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XXX AUW 6 47 MAR CS 2 ** . 19 24. * RE EL WiH * * WA AL 31 133 * 1. .. * PM * AR it air K AV ULES: 5459 w ht 1.* W ** SH ASI * * * Get! : et. EX EE! R * * 14 * * 1 RIT 'LIBR NIVERSIT RIES IVERSITY MINNAS CHLI VICHIGA GANS CHIGAN THE UN OF MICA NIVERSIZ Mcnin 1817 LIBRARIES RSITY BRARIES BRARIES CY AN• Sa THE NIVERS THE CHIGA, 4. THE F MICA AN. SETIA • THE UA RIVERS CHIGAN CHIGAN • THE UNIV KTHEU ITY OF DAN VENIA TRIES. DIN TO "BRARIES ARY JE UNILS MICA NIVERSID THI 7 TGAN. JIGAN • THE THE UND MICHIG TE UNIV VIRV ART * LIBRAS IVERSI TUISHIAN PHO ALLE M ENTI M 4VIR - Or MIC 0 NIVERS, RIES . HL. CHIGAN OF MICA TR "BNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., Ph.D. MODERN GRE E K. BY E. M. GELDART, M.A. TRŪBNER'S COLLECTION OF SIMPLIFIED GRAMMARS OF THE PRINCIPAL ASIATIC AND EUROPEAN LANGUAGES. 2 ! EDITED BY REINHOLD ROST, LL.D., PA.D. HINDUSTANI, PERSIAN, AND ARABIC. BY THE LATE E. H. PALMER, M.A. Price 5s. II. HUNGARIAN. By I. SINGER. Price 4s. 6d. III. BASQUE By W. VAN Eys. IV. IV. MALAGASY. By G. W. PARKER. MODERN GREEK. By E. M. GELDART, M.A. VI. ROUMANIAN. By R. TORCEANU. Grammars of the following are in preparation :- Albanese, Anglo-Saxon, Assyrian, Bohemian, Bulgarian, Burmese, Chinese, Cymric and Gaelic, Danish, Finnish, Hebrew, Malay, Pali, Polish, Russian, Sanskrit, Serbian, Siamese, Singhalese, Swedish, Tibetan, Turkish. LONDON : TRÜBNER & CO., LUDGATE HILL. SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR OF MODERN GREEK. 6 I BY E? M. GELDART, M.A. FORMERLY SCHOLAR OF BALLIOL COLLEGE, OXFOBD ; AUTHOR OF "THE MODERN GRELK LANGUAGE IN ITS RELATION TO ANCINNT GREEK," ETC., ETC. LONDON TRÜBNER & CO., 57 AND 59, LUDGATE HILL. 1883. [All rights reserveil..] 1058 437 LONDON : PRINTED BY GILBÉRT AND RIVINGTON, LIMITED, ST. JOHN'S SQUARE. quit Kleis oft W. H. chart 4.8.41 CONTENTS. PAGE . INTRODUCTION . . . . ALPHABET, PRONUNCIATION, ETC. . . . . . TTTT MODERN GREEK AS WRITTEN . TABLE OF CHANGES IN ARYAN LANGUAGES. . . . . . . . . ACCIDENCE . SYNTAX . . . . . . . . . 61 INTRODUCTION. THE Modern Greek language is the direct descendant of the language of the Byzantine or Eastern Roman Empire (whence its name Romaic), as this was immediately deve- loped from the Alexandrine Greek, or “common dialect," resulting from a blending and merging of all the various Greek dialects when the ascendency of the Macedonian king and conqueror, Alexander the Great, united the various tribes of Greece, and spread their language as the medium of intercommunication among the subjugated populations of his enormous empire. Although the political su- premacy of Greece, even in its comparatively bastard Macedonian and Byzantine forms, in which, however, alone it can ever be said to have existed as a united and powerful nationality, has long been a thing of the past, the inherent vitality, and vigour, and self-recreating power of the Greek language have never waned, and in the present day Greek performs much the same office, as the language of the most thriving commercial race in the East, that it did in the days of Alexander's successors. The subjects of free Greece—two millions and a half of souls—are but a fraction of the Greek- speaking population of the East. In the days of Mezzo- fanti, at the beginning of this century, Greek was still INTRODUCTION. commonly spoken among the remnants of the ancient Greek colonies on the coast of Calabria, part of the old Magna Græcia in Italy; and even in Sardinia, it is said, there are still Greek-speaking colonies. But however this may be, Magna Grecia, “Great Greece,” is still outside the limits of “Little ” or “Free Greece." In Bulgaria, in Albania (the ancient Macedonia and Epirus), in Thessaly (which was part of Ancient Greece), in all the islands east of Greece in the Mediterranean Sea, on the coasts as well as far inland in Asia Minor and in Egypt, in many parts of Palestine and Syria, indeed throughout the dominions of Turkey, Greek is the one language which is almost everywhere spoken and understood. A person with a competent knowledge of Modern Greek may travel nearly anywhere in the East without invoking the aid of that most terrible institution of modern tourism, the dragoman, who, by the way, is generally a Greek. This alone is a fact which has only to become duly known and appreciated in order to secure for Greek a foremost place among the modern languages which the ubiquitous English traveller is, or ought to be, anxious to acquire. But it has another, and, if possible, a still stronger recommendation to our notice. Ten years ago I stated in my book “ The Modern Greek Language in its relation to Ancient Greek” (published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, in 1870), that “ Modern Greek is nothing but Ancient Greek made easy.” Constant study and con- verse with Greeks since that period have but served to confirm me in the opinion that that statement is literally correct. But if so, what follows ? Why, that the study of Modern Greek is the true key to the mastery of the INTRODUCTION. classical idiom. This view has been directly or indirectly advocated by some of the foremost educationalists in England. The late John Stuart Mill, in his Rectorial address to the students of the University of St. Andrew's, referring to the growing discontent that so much valuable tine was wasted at our schools and universities in learning, or too often not learning, Latin and Greek- time which might otherwise be saved for the study of natural science and other essential branches of a liberal education-rightly vindicated the claims of the classics to a prominent place in higher education, not as against, but alongside of, the so-called modern subjects. Why, he pertinently asked, should not time be found for both ? And he lays the fault of the dilemma, in which those are placed who in regard to these conflicting claims feel inclined to say in the words of the popular song- “How happy could I be with either, Were t'other dear charmer away!” on the execrably bad system of teaching the classics which prevails amongst us, and which, after consuming four-fifths of the entire time at the disposal of a schoolboy in Latin and Greek, afterwards sends him out into the world not only unable for the most part to take up an easy classic, and read him for pleasure and for profit, but often imbued with a thorough disgust for classical literature. “Why," says Mill, “should not Latin and Greek be taught like any other language? Why should not a man learn the classics as he would learn his mother tongue ?” Why, indeed, except perhaps for the obvious reason that it is only within the last few years that even modern languages have been taught on a 10 INTRODUCTION. rational system, or like our “mother tongue.” Still, since the days of Pestalozzi and Fröbel, among all intelligent educationalists the belief has been gaining ground, that the only true method of teaching, both morally and intellectually, is to proceed from the known to the unknown, and not from the unknown to the known; that the learner should be dealt with not as a parrot, but as a human being; that, e. g. we should begin the study of history with the reign of Queen Victoria, and not with the creation of the world; and so on with other subjects. In accordance with these principles it is well worth consideration whether the student of Latin ought not in England to begin with French, and thence proceed to the cognate and more archaic Romance dialects, as Portuguese, Spanish, Italian, Roumanian, and so on; thence to the older Norman and Provençal, and from them through the later Latin of the period of the decline to the Latin of the Augustan era. Else, to be consistent, why begin with Sallust rather than with Oscan and Umbrian, or the Salian hymns ? But as regards Greek the problem is immensely simplified. Ancient Greek has but one modern repre- sentative, which is spoken with comparatively insignificant variations throughout Turkey, Greece, and the Levant. Whoever is thoroughly conversant with Modern Greek will find no more difficulty in reading the Greek Fathers and the New Testament, than an Englishman of the nineteenth century finds in understanding Spenser. The passage from the New Testament or Septuagint to Xenophon is incomparably easier than that from Spenser to Chaucer; and from Xenophon to Thucydides, from Thucydides to the Tragedians, from them to Herodotus, INTRODUCTION. 11 and from Herodotus to Homer, is far more simple than would be the somewhat analogous transition in English from Chaucer to Piers Plowman, from Piers Plowman to Layamon and Ormin, from them to the Anglo-Saxon of King Alfred, and from the Saxon of King Alfred to the Gothic of Ulfilas. Indeed, the change which has passed upon the Greek language since Homer's age is so very much slighter than that which English has undergone in the far shorter period intervening between the times of the Saxon kings and the present reign, that there are whole lines of Homer which would scarcely require the alteration of a word to convert them into idiomatic Modern Greek; for example, Il. A. 334 :- where only the word noè is not good Modern Greek, although xaipete means now rather “good-bye” than “hail," and äyyelou rather “angels” than simply “mes- sengers." In line 362 of the same book the question TÉKVOV TÍ Khalels; is good Modern Greek. Far less is the difference when we come to Plato, the first words of whose Republic : katéßnv xoès els [Tòv] IIelpatâ metà Traúkwvos του 'Αρίστωνος, with the single addition of the definite article, which need not have been omitted, might be heard any day in the streets of Athens in the year 1883. Greek, then, is essentially a living language-the Xenophon, and Demosthenes—and there is no reason why it should not be taught as such. It is impossible to draw any such rigid line of demarcation between Modern and Ancient Greek, as between the language of ancient 12 INTRODUCTION. Rome and the modern Latin or Romance languages, inasmuch as Greece never suffered that complete break-up of its grammar which befell the Latin language on the dissolution of the Roman Empire. When the scholar has become thoroughly farniliar with the Modern Greek declension and conjugation, which for the most part are identical with the classical forms, so far as they go, it will be an easy step to add the dual number, the archaic conjugation in -ut, the perfect tense, and the extended use of case-endings and infinitive moods, almost all of which survive, or have been revived, in isolated phrases even in Modern Greek. Perhaps in no department of classical learning will the benefit of Modern Greek be more apparent than with regard to accentuation. The rules of prosody are learnt at Eton, Rugby, Harrow, and all our great public schools ; rules which are numerous and intricate enough in all conscience, but few and simple by comparison with their exceptions. And what is the result ? After seven or eight years' hard study, scarcely the most eminent of living Greek scholars unacquainted with Modern Greek is able to write from memory a single sentence in Greek without the accents being at fault. Let a man be accustomed from the first never to pronounce a single Greek word without its appropriate accent, and he will never be in doubt how to write it, or “hardly ever;" the cases where he might hesitate between a circumflex and an acute being very soon mastered when not only the ear, but the eye and ear together are exercised by writing and reading aloud with due regard to the accent. SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR OP MODERN GREEK. The Alphabet. § 1. The Greek alphabet of to-day consists of the following letters, the names of which, to be pronounced as far as possible in English fashion, we have given under each character :- Α α An'ifah. Β βς Vee'tah. Γγ Ghah'mah. Δδ Dheh'ltah. Ε € Eh'pseelon. Κ κ Zζ Zee'tah. Η η Ee'tah. Θ θ 9 Thee'tah. Ιι Eeaw'tah. Καh'ραh. Λλ Lahmudhah. Μ μ Ν ν Ο ο Aw'meekron. Mee. Nee. Ksee. ΓΙ π Pρ Σ σκαι See'ghmah. Τ τ Tahv. Yυ Eé'pseelon. Pee. Raw. Φφ X X Ψ ψ Psee. Ω ω Awmeh'ghah. Fee. Khee. The letter F (6aū, vahv), pronounced as B, is only used in ancient (pre-classical) Greek words. 