now traverse a belt of Bunter and Keuper sandstones to
MAP 9 Stapleford and thence passing Stanton Gate with its iron-
works and prominent mound of slag, we enter the Nottingham
and Derbyshire coal-field, the southern portion of the great
Yorkshire coal-field. We pass through many cuttings in the hard
sandstones, grits, and shales of the Coal-measures, as between Codnor
Park and Alfreton, and from Doe Hill to Clay Cross, where the beds
in places are sharply folded. Here and onwards past Chesterfield
there is abundant evidence of coal-mining activity.
Whether we proceed by Dronfield and Sheffield, or by Staveley,
Woodhouse Mill, and Rotherham to Swinton, we see many sections,
collieries and iron-works, while agricultural tracts and wooded
MAP 30 hills here and there diversify this region of mines and
factories.
Beyond Treeton we may note red false-bedded sandstone-stained
Coal-measure sandstone known as the Rotherham red rock. Leaving
Swinton we pass Darfield, noted for its main coal, and by a millstone
manufactory to Cudworth, whence through Normanton to Leeds
we traverse occasional sections of Coal-measure sandstone, with here
and there seams of coal..
After passing Leeds, as we proceed up Airedale we enter a region
of bolder features. The Millstone grit appears along the base of the
valley above Kirkstall, and we pass large stone quarries at
MAP 18 Calverley Bridge, and fine rock-sections at Shipley. We
reach the open moorlands of the Millstone grit at Bingley,
where the rock is quarried, and thence by Keighley as far as Canonley
we continue on the same formation, passing on to the Carboniferous
limestone series at Skipton. Thence we traverse a country mainly
of Yoredale rocks and Carboniferous limestone, with occasional
sections of boulder-clay, to Settle. Between Hellifield and Long
Preston evidence of lynchets may be noted in places. Pendle Hill,
a scarp of Millstone grit, lies some distance to the south-west near
Clitheroe.
Beyond Long Preston we proceed along the Ribble Valley, across
a belt of Millstone grit, to Settle. Here the characteristic features of
the “Great Scar Limestone” are manifest in the Giggleswick Scars
on the west and the Langcliffe Scars on the east.
Between Stainforth and Horton we continue up Ribblesdale across
a tract of Silurian rocks. Beyond we see the prominent mountains
S
112
RAILWAYS.
of Millstone grit on the Carboniferous limestone series: Penyghent
(2270 feet) to the east, and Ingleborough (2373 feet) to the west. In
this wild region we traverse cuttings in the Carboniferous limestone
series and boulder-clay, and can observe drift mounds here and there
as we pass Ribblehead. Whernside, capped by Millstone grit
(2414 feet), now stands out boldly to the north-west. Onwards we
traverse a long tunnel and a cutting in Yoredale shales, cross the
beautiful Dent Valley, and further on to the east of Hawes
Map 8 Junction we look down Wensleydale, the valley of the Ure
which takes its rise in the Millstone grit fells to the north-
east. Other fells rise boldly to the north-west, including the Wild
Boar Fell (2323 feet). Throughout the journey from Settle we traverse
a grand country of mountain and moor, with rapid stone-strewn
water-courses and occasional cascades.
At Kirkby Stephen we reach the Permian rocks at the head of the
fertile Vale of Eden, a wooded agricultural region. These rocks,
comprising red Penrith sandstone, breccia, and shales, occupy the
western side of the vale, and extend beyond Armathwaite. Bunter
(St. Bees) sandstone borders the eastern side of the vale, and extends
from Cotehill as far as Carlisle, where we reach the Keuper marls.
For short distances Lower Carboniferous shales and sandstones are
exposed in cuttings north of Appleby and south of Cotehill. The
red rocks appear here and there in the cuttings, but they are much
concealed by drift, fine sections of which were described by
MAP y Mr. J. G. Goodchild, notably at Culgaith, Longwathby, and
Armathwaite. South of Lazonby a large esker has been cut
through. Beyond Longwathby there is a fine view south-westwards
across the Eden to the mountains of the Lake District Eastwards
there rise the fells of Dufton, Milburn Forest and Cross Fell.
To the west of Carlisle there is a tract of Lower Lias almost every-
where concealed by a thick coating of boulder-drift.
PL
DIT
Glasgow and South Western Railway.
Northwards we journey across the drift-covered Red marls and
sandstones, and the alluvium and peat of the Esk Valley. Thence
we skirt the northern shores of the Solway Firth, over Red
MAP 34 rocks and drift to Annan, and over Carboniferous rocks by
Cummertrees and Ruthwell to the Nith Valley at Dumfries,
where the New Red sandstones are extensively quarried for building-
stone. Further on we traverse the Silurian and Ordovician rocks of
the Southern Uplands between Auldgirth and New Cumnock, with
a tract of Lower Carboniferous and New Red rocks from Closeburn
through Thornhill to Carronbridge, and a tract of Coal-measures at
Sanquhar and Kirkconnel. Thence we cross the boundary-fault on to
the Ayrshire coal-field, passing over a complex series of Carboniferous
and volcanic rocks, with Permian at Mauchline, Old Red sandstone
south of Hurlford, Coal-measures at Kilmarnock, and a great series
of Lower Carboniferous strata and volcanic rocks onwards by Barrhead
to the Clyde Valley and the Coal-measures of Glasgow.
MIDLAND.
113
Trent to Manchester.
From Trent to Derby we proceed along the alluvial tracts
MAP 9 of the Derwent, bordered by New Red marls, and, con-
tinuing along the same valley, we pass a belt of Keuper
and Bunter sandstones, beyond which the bordering hills are formed
of Lower Carboniferous rocks and Millstone grit. Beyond Duffield
we traverse the south-western end of the Derbyshire coal-field,
through Belper to Ambergate, along a picturesque, well-wooded
valley.
From Ambergate we cross the Millstone grit, and near Matlock
pass through tunnels and cuttings and enter the charming dale
country of Derbyshire, formed of Carboniferous limestone and
shales. Thence we cross this region of crags and wooded and grassy
slopes by Darley Dale, Haddon Hall, Bakewell, Monsal
MAP 5 Dale, and Miller's Dale, near Buxton, to Chapel-en-le-Frith,
to the north-east of which Kinderscout, capped by Millstone
grit (2088 feet), forms the prominent feature in the Peak District.
Both near Matlock and Miller's Dale the limestone has interbanded
volcanic rocks, locally known as Toadstone, and we note, by the way,
many a quarry and lime-kiln. Thence crossing the Millstone grit by
Chinley and Bugsworth we pass fine cuttings and quarries in the
rocks, and enter a region of dark shales and sandstones belonging to
the Cheshire and Lancashire coal-field. Thick drift sands and gravels
appear in places, and we cross deep wooded valleys with fine hills.
as we pass onwards to Marple and Bredbury. Beyond is a flat or
undulating agricultural tract of drift overlying New Red
MAP 18 rocks. At Reddish we notice cuttings of reddish sand, and
thence soon reach the city of Manchester.
V. LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN RAILWAY.
London to Birmingham, Liverpool, Carlisle, Thurso and Wick, to
Kyle of Lochalsh, and to Holyhead.
Leaving Euston Station, we pass through bricked-up
MAP 2 cuttings and the Primrose Hill tunnel, excavated in the
London clay, and, passing Willesden Junction, we traverse
the same formation as far as Bushey. Being a clay country, with no
ready supply of water from surface wells, it has been long a thinly
populated tract of meadow and pasture land--an undulating country
with many pleasant lanes shaded by trees. Along the line of railway
the population is now rapidly increasing as at Harrow, with its
capping of Bagshot Sands, and at Stanmore to the east, the highest
ground in Middlesex (500 feet) formed of pebbly gravel.
At Bushey we cross the Colne Valley, excavated through the Reading
beds into the Chalk, anů, passing Watford, we traverse a picturesque
country formed of Chalk with cappings of drift gravel and clay-with-
flints. Several cuttings and tunnels are passed through, and we
reach the bold Chalk scarp of the Chiltern Hills at Tring, noticing
the smooth outlines of the downs at Ivinghoe and Tottern hoe to the
114
RAILWAYS.
north-east. The cutting to the north is in the softer Chalk marl.
The Upper Greensand is feebly represented in this neighbourhood,
and we cross over the flat area of Gault clay at Cheddington, part of
the fertile Vale of Aylesbury, passing near a Chalk outlier with
terraces of cultivation or Jynchets, at West End Hill to the south-
west
At Leighton Buzzard we reach the Lower Greensand, which yields
a variety of sands for economic purposes. Thence, passing through
a short tunnel in this formation, we traverse a vale of Oxford clay,
with much boulder-clay and drift gravel, through Bletchley, near
Fenny Stratford, with the uplands of Woburn Sands (Lower Green-
sand) to the east.
At Wolverton, after crossing the outcrop of Cornbrash, we pass on
to the Great Oolite, which is quarried for lime-burning near Stony
Stratford and Newport Pagnell. In this region the Inferior Oolite
series (Northampton Sands, &c.) is but feebly represented or absent,
and the Upper Lias clay appears in parts of the Ouse Valley near by.
Northwards from Castlethorpe to Roade, we pass through
MAP 22 cuttings in the Great Oolite series, with bands of limestone
and clay; and at Blisworth we come upon the underlying
ironstone of the Northampton Sands, which rests on the blue clays of
the Upper Lias. Iron-furnaces may be noticed here and onwards
towards Northampton. Leaving Blisworth, we enter the vale of
Lias, passing through clay cuttings near Weedon, and further on
through the great Kilsby tunnel, excavated in Lower Lias
MAP 29 clays. Onwards to Rugby we traverse an undulating grass
country, with many a ridge and furrow, and as we approach
the town we pass deep cuttings in glacial sands. The old main line
to Birmingham passes over the Lower Lias, which is extensively
quarried west of Rugby, and over a low-lying tract of Red marl, with
drift gravel. We cross the Avon near Brandon and Wolston, and
further on traverse the New Red sandstone which, together with red
marls, is excavated in cuttings and tunnels near Coventry. Thence
we pass over further tracts of Red sandstones and marls,
MAP 26 much drift-covered, ere we reach Birmingham. Between
Birmingham and Wolverhampton lies the Black Country
of the South Staffordshire coal-field, with its coal-mines and tips of
waste shale and sandstone, its iron-furnaces and heaps of slag.
Rugby by Carlisle to Thurso.
Journeying north-westwards from Rugby we pass near to
MAP 29 quarries in the Blue (Lower) Lias, and then cross a drift-
covered area of New Red (Keuper) marls and sandstones
before we reach Nuneaton, where the Red sandstone is quarried.
Between Nuneaton and Atherstone we skirt on its north-western side
a region of old rocks, with the Caldecote volcanic series (Pre-
Cambrian), the Hartshill quartzite (Cambrian), largely quarried for
The railway continues on the New Red marls and sandstones to
LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN.
115
S
Polesworth, whence to Tamworth, it crosses the northern
MAP 26 end of the Warwickshire coal-field, and again passes over
the New Red rocks near Lichfield and onwards to Armitage
and Rugeley. Here we are on the borders of Cannock Chase, the
northern end of which, a tract of picturesque moorland hills, is
formed of the Bunter pebble-beds, and extends onwards by Colwich,
to near Stafford. Thence to Crewe, we pass over Keuper marls, with
sandstones near Standon Bridge, and with Bunter beds, and a part of
the North Staffordshire coal-field at Madeley. Near Crewe the
Keuper marls yield rock salt and brine springs. This
MAP 5 country is on the whole flat and uninteresting, and it is
much drift-covered. We continue on the Keuper marls to
the borders of the Mersey Valley, where Keuper and Bunter sand-
stones re-appear.
