A 582159

ARTES
1837
SCIENTIA
LIBRARY
VERITAS
OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN
E-PLURIBUS UNUM
BOR
SI-QUAERIS PENINSULAM AMOENAM
CIRCUMSPICE
JAJAJAJAJAJ
!
LA
731
ELBD'
REPORT
ON THE STATE OF
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
IN
PRUSSIA.
MRS. AUSTIN'S TRANSLATIONS FROM THE GERMAN.
Unique Present for Youth.-Appropriately embellished and bound with
17 Wood Engravings in the first style of the Art, from the pencil of
Harvey. Price 5s.
I. THE STORY WITHOUT AN end.
From the German of F. W. CAROVE.
"This is a gem!
All that is sweet, serious, and solemn in childhood and its
dawning conceptions finds a portraiture in the wanderings of a little child among
the productions of nature. He is described as making his first acquaintance with
the most attractive and striking objects: he discourses with flowers, insects, birds,
reptiles, &c., and hears from their own mouths an account of their several histories,
feelings, and avocations. The language is exquisitely poetical, and full of in
fautine simplicity. The vignettes are executed with great delicacy and spirit."-
Examiner.
II. CHARACTERISTICS OF GOETHE.
In 3 volumes, post 8vo, price 30s.
From the German of Falk, Von Müller, &c. With Notes, Original and Trans-
Jated, illustrative of German Literature.
"We are indebted to the pen of Mrs. Austin for one of the most elegant and
complete translations which ever enriched the stores of the English language.
One of the most singular and charming books to a meditative mind that
the age has produced."-New Monthly Magazine.
*
III. TOUR OF A GERMAN PRINCE.
In 4 vols., post 8vo, with a Portrait, price 39s.,
TOUR IN GERMANY, HOLLAND, ENGLAND, WALES, IRELAND,
AND FRANCE.
"The Tour of a German Prince' is now universally allowed to be the most
amusing and delightful book of travels that has issued from the press of any
nation; containing vivid delineations of the beautiful scenery of our sea-begirt
island: and as a piquant, but, withal, good-natured record of the vices and follies
of exclusive society in this country, the 'Tour of a German Prince' has no equal."
-Morning Chronicle.
MRS. AUSTIN'S BIBLE SELECTIONS.
In one vol., 12mo, neatly bound, with a Frontispiece from Flaxman, engraved
by Moses, price 5s.,
SELECTIONS from the OLD TESTAMENT; or, the Religion, Morality, and
Poetry of the Hebrew Scriptures, arranged under heads.
BY SARAH AUSTIN,
My sole object has been to put together all that presented itself to my own
heart and mind as most persuasive, consolatory, or elevating, in such a form and
order as to be easy of reference, conveniently arranged and divided, and freed
from matter either hard to be understood, unattractive, or unprofitable (to say
the least) for young and pure eyes."-Preface.
"This selection is executed with judgement and taste. Religious parents will
esteem themselves happy in having such a reading-book to put into the hands of
their children; and if they themselves have not so familiarly used the Bible that
they cannot instantly lay their finger on the precise passage in accordance with
their wants or feelings, they themselves will be glad of so pleasant and so in-
structive a guide as these Selections. It may be called without profanation, the
Beauties of the Bible: we may add, that no work under that title ever presented
its extracts with less appearance of being fractured, or torn up violently from the
parent mass."-Spectator,
1
REPORT
:
ON THE STATE OF
45-5-74
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION
IN
PRUSSIA;
ADDRESSED TO
THE COUNT DE MONTALIVET,
PEER OF FRANCE, MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND
ECCLESIASTICAL AFFAIRS;
BY
M. VICTOR COUSIN,
PEER OF FRANCE, COUNCILLOR OF STATE, PROFESSOR OF PHILOSOPHY,
MEMBER OF THE INSTITUTE, AND OF THE ROYAL
COUNCIL OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
WITH PLANS OF SCHOOL-HOUSES.
TRANSLATED BY
SARAH AUSTIN.
LONDON:
EFFINGHAM WILSON, ROYAL EXCHANGE.
1834.
"Oh! for the coming of that glorious time
When, prizing knowledge as her noblest wealth
And best protection, this imperial realm,
While she exacts allegiance, shall admit
An obligation, on her part, to teach
Them who are born to serve her and obey;
Binding herself by statute to secure,
For all the children whom her soil maintains,
The rudiments of letters; and to inform
The mind with moral and religious truth!"
WORDSWORTH, Excursion, p. 400.
Re-classed 3-1-32 AVM
TRANSLATOR'S PREFACE.
CONSIDERABLY before the following Report
was published it was my most earnest wish to
translate it. I was told by persons to whose
judgement I habitually defer, that it would
not succeed, that it would excite little atten-
tion, and that the few who were sufficiently in-
terested in the subject to toil through official
documents, would as willingly read it in the
original. To this opinion I reluctantly yielded.
Since that time circumstances have materially
changed. The Factory Commission, the Poor
Law Commission, and other public and private
inquiries, have tended more and more to reveal
the extent and urgency of our own intellectual
and moral wants; while the perfect and harmo-
nious picture of a system of education in full
activity among a whole people differing in re-
ligion, laws, language, and habits, which M.
Cousin had laid before France, has attracted
the attention of enlightened and benevolent
men, and has been mentioned with the profound
admiration due both to the system and to the
author of the Report, in all the foremost jour-
nals of the country*, in the pulpit, and in the
senate.
These cheering symptoms of a general ten-
* Vide Foreign Quarterly Review, Edinburgh Review, Quar-
terly Review, Eclectic Review, Journal of Education, &c.

vi
PREFACE.
dency of the public mind of England towards
the subject of National Education, have been
watched with solicitude and hailed with delight
by all who are impressed with its importance;
by none with so much, as by M. Cousin him-
self; who, highly as he estimates the appro-
bation of England, will think his reward far
higher, if the labours he has devoted to his native
country shall turn to the profit of her true and
energetic ally in the cause of human improve-
ment.
I have translated this book in the hope that by
placing it within the reach of those to whom
not only the language, but the size and price of
the original, might prove obstacles, it might
excite the notice of the classes most deeply
interested in its diffusion. With that hope
I have laboured to make it as plain as I could ;
and though as a translation it can have no
other merit, I will not disguise that, on this
head, I am most anxious to find I have suc-
ceeded. If not, I must plead in my own de-
fence that nothing is so difficult as to find, in
the language of one country, words expressing
the laws, institutions, and usages of another.
I offer it to no one as an amusing book; and
even while I say I hope I have made it plain, I
mean only to the patient reader who will go
through it. There is such a coherency of parts,
both in the fabric it describes and in the de-
scription, that no one will fully understand it
who cannot bear the toil of following the author
step by step. Portions may be selected which
show the beautiful spirit pervading the whole,
f

PREFACE.
vii
and which must, I should think, touch any
human heart; but its merit as a piece of legis-
lation,—as a system living and working,—can
only be appreciated when studied connectedly
and in detail.
The reasons that have influenced me (with the
author's concurrence,) to omit the Report on
Royal and Ducal Saxony, which forms nearly
half of the original volume, are mainly two: First,
the consideration mentioned above, that it was
only by making a small and cheap volume that
I could accomplish the end I chiefly aimed at;
secondly, that the part I have omitted embraces
Secondary Instruction, or the education given
in the Gymnasia (i. e. learned or grammar
schools) of Saxony, and also the still higher
department of Universities. M. Cousin was
of opinion that it would be well not to divert
any portion of public attention from the sub-
ject of Primary Instruction, i. e. that education
which is absolutely necessary to the moral and
intellectual well-being of the mass of the peo-
ple. This alone is treated of here. If it should
appear that the English public desires to hear
more on this matter, I may perhaps, unless it
happily fall into better hands, prepare, under
M. Cousin's direction, a volume on Secondary
Instruction, including what he has already pub-
lished on the learned schools of Saxony, and
adding matter upon which he is at present oc-
cupied. But this will depend on the reception.
given to the present attempt.
Whether it be done or not, I entreat the reader
never to lose sight of the fact, that what is here

viii
PREFACE.
laid before him, although having in relation to
its special object a substantive completeness, is
still only a part of a whole, and that it is as a
whole that the national education of Prussia
is so peculiarly worthy of admiration and of
study. The introductory view of the "General
Organization" &c. (see p. 4.) gives the outline,
of which the first portion alone is, for the pre-
sent, filled up.
Constituted as the government of this coun-
try is, and accustomed as it is to receive its
impulses from without, (a state of things ap-
proved and consecrated by the national ways of
thinking,) it would be contrary to reason and to
experience to expect it to originate any great
changes. This is not recognised, either by go-
vernors or governed, as any part of its duty. It
is to the public mind, therefore, that those who
desire any change must address themselves.
It is not worth while at the present day to
discuss whether or not national education be a
good. It is possible to imagine a state of society
in which the labouring man, submissive and
contented under some paternal rule, might dis-
pense with any further light than such as nature,
uncorrupted by varied wants and restless com-
petition, might afford him. But if that golden
age ever existed, it is manifestly gone, in this
country at least, for ever. Here, the press is
hotter, the strife keener, the invention more
alive, the curiosity more awake, the wants and
wishes more stimulated by an atmosphere of
luxury, than perhaps in any country since the
world began. The men who, in their several
PREFACE.
ix
classes, were content to tread step for step in
the paths wherein their fathers trod, are gone.
Society is no longer a calm current, but a toss-
ing sea. Reverence for tradition, for authority,
is gone. In such a state of things, who can deny
the absolute necessity for national education?
Supposing, however, all agreed as to this first
point. How many weighty and difficult ques-
tions still remain! How many obstacles present
themselves, to the adoption of that which here
stands before us, not in theory and conjecture,
but in tried and successful practice! It may be
useful to consider a few of these objections.
And first, as to compulsory education. The
idea to which I have alluded above-that the
prime excellence of a government is, to let
alone,―is so deeply and universally prevalent
here, that there is little chance of a measure,
however beneficent, being popular, which is,
unquestionably, an infringement of liberty.
Leaving, however, the question whether ex-
emption from restraint is, of itself, the great
desideratum for men, we may safely affirm,
at for the class most deeply interested in the
present inquiry-children, no such exemption
is, or can be, contemplated or advised. The
real point at issue is, whether the constraint
shall be a salutary or a pernicious constraint;
a constraint by which their whole future lives
are sacrificed to the present interests of the
persons who have the disposal of them; or a
constraint, the object and tendency of which
is to secure to them for life the blessings of
physical, moral, and intellectual health. "If
X
PREFACE.
children," says the writer of the excellent
article in the Foreign Quarterly Review (No.
XXIV.), "provided their own education, and
could be sensible of its importance to their hap-
piness, it would be a want, and might be left
to the natural demand and supply; but as it is
provided by the parents, and paid for by those
who do not profit by its results, it is a duty,
and is therefore liable to be neglected."
The interference which government has lately
exercised on behalf of the children of the manu-
facturing population, has, however, settled the
question as one of principle*. It is no longer
*The right of the state to interpose to rescue children from
influences believed to be detrimental to their moral and intel-
lectual character, has also been twice formally recognised and pro-
claimed in the Court of Chancery, within our own time. In
Wellesley v. the Duke of Beaufort, (2 Russell's Reports, p. 1,)
Lord Eldon distinctly declared the general jurisdiction of the
Court of Chancery to interfere, as against the father, for the care
and protection of the children. It can, however, only usefully
interfere where there is property belonging to the infants on
which it can act. "It is not, however, from any want of juris-
diction that it does not act, but from a want of means to exercise
its jurisdiction; because the Court cannot take on itself the main-
tenance of all the children in the kingdom." p. 21. .... "I was
counsel in the case of Powell v. Cleaver, (2 Brown's Chance
Cases, p. 499,) and Lord Thurlow would not allow us to argue
the question of jurisdiction; and perhaps he was right. He said
that the Court would take care that children should be properly
educated according to their expectations." p. 22. See, likewise,
the same report, pp. 23-31: also, in Jacob's Reports, p. 267,
Shelley v. Westbrooke, in which case Lord Eldon restrained the
father from taking possession of, or intermeddling with, his chil-
dren. In these cases, be it observed, the state claims the right
of removing the children wholly out of the power of the parent;
—an extreme application of the principle, to be justified only by
the supposed extremity of the evil. It will hardly be contended
that the paternal authority is subject to abuse in the higher classes
alone.
:
PREFACE.
xi
anything but a question of degree; for, if the
right of parents over their children can be in-
vaded for the purpose of securing to children
an exemption from one class of evils, it can in
averting another; and, according to all sound
reasoning, it ought, if those evils be shown
to be of sufficient magnitude to claim inter-
ference. It is irrational to expect that persons
who have not had the advantages of education,
can form any estimate of the nature and extent
of those advantages. Persons," says the
able writer just quoted, "of uncultivated and
torpid minds are not aware to what an extent
education can raise, enlarge, and stimulate the
understanding; in how great a measure it en-
sures a person's happiness, and makes him
both independent of the world and a safe and
peaceable member of society." Here and there
we find an individual to whom strong good sense
and a lively curiosity reveal the magnitude of
his want; but a man has already got beyond the
first rudeness and apathy of ignorance who longs
for knowledge. Are, then, the rudeness and
apathy of the fathers a reason for transmitting
them unaltered to the children? Or, to go
higher, are the false notions, the useless ac-
quirements, the imperfect instruction, of the
ill-educated of the wealthier sort, a reason that,
because they are satisfied with themselves, an
enlightened government should permit the same
waste and destruction of moral and intellectual
faculties to go on from generation to genera-
tion?
To those who are influenced by precedent, I
xii
PREFACE.
།
am thankful to be enabled to give the following
facts, for which I am indebted to a gentleman
to whom M. Cousin looks for all the assistance
in the great cause of education that profound
and learned acquaintance with the subject,
united to ardent zeal, can afford.
:
"I have always been astonished that no researches
have been made by any German into the antiquity of
Schulpflichtigkeit (school-obligation, i. e. the obliga-
tion of going to school), in the several states of the
empire. The only work I know that touches on the
subject is that of J. K. F. Schlegel, "Ueber Schul-
pflichtigkeit und Schulzwang," (school-compulsion,)
&c. 1824 but this only regards the Hanoverian do-
minions. From that book I learn that this obligation
is at least as old as 1681 in the Principality of Ca-
lemberg; as 1689 in that of Celle; as 1663 in the
Principality of Hildesheim; as 1752 in the Duchy of
Bremen and Verden. From other sources I find that
it is at least as old as 1643 in Saxe-Gotha; as 1767
in Lippe-Detmold; as 1769 in Prussia. It has long
been enforced in New England and Connecticut; and
for the gentry, barons and freeholders of Scotland,
there is an Act of the Scottish parliament compelling
them to send their sons to the grammar schools, as
far back as the fifteenth century,-1466 if I recollect
right."
This may serve to correct the erroneous no-
tion prevalent here (among a host of others on
the same subject), that the legal obligation to
educate children is a modern invention of the
military and despotic government' of Prussia.
It is desirable that it should be distinctly un-
derstood, that though the following Report
relates to Prussia alone, the provision for popu-
T
!
PREFACE.
xili
lar education is by no means peculiar to that
country. It is also common to speak of popular
education as entirely the offspring of the Re-
formation, and as, if not peculiar to the Pro-
testant States, at least carried to a much higher
pitch in them than in the Catholic States.
"There is," says the high authority whom I have
just quoted, no truth in this, in a general sense;
and, on a particular comparison, in none of the Ca-
tholic States would the people be found so neglected
in this respect as in Hesse-Cassel, and even in Han-
over; and the Kingdom of Saxony, preeminent for
classical education, is far behind Bavaria and Austria
in popular instruction. The Germans give, as an in-
stance of the low state of primary education in
Royal Saxony, (the case is very different in the
Duchies,) that the places of schoolmasters are there
commonly filled by mere candidates of theology. In
Scotland we should think this qualification very high."
:
The best answer, however, to those who
urge the supposed hardship to parents of being
obliged to educate their children, is to be
found in the Supplement at the end of the pre-
sent volume, published last year, in which it is
shown, from indisputable documents, "that the
parents of Prussia actually anticipate the period
at which the legal constraint begins that the
number of children attending the public schools
in 1831, actually exceeded the whole number of
'children existing in the monarchy, between the
ages of seven and fourteen,-the period pre-
scribed by law. And out of this latter number
we have to deduct all who are educated at home,
at private schools, all who are sick, &c.
:
xiv
PREFACE.
6
Another misconception which appears to me
common in this country is, that the system of
national education delineated by M. Cousin,
is some new plan or mode of teaching. I have
even seen objections made to it in print, on the
score of the tyranny of compelling parents to edu-
cate children on this or that method' approved
by government. It might seem sufficient to refer
such objectors to the book, but unfortunately
this process is tedious, and in the mean while
the reader, who supposes they are acquainted
with what they discuss, is misled. Not only
(as will be seen in this Report,) is every parent
at full liberty to educate his children either in
his own house, or at a private school, or at the
schools provided by the state; but these latter
schools are not even bound to any particular
books, or modes of tuition; "in order," as the
law expresses it, "to impose no shackles on the
constant onward course of improvement," (See
pp. 58, 59). The choice of books is left to the
masters and the local committees appointed by
government for the immediate superintendence
of schools, and consisting chiefly of fathers of
families resident in the parish which supports
the school. The conferences of schoolmasters,
which, though voluntary, are encouraged by the
government, are also for the express purpose of
comparing their views and their experience, and
thus carrying forward the improvement of the
schools. Whenever a choice of schools is within
the reach of parents, that choice is left perfectly
free, (p. 34.); and on the grand subject of reli-
gious differences, it will be seen, that nothing can
PREFACE.
XV
exceed the anxious care of the government that
the most delicate conscience should not be even
alarmed, much less oppressed (pp. 34, 36, 43,
52). "Masters and inspectors," says the law,
"must most carefully avoid every kind of con-
straint or annoyance to the children on account
of their particular creed," &c.
It has been asserted by some persons, with an
ignorance which, if it be sincere, is so shame-
less that it almost deserves to be confounded
with dishonesty, that the tendency of the sy-
stem recommended by M. Cousin is anti-re-
ligious. To this, every page of the book is an
answer. Indeed, were I to express a fear on
this head, it is, that it is far too religious for
this country; that the lofty, unworldly tone of
feeling, the spirit of veneration, the blending of
the love of God and of the Good and the Beauti-
ful with all the practical business and the amuse-
ments of life, is what will hardly be understood
here, where religion is so much more disjoined
both from the toils and from the gaieties of life.
To me it appears that there is not a line of
these enactments which is not profoundly re-
ligious. Nothing, it is true, is enjoined as to
forms or creeds; but, as M. Cousin truly says,
"the whole fabric rests on the sacred basis of
Christian love." As the most affecting, and, I
must say, sublime example of this spirit, I
refer my readers-especially the humbler and,
as I hope, more numerous class of them,-to
the description of the little schools for training
poor schoolmasters in such habits and with
such feelings as shall fit them to be the useful
xvi
PREFACE.
*
and contented teachers of the humblest cot-
tagers of the most miserable villages. (See pp.
171, 177.)
Here is poverty, to which that of many among
our working classes is affluence; and it is hope-
less, for no idea is held out of advancement or
change. Yet if ever poverty appeared on earth,
serene, contented, lofty, beneficent, graceful-it
is here. Here we see men in the very spring-
time of life, so far from being made-as we are
told men must be made-restless and envious
and discontented by instruction, taking indi-
gence and obscurity to their hearts for life;
raised above their poor neighbours in education,
only that they may become the servants of all,
and may train the lowliest children in a sense
of the dignity of man, and the beauty of cre-
ation, in the love of God and of virtue.
I confess myself almost hopeless of the trans-
plantation of such sentiments hither. Religion
is made the theme of the fiercest and most im-
placable contention; mixed up with newspaper
squabbles and with legal discussions; her bright
and holy garments are seized and soiled by
every angry and ambitious hand.
It seems to me, too, that we are guilty of great
inconsistency as to the ends and objects of edu-
cation. How industriously have not its most.
able and zealous champions been continually
instilling into the mind of the people, that edu-
cation is the way to advancement, that "know-
ledge is power," that a man cannot 'better
himself' without some learning! And then we
complain, or we fear, that education will set
PREFACE.
xvii
them above their station, disgust them with
labour, make them ambitious, envious, dissatis-
fied! We must reap as we sow we set before
their eyes objects the most tempting to the
desires of uncultivated men, we urge them on
to the acquirement of knowledge by holding
out the hope that knowledge will enable them
to grasp these objects:-if their minds are cor-
rupted by the nature of the aim, and imbittered
by the failure which must be the lot of the mass,
who is to blame?