14 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR § 2. Of these letters, a, e, n, l; 0, v, w, are vowels (bwvevta, fawnee'elında), while the rest are consonants (oúudwva, see'm- fawnah); and two of the vowels, and v, have, in certain positions, a consonantal or quasi-consonantal value. VOWELS. which syllable we shall always represent it. E is like the sound of the English interjection eh! but rather broader, with a slight inclination to the sound of a in that. We shall represent it by eh. The nearest approximation in English to the exact sound is that of a in care. Our sound ui or ay in day, chaise, &c., has an ee sound at the end, which must be specially avoided in pronouncing €. H, I, and Y are phonetically equivalent, though etymologically distinct; they all sound like ee in see, and we shall represent them accordingly. O and 2 are also indistinguishable in sound. Originally w was a long or double o. At present, when either stands last in a syllable, it has a tendency to be sounded somewhat longer than when followed in the same syllable by a consonant; and this applies more or less to all the vowels. O and w both sound like oa in broad, o in lord, or aw in saw. We shall represent them uniformly by aw. HTHONGS. § 4. Although etymologically diphthong means “double- sound” (Greek, diployyos, dheefthawngawss), most of the diph- thongs at present, as already in the age of Greek grammarians of the Roman period, stand for a single vowel sound, while a few represent a vowel sound followed by that of a consonant. They are as follows:- UT MODERN GREEK. 15 Ac sounded as e in Greek, represented like that letter by eh in English. El ) Ou all sounded as i orn; represented by ee. Yu ) Ov sounds like oo in mood, and will be represented accordingly. Av sounds as ahv, except before 0, K, É, TT, O, T, 0, x, y, when it sounds as ahf. Ev sounds, under the same conditions as the foregoing, ehv and ehf respectively. Hu as eev or eef, according to circumstances. Besides the diphthongs proper, there are three so-called improper diphthongs (dipooyyol kataxonotikai, dhee'fthawngee kahtahkhreesteeken'), viz. ą, , w, in which the letter 1 (eeaw'tah) is simply written under the vowel in question, but not pro- nounced. CONSONANTS. $ 5. These are divided into simple and compound. The simple consonants are classified in two ways; first, according to the organs by which they are pronounced, as- (a) Lip-letters: B, T, D, M. (6) Tongue-letters: 8, S, T, v, , po o. (c) Gutturals : Y, K, X Secondly, according to their qualities, as (a) Liquids : 1, My v, p. (1) Sibilants : &, o. (c) Spirants : either (a) sharp, as o, x, 0, or (B) soft, as ß, y, 8. (d) Hard Explodents (tenues): as 7, K, T. The true mediuls or soft explodents are only heard when t, K, and T are found in combination with u and v. The compound or double consonants are :- y, which stands for Bo, no, or do; and Ś, which stands for yo, ko, or yo. 16 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR With regard to the pronunciation of the consonants the reader should observe- B sounds as v in English. I sounds as a rule like German g in Tag, lag, i. e, it is the guttural spirant, just as B is the labial. We shall represent it by gh. Before the vowels e, n, and i, or their equivalents among the diphthongs, however, y has the sound of y in year ; while yy sounds as ng in the words anger, longer, stronger, linger, &c., never as the mere guttural » in singer, ringer, &c. This direction will be of little use to North Country people, as they constantly confound these perfectly distinct sounds. A further modification of the sound of y occurs when yy is followed by is n, €, or their equivalents ; in this case the sound of the last y is slightly palatalized, and may be best described as halfway between g and j. We shall represent it by an upright letter, to distinguish it from the surrounding italics, or vice versâ ; thus ãyylotpov, ah'nggeestrawn, a hook ;' åyyeîov, ahnggee'awn, “a vessel.' A sounds as the English th in then, thither, this, that, and all the pronouns and pronominal adverbs in which it occurs. We shall represent it by dh. Z is the English 2, and will be so represented. ® is the English th in thin, thorough, thousand, &c. We shall represent it by th. K is the English k, save before the vowels e, n, l, and their equivalents, where it has a slightly palatal sound inclining to ch in church, but stopping a good way short of it, except in the Cretan and some other dialects, where it is completely trans- formed into the English ch, like the Italian c in similar circum- stances. We shall represent this modification, as in the case of y, by an upright letter in the midst of italics, as kalpós, kehrau'ss, time;' Kúpuos, keereeawss, "Mr.,' 'Lord.' Besides this it is OF MODERN GREEK. 17 to be noted that yk is phonetically equivalent in all respects to γγ. A is the English l, but before i, n, v, &c., it sounds almost as ly, i. e. Il in Spanish, lh in Portuguese. We shall represent it by an upright letter in the midst of italics, and vice versâ ; e. g. dúow, lee'ssaw, "I may loose.' M is equivalent to English m. It cannot stand as the last letter in a word. N is like n in English, but subject to the same modification as , under like conditions. This will be indicated in our trans- literation in the same manner, e. g. vûv, neen, 'now.' E is pronounced as English x in six, except when preceded by v, written y, in which case it is sounded gſ, or like x in example; e. g. Šévos, xeh'nawss, “a stranger,' 'guest;' but oplyčiv, sfeengzee'n, 'to sphinxes.' II is sounded as p in English, except when preceded by My when it sounds as b; e. g. napá, pahrah', by,' than; but čuropos, eh'mbawrawss, "a merchant.' P is equivalent to English r in embarrass, but is never pro- nounced smooth as in hard, bar. is always sounded sharp, as the English s at the beginning of a word, except when followed by M, in which case it has the sound of 2; e. g. owos, saw'awss, safe ;' but Euúpva, Zmee'rnah, Smyrna.' T sounds as the English t, except when preceded by v, in which case it is pronounced as d; e. g. Tóvos, taw'nawss, 'tone;' - but évtovos, eh'ndawnawss, intense. o is the English f. X is sounded as the German ch in Bach, or the Scotch ch in loch, except before e, i, or their equivalents, when it is pro- nounced as German ch in ich, &c. We shall represent the first sound by kh, and the second by kh, or vice versâ ; e. g. rázu, tah'khah, “perhaps; but tayús, tahkhee'ss, “swift.' 18 SIMPLITIED GRAMMAR U is sounded ps, except when preceded by My in which case it is pronounced as bz; e.g yuxń, pseekhee', 'soul; but čuyrxos, el'mbzeelchawss, animate.' OTHER SIGNS. BREATHING. $ 6. Every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word is marked by a sign called a breathing (Tivella, pneh'vmah). This breathing is either smooth (vrdý, pseelee') or rough (daoela, dhahssee'ah)-sub. Tpoowdía, prawssawchee'ah, accentual sign. The smooth breathing is written as a comma over the vowel, the rough as an inverted comma; thus qón, awdhee', 'a song;' odós, awdhaw'ss, 'a way. As in most of the modern languages of Southern Europe, the rough breathing is no longer heard, but only written. Its presence, however, in cultivated usage is recognized in case a consonant liable to aspiration immediately precedes; such consonants are , T, and k. Thus årò őlwv, ahpaw-aw'lawn, becomes, by elision of the o, å¢ őlwv, ahfaw'lawn ; katà olov, kahtah-aw'loo-kalódov, kahthaw'loo ; oùx, outws, ookh oo'tuwss, stands for oủk oŰtws. The rough breathing is frequently, though not always, written over the p at the beginning of a word, as pódov or pódov, raw'- dhawn, “a rose. In the case of two p's coming together in one word, either the aspirate is omitted altogether, or the first p has the smooth, the second the rough breathing, as dáppos or Gápoos, thal'rawss, courage.' In the case of initial diphthongs the breathing is written over the second vowel; if it stands over the first, the two vowels are heard separately; e. g. aŭlós, unvlaw'ss, 'a flute;' but ävdos, al-eelauss, 'immaterial.' THE ACCENTS. $ %. With the exception of the following words:-6, (aw, ee), "the,' masculine and feminine nominative singular ; oi, ai (ee, en), OF MODERN GREEK. 19 "the,' masculine and feminine nominative plural; ei (ee), ‘if;' ds (awss), “as;' oủ, oủk, and oủx (00, ook, oolch), 'not; ék and ¿É out of '-all words in Greek are accented. The accents are three in kind :- (a) The acute, otcia (awksee'ah); which indicates that the syllable so marked has the principal stress—a stress which is given much as in English, but usually with a more distinct elevation of tone. (6) The grave, Bapcĉa(vahree'ah), which indicates that the syllable has a more decided stress than any unaccented syllable, yet less than one which has the acute accent. (c) The circumflex, TEPLOT Wévn (pehreespawmeh'nee), in practice no longer distinguishable from the acute, though in theory and origin it is compounded of the acute and the grave. It was held by the ancient Greek grammarians that every un- accented syllable had in reality the grave accent; consequently a word like åyaráei (anghahpah'ee), “he loves,' might be re- garded as if written αγαπάει. When αγαπάει was contracted to åyatậ, the accents' were supposed to coalesce, and form a kind of musical wave or transition from a higher to a lower key. Hence arose the circumflex, first written ^, and afterwards in cursive manuscript rounded intoor. It may be assumed that so long as the i subscriptum was heard in ảyatậ, so long would the grave accent be heard ; and then, when this was no longer audible, only the acute would be so. The acute accent may stand over either of the two last syllables but one in a word, or on the last syllable when it comes at the end of a sentence or clause; or over a monosyllable inter- rogative, as tís, Ti. The grave accent can only stand over the last syllable