Further on at Hartford the ground is more undulating, at Acton
Bridge we cross the River Weaver, and wooded hills diversify the
scene ere we reach the flats bordering the Mersey.
From Acton Bridge to Liverpool the line continues on Keuper
marls and drifts to near the borders of the Mersey, where we pass
on to Keuper and Bunter sandstones. We cross the river
MAP 18 at Runcorn, and continue on Bunter sandstone, through
Allerton to Liverpool which is situated partly on Bunter,
and partly on Keuper sandstone.
MAPS
From Acton Bridge to Wigan we continue on Bunter beds
5, 18
& through Warrington, passing cuttings in sandstone, and
e, 4 soon enter upon the South Lancashire coal-field. Coal.
mines and brickyards now appear, as we proceed through Wigan,
over a flat and otherwise uninteresting country. At Boar's Head
and Euxton the monotony is broken by wooded ravines. Further
north, by Leyland, we cross tracts of Keuper and Bunter with much
drift sand, and then pass over the Ribble on a viaduct of fifty-six
arches, and reach Preston. Onwards to Garstang we traverse
a hilly country with cuttings in the Bunter sandstone and pebble-
beds, while to the east appear the bold hills of the Lancashire Moors
(Longridge Fell, Bleasdale Moors, &c.). From Garstang onwards to
Lancaster we enter upon an area of Millstone grit rising into fine
moorlands on the east, with drift here and there. Thence we cross
the Lune, and the country becomes more hilly and picturesque.
On the west of Hest Bank Station we see the broad sands of More-
cambe Bay, and at Bolton-le-Grange notice huge boulders in the drift.
West of Carnforth crags of Carboniferous limestone appear,
MAP 8 and onwards, by Burton, Holme, to near Oxenholme (for
Kendal) we traverse a district of this rocky formation.
Thence we enter upon the Silurian strata, and its grand scenery
commands attention along our route by Grayrigg, Low Gill and
Tebay Junctions.
Beyond this we pass through traces of Old Red sandstone
MAP y or Carboniferous conglomerate, and more Carboniferous
limestone between Shap and Penrith, having on our west the
rough hill of Shap granite and the mountains of the Lake District.
At Penrith we enter upon the Permian rocks of the Vale of Eden,
8 *
116
RAILWAYS.
which, near Carlisle, are capped by Keuper marls and Lias, erery.
where greatly concealed by drift. The bold outline of the Pennine
Chain rises to the east.
Caledonian Railway.
In the cliffs at Stanwix, on the River Eden, the red and green
Keuper marls with bands of limestone are exposed, and thence we
traverse a drift-covered country with some alluvial pastures and many
tracts of peat, past Rockcliffe and Floriston, until we cross the Solway
and enter Scottish land near the once famous Gretna Green.
MAP 34 We now pass over a tract of New Red sandstone, much drift-
covered, on to the Lower Carboniferous rocks at Ecclefechan,
and thence over a belt of Old Red sandstone and volcanic rocks to the
Silurian rocks at Lockerbie. From this point we traverse the bold
and mountainous region of the Southern Uplands, formed largely of
the Silurian rocks, tilted and folded and traversed here and there by
igneous rocks. In the lower grounds of Annandale there are beds of
New Red strata, concealed, however, by thick drifts. Beyond
Lockerbie we pass Jardine Hall, to the west of which were the
quarries of Corncockle Muir, which yielded Labyrinthodont foot-
prints. (See p. 92.)
At Beattock we are in the heart of the Upland region. Moffat
lies to the north-east, and beyond are the heights of Ettrick and
Hart Fell (2651 feet), while to the south-west is Queensberry
(2285 feet).
At Elvanfoot, in Clydesdale, we cross on to Ordovician rocks, and
not far to the west is the metalliferous Leadhills region, with the
Lowther Hills to the south.
At Lamington we cross the southern boundary fault of the Clyde
and Forth Basins, a tract of Old Red sandstone and Carboniferous
rocks, with many contemporaneous and intrusive igneous rocks, with
also coverings of boulder clay and mounds of gravel. We pass for the
most part over the older of these rocks by Carstairs to Carluke,
whence we traverse the Coal-measures by Motherwell and Coat-
bridge. We skirt the borders of the coal-field by Larbert, and
continue on Lower Carboniferous rocks to Stirling, with its fine
castle perched on a crag of basalt.
Crossing the Forth, with its alluvial deposits, we proceed
MAP 33 along the banks of Allan Water over a tract of Old Red
sandstone, with the volcanic rocks of the Ochil Hills rising
boldly to the east of Dunblane. We pass to the north-west of the
range by Crieff Junction to Perth, to the north-east of which the
volcanic range is continued in the Sidlaw Hills, while the Carse
of Gowrie forms the low ground bordering the Firth of Tay towards
Dundee.
Highland Railway.
From Perth we continue on the Old Red sandstone up the Tay
Valley to near Dunkeld, where we enter the Highlands among the
Grampian Hills.
Until we approach Inverness our route lies wholly among the old
LONDON AND NORTH WESTERN-HIGHLAND.
117
crystalline schistose rocks, varied only by the accumulations of
glacial sands and boulder gravels, torrential valley deposits, and
peat. There are comparatively few cuttings and tunnels.
From Dunkeld we pass over quartzites and mica-schists, up the
Tay Valley to the Tummell Valley at Pitlochry, and thence by the
Pass of Killiecrankie, along the Garry, through a more varied series
of schists, with occasional limestones and slates, to Blair Athole.
Schichallion (3547 feet) may be seen from near the Pass of Killie-
crankie as we look up the Tummel Valley towards the W.S.W.
Ben Vrackie rises to the east (2757 feet).
Leaving Blair Athole we proceed up Glen Garry, with the Forest
of Athole to the north, to the Pass of Drumochter, where the railway
attains a height of 1500 feet. We now descend by Dalwhinnie, with
a peep of Loch Ericht to the south-west, and proceed along Strath
Spey, a broad tract with much drift, by Kingussie and Kincraig, to
Aviemore. Eastwards there is a fine view of the great granite mass
which rises to form Cairn Gorm ( 1084 feet) in the northern part and
Ben Macdhui (4296 feet) to the south.
If we follow the new line of railway we continue through a grand
and rugged country of schists, crossing the Findhorn at Tomatin,
and passing on to a granite mass at Moy. Near Daviot, by Strath
Nairn, we enter a tract of Old Red sandstone, and continue on it by
Culloden to Inverness.
Journeying past Grantown, we ascend through a tract of granite to
Dava, and descend by Dunphail near the Findhorn to Forres, where
a low-lying fir-clad country.
Leaving Inverness, we skirt the shores of Beauly Firth, mostly on
Old Red sandstone, with schists appearing at Lentran; and we
continue on the Old Red sandstone through a well-cultivated country
to Dingwall, and along the shores of Cromarty Firth to Invergordon.
From Invergordon we proceed on the Old Red sandstone to Tain,
now skirting Dornoch Firth and passing on to granite and schists
between Edderton and Bonar Bridge. Thence we traverse a region
of schists to Lairg, and descend Strath Fleet through a granite area
to Rogart Again we cross schists and pass on to the Old Red sand-
stone at the Mound and Golspie, a formation which rises up into bold
hills along this part of the coast.
From Golspie, past Dunrobin Castle to Brora and Helmsdale, we
traverse a strip of New Red and Jurassic rocks-the latter ranging
from the Lias to the Kimeridgian, and perhaps Portlandian. They
are exposed along the burns and in reefs on the foreshore, but
elsewhere are largely concealed by various drift deposits. At Brora
coal has long been worked in one seam in the Great Oolite series.
Leaving Helmsdale we cross a granite tract which forms the Ord
of Caithness, and proceed mostly on schists to Kildonana locality
at one time of notoriety on account of the gold found in the alluvial
deposits.
Prominent hills of Old Red sandstone, the Maiden Pap (1587 feet)
and Morven (2313 feet), are seen to the north-east, and indeed for
some distance onwards.
118
RAILWAYS.
We pass from Kinbrace and Forsinard through a granite country,
and over schists and Old Red sandstone, forming a dreary moor-
land, to Halkirk and Thurso, or to Wick. Thurso is the centre
of the Caithness flag industry, and Wick of the fishing-trade.
Dingwall to Kyle of Lochalsh.
From Dingwall we may proceed westwards by Strathpeffer on the
Old Red sandstone, famed for its sulphurous waters. Ben Wyvis,
a schistose mountain, stands bodly up to the north (3429 feet), and
thence we traverse a grand mountainous country of schists, with many
a highland loch and cascade, to Achnashellach, where the Torridon
sandstone meets the Highland schists to the north of Strath Carron.
We continue on the schists to Strome Ferry and then cross a tract of
Torridon sandstone to the Kyle of Lochalsh.
Crewe to Holyhead.
Leaving Crewe for Holyhead we pass over a broad tract of
Map 5 Keuper marls with Drift, to Beeston Castle, which is
situated on the scarp of Keuper and Bunter sandstones.
Thence to Chester we continue on the Bunter sandstone. The
railway now traverses an alluvial flat at the head of the Dee
MAP 31 estuary, and continues alongside the estuary, which is bordered
by the Flintshire coal-field, past Flint and Holywell. It now
skirts the sea-coast, which is fringed with blown sand, by Prestatyn
and Rhyl-across the lower part of the Vale of Clwyd, on to Coal.
measures at Abergele and on to Carboniferous limestone beyond.
At Colwyn Bay Silurian rocks occur, but all along the strata are
much obscured by drift. The headlands of the Ormes Heads by
Llandudno are formed of Carboniferous limestone. At Conway
Ordovician and igneous rocks appear, and a great mass of diorite
stands out at Penmaenmawr. We cross Cambrian rocks at Bangor,
and pass over Carboniferous limestone before we enter the Tubular
Bridge. Thence in Anglesey we traverse a country mostly of schists,
with Carboniferous rocks much concealed by drift in the low-lying
district of Malldraeth Marsh, and further on schists and granitoid
rock, with blown sands by Cymmeran Bay, serpentine near Rhoscolyn,
and schists again at Holyhead.
VI. GREAT CENTRAL RAILWAY.
(With Metropolitan Railway to Quainton Road.)
From Marylebone the line passes through tunnels and cut-
MAP 2 tings of London clay to West Hampstead, and over the same
formation past Willesden Green. In the Brent Valley, near
Wembly Park Station, traces of Drift with remains of hippopotamus,
were opened up during the construction of the railway. We continue
on London clay past Harrow, the hill being capped by Bagshot beds.
GREAT CENTRAL.
119
Pinner is situated on an inlier of the Reading beds, a mixed form-
ation of mottled clay, sand, and pebble-gravel, bordered by London
clay. This is a well-timbered picturesque region, and a little further
on we gain a glimpse of the Ruislip reservoir. Leaving Northwood we
soon enter the Chalk country and cross the watery Colne Valley to
Rickmansworth. Then we traverse a hilly and well-wooded region,
with many beech-trees. The subsoil consists largely of gravel and
clay-with-flints which fill huge irregular pipes in the Chalk. We
enter the Misburn Valley near Amersham, proceeding by Great
Missenden and through a cutting in the Lower Chalk and Chalk
marl to Wendover. Here we pass from the head of the Misburu
Valley, which is cut through the Chiltern Hills, into the broad Vale
of Aylesbury formed largely of Gault and Kimeridge clay. The fine
escarpment of the Chalk with its smooth outlines stands out boldly as
we leave Wendover.