If instead of nurturing expectations which
cannot be fulfilled, and turning the mind on a
track which must lead to a sense of continual
disappointment, and thence of wrong, we were
to hold out to our humbler friends the appro-
priate and attainable, nay, unfailing, ends of a
good education ;-the gentle and kindly sympa-
thies; the sense of self-respect and of the respect
of fellow men; the free exercise of the intellectual
faculties; the gratification of a curiosity that
'grows by what it feeds on' and yet finds food
for ever; the power of regulating the habits and
the business of life, so as to extract the greatest
possible portion of comfort out of small means;
the refining and tranquillizing enjoyment of the
beautiful in nature and art, and the kindred
perception of the beauty and nobility of virtue;
the strengthening consciousness of duty fulfill-
ed; and, to crown all," the peace which passeth
all understanding;"-if we directed their aspi-
rations this way, it is probable that we should
not have to complain of being disappointed,
nor they of being deceived. Who can say that
b
xviii
PREFACE.
wealth can purchase better things than these?
and who can say that they are not within the
reach of every man of sound body and mind,
who, by labour not destructive of either, can
procure for himself and his family food, cloth-
ing and habitation?
It is true, the same motives, wearing different
forms, are presented to all classes. 'Learn,' that
you may get on,' is the motto of English edu-
cation. The result is answerable. To those who
think that result satisfactory, a change in the
system, and above all in the spirit, of education
holds out no advantages.
There are two or three other points which I
would fain recommend to the peculiar attention
of the reader. One of the most important is the
absolute necessity of securing a constant supply
of well-trained schoolmasters. Time and experi-
ence have, it is to be supposed, nearly removed
the illusion of mutual instruction' as a substitute
for the instruction communicated by a mature to
an immature mind :—as an auxiliary in certain
mechanical details, no one disputes its utility.
Observation long ago convinced me of the entire
truth of the maxim laid down by the Prussian
government, and approved by M. Cousin, that,
As is the master, so is the school.' On this
subject I cannot refrain from quoting a German
writer in whose opinion I fully concur.
"Such schools (the Lancasterian) are undoubtedly
of use in countries like France*, where almost no-
thing, or England, where nothing, systematic and
adequate, has been done for the education of the
* This was written before the late improvements in France.
PREFACE.
xix
people; but they can never be more than a temporary
shift, which cannot be taken as a substitute for educa-
tion. They can do no more than give a certain mecha-
nical dexterity, in reading, writing, and ciphering. The
!
religious instruction is confined to a soulless learn-
ing by rote. Instruction in language, singing, draw-
ing, and in exercises of the intellect are wholly want-
ing. The influence of the teacher on the mind and
character of the scholar, or his own mental cultivation,
are not so much as thought of. Thus, then, a system
of tuition, the lifeless mechanism of which was fifty
years ago appreciated in Germany, and laid aside
for methods better calculated for the true culture of
man, has been adopted by France, England, &c., with
an ardour which betrays total ignorance of the ad-
vance of the science of education in Germany. The
village schoolmasters of Germany do much more to
form the minds of their pupils than Lancaster and Bell
can do ; and no German who knows what his country
possesses, can recommend a system of teaching, which
may indeed be of use in humanizing the lowest mob
of England or of France, but where men and Christians
are to be formed, is defective and ill contrived."
A system of education is nothing without an
unfailing supply of competent masters. It is
the fashion to apply the free trade' maximis
to everything. Reasons enough present them-
selves why such maxims are wholly inapplica--
ble to this matter, but there is no room for them
here. It may, once for all, safely be denied,
that the public can be judges of the quality of
teachers, as they are of bread or of shoes. To
this the hundreds of children in the middle
classes, whose whole childhood is consumed in
experimental wanderings from school to school,
and the thousands and ten thousands of the
b 2
XX
PREFACE.
lower, whose parents know little more than the
fact that they pass a certain number of hours
daily in a given room, can bear witness. The
evil is an irreparable one. Not only is the por-
tion of time consumed in a bad or imperfect
school irrecoverably gone; bad habits of all
kinds are acquired, which no future education
can entirely eradicate. The candid and rational
among the less educated classes are glad to be
aided by the friendly judgement of their more
instructed neighbours on this point; and would,
I doubt not, readily admit the advantage of
having some better security than their own
opinion, or rather conjecture, for the compe-
tency of the instructors of their children.
In every country where primary instruction
has been carried to any height, the necessity of
establishments of this kind has been felt. In
spite of the length of this preface, I cannot resist
the temptation to add the following curious and
valuable details on the history of Seminaries for
Teachers, for which I have again to acknowledge
my obligations to the learned author of the
article on National Education, which appeared
in the Edinburgh Review (No. CXVI.), and
which first called the attention of England to
M. Cousin's Report.
It might be worth while to say a word touching
the history of institutions for the training of teachers,
in particular for the training of primary instructors;
as the state of these institutions, in fact, determines
the state of education itself among the people. In
this country, the greatest ignorance prevails on the
subject, even among the best informed.
PREFACE.
xxi
Even now these institutions are believed to be of
very recent origin in Germany; it has been, in fact,
asserted that they were introduced into Prussia only
after their utility had been long shown by Fellen-
berg at Hofwyl, and considerably, therefore, subse-
quently to the commencement of the present century.
There is no history of these seminaries in any Ger-
man work with which I am acquainted. The follow-
ing details are gleaned from various quarters; though
meagre, they may supply you with some hints, and I
believe you may rely on their accuracy.
66
Schools specially destined for educating the
schoolmaster in the principles and application of his
profession, cannot be traced higher than the com-
mencement of the last century. Franke, the cele-
brated pietist, must be regarded as their originator.
Beside his noble foundations of the Pædagogium and
Orphan-House of Halle, stood a seminary for the in-
struction of teachers, whether of learned or popular
schools; and under Steinmetz, and his successors in
that abbacy, Klosterberge, near Magdeburg, was long
a nursery from whence schoolmasters trained in the
principles of Franke and the spirit of Spenerian
pietism, were transplanted over the whole north of
Germany. The education and the educator now be-
came an object of general interest in Germany. From
(1730 academical lectures on Pädagogik appear to have
been regularly and universally delivered; and for phi-
lologists by profession, and those destined for teachers
in the classical or learned schools, special semina-
ries, in which the stipendiary alumni were carefully
instructed and exercised, gradually became attached
to all the principal universities. Overlooking the
Seminarium doctrina elegantioris of Cellarius in Halle,
the Philological and Scholastic Seminary of Göttin-
gen, which owes its origin to Gesner, in 1738, was
the first regular institution of the kind; an institu-
xxii
PREFACE.
:
tion imitated ir. Jena, Halle, Erlangen, Helmstädt,
Leipzig, Heidelberg, Kiel, Breslau, Berlin, Munich,
Dorpat, &c. The beneficial results of the seminaries
for learned teachers naturally directed an increased
attention to the education of the inferior instructors.
In Prussia, the meritorious Hecker, a pupil of the
Frankean discipline, and first founder of the schools
variously denominated Burgher, Middle or Real, had
supported at Berlin, from the year 1748, a sort of
nursery of popular instructors, in which Frederick II.
testified an interest. In 1752 a royal ordinance en-
joined, that on the crown demesnes in the Neu Mark
and Pomerania, all vacancies in the country schools
should be supplied by pupils from Hecker's seminary,
the king at the same time allowing an annual stipend
for the support of twelve alumni of that establishment;
a number which in 1788 was raised to sixty. Basedow
had the merit, at least, of concentrating public interest
on the importance of improved methods of education,
although his seminary for teachers was never brought
to bear; but the Canon von Rochow was the man
who mainly operated a reform in the instruction of
the people, and proved, by precept and example, the
advantages of a more careful education of the pri-
mary schoolmaster. The school on his own estate
of Rekahn, in Brandenburg, and those on the adjoin-
ing properties, were organized under his direction.
Hither travellers from all parts flocked to admire and
imitate; in fact, from 1773 these became the model
schools to which young men from every quarter of
Germany were sent to be trained in the principles
and practice of primary instruction. The good ex-
ample operated. In Prussia, previous to the period of
revolution, public seminaries for the education of in-
ferior schoolmasters were established, at Halberstadt
in 1778, and at Breslau in 1787; while similar esta-
blishments were supported by private liberality,-in
PREFACE.
xxiii
Wesel by the Baron von der Reck, and in Minden by
the Pastor Herbing. During the subsequent years of ca-
lamity and war, the determination previously given was
necessarily retarded. In 1806 there existed in Prussia
only fourteen of the greater public seminaries for pri-
mary schoolmasters. These are now nearly quadrupled.
"The other states of Germany have not, however,
lagged behind the country in which these institutions
originated; and the lesser states have been even
more forward than the greater. Though far inferior
to most of the German principalities in the education
of the lower orders, Hanover has one of her seminaries
for the training of primary schoolmasters which dates
from 1750. Previous to the French revolution, there
existed similar flourishing establishments in Usingen,
Dessau, Cassel, Detmold, Gotha, Oehringen, and Kiel.
Nor were the catholic states less active than the pro-
testant in the same blessed work. In the Austrian
monarchy, the improvement of popular education,
and the general institution of normal schools, were
mainly promoted by the zeal of two eminent church-
men, Bishop von Felbiger and Dean Kindermann
von Schulstein (an auspicious name!). Their ex-
ertions date from 1770, and the reform was com-
menced in Bohemia. In the bishopric of Münster
the spirit of improvement was awakened by the Ba-
ron von Fürstenberg, and seminaries for schoolmas-
ters established prior to the French revolution. The
Bavarian reform was more recent. The spirit of ame-
lioration was communicated from Germany to the
neighbouring states. Denmark became an early imi-
tator; and seminaries for primary teachers were intro-
duced, not only into Holstein, but into the Scandi-
navian provinces of that monarchy, previous to the
revolutionary period. Russia has more recently fol-
lowed the example. Switzerland has been tardy and
partial in her adoption of these institutions. Some
xxiv
PREFACE.
only of the cantons have them even now, notwith-
standing the strong interest in education awakened
by the zeal of Pestalozzi and Fellenberg."
It is almost humiliating to have to notice
another objection to this scheme of national
education,-viz. that it is foreign: an objec-
tion which, if carried through and acted upon
consistently, would render the intercourse be-
tween civilized nations absolutely barren. But
since there are, it seems, still persons with
whom it has weight, it may be well to quote M.
Cousin's striking appeal against similar preju-
dices in France.
"National rivalries or antipathies would here be
completely out of place. The true greatness of a
people does not consist in borrowing nothing from
others, but in borrowing from all whatever is good, and
y in perfecting whatever it appropriates. I am as great
an enemy as any one to artificial imitations; but it is
mere pusillanimity to reject a thing for no other reason
than that it has been thought good by others." p. 292.
The difficulty of conveying an accurate idea
of a number of things for which we have no
equivalent, in fact or in name, suggested to me
the expediency of annexing a few explanatory
notes. It will hardly be expected from me that
they should be otherwise than very defective,
but they are better than nothing. Some I owe
to the kindness of German and French friends;
some are taken from Voigtel's Statistik von
Preussen, a work of established credit, and from
a very intelligent and interesting little French
pamphlet on Prussia, by M. de Chambray.
London, April 10th, 1834.
S. A.

EXPLANATORY NOTES.
PAGE 1.-Public Instruction, (Instruction publique).—I
am aware that National Education is the more common
English expression, and therefore preferable. It may also be
objected that public, as applied to schools, has with us a to-
tally different sense from that intended here, viz. instruction
provided for the whole public by the State. But the French
words are precisely a translation of the German, Oeffentlicher
Unterricht. The exact equivalent of education is Erziehung,
i.e. bringing up: the constant use of this word, when instruc-
tion is meant, leads to great confusion and to very important
errors. Besides, as schools founded upon a peculiarly exclu-
sive plan had somehow got the name of National, the ex-
pression National Education, might have led to some con-
fusion.
Ecclesiastical affairs, (les cultes,)—i. e. all that concerns
the teaching, or public exercise of religion.
PAGES 2, 57.-A Gymnasium is about equivalent to our
Grammar-school, only the course of instruction is more ex-
tensive, as well as in many respects more profound. If this
volume should ever be followed by one on secondary and
higher instruction, the nature of a gymnasium will be seen
in detail.
PAGE 12.—I thought at first of interpreting the Gemeinde,
Kreis, and Regierungs-Bezirk of Prussia by our Parish,
Hundred, and County. But this would only mislead, for they
are not alike. So far as Gemeinde goes, I have, after some
consultation, ventured to use parish as an equivalent expres-
sion; for though, etymologically speaking, it is not so, and
though Parish is in its origin a purely ecclesiastical, and not
an administrative division, yet, in fact, its administrative
powers are as large, or rather considerably larger, than those
xxvi
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
of either the Gemeinde of Prussia, or the Commune of France.
The word which exactly answers to Parish, in its original
sense, is the kindred word Pfarre, but this is used only in
relation to the Church; as with us a parish may also be
called a rectory, a vicarage, &c. “Gemeine or Gemeinde, ori-
ginally means any community of persons. It is now chiefly
used to express the smallest divisions of Church and State,
the two most important communities in the world. Town-
or village-Gemeinen have, as parts of the State, their Bür-
germeister or Schulze; as parts of the Church, their Pfarrer
(priest or clergyman)."-See Krug, Phil. Lex. The smallest
purely administrative division of England is a Township.
The territorial divisions of England are not the conse-
quences of a legislative act of any single governing body:
they are the effect of the ancient partition of the country
among powerful chiefs. The counties were their shires or
shares (for it is the same word) of territory. Thus Berkshire
is a corruption of Beroc's share,—the share of Beroc, a
powerful chieftain. These shares, of course, varied accord-
ing to the accidents of warfare and aggrandizement, and
retain strong traces of the independence of a central go-
vernment, which was their original character. It is therefore
extremely difficult to find any parallel in the countries syste-
matically divided by a central government. The parishes
of England vary in population from one family to the num-
ber of souls inhabiting Manchester, Liverpool, or Maryle-
bone. The same great inequality exists in the extent and
population of our counties. This inequality is peculiar to
a country in which, while society has undergone the greatest
and most rapid changes, institutions have remained unal-
tered. The average population of English parishes is, I be-
lieve, 1480: the average of French communes, 850. I have
not been able to find the average population of Prussian Ge-
meinde. The population of a Regierungs-Bezirk of Prussia
varies from about 150,000 to about 900,000, so that the
average is very nearly that of a Département or Préfecture
of France. As M. Cousin's illustrations of Prussian insti-
tutions are, of course, borrowed from France, it becomes
necessary to know something of the French divisions or
institutions to which he refers. I am indebted to a French
gentleman, now in England, for the following brief and clear
statement, which I think will be valued by my readers.
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
xxvi
1. A COMMUNE is in France what a parish is in En-
gland, the administrative unit. It consists of an indetermi-
nate number of inhabitants and a variable extent of terri-
tory. Its circumference or boundaries are defined by law.
There is a Maire for every Commune.
2. A CANTON generally comprises several rural Com-
munes; but the large towns usually contain more than one
Canton. The Canton is the circuit of the jurisdiction of the
Juge de Paix (Justice of the Peace). The average popula-
tion is 18,000.
3. An ARRONDISSEMENT is composed of an indetermi-
nate number of Communes. It is an intermediate step in
administrative division between the Département and the
Commune. There are ordinarily from four to six Arron-
dissemens in each Département. The average population is
100,000.
4. A DÉPARTEMENT is the largest administrative division
of France. There is in each Département one Prefect, ap-
pointed by the Minister, who exercises a general superin-
tendence over all the interests, political or administrative,
connected with the territory of the department. The cir-
cumscription of the Départemens may be compared to that
of English counties. The average population is 480,000.
5. The MAIRIE expresses, at the same time, the function
or office of the magistrate of a Commune, and the extent of
his jurisdiction.
6. The PRÉFECTURE is to the Département what the
Mairie is to the Commune. It signifies, 1st, the function of
Prefect; 2nd, the territorial circuit over which those func-
tions extend.
7. The CONSEIL DE DÉPARTEMENT (Departmental Coun-
cil) is a council nominated by certain electors, to manage
various affairs of the department. Its principal object is the
distribution or assessment of the rates or taxes among the
Arrondissemens and Communes. It meets only once a-year
at the time determined by a royal ordinance.
xxviii
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
8. The CONSEIL MUNICIPAL is a council nominated by
certain electors of each Commune, which superintends and
administers the affairs of the Commune.
9. The COLLEGE COMMUNAL is a school instituted in
certain towns, in a building belonging to the town, or
provided by it. The Professors, though nominated by
the Minister of Public Instruction, are paid out of the funds
of the Commune; and the Principal or Director, also nomi-
nated by the Minister, generally receives from the Com-
mune an allowance for the expenses of the maintenance of
the material part of the establishment. The course of in-
struction in these Colléges, of which there are about 300 in
France, is restricted to certain branches.
10. The COLLEGE ROYAL is under the more special
management of the Government. The Director and the
Professors are paid out of the funds of the nation. The
whole administration of the Royal Colléges is conducted at
the charge of the State. The course of instruction is of a
higher and more extensive character than that in the com-
munal Colléges. The education begun in them is carried
on in the royal Colléges. There are 40 royal Colléges.
11. The ACADÉMIE UNIVERSITAIRE is, if we may use the
expression, the Prefecture of Public Instruction. France is
divided into 27 Académies. Each of these embraces, 1st,
A certain course of education superior to that of the Colléges
Royaux, and designated by the names of Facultés ;—Facul-
ties of Law, Theology, the Sciences, and Letters. [N.B. All
these faculties are not united in every Académie.] 2nd, One
or two royal Colléges. 3rd, A certain number of communal
Colléges, of which the mean term or average is 11.
12. The RECTEUR is a functionary in every Académie
Universitaire, placed at the head of public instruction. He
is the medium between the Minister and the Managers or
the Professors. He is charged with the supervision of the
course of instruction and of the administration in every
Collége.
13. The INSPECTEURS are special agents, whose business
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
xxix
it is, under the guidance of the Recteur, to go to examine
on the spot the state of the tuition and of the management
of each establishment. There are two in each Académie
Universitaire.
I have collected the following parallel for Prussia where
I could.
A GEMEINDE is the administrative unit of Prussia, as the
Commune is of France, and the Parish or Township of En-
gland. The chief magistrate of each Gemeinde is the Schulze,
whose functions are in some degree similar to those of the
French Maire. The Schulze is assisted generally by two
Schöppen. They form the village court of justice for the
punishment of slight offences. The immediate superior of
the Schulze is the Landrath or Kreisdirector.
A KREIS (circle) contains an indeterminate number of
Gemeinden. There are 345 Kreise in the kingdom of Prussia.
A Kreis contains on an average from thirty to forty thou-
sand inhabitants. The chief magistrate is the Kreisdirector
or Landrath, appointed by the Government. Under him are
six Deputies of the Kreis chosen by the electors, who are
taken in equal number from the owners of land and the
inhabitants of the towns and rural parishes. Each of these
classes sends two Deputies.
The Landrath is proposed by the Provincial States
(Provinzial-Stände), approved by the Council of Regency
(Regierungs-Collegium), and appointed by the King.
A REGIERUNGS-BEZIRK contains a number of Kreise vary-
ing from four to twenty-two. There are 28 Regierungen
in Prussia. The word Regierung is used to express both
the district, and the body by which it is governed; more
accurately called Regierungs-Collegium. This council or
board consists of a president, vice-president, several council-
lors (Regierungsräthe), assessors, and other subordinate
officers.
* The Provincial representation granted by the King in the
year 1823,
XXX
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
A PROVINZ is the largest territorial division of Prussia.
There are ten. The chief officer of the province is the
Oberpräsident, (chief president,) who is appointed by Go-
vernment. He presides over all matters common to the
different Regencies in his province, and corresponds imme-
diately with the central government. His functions may
be compared in some respects to those of our Lords-Lieu-
tenant of counties; in others, to those of our High Sheriffs;
but, as a whole, his office is very different from either.
The average population of the provinces is about 1,300,000.
Though for civil purposes divided into ten provinces, Prussia
is also divided into seven great military Commandancies.
PAGES 18, 26, 83, &c.-Schulvorstand: I can find no bet-
ter expression than Committee of Management. Vorstehen
is to stand over, or rather, here, to be set over, for pur-
poses of management and direction. We must carefully
avoid confounding this Committee, appointed by Govern-
ment and strictly responsible to the State, with the volun-
tary associations common here.
PAGES 44, &c.-Cabinet-order.-A Cabinets-Ordre is an
edict issued immediately by the King. It is something like
our Order in Council.