of a word, or over monosyllables, as tò ulkpòv trnvòv õdel, the little bird sings.' At the end of a clause or sentence the grave becomes acute, as Set Tò LuKpov TTmvov, or dset Tò TTvòi To ALKpov. In writing, the acute is frequently used throughout in place of the ' B 20 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR The circumflex accent from the nature of the case cannot stand farther back than the last syllable but one; otherwise we should have to assume before contraction the existence of an acute accent on the last syllable but three, which is in- admissible: thus such a form as ñueda would presuppose čeueda, which is impossible. In the case of an accented diphthong, the accent like the breathing goes with the last vowel, and in case of an initial diphthong is written, if a grave or acute, after, if a circumflex, over the breathing; as aŭrn, aiua, ai, oivos, now, tai, aŭrać. The relative position of the accent and breathing is the same in the case of the simple vowel, as äv, nv, øv, ñs. In the case of initial capital vowels the accent and the breathing are written before the vowel, as ’AOrvau, "A8ns, N; but when a whole word or sentence is printed, both accents and breathings are usually omitted. STOPS. § 8. These are the comma, kóuna (kaw'mah) or Ýmoottyuń (eepawsteeghmee'), as in English. Full stop, telela (tehlee'ah), as in English. Semicolon, ñuikwlov (eemee'kawlawn), which serves the pur- poses both of the colon and semicolon in English ; it is also called övw otiyun (uh'naw steeghmee') or uéon otiyun (meh'ssee steeghmee'), and consists of a dot placed at the top of the line, as η εκδίκησις είναι γλυκείαεν τούτοις η συγχώρησις είναι γλυκυ- Tépa (ee ehkdhee'keesseess eé'neh ghleekee'ah; ehndoo'teess ee seengkhawreesseess ee'neh ghleekeeteh'rah), “Revenge is sweet; notwithstanding, forgiveness is sweeter.' The sign of interrogation is the English semicolon, e. g. rís; 6 who?' OTHER SIGNS. The apostrophe, ý åróotpobos (ee ah paw'strawfawss), does not iliffer in form or use from our own, as útº čuoù (eep' ehmoo') for ÚTÒ čuoù (eepaw-ehmoo') by me.' onsists of an av TOÚTOUS Woeked' ah; enge is sw OF MODERN GREEK. 21 $ 9. The coronis, ý kopwvís (ee kawrawnee'ss), is really the smooth breathing written over a vowel which is no longer initial, simply because two words have coalesced into one, e.g. toủlá- XLOTOV (toolah'kheestawn) for tò éháylotov (taw-ehlah'kheestawn), at least.' The diæresis, or as it is more usually called, tò dalUTIKÒV - (taw-dheeahleeteekaw'n), is sometimes used to distinguish two vowels separately pronounced from a diphthong, as kaüuévos - (kah-eemeh'nawss), poor,' from Kavuévos (kalımeh'nawss), "burnt.' This sign is indispensable where the syllable has neither accent nor breathing, otherwise these are sufficient to prevent confusion, as we have seen above. It is, however, generally written even where superfluous. The diastole or hypodiastole, dlagtolň (dheeahstawlee') or - ÚTOOLCOTO) (eepawdheeahstawlee'), is simply a comma used not to indicate an appreciable pause, but to distinguish the relative pronoun 8,ti (awé-tee) from the conjunction ori (aw'tee). N.B. The marking of every accent, and the fact that every syllable of which the sound has once been learnt, is always pronounced with uniform identity and distinctness wherever it may occur, renders the acquirement of a correct pronunciation of the language by the foreigner easier than that of any other European tongue. We conclude this introductory chapter by a sample of the Greek alphabet as written, with a sentence in cursive characters, which will be found on the following page. 22 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR OF MODERN GREEK. MODERN GREEK AS WRITTEN. P ta Bl. lo Ku o G Lo Zoo 12. V rbd Go to Opción idelo lois térov Pro lyrapias 'w's imanopodrua Ons is að auaplią aapappooórns. tai o drdowaos colles cīrav izcédepos, rà wanci, ápaplárwv, cincodzzās vão. bapii banilor lañs. worraiá, Table of the Regular Changes which the Sounds of Words undergo in passing from one Language to another of the Aryan Family of Speech. PRIMITIVE INDO-GERMANICI SANSCRIT. IDEALLY RESTORBD. ZIND. GREIK. ITALIAN Tuutonie. SCLAVONIAN. LITHUANIAN. ALBANIAN, Gothic. OLD HIGH GERDIAN. à e o 2018 aeo છે 6 છે aeioul & eo a oor OI O aөой ao il co U coup and at Bars cod or as ie i 3 Donat Baco ai u ai au ai u eo ê ô l å ô uo i ai ei u au uo ci co niec3 1 uoyů u u 9 ԱՉ uy u ū ai ae αι ει οι ai ei ë ei 8i âi an w ai au αυ ευ ου αν ηυ ai ê oi ae oo î û au ou au cg (Umbr. () au iu ou ô iu io 85 oj aj u ov av kics so h(g) k szk àu (b) k' g (t) ao éu âu âu k kh k'cil k kh cac g g'3 g gh j 3 zh 4 % gh h g gh j zh z t th t th dah h initial, g in mid. h (g) k (ch) g (k) d Z BZ do 20 80 hzs th (a) Du et hot pu pu et NON dh ddh pf XXXtvo o Ę BO છે તે d p ph Lat. | Osc. & u in. a, b mid. | Umbr, f. р Lat. I Osc. & f. in. b mid. | Umbr. f. } bh fv (6) b (p) bh b (w) c do edo hd H B B B og poput NeNS Deep SH- ly before gutturals ñ á n ñ ñ nạ m P b (g) z f nn'10 n m D B med how my BB B. Ende BB My B He ri 11 11/10, y final 'initial o, 'initial ed. Code 8sh se sh h s (r) 8 (2) 8 (1) sch š i k' = ch in church: ç = s palatal sometimes heard in the mouths of = yea in year, and is similar to Lithuanian ë. children who cannot pronounce our sh. e long, narrow, ay sound inclining to ee. 2 c (Zend) = k' Sanscrit, and & Slavonic, while Slav.c = German z pron. ts. ü like oa in Soar. 3 g'=j in English and in Zend. The Albanian k' and g' respectively 88 as French e in le, de, &c. are similar. French u, German ü. 4 zh, ž = sound of s in pleasure; or French j: š in Slav. and Albanian, 10 l' and n' liko Spanish ll and a respectively: i. e. liquid. and sz in Lithuanian = sh in English and Zend. 11 r rough r. These various transliterations might easily be made more consistent, but only at the expense of disturbing existing usage. 24 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR The Accidence. By accidence we mean the changes which words undergo in order to show their relation to other words in a sentence. Such changes are called inflections, and affect both nouns and verbs. The noun is the name of a thing (nomen); the verb is the word which says of a thing what it does. It is the action-word. Besides these there are a number of a words called particles, not subject to inflection, but useful to define, qualify, or restrict the meaning of other words. The parts of speech may therefore be divided into- 1. Inflected, (a) Nouns and () Verbs ; 2. Uninflected, Particles. Nouns. The inflections of nouns are called case-endings. In the singular they are as follows: (1) If we want to say a thing does or is so and so (nominative case) the ending is either s, v, or nothing: the second in neuters, the last in some feminines and neuters. (2) If the thing is the object of an action (objective or accusative case) the ending is v, a[v] (masculine, feminine, and neuter) or nothing (neuter). . (3) If we want to express the relation of or from (genitive or possessive case) the ending is v (shortened from olo) or os, masculine (sometimes feminine) and neuter, or s, feminine ; in a few (chiefly modern) masculines nothing. (4) If we want to express the relation to, at, on, or by (dative, locative, or instrumental case) by a mere ending, that ending is OF MODERN GREEK. 25 -1, but the relation is more usually expressed in Modern Greek by a preposition with an objective or other case. See Prepositions. (5) If the thing be addressed, the stem itself is used without inflection, except that o is modified to e. This is called the vocative case. In the plural nouns are inflected as follows: Nom. and Voc., masc. and fem. cor es. Objective, masc. and fem. . vs becoming after o, a, and a consonant us, s, and as re- spectively. Nom., Obj., and Voc., neuter. a. Genitive in all genders . . w. Dative in all genders . ις or σι. In this short scheme we have given a summary and rationale of the whole of Greek declension. There are no exceptions, and all seeming irregularities arise from the way in which these case-endings are combined with the stem of the word to which they are added. The simplest division of all nouns is that into nouns with 1. Consonantal stems, and stems in i and v; 2. Vowel stems in a (n) and o. NOUNS WITH CONSONANTAL OR QUASI-CONSONANTAL STEMS. Here the endings s, a[v], for v, os, b, and es, as, wv, ou (masc. and fem.), or —, os, 1, and a, wv, oi (neut.) are simply added on to the stem; but be it observed (1) That as ps cannot end a word, nps and eps become mp, the € being lengthened for the sake of compensation ; similarly ops becomes ωρ, κ.τ.λ. For like reasons ηνς and ενς become ην, ονς and wvs become wv, as do also outs and wits, while evts becomes ELS. (2) 8, 0, and = fall away before s, o, and at the end of a word ; 26 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR ν falls away before σ, as s after» ν; e. g. πράγματ], πράγμα[τ]σιν, νεάνι[δ]ς, νεάνιδησιν, ποιμήν for ποιμένς, ποιμέ[v]σι, κ.τ.λ. (3) γ, κ, χ all combine with s, σ to form ξ, while β, π, φ combine with s, o to form t. (4) σ falls out between two vowels, εο, εί, εα, έων contract to ου, ει, η, and ων respectively, σσ is avoided, and the neuter stem es is written in substantive nouns as os in the nominative only ; e.g. τέλος, τέλεος shortened to τέλους for τέλεσος, τέλει for τέλεσι, τέλη for τέλεσα, τελών for τελέσων, τέλεσι for τέλεσσι, αληθής for αληθέσς (neut. αληθές). A few do not contract in the genitive plural, as ανθέων, ορέων. (5) v between two vowels (=F) falls out, and if short is modified before a vowel to ε; e. g. βαθύ, βαθέος, βαθέων, con- tracting before ε, ι, ιnd ας, βαθεϊ, βαθει; βαθέες, βαθείς και βαθέας, βαθείς. In a few words it is long, and suffers neither modification nor contraction, e. g. ιχθύς, a fish,' ιχθύος, ιχθύι, but swallows up α in accusative plural, ιχθύας, ιχθύς. Stems in i, or v unaccented, also in ev (F), lengthen the o of ος, and form their cases as follows : ιν and εα, εως, ει; εις, εις and εας, εων, εσι, and ευσιν for έFσιν. Πειραιεύς, the harbour of that name, for obvious phonetic reasons, contracts as follows: Πειραιά for έα, ως for έως, ει for éel. In all these cases various ancient dialects present forms Stems in v and 1, though they present the general features of consonantal stems, are in strictness vowel stems, and, save in the case of ev=ef, form their objective in v, not in a; e. g. Boû-v, ναυ-ν, πόλι-ν. Unaccented stems in δ have an optional objective in y for δν ; e. g. πολύπoυν or -ποδα, εύελπιν or ευέλπιδα. (6) If the word be a monosyllable, the endings ós, í, wv, oi are (thus) accented, except πάντων, πάσι, “all,’ παίδων, boys,' φώτων, “lights,” τίνος, τίνι, τίνων, τίσι, interrogative, όντος, όντι, όντων, ούσι. Here, however, the apparent monosyllabic stein OF MODERN GREEK. 27 has been contracted from a dissyllabic one, e. g. φωτ- for φαοτ-, οντ- for έoντ-, or, in the case of τίνος, κ.τ.