We now cross a flat country of arable and grass land to Stoke
Mandeville, and get peeps of shallow cuttings in Portland beds as
we approach Aylesbury. Beyond we pass over Kimeridge clay, and
at Quainton Road, where the railway parts from the Metropolitan
line, we are on the upper beds of Oxford clay, which yield large
specimens of Gryphæa dilatata. Thence we traverse the Oxford
clay with thin coverings of drift, and the Cornbrash, wholly con:
cealed by boulder-clay and drift gravel, which are exposed near
Finmere. Onwards we find occasional exposures of drift and Great
Oolite, especially in cuttings on either side of the Ouse Valley by
Brackley, where the soft white limestones and marls and hard shelly
limestones of the Great Oolite are very fossiliferous. The harder beds
have locally been used for building purposes. Through
MAP 22 Helmdon we pass fine cuttings in boulder-clay and Great
Oolite, and observe also Estuarine clays and sands beneath
the limestones. Further on, near Woodford and Hinton, we pass
deep cuttings in the blue Upper Lias clay with cement-stones, and in
boulder-clay, with also slipped masses of Northampton sands from
Hinton Hill.
South of Charwelton we traverse a cutting in Middle Lias
(marlstone) faulted against the Upper Lias clay. Near the station
the clay is covered with drift gravel, and beyond we enter another
cutting of Upper Lias faulted on the north against the Middle Lias.
A little further on we enter the long Catesby tunnel excavated in the
clayey beds of the Middle and Lower Lias. The cutting at the
north end of the tunnel yielded many fossils of the zone of Ammonites
capriornus.
Mie Onwards past Willoughby we traverse cuttings in the Lower
29, 19
10
.
Lias clays, and then pass over a mass of drift sand and
gravel before we enter Rugby. Thence to Lutterworth and
Ashby Magna while crossing the Lias, and further on the Keuper
marl by Whetstone to Leicester, the ground is much covered with
boulder-clay and gravels.
At Leicester we cross the Soar Valley, and continue on Keuper
marls with much drift. Our route lies between the rocky hills of
Charnwood Forest and the granite area of Mount Sorrel which is just
S
120
RAILWAYS.
touched by the railway; and we pass Quorn and Woodhouse, and
Loughborough.
We now cross a tract of Lower Lias limestones and Rhætic
MAP 24 beds, the black Rhætic shales and underlying green and
grey marls being cut through on the way to East Leake.
Further on by Ruddington the Keuper marls occupy low ground
with old swampy tracts that are filled with peat and sand. Ere
reaching Nottingham we traverse a cutting in the marls.
Nottingham is situated on the Bunter pebble-beds, well seen at
the Castle, and we continue on this formation to Bulwell. Thence by
Hucknall Torkard we cross the Magnesian limestones and marls, on
to Bunter sandstone with much drift at Annesley, and again
Mine through Permian at Kirkby-in-Ashfield, on to the Derby-
* shire coal-field at Pinxton, and onwards by Staveley to
9, 30
Sheffield.
VII. GREAT WESTERN RAILWAY.
London to Penzance, South Wales, Malvern, Shrewsbury, and
Birmingham.
Leaving Paddington we traverse the London clay
Map 2 to Acton and thence for some distance by Ealing,
Southall, West Drayton and Slough, the gravels and
brickearth of the Thames Valley. These form a broad vale,
marked by numerous brickyards, as at Langley, and occasional
gravel pits. The deposits in this area have not yielded so many
mammalian remains, as have those lower down the valley : but
remains of mammoth were in the early days of geology obtained at
Brentford, and palæolithic implements have been found near Ealing.
Market gardens and nurseries have been established over many parts
of the area. Near Slough we have peeps of Windsor Castle, which
is built on an eminence of Chalk, here bent into anticlinal form.
Beyond Slough we cross the outcrop of Reading beds on to Chalk,
both hereabouts concealed by valley gravel. At Taplow phosphatic
bands have been observed in the Chalk. We now cross the Thames
and pass Maidenhead, where the valley gravel above the Chalk has
yielded remains of Musk-Ox.
The Lower Eocene strata, London clay and Reading beds
MAP 3 occur to the south of the railway, and a large outlying mass
extends to the north of Twyford, near Wargrave.
We cross portions of these strata at Twyford and onwards towards
Reading, where the red brick houses exhibit one of the local indus.
tries : the mottled clays of the Reading beds having long been
utilized for brick-making.
From Reading we keep on the Chalk with overlying valley gravels,
the Chalk being exposed in deep cuttings here and there as we pass
through Pangbourne and Goring to Moulsford--through what is called
the gorge of the Thames. The river has bere trenched the escarp-
ment which north-eastwards forms the range of the Chiltern Hills.
Beyond Moulsford we traverse the Chalk marl, a low-lying tract, and
then cross the outcrop of Upper Greensand which rises gently above
GREAT WESTERN.
121
the plain of Gault beyond, and reach Didcot, situated near the junction
of the two formations.
The Chalk escarpment stands out boldly to the south, and near
Uffington, beyond Wantage, is the celebrated White Horse, formed
by the cutting away of the turf on the Chalk slope; this gives name to
the Vale we now traverse, and which is formed partly of Gault and
partly of Kimeridge clay.
At Faringdon (on a branch line), are the sponge-gravel beds of
the Lower Greensand, and we cross portions of this formation beyond
Uffington on to the Kimeridge clay, which extends as a low-lying
tract of meadow land for some distance.
Swindon Station and new town are situated on the Kimer-
MAP 14 idge clay, which is largely worked for brick-making and
noted for saurian remains. On high ground to the south
the old town stands on the Portland beds, which yield bands of hard
sandstone (Swindon stone), and other layers, rich in fossils. Cappings
of Purbeck beds are also present.
At Wootton Bassett the Corallian beds pleasantly diversify the
S
clay, which extends by Dauntsey to Chippenham. Beyond Dauntsey
is Christian Malford, and here many ammonites and other fossils
were obtained during the construction of the railway, especially from
trenches made to obtain material for the long embankments. Further
on to the south lies Kellaways, famed for its beds of fossiliferous
sandstone which were dug for road-metal in old days. The Kella-
ways Rock occurs near the base of the Oxford clay, and may be seen
in the banks of the stream below Kellaways Mill.
Leaving Chippenham which is situated partly on the Cornbrash,
we enter upon the Lower Oolites, that form the southern extremity of
the Cotteswold Hills, and the fine bold scenery which we traverse on
the way to Bath. It is a country of stone-fences and stone-built
houses. At Corsham we pass cuttings in the Forest Marble and at
the entrance to the Box tunnel, layers of fossiliferous Bradford clay
overlie the massive limestones of the Great Oolite. The tunnel is
excavated through this formation, and also through the Fuller's earth
and Inferior Volite. The large quarries of Corsham and Box are in
reality mines whence the Bath Sione (Great Oolite) is obtained from
underground tunnels, whose extent now collectively amounts to up-
wards of thirty miles in length.
Bath is situated on Lower Oolites, Lias, and valley gravels;
MAP 11 the gravels have yielded remains of mammoth. We pass over
the Lias at Twerton, crossing the Keuper marl and a tract
of Coal-measures at Newton St. Loe. The bold scarp of the Cottes-
wolds terminates at Kelston Round Hill on the north. At Saltford
we enter cuttings of the blue Lower Lias and the White Lias
(Rhætic beds), and we continue on Lower Lias with fine cuttings
near Keynsham. Beyond we enter the Bristol coal-field and pass
through cuttings and tunnels of the Pennant Grit (Middle Coal-
measures, which forms fine wooded scarpe. By St. Anne's Park the
softer Keuper (New Red) sandstone may be seen resting unconform-
ably on the red Pennant Grits. Leaving Bristol we have glimpses
122
RAILWAYS.
of the Clifton Suspension Bridge which crosses the Avon lower down,
and we pass a deep cutting in the Keuper marls and overlying
Rhætic beds at Bedminster. We continue on the Keuper marls
bordered by Carboniferous limestone, which extends to the north
from the Clifton gorge; and soon enter the Nailsea coal-field which is
fringed on the south by the Carboniferous limestone famed for its
combes of Brockley and Cleve. At Yatton we pass on to the alluvial
moors that border the estuary of the Severn as far as Durston, beyond
Bridgwater : a region that includes rich grazing lands, and also large
tracts that are liable to be flooded after long-continued rain. We
have fine views of the Mendip Hills, and at Uphill we traverse the
western extremity of the range in a cutting which shows the Keuper
marls, Rhætic beds and Lower Lias on the north, faulted against the
Carboniferous limestone on the south. Eastwards Crook Peak, one
of the Mendip Hills, stands out prominently, and further east are
the Cheddar Cliffs. To the west is Brean Down.
We now pass the bold hill of Middle and Upper Lias and Midford
Sands, known as Brent Knoll, and on a clear day we may discern far to
the east the smaller conical knoll of Glastonbury Tor, of similar
structure, and both relics of wide-spread denudation. Passing
Highbridge, we cross the western end of the Polden Hills at
Dunball, where the Blue Lias is worked for lime and cement, and the
cutting shows also the Rhætic beds below. At Bridgwater we cross
the River Parrett, the “slime” from which is utilized in the
manufacture of Bath bricks. Beyond Bridgwater to the east, on
part of Sedgemoor, lies the little Isle of Athelney, and now we soon
enter the fertile Vale of Taunton, formed of New Red marls, sand-
stones, and conglomerates; bordered on the north-west by the
Devonian rocks of the Quantock Hills, and on the east or south-east
by the Upper Greensand heights of Blackdown, upon a spur of which
the Wellington Monument is situated. Leaving Wellington
MAP 10 we traverse a tunnel in New Red rocks, and at Burlescombe
observe fine quarries in contorted limestones of the Lower
Carboniferous. At Exeter we note sections of the Culm-
measures. Beyond we proceed along the borders of the Exe
estuary, with the red sandstones of Exm outh on the east, and
the Haldon Hills (Upper Greensand) on the west. At Dawlish and
Teignmouth, the railway runs at the foot of fine cliffs of Permian
sandstone, breccia, and conglomerate, and thence borders the estuary
of the Teign to Newton Abbot. Here in the higher part of the
valley are the Eocene clays so largely worked for the potteries, and
the interesting lignite-beds of Bovey Tracey. Beyond Newton we
come to the Devonian limestones and slates, and thence by Totnes as
far as Plymouth the line passes for the most part over the
MAP 6 Devonian slaty rocks, the granitic range of Dartmoor
being skirted on its southern margin. At Plymouth the
Devonian limestones are well developed, and thence into Cornwall we
pass over a country chiefly made up of Devonian slates or“ killas,” and
granite, with a cutting in altered dolerite and serpentine at Menheniot.
Perhaps the most picturesque portion of the railway is tbat near
Bodmin Road, where the bold bills that lie south of the granite of
GREAT WESTERN.
123
Bodmin Moor are well wooded. At Lostwithiel we pass near
Restormel Castle, and its once famous iron-mines. At St. Austell
we are in the midst of china-clay works, and may note the milky
appearance of the streams which issue from them. Thence we pass
through a slaty region to Truro, with deep and picturesque valleys
and bold rounded hills with much grassy and arable land. The fields
are divided by stone and earth banks, capped often by gorse and
other bushes, and even by small trees. We traverse the chief mining
region at Redruth and Camborne, and here the streams are red
rivers, being stained with ferruginous mud from the washings of the
tin-mine works. Mines in activity and mines deserted, with heaps
of refuse, characterize this region. The rugged granite hill of
Carnbrea lies to the south. We pass over agricultural tracts with
few trees, and through a cutting in greenstone on the way to Gwinear
Road, and at Hayle we look towards the blown sand hills of Lelant
and Phillack, with old mines, and thence reach St. Erth. On the
hills to the east there is a remnant of Pliocene (Crag) deposits.