PAGES 51, &c.—It is to be observed, that both Bürger,
citizen, and Bauer, countryman or farmer, have a definite
civil meaning. A Bürger is not only an inhabitant of a
town, but one who pays a certain amount of direct taxes.
This amount varies according to the population and wealth
of the towns. A Bauer is an inhabitant of the country
possessing a certain income. A Halb-bauer, one who
possesses half that income.
PAGES 66, 75, 184.-Landwehr.-In Prussia every man
capable of bearing arms, (with certain exceptions specified
by law) is called out into active service at the age of 20.
These men compose the active, or to speak in our language,
the standing army. After serving three years they return
to their respective homes, and form the Kriegs-Reserve (war-
reserve) till the age of 25. At 25 they are freed from active
service and incorporated in the Landwehr of the first levy
}
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
xxxi
(Aufgebot). In peace they receive no pay, except during
their time of annual drill. Only the staff is regularly
paid, and belongs to the active army, in which also it
takes promotion. The Landwehr of the first levy is called
out for exercise about a month in every year.
At 32,
the men pass into the second levy, in which they remain
till the age of 39. The second levy is not called out to drill.
In case of war, the Landwehr of the first levy acts with the
regular troops. The second levy is confined to home service,
and can only be marched against the enemy in case of
imminent danger. This is the military organization of
Prussia. It is no doubt burthensome, but when it is re-
collected that, with a population a third of that of France,
Prussia has 150 German miles (about 700 English) more of
frontier to guard, and hardly any coast, it may be regarded
as simply defensive, and the inexorable condition of her ex-
istence. The evil, be it what it may, is distributed with in-
flexible impartiality over all classes, from the highest to the
lowest. No money nor interest can purchase an exemption.
Some mitigation of it also is found in the care taken by the
Government to continue the education of the young men
serving in the active army. During the whole season when
the days are too short for afternoon drill, there is regular
school at four o'clock, and they are instructed and exercised
in reading, writing, arithmetic, geography, geometry, the
history of Prussia, music, &c. The officers are bound, as
one of them informed me, regularly to inspect the school.
PAGE 81.-Rhenish Provinces.-The distinction in the
text is caused by the prevalence of a different code of laws
in this part of the Prussian dominions. While it was an-
nexed to France, the Code Napoléon became the law of the
land. In old Prussia and all the rest of the monarchy the
Preussisches Landrecht (Prussian law of the land) prevails.
It was in contemplation to abolish the Code Napoléon and
introduce the Landrecht, for the sake of establishing unifor-
mity of judicial institutions throughout the monarchy. The
people along the Rhine petitioned the King to be allowed
to retain their actual laws. I happened to be in those pro-
vinces at the time (1827) his assent was received, and was
witness to the rejoicing it occasioned. I was told by a ju-
dicial person there, that when the Berlin lawyers pleaded
xxxii
EXPLANATORY NOTES.
for the introduction of the Landrecht, the King's charac-
teristic answer was, " Very likely you are right, but you see
the people do not like it.'
PAGE 92.-Evangelical Church.-In the year 1817, the
two great subdivisions of the Protestant Church in Prussia,
the Lutherans and the Calvinists, (more commonly called,
in the country, Reformirte) united themselves into one
Church called the Evangelische Kirche. The King is a Cal-
vinist, the majority of his subjects Lutherans. There are
about 7,000,000 Protestants, 4,200,000 Catholics, and
170,000 of Jewish and other sects.
In
PAGE 303.—Administration of the Poor's Fund.-Every
parish in Prussia is bound to provide for its own poor.
the country, the fund for relief is managed by the Schulze,
subject to the control of the Landrath or Kreisdirector;
in small towns by the Bürgermeister; and in larger towns,
by a mixed body similar to the Courts of Guardians of the
Poor in some cities of England. This body is subject to the
control of the first section of the Regencies. The whole is
subject to one of the two Ministers of the Interior.
CONTENTS.
Page.
REPORT on the state of public instruction in Prussia 1
Principal divisions of the Report.-1. General or-
ganization of public instruction in Prussia ;-2. Pri-
mary instruction;-3. Instruction of the second de-
gree, or gymnasia;-4. Higher instruction, or uni-
versities
3
SECTION I. General organization of public instruction. 4
Minister of public instruction, of ecclesiastical and
medical affairs; his powers.-Royal council; its or-
ganization. Ascending scale of powers; parishes, cir-
cles, departments, provinces, minister. Universities
connected immediately with the minister.-Secondary
instruction, in a great measure dependent on the pro-
vincial authorities.-Primary instruction; belongs
peculiarly to the department and the parish. În
the country a school-board; in towns, a board for
each school, and a higher commission for the whole
number of schools in the town; in the chief place of
the circle, an inspector for all the schools of the cir-
cle; in the departmental council, a member specially
charged with the affairs of the school, and connected
with the minister.
SECTION II. Primary instruction
Sources from which information has been drawn.
I.
Organization of primary instruction
Six principal points to be examined into.
22
…….. 23
TITLE I. Duty of parents to send their children to the
primary schools
C
23
xxxiv
CONTENTS.
Articles of the general code which refer to this
duty.-Law of 1819.-Annual census of the popula-
tion of children.-Coercive measures.-Models of a
school-register, and list of attendance.
TITLE II. Duty of each parish to support a primary
school at its own cost...
Elementary schools and burgher schools.-Country
elementary schools; association for the country
schools.-Maximum of pupils for one master; pro-
tection for the different faiths; assistance to poor
children. Support of the schools; revenues of the
masters; school-house, garden; meadow; school-
utensils.-Resources of the schools; pious founda-
tions; parish rates; aids from the departmental funds.
Page.
Accessory revenues of the masters.-Payment by
the pupils; means of collecting.-Retiring pensions.
-Fund for the widows and orphans of schoolmasters.
TITLE 3. General objects and different gradations of
primary instruction
Elementary schools. Complete elementary
schools; boys and girls.-Burgher schools.-Higher
town schools or progymnasia.-Certificates given to
all children on their leaving school.-Books of study;
methods.-Annual public examinations.
TITLE 4. Training of primary teachers; mode of ap-
pointment; promotion and punishment....
Of the training of schoolmasters
Primary normal schools; by whom maintained.-
Maximum of pupils to be admitted.-The most de-
sirable place for their establishment.-Choice of pu-
pils.-Plan of study.-Length of the courses.-Exhi-
bitions for the pupils.-Small preparatory establish-
ments.
Of the appointment of schoolmasters.....
Conditions of fitness for the office of public teacher.
--Examination and certificates of fitness.-Candi-
dateship.-Departmental lists of the candidates for
places which become vacant.
Mode of appointment
With whom rests the choice and appointment of
schoolmasters.
33
50
62
62
67
70
CONTENTS.
XXXV
Election of masters; to whom confided.-Brevets
of nomination.-Ratification of the brevets of nomi-
nation.-Solemn instalment.-Exemption from mili-
tary service.-Associations among the schoolmasters.
-Course of improvement at the normal schools for
the country schoolmasters; expense of removal.
Promotion of the schoolmasters.-New examina-
tions. Encouragements and rewards.
Discipline, reprimands; punishments; judge-
ments.
TITLE 5. Of the government of primary instruction, or
of the authorities to whom the superintendence of
schools is committed…………..
Parish authorities
Primary schools in the country
Special committee of each school; how formed;
duration of its functions; its powers.
Primary schools in towns
Organization of the special committees.-Central
school commission, partly elective. Duration of its
functions, its powers, and duties.
Authorities of officers of circles
Inspectors of circles; how nominated; their
powers. Solemn annual revisions of the schools;
examinations.-Reports to the provincial consisto-
ries. Superintendence of all the schools, private
and public.-Indemnities and expenses of the cir-
cuit. Capacity required for the office of inspector.
TITLE 6. Of private schools
Conditions required for the establishment of a
private school.
Certificates of morality and capacity.—Unmarried
men not to keep girls' schools.-Choice of under-
masters.-Superintendence.-Responsibility of pri-
vate teachers.
Boarding-schools ....
Must be licensed.-Subject to the immediate su-
perintendence of the town commissions.
Page.
83
83
83
86
91
98
103
Schools for teaching to sew, knit, and embroider...... 104
Obligations imposed on them.
€ 2
xxxvi
CONTENTS.
Page.
Masters who give lessons by the hour
....
105
Bound to give evidence of their capacity and morality.
Infant Schools, or Dames' Schools (Ecoles d'asyle) 105
Superintendence of these establishments.
Observations
Character of this law: founded on experience.—
Ascertained to be everywhere practicable.—Its ap-
plication conducted with prudence in the provinces
less advanced in civilization.
Principles of a good law for primary instruction
in France.-Necessity for a primary school in each
parish, and a primary normal school in each de-
partment. Necessity for intermediate schools be-
tween the primary schools and the colléges.-Au-
thorities which should preside over popular instruc-
tion. Municipal and departmental councils.-De-
fects of the district committees.-The clergy; its
legitimate influence on popular instruction.-Mi-
nister of public instruction, the centre of action,
and supreme director: distributes the subsidies to
the parishes; nominates the examining commis-
sions; directs the primary normal schools.-Private
teaching; liberty of teaching.-Time and experience.
necessary to good legislation.
II.
105
Statistics of primary instruction...
134
Statistics of town schools, with the average salaries
of schoolmasters in 1821
136
Statistics of village schools, with the average salaries
of schoolmasters in 1821
137
Comparative view of salaries, in towns
138
in villages.
139
Popular instruction from 1819 to 1825.
of 1825....
Statistics
140
Statement of the sums payed annually by the State
for the elementary and burgher schools of the whole
kingdom
144
List of the primary normal schools now established
in each province of Prussia...
146
General budget of the expenses of the State, in 1831,
for primary normal schools...
166
CONTENTS.
xxxvii
Page.
Primary normal schools
III.
Small normal schools for training masters for the
poorest parishes; charity, devotedness of the mas-
ters and pupils.
168
171
Rules of a small primary normal school at Lastadie,
in the suburbs of Stettin.-Purpose of the school;
instruction; choice of pupils; length of terms; disci-
pline.-Revenues of the school.—Expenses ………
Rules of the small normal school of Pyritz, in Pome-
rania. Intellectual and moral government.-In-
ternal discipline.-Order; employment of time 177
Great normal schools for training masters for the
two gradations of primary instruction, elementary
schools and burgher schools; supported and directed
by the State....
Exemptions from military service
...
Circular securing the appointment of pupils who have
left school..…….
Examinations at quitting.-Ministerial circular…………..
Music not suffered to be a profane amusement
Gymnastic exercises; ministerial circular
183
183
186
188
193
194
Course of improvement for masters already appoint-
ed; circular...
198
Rules of a conference of the schoolmasters of a di-
strict.....
201
Annual reports of the provincial consistories to the
minister on the state of the primary normal schools. 203
Annual report of the Catholic primary normal school
at Brühl
Situation of the town.-Buildings.—Number of
students.-Sanitary state of the students.-Order,
discipline,morality. Instruction-School for practice.
-Masters of the establishment.-Results of the ex-
amination at quitting the school.-The pupils' pros-
pect of appointment after leaving the school.-Pu-
pils lately admitted.—Historical notice of the year.
-Wishes and suggestions.
Report of the Director of the protestant primary nor-
mal school at Potsdam...
Historical statement.-Present organization.-
Direction and inspection.-Building.—Revenues.-
208
239
xxxviii
CONTENTS.
Inventory.-Domestic economy and maintenance
of the pupils.-Masters.-Number of pupils.-What
is required of applicants for admission.-Copy of
the engagement with the director, to be signed by
the pupil on his entrance.-Education of the pupils
by the means of discipline and instruction.
Fundamental plan of studies at the normal school
of Potsdam.-Prospectus of the school lessons for the
summer half-year of 1831.-Practical reflexions.-
Application to France.-Rules to be followed.
Conclusion.
APPENDIX
1st. Plan for the organization of the parish poor's
schools at Berlin, 1827
Statistics of the poor population.-Number of
poor's schools to be established in Berlin.-Organiza-
tion of these schools.-Budget of expenses for each
school, boys' and girls'.-Choice of the masters of
schools for the poor.-Inspection of these schools.—
The town divided into school-circles. Census of
the population of children.-Strict superintendence
of the attendance at school.-Certificate of attend-
ance must be shown to the police.-Length of stay
at school.-Departure; public examination.-An-
nual reports on the state of the poor's schools.-
Suggestions.
2. Plans of primary schools of different dimensions.
SUPPLEMENT
State of primary instruction in Prussia in 1831 ......
Statistical data
Number of children of age to go to school.-Num-
ber of children who actually go to school.-Rela-
tive proportion of girls to the whole amount.-Num-
ber of public primary schools.-Number of school-
masters and mistresses.-All schools, for either sex,
under the supreme direction of a master.-Number
of normal schools, small and large.-Necessity for
compulsory education in France and other countries.
-Measures to be temporarily substituted where that
is impracticable.-Conclusion.
Page.
295
295
309
309
312
REPORT,
ADDRESSED TO
THE COUNT DE MONTALIVET,
PEER OF FRANCE,
MINISTER OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION AND ECCLESIASTICAL
AFFAIRS,
ON THE STATE OF
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIA.
Berlin, June 25th, 1831.
SIR,
HAVING arrived at this city on the 5th of June,
and being compelled to return to Paris on the 20th
of July, at the latest, I hasten to give you some ac-
count of the information I have been enabled to ob-
tain as to the state of Public Instruction in the king-
dom of Prussia, during the short time allowed me.
I have the greatest satisfaction in assuring you of
the very flattering reception I have experienced, both
from the public and the government. I delivered
your letter to the Minister of Public Instruction and
Ecclesiastical Affairs, the Baron von Altenstein, and
I send you his answer.
B
·
20
INTRODUCTORY LETTER.
I was acquainted with Baron von Altenstein before,
but I was now enabled to judge more fully of the pro-
foundness of his mind and the extent of his knowledge.
He did me the honour to grant me two interviews, du-
ring which we went thoroughly and at great length
into the highest and most delicate parts of his mini-
stry; and, for the detail, he had the goodness to com-
mission one of his confidential councillors to give me,
not only every possible information, but whatever
documents, whether printed or manuscript, I might
desire. I had a conference of several hours daily with
Mr. Schulze. Nothing that I had the least desire to
know was concealed from me. The interior of this
department of public business, and the most secret
workings of the administration were laid open to me.
Official documents were placed before me in abund-
ance. In the morning Mr. Schulze showed me the
laws, statutes and rules of the various establishments
for public instruction; in the latter part of the day,
he had the goodness to conduct me about those esta-
blishments; and as Berlin contains a university, nu-
merous gymnasia, and every stage of primary in-
struction, there is not a single portion of public in-
struction concerning which I have not been able to
verify the ministerial assertions by my own observa-
tion and inquiry. I have also been to Potsdam with
Mr. Schulze, to examine in detail the great Primary
Normal School established there.
I am extremely grateful for the kindness of this
INTRODUCTORY LETTER.
3
zealous and excellent functionary, who is thoroughly
acquainted with every branch of the service; as well
for that of the minister.
I invariably followed one course; first, to procure
the laws or regulations, and render myself perfectly
master of them; next, to verify them by an accurate
and detailed inspection.
In this manner I have collected more than a hun-
dred documents on every part of public instruction,
together with my own observations. The following
Report is framed upon these jointly.
I shall divide this Report into four sections.
1. General organization of public instruction.
2. Primary instruction.
3. Instruction of the second degree, or gymnasia.
4. Higher instruction, or universities.
This is the division I have followed hitherto. It
is applicable to Prussia, as well as to the kingdom of
Saxony, the duchy of Weimar, and the city of Frank-
furt*. In each of these sections I shall give a cor-
rect statement of facts, and shall then add my own
opinions and practical conclusions, according to the
plan I have hitherto pursued.
* See M. Cousin's Report on the state of education in those
states, which preceded the present document.
B 2
4
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
SECTION I.
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
IN proportion to the aggrandizement of a state, is
the complication of the various branches of public
instruction, and the importance of the central admi-
nistration, or the direction which the whole may re-
ceive from the hand of government.
I have already had occasion to describe to you the
gradual rise of this department of administration in
dignity and importance, from the republic of Frank-
furt to the kingdom of Saxony, where a central con-
sistory presides over the various particular consis-
tories, and is, in turn, subject to a high functionary,
who has the title of minister, but only of Minister of
Conferences. In Prussia, the minister of public in-
struction enjoys a rank and authority equal to those
of
any of his colleagues; the care of all affairs con-
nected with the public exercise of religion falls also
within his department, as in France; and as the se-
condary schools of medicine, and all establishments
relative to public health, belong to this ministry, it
bears the official denomination of Ministry of Public
Instruction, of Ecclesiastical and Medical Affairs (Mi-
nisterium des öffentlichen Unterrichts, der geistlichen-
und medicinal-Angelegenheiten).
In Prussia, as in other states, public instruction
long formed a part of the business of the Minister
of the Interior. It was not until 1819 that a spe-
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
5
-
cial department of administration was consecrated
to this object, with Baron von Altenstein at its head.
I regard this change as of the highest importance.
In the first place the service is much better per-
formed, there being more complete unity in the cen-
tral point, from which all emanates and to which all is
addressed; and the authority, being more cogent,
is better obeyed. In the next place, the high rank
assigned to the head of public instruction marks the
respect in which everything relating to that import-
ant subject is held by the government; hence science
assumes her proper place in the state. Civilization,
the intellectual and moral interests of society, have
their appointed ministry. This ministry embraces
everything relating to science, and consequently all
schools, libraries, and kindred institutions, such as
botanic gardens, museums, cabinets, the lower schools
of surgery and medicine, academies of music, &c.
Indeed it is perfectly natural that the minister who
has the faculties of medicine under his control,
should also direct the inferior schools and institu→
tions relating to that science; that the minister who
presides over the faculties of letters and science,
should also preside over scientific and literary aca-
demies; that the minister who is the guardian of
public instruction, should be guardian of the great
collections and libraries, without which instruction is
impossible.
Unquestionably all classification must be in some
degree arbitrary; and there are consequently some.
establishments at Berlin and in the provinces, which
6
C
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
3
are claimed both by the minister of the interior and
by the minister of public instruction. In general,
however, the line of demarcation which separates
their provinces is distinctly traced. The ministry of
the interior, in principle, comprehends all those in-
stitutions which relate to the application of science,
-to manufactures, commerce, public works, &c., even
when instruction is connected with such institutions.
The ministry of public instruction comprehends
everything of a moral and intellectual character. All
establishments which bear this character, from the
highest to the lowest, even when they touch on those
in the department of the minister of the interior, be-
long to the province of the minister of public instruc-
tion, and depend directly or indirectly on him. I
am well aware, Sir, that this is not the case with us.
The greater part of the institutions connected with art,
science, and literature are not within the limits of your
authority. I regret it extremely; not for the sake of
the increase of that authority, but for the manifest
interest of art, science, and letters, as well as for
that of public education, which is thus, as it were,
without a base, and deprived of the instruments it
needs. My opinion on this head is known to you:
it is founded on reasons I have often laid before you.
I withhold them here, where my only business is to
make you acquainted with the whole extent of the
legal powers of the minister of public instruction in
Prussia.
Here, as in France, the superintendence of eccle-
siastical affairs is united to that of public instruc-
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
7
tion. This union is founded on the very nature of
things, and on the relation of the two services,
which touch at all points, and often are blended in
the same persons; many learned divines being use-
ful professors, and the faculties of theology, which
form an integral part of public instruction, being at
the same time amenable to religious authority. God
be praised, the affairs of religion are no longer con-
signed, as the arts are, to a place in the same depart-
ment with manufactures and horse-breeding; they
have found their proper station by the side of science
and letters. The functions of Baron von Altenstein,
in Prussia, are in this respect precisely yours as mi-
nister of public instruction and ecclesiastical affairs.
It remains for me to show how this ministry is or-
ganized in its centre of action at Berlin.
The organization is the same which I have found
everywhere from the time I entered Germany. A
council, more or less numerous; under a president, a
director or a minister, according to the extent of the
district. In fact, as I have elsewhere remarked *,
this institution arises from the nature of things, and
the necessities of the service.
In those departments in which the administration is,
if I may so speak, rather material than moral, we can
understand that a minister may do without a council;
but when his ministry is essentially moral, like that of
public instruction, which requires not only attention
to laws and regulations, but a mass of rare, various
* Letter V. On Education in Royal Saxony. See in the ori-
ginal Rapport, p. 119.