λ., the accent is a marls of distinction : τινός = some one's, τίνος, whose !' (7) Stems in »p and wv are circumflexed in the oblique cases : κλητήρ, -ήρος και αγών, -ωνος. Some stems in ερ (nominative ηρ = ερς) throw back their accent in the vocative, and drop the e in the genitive and dative; e. g. πατήρ, πάτερ, πατρός, πατρί και ανήρ, ανδρός (for άνρός), κ.τ.λ. Objective πατέρα, not πάτρα ; but άνδρα, not ανέρα. The reason being apparently that the originally euphonic and parasitic 8 has so glued together the v and the p, that they cannot again be parted. Of μήτηρ and θυγάτηρ, declined generally like πατήρ, the vocatives are respectively uñtep and Ouyatep, (observe accent). All these words, as well as αστερ- (αστηρ) a star, form the dative plural in ράσι or ρασι, for έρσι οι ερσι. (8) The following apparent irregularities should be noted :- "Αρης (Mars), stem and vocative "Αρες, accusative "Αρην or 'Αρη ['Αρεα, Αρεσα], "Αρεος οι -ως, 'Αρει. γάλα, stem γάλακτ-. γόνυ (stem), γόνατος, γόνατι for γόνατος, γόνατι ; also δόρυ, δόρατος, κ.τ.λ. γυνή (sten γυναικ-), vocative γύναι [γύναικ], γυναίκα –ός -ί. Ζευς for Διεύς, Ζεύ, Δία, Διός, Διί. Opis, stem tpix-, to avoid two aspirates. κύων, “dog' (stem κυον-), contracts to κύν-, κύνα, κυνός, κ.τ.λ. μάρτυς for μάρτυρ-s, also μάρτυρ, which is stem. νύξ for νύκτ-s (Gothic Naht-s), νύκτα, νυκτός, κ.τ.λ. ούς for αύατ, αυτ, ωτ, ωτός, ώτί ; ώτα, ώτων, ώσίν, κ.τ.λ. ύδωρ for ύδαρτ, ύδατος for ύδαρτος, κ.τ.λ. NOUNS WITH VOWEL STEMS. These may be divided roughly into a-stems and o-stems (the vand -stems being for purposes of declension semi-consonantal). 28 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR I. A-stems. 1. These are preponderatingly feminine. The feminine end- ings are --, -, V, s, 1 (subscript), l, l, s, wv, ls. Wherever the stem ends in la or pa these endings require to be simply added on, and the declension is complete. In other cases the vowel a is modified (by a preference of the Ionic dialect) to n before s and 1, e. g. Tpáneta, tpatésns, dóta, dóếns, K.T.d.; not however in the popular speech. The genitive áwv in all these words necessarily contracts to ŵy, though even this is sometimes ignored in the vernacular. The genitive and dative singular of these words, if oxytone, are circumflexed, okiâs, oklą. A large majority of stems whose vowel is preceded by any consonant except o and the double consonants & and f, adopt the vowel n for a throughout the singular. This makes no difference in the plural; e. g. Tiun, orýan, piáin, yux), plural Timai, tiuàs, thuôv, tluais, k.t.d. 2. Masculines in a and n have the ending s, -, v, 0 (= ou when combined with a), ., and in the plural are identical with feminines. The vocative is always the stem vowel, viz. a (not n), e. g. veavías, genitive veavíov, vocative veavía; otpatióTYS, genitive στρατιώτου, νοcativo στρατιώτα ; but here be it observed that all masculines in m, likewise all compounds of Metpn-, Tóln-, ápxn-, have the a short, and consequently where admissible circumflex the foregoing vowel, e. g. otputlūta, Bibliotôla, K.T... 3. A number of masculines in a, signifying an agent, and a few others, with most proper names of this form, as well as many in n in the vernacular, simplify this declension by merely leaving the stem bare in the genitive and vocative, e.g. to ynonpa, Toù Boppa, toll dayâ, toll Owuâ, toll Mavóln, ô Mavóln, K.t.d. 4. If e precedes n (a) in the stem, ea becomes ñ, and e is swallowed up in all other cases, causing circumflexion of last syllable, e. g. Xovoća, Xovon, xovoén, Xovoy, K.7.. OF MODERN GRERK. 29 II. O-stems. Chiefly masculine and neuter, with some feminines. The case-endings are (practically) s, — (with o modified to ε), ν, υ, ο ι, υς, ων (absorbing o but without accent), ις for the masculine and feminine ; v, v, w, a absorbing 0, wv, is for the neuter. If the o of the stem is preceded by e or o, contraction takes place, oo and εo becoming oυ, while in the other Cases and o are simply swallowed up. With monosyllables the circumflex marks this process, but not otherwise except the e or o has the accent, e. g. του πλόου, του πλού, το οστέον, το οστούν, but και ο χρυσούς is really for ο χρυσέος, although ο χρύσεος is the uncontracted form actually found in ancient Greek. A few stems in o seem to have lost an o, and to have been originally consonantal ; such are the classical feminines η ηχώ, η αιδώς, which decline οι, ώ, ούς, οι, and the proper names Κλειώ, Σαπφώ, Λητώ. Like these are the modern proper names η Χίω, genitive της Χίως, accusative την Χίων), η Μαριγώ, κ.τ.λ. A few nouns are heteroclite or of mixed declension, e. g. Tò όνειρον, “the dream, plural τα ονείρατα, το γράψιμον and its ana- logues, plural τα γραψίματα. Also the accusatives of proper names in γένες, κράτες, μηδες, φάνες, τέλες, which form their accusative in ην instead of in εα, η. This doubtless arises from false analogy, the nominative -ns suggesting n instead of es as the stem-ending. METAPLASTIC NOUNS. In the vernacular a number of accusatives like matépalv), λαμπάδα(ν), suggest a fresh stem πατέρα-, λαμπάδα-. Hence we get such nominatives as ο πατέρας, ο άνδρας, η λαμπάδα, η νύκτα, for πατήρ, ανήρ, λαμπά(δ)ς, νύξ. Such forms frequently preserve the old genitive, as της νυκτός, του ανδρός. 30 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR A number of nouns in a and n, chiefly circumflexed on the stem-vowel, form their plurals from the stems od and nd in the vernacular; also a few paroxytones like jávva, 'mother,' xágas, laugher, χάσκας, “gaper,' παπατρέχας, “rambler. The masculine forms do not draw forward the accent in the genitive plural, e. g. χάχαδων, παπατρέχαδων. Foreign vowel stems follow the analogy of those in a, e. g. Ở καφές, του καφέ, plural οι καφέδες και η μαϊμού, “ the monkey, της μαϊμούς, αι μαϊμούδες; but if paroxytones, as και κόντες, the count, the plural 1s -ηδες, κ.τ.λ. Other curious mixtures difficult to classify are : kópakas for κόραξ, ο κόρακε, τον κόρακα(ν), του κοράκου, οι κοράκοι, τους κοράκους, των κοράκων, κ.τ.λ. ; but these belong wholly to the vernacular. The vernacular also writes acs for at and ās, accusative feminine plural, es or acs for ås, masculine accusative plural, and y for ai, feminine plural of the article. Other instances of metaplasm and heteroclite declension in the vernacular are : του πραγμάτου for πράγματος, πράξι, πράξις for πράξις, πράξεως, παχεί οι παχεί for παχείς, plural nominative masculine of παχύ-, “fat, κ.τ.λ. GENDERS OF NOUNS. 1. Masculines :- (a) All stems in ev. (6) All substantives in ντ (except those in oυντ), and most in ην, ηρ, ωρ, ωτ, π; but η φρών, η χήν, and, of course, η μήτηρ and η θυγάτηρ, το φως, “ the light, το ούς, “ the ear.'' 2. Feminines :- (α) The few whose nominatives are ως and ώ. (0) Most in δ; but παιδ-, boy,’ girl,’ λογάδ-, picked man or woman,’ φυγάδ-, fugitive, σποράδ-, scattered,' έπηλυδ-, “im- migrant,' vénaud-, 'new comer,' are common. (c) All in i and mnt, and most in 17. OF MODERN GREEK. 31 Of those in o, nominative os, the great majority are masculine. Of those in a and n, all are feminine but a few whose nominatives take s. 3. Neuters :- (a) All in o whose nominative is ov. (6) All in ap, at, and one in it-tò médc'the honey,' genitive uéditos OF ADJECTIVES IN PARTICULAR. 1. Of three endings, masculine, feminine, and neuter (Tpce κατάληκτα επίθετα):- (a) o-s, no o-v or 0-s, a, 0-v, i, e. a in case of vowel or p preceding (but oydón, eighth '). These are the commonest kind ; a few in eo contract, e. g. Xpuovûs, Xpvon, Xpvooûv. (6) js, fia, ú, all oxytone, but ýulov-s, julgela, ģucov, next commonest. (c) levr-s, levr-ra, levo, becoming iets, becoa, lev according to phonetic law. (d) bevr-s, K.t.., similarly formed. (e) Two, viz. Méhav- and Tálav-, thus declined: uéias, pédalva, quélav, 'black,' uéìava, uéralvav, mélav, where uélaiva = mélavia. (f) All participles, whether imperfect passive (-uevo-), perfect passive (-lévo-), imperfect active (-ovt-), aorist passive (-évr.), 1st aorist active (-avt-), perfect (-or-, -via, -67-), nominative cs, via, ós (for órs, via, ór). 2. Of two terminations, dikataankta (masculine or feminine, and neuter). (a) All whose stem is es, nominative ns, es. (6) All in ov, nominative wv, ov. (c) All in i, nominative is, l. (i) Most compounds and derivatives from compound verbs, except those which are oxytone. Also Bápßapo-, ñouxo-, ñuepo-. The vernacular ignores this class, using the feminines ñ ñouxn, K.T.ch, in disregard of the accentual laws. 32 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR 3. Adjectives of one ending (μονοκατάληκτα) are simply such as are masculine and feminine, and have no neuter, e. g. é, άπαις, “childless,' and a few which are practically substantives in apposition, as ο γέρων, “the old man,’ η εθελοντής, “the volunteer.' VI ADJECTIVES OF MIXED DECLENSION. These are μέγας for μέγαλς, “great,’ of which the singular nominative and accusative masculine and neuter are formed as though from μέγαλ-, dropping the λ according to phonetic laws, and the rest of the cases from the stem μεγάλο-, and πολύς, κ.τ.λ., in which the same cases are formed from stem tolv-, the rest from stem πoλλό- ή-, for πολιό- ή-. The Ionic dialect declines πολλό- πολλή- throughout, and the vernacular μεγάλο- η- throughout. COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 1. The regular way of comparing adjectives is by adding- τερο τέρα τερo, comparative. τατο τάτη τατο to the stem of the masculine and neuter. e. g. λεπτό- λεπτότερο- σαφές σαφέστερο- – λεπτότατο- - σαφέστατο- If the preceding syllable is short the o-stem is lengthened, e. g. σοφώτερο, κ.τ.λ., not σοφότερο-. 2. Stems in evt change to es, and stems in ov take es before adding the comparative endings, e. g. χαρίεντ-, χαριέστερο-, ευδαίμον-, ευδαιμονέστερο-, 3. As alternatives to τερο-, τατο-, the endings ιον-, ιστο- are added to a few adjectives, while in other cases the stem of the positive is changed. Hence arise the following seeming irregularities : αισχρό-, « base,’ αίσχιστο- ; άσμενο-, glad,’ άσμε- νέστερο-; κακό-, “bad,' χειρότερο-, χείρον-, κάκιστο- and χείριστο- και μείζον- for μέγρον-, also μεγαλήτερο-, μέγιστο- ; ολίγο-, ελάσσον- for ελάχιον- from ελαχύ-, ελάχιστος, also ολιγώτερο-, ολίγιστο- ; OF MODERN GREEK. 33 πολύ-, πλείον- Or πλειότερο-, πλείστο-, also περισσότερο- και τάχιστο- as superlative of ταχύ- ; ύψιστο- of υψηλό-. Note too απλούς, απλούστερο-ς, αγχίνου-ς, αγχινούστερος, ας though the stem were ovo. 4. The following comparatives of adverbs and prepositions are noticeable :- πλησίον, near’ πλησιέστερος, -τατος. από, “ from' (far') απώτερος, “ further, -ατος, “furthest.' προ, before πρότερος, earlier, πρώτος, “frst, πρώτιστος, 'first of all,' quasi “firstest.” εξ, εκ, “out ' έσχατος for έκ-σ-ατος, “uttermost, last. υπέρ, over' υπέρτερος, Superior,' υπέρτατος, “supreme' - In ordinary parlance the comparative with the article = superlative, the superlative itself = very,’ e. g. και καλήτερος, • the best man,' κάλλιστος άνθρωπος, a very good man. SUBSTANTIVE PRONOUNS. 