Proceeding to St. Ives, we pass along the margin of the tidal creek,
which is bordered by dark slaty cliffs with grassy slopes, to the white
sandy Carbis Bay, and through cuttings of slate and greenstone to
St. Ives.
Proceeding to Penzance, we pass on to Marazion, with a fine view
of St. Michael's Mount (granite) to the south-east, and thence to the
granite region of Penzance. Here the hills, if bold, are not lofty, and
the ground is extensively cultivated, the enclosures being small on
account of the shelter afforded by the banks of earth and stone.
Wootton Bassett to South Wales.
From Wootton Bassett we traverse a cutting in Corallian
MAP 14 rocks and then proceed across an undulating low-lying tract
of Oxford clay, past Brinkworth to Little Somerford, where
Kellaways beds were exposed. We now cross the Avon, and pass
through other cuttings in Oxford clay and Kellaways beds near
Corston, on to the Cornbrash at Hullavington. Thence we traverse
a grassy country of Forest Marble, with cuttings in clays and lime-
stones and sandy beds, faulted here and there, and through a short
tunnel and deep cuttings, which expose the Great Oolite below, by
Alderton to the south of Badminton. Further on, near Acton
Turville, we pass through a long tunnel excavated in Forest Marble,
Great Oolite, Fuller's earth, Inferior Colite, and Lias, and we
emerge below the scarp of the Cotteswold Hills, near Old Sodbury.
Westwards we pass through cuttings in Lower Lias limestones and
clays, and Rhætic beds with Cotham marble, to Chipping Sodbury.
Thence are exposed Old Red sandstone, Carboniferous limestone with
bands of grit, and overlying Rhætic beds and Keuper marls. Further
on we traverse fine cuttings in Rhætic beds, and Red marls with
the Pennant grit, and cuttings in red, yellow, and purple shales.
Beyond Winterbourne we again coine on Red marls, Rhætic beds and
124
WAYS.
11
Lias near Stoke Gifford and Patchway. Then we pass tracts of
Carboniferous limestone and faulted Coal-measures at the Catty brook
brick and tile-works, before crossing the broad alluvium of the Severn
flats to the Severn tunnel. This tunnel was excavated partly through
Millstone grit, Coal-measures, and Triassic rocks. On
MAP 16 emerging from the tunnel we traverse cuttings in Keuper
marl and sandstone bordered by Carboniferous limestone,
and skirt the alluvial moors by Newport to Cardiff. We pass
quarries in the Lower Lias at Liswery near Llanwern east of
MAP 32 Newport, while the higher grounds are formed of Old Red
sandstone with Silurian at Rumney, near Cardiff.
From Cardiff our route lies over a region of Dolomitic conglomerate
and Lower Lias, much drift covered, past St. Fagans. Near Llan-
trissant we cross the Carboniferous limestone, which here yields
iron-ore in pockets, and pass over a portion of the great South Wales
coal-field, on to the Red marls and Lower Lias again at Bridgend.
The Lias is here extensively worked for lime and cement making.
We continue on the Lias, Rhætic beds, and Red marls to Pyle, and
then traverse the alluvium fringed by blown sands, on the borders of
the Coal-measures, to Neath and Swansea. The bolder hills are
here formed of the Pennant grit. Leaving the dreary mining and
smelting region of Landore near Swansea, we pass the western portion
of the coal-field at Llanelly and Kidwelly on the borders of Car-
marthen Bay, with its fringes of blown sand. At Kidwelly we cross
the Lower Carboniferous rocks, proceed up the Towy Valley on Old
Red sandstone, and near Carmarthen enter a tract of Silurian and
Ordovician rocks which extends westwards to near Haverfordwest.
From Haverfordwest we cross Silurian rocks on to the Coal-measures
of the Pembrokeshire coal-field, traverse igneous rocks by Johnston,
and thence over a belt of Silurian we pass on to Old Red sandstone
upon which Milford Haven is situated.
Swindon to Great Malvern.
From Swindon to Gloucester we leave the Kimeridge clay
MAP 14 near Purton and cross the scarp of the Corallian rocks on to
the broad vale of Oxford clay, formerly part of the Forest of
Braydon. Near Kemble we cross the outcrop of the Cornbrash, and
pass through cuttings in Forest Marble and Great Oolite, Fossil-
iferous Bradford clay was exposed below the railway where it crosses
the Roman road (Akeman Street) between Tetbury and Cirencester.
We now traverse the Cotteswold Hills, a region of stone-fences,
stone-built and sometimes stone-tiled houses. Cuttings in Great
Oolite and the long Sapperton tunnel are passed through, the tunnel
traversing Great Oolite, Fuller's earth, and Inferior Oolite which is
exposed at the northern entrance. We now descend the beautiful
Stroudwater Valley, past Chalford, noted for its springs, on to the
Upper Lias at Stroud. To the south is Minchinhampton Hill, famed
for its Great Oolite fossils, while the slopes formed of Inferior Oolite
are everywhere rich in organic remains. Passing brickyards in Middle
Lias we traverse a vale of Lower Lias to Gloucester. Crossing the
GREAT WESTERN.
125
Severn we pass a cutting in Lower Lias and Rhætic beds at Lassing.
ton, on to the Keuper marls. May Hill, formed of Silurian rocks,
lies to the south-west, and the Malvern range stands out to the north.
At Newent we cross a tract of Keuper sandstones and marls, and
a narrow belt of Coal-measures near Oxenhall. Thence by Dymock
to Ledbury we pass over Old Red sandstone.
vi At Ledbury we traverse the passage-beds into the Silurian,
in the cutting and tunnel, where the Ledbury shales are
10, no followed by Downton sandstones and Ludlow beds. At
Colwall we cross another portion of Old Red sandstone, and now
traverse the Silurian rocks and the old gneiss of Malvern in a
tunnel whence we reach the vale of Keuper marls on the east of
the range of hills at Great Malvern.
Didcot to Shrewsbury.
From Didcot we traverse the vale of Gault to the borders
MAP 3 of the Thames, cross a tract of Lower Greensand, and again
pass over the river to the junction for Abingdon. Thence we
continue over a flat tract of Kimeridge clay and Corallian rocks, with
valley gravel and alluvium, to Oxford. Eastwards we have a view of
Shotover Hill, capped by Lower Greensand. From Oxford we pass
large brickyards in the Oxford clay capped by valley gravel. We
continue through a flat tract, liable to extensive floods after much
rain, with a view westwards of the wooded hill of Corallian rocks at
Wytham, and past Yarnton, where there is much valley gravel, into
the Evenlode valley
At Handborough we enter the Oolite country, and notice the stone.
built and stone-tiled houses. Not far off to the north are the
famous pits in Stonesfield Slate. Thence we pass cuttings in the
Great Oolite series-white limestones and clays, and cross the
representatives of the Inferior Oolite to Charlbury. At Fawler the
ironstone of the Middle Lias has been worked. Here we traverse
the Lower Lias clays, the bordering hills being formed of Volites.
Wychwood Forest, a tract of Forest Marble, forming part of the
Oxfordshire Downs, rises to the south-east of Shipton-under-
Wychwood.
The clay vale widens gradually as we pass Chipping Norton
Map 14 Junction on to Moreton-in-the-Marsh, with its brick-bnilt
houses. Here there are scattered gravels. The bold hills
of the eastern Cotteswolds (Inferior Oolite) lie to our west and
uplands of Oolite rise to the east. The railway now traverses more
diversified scenery, with rich pastures and fine trees -and an
occasional brickyard in the Lower Lias, as near Blockley.
A mass of boulder-clay was cut through at Aston Magna. Further
on we cross a spur of the northern Cotteswolds at Chipping
Campden, thence through a tunnel in Middle Lias, and to the Lower
Lias plain of Honeybourne. Crossing the Avon at
MAP 29 Evesham, we proceed by Fladbury and Pershore, through
a fruit and market garden district, where the heavy clays of
the Lower Lias are rendered fertile by coverings of valley gravel.
II
126
RAILWAYS.
The Inferior Oolite of Broadway on the northern Cotteswolds, and
the bold outlying hill of Bredon are conspicuous, to the south-east
and south-west of Evesham.
At Norton Junction we are on the red Keuper marls, and we
continue on them through Worcester, traversing a fine cutting in red
and variegated marls with irregular bands of green marl, and an
undulating grass country, past Droitwich, with its salt-works, to
Hartlebury, on the Keuper sandstones. Beyond this we
MAP 25 traverse Bunter sandstone, passing Stourport with fine
hills and cuttings to Bewdley, on the Severn.
We now enter the borders of the Wyre Forest coal-field, and
through Arley and Highley pass through a rougher country, with
cuttings in hard grey sandstone and shale, and occasional coal-
seams. Here and there Permian red breccias and sandstones are
traversed. There are several sections of these as we leave the coal.
field at Hampton Loade and Eardington. At Bridgnorth the Bunter
sandstone appears, and fine cliffs are seen bordering the Severn. We
again traverse Permian rocks and enter the Coalbrookdale coal-field
at Linley, passing wooded tracts and cuttings in grey sandstones, on
through the busy districts of Coalport, Ironbridge, and Broseley
with their coal and ironworks and brickyards.
We now enter a region of Silurian and older rocks. Benthall
Edge to the south-west is formed of Wenlock limestone, and Build-
was with its Abbey is on the Wenlock shales. We thence pass over
a tract of Cambrian rocks at Shineton, Cressage and Harnage.
The Wrekin, formed of Cambrian quartzite and Uriconian volcanic
rocks, stands out in dome-like form to the north-east, while the bold
mountainous tract of Church Stretton, with the Longmynd and
Caradoc Hills may be seen to the south-west.
After traversing a low-lying country of Bunter with drift, along
the Severn borders, we pass over belts of Pre-Cambrian and Coal-
measures on to the Permian of Shrewsbury.
Oxford to Birmingham.
From Oxford to Birmingham we traverse a tract of Oxford
MAP 3 clay with large brickyards, and coverings of gravel, past
Wolvercot, and up the valley of the Cherwell. At Kirtling-
ton and Bletchington there are cuttings in blue clays and limestones
of the Great Oolite series. Further on, near Heyford, we leave the
escarpment of the Colitic series and enter the region of Lias, with
a billy ground formed of a platform of Marlstone. This rock
5 yields iron-ore near King's Sutton, and generally in the
4,0 area it makes a notable reddish-brown soil. The houses at
Banbury are largely built of brown and greenish varieties of the
rock, which yields a good freestone at Edgehill. Beyond Banbury
we continue on a tract of Lower Lias clays past Fenny
MAP 29 Compton, where many fossils have been obtained, to the
Lower Lias limestones, exposed in the cutting and in quarries
at Harbury, where the stone is used for lime and cement-making.
Beyond this we cross the Keuper marls to Leamington., and the
MAT
GREAT WESTERN.
127
Keuper sandstones at Warwick, and then pass over an undulating
and, for the most part, low-lying tract of Keuper marls, with much
drift, until we reach Birmingham.
VIII. LONDON AND SOUTH WESTERN RAILWAY.
London to Portland, Ilfracombe, and Portsmouth.
Leaving Waterloo Station, we pass over the Lower Eocene
MAP 28 strata to near Walton-on-Thames, noting sections of Thames
Valley gravel at Clapham Junction, and of London clay
near Wimbledon and Surbiton. Crossing a portion of the Thames
Valley, we enter upon the sandy, fir-clad and heathy country formed
by the Bagshot beds, that extend from near Walton and Hersham, by
Weybridge, Woking, and Brookwood, past the Chobham Ridges, to
beyond Farnborough. Near Weybridge there is a fine section of
Bagshot sands resting on London clay, and covered by an irregular
accumulation of gravel. Picturesque pools of water, held up by
clayey beds in the Bagshot series, diversify the scenery here and
there as near Fleet. A few miles south of Fleet is the military
station of Aldershot.