8
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
and profound knowledge, in which business almost
always resolves itself into questions of science, it is
evident that the minister must have the aid of coun-
cillors, to perpetuate the principles and the spirit
which become traditionary in public bodies, and
which a single and variable head might constantly
overthrow; to make new rules or modify old ones;
to aid the judgement of the minister as to what
establishments to found, or what to suppress; above
all, to guide him in the appreciation and the choice.
of men, and to serve as a rampart to ward off so-
licitation and intrigue. Let us suppose the best-
intentioned minister; Tet us suppose that he has to
make regulations for a faculty of theology, of law, of
medicine, of science, or of letters, or to choose a pro-
fessor for one of these faculties; suppose he has to de-
cide some question of this kind, relating to things or
to persons, to whom is he to apply? To the faculty
itself? But this were to check all progress; this
were to constitute corporations, stagnant, because
judges in their own cause; this were to nourish that
esprit de corps so fatal to science, to abdicate the go-
vernment, to renounce the right of judging for himself.
Shall he apply to some celebrated individual? But
this person, who is entirely irresponsible, may consult
his own private views, his own peculiar system, or the
interest of that branch of science for which he is
personally distinguished. We may safely affirm that,
in the end, solicitation, importunity, persistency will
carry it. A thousand secret springs will be set in
motion about the minister; recommendations from
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
9
above, intrigues from below; in all directions, irre-
sponsible and extraneous influences will surround and
prevail over him. I have already said, and I repeat
with the fullest conviction, that unchecked ministerial
power is desired only by intriguing mediocrity, which
despairs of deceiving a council composed of men
versed in all parts of the service. Without doubt
this council must be organized in such a manner as
to answer its end; but this organization is very sim-
ple; it consists merely in putting at the head of each
important branch of the service, that is to say, of the
kinds of knowledge taught in each stage of public in-
struction, a man known by his labours,-by a long
course of eminent and successful teaching. This
councillor, who in my opinion ought still to remain a
professor or teacher, and only to receive a more or less
considerable salary as councillor, should be bound to
make a report of all the affairs, real and personal,
belonging to his department. He should make this
report to the other councillors; it would be discussed;
the intelligence and information of all the other mem-
bers of the council would enlighten and modify the
conclusions of the reporter, whose views might be
warped by prejudices of system and by exclusive
tastes. The discussion being gone through, the
council would pronounce an opinion. The minister
who has heard the report, and the discussion upon it,
decides as he pleases, since he is responsible; but he
decides as advised.
This plan of a council will be found in a report
I had the honour to address to the Duke de Broglie
10
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
in the early part of his short and honourable ministry,
and is, to a certain extent, acted upon. In Prussia,
the force of circumstances has produced nearly the
same institution. The minister has around him a
numerous council too numerous perhaps,-divided
into three sections, which correspond to the three
branches or objects of his office; viz. a section for
church affairs, composed of a certain number of
councillors, chiefly ecclesiastics, with a director (or
chairman) at their head; a section for public instruc-
tion, also composed of a certain number of council-
lors, almost all laymen, with a director; and a section
for medicine, with its councillors and director.
The number of members of each of these sections
is undetermined. The same individual may belong
to two sections, but he can in no case receive more
than the salary of one. At the present time the sec-
tion of public instruction consists of twelve council- '
lors, with different salaries. The director has 5000
thalers (7501.), four have 3000 thalers (450l.), seven
from 2000 to 2600 thalers (300l. to 3751.). The ec-
clesiastical section has thirteen councillors, among
whom there is one catholic. Nine of these also be-
long to the section of public instruction; the three
others have 3000 thalers each. The section of medi-
cine has eight councillors, some of whom belong to
the other sections; the others have, all together, about
10,000 thalers (1500l.).
The section of public instruction, which I am best
acquainted with, meets, like our council, twice a week.
Each councillor brings different business before the
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
11
whole section, with the director at their head. In
particular cases the minister has special reports made
to himself by some one of the councillors.
To each of these sections is attached a correspond-
ing office; there are, besides, a chancellor and the
minister's private secretary. The whole of this cen-
tral administration costs 80,610 thalers (12,1007.),
which includes the salaries of the councillors and of
the minister.
The office of inspector-general, in use among us,
is unknown throughout Germany. But without any
permanent or fixed post of inspectors-general (who
very rarely do, in fact, inspect), there are special in-
spections, which cost nothing but the travelling ex-
penses, and which produce positive results, because
they are unexpected, always determined by a real
necessity, and intrusted to men specially selected.
If the minister learns from his correspondence that
things are not going on well in any establishment,
he sends the inspector best qualified for the parti-
cular case. If it relates to a law faculty, he takes a
lawyer; if to a faculty of science, a man of science;
and so on for all the other faculties. If it concerns a
gymnasium, he selects a professor (teacher) of a gym-
nasium. In general he chooses one of the members
of one of the three sections of the council. This coun-
cillor, chosen for the particular occasion, instantly
repairs to the place where his presence is needed;
makes an inspection, the more accurate and profound
because it is special; returns to Berlin, makes his
report immediately, and a prompt and efficacious de-
12
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
cision follows. This takes place only on great occa-
sions, which are extremely rare. For ordinary cir-
cumstances, and the general course of affairs, the
correspondence and the intervention of the provincial
authorities, immediately connected with the ministry
of public instruction, suffice.
I have now to lay before you the mode in which the
minister, with the aid of his council, directs all parts of
public instruction, throughout the whole extent of the
monarchy. In order to this, it is necessary distinctly
to understand the territorial division of the kingdom,
and the regular connected chain of functionaries from
the highest to the lowest part of administration.
-
Prussia is divided into ten provinces, viz. East
Prussia, West Prussia, Posen, Pomerania, Branden-
burg, Silesia, Saxony, Westphalia, Cleves, Lower
Rhine.
Each of these provinces is subdivided into de-
partments, called Regierungs-Bezirke (government-
or regency-circles), which comprise a district of
greater or less extent.
Each of these departments is again subdivided into
other circles, smaller than our arrondissements and
larger than our cantons, called Kreise (circles); and
each of these lesser circles is again divided into Ge-
meinde (communes, parishes).
Each department has a sort of council of prefec-
ture, called a Regency (Regierung), which has its
president, who corresponds nearly to our prefect,
only he is more controlled by the sense of the ma-
jority. As each department has its president, so
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
13
likewise has each province one, bearing the title of
Oberpräsident (over- or head-president).
All the gradations or stages of public instruction
are adapted to the different stages of this ascending
scale of administrators. Almost every province has
its university.
East and West Prussia and Posen, which join, have
the university of Königsberg; Pomerania, of Greifs-
wald; Silesia, of Breslau; Saxony, of Halle; Bran-
denburg, of Berlin; Westphalia, the imperfect uni-
versity called the academy of Münster; the Rhe-
nish provinces, the university of Bonn.
Each of these universities has its own authorities,
elected by itself, under the superintendence of a
Royal Commissary, nominated by the minister of pub-
lic instruction, and in direct correspondence with him.
This is the curator of the ancient German universities.
This post is always given to some man of weight in
the province, in great part as an honorary distinction,
but invariably with a certain salary attached. In-
deed, generally speaking, the spirit of the Prussian
monarchy is decidedly adverse to unpaid function-
aries of any kind.
It is of the nature of aristocratical governments to
have a great number of gratuitous offices, as we see
in the example of England; but governments which
are at once popular and monarchical, like Prussia and
France, cannot admit of such a system; and if it were
pushed far in either country, it would end in nothing
short of gradually changing the form of the govern-
ment. In fact, it would be vain to attempt to intrust
14
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
these gratuitous employments to all the citizens eligible
to them on the score of merit: persons of small for-
tune would soon tire of them, and it must end in their
falling into the hands of persons of large property,
who would soon virtually govern. In Prussia, all
public servants are paid; and as no post whatever can
be obtained without passing through the most rigo-.
rous examinations, all are able and enlightened men.
And as, moreover, they are taken from every class
of society, they bring to the exercise of their duties.
the general spirit of the nation, while, in that exer-
cise, they contract habits of public business. This
must be the system of every popular monarchy.
in
A royal commissary has duties which he must ful-
fill. Let him be of what rank or importance he may
other places, he is a servant of government, bound to
render an account to the minister. The royal coin-
missaries are the only mediators between the uni-
versities and the minister: thus the universities are
connected almost immediately with the minister. No
provincial authority, civil or ecclesiastical, has a
right to intermeddle in their affairs; they belong to
the state, and to the state alone: this is their privi-
lege and their security. I shall have occasion here-
after to explain to you their internal organization in
detail; it will be sufficient here to point out their
relation to the central administration in the general
system.
Though the universities are under the exclusive
care of the state, this is not the case with secondary
instruction. In Prussia this is considered as coming.
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
15
S
mainly within the department of the provincial au-
thorities. In every province of the monarchy, under
the direction of the supreme president of the pro-
vince, is an institution connected with, or depen-
dent upon, the ministry of public instruction, and
in some sort a copy of it as to internal organiza-
tion: I mean what are called the provincial con-
sistóries (Provincialconsistorien). As the ministry
is divided into three sections, so the provincial con-
sistory is divided into three sections: the first, for
ecclesiastical affairs, or the Consistory, properly so
called, (Consistorium): the second, for public instruc-
tion; this is called the School-board* (Schulcollegium);
the third, for affairs connected with the public health,
which is called the Medical board (Medicinalcollegi-
um). The provincial consistory is paid: all the mem-
bers are nominated directly by the minister of pub-
lic instruction; but the president both of the whole
body and of each of its sections is the Oberpräsident
of the province, who conducts the whole of its corre-
spondence, including that with the minister of pub-
lic instruction, although that minister is not his na-
tural head. But in his office of supreme president
of the province, he corresponds with several of the
ministers on all the various affairs of his province,
though he is directly responsible to the minister of
the interior alone. This official correspondence of the
president of the province with the minister of public
* I am happy, in the choice of this word, to be guided by the
admirable article in the Foreign Quarterly Review, No. XXIV.
-TRANSL.
16
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
instruction is merely a matter of form, and for the
sake of concentrating the provincial administration;
in fact, all authority is in the hands of the consistory,
each section of which deliberates separately, and de-
cides all questions by a majority of voices. I shall
here dwell upon that section only of the provincial
consistory which is connected with public instruc-
tion, that is to say, the Schulcollegium, or school-
board.
I must first beg you to remark an essential differ-
ence between the character of public instruction in
Prussia, and that which it bears in the states of Ger-
many I have just traversed. In every other state
the central or chief management is placed in the
hands of a consistory, consisting principally of eccle-
siastics, under a director or minister. Here, at the
head of the department, immediately under the mi-
nister, instead of a consistory, is a council, divided
into three parts, one only of which is ecclesiastical,
while the other two are lay and scientific. This
council, then, has no ecclesiastical character; the
spirit of priesthood is superseded by the spirit of
civil government; the state is the
the supreme and pre-
dominant idea. In like manner, though perhaps the
name, provincial consistory, is too ecclesiastical, yet
the division of this consistory into three sections,
after the model of the central ministry at Berlin,
leaves it no ecclesiastical character. Unquestionably,
the intimate connexion of the Schulcollegium with
the Consistorium, and its own proper duties, render it
profoundly religious; but its members are in great
D
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION,
17
part laymen, and quite unfettered by any sacerdotal
spirit.
Its domain is more peculiarly secondary instruc-
tion, the gymnasia, and those schools which form
an intermediate link between the primary and the
secondary instruction, called progymnasia and high-
er burgher schools (Progymnasien,-höhere Bürger-
schulen). It is important to remark, that the semina-
ries for the training of the masters of primary schools
(Seminarien für Schullehrer), are also within its juris-
diction, and that it has a voice in all the more im-
portant questions of primary instruction.
Attached to the Schulcollegium is a Commission of
examination (wissenschaftliche Prüfungscommission,
literally, scientific trial-commission), generally com-
posed of professors of the university of the province.
This commission has two objects, viz. 1. To examine
the pupils of the gymnasia who wish to pass on to
the university; or to revise the examination ad hoc
which those pupils sometimes go through at the gym-
nasium itself (Abiturienten-Examen, literally, exami-
nation of goers-away), in which case all the documents
of that examination are inspected: 2. To examine
those who apply for situations as teachers in gymna-
sia. There are different examinations for the differ-
ent stages of tuition; one for the masters of the lower
classes (Lehrer, teacher); another for that of the higher
(Oberlehrer, upper teacher); another for the rectors,
with whom rest the most important parts of tuition.
The first, that for the under teachers, is the funda-
mental examination. The wissenschaftliche Prüfungs-
C
18
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
commission is the link which connects the secondary
with the higher instruction; just as the Schulcolle-
gium connects public instruction in the provinces
with the central ministry of Berlin.
The mechanism of the administration of popular
instruction is, in few words, as follows.
The universities, as we have seen, belong to the
state alone; secondary instruction to the provinces :
primary instruction, on the other hand, belongs mainly
to the department and to the Gemeinde (parish).
Every Gemeinde must, by the law of the land, have
a school; and the pastor or curate is, in virtue of
his office, the inspector of this school; associated
with whom is a committee of administration and of
superintendence, composed of some of the most con-
siderable persons of the parish, and called Schulvor-
stand, (or committee of management of the school).
In the urban parishes, where there are several
schools and establishments of primary instruction, of
a higher order than the country schools, the magi-
strates form a higher committee or board, which pre-
sides over all these schools with their several com-
mittees, and arranges them into one harmonious
system. This committee is called Schuldeputation or
Schulcommission [words which require no interpre-
tation to an English reader].
There is, moreover, in the chief town of the Kreis, or
circle, another inspector, whose authority extends to
all the schools of that circle, and who corresponds with
the local inspectors and committees. This inspector
is almost always a clergyman: in catholic parts it is
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
19
the dean. His title is Kreisschulinspector,-inspector
of the schools of the circle.
Thus we see that in Prussia, as in all the rest of
Germany, the two first degrees of authority in primary
instruction are in the hands of the clergy; but above
these two lowest steps, ecclesiastical influence is at an
end, and the influence of the civil power comes in.
The Schulinspector of every Kreis corresponds with
the Regierung (regency) of every department (Be-
zirke), through the medium of the president of that
regency, who answers, as I have said, to the prefect
in France. This regency includes several councillors
(Regierungsräthe), charged with different duties;
among others, a special councillor for the primary
schools, called Schulrath (school-councillor); a paid
officer, like all his colleagues, who acts as link between
the public instruction and the ordinary civil admini-
stration of the province; inasmuch as, on the one side,
he is nominated on the presentation of the minister of
public instruction, while, on the other, as soon as he is
nominated, he forms a part of the council of regency in
his quality of Schulrath, and thus becomes responsible
to the minister of the interior. The Schulrath makes
the reports to the council, which decides by a majo-
rity. He inspects the schools, quickens and keeps
alive the zeal of the Schulinspectoren (school-in-
spectors), the Schulvorstände (school-committees),
and the schoolmasters; all the correspondence of
the parish inspectors and the superior inspectors is
addressed to him; he conducts the correspondence
relative to schools in the name of the regency, and
c 2
20
GENERAL ORGANIZATION OF
also, through the medium of the president, with the
provincial consistories, and the school-board (Schul-
collegium), as well as with the minister of public in-
struction in a word, the Schulrath is the true direc-
tor of primary instruction in each regency.
:
I do not attempt here to go into details. I have
confined myself wholly to the endeavour to make the
machinery of public instruction in Prussia intelligible
to you, as a whole. To sum up all; primary instruc-
tion is parochial and departmental, and at the same
time is subject to the minister of public instruction;
which double character appears to me consequent on
the very nature of establishments which equally re-
quire the constant superintendence of local powers,
and the guidance of a superior hand, vivifying and
harmonizing the whole. This double character is
represented by the Schulrath, who has a seat in the
council of the department, and is responsible, both
to the ministry of the interior, and to that of public
instruction.
On the other hand, all secondary instruction is
under the care of the Schulcollegium (school-board),
which forms part of the provincial consistory, and
which is nominated by the minister of public instruc-
tion. All higher instruction, that of universities, has
for its organ and its head the royal commissary, who
acts under immediate authority of the minister. Thus
nothing escapes the eye and the power of the minister,
yet at the same time each of these departments of pub-
lic instruction enjoys sufficient liberty of action. The
universities elect their own officers. The school-
PUBLIC INSTRUCTION.
21
board proposes and overlooks the professors of gym-
nasia, and takes cognisance of all the more import-
ant points of primary instruction. The Schulrath,
with the council of regency, (or rather the council of
regency, on the report of the Schulrath,) and in pur-
suance of the correspondence of the inspectors and
committees, decides on the greater part of the affairs
of the lower stage of instruction. The minister,
without entering into the infinite details of popular
instruction, is thoroughly informed as to results, and
directs everything by instructions emanating from
the centre, which tend to diffuse a national unity
throughout the whole. He does not interfere mi-
nutely with the business of secondary instruction;
but nothing is done without his sanction, and this is
never given but on full and accurate reports.
The
same applies to universities: they govern themselves,
but according to fixed laws. The professors elect
their deans and their rectors, but they are themselves
nominated by the minister. In short, the end of the
entire organization of public instruction in Prussia
is, to leave details to the local powers, and to reserve
to the minister and his council the direction and ge-
neral impulse given to the whole.
It is now time to lay before you, in the greatest
detail, each of the divisions of public instruction,
after having endeavoured to show you their relations
to each other, and the springs by which they are
guided. I shall begin with primary instruction.
22
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
SIR,
SECTION II.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
THE Sources from which I have taken the
facts relating to primary instruction in Prussia
contained in this report, are-
1. Allgemeines Landrecht für die preussis-
chen Staaten: General Law of the Land for
the Prussian States.
2. Sammlung der auf den öffentlichen Un-
terricht in den königlich-preussischen Staaten
sich beziehenden Gesetze und Verordnungen:
Collection of Laws and Ordinances relative to
Public Instruction in Prussia, by Doctor Nei-
gebauer, 1826.
3. Entwurf eines allgemeinen Gesetzes üher
die Verfassung des Schulwesens im preussis-
chen Staate: Project of a general Law on the
Organization of Public Instruction in Prussia;
Berlin, 1819. This project contains the ground-
work of the whole actual organization.
4. Handbuch des preussischen Volksschul-
wesens: Journal specially devoted to Primary In-
struction, published by M. Beckendorf, Coun-
cillor of the Ministry of Public Instruction and
Ecclesiastical Affairs, Section of Public Instruc-
tion, from 1825 to 1828.
5. A great number of instructions and cir-
culars communicated to me from the minister's
office, as likewise statistical documents and ta-
bles from the same source.
I shall quote these various authorities when-
ever I use them.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
૨૭
23
I shall place before you, in succession, the
rule and the facts, that is to say,-
I. The organization of primary instruction;
the laws and regulations by which it is
governed:
II. What the laws and regulations have ac-
tually produced, or the real state of pri-
mary instruction in Prussia.
I.
ORGANIZATION OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
I propose, Sir, to inquire into, and clearly
to expound, the six following points.
1. Duty of parents to send their children to
the primary schools.
2. Duty of each parish (Gemeinde) to maintain
a primary school at its own cost.
3. General objects and different gradations
of primary instruction.
4. How primary teachers are trained, placed,
promoted and punished.
5. Government of primary instruction, or of
the different authorities employed in the super-
intendence of schools.
6. Private schools.
These six points nearly exhaust the general
question of primary instruction. I shall go
over them in succession.
TITLE I.
DUTY OF PARENTS TO SEND THEIR CHILDREN TO THE
PRIMARY SCHOOLS.
This duty is so national, so rooted in all the
legal and moral habits of the country, that it is
24
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
:
expressed by a single word, Schulpflichtigkeit
(school-duty, or school-obligation). It corre-
sponds to another word, similarly formed and
similarly sanctioned by public opinion, Dienst-
pflichtigkeit (service-obligation, i. e. military
service). These two words are completely cha-
racteristic of Prussia: they contain the secret
of its originality as a nation, of its power as a
state, and the germ of its future condition.
They express, in my opinion, the two bases of
true civilization,-knowledge and strength. Mi-
litary conscription, instead of voluntary enlist-
ment, at first found many adversaries among
us it is now considered as a condition and a
means of civilization and public order. I am
convinced the time will come when popular in-
struction will be equally recognised as a social
duty imperative on all for the sake of all.
In Prussia, the state has long imposed on all
parents the strict obligation of sending their
children to school, unless they are able to prove
that they are giving them a competent educa-
tion at home. This duty has been successively
defined and regulated with precision for the
different seasons of the year (see in Neige-
bauer's Collection, pp. 186 and 187, the circu-
lar of Frederic the Great, dated Jan. 1, 1769);
it has been subjected to a severe supervision.
Lastly, in the great attempts at codification
which took place in 1794, it assumed its place
among the fundamental laws of the state. The
two articles of the general code relating to this
obligation are as follow: Allgemeines Land-
recht, Part II. title xii.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
25
"Art. 43. Every inhabitant who cannot, or will not,
cause the needful instruction to be given to his
children at home, is bound to send them to school
from the age of five years.