1. Personal pronouns : Ι εγώ, με (έμε, εμένα), μου (έμου), μοι (έμοί). Thou σύ (εσύ), σε (εσε, σένα, εσένα), σου, σοί. He αυτός, αυτόν (τον), αυτού (του), αυτό (τω). She –ή –ην –ην -ης -- ης -η -η It -ο -ο- -o like masculine. We ημείς, ημάς (μας), ημών (μας), ημίν (μας). You υμείς (έσεις, σεις), υμών (σας), υμίν (σας). They αυτοί, αυτούς (τους), αυτών (των), αυτοίς (τους). Fem. –αι –ας –ας - - αις, κ.τ.λ. Neut. -à -à -à and the rest as the masculine. (a) The shorter forms are the less emphatic, and when written after the words governing them lose their accent, e. g. του έδωκά το, ου το έδωκά του, “I gave it him. (6) The nominatives are not expressed with verbs, save for emphasis. : 34 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR 2. Reflective pronouns :- Imyself, (εγώ) αυτός Or -ή, κ.τ.λ. Of myself, έμαυτού, -ης, κ.τ.λ., and so on. Ourselves, (ημείς) αυτοί, ημών αυτών, κ.τ.λ. Thyself, σεαυτού, κ.τ.λ. και yourselves (εμείς) αυτοί, κ.τ.λ. Himself, αυτός, of himself, εαυτού, κ.τ.λ. ; herself, αυτή, εαυτής, κ.τ.λ. But the Greeks also say in the objective τον εαυτόν μου, τον . εαυτόν σου, κ.τ.λ., and sometimes τον ίδιον εαυτόν μου, κ.τ.λ., lit. “the own self of me;' also in the nominative, éyù o idos, 'I myself.' 3. Reciprocal pronoun :- αλλήλους, -ας, ά, κ.τ.λ. THE ARTICLE. ADJECTIVAL PRONOUNS. 1. The definite article é, n, tò, plural oi, ai, tà, is declined in other cases as from the stems το-, τη, τό-. As indefinite articles, τις, τι, or είς, μία, έν, the numeral one,' are used. N.B.—Masculine and neuter stem = čv, feminine = uía. 2. “My,’ &c., is expressed by o - μoυ, κ.τ.λ. και “mine' or my own' by ο δικός μου, κ.τ.λ., and so on of the other pronouns. DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS. 3. “This,'that,' when not over emphatic, is aŭtos -» -ò, always combined with the article, thus, ο άνθρωπος αυτός Oι αυτός ο άνθρωπος, « this man, whereas και αυτός άνθρωπος means the same man. But as ο άνθρωπος αυτός may mean also the man himself,' the less ambiguous and more emphatic pronoun oîtos αύτη (observe accent) τούτο is used in preference. This being really a compound of several stems is given at length :- SINGULAR. PLURAL. ούτος αύτη τούτο ουτοι αύται ταύτα τούτον ταύτην τούτο τούτους ταύτας ταύτα τούτου ταύτης τούτου τούτων τούτω ταύτη τούτω τούτοις ταύταις τούτοις OF MODERN GREEK. 35 Here, too, the article must accompany the substantive. ékelvos '-n-0, 'that, yonder,' is declined quite regularly, except that the neuter nominative and accusative drop v. The use of the article is the same as with oύτoς. TOGOÛTO-, “so great, and TOLOÛTO-, “such,' follow the declension of oitos, K.T.N., except that the initial r of taútny, K..d., is never inserted. allos, älln, ällo, other,' is as regular as aŭtó-. Observe that all these pronominal words drop v in the neuter accusative and nominative. An old demonstrative compounded of the article + de is used in certain cases, e.g. uéxou toüde, ‘hitherto.' The article with wèv and dè (not written in one word), o uè - ó dè, K.T.d., means "the one'— 'the other.' Also ó Sè alone means and he' or 'but he.' INDEFINITE AND INTERROGATORY PRONOUNS. These are : Tlv-, nominative tis, Tì, indefinite, losing accent when enclitic, e. g. ävdpwós tis eixe dúo vious, 'a certain man had two sons ;' and tis; tí; interrogatory. Tolo-; tola-; originally = 'of what kind ?' but now = tís; tí; & deiva or o deivas (heteroclite), tòv delva, toû deivos, to delvi, and ó ráde or rádes, tòv ráde, toû ráde (dative not found). The following distich was for some time the motto of a Greek satirical journal in Athens called tò Đôs, the Light,' appended to a caricature of the fallen and standing Prime Ministers, one of whom was represented head downwards, and the other in his natural position :- Και ο δείνας και ο τάδες Είνε όλοι μασκαράδες. Mr. This and Mr. That Each and all are Messrs. Flat. C 2 36 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR To which in one of the comic papers the prompt rejoinder appeared :- Και ο Συντάκτης του Φωτός Μασκαράς είνε και αυτός. And the Editor of Light Is as flat as any, quite. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. The commonest relative pronoun is ο οποίος, η οποία, το οποίον. Occasionally the more classical δς, ή, o, or the compounds όσπερ, ήπερ, όπερ are used : περ is a mere indeclinable particle, in force equivalent originally to very' or 'same.' For the rest os, κ.τ.λ., is declined quite regularly, as is also τις in composition, e. g. όντινα, ήντινα, ό,τι, ούτινος, ή τινος, κ.τ.λ., but ούπερ, ώςπερ, κ.τ.λ. Finally the indeclinable όπου Or που is used in the vernacular as a relative for all cases and genders. Conipare the . German wo in the South. CORRELATIVE PRONOUNS. . Such are mórepos, 'which of two ?' whether of two?' neuter πότερον = whether ;' ο έτερος, one of two ;' οπότερος, which of two’ (relative); πόσος, how great, how many ;' όσος, as great as ;' τόσος or τοσούτος, so great, so many ;' ποίος, οποίος, of what kind ;' τοιούτος Or τέτοιος (accent invariably on έ), “such ;' οίος, οποίος, such as.' . THE NUMERALS. As some of these are subject to inflection, they are given in this place. CARDINALS. 1 είς (for έν-s), μία, έν (fem. 4 τέσσαρες, τεσσαρα. gen. and dat. μιάς, μια). 5 πέντε. 2 δύο οι δύω. 6 έξ, vl. έξι. 3 τρείς, τρία (gen. τριών). 7 επτά. OF MODERN GREEK. 8 οκτώ. 9 εννέα. 10 δέκα. 11 ένδεκα. 12 δώδεκα. 13 δεκατρείς -ία. 14 δεκατέσσαρες -α, κ.τ.λ. 20 είκοσι. 21 είκοσι και εις Οι είκοσιν είς, κ.τ.λ. 30 τριάκοντα (τριάντα). 40 τεσσαράκοντα (σαράντα). 50 πεντήκοντα (πενήντα). 60 εξήκοντα (εξήντα). 70 εβδομήκοντα (εβδομήντα). 80 όγδοήκοντα (όγδώντα or όγδο- ήντα). 100 εκατόν. 101 εκατόν (και) είς, κ.τ.λ. 103 εκατόν τρείς, κ.τ.λ. 200 διακόσιοι (declined). . 300 τριακόσιοι. 400 τετρακόσιοι. 500 πεντακόσιοι. 600 εξακόσιοι. 700 επτακόσιοι. 800 οκτακόσιοι. 900 έν(νε)ακόσιοι. 1000 χίλιοι. 2000 δισχίλιοι οι δύο χιλιάδες (in apposition), and so on, add- ing χίλιοι το τρίς, τετράκις, πεντάκις, εξάκις, επτάκις, κ.τ.λ., meaning thrice, &c., or combining the first ten numerals with χιλιάδες. 10,000 δεκακιςχίλιοι οι μύριοι (classical). Ν.Β. - μυρίου means countless' (note accent). 20,000 είκοσι χιλιάδες οι δισμύριοι. 1,000,000 εν εκατομμύριον = 100 x 10,000. A billion, δισεκατομμύριον. 1883 χίλια οκτακόσια όγδοήκοντα τρία. ORDINALS. 1st πρώτος-η-ον. 20th είκοστός. 2nd δεύτερος '-α -ον. 21st είκοστος πρώτος. 3rd τρίτος, κ.τ.λ. 30th τριακοστός. 4th τέταρτος, κ.τ.λ. 40th τεσσαρακοστός (σαρακοστός), 5th πέμπτος. κ.τ.λ. 6th έκτος. 100th εκατοστός, κ.τ.λ., the ending 7th έβδομος. -στός being added to the 9th ένατος. stem; e. g. 'in the 1883rd 10th δέκατος. year,' εν έτει χιλιοστά 11th ενδέκατος. οκτακοσιοστώ όγδοηκοστή 12th δωδέκατος. τρίτω. 13th δέκατος τρίτος, κ.τ.λ. Fractions are expressed by the neuter of the ordinals : δεύ- τερον (or ήμισυ) = 3, δύο τρίτα = 3, κ.τ.λ. 38 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR THE VERB. The verb consists of a root (or stem) combined with personal affixes or endings. Verbs are divided into Active and Passive. Most have both an active and passive form. Those that have only a passive form are for the most part active in sense, having lost in the process of usage their originally passive meaning. Verbs are further distinguished as to tense or time. The two main tense divisions are- 1. Imperfect tenses, or those denoting a continued action. 2. Aorist tenses, or those denoting an instantaneous action. The future tense in Modern Greek is expressed by com- binations or adaptations of these other two. Verbs are further subject to changes of mood according to whether the action is represented as actual, or conditional, or commanded. These moods are called respectively, indicative, subjunctive, and imperative. For the imperfect there is sometimes, but not always, a separate stem, called the imperfect stem. The aorist stem is in such cases the root of the verb. . Given the imperfect stem, the present imperfect tense in the indicative mood in all its persons may be formed at once by adding on the following affixes :- 1 Sing. ω PI. ομεν ACTIVE. 2 3 εις ει ετε ουσι (ουν) PASSIVE. 1 2 Sing. quai egal ΡΙ. ομεθα εσθε 3 ETAL ονται Ι A slight vowel change transforms these endings into the appropriate ones for the subjunctive mood of the imperfect tenses. N.B.-There is no distinction of past and present in the subjunctive mood. OF MODERN GREEK. 39 ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. w ļS ? Sing. wuau noal ntai PI. ωμεν ητε ωσι (ουν) Ι ΡΙ ωμεθα ησθε ωνται The past tenses take a prefix é, called the augment, which with e combines to form ei or n, with i, ei, and with a, ñ. To form the past imperfect indicative the prefix e is placed before the stem (or root), and the following are the endings :- ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Sing. ον (v1. α) ες ε | Sing. όμην εσο ετο Pl. Quen ETE ov (av) Pl. bueda cote OVTO The aorist is formed in two ways. In case the imperfect stem is lengthened from the root, the aorist reverts to the root, and with that exception forms its persons (in the active) precisely as the imperfect past, e. g. peúyw, root pur, present imperfect Devyov, aorist buyov. This is called the 2nd or strong aorist. In case the imperfect stem is the simple root, the letter o is interposed between stem and personal endings, or the syllable lengthened in cases where for the sake of euphony the o is suppressed, and the endings are as follow in the active: while in the passive the 1st aorist interposes 6, the 2nd aorist nothing, and the endings are as follows:- PASSIVE. Sing. α ας ε Sing. nu. msn ΡΙ. αμεν ατε αν PI. ημεν ητε ησαν Examples: Bállo, 'I put' or 'throw,'ěßallov, “I was throwing,' ¿Badov, “I threw, éßádnu, 'I was thrown;' lúw, 'I loose,’ člvov, člvoa, élúonv. In the subjunctive mood, the same stems(without the è) are used as in the indicative, while the personal endings are as follows:- ACTIVE. PASSIVE. Same as for the imperfect. Ditto, circumflexed throughout. dúow, Báłw, K.T.d. Aus, Balô, K.T.A. S ACTIVE. I 40 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR ILY N.B. — The vernacular is fond of forming the indicative passive aorist by adding to the aorist stem, whether 1st or 2nd, the endings of the 1st aorist active, preceded by the letters nk, e. g. ¿ßálnka, ébanonka, for épádny, épiñonv, K.7.d. The future tense is expressed either by the subjunctive mood preceded by the particle Gà, or by the verb Oéw, 'I will,' &c., followed by the INFINITIVE. This is formed of the stem + the ending e(v), passive -codai, in the aorist ñ(val), e. g. là lúw, 'I will loose' (as a habit); à lúow, 'I will loose' (on some special occasion); passive là dubw, K.r.l. Oéw Buidel(v), 'I shall put' (habitually); Déw Bádel(v), 'I shall put' (once for all); Ofw Báeobac, Okw Bala N.B.