At Basingstoke we come on the Chalk, and thence cross an
MAP 15 open undulating tract with scanty hedgerows, wooded
hollows and plantations here and there, and thinly populated.
We traverse occasional tunnels and cuttings in this formation,
through Micheldever to Winchester. Near Shawford, old terraces of
cultivation (lynchets) may be observed.
About four miles south of Winchester we enter the Tertiary tract
of the Hampshire Basin, passing along the valley of the Itchen River,
across outcrops of Reading beds and London clay, to Eastleigh and
Bishopstoke, on to the Bagshot series, which covers a considerable area
around Southampton. The ground here is lower and more wooded. At
St. Denys we pass the tidal waters of the Itchen, and beyond, at
Southampton West, we have views of the old town wall and of
Southampton Water, with its mud flats at low tide. The new docks
were excavated through estuarine mud with Scrobicularia and fresh.
water deposits into Bracklesham beds.
Through Dotton and Elling we cross a low-lying pastoral coun-
try, bordering the New Forest, with its heaths and woodlands and
here and there cultivated tracts, and traverse cuttings in
MAP 11 loams and brown and white sands, past Lyndhurst Road,
Brockenhurst, and Ringwood, to Wimborne Junction, where
we come into more cultivated regions. We cross the Stour, and
thence proceed through cuttings in sands and white clays by Broad-
stone Junction, with peeps of Poole Harbour and of the Chalk range
of Purbeck to the south, on to Hamworthy Junction.
If we journey from Brockenhurst, viâ Bournemouth, to
15, 11
Hamworthy Junction, we cross the Avon, which flows out to
sea east of Hengistbury Head, through Christchurch and
Bournemouth, and along the borders of Poole Harbour, whence
various pottery clays are shipped. At Hamworthy Junction, and
128
RAILWAYS.
again near Moreton, the clays are worked for bricks and tiles. The
cuttings for the most part show sands capped by gravel.
As we pass through Wareham we obtain a view of Corfe Castle, on
a knoll in the Chalk ridge, while westwards rises the prominent
Bagshot outlier of Creech Barrow (see p. 49). The scenery is
alternately wild, with extensive heaths, or cultivated with tracts of
woodland. Then we traverse cuttings in the Chalk, and reach Dorches-
ter. Near the station are earthworks in the form of an amphitheatre,
and beyond is the old camp known as Maiden Castle. We traverse
a tunnel in the Chalk, at the southern mouth of which, near Upway,
we come upon Wealden and Purbeck beds faulted against the Chalk.
Further on we pass quarries in the Purbeck and Portland beds, cross
a belt of Kimeridge clay on to Corallian at Broadway, and
soon get a view of Weymouth Bay. On the borders of the Back-
water or Radipole Lake we traverse the Oxford clay with septaria, and
enter Weymouth. At Rodwell we pass through a cutting in the
Corallian beds, and pass along the Chesil Beach to Chesilton in
Portland.
Basingstoke to Ilfracombe.
From Basingstoke we traverse the Chalk through Whit-
church and Andover to Salisbury. Thence we pass
10,11 Fisherton and its brickyards with Pleistocene fossils.
Beyond Wilton we enter the picturesque wooded Vale of Wardour,
which is bounded by the escarpments of Upper Greensand and Chalk.
The Upper Greensand forms the conspicuous heights further west at
Fonthill Abbey, north of Tisbury, and at Wardour Castle and
Shaftesbury on the south. At Dinton we cross the Wealden on to
the Purbeck beds, and thence on to the Portland beds, which are
extensively quarried for building-stone at Chilmark and Tisbury.
The Upper Cretaceous strata here overstep the successive outcrops
of the Wealden and Jurassic divisions, and as we proceed westwards
we traverse the successive escarpments formed by the harder stony
Jurassic beds. Leaving Tisbury we pass onto the Kimeridge clay, which
forms a broad vale through Semley and Gillingham-a tract mostly
of pasture land with occasional brickyards. Beyond Gillingham we
enter a cutting and pass through a tunnel in the Corallian rocks,
which form a scarp overlooking another tract of flat meadow land-
a well-known hunting country—the Vale of Blackmore formed of
Oxford clay.
At Templecombe we reach rising ground formed of the Cornbrash
which is seen in shallow cuttings, and further on the Forest Marble
clays are exposed. This formation forms a prominent escarpment in
Dorset, owing to the bands of flaggy oolitic limestone, which consti-
tute the central portion of it. Further on we enter low ground
occupied by the upper part of the Fuller's earth clay, and then
traverse a cutting and escarpment formed by the Fuller's earth
rock. Beyond we pass through Milborne Port on to the Inferior
Oolite, which is richly fossiliferous in this district, at Sherborne and
Bradford Abbas. East of Sherborne we cross the alluvial flats of the
Valley of the Yeo, while further on at Yeovil Junction there are fine
LONDON AND SOUTH WESTERN.
129
T
sections of the Yeovil (or Midford) sands, which lie below the
Inferior Oolite limestones. At Sutton Bingham we pass across
a faulted tract of Cornbrash and Forest Marble and low ground
formed of Fuller's earth, while at Crewkerne we traverse Inferior
Oolite and sands, with hills of Chalk and Greensand to the south.
Further on we enter the broad outcrop of Lias with coverings of
Upper Greensand which form the hills on either side of the railway,
those of Lewesdon and Pillesdon Pen on the south being
MAP 10 very conspicuous. Then by Chard Junction we proceed
along the Axe Valley past a fine ballast pit near Broom,
which has yielded many palæolithic implements formed of chert, and
thence across the Lower Lias limestones to Axminster.
Axminster is noted geologically as the residence for some time of the
Rev. W. D. Cony beare, who was vicar there before he became Dean of
Llandaff. The town is situated near the junction of the Rhætic beds
and the Keuper marls. A light railway to Lyme Regis passes across
these beds and over valley gravels and through cuttings in Upper
Greensand and slipped masses of chert detritus, and near Combe Pyne
through white sands and white and coloured clays and gravels that
belong to the Bagshot series.
Proceeding from Axminster we pass over the Keuper marls with
bordering hills of Upper Greensand towards Honiton, and in the
cutting at the eastern end of the long tunnel are traces of Gault at
the base of the Greensand. At Honiton the escarpments of the
Upper Greensand are very bold, and near Broadhembury to the north,
some of the fine cherty sandstones have been worked for scythe-
stones.
From Honiton we cross the Otter Valley on to the Red sandstones
of the Keuper, and beyond Sidmouth Junction onwards to Exeter,
we traverse for the most part the marls, sandstones and breccias of
the Permian, with faulted tracts of the Budleigh Salterton pebble-bed
(Bunter) between Sidmouth Junction and Whimple.
Exeter is situated partly on the Culm-measures with some volcanic
rocks, and partly on Permian breccias which are largely quarried at
Heavitree. Thence in travelling to Barnstaple we pass over the grits
and shales of the Culm-measures to St. Cyres', traverse a tract of
Permian with contemporaneous volcanic rocks at Crediton, and again
through Culm-measures, which form a boldly undulating country
by Eggesford and Chumleigh, and along the Taw Valley, to Barn-
staple. Valley gravel is seen by the Chapelton Station. The town
is situated on the Upper Devonian rocks. Beyond we pass along the
borders of the Taw estuary to Braunton, with a view over the
Braunton Burrows (blown sands), and traverse a bold hilly country
mostly of Devonian grits and slates to Ilfracombe.
Woking to Portsmouth.
From Woking to Guildford we cross tracts of Bagshot beds,
MAP 28 with cuttings in white and brown sands, and tracts of valley
gravel in the lower grounds, past Worplesdon on to the
London clay, and thence across a belt of Reading beds to the Chalk
130
RAILWAYS.
at Guildford Station. We pass through a tunnel in the steeply
inclined Chalk of the Hog's Back, across a narrow belt of Upper
Greensand and Gault, and a tract of Lower Greensand, on to the
valley gravel of Pease Marsh on the borders of the Wey. Here an
inlier of Wealden beds is partially exposed, but we pass again on to
the Lower Greensand at Farncombe, cross the Wey to Godalming,
and thence continue on the same formation to Witley. Here we
traverse a tract of Weald clay which occupies the vale, bordered on the
west by the picturesque sandy hills of Hind Head. We re-enter the
tract of Lower Greensand at Haslemere, the lower beds consisting
of the Atherfield clay, which is occasionally worked for brick-making,
and we continue through a sandy country to Petersfield.
MAP 15 Thence we cross a belt of Gault and Upper Green-
sand, traverse the Chalk of the South Downs to Rowland's
Castle, and proceed across Reading beds and London clay to
Havant (see below). From Havant we cross a drift-covered tract of
Chalk and Eocene strata to Portsmouth.
IX. LONDON, BRIGHTON AND SOUTH COAST RAILWAY.
London to Portsmouth and Brighton.
Travelling from London Bridge to Dorking we cross the
MAP 28 Woolwich beds at Peckham and Dulwich, and then over the
London clay and through tunnels in the same formation to
Streatham. Further on at Mitcham we cross tracts of valley gravel,
and passing over the Woolwich and Thanet beds reach the Chalk
between Carshalton and Sutton. Thence by Cheam to Ewell and
Epsom we keep near the junction of the Chalk and Lower London
Tertiaries, with cuttings in Thanet sand, beyond which we cross
a tract of London clay to Leatherhead. We now travel up the beauti-
ful valley of the Mole, here excavated through the Chalk of the North
Downs, the escarpment of which is marked by Box Hill. Dorking
Station is situated on the junction of Chalk marl and Upper Green-
sand. Thence we cross a narrow belt of Upper Greensand and Gault,
on to the Lower Greensand, and through a tunnel in that formation
to the undulating, well-timbered tract of Weald clay by Holm-
wood and Ockley. Near Horsham we cross the anticline of the
Hastings sand, part of St. Leonards and Tilgate Forest, and again
pass on to Weald clay by the new station for Christ's Hospital.
Lower Greensand is met with as we approach Pulborough, and this
formation comprises sands, and clays worked for brick-making. We
continue partly on it and partly on Gault, along the Arun Valley
to Amberley. Once more we cross Upper Greensand on to the Chalk
which extends to Arundel. Here the Lower Eocene beds of the
Hampshire Basin occupy a syncline, and the Chalk again occurs to the
south concealed by drift. In this region, indeed, from near
MAP 15 Arundel to Havant and Portsmouth, both Chalk and Eocene
beds are almost wholly concealed by chalky gravel (Coombe
rock) and brickearth. It is a flat but fertile agricultural tract with
many market gardens. Beyond Havant we cross an alluvial tract to
the island region on which Portsmouth is situated.
LONDON, BRIGHTON, AND SOUTH COAST.
131
London to Brighton.