"Art. 44. From that age no child shall omit going
to school, nor absent himself from it for any length
of time, unless under particular circumstances, and
with the consent of the civil and ecclesiastical au-
thorities."
Lastly, the legislative project of 1819, which
has the force of law, and regulates the present
order of things throughout the country, devotes
an entire title or chapter (Title IV.) to this
obligation, which it follows out into its most
minute applications. I cannot do better than
quote the exact text of this title of the law of
1819, with the whole array of regulations, at
once rigorous and prudent, which it contains.
You will thus be made acquainted with both
the letter and the spirit of the Prussian law on
this important point.
"Parents or guardians are bound to send their
children or wards to the public school; or to provide
in some other manner that they receive a competent
education.
"Parents, or those on whom children are depend-
ent, (and under this head are comprehended masters
or manufacturers who have children as servants or as
apprentices, at an age when they should go to school,)
shall be bound to give them a suitable education,
from their seventh year to their fourteenth inclusive*.
The schoolmaster shall judge whether a child gives
proof of sufficient precocity to enter the school be-
*Five is the age fixed by the fundamental law; but seven is
that at which education is rigidly enforced.
26
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
fore that age, and the school-committee (Schulvor-
stand*) shall grant an authority for its admission.
A child who shall have gone through the whole
course of elementary instruction before the age of
fourteen, cannot be taken away from school by its
parents without the permission of the committee, nor
till after the members of the committee charged with
the inspection of the school+ shall have proceeded to
an examination of the pupil, which must be fully
satisfactory as to morals and health. It is desirable
that children who have quitted school, and have been
confirmed and admitted to the communion, should
attend the catechizing on Sundays at church for at
least a year.
This custom, which was formerly ge-
neral, must be re-established wherever it has fallen
into disuse.
"Parents and masters who do not send their chil-
dren, or those entrusted to their care, to a public
school, must point out to the municipal authorities or
school-committees, whenever they are required, what
means they provide for the education of such chil-
dren.
"Every year after Easter or Michaelmas, the com-
mittees and the municipal authorities shall make an
inquiry concerning all the families lying within theirju-
risdiction who have notoriously not provided for their
children that private education which they are bound
to give them, in default of public education. For
this purpose they shall make a census of all the chil-
dren of age to go to school. The baptismal registers,
and those of the civil authorities, shall be open to
them at the commencement of every year, and the
police must afford them every possible facility and
assistance.
*See General Organization of Public Instruction, p. 18, and
further, Title V. Government of Primary Instruction, p. 83.
† Ibid. p. 84.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
27
"It is recognised as a principle, that in the coun-
try every child shall be sent to the school of the pa-
rish (Gemeinde), village, or school-association (Schul-
verein*) to which its parents belong. If the parents
wish to send their children to any other school, or to
give them a private education, they must declare the
same to the school-committee; and the permission can-
not be refused them; provided always, that they pay
the charges imposed on them for the support of the
school to which they would naturally belong.
"Parents and masters are bound to see that the
children under their care regularly follow the school
courses for the time prescribed by law. On the other
hand, schoolmasters shall keep lists of attendance,
according to a prescribed formula, which must be
submitted to the school-committee every fortnight.
"In order to facilitate to parents the execution of
this law, and, at the same time, not to deprive them
entirely of the assistance which their children might
afford them in their labours, the hours of lessons in
the elementary schools shall be arranged in such a
manner as to leave the children several hours daily
for domestic work.
"Schoolmasters are forbidden, under very heavy
penalties, to employ their scholars in the work of
their own household.
"All schools shall be shut on Sundays. The af-
ternoons, between divine service and the catechism,
may be devoted to gymnastic exercises.
"Care is everywhere to be taken to furnish ne-
cessitous parents with the means of sending their
children to school, by providing them with the things
necessary for their instruction, or with such clothes
as they stand in need of.
"It is to be hoped that these facilities and helps,
* See p. 35.
28
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the moral and religious influence of the clergy, the
wise counsels of members of the school-committees
and of the municipal authorities, will gradually lead
the people to appreciate the benefits of a good ele-
mentary education, and will spread among the young
that wish and thirst for knowledge, which will lead
them to seek every means of acquiring it.
"If, however, parents and masters neglect sending
their children punctually to school, the clergymen
must first explain to them the heavy responsibility
which rests upon them; after that, the school-com-
mittee must summon them to appear before it, and
address severe remonstrances to them.
No excuse
whatever shall be deemed valid (exclusive of the proof
that the education of the child is otherwise provided
for), except certificates of illness signed by the medi-
cal man or the clergyman; the absence of the parents
and masters which had occasioned that of the chil-
dren; or, lastly, the want of the necessary cloth-
ing, funds for providing which had not been forth-
coming.
"If these remonstrances are not sufficient, coercive
measures are then to be resorted to against the pa-
rents, guardians, or masters. The children are to be
taken to school by an officer of the police, or the pa-
rents are to be sentenced to graduated punishments
or fines; and in case they are unable to pay, to im-
prisonment or labour, for the benefit of the parish.
These punishments may be successively increased,
but are never to exceed the maximum of punishment
of correctional police.
"The fines are to be awarded by the school-com-
mittee; to be collected, if necessary, with the aid of
the police, and paid into the funds of the committee.
The execution of the other punishments rests with
the police.
"Whenever it shall be necessary to pass sentence
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
29
.
of imprisonment, or of forced labour for the benefit
of the parish, care shall be taken that the children of
the persons so condemned are not neglected while
their parents are undergoing the penalty of the
law.
"The parents who shall have incurred such sen-
tences may, on the request of the school-committees,
and as an augmentation of punishment, be deprived
of all participation in the public funds for the relief
of the poor.
"Nevertheless, that part of the public relief which
is given for the education of children, shall not be
withdrawn from them; though it shall cease to pass
through their hands.
"They can have no share of any public relief, so
long as they persist in not fulfilling the duties of
Christian and conscientious parents towards their chil-
dren.
"They shall be equally incapable of taking any
part in the administration of the parish, or of holding
any office connected with the church or the school.
"If all these punishments are found ineffectual, a
guardian shall be appointed specially to watch over
the education of the children, or, in case they are
wards, a co-guardian.
"Jewish parents, who obstinately refuse obedience
to the competent authorities, may be deprived of their
civil rights in the provinces in which the edict of the
11th of May, 1812, is in force.
"Cases of marked negligence on the part of entire
parishes, or of particular families, may be mentioned
in the published reports, without, however, naming
individuals.
"The protestant or catholic pastors are to judge
for themselves how far to use their influence, accord-
ing to the circumstances of the case. But they are
earnestly to endeavour, especially in their sermons at
30
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the opening of schools, to persuade parents to give
great attention to the education of their children, and
to send them regularly to school; they may even
make allusion to any striking instances of a neglect of
these duties. Lastly, they shall admit no children
to the conferences preparatory to confirmation and
communion, who do not present certificates, attesting
that they have completed their time at school; or that
they are still in punctual attendance upon it; or that
they are receiving, or have received, a private edu-
cation."-(Entwurf, tit. iv., art. 33-43, pp. 32-37.)
I subjoin two Tables, extracted from a de-
cree passed and published by the provincial
consistory of Magdeburg, the 5th of April,
1817*, that is to say, anterior to the law just
quoted; which decree enjoins the pastor of each
parish to make out a list from the baptismal
registers of all children of an age to go to
school, and from that time forward to keep this
list constantly filled up, according to Table I.
On these first lists the schoolmaster is to form
a list of attendance for his school, according to
Table II.
pas-
It is on the result of these lists that the
tors, superintendents of schools, and inspectors
of circles (Kreise†), have to take the measures
prescribed by law. The lists, as well as the notes
which have been made respecting each child at
the examinations, and at quitting school, are
carefully preserved; and I am assured that the
courts of justice often have recourse to these
notes, where questions of character come before
them.
* See Neigebauer, pp. 187-189.
† See General Organization, p. 19, and further on at p. 92.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
31

TABLE I.-List of Children of an age to go to School.
Parish of * * *
(Drawn up by the local committee at the opening of the school every half-year.)
No. Family
name.
Profession.
Name of
the chil-
dren.
Born the
Are of age to go
to school, dating
from
Ought to go
to school,
according
Have been taken from
school.
to their age,
till the
Month
Time of
Day.
Year.
year **
Year.
Day.
Reason.
and
year.
year.
time of year.
82
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.

TABLE II.—List of attendance at the School of *** during the month of January 1817.
(Signed by the master, examined and certified every month by the local committee.)
The mark shows the absence in the Morning; and the absence
in the Afternoon.
Names
No. of the
Days of the month.
children.
f
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28′29′30′31
Total of days
of absence.
Causes
of
absence,


PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
33
In consequence of the example given by the
provincial consistory of Magdeburg, and in con-
formity with the law of 1819, all the other
consistories have since adopted the same mea-
sure, and have made the use of these tables or
lists (Schullisten*) imperative on pastors and
schoolmasters.
TITLE II.
DUTY OF EACH PARISH TO MAINTAIN
SCHOOL AT ITS OWN COST.
A PRIMARY
It would be manifestly absurd to require of
parents that they should send their children to
school, if there were not schools enough to enable
them to fulfil this duty. Now private schools
afford but an uncertain resource. It is therefore
the duty of the state to provide for the accom-
plishment of the law it has enacted: hence the
following regulations, which had already passed
into common usage, and were almost universally
in practice, but were first formally sanctioned
by Titles III. and V. of the law of 1819, of
which I have spoken, and which I shall now
continue to extract from, or, frequently, to
translate entire.
"Every parish, however small, is bound to have
an elementary school, complete or incomplete; that
is to say, accomplishing the whole scheme of instruc-
tion prescribed by the law, or, at least, the most in-
dispensable parts of the scheme t.
* See Neigebauer, pp. 192 et seq.
See further, p. 50, the various branches embraced by the
two degrees of primary instruction, the elementary and the
burgher schools.
D
34
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
"Every town is bound to have at least one burgher
or middle school, or more, according to its popula-
tion.
"Small towns, of less than fifteen hundred inha-
bitants, which cannot support the expense of a burgher
school, are bound to have at least elementary schools.
Above all, they must have elementary schools of the
lower class, in proportion to the number of children
of both sexes of an age to go to school.
"In case a town be not able to maintain separately,
and in distinct buildings, an elementary school and a
burgher school, it shall be permitted to use the in-
ferior classes of the burgher school as elementary
school in like manner, in case of necessity satisfac-
torily proved, the inferior classes of the gymnasium
may be used as burgher school.
"In every town or city in which there are several
elementary schools, they shall be distributed over the
several quarters of the town: nevertheless, the inhabi-
tants shall not be bound by their place of residence to
send their children to one school rather than another.
"In towns which have several schools of the se-
veral gradations or stages, the authorities shall be
careful to organize them all conformably to the in-
structions given above, so that they may be con-
nected together, and form a coherent whole.
"Jewish residents in towns may establish schools
at their own expense, on condition that they be or-
ganized, superintended and administered by them
conformably with the present law. They may equally
send their children to other schools; but they are not
permitted to have any share in the management of
those schools.
“The first care should be to furnish the country
with the needful elementary schools. Wherever there
exist incomplete schools, they must be improved, and
must be changed as quickly as possible into com-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
35
plete elementary schools: this must invariably take
place when a school has, or is in a condition to have,
two masters. In order that all country places may
have sufficient elementary schools within their reach,
the inhabitants of each rural parish shall form an as-
sociation for country schools (Landschulverein), un-
der the direction of the public authorities. This as-
sociation is to consist, first, of all the landed proprie-
tors, without distinction, whether they have or have
not children; secondly, of all householders domi-
ciliated in the parish, even if they be not land-
owners.
"Each village, including the neighbouring farms,
may form an association of this kind of itself. The
same applies to a combination of a number of iso-
lated farm-houses.
"Every village ought to have its school; but in
certain cases, and as exceptions to the general rule,
several villages may unite together into one school-
association, under the following conditions:
"1. The absolute impossibility for a parish to
furnish the means of an elementary school of itself.
"2. The villages which associate must be so near
that the children can punctually attend the common
school. The distance allowed shall not exceed half
a mile (24 English miles) in flat country, and a quar-
ter of a mile in hilly country.
"3. No such combination can be formed among
villages separated by marshes or rivers, which would
render attendance on school difficult, or even imprac-
ticable, at certain seasons of the year.
"4. The number of children collected must not be
too great.
For one master, it must not exceed a
hundred. More may be admitted if there are means
of maintaining two masters, and if the building is
large enough; but in that case the villages would
D 2
36
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
be very nearly able to support each its own school,
which is always preferable.
"Leave to form such combinations shall only be
granted temporarily to villages which are likely to be
able to maintain their own schools; and such esta-
blishments shall be gradually reformed.
"If a village, from its extent and population, or
from difference in the religious persuasions of the in-
habitants, had already two schools, and could provide
for their maintenance, they shall on no account be
united, especially if they be of different confessions
of faith. On the contrary,parate schools shall be
encouraged wherever circumstances permit.
"Difference of religion alone ought not, however,
to be an obstacle to the formation of an association
for a country school; but in forming such an associ-
ation of catholics and protestants, regard must be
had to the numerical proportion of the inhabitants of
each communion. If it be possible, there shall, in
this case, conjointly with the head master professing
the faith of the majority, be a second master, pro-
fessing that of the minority.
¢¢
"Jews scattered about the country may enjoy all
the advantages of the school-associations, but must
not take part in their management. They must pro-
vide for the religious education of their children
themselves.
"Wherever the union of two schools of different
communions be judged expedient, it must take place
by common agreement between the two parties.
Moreover, in case of a union of this kind, or of the
establishment of schools for various sects (Simultan-
schulen), provision must be made that each of these
sects have within reach all that may be necessary for
the religious education of the scholars belonging to
it. And in order that no sect may have anything to
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
37
fear, and that all it brings into the common fund may
be secured to it, an authentic document shall be drawn
up every year, setting forth the respective rights of
each, and the particular terms of the association.
"If a union cannot be effected, or if it is found
impracticable to form a school common to both re-
ligions, the authorities shall interfere, and shall take
the measures best suited to the necessities and the
circumstances of the place."
We have now, Sir, seen the establishment of
primary schools throughout Prussia. I shall
proceed to show with what care and forethought
the government which commands them has
provided for their support. This is done in
Title V. of the law of 1819. I give it, with
some few abridgements.
The law begins by defining what is required
for the complete maintenance of a school, in
order that it may answer its end.
"1. A suitable income for schoolmasters and
mistresses, and a certain provision for them when
they are past service.
"2. A building for the purposes of teaching and
of exercise, properly laid out, kept in repair and
warmed.
"3. Furniture, books, pictures, instruments, and
all things necessary for the lessons and exercises.
"4. Pecuniary assistance for the necessitous scho-
lars."
The first is the essential point. If you would
have good masters, you must first of all ensure
them a maintenance. The Prussian law ex-
presses itself on this head in the most solemn
38
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
manner. "It is our firm will," says the king,
in whose name it speaks, "that in the main-
tenance of every school, this be regarded as the
most important object, and take precedence of
all others.'
""
'It is neither possible nor necessary to fix a ge-
neral and uniform rule on this head for the whole
monarchy. The condition of the different places, and
the particular circumstances can alone determine the
salary attached to each school. The inspectors and the
committees of schools must take care that this salary
be as high as possible. But there shall be a minimum
fixed for the salaries of schoolmasters in towns and
villages, proportioned to the state of prosperity of
each province, and determined by the provincial con-
sistories. The salaries which are below this minimum
must be raised to it as speedily as possible. Lastly,
in order that this salary may always be in propor-
tion to the real value of the school and the existing
price of provisions, it shall be revised from time to
time.
"As a principle, every school should have a build-
ing specially appropriated to it: whenever it is ne-
cessary to hire a house, it must, if possible, be iso-
lated, and have no connexion with other buildings.
"The conditions which are essential in a school-
house, and must be rigidly enforced, are, a healthy
situation, rooms of a sufficient size, well boarded,
well aired, and kept with the greatest neatness, and,
whenever it is possible, a good lodging for the master.
In schools which have several masters, one at least is,
if possible, to lodge in the school-house. The pro-
vincial consistories shall cause plans to be drawn of
school-houses of different sizes, for villages and small
towns, with an approximating estimate of the cost of
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
39
building, and of the necessary furniture, in order that
there may be some fixed standard for new buildings
and for the greater repairs.
"
Every school in a village or small town shall have
a garden, cultivated according to the nature of the
country, either as kitchen-garden, orchard, nursery-
garden, or laid out for raising bees; and this garden
shall be made available for the instruction of the scho-
lars.
"Wherever the nature of the spot will admit, there
shall be a gravelled plain or court, in front of the
school, for the children's exercises.
"The materials necessary for instruction consist,
above all, in a sufficient collection of books for the
use of the master, and as many as possible for that
of the scholars.
"There shall be, according, to the degree of every
school, a collection of maps and geographical instru-
ments, models for drawing, writing, music, &c.; the
instruments and collections necessary for studying
mathematics and natural history; lastly, according
to the extent of the system of instruction, there shall
be the apparatus necessary for gymnastic exercises,
and the tools and implements suited to the teaching of
the mechanical arts or manufactures in the schools in
which that branch of knowledge is introduced. The
provincial consistories shall fix the minimum of the
moveables required for the inferior schools.
"As to the necessitous scholars, wherever there is
no free school, called a poor's school (Armenschule),
every public school is bound, whatever be its general
rules concerning the sum paid by the scholars, to give
them instruction gratuitously, or partly so. Parents
who send many children to school shall have all ne-
cessary indulgence as to the payment of the Schulgeld
(school-money, or fee); at the same time the master's
40
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
regular salary must in no way suffer. Moreover,
every school is bound to furnish gratuitously to poor
scholars, books and other necessaries, a part of which
shall be given to them as their own property, and
part shall remain as belonging to the stock of the
school."
But to meet the demands of a school esta-
blished on these four bases, and embracing such
a system of instruction, considerable funds are
necessary; and to raise these funds every va-
riety of means presented by the local circum-
stances must be called into action. The follow-
ing are the most general rules laid down by the
law on that point.
"Schools or houses for education which possess
funds arising from endowments, of whatever kind,
shall be maintained, and if needful improved, out of
these funds. In case they are insufficient, they shall
have a right to assistance from other sources.
"It is a principle, that as the gymnasia, and other
establishments for public instruction of the same de-
gree, are mainly supported by the general funds of
the state, or of the province, so the inferior schools
in towns and villages are supported by the towns and
by the school-associations in the country.
"On the other hand, if a town cannot, out of its
own resources, support the lower grade of instruction
of which it stands in need, every department shall
have school-funds, from which it shall assist the ne-
cessitous parish; but this aid shall only be temporary,
and shall be diminished or withdrawn in proportion as
the place becomes more able to support its school.
"If, for instance, a village cannot, from its posi-
tion, unite in a school-association with other villages,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
41
nor, from poverty, maintain a school by itself, the de-
partment shall give it assistance.
"In towns, public education and the maintenance
of it are not to be postponed to any other of the pa-
rochial necessities or claims whatsoever. They are
to be reckoned among the objects to be provided for
in the first place.
"When schools are to be organized in a town, it
must first be exactly determined what are the most
urgent expenses to be incurred; then the disposable
funds, or those appropriated to education, must be
carefully examined, to see whether they are sufficient,
or can be made so by a better management; care
being had that the income of funds belonging to any
particular establishments be used for their sole benefit,
and not for that of all the schools of the place. An
account must be taken of all funds obtainable from
pious donations and other local and parochial sources,
from the increase of the sum paid by each child
(Schulgeld), and from the aids the department can
furnish. If all these means are insufficient, then the
funds rigorously necessary shall be levied on the
householders (Hausväter, literally, housefathers).
"The assessment shall be made by the parochial
authorities, with the participation of the school-com-
mittees.
"No one shall refuse to pay the rate levied upon
him under pretext that the schools of his parish, or
of his religious persuasion, are flourishing; since it
is necessary to provide for the general education of
the parish, and all schools are open to all, and may
be equally profitable to every individual.
"By the word householders (Hausväter) is meant
all the inhabitants of a parish who keep house for
themselves. All who are rated to the other neces-
sities of the parish are to be rated in the same pro-
portion to the school-rate.
}
42
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
tintiv
supply
"The persons exempted from these rates are :—
"Hired servants, or those who are boarded by
others; excepting always such as keep house, and
must therefore be considered as householders.
(6
Military men of every rank in active service, un-
less they exercise a civil profession, or possess pro-
perty in the funds.