—' I will put’is déw và Bálw, k.t.d. The infinitive is properly the old locative case of a noun. It is still used as an indeclinable substantive with the article, but in this case the old classical form is employed, i. e. the v is never dropped in imperfect and 2nd aorist, and for the 1st aorist ai is used instead of el, while the elv of the 2nd aorist active is always circumflexed, e. g. Tò Báidelv, tò Baleiv, tò lúcal, tò dudaval, K.T.d. The modern form of the infinitive aorist is also used with fyw, 'I have,' to form a compound perfect and pluperfect, e. g. čxw lúoet, “I have loosed ;' {xw Báder, “I have put;' cixov (for čexov) Xúoel, Bálet, K.T.., 'I had,' &c. Another way of forming the perfect and pluperfect is exw + the perfect passive participle in -jévo-n, e. g. čxw (Ne)dvuévas Tàs orovdás, “I have broken the treaty. The doubling of the first syllable is optional. IMPERATIVE MOOD, OR MOOD OF COMMANDING.. To the imperfect stem the following endings are added, in the active :- e[s] (“thou') and occasionally étw ('he'). ETE ("ye') very rarely érwoav or óvtov ( they'). - and in the passive :- OF MODERN GREEK. €00 (ou) écow. εσθε έσθωσαν Or έσθων. As a rule a wish regarding all other persons but the second is expressed by às followed by the subjunctive, e. g. as dúow, ås dúoy, às dúcouv. äs is short for ādes, 2nd aorist imperative of ảo-e-, imperfect åpinut, “ let,' permit.' To the 1st aorist stem the following endings are added :- ACTIVE. E or ov átw. FTE or are ártwv. PASSIVE. ov or nti or no. (the latter if no aspirate precedes) ñrw. ητε ήτωσαν οι έντων. N.B.-(1) To form the 2nd aorist imperative active the endings of the imperfect are added to 2nd aorist stem: whereas in the passive the endings are alike for 1st and 2nd aorist. (2) ov requires the active stem, e. g. ypávov, not ypádlov. The foregoing supplies the key to all the most ordinary forms of the verb except the participles; but before we speak of these it may be well to mention a few classical forms not in common use, but cropping up in occasional phrases, such are:- THE CLASSICAL FUTURE. This is simply the same as the present imperfect + the in- sertion of o between stem and personal ending in the active, and Ano between stem and personal ending in the passive, e. g. dúow, duonoojai, k.t.l. . THE MIDDLE AORIST. Middle means halfway between passive and active. Those passive verbs which have an active meaning may form (not must) their aorists as follows: To the 1st aorist stems are added the following personal endings :- άμην αμεθα ω for ασο ασθε ato αντο 42 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR and to the 2nd aorist stem the endings of the imperfect past passive. A future middle is also sometimes formed, which is identical with the passive except that o is substituted for Ono. THE PERFECT ACTIVE. This is formed by doubling the first consonant and inserting €, e. g. del for d, yey for y, K.T.d., and if the root end in a vowel or a liquid inserting K, aspirating a mute or medial, and leaving an aspirate intact, and then adding the endings of the 1st aorist, save that the 3rd person plural ends in avtı instead of av, e.g. λελύκασι from λυ-, γεγράφασι from γραφ-, κ.τ.λ. A perfect passive formed by adding to the reduplicated stem the endings mal, cal, tal; uela, De (after vowels obe), and (where possible) νται, is found in such isolated phrases as τετέλεσται, ‘it is finished,' from root teleo- N.B.-o and sometimes I are dropped in reduplication, e. g. łotépnual for geotépnual, ethnpipar for léamupal. Observe, too, B, Tig $ are assimilated to M, e.g. yéypappar for yéypadual, also, spirants' become tenues before τ, θ.g. γέγραπται for γέγραφται. THE PARTICIPLES. The imperfect participle active is formed by adding to the imperfect stem the syllable ovt, which becomes with the signs of case and gender, wv (OVT-s), ovoa (ovt-ca], and ov[7], in mascu- line, feminine, and neuter respectively, and is declined according to the scheme for nouns given above. The 2nd aorist is made by adding the same endings on to the 2nd aorist stem. The 1st aorist participle active is formed by adding to the cor- responding stem the endings as, aoa, av [avt-s, avt-ja, avt], K.5.. The perfect passive participle is formed by adding to the root (of which the reduplication is optional) the endings uévo-s, Mév-n, jévo-v, K.T... Observe the accent, invariably on the e. according to Modern Greek phonetics. OF MODERN GREEKV 43 . The imperfect participle passive is made by adding to the imperfect stem the endings óuevos, Quévn, óuevov, K.T... The passive participle aorist is made by adding the suffix évt + generic endings = eis (evts], cioa [évr-ca], év[c], to the 1st or 2nd aorist stems. Besides these there are occasionally found a future active and to the future stems given above in the account of the classical tense, e. g. dú-o-wv, dv-ono-óuevos, K.T.d.; and also an ACTIVE PERFECT PARTICIPLE, formed by adding to the reduplicated root the suffix ór- for masculine and neuter, and via- for the feminine, thus producing ús [07-s], via, ós [OT], respectively. Observe the accent, which is always on the suffix save in the feminine genitive plural, which is circumflexed according to rule. CONTRACT VERBS. Where the verbal root ends in a, e, or o, contraction arises with those personal endings which begin with a vowel. In forming these contractions it has only to be remembered that, ao, ów, éw, ów, and áov contract to w, ô. €0, 00, 0e, kov, bov ov, où respectively. de, an, áel, an a, ą. €€, ÉEL όει El, el. oî. Ñ Ñ. έη, έη But for the most part verbs in o insert v in Modern Greek before a vowel, and thus contraction is avoided, e. g. diopēóvel for Scopóel, scopool, 'he corrects.' Keeping the above contractions in view, the student will be able to write out correctly the paradigm of any contract verb. Apparent exceptions in the mouths of the common people, e. g. êtluoýuovv or ètiuojuny for ètiucunv, arise from the tendency 44 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR to assimilate all contract verbs to a common scheme, and as the vowels a and € (and even o) were probably in origin variants of one indeterminate vowel sound, there is some justification for the process. As a rule verbs in a, e, and o lengthen these vowels to n and w respectively in forming the aorist, e.g. tiuów, tiuâ, I honour,' “Tứunữa, là Tiun ; ( réo -6, I seek, e nó ra, bà (nang ; deopdova, 'I correct,' dcúpowoa or ¿dópowoa, K.T.d. Apparent exceptions, such as yedáw, yendow, 'laugh,' åpkéw, åpkéow, 'suffice,' diyaw, dotykow, thirst,' relvÁw, nelváow, hunger,' otáw, otáow, “break, kakéw, kadéow, call,' ¿ÉEuéw, vomit,' teléw, 'finish,' aivéw, “praise,' K.t.., reveal in their passive forms, e. g. duyaguévos, npkéo nu, tetel Ejévos, K.T.N., that they have lost an o after the root-vowel a or €, so that they do not properly come under the rule. Such other exceptions as occur (and they are very rare) are probably due to false analogy. Such is the general scheme of conjugation, and to it there are no exceptions. Given the imperfect and aorist stem of a verb, the whole conjugation is known. Some verbs have both 2nd and 1st aorists, and some only 1st or 2nd. As a rule, when the imperfect stem and the root of the verb are identical, the 1st aorist is used, when the imperfect is a secondary formation, the 2nd. In forming the 1st aorist it must be remembered that:- (1) B, TT, o combine with o to form y Y, K, X , while 8, 0, are lost before . o (2) that , j, v, p absorb the following o, the preceding vowel being lengthened by way of compensation ; e. g. fuelva for žuevoa, fotelda for foteloa, ettậpe for énápoe, K.1.1. To form the imperfect stem either the simple root is retained, as in ypáow, lúw, tquów, Entéw, åyatáw, týkw, výbw, vnoteúw, K.7.d., or it is increased in various ways:- OF MODERN GREEK. 45 1. By the frequentative affix ok, accompanied sometimes with reduplication, or by reduplication alone, in which case the reduplicated vowel is not ε as in the perfect, but 1, e. g. γιγνώσκω, “I know, from γνο-, γίγνομαι for γιγένομαι from γεν-, become, χάσκω, I gape, from root χα-, θνήσκω or θναίσκω for θάνσκω from θαν-, « die, μιμνήσκω, “I remind,' from root μνα-, and s0 forth. 2. By adding τ after a labial, as θάπτω, I bury,’ τύπ-τω, “I strike. 3. By adding { consonantal, which becomes absorbed, pro- ducing a change in the final consonant of the root, dy becoming, ζ, while γ, κ, χ + 2 = σσ (or ττ); γνωρίζω, “I know, for γνωρίδω, πράσσω for πράκω, διατάσσω for διατάγμω, κ.τ.λ. 4. By the affix av often accompanied by nasalization of the root, e. g. λαμβάνω, “I take, from λαβ-, μανθάνω, “I learn, from μαθ-, λανθάνω, I hide, from λαθ- ; or by suffix αν +ι consonantal = αιν, ας παθαίνω, “I suffer,' from παθ- ; Or by ν alone, as pépvw from pep-, accompanied sometimes with change of vowel, as γέρνω from γυρ-, (ε) παίρνω from επαρ-. This νis occasionally inserted between the last consonant and the final vowel, especially α, of a root, e. g. περνάω, I pass,” aorist επέρασα. 5. The root-vowel is strengthened, e.g. v becomes ev, as φυγ-, “fee, φεύγω, “I fee, έφυγον, “I fed.' The following is a list of so-called Irregular Verbs. In some cases the irregularity is produced by a striving for regularity led by false analogy. αισθάνομαι, aor. ησθάνθης, “feel.? αμαρτάνω, ήμάρτησα and ήμαρτον, "sin' αναλίσκω, ήνάλωσα, “spend.' ανοίγω, ήνοιξα and άνέωξα, “open. αποθνήσκω, απέθανον, θα αποθάνω, “die. απολλύω, απώλεσα και pf. p. απολωλώς -υία -ός, “lose. 46 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR αρέσκω, ήρεσα, θα αρέσω, please. αυξάνω, ηύξησα, θα αυξήσω, grow.' αφικνέομαι, θα αφιχθώ, αφίχθην and άφικόμην ; p. p. άφιγμένος, arrive.' αφίνω, άφησα and αφήκα ; imperat. άφες, αφήσατε and άφετε ; p. p. αφειμένος, “leave, let go.'. βαίνω (chiefly found in compounds), έβην, έβης, έβη, κ.τ.λ. ; imp. βα, βήτε, “go ;' aor. pass. παρεβάθη, it was transgressed ;' f. θα βω. For έβην the vernacular uses έβηκα, κ.τ.λ. βάλλω, root βαλ and βλα, θα βάλω, έβαλον οι έβαλα, έβλήθην, βεβλημένος, cast, put, put on.' βαρύνω, θα βαρύνω, εβάρυνα, θα βαρυνθώ, έβαρύνθην, weary, burden.' βλέπω, aor. from root ιδ- [Είδη, είδον ΟΥ -α, ίδε and ιδέ, also ιδές, ιδών, θα δω, see. In compounds regular, as κατέβλεψεν, “he looked down,’ ανέβλεψα, “I looked up.' βόσκω, aor. from stem βοσκε-,. “ feed,' θα βοσκήσω, κ.τ.λ. βούλομαι, I will, intend, θα βουληθώ, έ-, also ήβουλήθην, as if from έβουλε-. βρεχω, pass. aor. έβράχην, θα βραχώ, κ.τ.λ., rain.' γηράσκω, έγήρασα, κ.τ.λ., grow old.' γίνομαι (γίγνομαι), θα γείνω, έγεινα Οι εγενόμην, γενόμενος; pf. γέγονα; pf. p. γεγονώς, “become.” γινώσκω (γιγνώσκω), θα γνώσω, έγνωσα and έγνων, έγνως, έγνω, έγνωμεν, έγνωσε, έγνωσαν ; imp. γνώθι, γνώσον οι γνώσε; aor. p. γνώσας and γνούς (γνοντ-), “know. Chiety in com- pounds, e. g. åváyvwbi, “read,'' recognize.' δεικνύω, the aor., &c., from δεικ-; p. p. p. δεδειγμένος, “show.' δέρνω, δέρω Or δαίρω, θα δείρω, έδειρα ; p. θα δαρώ, θα δαρθώ, εδάρην or εδάρθην, “fog, Hay. Hence δέρμα, skin.” δέχομαι, εδέχθην, θα δεχθώ; p. p. δεδεγμένος και aor. m. also found, εδεξάμην ; p. δεχθείς and δεξάμενος, receive.' διδάσκω, the aor. from διδαχ-, « teach.' διδράσκω (in comp.) (root δρα-), απέδρασα, απέδρασας, απέδρασεν, OF MODERN GREEK. 47 also απέδρας, απέδρα (cf. γνω-); part. αποδράς, αποδράσα, run away.' δίδω, θα δώσω, έδωσα and έδωκα, θα δοθώ, εδόθην; p. p. p. δεδο- μένος, give.' δύνα-μαι -σαι -ται -μεθα -σθε -νται (α throughout); subj. δύνωμαι, δύνησαι, δύνηται, δυνώμεθα, δύνησθε, δύνωνται, or like the indicative ; inf. δύνασθαι και p. δυνάμενος ; imp. εδυνάμην and ήδυνάμην (cf. βούλομαι), κ.