Leaving London Bridge we pass at a high level above houses
MAP 28 built on alluvium and valley gravel. Crossing the Wool-
wich beds near New Cross we pass through an undulating
country of London clay with here and there cuttings by Sydenham
and Norwood, and across a gravelly tract overlying the Lower Eocene
strata to Croydon, which is situated near the junction of Thanet sands
and Chalk. Park Hill, which rises to the east, is formed of the
Blackheath pebble-beds. We now enter the Chalk country, passing
at Purley Junction through cuttings and by large pits in this form-
ation, and further on through a tunnel. Then leaving the bold Chalk
escarpment of the North Downs we enter upon the Wealden area,
noticing near Merstham the workings in Lower Chalk, and a cutting
south of the tunnel in Upper Greensand. Below the gentle scarp
formed by this deposit, which has long been worked for hearthstone
and firestone, we cross flat ground formed of Gault which is worked
for brick-making at Merstham. The clay extends near to Red Hill
Junction, where we reach the Folkestone sands of the Lower Green-
sand, which rise in picturesque hills. In the area to the south of the
junction is a belt of clayey Sandgate beds, which eastwards at
Nutfield are worked for Fuller's earth. These are not seen on the
railway. Thence we traverse a cutting in the Hythe beds, south of
Redhill, and enter the low-lying tract of Weald clay which extends
from Earlswood by Horley to Three Bridges. Patches of valley
gravel occur here and there. Leaving Three Bridges we pass through
cuttings and tunnels of Tunbridge Wells sand and sandstone
(Hastings beds) with beds of Grinstead clay, by Balcombe and
Haywards Heath.
At Wivelsfield we have crossed the centre of the Wealden anticline,
and are again on the Weald clay as we journey on through Burgess
Hill. North of Hassocks we pass on to Lower Greensand, and about
half a mile south of the station we cross belts of Gault and Upper
Greensand on to the Chalk of the South Downs, so well seen at
Ditchling Beacon to the east, and in the fine combe known as the
Devil's Dyke to the south-west. Thence we traverse tunnels and
cuttings in Chalk past Preston to Brighton.
X. SOUTH EASTERN AND CHATHAM RAILWAY.
London to Hastings, Folkestone, Ramsgate, Dover, Queenborough,
Maidstone, and Port Victoria.
Leaving Charing Cross we travel over alluvium by London
MAP 17 Bridge and Bermondsey, and further on Thames Valley
gravel and brickearth. At New Cross we traverse cuttings
in the Woolwich and Reading beds, and pass on to the Chalk by
St. John's near the well-known excavations of Loam-pit Hill,
Lewisham. The elevated ground of Blackbeath rises to the east.
Thence we cross a tract composed mostly of London clay, which
is shown here and there in the cuttings, until near Chiselhurst, the
Blackheath beds, formed of pebble-gravel and sands, give rise to
132
RAILWAYS.
a picturesque area. Beneath the Woolwich and Thanet beds the
Chalk is exposed here, and was worked in the tunnels of Chiselhurst
cave. Beyond this we soon reach the Chalk at Orpington, and
traverse it through a flat well-timbered country, with a hilly tract by
Chelsfield, south-west of which is Down, long the residence of
Darwin. The Chalk presents smooth hills, with thin scanty hedge-
rows; here and there it appears quite bare at the surface, elsewhere
the agricultural features are modified by coverings of clay-with-
flints, brickearth, and gravel Knockholt (783 feet), south-west of
Halstead, is noted for its beeches. On either side of Halstead Station
there are fine cuttings and tunnels in the Chalk. Further on we
emerge below the scarp of the North Downs, and cross a narrow
outcrop of Upper Greensand east of Chevening, and then pass on to
the low-lying tract of Gault worked for brick-making at Dunton Green.
Leaving this we soon enter the higher ground of Lower Greensand,
passing cuttings in the Folkestone sands, in the midst of which
Sevenoaks is situated. A fine cutting in the somewhat false-bedded
Kentish Rag and hassock is exposed south of the station. Further
on we enter a tunnel cut through these rocks and Atherfield clay, and
emerge on the plain of Weald clay. This generally low-lying, but
undulating and wooded tract, extends by Hildenboro' to Tonbridge.
Hop-grounds are seen here and there. Tonbridge itself is situated
partly on the Tunbridge Wells sand with beds of rock sand. Thence
we pass through a picturesque country composed of the Hastings
beds (Ashdown sand, Wadhurst clay and Tunbridge Wells sand).
The last-named division is well seen in the natural rocks at
Tunbridge Wells. Onwards we pass over varied divisions of the
Hastings beds, the clays of Wadhurst having yielded much of the
Wealden iron-ore. Traces of the underlying Purbeck beds appear
north of Battle, and about three miles to the north-west is the site of
the Sub-Wealden Boring. Between St. Leonards and Hastings we
pass through tunnels in the Hastings beds.
Tonbridge to Folkestone.
Proceeding from Tonbridge to Folkestone we cross a tract of
Hastings beds (rock-beds, sands, and clays) and traverse the Weald
clay, past Pluckley with its brick and tile works to the Lower Green-
sand at Ashford. Thence by Smeeth, Westen hanger, and Sandling
Junction we pass over a diversified tract of Lower Greensand, with
views of the Chalk downs to the north, to the central station at
Folkestone.
London to Ramsgate.
From Holborn or Victoria we cross Thames Valley gravel
MAP 17 and London clay, with a tract of Woolwich beds at Dulwich.
Then passing through a tunnel in the London clay at
Penge, we traverse the Blackheath pebble-beds at Beckenham
Shortlands, Bromley, and Bickley, for the most part a picturesque
residential district. Thence we pass over Woolwich and Reading
SOUTH EASTERN AND CHATHAM.
133
beds, and through cuttings of buff Thanet sands to St. Mary Cray,
where the Cray Valley, occupied partly by valley drift, is excavated
down to the Chalk. Onwards to Swanley we traverse Woolwich beds
and Thanet sands, and then Chalk and outliers of Thanet sands with
indurated beds, to Farningham Road. We now enter an open Chalk
country, the cuttings showing Chalk with occasional pipes, while
brickearth and gravel occur in the valleys. From Sole Street to
Strood we traverse cuttings in Chalk, and soon enter the fine valley of
the Medway bordered by steep slopes. Crossing the river to Rochester
we pass cuttings and tunnels in the Chalk at Chatham, and from
Rainham onwards to Sittingbourne and Faversham traverse a region
of Thanet, Woolwich and Reading beds, and here and there Chalk,
with coverings of valley brickearth and gravel. Sittingbourne is
a region of brickyards; further on we find hop-grounds and occasional
fruit and vegetable gardens. Chalk is exposed at Faversham, and
we cross tracts of Lower Eocene, and alluvium on the way to
Whitstable. From Whitstable to Herne Bay the route lies mainly
over the London clay. Further east we pass near the ruined church of
Reculvers, and cross the marsh and meadow lands which isolate the
Isle of Thanet. The railway runs at a high level past Birchington
and Westgate-on-Sea, through cuttings of Chalk with piped surface
and patches of loam, on to Margate and Ramsgate.
Faversham to Dover.
From Faversham to Canterbury and Bekesbourne we continue on
Chalk covered here and there by Thanet beds, and beyond we traverse
a Chalk country to Doyer.
Sittingbourne to Queenborough.
From Sittingbourne to Queenborough we cross the Thanet and
Woolwich beds on to London clay, then pass over the Swale and the
bordering alluvial meadows which divide the Isle of Sheppey from
the mainland. Queenborough is on London clay, which is weli shown
in the cliffs that extend from the east of Sheerness to Warden Point.
There numerous landslips have taken place, and many fossils have
been obtained from the London clay.
Swanley to Maidstone.
From Swanley to Maidstone we pass through cuttings and tunnels
in the Chalk to the Dart Valley, past Eynsford and Shoreham, where
to the west, on a spur of the fine hills, was the residence of Sir
Joseph Prestwich. We pass through Lower Chalk and Chalk marl
at Oiford Junction, and thence on to the low ground of Gault, where
the clay is worked for brick-making. Leaving Kemsing we cross on to
the Lower Greensand at Ightham, a district made famous by Benjamin
Harrison, whose researches on the Eolithic implements are well known.
Thence by Wrotham we pass sections of pale and ferruginous
false-bedded Folkestone sands, and note brickyards in drift at
West Malling. Here and onwards we may observe many orchards
10
134
LWAYS.
and hop grounds, with Ost Houses. Near Barming there is a fine
view of the Medway Valley and of the gorge in the Chalk, north of
Halling. Thence we pass through cuttings in the Kentish Rag to
Maidstone.
London to Port Victoria.
We leave the main line at Hither Green and traverse a tract of
valley gravel, brickearth, and London clay on to the Blackheath and
Woolwich beds at Mottingham and Eltham. Thence we cross
London clay to Sidcup, through a more rural district, mainly of
Blackheath pebble-beds, with still some hop grounds; although here
as elsewhere near London the builder is busy. We enter the Cray
Valley near Bexley and further on pass Crayford, a noted locality for
Pleistocene fossils, obtained from the brickearth, which is there largely
worked. We cross the Dart Valley at Dartford, and proceed near
a large ballast pit, where gravel is seen resting on the Chalk. Then we
continue on Chalk through Greenhithe and further on pass near
Galley Hill, where the gravel has yielded palæolithic implements and
parts of a human skeleton, described by Mr. E. T. Newton.
On the route to Northfleet we note old Chalk pits and lime works,
and we pass through Chalk cuttings on to Gravesend. Beyond we
traverse an alluvial flat on to the Thanet and Reading Beds at Cliffe,
with sand and ballast pits. Thence we proceed over a gently undula-
ting country of London clay on to alluvial ground. This separates
the mainland from the Isle of Grain, a tract of London clay capped by
gravel, and bordered by alluvium on which Port Victoria is situated.
INDEX
[All localities are not indexed, as they will be found under their respective
counties, or in the descriptions of the main lines of railway.)
ABERDEENSHIRE, 88
| Battock, Mt., 95
Buteshire, 90
Acid rocks, 14, 15
Bauxite, 35
Blixton waters, 46
Agates, 82
Bay-salt, 38
Agglestone rock, 49
Bedfordshire, 40
Agriculture, 9-11, 32
Bembridge beds, 31
CADER IDRIS, 87
Ailsa Craig, 90
Ben Nevis, 94
Caer Caradoc, 66
Alabaster, 37
- Wyvis, 98
Cænozoic, 13
Albertite, 38
Berkshire, 41
Cairngorm Mountain, 90
Alluvium, 34
Berwickshire, 90
Cairngorms, 35, 90
Alum, 35, 79
Berwyn Mountains, 84, 87 Caithness, 91
Amber, 35
Birkhill beds, 17
Calamine, 40
Amethyst, 35
Bismuth, 35
Caldecoté volcanic series, 16,
Ammonite zones, 23
Black-band ironstone, 37
Ampthill clay, 25, 43
Black Country, 20, 70
Caldy Island, 88
Andesites, 15
Blackdown Hills, 28
Caledonian Canal, 94
Anglesey, 81
Blackheath Beds, 29
- disturbance, 6
Annandale, 92, 116
Black Isle, 19, 98
- Railway, 116
Anticlines, 4, 6
Black-lead, 37, 45
Cainbrian, 14, 16
Antimony, 35
Black Mountains, 54, 83 Cambridgeshire, 42
Archæan, 14, 15
Blea Wyke beds, 79
Campsie Fells, 99
Arenig range, 87
Blende, 40
Cam valley, 52, 104
rocks, 17
Blown Sands, 34, 45, 83, 86, Canna, 95
Argyllshire, 89
93, 94, 101
Canuel coal, 36, 58, 84
Arinorican disturbance, 6 Bog'Head Cannel, 38
Cannock Chase, 21, 70
Arran, 15, 90, 91
Bog iron-ore, 37
Cannon-shot gravel, 103
Arsenic, 35
Bognor rocks, 73
Caradoc, 66
Artesian wells, 11, 12
Books on Scenery and Geo sandstone, 17
Arthur's Seat, 93
logy, 101
Carboniferous, 14
Asbestos, 35
Borings, Deep, 9, 55, 61, 72, limostone, 19
Ashby-de-la-Zouch, 59
73
Cardiganshire, 82
Assynt, 100
Borrowdale Series, 15, 17 Carmarthenshire, 82
Atherfield Clay, 57
Boulder-clay, 32, 103
Carnarvonshire, 83
Athole Forest, 97
Bourne, 29
Carnelians, 35, 80
Avebury, 34, 76
Bovey beds, 48
Carrick Hills, 17, 89
Avon, Bristol, 7
--- coal, 37
Carse of Gowrie, 98
Axholme, 59
Bracklesham beds, 30
Carstone, 106
Axmouth, 48
Bradford clay, 24, 75
Cassiterite, 40
Aymestry limestone, 17, 55 Braydon Forest, 75
Caves, 46, 48, 55, 84, 85
Ayrshire, 89
Braythay flags, 58
Celestine, 40, 52
Brecknockshire, 82
Cement, 37
Bredon Hill, 53, 77
Cement-stones, 39
Breidden Hills, 87
Cerussite, 37
BAGGY BEDS, 18
Brendon Hills, 68
Chalcedony, 28, 35
Bagshot beds, 30
Brent Knoll, 69, 122
Chalk, 28
Ballachulish, 89
Brent Tor, 47
Chalk rock, 42
Ballantrae group, 17
Charnian disturbance, 6
Banffshire, 90
Bridlington "crag," 80 Charnwood Forest, 58, 59
Bannisdale slates, 17
Brine springs, 39, 43, 59, 77 Chatwall sandstones, 67
Bardsey Island, 83
Broads, 106
Cheddar Cliffs, 68
Bargate stone, 72
Brockram, 21, 75
Cheltenham waters, 53
Barnt Green Series, 16, 77 Brora coal, 100
Chert, 35, 47, 85
Barr limestone, 70
Brown iron-ore, 37
Cheshire, 43
Barytes, 35
Buckinghamshire, 41
Chesil beach, 51
Basalt, 15
Budleigh Salterton, 47
Cheviot Hills, 64, 99
Basic rocks, 14, 15
Builth wells. 82
Chiltern Hills, 29, 42, 55
Bass Rock, 94
Bunter, 21, 22
China clay, 35, 44
Bath bricks, 39, 122
Burdiehouse limestone, 93 Chines, 54
- stone, 38, 121
Burntisland, 94
Chipping Norton limestone,
- waters, 69
Burtle beds, 69
Brickearth, 41, 120
65
136
INDEX.