"As ecclesiastics and schoolmasters render essen-
tial services to public education, either gratuitously
or for a very small remuneration, they also shall be
exempted from paying the school-rate; but they shall
pay the Schulgeld, or sum paid by each child attend-
ing school, unless usage or some special agreement
have freed them from that obligation.
"If the repairs of a school-house become impos-
sible, from the poverty of the inhabitants of the place,
or the charges they have already to bear, or if the
rates imposed do not cover the necessary expense, as-
sistance shall be asked from the departmental funds.
"The higher sort of girls' schools shall have no
claim to assistance from these funds, and shall be
maintained by the persons or associations which esta-
blish them. When a town shall have made sufficient
provision for its elementary boys' and girls' schools,
it may set on foot higher girls' schools.
"The maintenance of schools peculiar to Jewish
communities shall be entirely at their charge; but
this shall not exempt the members of such commu-
nities from the rate levied for the general instruction
of the town.
"The maintenance of village schools rests on the
country school-associations. Thus all landowners,
tenants and householders, without distinction, con-
tribute in proportion to the income of their respective
properties lying within the circle of the association,
or to the product of their industry; and are to pay
this contribution or rate either in money or in kind;
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
43
or, if they can do so no otherwise, in building-mate-
rials, or even in labour.
"The instructions given above as to the liability
to pay this rate (Beiträgspflichtigkeit) are applicable
to country as well as to town. On every occasion
the question of the necessity of levying a rate shall
be examined and determined by the departmental
authority responsible for the schools; and the assess-
ment of such rate shall be made by the parochial au-
thorities, in conjunction with the school-committees.
"The portion of the rate assessed on any estate
shall be attached to it as a real charge; so that if
the property should be dismembered, each portion
shall remain charged with its share of the rate with-
out any fresh assessment.
"When village schools possess any revenues from
bequests, endowments, aid from the church funds, or
the payment of the scholars, then the rate chargeable
on the members of the association to which such
schools belong shall not be levied further than is ne-
cessary to improve the schools, or to add to the re-
venues, if they are insufficient. But every fresh be-
quest or donation in favour of the schools shall be
devoted to the improvement of the school, or of the
master's income, and not to the diminution of the
rate, unless such is the express will of the donor or
testator.
"If two or more schools of the same communion
exist in a village, the whole village shall be considered
as forming one single school-association, and each
school shall be maintained by the product of the ge-
neral rate.
"If these schools are of different communions, the
householders of each communion form an associa-
tion for their own school, and pay their rate to that
alone.
"But in case a school-association shall comprehend
•
44
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the members of several sects, no regard is to be had
to the different sects in the assessment of the rate for
the maintenance of the school.
"If the members of small Christian sects choose
to separate themselves from the association to which
they naturally belong, and to establish distinct schools,
they shall be at liberty to do so, on condition of proving
that they have means sufficient for the maintenance
of such schools, and that they thoroughly fulfill the
duties of the association to which they belong.
"The particular obligations attached to ecclesiasti-
cal endowments for the support of certain schools,
even when these endowments have lapsed to the state,
shall continue to be scrupulously fulfilled. The same
will apply to high-schools, or gymnasia.
"Among the special means of providing for the
maintenance of schools, schoolmasters in small towns
and villages may be allowed to receive in kind a part
of the remuneration from the scholars (Schulgeld),
fixed by the provincial consistories. But no arrange-
ment to this effect can be made without the consent
of the schoolmaster.
"If the garden, which ought to be attached to every
country school, cannot be paid for out of the funds of
the school, the members of the association shall be
obliged to hire or buy one."
Further, a cabinet order, dated Berlin, Sep-
tember 28th, 1810; the edict for the advance-
ment of the civilization of the country, dated
September 14th, 1811; and a cabinet order, dated
November 5th, 1811,-decree, "that on occasion
of any divisions or allotments which the parishes
may make, sufficient land shall be allotted to the
schoolmaster for the cultivation of his vegeta-
bles, and for the feed of a cow; about two acres
of good land, or more if the land is bad.'
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
45
}
!
"In places where right of common still exists, the
schoolmaster shall have the right of feeding a fixed
number of cattle, and shall share in all other benefits
of the common.
"Wherever the schoolmasters have been accus-
tomed to receive certain fixed allowances out of the
collections at christenings, marriages and funerals,
this custom may be continued *. But these sources
of income must be calculated and valued, on an ave-
rage, among the general receipts of the schoolmaster;
and care shall be taken that the services thus imposed
on the schoolmaster, such as the attending the body
to the grave, &c., do not interfere with the duties of
his office.
"In places where allowances of this kind do not
exist, or have been abolished, they shall neither be
introduced nor restored.
CC
'Among the schoolmaster's sources of income, it
will not be permitted to reckon his place at the table
of every family in the commune in rotation (an an-
cient custom, for which there is an appropriate word,
Wandellisch, moveable table). If he can thus have
his board gratuitously, it can only be as an accessory
to his other income, and shall be put an end to the
moment it appears that his dignity or his duties are
likely to suffer from it.
"No schoolmaster shall henceforward be allowed
to collect gifts or fees, whether in money or in kind,
from door to door, whether in person, or by his
scholars.
CC
'Nevertheless, the sums collected by schoolmas-
ters, and the presents the pupils of the gymnasia re-
* I have not chosen to omit these provisions, though they be-
long to a state of society so unlike our own; as they all tend to
show how everything may be turned to account by a truly provi-
dent administration.-TRANSL.
46
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
ceive for singing in choruses on certain solemn oc-
casions, shall not be suppressed; but in making these
collections, care must be taken to avoid whatever may
tend to lower the dignity of master or scholars. The
same observation applies to the poor scholars who go
about singing choruses from door to door, to collect
money (Kurrenden), in places where this custom still
subsists. In places where it is abolished, and re-
placed by choirs of scholars in the churches, they
shall receive compensation for the product of the
collections they used to make in person, by collec-
tions at private houses or at churches, or even by the
parish, such collections being regarded as forming
part of the school-funds.
"The general rate levied on the householders for
the support of schools having no other object than
that of facilitating their establishment for the benefit
of all, it is just that those who actually profit by these
establishments should support them by a special pay-
ment, (Schulgeld, school-money,) which may also
serve to encourage the masters. This payment may
be raised in schools of all degrees in the following
manner :-
"The school-committees in towns shall, with the
approbation of the departmental authorities, fix the
amount of the payment in the lower schools; but
the towns may entirely suppress the special payment
in certain schools, on condition that they make up for
this source of income from the general school-fund,
or from some other source.
"In particular cases it is reserved for the provin-
cial consistories to decide whether the Schulgeld for
country schools shall be kept up where it already
exists, or whether it shall be established at the de-
sire of the country school-associations, and in what
manner.
+
1
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
47
!
}
"No master shall be allowed to collect the Schul-
geld, or money paid by the scholars; this must be
done by the school-committee.
"In some schools, a fixed portion of the scholars'
payment may be employed in the maintenance of the
school; but a greater or less portion of it must be
reserved exclusively for the masters, and must be
divided among them, by way of encouragement:
wherever there is no such payment, some means or
other must be devised to add to the general funds of
the school, an extraordinary fund for such rewards to
the masters.
'In places where the maintenance of the school is
fixed, all charges on the children for those things
which ought to be included in that maintenance, as
firing, light, furniture, &c., are abolished.
"The children shall be permitted to form a fund,
by voluntary contributions, for the assistance of their
necessitous school fellows: they shall take part in the
management of it, under the direction of the school-
master.
"No schoolmaster whatever, although reduced to
the minimum of the income allowed by law, can be
permitted to increase that income by any occupa-
tions which might lower his dignity or his morality,
or divert his attention from his functions, and ex-
pose him to punishment for that cause. No school-
master can undertake any additional employment
without the permission of the school-committee, or
of the departmental authority; and this permission
shall be granted only on condition that the school-
master in question shall give up that employment
whenever the departmental authority shall judge and
declare that it is incompatible with the business of a
teacher.
"If a master holds any office about the church,
such as clerk, organist, or other, measures must be
J
48
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
adopted to prevent the service of the school from
being in any way interrupted or impeded by them.
"The income which the schoolmaster derives from
his functions about the church shall not be reckoned
as forming part of his income from the school.
"In like manner, no schoolmaster or mistress shall
try to increase his or her means of subsistence by the
exercise of any trade or handicraft, without the per-
mission of the above-mentioned authorities: and this
permission shall be refused if the occupation is dirty,
or if it is likely to interfere with the punctual per-
formance of the duties of schoolmaster or mistress,
agriculture not even excepted.
"The exemption from parochial and other charges
attached to the office of schoolmaster shall not be
withdrawn without full indemnification.
"The allowance to infirm schoolmasters shall be
drawn, as has been said above, from the fund for the
maintenance of the schools to which they have be-
longed. The pensions of masters of schools whose
support depends on the parochial funds of towns or
villages, shall, if it be found impossible to pay them
otherwise, be added to the general rate levied on
householders. In cases where the urban parishes or
the country school-associations shall be reduced to a
state of great poverty, the king reserves to himself
the power of assisting them by extraordinary grants.
"It shall be shortly determined, by a general re-
gulation concerning the pensions of functionaries,
under what circumstances, and in what proportion,
schoolmasters can become entitled to pensions.
"With regard to the monthly or quarterly allow-
ance granted to the widow and children of a deceased
schoolmaster, the particular rules and usages of the
place must be followed. The places of masters, which
it is important to fill up immediately, must not remain
vacant until these quarterly allowances to survivors
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
49
are paid off; if necessary, the allowances in question
must be taken from other sources.
"The orphan children of schoolmasters shall have
a special right to all the benefits of establishments
for education; always supposing that they fulfill the
conditions necessary to obtain them.
"But as the establishment of a provincial fund for
pensions to infirm schoolmasters, or widows and or-
phans of schoolmasters, affords the most expedient
sort of provision for this sort of claims, the provincial
consistories shall take the measures necessary to esta-
blish such funds in all places.
"The collection and administration of the revenues
of schools must be conducted according to a form
which may render them easy to the committee of each
town or village; they must be under the supreme
direction of the public authorities; must secure to
schools the entire portion due to them; and must in
no way lower the dignity of the teacher.
"The local authorities, under the superintendence
of the provincial consistories, shall take measures in
accordance with this principle, for the collection and
administration of the general revenues of schools, as
well as for those of each particular school in the same
parish.
"The committees are legally responsible towards
schools and schoolmasters for the punctual and full
payment of their incomes.
"The school treasuries, of which every department
ought to have one, shall be composed of the revenues
which already belong to them of right, or which may
hereafter accrue to them from the funds long ago
created for the benefit of schools by the kings of
Prussia; of such sums as, at the time of the seculari-
zation of church property, were, or may hereafter be,
appropriated to schools; and sometimes also of ex-
traordinary grants from the royal treasury, till it can
E
50
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
be decided how each department shall maintain the
schools which are not supported by the parishes, or
shall assist the parochial schools.
"In provinces where there are general funds, de-
stined specially to the support of protestant or of ca-
tholic schools, these funds shall not be blended and con-
founded in the departmental school-treasury. In like
manner, funds arising from endowment, and intended
for a particular establishment or establishments, must
be under a management distinct from the depart-
mental school-funds, though under the superinten-
dence of the departmental authorities. Endowments
or bequests in favour of poor scholars, of school-
masters, of their widows and orphans, or of any like
objects, shall in all cases be rigorously administered
according to the intention of the donors, and must
not be confounded with other school-revenues.
“The contributions or rates (Beiträge), in money
or in kind, assessed upon householders for the main-
tenance of schools, as well as the money paid by the
children (Schulgeld), are obligatory under the same
sanctions and with the same privileges as the general
taxes of the state.
"School-buildings shall in all cases enjoy the same
exemptions and privileges as churches.
"Donations by will, or in any other manner, to
schools, shall not be subject to the usual claims of the
church."
TITLE III.
GENERAL OBJECTS AND DIFFERENT GRADATIONS OF
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
I continue to analyse and quote the law of
1819. The portion of it to which I now come
is comprised in Titles I. and II. of that law.
It distinguishes two stages or gradations in
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
51
primary instruction,-elementary schools and
burgher schools *.
"The elementary schools (Elementarschulen) have
for object the regular development of the faculties
of man, by more or less extended instruction in the
branches of knowledge indispensable to the lower
classes, both in town and country.
"The burgher schools (Bürgerschulen, Stadtschu-
len,) bring the child to that point at which peculiar
aptitude for classical studies, properly so called, or
for some particular profession, may manifest itself.
"The gymnasia carry on education to the point
at which boys, after having received a classical and
liberal culture, enter on a course of practical studies
in ordinary life, or scientific, superior and special,
or professional, studies at the universities."
These different stages concur to form, if I
may use the expression, a single great esta-
blishment of national education, the system of
which is one, and the different branches of
which, (while each pursues its own peculiar end,)
must yet be intimately connected together.
The primary instruction in question is the
basis of the entire system: though divided into
two degrees or stages, it has its unity, its general
rules; and even the distinctions which localities,
circumstances, or the spirit of the founders, may
have introduced into schools of the same stage
or class, can neither affect their fundamental
constitution, nor the conditions of the admis-
sion of the pupils.
Nevertheless the sex, language, religion and
*Or, as we may call them, schools for the middle classes.-
TRANSL.
E 2
52
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
future vocation of the pupils require consider-
ation. The particular rules laid down by the
law to that end are as follow:
"1. Establishments for girls must be, as much
as possible, formed separately, corresponding, as to
their course of instruction, to the elementary schools,
or to the burgher schools. The general principles
of instruction and discipline laid down for boys'
schools are the same for girls', with modifications
appropriate to their sex.
"2. The general constitution of schools is the
same for all those portions of the population, compo-
sing the Prussian monarchy, which are of a different
origin. If a few schools should deviate from this
rule," says the law of 1819, "they must gradually be
brought back to it. In all those, without exception,
wherein a foreign language is spoken, the pupils,
according to the rank of the school, shall receive,
besides the lessons in the dialect of the province,
complete instruction in the German language; and
both masters and pupils may use that language in
common conversation*
"3. Difference of religion in Christian schools
necessarily produces some differences in the religious
instruction. This instruction shall always be adapted
to the spirit and the dogmas of the church to which
the school belongs. But as, in every school of a
Christian state, the dominant spirit, common to all
modes of faith, ought to be piety and a profound
reverence for God, every school may receive chil-
dren of another communion. Masters and inspectors
must most carefully avoid every kind of constraint
or annoyance to the children on account of their par-
ticular creed. No school shall be made abusively
This relates to the Polish provinces of the Prussian mon▾
archy.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
53
instrumental to any views of proselytism; and the
children of a persuasion different from that of the
school, shall not be obliged, against the will of their
parents, or their own, to attend the religious instruction
or exercises in it. Private masters of their own creed
shall be charged with their religious instruction; and
in any place where it would be impossible to have as
many masters as there are forms of belief, parents
must the more sedulously perform those duties them-
selves, if they do not wish their children to follow
the religious instructions given in the school.
"Christian schools may admit children of the
Jewish persuasion on precisely the same terms as
children of all other religions; but Jewish schools
may not receive any child of Christian parents.'
Generally speaking, no institution established
by particular classes of society is permitted to
depart essentially from the principles which rule
the general spirit of the national schools. This
does not, of course, apply to schools created for
a special or professional education; such as
those for soldiers, farmers, miners, manufac-
turers, seamen, artists, &c., which fall under
the department of the minister of the interior,
and not under that of public instruction, and
are not consequently included under the law in
question.
The fundamental character of that law is the
moral and religious spirit which prevades all
its provisions.
"The first vocation of every school," says the law
of 1819, “is, to train up the young in such a manner
as to implant in their minds a knowledge of the re-
lation of man to God, and at the same time to excite
and foster both the will and the strength to govern
54
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
their lives after the spirit and the precepts of Christi-
anity. Schools must early train children to piety, and
must therefore strive to second and complete the early
instructions of the parents. In every school, therefore,
the occupations of the day shall begin and end with a
short prayer and some pious reflections, which the mas-
ter must contrive to render so varied and impressive
that a moral exercise shall never degenerate into an
affair of habit. Moreover the masters shall take care
that the children punctually attend divine service on
Sundays and holidays. All the solemnities of schools
shall be interspersed with songs of a religious charac-
ter. Lastly, the admission of the scholars to the com-
munion should be made an occasion for strengthening
the ties which ought to unite master and pupil, and
of opening their minds to the most generous and
sublime sentiments of religion.
"Care shall likewise be taken to inculcate on youth
the duty of obedience to the laws, fidelity and attach-
ment to the sovereign and state, in order that these
virtues may combine to produce in them the sacred
love of country.
Though in establishments which admit no board-
ers, the authority of the masters does not extend
beyond the precincts of the school, they are never-
theless not to remain indifferent to the behaviour of
the pupils out of school hours. In boarding-schools,
the whole authority of the parents is delegated to
them.
"The paternal attachment of the masters, their
affectionate kindness towards all their pupils, will be
the most powerful means of preserving them from
immoral influences, and of inclining them to virtue.
"No kind of punishment which has a tendency to
weaken the sentiment of honour shall, on any pre-
tence, be inflicted: corporal punishments, in case
they be necessary, shall be devoid of cruelty, and
1
!
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION:
55
on no account injurious either to modesty or to
health.
"Incorrigible scholars, or those whose example or
influence may be pernicious to their schoolfellows,
after all the resources of paternal authority, joined
to that of the masters, shall have been exhausted,
shall be expelled, in compliance with the judgement
of the school-committees.
"By making the pupils themselves, as they ad-
vance in age, assist in maintaining order in the school,
they will be accustomed to feel themselves useful and
active members of society.
"Primary instruction shall have for its aim to de-
velope the faculties of the soul, the reason, the senses,
and the bodily strength. It shall comprehend reli-
gion and morals, the knowledge of size and numbers,
of nature and man; corporeal exercises, singing, and
lastly, imitation of form, by drawing and writing.
"In every school for girls, without exception, the
works peculiar to their sex shall be taught.
"Gymnastics shall be considered as a necessary
part of a complete system of education, and shall be
taught by simple rules favourable to the promotion
of the health and bodily strength of children.
"Every complete elementary school necessarily
comprehends the following objects :-
"1. Religious instruction, as a means of forming
the moral character of children according to the po-
sitive truths of Christianity.
2. The German language, and, in provinces
where a foreign language is spoken, the language of
the country, in addition to the German.
"3. The elements of geometry, together with
the general principles of drawing.
"4. Calculation and practical arithmetic.
"5. The elements of physics, geography, general
history, and especially the history of Prussia.
56
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
"Care must be taken to introduce and combine
these branches of knowledge with the reading and
writing lessons, as much as possible, independently
of the instruction which shall be given on those sub-
jects specially.
"6. Singing; with a view to improve the voices.
of the children, to elevate their hearts and minds, to
perfect and ennoble the popular songs and church.
music or psalmody.
"7. Writing and gymnastic exercises, which for-
tify all the senses, and especially that of sight.
"8. The simplest manual labours, and some in-
structions in husbandry, according to the agriculture
of the respective parts of the country.
"The instructions in religion, reading, writing,
arithmetic and singing are strictly indispensable in
every school. No school shall be considered as a
complete elementary school, unless it fulfill the whole
scheme of instruction just marked out.
Every burgher school shall afford instruction on
the following heads:-
"1. Religion and morals.
"2. The German language, and at the same time
the language of the country in the provinces not
German; reading, composition, exercises in style,
study of the national classics. In all the German
part of the country, the modern foreign languages
are an accessory branch of study.
"3. Latin is taught to all the children, within
certain limits, as a means of exercising their facul-
ties and their judgement, whether they be or be not.
to enter the higher schools.
"4. The elements of mathematics, and especially
a thorough course of practical arithmetic.
"5. Physical science, as far as is sufficient to ex-
plain the most remarkable phænomena of nature.
"6. Geography and history combined, in order
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
57
to give some knowledge of the earth, of the general
history of the world, of the people who inhabit it,
and the empires into which it is divided. Prussia,
its history, laws and constitution, shall form the sub-
ject of a special study.
"7. The principles of drawing shall be taught to
all, concurrently with the lessons in physics, natural
history, and geometry.
"8. Writing must be carefully attended to, and
the hand trained to write distinctly and neatly.
"9. The singing lessons shall be attended by all
the pupils, not only with a view to form them to
that art, but to qualify them to assist in the services
of the church with propriety and solemnity, by sing-
ing the psalms or choral music with correctness and
judgement.
10. Gymnastic exercises, adapted to the age and
strength of the scholars.”