τ.λ. (with a throughout) και θα δυνηθώ, ηδυνήθην, “can,' am able.' έγειρω; imp. ήγειρον ; aor. ήγειρα, θα εγερθώ, ηγέρθην, raise, “walke, rise,' awalken ;' p. p. p. έγηγερμένος. είμαι (είμι), είσαι, είνε (έστι), είμεθα (έσμεν), είσθε, είνε (είσί); subj. ήμαι (), ήσαι (ής), ήνε (ή), ήμεθα (ώμεν), ησθε, ήνε (ώσι); imp. έσο, έστω, έστωσαν ; inf. είσθαι (είναι) και p. ών (όντ-), “be. No aorists, for which έγεινα, θα γείνω, κ.τ.λ., are used. - έκπλήττω ; 1st aor. act. from πληγ- και 2nd aor. pass. from πλαγ-, astonish.' éutodíśw, ‘hinder,' takes no augment. έρχομαι, come' (έλθ-); fut. p. έλευσόμενος for έλυθσόμενος. ευρίσκω (εύρ-, augment optional), “find. εύχομαι (εύχη-), “wish έχω (σχ- σχε-), έσχον, θα σχεθώ, εσχέθην, “have.' ζάω, ζω, ζης, ζη, ζωμεν, ζητε, ζώσι, live, έζησα. - ηξεύρω, “know,’ μαθ-. θάπτω, “bury' (ταφ-, pass.); p. p. p. τεθαμμένος. θέλω, εθέλω (θελε- εθελε-), will.' - θέτω (class. τίθημι) (θε-), έθηκα, θα θέσω (mid. comp. προτίθεμαι, I propose, set before myself'); θα τεθώ, ετέθην και part. imp. τιθείς ; aor. θείς, place.' « ιστάω, ιστώ (in comp. chiefy), also σταίνω, στήνω, στέκω και root στα- (class. ίστημι), “set, stand, ίσταμαι, I stand ;' έστησα, “I set’ (trans.); έστην, “I stood,' also εστάθην, in passive sense εστήθην ; p. ιστάμενος, στάς. 48 SIMPLIFED GRAMMAR κάθημαι (= κατά + ήμαι), sit, έκαθήμην, εκάθησα, κάθησε, θα καθήσω. The chief irregularity here is that the aorists are active in form with intransitive sense. καίω (καF- καυ-), θα καύσω, έκαυσα, θα καώ, εκάης, “burn.' καλέω (κλα- κλε-), εκλήθην, κεκλημένος, “ call.' κάμνω (καμ-), “do.' κεί-μαι, κ.τ.λ, subj., ditto. Endings added to stem without any intervening vowel. Past impf. εκείνην, έκεΐσο, κ.τ.λ. και 10 aor., 'lie.' κερδαίνω (κερδίζω) (κερδε-), “gain. - κερνάω (κεράννυμι), θα κεράσω, κ.τ.λ., “mix.' κλαίω (κλαF-), cf. καίω, “weep. κλέπτω (κλεπ- κλαπ-), steal,’ εκλάπην, θα κλαπώ. - κορέννυμι, not used, but θα κορέσω, έκόρεσα, “satiate. κόπτω (κοπ- 'Or κοβ-), “cut.' κρεμάω, κρεμνάω, κρέμαμαι (cf. δύναμαι) και θα κρεμάσω, θα κρεμασθώ, κ.τ.λ., “hang.' -- λαγχάνω (λαχ-), “fall in with, obtain by lot. λανθάνω (λαθ-), θα λανθασθώ, hide, escape, in passive am mistaken.' λούω (λου- and λουσ.), θα λουσθω, λουσμένος Or λελουμένος, wash.' μανθάνω (μαθ-), “learn. μάχομαι (only in imperfect), “fght. For other tenses, πολεμε-. μέλλω, “intend, be about to’ (only in impf.); past ήμελλον and έμελλον. μιγνύω (μιγ-), “mix,' έμιξα, έμίγην, εμίχθην. οίδα (Fιδ- Foιδ-), “I know. Chiefy in phrases, τίς οίδε ; who knows ?? Κύριος οίδε, “Lord knows ;' ουκ οίδα for δεν ηξεύρω, "I don't know.' Cf. our own archaism, I wot rot. μιμνήσκω (in comp.) (μνα- μνησ.), έμνησα, εμνήσθην, “remind, remember.' οικτείρω, ώκτειρον, ώκτειρα, pity.' ομνύω (όμο-), ώμοσα, θα ομόσω, “swear. OF MODERN GREEK. 49 πάσχω (for πάθ-σκω) or παθαίνω (παθ-), “suffer.' πείθω, πείθομαι, persuade, obey ;' έπεισα, επείσθην και πεπεισμαι. “I am persuaded ;' πέπoιθα, “I trust. πηγαίνω and υπάγω (παγ- υπαγ-), “go ;' επήγα, θα πάγω. The η in επήγα οι υπήγα is the result of the augment in the aorist (or imperfect) of the simple verb nyov, nya from åy-. πίνω (πι-), drink ;' έπιον and ήπια. πίπτω (πεσ- for πετ-), “fall. πλέω οι πλεύω (πλευ-, πλεF-), sail πνέω, πνεύω (πνευ- πνεF-), έπνεύσθην, “breathe.” δέω, ρεύω (σρευ- σρεF-), έρρευσα for έσρευσα, “ fow.' ρηγνύω (ρήγνυμι), ρήγνυμαι (cf. δύναμαι), κ.τ.λ. (δηγ- ραγ for Fραγ-), hence ερράγην, κ.τ.λ., “break.' - ρώννυμι, obs. except in έρρωσο, έρρωσθε, “be strong !” “hail !' “ farewell !' σβύνω (σβυ- σβε-), quench ;' έσβεσα and έσβυσα, έσβέσθην, εσβεσμένος. σέβομαι (σεβα[δ]-), εσεβάσθην, “honour, revere. - σήπομαι (σαπε-), “rot ' εσάπησα, έσαπήθην. τήκω (τηκ- and τακ-), melt ;' έτηξα, έτάκην. τρέμω, έτρεμον, tremble. No aor. Place supplied by έτρεσα (classical), έτρόμαξα (modern). τρέπω (τρεπ- and τραπ-), “ turn ;' έτρεψα, έτράπην, τετραμμένος. τρέφω (θρεπ- and τραφ-, cf. τριχ, nom. θρίξ), “feed ;' έθρεψα, έτράφην, τεθρεμμένος Or τεθραμμένος. Cf. also θάπτω. τρέχω (τρεχ- and δραμ-), run ;' έτρεξα and έδραμον. τρώγω (class. έσθίω) (φαγ-), “eat. τυγχάνω (τυχ-), “chance.' υπισχνέομαι Or υπόσχομαι, υπεσχέθην (cf. έχω), “promise. φαίνομαι, “seem, appear’ (for φάνιομαι), εφάνην. φέρω, φέρνω, “bring ;' imp. έφερον ; aor. έφερα. In a few compounds the stem ¿veyk- or évek- is used for aor. *veyka or oν, ενεχθώ, ήνέχθην, κ.τ.λ. φεύγω (φυγ-), “fy, fee, depart.' 50 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR pbeípw (poap-), épbelpa, éphápny, éphapuévos, “spoil, corrupt.' In comp. xaipw (xap-), dà xapw, éxápnv, rejoice," "be glad.' Impf. active, aorists passive in form, but intransitive in sense. - Xopraívu (xopta-), 'satiate.' xéw (xu-, xev-, xeF-), xúvw, except in comp., čxvoa, kexupévos, K.T.N., pour.' ON DERIVATION AND COMPOSITION. Closely allied to the subject of Greek accidence is that of the formation of words. There are two principal ways by which words are built up in Greek, first, by addition of suffixes and prefixes by themselves unmeaning, and secondly, by the compounding of two or more agglutinative process, or they may be distinguished as the processes of derivation and composition. DERIVATION BY AFFIX OR PREFIX. The principal prefixes are :- å(v)- = English un, e. g. ypantó-, written,'äypatto, "un- written;' ÚTODEPTÓ-, 'bearable,' åvUTÓDepto-, “unbearable.' Observe change of accent, which is typical. Eů, well,' "easily,' &c., e.g. karalnató-, comprehensible,' Eůkatálntto-, 'easy of comprehension. dvos, 'ill,''hard,' &c., e. g. åvaßató-, 'accessible,''that may be ascended,' svo aváßato-, 'hard to ascend.' All these prefixes may be compounded with the essential part less, the formative vowel of a substantive, and form, by the addition of a new formative vowel, an altogether fresh word, e. g. from uopd-à-, shape,' take a and add o; the stem uopdo- thus obtained, which has no independent existence, may then be combined, thus : Quoppo-, 'shapeless,' Súsuoppo, "mis- shapen,' ejuoppo-, shapely,' ' fair.' Or again, from túx-au (7-), OF MODERN GREEK. 51 'fortune,' we derive åtuyéo-, 'luckless,' dvotuyéo-, 'unlucky,' EủTUXÉO-, 'lucky. Such forms should not mislead us to suppose there is any such word as tuyéo-, Moppó-. This principle is of very wide application, e. g. ékpal- is a verb. root meaning 'to put out,' 'to extricate oneself or others. There is no such word as čxßolo-, 'extricable,' though there is a noun éxßoiń-, issue,' exit, but there is the adjective SvoékBolo, 'in- extricable,' and this form is typical of many others. In this place it is convenient to observe that the change from a or e to o is very common in forming noun stems from verbal roots, thus: Bal- becomes Bon-, pep- pop-, and similarly many others, Besides å-, tv-, and dvo-, the chief prefixes are prepositions, but as these are independent words, we shall consider them under the head of “Composition.” Besides these, we have the merely euphonic ô-, å-, as o-diyos for liyo-s, 'small,' ' few;" korázov for otázlov, “an ear of corn.' . Suffixes. -Mo-, masculine = '-ing,' e. g. Tal-, pal-pitate,' taluó-s, “palpi- - tation,' throb;' also adjectival, e, g. Gep-, 'heat,' Gepuó-, heated,' • warm.' -uòv-, masculine = '-er,' e g. vye-, 'lead,' vyeuúv [óv-s], 'leader.' -pov-, masculine, e. g. Tla- rin-, bear,' týuwv, 'enduring,' - suffering.' -Lèv-, masculine, '-er;' TOL- (Toe- tae-), 'feed,' Toluñv [-évs), "shepherd. -mat-, neuter, effect of action, e.g. pak-, do,' tpâypa[7], deed,' thing done.' un, feminine, e. g. ypag-un for ypag-un; 'a line.' TEP-, chiefly in relations, e. g. ta-t)p, 'father,' untnp, 'mother.' -mp-=‘-er;' kin-rń, caller,' summoner,' “ policeman,' ow-týp, “saviour.' -Top-= -er;' Pń-twp, speaker,'' orator.' Of this, tup in páp-rup is a variant. D 2 . 52 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR -τη- = -er ;' πολί-της, citizen ;' also -τη-, e. g. κρι-τής, “judge.” -τρια- and τειρα, feminine form of above, ας ποιήτρια, poetess,' υπηρέτρια, “maid servant.' -τρίδ- =-ster,” -stress ;' αυλητρίς, “ fute-player' (female). -τρο-, -τρό-, neuter = instrument or object of action, e. g. άρο- τρο-v, plough,’ λου-τρόν, “bath.' -θρο-, bye-form of above ; άρ-θρον, “ar-ticle,’ joint, fitting, from åp-, 'fit.' -θλη, feminine form of above, Θ. g. γενέθλη from γενε (γεν.), “birth, generation: -σύνη- =-ness, feminine, e. g. ευρφοσύνη = ευφρον-σύνη, glad- ness.' -τητ- = -th, feminine, e. g. νεό-της [τς], youth -ία, -ιά, and ία, ια =-th, feminine, e. g. μαν-, “rave' (μαίνομαι), μανία, “madness ;' αληθέσ-, “true,' αλήθεια [αλήθε(σ)ια), “truth ;' άμαθεσ-, unlearned,' αμάθεια, ignorance ;' στρατό, “ force, στρατιά, army και σκότ-ες, dark' (subst.) σκοτία, darkness. -o-v, neuter, “place of, e. g. Μούσα, “Muse,' μουσείον, “place of Muses' (μουσέ-ι-ον, μουσήίον) και μνήμη, memory,’ μνημείον, “place of remembrance,''tomb,’ ‘monument;' Ionic, uvnuńcov. -ων, masculine, abode of ;' δένδρ-ε-ο-, δένδρ-ο-, “ tree,’ δενδρών, δενδρεών, “plantation.' ίδ- = -ess' Sign of female (Γερμαν-ό-s, German,’ Γερ- { agency or 3 μανίδ-, “German lady.' -άδ- = -ess') quality. ( λάμπ-, shine, λαμπάδ-, candle. - -αινα-, wife of ;' Κώστας, “Constant, Κώσταινα, “Mrs. Constant.' 5 -ίνα-, wife of ;' Νικολ-η-s, Νικολίνα. -α-ς, “dealer in' or agent ;' φαγ-, eat,’ φαγάς, “a glutton ;' Ο μύλων-, mil' (μύλο-s), μυλωνά-s, miller. -ήλα-, -ύλα- = -ness και μαύρ-o, black,' μαυρήλα, “blackness.” - -ού, feminine of a-s; βούτυρο, “butter, βουτυρ-ού, « butter- woman.' OF MODERN GREEK. 