Chiselhurst cave, 132
Dartmouth slates, 18
Fire-clay, 35, 78, 84
Chloritic marl, 29, 49, 69 Denbighshire, 84
Fire-stone, 36
Christian Malford, 121
grits, 17, 84
Flags, 39
Clackmannanshire, 91
Dene-holes, 34, 102
Flaiborough Head, 80, 128
Claxby iron-ore, 60
Derbyshire, 46
Fleet, 50
Clay, 35
Devonian, 14, 18
Flint, 36
Clay-lumps, 103
Devonshire, 46
Flint implements, 33, 34, 61,
Clay-with-flints, 55
Dew-ponds, 29
72, 105
Clee Hills, 67
Dhu stone, 38
Flintshire, 84
Cleveland Hills, 22, 37, 79 Diatomaceous earth, 87
Flitwick Spa, 41
Clifton waters, 53
Diatomite, 36, 95
Fluor Spar, 36, 46
Clun Forest, 67, ST
Dimetian, 87
Folkestone, 57
Clyde Valley beds, 91, 98 Dinas fire-bricks, 20, 39
beds, 57, 72
Clyne Hill, 100
Dirt Bed, 26
Forest-bed, 31, 71
Coal, 36
Disturbance, Lines of, 6 Forest Marble, 24
Coal-fields, Bristol, 52:1 Doggers, 25, SO
Forest of Dean, 52, 53
Cheshire, 43; Cumberland, Dogger Series, 79
Forfarshire, 94
45; Derbyshire, 46, 64; Doloinite, 36, 59
Formations, 2, 3; Table of,
Lancashire, 58; Leicester Dorset, 48
13
shire, 59; Newcastle, 51, | Dover coal, 9,57
Fossils, 1 (Table), 4
64 ; North Wales, 84 ; Scot - Straits of, 1
Foundry loam, 39
tish, 90-94, 96, 98; Shrop. Downton sandstone, 17, 77 Freestone, 23, 36, 37
shire, 67 ; Somerset, 68; Drift, 9, 32
Fuller's earth, 23, 27, 36, 67,
South Wales, 61, 83, 85, 87: Droitwich, 177
72
Staffordshire, 70; War- Dumbartonshire, 92
Fuller's earth formation, 23
wickshire, 74; Whitehaven, Dumfries-shire, 92
Fullonian, 23
45 ; Wyre Forest, 77; Dunes, 34
Fundamental Gneiss, 14
Yorkshire, 46, 64, 78
Dungeness, 57
Furness, 58
Coal-measures, 20
Dura Den, 93
Coll, 89
Durham, 51
Collyweston slate, 40, 63 Durness limestone, 16, 100
Colonsay, 89
Dykes, 15, 64
GALA BEDS, 17
Comley sandstone, 66
Galena, 37
Coniston limestone, 17, 58,
Galley Hill, 134
- grits and flags, 17, 5S
Galloway, 96
EASDALE, S9
Consequent streams, 7
Gannister, 20, 85
East Lothian, 94
Coombe rock, 73, 74, 130
Garlton Hills, 94
Eddystone Lighthouse, 44
Copper, 36
Garnets, 36
Edge Hill, 22, 65, 74
Coprolites, 38, 42, 71
Gas, Natural, 73
Edinburghshire, 92
Coquet Island, 108
Gault, 28
Eigg, 15, 95
Corallian, 25
Elginshire, 93
Coralline Crag, 31, 71
Geological Maps, 9
Elvau, 44
Gigha, 89
Cornbrash, 24
Gilsland Spa, 45
Corndon Hill, 87
Ely, 105
England, Counties of, 40
Glacial Drift, 9, 32
Cornstones, 19, 61
Glamorganshire, 85
Cornwall, 43
Entomis, 18
Eocene, 13;
Glasgow and South Western
Cowal, 89
Lower, 29; Railway, 112
Upper, 30
Cotham marble, 38, 53
Eolithic implements, 57, 76, Glastonbury Tor, 69, 122
Glass sands, 27, 39, 42, 57, 72
Cotteswold Hills, 53
Crag, 31, 52, 62, 71
Glen Roy, 95
Eriboll quartzite, 100
Creech Barrow, 49
Gloucestershire, 52
Cretaceous, 13
Erosion, 1, 7,8
Gloucester Spa, 53
Criffell, 96
Escarpments, 4, 8
Gneiss, 14, 16, 98, 99
Croft Spa, 108
Eskdale granite, 45
Gog Magog Hills, 105
Essex, 51
Cromarty, 98
Estuarine beds, 24, 79
Gold, 36, 83, 100, 117
Cromer Forest-bed, 31, 71
Cliff, 61
| Etruria marls, 70
Cross-courses, 44
Ettrick Pen, 99
Golden Cap, 49
Croydon, 29
Gower, 85
Exmoor Forest, 68
Crush-conglomerate, 80
Grain, Isle of, 134
Crystalline rocks, 14
Grampians, 5, 88, 94, 97, 99
Cuillin Hills, 95
Granite, 14, 15
Culbin sands, 03
FAREWELL ROCK, 20
Graphite, 37, 45
Culm, 36
Farne Islands, 64, 109
Graptolites, 17
Culm-measures, 47
| Features, Physical, 1
Great Britain, 1
Cultivation, Areas under, 10 Fells, 45, 78
------Central Railway, 118
Cumberland, 45
Fenland, 43, 60, 105, 106 --- Eastern Railway, 103
Oumbraes, 90
Festiniog, 86
Glen, 6
Fetlar, 97
Northern Railway, 106
DALES, 46
Fifeshire, 93
Oolite, 23
Dairadian, 14
Filey Brigg, 80
- Western Railway, 120.
02
INDEX.
137
Green Slates and Porphyries, | Iron-ores, 37; Wealden, 27, | Llandovery beds, 17, 83
15, 17, 46
73
Llandrindod Wells, 88
Greenstone, 15
Iron-pyrites, 37, 51
Llangammarch Wells, 82
Greywethers, 34, 37, 76 Islay, 89
Llanwrtyd Wells, 82
Griines Graves, 62, 105
Isle of Axholme, 59
Lleyn, 83
Grindstones, 64
Ely, 105
Lochaber, 95
Grinstead clay, 131
- Grain, 134
Loch Eriboll, 100
Grits, 25, 39
Man, SO
Lodes, 44
Gun-flints, 36, 62, 71
Sheppey, 56, 57, 133 Lomond Hills, 93, 96, 109
Gwespyr sandstone, 85
Thanet, 56, 133
London and North Western
Gypsum, 37
Wight, 28, 30, 54
Railway, 113
and South Western
Railway, 127
JASPERS, 82
HADDINGTONSHIRE, 94
- Basin, 6
Hæmatite, 37
Jet, 37, 79
- Brighton and South
Haldon Hills, 28
Jura, 89
Coast Railway, 130
Halkin Mountain, 85
Jurassic, 13
|-- Tilbury and Southend
Hambleton Hills, 79
Railway, 102
Ham Hill, 69
KAIMS, 89
Long Island, 95, 99
Hampshire, 53
Kaolin, 35, 44
--- Mountain, 87
-
Keele sandstone, 70
Basin, 6
Longmynil, 66
Hamstead beds, 31
Keisley, 17
Longmyndian, 14
Harlech grits, 16
Kellaways beds, 24, 121
Lower Greensand, 27
Harris, 95
Kent, 56
Lowther Hills, 92, 96
Harrogate waters, 78
Kentish Rag. 27, 57, 72
Ludlow beds, 1mm
Hartfell Spa, 92
Keuper, 21, 22
Lundy Island, 47
Hartshill quartzite, 16, 74
Killas, 18, 43
Hassock, 27, 57
Kilpatrick Hills, 92
Lyme Regis, 49, 129
Lynchets, 114, 127
Hastings beds, 27, 73
Kimeridge clay, 25
Head, 45
-- coal, 50
MAGNESIAN LIMESTONE, 21, 51
Headon beds, 31
Kincardineshire, 95
Magnetic iron-ore, 37, 79
Kinross-shire, 96
Hearthstone, 28, 36
Malvern, 5, 52, 55, 77
Heavitree, 129
Kintyre, 89
- shales, 16, 77
Kirkby Moor flags, 17
Heavy-spar, 35
Malvernian disturbance, 6
Kirkcudbrightshire, 96
Hebridean, 14
Mam Tor, 46
Hebrides, 95, 99
Man, Early history of, 34
Herefordshire, 54
LACCOLITES, 15, 87
Man, Isle of, so
Hertfordshire, 55
Lake District, 45, 58, 75
Manganese, 38
Highland Railway, 116
Laminermuir Hills, 5, 90, 94 Mansfield stone, 38, 64
Hind Head, 27, 72
Lanarkshire, 90
Manx slates, 16, 80
Hoar Edge grits, 67
Lancashire, 58
Maps, Geological, 9
Hollow ways, 50
Landscape inarble, 38, 53
Marble, 38, 39
Hollybush sandstone
Landslips, 28, 48, 54, 67, 183
Marwood beds, 18
Holocene, 13
Langdon Hill, 102
Matlock waters, 46
Holyhead, si
Lead-ore, 37
May Hill, 52, 55
Holy Island, Northumber. Leadhills, 37, 39, 40, 92, 96
- sandstone, 17
land, 109
Lead-pencils, 45
Melbourn rock, 42
- Isle, Buteshire, 90
Ledbury, 125
Melksham Spa, 75
Holywell shales, 85
Ledbury shales, 77
Mendip Hills, 68, 122
Hone-stones, 40, 59
Leeswood, 84
Menheniot, 122
Hordle, 31, 54
Leicestershire, 58
Meres, 43, 68, 105
Hornblende-schist, 14
Leintwardine, 18
Merionethshire, 86
Hoy, 97
| Leith Hill, 27, 72
Mesozoic, 13
Hunstanton Red Chalk, 62 Lenham, 31
Metamorphic rocks, 13, 15
Hunting districts, 9, 42, 59, Lesmahagow beds, 17
Metropolitan Railway, 118 :
63, 66
Lewis, 99
Middlesex, 60
Huntingdonshire,!55
Lewisian, 14, 99
Midland Railway, 109
Hythe beds, 57, 72
Liassic, 13, 14
Midlothian, 92
Lickey Hills, 77
Millstone grit, 20
Lignite, 37
Mineral products, 35
ICE-ACTION, 32
Lime, 37
- veins, 44
Igneous rocks, 14
Limestone, 37
waters,see under Counties
Ilfracombe beds, 18
Limonite, 37
Miocene, 7
Inchmarnock, 90
Lincoln Cliff, 60
Modelling clay, 36
Inferior Oolite, 23
Lincolnshire, 59
Moelwyn, 87
Inner Hebrides, 95
Lingula Flags, 16
Moel-y-Tryfan, 84
Innerleithen waters, 97 Linlithgowshire, 96
Moffat Series, 17
Intermediate rocks, 14, 15 Lismore, 89
Spa, 92
Inverness-shire, 94
Llanberis slates, 16
Monadhliath Mountains, 94
Iona, 89
Llandilo beds, 17, 83
Mona marble, 81
138
INDEX.