This entire course of instruction is indispen-
sable to constitute a burgher school. If the
funds of the school render it possible to raise it
a step higher in the scale, so as to prepare the
boys for the learned professions, and qualify
them to enter the gymnasia immediately, such
school then takes the title of höhere Stadt-
schule (higher town-school), or Progymnasium.
The following are also important regulations
relating to the general subject of this chapter.
"Masters must take pains to know the particular
character and qualities of each pupil, and must give
the greatest possible attention to the periodical exa-
minations.
"Every scholar of an elementary school shall,
when he leaves it, receive a certificate as to his ca-
pacity, and his moral and religious dispositions,
58
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
signed by the masters and the school-committee.
These certificates shall always be presented to the
clergyman before admission to the communion, to
master-manufacturers or artisans on being bound ap-
prentice, or to housekeepers on entering service.
"The certificates shall not be given to the scho-
lars till the moment of their finally quitting school;
and in both the burgher schools and the gymnasia,
this shall always give occasion to a great solemnity.
"There shall be particular regulations, fixing the
number of lessons which are to be given weekly and
daily, in each department, and for each gradation.
"The grand divisions of the courses shall be from
Easter to Easter, or, when local circumstances make
it more expedient, from Michaelmas to Michaelmas.
"Every school may admit scholars, change its
classes, or close its course of studies half-yearly.
"On Sundays and days of high festival the schools
shall be shut; with the exception of the Sunday
schools for adults who have been neglected in their
youth, or for children who would otherwise be de-
prived of all instruction in the summer, in parts of
the country where there are insurmountable obstacles
to keeping school during that season.
"In order to impose no shackles on the constant
onward course of improvement, no special books
shall be prescribed for the different branches of in-
struction in the primary schools. They shall be free
to adopt the best books as they appear.
"For religious instruction, which in protestant
schools is founded mainly on the Holy Scriptures,
the Bible and the catechisms generally adopted shall
be used. The New Testament shall be given to chil-
dren who can read. Those who approach the time
of communicating shall have the whole Bible in Lu-
ther's translation. This book shall also be used for
the religious instruction in all the classes of the gym-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
59
:
nasia, to which shall be added the New Testament
in Greek.
"The lesson-books shall be carefully selected
by the school-committees, with the concurrence of
the higher authorities, without whose approbation no
book can be admitted. The ecclesiastical authorities
are, in like manner, to be consulted on the choice of
religious works.
"The bishops, in concert with the provincial con-
sistories, shall choose the religious books for the use
of catholic schools. In case these two authorities
should not agree in their choice, the matter must be
referred to the minister of public instruction, who
shall decide.
"If there is a deficiency of elementary books in
any branch of learning, the minister shall see that
proper ones be written or compiled.
"The masters of the public schools must choose
the methods best adapted to the natural growth and
improvement of the human mind; the methods which
gradually and constantly enlarge the understandings
of the children, and not such as instill merely mecha-
nical knowledge.
"It will be the duty of the school-committees to
inspect the methods adopted by the masters, and to
aid them with their advice; they are never to tole-
rate a bad method; and they shall refer the matter
to a higher authority if their advice is disregarded.
"Parents or guardians have a right to inquire in-
to the system of education pursued in the school,
and into the progress made by their children. In
order, however, to avoid continual applications of
this sort, measures shall be taken for giving a public
report of the state of the school from time to time.
"Parents may address any complaints to the
higher authorities charged with the superintendence
60
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of schools, and these complaints must be examined
into with the greatest care.
"On the other hand, those who entrust their chil-
dren to a public school are bound not to oppose any
obstacle to their conforming exactly to the rules es-
tablished in the school. They are bound, on the
contrary, to second the views of the masters, to ful-
fill all their obligations towards them, and to furnish
the children with everything necessary for their stu-
dies.
"It is essential to the general order that every
pupil in every public school should be obliged to go
through the whole course of fundamental instruction,
of the degree or stage to which that school belongs
and parents shall not be allowed to withhold a pupil
at pleasure from any branch of instruction. Dispen-
sations from any branch must be asked of the higher
authorities, who will judge of the validity of the
reasons.
Every public school, inasmuch as it is a national
institution, ought to afford the greatest publicity pos-
sible. Consequently, in every boy's school, besides
the private examinations on passing from one class to
another, there must be public examinations calcu-
lated to show the nature and the excellence of the
studies.
"Besides this, the director (or chairman) of the
committee, or one of the masters, shall give an ac-
count of the state and progress of the school in a
written report. Lastly, from time to time a general
report on the state of education in each province
shall be published.
Every establishment shall be at liberty to choose
the days on which to give the public the means of
knowing the state of the school, by speeches or other
exercises. But the anniversaries of the most remark.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
61
i
able days in the national history are to be selected in
preference.
"As girls are destined by nature for a quiet and
retired life, these exercises or trials are never to be
public in their schools. The examination shall take
place only in the presence of the masters and pa-
rents.
"But if, on the one hand, it is incumbent on those
charged with the conduct of the public schools to
strive to accomplish the duties the state imposes on
them for the training of citizens, they, on their
part, have a right to expect that every one should
pay the respect and gratitude to which they are en-
titled as labourers in the sacred work of education.
Masters and mistresses ought, therefore, to be the
objects of the general esteem due to their laborious
and honourable functions.
"Institutions for the public instruction have a
right to claim from all, even those who do not send
their children to them, assistance and support wher-
ever or whenever needed. All public authorities are
required to protect the public schools, each in his
sphere of action, and to lend their aid to schoolmas-
ters in the exercise of their functions, as to any other
servants of the state.
'In all the parishes of the kingdom, without ex-
ception, the clergymen of every Christian commu-
nion shall seize every occasion, whether at church,
or during their visits to schools, or in their sermons
at the opening of classes, of reminding the schools of
their high and holy mission, and the people of their
duties towards the schools. The authorities, the
clergy, and the masters shall unite their efforts to
strengthen the ties of respect and attachment be-
tween the people and the school, so that the people
may accustom themselves more and more to regard
education as one of the essential conditions of public
62
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
راه
life, and may daily take a deeper interest in its
progress."
TITLE IV.
THE TRAINING OF PRIMARY TEACHERS, MODE OF AP-
POINTMENT, PROMOTION AND PUNISHMENT.
The best plans of instruction cannot be exe-
cuted except by the instrumentality of good
teachers; and the state has done nothing for
popular education, if it does not watch that
those who devote themselves to teaching be well
prepared; then suitably placed, encouraged and
guided in the duty of continued self-improve-
ment; and lastly, promoted and rewarded in
proportion to their advancement, or punished
according to their faults. Such is the object of
Title VI. of the law of 1819. We translate that,
as we did those which preceded.
"A schoolmaster, to be worthy of his vocation,
should be pious, discreet, and deeply impressed with
the dignity and sacredness of his calling. He should
be thoroughly acquainted with the duties peculiar
to the grade of primary instruction in which he de-
sires to be employed; he should possess the art of
communicating knowledge, with that of moulding the
minds of children; he should be unshaken in his
loyalty to the state, conscientious in the duties of his
office, friendly and judicious in his intercourse with
the parents of his pupils, and with his fellow-citizens
in general; finally, he should strive to inspire them
with a lively interest in the school, and secure to it
their favour and support.
"Of the Training of Schoolmasters.
"In order gradually to provide schools with mas-
ters of this character, the care of their training must
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
63
not be abandoned to chance; the foundation of pri-
mary normal schools (Schullehrer-Seminarien,) must
be continued. The expenses of these establishments
shall be defrayed partly by the general funds of the
state, and partly by the departmental funds for schools.
"To repair the annual loss of schoolmasters, each
department should have, as far as possible, a corre-
sponding number of young men, who have been well
trained, and are of acknowledged aptitude for the
office (Candidaten); that is, each department will
need a primary normal school. The following re-
gulations will serve as the groundwork of such esta-
blishments.
1. No primary normal school shall admit more
than sixty or seventy pupils (Präparanden).
"2. In each department peopled by a nearly equal
number of protestants and catholics, there shall be
established, if resources and circumstances permit, a
primary normal school for each religion. But where
the inequality in this respect is great, the schools of
the less numerous sect shall be supplied with masters
from the primary normal school of the same sect in a
neighbouring department, or from small establish-
ments annexed to a primary school of the ordinary
class. Normal schools, common to protestants and
catholics, shall be permitted, when each pupil can
receive the religious instruction appropriate to his
faith.
3. In order, without rigorous confinement, to
preserve the pupils from the dissipation, allurements,
and habits of a kind of life which does not accord
with their future condition, the primary normal
schools shall, as far as practicable, be established
only in towns of moderate size. On the other hand,
it is desirable that the town be not so small as to de-
prive them of the advantages derived from the neigh-
bourhood of schools of different grades. Regard also
...
64
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
must be had to the character, to the mode of life and
the manners of the inhabitants of the town.
"4. That the primary normal schools may be able
to select and train their own recruits, they shall, if
possible, be placed near to houses of education for
orphans and paupers; but their choice of pupils must
be limited to such boys as exhibit a decided talent
and a natural aptitude for teaching, never diverting
any from the pursuit he would have preferred. The
asylums for orphan girls will contribute in like man-
ner to the supply of schoolmistresses.
“5. It is not necessary that there should be two
kinds of primary normal schools, one for training the
masters of elementary schools and another the mas-
ters of burgher schools; because, in the first place, the
latter are based on the former, and in the next, those
who aim at the mastership of a burgher school will be
the better able to prepare themselves for that end in
a single establishment, as they will have access to
burgher schools, where they will be able to practise
the appropriate exercises.
"6. The studies of the primary normal schools
are, however, essentially different from those of
the simply primary schools. Their pupils are ex-
pected to possess already all the knowledge commu-
nicated in the primary schools; and their special ob-
ject is to add to the information thus acquired just
and enlarged notions on the art of teaching, and on
the education of children considered as a whole, or in
the details of its different branches. But since, from
a deficiency of boys sufficiently well prepared, it is
seldom possible to proceed immediately to that which
constitutes the main object of those schools, they will
be permitted to receive pupils who are deficient in
some parts of primary instruction, and to make
these the subjects of their first labours.
"No one, however, shall be admitted to the pri-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
65
mary normal schools who does not possess elementary
knowledge of the lowest grade, or of whose morality
there is the least doubt.
"The age of admission shall be from sixteen to
eighteen years.
7. The principal aim of the primary normal
schools should be to form men, sound both in body
and mind, and to imbue the pupils with the sentiment
of religion, and with that zeal and love for the duties
of a schoolmaster which is so closely allied to religion.
"The course of instruction and exercises shall
comprehend all the branches which, according to the
present law, are to be taught in primary schools.
66
In the provinces where German is not spoken,
the masters of primary normal schools must be espe-
cially careful thoroughly to familiarize the pupils with
it, without however neglecting the language of the
country.
"In all normal schools singing and playing on the
organ shall be cultivated with the most sedulous and
serious application.
"The gymnastic exercises in most general use
shall form part of the system.
"With respect to methods of teaching, the endea-
vour shall be, not so much to inculcate theories on
the pupils, as to lead them by enlightened observa-
tion and their own experience to simple and lucid
principles; and with this view, to the normal schools
shall be attached others, in which the pupils may ex-
ercise themselves by practice.
"Towards the close of their course, the pupils of
the normal schools shall be instructed in all the du-
ties of schoolmasters towards their ecclesiastical and
temporal superiors, towards the church, the parish.
or district, and the parents of the scholars.
8. In each primary normal school the length of
the course shall be three years, of which the first is
F
་
66
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
devoted to supplemental primary instruction, the se-
cond to specific and more elevated studies, and the
third to practice and occasional experiments in the
primary school annexed and in other schools of the
place. When the supplemental instruction is not re-
quired, the course may be reduced to two years.
"9. As the preparation for so important a func-
tion as that of public teacher will admit of no interrup-
tion during this term of three or two years, no pupil,
even when he shall have reached the age of military
service, shall be called out to active service in the
army. But pupils above twenty years of age shall be
enrolled in the Landwehr of the first levy (Aufgebot);
and those between seventeen and twenty may join in
the drill of the Landwehr of the second levy*.
"10. In every primary normal school certain al-
lowances or exhibitions (Stipendia) shall be distri-
buted among a fixed number of the poor scholars of
good promise, but in such a manner as not to habi-
tuate them to too much ease and indulgence, or un-
fit them for the least lucrative of the masterships.
"11. Every pupil of a normal school receiving
such allowance from the establishment, is obliged, at
the expiration of the term, to accept the mastership
to which the provincial consistories may appoint him;
the prospect of advancement being, however, always
set before him as the consequence of continued good
conduct.
"12. The regulations of every primary normal
school must be sanctioned by the minister of public
instruction and ecclesiastical affairs, who, by reason
of the great importance of these establishments to
the civilization of the people, ought to be constantly
informed of all that concerns them. The immediate
superintendence will be exercised by the provincial
*See Explanatory Preface.-TRANSL,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
67
consistories, and, in what relates to the religious in-
struction of each communion, more particularly by
the ecclesiastical authorities.
"But preparation for teaching need not be con-
fined to the primary normal schools. The great pri-
mary schools also present means of training boys to
the business of a schoolmaster.
"Moreover, clergymen, or skilful schoolmasters,
may train up masters for either village or town
schools; only they must have the permission of the
provincial consistory, which will have the power of
withdrawing its sanction if the end seems not to be
attained, or of sending the pupils to a primary nor-
mal school, there to finish their education, should the
mode of preparation, though good as far as it goes,
appear incomplete.
"The superintendence of these small preparatory
establishments may be confided to the inspectors of
circles (Kreisinspectoren).
"Where these small establishments are annexed
to girls' schools, they will serve to train schoolmis-
tresses.
Of the Appointment of Schoolmasters.
"As a general rule, any man of mature age, of ir-
reproachable morals and sincere piety, who under-
stands the duties of the office he aspires to fill, and
gives satisfactory proofs that he does, is fit for the
post of public teacher. Foreigners, who satisfy all
these conditions, are eligible as public teachers in
Prussia.
"But the places of schoolmaster belong by pre-
ference to the pupils of the primary normal schools,
who shall have gone through the course of two or
three years in those establishments, who shall have
been found qualified at the half-yearly or yearly ex-
aminations in the theory and practice of all branches
F 2
68
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of tuition in use in the town or country schools, and
who shall be furnished with a certificate of capa-
city.
"In order to conduct these examinations, com-
missions of competent men shall be nominated, com-
posed of two clerical and two lay members. The
clerical members for the examinations of protestant
teachers shall be nominated by the ecclesiastical au-
thorities of the province; those for the catholic
teachers, by the bishop of the diocese. The lay
members shall be nominated by the provincial con-
sistory.
The members of these commissions are not no-
minated for a permanency; they may be removed
every three years.
"The examination of catholic teachers, concerning
religion and all subjects connected with it, is con-
ducted separately, under the superintendence of an ec-
clesiastic of high rank, delegated by the archbishop;
the examination concerning instruction, under that of
a councillor of the provincial consistory.
In the case of protestant teachers, the two parts of
the examination are likewise separated; the first takes
place under the superintendence of a clergyman, the
second under that of a lay councillor of the provincial
consistory.
"But the two parts of the examination, though
distinct, are considered as forming one whole; all
the members of the commission assist at them, and
the result is announced in one and the same certifi-
cate.
“These examinations must equally be passed by
those who have been trained out of the normal
schools, on which account the time of the examina-
tions must be early announced by the provincial con-
sistories in the official prints of the province.
"Every young man whose competency is admitted
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
69
shall receive a certificate, delivered and signed by the
whole commission, his examiners, by their president,
and by the head master of the primary normal school
or other establishment in which he was trained to his
calling. It must state his moral character, and his
degree of aptitude for teaching. The certificates of
capacity will therefore bear the title of 'excellent'
(vorzüglich), 'good or sufficient' (hinlänglich), ‘pass-
able' (nothdürftig): they should also specify and
positively define the degree of fitness of the person,
whether for the higher primary schools, or for those
which are elementary. Such as prove incompetent
shall, by a formal decree, be wholly rejected, or sent.
back to continue their studies.
"Those who, not having been educated in the pri-
mary normal schools, or in any similar establish-
ment, wish to obtain situations as teachers, must pre-
sent themselves for examination to the competent
authority, when they will generally be transferred to
the grand and solemn examinations of the normal
schools. But if urgent reasons demand an examina-
tion extraordinary, two judges, one ecclesiastical
and one lay, may be named for the purpose, who
shall, jointly, examine them in all the branches of
primary instruction.
"The religious examination of the young men in-
tended for the separate schools of small Christian
sects, or Jewish communities, shall be left to the prin-
cipals of those schools.
"All teachers who have been found on examina-
tion fit for the duties of master, shall be placed, with
the index of the degree of their certificate, upon the
list of the candidates of each department, and shall
have a claim to an appointment. That they may ob-
tain situations as soon as possible, the names of the
eligible candidates shall be published every six
months in the official papers of the departments, and
70
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the order of their classification shall be regulated
by that of their certificates.
"The mistresses of public schools must equally
give proof of their fitness for teaching, in examina-
tions appointed by the provincial consistories.
"At the expiration of three years from the pro-
mulgation of this law, no masters shall be appointed
to the schools which are not German, but such as
know the German language and are capable of
teaching it.
Mode of Appointment; with whom rests the Choice and
Appointment of the Schoolmasters.
"With respect to the associations for the country
schools organized conformably to this law, the election
and nomination of the schoolmasters resides in the
committees of such associations; and the ecclesiastical
inspectors of the school shall, as members of these
committees, present the individuals esteemed fit for
the office.
"In town schools already founded and endowed,
for the maintenance of which the rate levied on the
householders of the place is not necessary, the right
of election and nomination is exercised by the found-
ers, with the co-operation of the persons invested with
power by the state.
"In schools which depend entirely, or in part, on
the above-mentioned rate, the municipal authorities
of the parish take part in the election and nomina-
tion of masters, and exercise this right by deputies,
whom they nominate for that purpose.
"In all schools and houses of education in towns
founded by the king, the election and nomination to
the masterships are conducted by the provincial con-
sistories; except when there are particular authorities
in whom this right is vested.
"But when the schools are partly supported by the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
71
funds of the town, or the rate levied on householders,
the municipal authorities of the town have by right
a voice in the election.
"In the particular establishments of small Chris-
tian sects, or Jewish communities, this same right is
given to the trustees of the community.
"When assistant-masters (Hülfslehrer) are wanted
in a school for a short time only, they are appointed
directly by the provincial consistories, subject, for
the catholic schools, to the approbation of the bishops.
"A brevet (Anstellungsurkunde,-testimonial of
appointment,) shall be delivered to every regular
master, whether for the superior or inferior schools,
by the authorities by whom he was nominated. The
extraordinary and assistant teachers receive only a
simple nomination from the authorities who appoint
them.
"No schoolmaster's brevet shall be granted, unless
the person has been, previously to his election, in-
scribed upon the list of candidates, or unless he
has subsequently submitted to the required exami-
nation.
"In every brevet the duties of the individual
named should be enumerated as exactly as possible.
In the case of masters of inferior schools, regard shall
in general be had to the more precise instructions
which should be given by the provincial consistories
respecting the duties of masters. All the emoluments
of the office must also be exactly stated and guaran-
tied to the master.
"No contract for a determinate time shall be made
with the schoolmasters, except for the situation of
teacher extraordinary, or of assistant in the superior
or inferior schools.
"The schoolmaster's brevets shall have no validity
or legal force till they have obtained the royal ratifi-
cation (landesherrliche Bestätigung).
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
“The ratification of the appointment to a school-
mastership shall, in general, be claimed by those who
deliver the brevet of nomination to the provincial
consistories, which, according to the extent of their
powers, shall grant this ratification, or shall obtain it
from the ministerial authorities.
"For the masterships to which the provincial con-
sistories have the immediate appointment, the ratifi-
cation of the brevet of nomination shall be necessary
only when it must be granted by the ministerial au-
thorities; in all other cases, the brevets given by the
consistories shall be sufficient.
"The brevets of catholic teachers shall be sent to
the bishops, who shall declare if there be no objec-
tion on their part to the nomination; and they shall
forward this declaration, together with the brevet,
to the provincial consistories, who will give the rati-
fication and send it to the nominee.
"If any difference of opinion arise between the
provincial consistories and the bishops which they
cannot settle, the question shall be decided by the
ministerial authority.
"The brevets of the public teachers of the small
Christian sects, or Jewish communities, must likewise,
to acquire legal validity, receive the ratification of
the provincial consistories.
"Brevets sent to be ratified, must always be ac-
companied by a certificate of examination, and by
one from the candidates' superiors, attesting their mo-
rality and good conduct.
"The authorities who nominate and ratify should
carefully examine whether the candidates be eligible
according to the forenamed conditions; whether the
office have a regular stipend properly secured, and
whether the brevet be according to legal form.