53 °ωρον, και Ρη, 1ης είκ-ών, -ούρα-, the Latin -ira, our -ure; σκότ-ος, σκοτούρα, (black) care ;' κλει, κλει-σ-ούρα, “ an enclosure' (the σ is that of the aorist). -ουριά-, haunt of ;' κλέφτ-η-s (κλέπτης), robber,' κλεφτουριά, den of robbers.' -σία- for τρία και ανόη-τ-ο-, senseless,” “ανοη-σ-ία, senselessness. -λη- = “iness ;' ό-μίχλη, “mist(iness),’ νεφέ-λη (νέφες-), “cloud(iness).' -ρα-, “place where, thing by which ;' έδρα [σέδ-ρα), “ seat.' -ρο-, neuter, “thing done ;' δω-ρον, a gift.' -ον- (-εν-, -ην-); εικ-ών, “like-ness, picture.' «ανο-, -όνη-, instrument ; (F) όργανον, “tool' (root Fεργ-, “work), αγχόνη, “ strangling,’ δρέπανον and δρεπάνη, sickle' (δρεπ-, “reap '). -νο- = -ful,’ -ness ;' ύπ-νος [σύπ-νος], sleep, σκοτεινόν for σκοτεσνόν, dark,’ σεμνόν for σεβνόν, “worshipful.' -νι- = -ness, feminine και σπά-νις, scantness.” τι- = - er’ masculine, -ing’ feminine, also -σι- και μάντις, warner,' 'prophet,' púois, 'growing,' «nature.' -τυ- (rare); άσ-τυ, Fάσ-τυ, “dwelling-place, city.” -Es- (nominative os), neuter; yév-os,“ kin-dred.' _ -πουλο-, -πούλα, “son, daughter ;' Χρηστό-πουλος, son of Chrestos, βοσκοπούλα, shepherd girl.' - -ίδη-, feminine -ιδ, son ; Λασκαρίδης, “son of Lascar.' -- -ιμο-v, genitive ίματος, action of a verb ; γέλα-, laugh,’ γελά- σιμον, “ laughter.' -ω, -ώ, ending of some female proper names, e. g. Αγγελικώ, Χρύσω, 'Αργυρώ. -ιο- (ι), -ίο- (ί), -άρι(ο), -άκι-, -άφι-, -ύφι- (neuter), -άκη-s, oύλη-s (masculine), -ούλα, -ίτσα, -ούδα (feminine), are all diminutive endings. Sometimes' several are combined, e. g. Taidi, παιδάρι-, παιδαράκι for παιδαρ(ι)άκι, “ a very little boy, κομ- μάτι, κομματάκι, a little piece. By substituting α fcr 1, the diminutive is changed to an augmentative, e. g. κομμάτα, SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR ; "a big piece,' eofita-s, big Theophilus.' So, above, pay-a-s is a big eater.' ADJECTIVE ENDINGS. Such are:- -010- (old genitive ending, roll = Tól), e. g. Simla, adverb, doubly,' Sriáolo-, 'two-fold.' -Kó- : matp--kó-, 'father-ly,' kapdia-kó-, of the heart, Onlv-kó-, female,' puol-kó-, 'natural.' -Mo-: ubels, 'profit,' úpédquo-, ' profitable.' -0-do- and -úlo-: otóu-vlo-, talkative' (otoma(-) = 'mouth'). --10-: õpy-i-do-, 'wrathful.' -n-ho-: TLT-m-lo-, silent, xau-n-Aó, mean, lowly” (xau-ai, on the ground,' old locative). -LVO-: Éúl-uvo-, 'wood-en.' -L0-: 'Aonvalo- (Aonvá-io-), 'Athenian.' -pó- : dumn-pó, 'grievous.' -EVT- (-fevr-): atepó-evt-, ' winged, mavpopallowooa for uavpo- Malló-evt-oa, black-haired.' able.' -760-, 'what should be :' tí atpak-Téo-v; 'what('s) to be done?' To these must be added the participial endings given above in connexion with the verb, and the simplest noun stems, affixes, substantive and adjective, -a-, -,-, -o-, -v-, -€0., K.T.N., with which the student has already been made familiar. COMPOUND WORDS. In the composition of words there is no language more prolific than the Greek, whether Ancient or Modern. The rules of compounding words are very simple. The chief points requiring attention are—(1) the accent, (2) the part played by the vowel o, (3) the creation by composi- tion of new stems. (1) As to the accent, the rule is, that in compound words it OF MODERN GREEK. 55 goes as far back as possible, quite irrespective of its original place in the final word. the first word ends in o, and the final word begins with a consonant and suffers no change, e. g. Talaiò-v kaotpov, an old fortress,' becomes malalókaorpov (Oldfort'), often the name of a place ; Éuvò-v, ‘sour,' yada, milk,' &uvóyala, butter-milk.' If the last word begins with a vowel, the o of the preceding stem is absorbed, e. g. ξυλάνθρωπος for ξυλο-άνθρωπος, “wooden- man,' “blockhead.' If the stem of the first word ends in a consonant, or an a or n, o is either inserted or substituted, e.g. Dalacoóvepov, sea-water,' from Oálacoa and vepóv. The di- minutive suffix to also becomes o in compounds, e. g. kpago- mrórpov, 'wine-cup,' for kpaolotót pov, and that even as respects the latter half of the compound, as volußokóvdulov, 'lead- pencil,’ from μολυβι(ον) and κονδύλι(ον). (3) A number of new stems, for the most part verbals in o, arise, by the process of composition; and here observe the stem which denotes the agent has (if possible) the accent, e.g. åv- OpWTOKTÓvos, ' a man-slayer' (but åvOpWTÓKTOVOs, 'slain by man”), doyoypápos, a writer of words,' Deodóyos, "a talker about God,' Lectóvuos (XELTT- Ovuó-), literally, leaving life,' i. e. fainting. N.B.—There are no such independent words as któvo-s, slayer, ypáfo-s, 'writer,' leito-s, 'leaver.' Words ending in -c cannot stand as the last word of a compound, but are replaced by the more abstract -ía, e. g. DELTTotaśía, leaving the ranks,' not deLTÓTAŚLS; Talcy-yeveria, 'new-birth,' 'regeneration, not madcyyéveous or maliyyévvnois. Words like “ Parthenogenesis” for “Parthenogenesia," used as terms of scienco, are barbarous in the last degree. This applies also to compounds with the particles å, eủ, dus, as åtašía, eurašía, dvotuxía, not ärašis, etrašis, dvorúxn. PREPOSITIONS IN COMPOSITION. 56 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR composition before another vowel; not so nepi, åudí, e.g. ÉTÁVUMOS (óvóuat, dialectically óvýuar), named after,' but In the case of verbals in -rò compounded with a preposition, only usage can teach the student where to place the accent, but probably the explanation of the irregularity is that where the compound verbal is taken straight from the verb, e. g. åvaßatós from åvaßa-, the accent maintains its natural place; where, however, the verbal is first formed a simple word, and then compounded with the preposition, the accent is thrown back, e. g. Oetov, 'a thing placed,'étrí-DETov, 'an adjective.' PARTICLES OR UNINFLECTED WORDS. These may be subdivided into adverbs, conjunctions, and prepositions. ADVERBS. The greater number of these are themselves inflexions of adjectives, and are interesting as revealing to us old case- endings otherwise lost to the language. Any adjective can be changed to an adverb, either by the ending -ws (for -WT), an old instrumental termination, or by using the neuter objective, singular or plural. The plural is used chiefly in the superlative degree of adjectives, the singular sometimes in the comparative, ws in the positive ; e. g. from kadò, kakò, 'good, bad,' kalūs, well, kállov, "better,' kádlota, ' in the best way,' best; kakâs, 'ill, KAKÁTepov or xeipov, “in a worse way,' xelplota or káklota, “in the worst way.' But in familiar phrases, such as modò kalú, very well,' eiuai kalá, 'I am well,' the neuter plural is preferred. A considerable number of adverbs are also formed by the following old case-endings :- -Dev or -0€, ablative = 'from,' e. g. aŭró-6ev, thence,' Tró-Dev; whence ?' ödev, 'whence, wherefore,'-Gev, 'thence, Makpó-hel 'from afar,' K.t.d. OF MODERN GREEK. 57 -σε, “to a place,' as εκεί-σε, “thither.' -de, 'to' or 'at,' as ù-de, ‘hither,' čvda-de, ‘hither,'' here.' ι dative or locative, e. g. οίκοι (οίκο-ι), at home, χαμαι (χαμά-ι), : on the ground.' -V, also locative, e.g. aŭtoũ, there,'' here,' zámov, vernacular • for χαμαι. -θι, also locative, e. g. αλλαχ-όθι, “ elsewhere. The following is a list of the principal adverbs of time and place :- ADVERBS OF PLACE. που ; where P whither P κάτωθεν, from below. που, Somewhere. άνωθεν, from above. όπου, where. δεξιά, to the right. πόθεν; whence ? αριστερά, to the left. όθεν, οπόθεν, whence. ομού, together. ενταύθα, εδώ, ώδε, here, hither. προσωτέρω, further on. αυτού, there. επάνω, above. εκεί, there, yonder. άνω, above. εκείσε, thither. πλησίον, εγγύς, near. εκείθεν, thence. εντός, within. εντεύθεν, thence. έσωθεν, ένδοθεν, from within. τηδε κακείσε, hither and thither. εκτός, έξω, without. εκτός του - εδώ και εκεί, here and there. ότι, να, κ.τ.λ., except that, &c. άλλαχού, άλλου αλλαχόθι, else έξωθεν, from without. where, elsewhither. óriow, back, backwards. άλλοθεν, elsewhence. κατόπιν, behind, afterwards. - πανταχού, παντού, everywhere. όπισθεν, from behind. ένιαχου, κάπου, Somewhere. é utrpòs, before, forwards. εκατέρωθεν, fronm Or on either side. έμπροσθεν, from before. αμφοτέρωθεν, from or on both ουδαμού, nowhere. Sides. μακράν, far. δεξιόθεν, on the right. ενώπιον, in the presence of, be- αριστερόθεν, on the left. fore. κύκλο, τριγύρω, round about. απέναντι, opposite. - πέριξ, around. πέραν, πέρα, beyond. εκεί πέρα, . υποκάτω, beneath. over yonder. κάτω, below. περαιτέρω, further. SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR ADVERBS OF TIME. πότε, vien. ενίοτε, κάποτε, sometimes. ποτέ, ever. πολλάκις, often. σήμερον, to-day. συνεχώς, συχνάκις, continuously, " αύριον, to-morrow. frequently. πρωϊ, early. ουδέποτε, never. μεθαύριον, the day after to μόλις, scarcely, hardly. morrow. σχεδόν, almost. χθες, έχθές, yesterday. αίφνης, suddenly. προχθές, the day before yesterday. 1 έξαφνα, εξαίφνης, άφνιδίως, sud- άλλοτε, formerly, at another time. I denly. πριν, πρότερον, sooner, before. ή όσον ούπω, very soon (lit. just not τότε, then. yet). έπειτα, είτα, then, afterwards. εφέτος, this year. τέλος, at last. του χρόνου, next year. πάντοτε, αείποτε, άεί, always. πέρυσι, last year. αιωνίως, eternally. ανέκαθεν, from earliest times. είσαεί, εσαεί, for ever. απόψε, this evening. νεωστί, Iately. εψες, yesterday evening. εσχάτως, lately. νυχθημερόν, day and night. ήδη, already, now. αυθημερόν, on the same day. πλέον, henceforth, more. - ενωρίς, early. έτι, εισέτι, ακόμη, still, yet, besides. Η συγχρόνως, at the same time. αμέσως, ευθύς, straightway, di ταυτοχρόνως, simultaneously. rectly. ένταυτώ, σύναμα, συνάμα, at once. αργά, late. - βαθμηδόν, by degrees. βραδύτερον, later. άμα, along with, at the sanie έκτοτε, since then. time. νύν, τώρα, now. 1. λοιπόν, therefore. Many of these adverbs serve also as conjunctions, and others as prepositions ; indeed, no very definite line of demarcation can be drawn between these various particles, but as conjunctions proper the following should be noted :- kal, and, also, even. όχι μόνον – αλλά και, not only - και – και, both - and. but also. τε -- και, both - and, e. g. μικροί Ι ου μόνον – αλλά και, not only -- τε και μεγάλοι, both small and 1 και – δε, but – also. great OF MODERN GREEK. 59 OŰTE — oŰte (with indic.), neither | ws 08, éws orov, until. nor. Méxpis oŮ, axpus oi, until. unte — pure (with subj. and im åpoù, since. per.), neither — nor. èàv, àv, ei, if. oude, undè, not even. âv, trótepov, whether. Ť, or ; - , either — or. ôti, that (with indic.). elte — ere, eáv Te - čáy te, và, that (with subj.). whether ---- or. ipa, so, then. Mèv, indeed, 'tis I Never first in ÉTTOMÉvws, accordingly. - true. Bote, so that. dè, but. a sentence. bare và, so as to. Ótè jèn — ÔTè dè, at one time - at dnladň, that is to say. another. TOUTÉOTI, that is. kaltoi, ei kai, èày kai, u'őlov őti, tul, nyovy, that is. although. ÉTTELÒN, since. xaltep, although. DLÓT, because öuws, however. 600 — Tów, őgov — tógov, the- u olov ToûTO, u'ola taūra, never the, as in “the more the theless. merrier.” ei de uni, else. ei uń, unless. Mârlov, rather, more. ookis, as often as. iva, dià và, otws, in order that. évợ, while. ás, onws, as, so as, just as. évócw, as long as. 80 w kai ảv, however much. - mpty, Toào h, TpÌe và, before (fol- | os cày, bơày, dày, get, as if. lowed by subjunctive). PREPOSITIONS. In the vernacular all prepositions, in as far as they are used at all, may be construed with the accusative case; but educated people, following (partly) classical usage, employ them as follows:- 07 With the Objective (Accusative) alone. eis, 'in,' 'into,'' at.' úvá, 'over,' “up,' 'in,'' by; as Me, with åvà gelpày, 'in a series.' - | xwpis, 'without.' 60 SIMPLIFIED GRAMMAR With Genitive alone. årti, instead of,' 'for.' | mpiv, apò,"before.' åvev, 'without.' ék, éĚ (before vowels), 'out of, ÈKTÒS, čśw," beyond,'' without.' ' 'from.' With Dative alone. év, 'in' (never into). I JÙv (not common), with.' With Genitive and Accusative. Karà, Gen., ' against,' e. g. Karà toù åv pútov, against the man.' Acc., according to,'' by,' 'in,' e. g. karà uépos, in part.' Metà, Gen., 'with,' e. g. Metà modôv åvó púrwv, 'with many men.' Acc., 'after,' e. g. Metà mollas äuépas, “after many days.' ÜTèp, Gen., 'for the sake of,' e. g. Útè uow, ‘on my behalf.' Acc., 'over,' e. g. ÚTÈD Tỳ nóv, 'over the town.' ÚTÒ, Gen., “by,' e. g. Út' čuoll, by me.' Acc., “under,' e.g. 'n' ¿uè, 'under me.' årò, 'from,' Acc. or Gen. without distinction of meaning, but colloquially with former. dià, Gen., with,' 'by means of, e.g. Slà trútov, "by this means. Acc., ‘on account of,'