New Foresinatone 13
Monmouthshire, 61
Pennine anticline, 4, 5 | Roman cement, 39, 52
Montgomeryshire, 87
- chain, 78
Romney Marsh, 57
Moorfoot Hills, 17, 92, 97 Penrith sandstone, 21
Rootlet bed, 71
Moray, 93
Pentland Hills, 17, 97
Roslyn Hole, 42, 105
Morte Slates, 37, 47
Perched Blocks, 32, 33
Ross-shire, 98
Morven, 89
Periods, Geological, 2
Roswell Hole, 42, 105
Moulding sands, 39
Permian, 13, 21
Rottenstone, 38
Mountains, 4
Perthshire, 97
Rowley Rag, 70
Mountain Limestone, 19 Petrifying springs, 46, 53, 78 Roxburghshire, 99
Mount Battock, 95
Petroleum, 38
Royston Downs, 29, 51, 55
Muck, 95
Phosphates, 38, 42, 71
Rum, 95
Mull, 89
Pilton beds, 18
Rutlandshire, 66
Pipe clay, 30, 35
NAIRNSHIRE, 97
Pipes in chalk, 55, 57
Pitchblende, 40
St. KILDA, 95
Natural gas, 13
Pitchstone, 15
Salisbury Plain, 76
Needwood Forest, 71
Pladda, 90
Salt, 38
Nen, River, 56, 110
Pleistocene, 13, 32
Sand-floods, 45, 93, 105
Neville Holt Spa, 59
Pliocene, 13, 31
Sandgate beds, 57, 72
New Red sandstone, 13
Plumbago, 37, 45
Sandringham sands, 28
Plynlimmon, 82
Sands, 39
Norfolk, 62
Northamptonshire, 63
Polden Hills, 22, 68
Sandstone, 39
Poolvash, 81
North British Railway, 109
Sarsen stones, see Grey.
Eastern Railway, 108
wethers
Population, Influence of Geo-
Northumberland, 63
Saurians, 50, 6
logy on, 9
Portland beds, 26
Scalpa, 95
Norwich Crag, 31, 62, 71
- cement, 29, 37
Nottinghamshire, 64
Scarborough, 79, 80
Isle of, 50
Scenery, 1
Pot-holes, 49, 78
Scenery, Relation of forma.
OBSEQUENT STREAMS, 7
Potteries, 20, 70, 78
tions to, 4, 6, 9
Ochil Hills, 5, 19, 91, 96, 98
Potters' clay, 30, 35
Schistose rocks, 14, 16
Ochre, 38
Pre-Cambrian, 14, 15
Schorl, 40
Oil-shale, 38, 84, 92, 93, 96
Precelley Hills, 88
Scilly Ísles, 44
Oilstone, 40
Primary, 14
Scotland, Counties of, 88
Oldhaven beds, 2
Pudding-stone, 30, 55
Scythe-stones, 129
Old Red sandstone, 14, 19
Puffin Island, 81
Sea-side resorts, see under
Oligocene, 13, 31
Purbeck, 13, 26
Counties
Oolitic, 13, 23
- Isle of, 48, 49
Secondary, 13
Oolite,' Lower, 23; Middle,
Purton Spa, 75
Sedgemoor, 69
24; Upper, 25
Pyrolusite, 38
Sedimentary rocks, 14
Ordovician, 14, 17
Seepage, 11
Orkney, 97'
Selborne, 54
QUANTOCK HILLS, 68
Orston Spa, 65
Quartz, 35
Selbornian, 13, 28
Osborne beds, 31
Selenite, 37
Quartzites, 16
Outer Hebrides, 95, 99
Selkirkshire, 99
Quaternary, 13
Outliers, 8
Queen Camel, 69
Septaria, 39
Overthrusts, 16, 100
Serpentine, 15, 39
Overlap, 6
Settle, 78, 111
Oxfordshire, 65
RAASAY, 95
Shanklin Spa, 54
Raddle, 38
Shap granite, 75
Radiolarian chert, 35, 47 - wells, 75
PABBA, 95
Radium, 40, 69
Shearsby Spa, 59
Paläolithic implements, 33, Radnor Forest, 88
Shell-beds, 58
34, 61, 72, 105
Radnorshire, 88
Shelve, 17
Palæozoic, 14 ; in Eastern Railways, 102
Sheppey, 56, 57, 133
England, 8, 9, 55, 57, 72 Raised Beaches, 33, 48
Sherwood Forest, 64
Paramoudras, 62
Reading beds, 30
Shetland, 97
Parrot coal, 36
Recent, 13, 32
Shiant Isles, 95
Paving stone, 39, 59
Red Chalk, 28, 60, 62
Shineton shales, 66
Peak District, 46
Crag, 31, 71
Shirdley Hill sand, 58
Peat, 34, 38
- Hills of Skye, 95
Shivering Mountain, 46
mosses, 43, 58
Reddle, 38
Shropshire, 66
Pebbles, 82
Renfrewshire, 98
Sidlaw Hills, 19, 94
Pebidian, 14, 16, 87
Residential sites, 12, 13
Silchester, 53
Peckforton Hills, 43
Rhætic, 21, 22
Silica-stone, 20, 39
Peebles-shire, 97
Riccarton beds, 17
Sills, 15
Pembrokeshire, 87
Rivers, History of, 7
Silurian, 14, 17
Pendleside group, 19
Road-inetal, 38, 59"
Silver, 39
Penlee stone, 15
Roches moutonnées, 32, 33 Sites for residences, 12, 13
Pennant grit, 20
Rock-salt, 43
Skiddaw slates, 16, 17, 45, 75
INDEX.
139
Skye, 95
Terra-cotta clay, 35, 111
Slate, 39
Tertiary, 13
Slate-pencils, 39, 45, 51 Thames, River, 7
Slate-quarries, 83
- Valley deposits, 52, 61,
Snowdon, 5, 17, 83
102, 120
Soap-stone, 39, 40
Thanet beds, 29
Soils, 9, 10
- Isle of, 56, 133
Solid formations, 9
Thurso, 91
Somerset, 68
Till, 32
South Eastern and Chatham Time, Geological, 3
Railway, 131
Tin-ore, 40
Southern Úplands, 89, 92, 96, Tinto Hills, 96
99
Tiree, 38, 89
South Stack, 81
Toadstone, 46
Spathose iron-ore, 37
Topaz, 40
Speeton clay, 28
Torbane Hill, 38
Spilsby sandstone, 28
Torridonian, 14, 98, 100
Sponge-gravels, 27
Tors, 47
Springs, 11, 12
Totternhoe stone, 42
Staffa, 89
Tourmaline, 40
Staffordshire, 70
Trap rocks, 15
Stanmore, 113
Trefriw, S4
Steam-coals, 36
Tremadoc slates, 16
Steatite, 39, 40
Triassic, 13, 21
Stibnite, 35
Trilobites, 16-18
Stilton, 56
Trossachs, 97
Stiper stones, 17, 67
Tuedian, 90
Stirlingshire, 99
Tufa, 53
Stockdale shales, 17
Tunbridge Wells, 57
Stockingford shales, 74
------ sand, 27, 73
Stonehenge, 34, 76
Tungsten, 40
Stonesfield slate, 40, 65
Stone-tiles, 40
Strathpeffer Spa, 98
Strontium, 40, 52
ULTRA-BASIC ROCKS, 14, 15
Subsequent streams,
Umber, 40
Subsoils, 10
Unst, 97
Subterranean erosion, 8 Upper Greensand, 28
Subwealden Boring, 73
Uranium, 40
Suffolk, 71
Uriconian, 14, 16, 66, 77
Sugar Loaf, 61
Surrey, 72
Sussex, 73
Sussex marble, 27, 73
VALES, 9
Sutherlandshire, 99
Vale of Aylesbury, 25
Sutors of Cromarty, 99
- Blackmore, 25, 50, 128
Sutton stone, 86
Clwyd, 84, 85
Swallet Holes, 49, 78
Eden, 21, 45, 112
Swanage, 49
Glamorgan, 36
Swindon, 76, 121
Gloucester, 53
Synclines, 4
Llangollen, 84
Neath, 85
Pickering, 25, 79, 80
Taunton, 22, 122 *
TALC, 40
- Wardour, 26, 76, 128
Tarannon shales, 17
- York, 78, 79, 108
Tealby beds, 28
Valley of elevation, 55
Temperature, Increase of, 2 | Valley deposits, 33
Tenby, 88
| Valleys, Erosion of, 7, 8
WADHURST CLAY, 27
Wales, Counties of, 81
Wallsend, 64
Walthamstow, 104
Wardie, 92
Warp, 60
Warwickshire, 74
Watcombe clay, 47
Waterfalls, 45, 84, 86, 96
Water-supply, 11, 12
Weald clay, 27
Wealden, 13, 27
area, 6, 8
- iron-ore, 27, 73
Weaver Hills, 70
Wenlock beds, 17
--- Edge, 67
Westleton beds, 72, 104
West Lothian), 96
Westmorland, 75
Weymouth, 49, 50
Whin Sill, 64, 75
Whitby, 79
White Horse, 121
Whiting, 37, 41
Wight, Isle of, 28, 30, 54
Wigtownshire, 101
Wiltshire, 75
Windsor, 41, 120
Wirral, 43
Witherite, 35
Wittering Spa, 63
Woburn Hills, 27, 41
Wolds of Lincolnshire and
Yorkshire, 29, 60, 80
Wolfram, 40
Wolf rock, 44
Woodhall Spa, 60
Woolhope beds, 17
Woolwich and Reading beds,
30
Worcestershire, 77
Wrekin, 66
quartzite, 16
Wren's Nest, 70
Wychwood Forest, 65
Wyre Forest, 67, 77
VI
YARROW, 99
Yell, 97
Yeoyil sands, 129
Yoredale rocks, 19
Yorkshire, 77
ZINC-ORE, 40
Zones, 3; in Chalk, 29; in
Lias, 23
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