“Should a doubt arise on any of these points, or
if the opportunity seem favourable for regulating
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
73
other affairs relating to the school, the ratification of
the brevet of nomination must not be given till all
such matters are arranged. The above-mentioned
authorities are responsible for any neglect of which
they may be guilty on this head.
"It is understood that they have the right of re-
fusing the ratification to incompetent candidates, and
of proceeding to a new election.
They are also at liberty, if they find that the va-
cant places might be made a means of rewarding and
encouraging persons of greater merit, to call the at-
tention of the electors to them; but if these per-
sist in the choice they have made, the ratification,
if nothing can be alleged against the fitness of the
person elected, must be granted.
"The brevets of new masters for primary schools,
inferior or superior, must be sent for ratification
within two months at furthest after the occurrence of
the vacancy.
"If, from peculiar obstacles, this interval prove
insufficient, a prolongation of it may be obtained on
a statement of the reasons; if not, the right of nomi-
nating devolves on the authorities whose business it
is to ratify the brevet. In such cases, the nomina-
tion to the catholic masterships will be made by the
bishop; and the ratification, in the ordinary way, by
the provincial consistories.
"The brevets of nomination must be ratified by
the royal authority, and returned to the hands of the
schoolmaster elect, before he can be installed in his
office, or be entitled to its revenues.
"The selection of an appropriate and solemn mode
of installation (Einsetzung) is left at the discretion of
those who immediately superintend each school; but
the following rules are to be observed :-
"1. All those who enter for the first time upon
the office of ordinary schoolmaster shall take oath,
74
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
and those who are removed from one school to another
shall promise, to perform with fidelity the duties of
the post, of which they shall be informed beforehand,
and to submit to the authority of their spiritual and
temporal superiors.
"2. At the installation, the master shall be pre-
sented not only to the scholars, but also to the mu-
nicipal body in the church. These presentations shall
be conducted by the ecclesiastical members of the
committee of superintendence, and accompanied by
appropriate exhortations.
"In schools of a higher order, the teachers newly
nominated shall, according to their rank, be presented
to the more considerable bodies, either at solemnities
appointed for the occasion, or on some regular public
day of the school.
"3. At each installation an exact account of the ce-
remony shall be drawn up, signed by those whose duty
it is to take part in it, and by the teacher himself;
and the document shall be deposited with the official
records of the school, and an authentic copy sent to
the provincial consistories.
"4. Teachers shall enter upon possession, on the
month of their installation, of the revenues secured to
them in their brevet of nomination. Every devia-
tion from this rule must have the especial approbation
of the authorities who give the ratification.
5. Schoolmasters in town or country, who are
elected and confirmed, may require of the school-
associations that they provide a conveyance for them-
selves, their family, and effects, free of expense, for
the distance of twenty-five miles, or indemnify them
for the expenses of removal. But if a master accept
another situation within ten years from the time his
nomination was ratified, he shall, in order that the
school-associations or special school funds may not
suffer from too heavy charges, be called upon for
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
75
an indemnity, proportioned to the length of his ser-
vice, for the outlay occasioned by his installation.
"That public teachers may devote themselves
entirely to the performance of their duties and to
the work of self-improvement, their liability to mili-
tary service in time of peace is thus ordered: No
master legally elected, nominated, confirmed and in-
stalled, though of an age to serve, shall be liable to
active service, but shall be forthwith registered in
the Landwehr of the first levy*. Masters of less than
twenty-five years of age, whose place can be sup-
plied by their colleagues or by assistant masters,
shall take part in the annual drill of the Land-
wehr of the first levy; but all those who, according
to the certificate of the inspector of the school, can-
not be so replaced, shall be registered for the exer-
cise of the second levy, from which no master of an
age to serve in the Landwehr can be exempted. In
time of war, all these modifications cease, and every
schoolmaster must submit to the unalterable regula-
tions of the law of the third of September 1814, on
the obligation to serve.
"It is the duty of the enlightened persons to
whom the superintendence of the schools is confided,
to watch over the progress of the masters in attain-
ments.
"The directors and rectors of the gymnasia and
town schools shall especially attend to the younger
masters, give them advice, set them right, and excite
them to aim at perfection, by attending to the plans
of more experienced masters, by frequenting their
society, by forming school-conferences or other meet-
ings of schoolmasters, and by studying the best works
on education.
(6
Every ecclesiastic, every inspector of a circle, is
expected to show the same solicitude for the
progress
* See Explanatory Preface.-TRANSL.
76
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
and improvement of the masters of the elementary
schools which come under their cognizance.
"Moreover, the provincial consistories shall choose
ecclesiastics and inspectors, zealous and skilful in
popular instruction, and shall induce them to form
and direct grand associations of town and country
schoolmasters, for the purpose of keeping alive a
sense of the dignity and sanctity of their vocation,
of continuing their own improvement by regular
meetings, by consultations, conversations, practical
essays, written theses, dissertations on particular
branches of tuition, by reading together well-selected
works, and by the discussions to which they give
rise.
"Those who direct such associations with remark-
able industry and success shall be encouraged and
supported, and have a claim to a recompense pro-
portioned to the trouble they take.
"By a judicious selection of the inspectors of the
schools of the circle, each district will in time have
its schoolmasters' society.
"Moreover, masters of the lower schools, of good
capacity but small attainments, shall be sent by the
provincial consistories, for a certain time, to a pri-
mary normal school, to receive the instruction they
may still need; and their schools shall in the mean
time be supplied with temporary masters. The
provincial consistories may even from time to time
recall a certain number of masters, though of compe-
tent ability, to a primary normal school, or any other
educational establishment of renown, there to go
through a more complete course of tuition both in
theory and practice; and particularly that they may
make themselves acquainted with the latest improve-
ments in the art of teaching; and also that they
may effect a stricter union among themselves, and
establish a beneficial interchange of learning, expe-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
77
rience and opinions. In parts which are not Ger-
man, the chief object of these courses and societies
should be to give teachers already placed additional
instruction in the German language.
"Liberty to form these societies, and to re-enter
the primary normal schools, since they occasion ex-
penses which fall upon the public funds, shall be
asked every time from the ministerial authorities, to
whom an account must be given of the progress and
results of these conferences.
"The most eminent masters, those who are de-
stined for the direction of the primary normal schools,
shall also, with the consent, or even at the suggestion,
of government, be enabled from the public funds to
seek by travel, both in Prussia and other countries,
more exact and extended information on the organi-
zation of primary schools, and their wants both in-
ternal and external.
"Able schoolmasters, who are faithful in their
vocation and unremitting in self-improvement, shall
be encouraged by promotion to places of a higher
class, and even, on particular occasions, by extra-
ordinary rewards. With a view to preserve the utmost
possible regularity in the advancement of the nume-
rous class of schoolmasters, and to order so that no
superior teacher shall be below one who is inferior,
the provincial consistories shall prepare tables of the
masterships of town and country schools, classed
according to their revenues, and shall take care that,
in general, promotions are made according to these
tables.
66
Length of service alone shall not constitute a
claim, nor establish an absolute right, to advance-
ment; but a teacher who petitions to be removed to a
situation superior to that for which he has received
a certificate, in whatever school he may be, shall un-
dergo a new examination.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
"This examination for promotion shall be con-
ducted by the same persons as the former. It is
always proportioned to the rank of the situation
sought for. Masters proposed as directors, or head-
masters, will be examined chiefly as to their know-
ledge of the business of teaching in general, and of
the organization and good management of a school,
suitably to its superior or inferior rank.
"When the competency of the individual proposed
is so well known as to render a new trial unneces-
sary, the authorities who ratify for the post in ques-
tion can dispense with the examination.
"Nothing shall be paid at any examination but
the cost of the stamp of the certificate, whether for
the candidateship, for appointment, or for promotion.
In like manner, all charges for brevets of nomination
and of ratification of masters recently appointed or
promoted are abolished, except the stamp and postage.
“At the end of each year, the departmental autho-
rities shall remit to government a list of all the school-
masters recently appointed or promoted in the de-
partment, with a statement of the income of their
situations; and these authorities shall not be held
excusable if they suffer individual merit to be un-
employed or unrewarded, or the least service to pass
unnoticed.
"On the other hand, incompetent masters must
not look for any encouragement or advancement, or
to be treated otherwise than with rigour.
"When schoolmasters, who in other respects per-
form their duties well, manifest a spirit of resistance.
to their superiors, or live in dissention with their
assistants or their school-committee, after reproof,
exhortation, and even some disciplinary measures,
have been tried without effect, the evil shall be put
an end to by removing them to another place; nor
must they be surprised if, in proportion to the degree
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
79
of blame they merit, they sink into places of smaller
income: but these changes, when adopted as punish-
ments, must in no case take place without the consent
of the supreme ministerial authority.
CC
If, after their removal, these masters still exhibit
a turbulent spirit, or an inclination to oppose esta-
blished rules, they shall then be deprived of their
employment.
"The schoolmaster who, from indolence, careless-
ness, or bad disposition, neglects his occupation,
instructs badly, or uses his power without discern-
ment, shall be admonished first by the inspector of
the school, and then by the inspector of the circle.
If he does not amend, he shall be reported to the pro-
vincial authorities, who, on sufficient evidence, shall
impose, amongst other penalties, and according to the
income of the delinquent, progressive pecuniary fines,
which shall be added to the funds of the school. If
reprimands, threats, and punishments have no effect,
his employment shall be taken from him.
"But if the want of educational skill in a master
arise from an incapacity which might have been
known, or which was known, before the ratification
of his brevet, he shall be transferred to some occupa-
tion for which he is more fit, and the responsibility
rests upon the authorities by whom he was so hastily
proposed or so inconsiderately confirmed.
"Those teachers who give scandal to their pupils,
and to the inhabitants of their neighbourhood, by
their principles or conduct, in a moral, religious, or
political point of view, shall be deprived, as unworthy
of office.
"Gross violations of modesty, temperance, mode-
ration, or any open abuse of his authority as father,
husband, or head of a family, shall be punished in a
schoolmaster by the loss of his place.
"The punishment of offences against religion is
↓
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
fixed by the members, and according to the constitu-
tion, of the church to which the school, district, or
master belong.
"As the character of teachers should be pure and
irreproachable, the proper authorities shall, as soon
as such accusations are made, examine into the case,
and when the offence involves the loss of office, shall
instantly take the necessary steps.
"Members of school-committees, and inspectors,
who in any of these cases are guilty of negligence,
shall be held responsible, and, according to circum-
stances, subjected to a pecuniary fine or to loss of
office.
"If a schoolmaster be guilty of an offence which
is the subject of criminal proceedings, his superiors
shall previously suspend him, and send the case for
final judgement to the regular authorities.
"If a schoolmaster be found guilty by a criminal
tribunal, he shall also be deprived of his post. The
court in passing sentence shall also pronounce his
dismissal.
"But if the civil authorities seize the criminal,
and commit him for trial, without the preliminary ac-
cusation, they shall immediately give notice to the
authority which has the immediate charge of the
post in question, and which shall forthwith take the
requisite measures relating to it.
"If schoolmasters, whose conduct is otherwise
good, be sent to prison for a few days for some slight
offence of correctional police, and the provincial con-
sistories think that they cannot without degrading
the office of teacher suffer them to continue in their
present post, they shall remove them as soon as pos-
sible to another.
"No master shall be deprived of his place except
by a judgement pronounced after an examination and
statement of the facts by the provincial consistories.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
81
“Therefore,—
"1. It is expressly recommended to the provincial
consistories to proceed with the most rigorous cau-
tion. On every occasion they must procure the aid
of a lawyer and an inspector, who are bound to re-
ceive all documents relating to the question; and
when the offence is against religion, they shall ask
the advice of the provincial ecclesiastic authorities,
and in the case of catholic masters, that of the bishop.
When the investigation is finished, they may adopt
disciplinary measures, or call in the intervention of a
court of justice.
"2. If this latter step be deemed necessary, as
soon as all the documents relating to the examination,
and to the preliminary statement of the evidence, are
given in, the proper tribunal shall be required to pro-
nounce sentence of expulsion, and while the trial is
pending the provincial consistory shall suspend the
accused.
"The place of a schoolmaster thus or otherwise
suspended shall be supplied in the manner which
circumstances render most convenient, and half
the stipend shall be devoted to the payment of the
substitute. If this prove insufficient, the deficiency
shall be supplied from the funds of the school, or from
those of the parish, or by contribution; or else, if all
these fail, recourse shall be had to the provincial
school-funds.
"When a teacher is suspended, he shall give up the
whole or part of the school-house, if his continued
connexion with the school is likely to be dangerous,
or if the lodging be required for his substitute. If it
be necessary that he leave the school-house entirely,
his wants shall be provided for till the close of the
judicial inquiry.
"3. In the Rhenish provinces, all such affairs are
declared within the competency of the correctional
G
82
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
court, within the jurisdiction of which the accused is
domiciliated.
"4. The course to be followed by the courts in this
kind of process is the ordinary one; except that, in
the other provinces, the provincial consistories have
the right of naming a deputy, who shall be heard on
the business, and who shall assist in the discussion
at the time judgement is given. In the Rhenish
provinces, the Procureur d'état shall be empowered
to demand explanations and information from the
provincial consistorie whenever he shall think pro-
per. In the said provinces, the necessary deviations
from the ordinary course shall be left to the decision
of the provincial consistories of that part of the king-
dom.
5. The accused, as well as the authorities, have
a right of appealing, either on questions of fact or
of law, within the term, and according to the forms
prescribed by the judiciary instructions then in
force.
"6. The higher ministerial authorities shall de-
cide, from the reasons of the master's dismissal, and
from his subsequent conduct, whether he ought to be
excluded for ever from the exercise of his functions,
or whether, after a time, he shall be reinstated.
7. Lastly, whenever schoolmasters are brought
to trial, the courts of justice shall instantly com-
municate the sentence to the provincial consistories,
or the authorities presiding over schools, in order
that they may immediately proceed to take the mea-
sures which the circumstances demand."
* See Explanatory Preface.-TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
83
TITLE V.
OF THE GOVERNMENT OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION, OR
OF THE AUTHORITIES TO WHOM THE SUPERINTEND-
ENCE OF SCHOOLS IS COMMITTED.
Such is the general organization of primary in-
struction. But to suppose that this mechanism
will work of itself, is expecting too much from it
and from human nature. It requires an admi-
nistration whose eye and hand shall watch and
animate the whole. I shall now proceed to lay
before you the system of government set over
primary instruction in Prussia. It has been of
necessity referred to in the foregoing chapters,
but this is the place for treating it in detail.
The fundamental principle is, that the ancient
and beneficial union of popular education with
Christianity and the church ought to be main-
tained in a just and reasonable measure, always
under the supreme control of the state, and of
the minister of public instruction and ecclesias-
tical affairs.
I refer again to the law of 1819 (Title VII).
We will begin with the parishes.
Parish Authorities.
"General rule: As every parish, in town or coun-
try, has its primary school or schools, so every pri-
mary school, in town or country, shall have its own
particular management, its own special committee of
superintendence (Schulvorstand).
'
Primary Schools in the Country.
"1. The committee of each country elementary
school shall consist, in places where the church contri-
G 2
84
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
+
butes to the support of the school, of the patron of the
church, of the clergyman of the parish: to which the
school belongs, of the magistrates of the commune
where several villages are associated, and of one or
two householders, members of the school-association.
In every such association, comprehending persons of
different communions, care shall be taken that each
communion, according to the number of householders
belonging to it, shall have representatives in the
managing committee of the school.
"2. The patrons or founders (if there be any), the
clergyman and the magistrates of the parish or com-
mune, form the managing committee of the school. The
other members are elected by the school-association
of the commune; but they shall be proposed for the
approbation of the provincial consistory by the in-
termediate school-authority; namely, that of the
circle, Kreisschulbehörden (circle-school-authority),
that is, the Kreisschulinspectoren (circle-school-in-
spectors).
"The members who are elected shall hold their
seats four years, with the power of being re-elected.
"No one shall refuse to become one of the mana-
ging school committee; the only legitimate excuse
shall be the possession of other offices in the parish.
"3. For schools endowed entirely by the church,
the clergy may act as substitutes for the managing
committee; but they shall be bound to observe all
the obligations and all the duties imposed upon or-
dinary committees of management.
"4. The managing committees have cognisance of
all school matters; the entire superintendence of such,
both internally and externally, rests with them. All
that belongs to the internal order of the school, as
also to the superintendence and direction of the mas-
ters, should be the peculiar office of the ecclesiastical
members of the managing committee: the pastor or
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
85
curate of the village, who is one of this committee, is
also the natural inspector of the school of the village,
and shall visit the school frequently, and attend to
the teachers. He takes part, too, in the external
management and superintendence of the school ;
but he shall not be required to interfere in the col-
lection of the revenues, nor in anything relating to
them, nor in the special management of the school-
funds.
"The committees are the first authorities em-
powered to receive complaints of the schools or of the
teachers from school-associations, or from their in-
dividual members; as well as those from the teachers
themselves, or from the scholars they also consti-
tute the medium through which petitions or claims
are transmitted to the higher authorities.
"The efforts of these committees ought to be
mainly directed to the organizing and maintaining
of the schools conformably to the laws and regula-
tions, so that they may accomplish their end: with
which view, they shall advise, direct, and support the
teachers, try to make the inhabitants of the parish
love their schools, excite their interest and their zeal,
and finally strive to remove the coarseness and ig-
norance of the country youth.
"5. Each managing committee shall meet every
three months, on a stated day, and as often besides
as may be needful, to deliberate on the concerns en-
trusted to it.
They shall also, if advised by the ecclesiastical
member specially charged with the superintendence
of the school, summon the master to attend any of
their meetings, and to give his opinion on the affairs
of his school.
"6. All the members of the managing commit-
tees fill this office gratuitously; but the ecclesiastics
charged with the superintendence of the schools
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
shall be fetched and taken home at the expense of
the school-society, when they have not horses of their
own, and the school they have to visit is out of their
parish.
"7. More precise statements of the powers of
the committees of management shall be published by
the provincial consistories, in accordance with the
general provisions of the present law, and with refer-
ence to the particular circumstances of the different
provinces.
"8. In villages where there are two schools, one
common administration shall be formed for the two,
composed of the patron of the church, if in this ca-
pacity he contribute to the support of the said schools,
or of one of them; of the ecclesiastic or ecclesiastics
of the place; of the municipal authorities, and of
one Christian householder for each school.
"9. Small Christian sects throughout the country
shall be permitted to organize, according to their
particular constitution and discipline, the manage-
ment of their own schools; only they must always
make known to the district-inspector what that ma-
nagement is, and to whom entrusted. They shall
be bound, whensoever called upon, to give all re-
quisite information; and they shall in no way resist,
if the provincial consistories think proper to ordain
a revision of their schools. The same shall be
granted, on like conditions, to the Jews, who take
no part in the school-association of the parish they
inhabit, and who have their own peculiar schools;
but they shall be bound to give all the information
necessary for regulating the attendance of the children
who are of age to go to these schools.
Primary Schools in Towns.
1. In small towns, where there is but one school,
the managing committees shall be composed in ex-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
87
actly the same manner, and shall have the same
powers as those of the country; only, where there
are two or more clergymen, the highest in rank shall
belong to the committee; also a member of the mu-
nicipal magistracy (Mitglied des Magistrats), and
one of the representatives of the burghers or citi-
zens.
"2. In small or middle-sized towns which contain
several primary schools, a common committee of
management shall be formed in like manner for all
(Ortsschulbehörde,-literally, school-authorities of
the place); only a Christian householder of each
school, and a clergyman of each faith, if the schools
are of different communions, shall, of right, have a
seat in this council. If it be deemed necessary, a
person specially versed in school business (Schul-
mann,-school-man,) shall also be admitted.
"If there be any private schools in such towns,
which have already their own peculiar management,
they shall not be broken up by the establishment of
the higher school-authorities above named.
"3. Large towns shall be divided into school di-
stricts, having each its school-committee.
"But in every large town there shall be a central
point of superintendence for all the schools except.
the gymnasia; this central point is the school-com-
mission (Schulcommission). The school-commissions.
shall be composed of the superintendent, of the dean
or highest ecclesiastic of the place, and (according to
the extent of the town and the number of schools) of
one or two members of the municipality, who shall
be elected by the body itself; of an equal number of
the representatives of the burghers or citizens, and
of one or two persons skilled in matters of education.
A member of each managing committee shall be
added besides, if some such have not already, in
virtue of other functions, a seat in the commission.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
Peculiar circumstances may furnish sufficient cause
for deviation from this rule.
"4. All the committees and commissions of town
schools shall be confirmed by the provincial consis-
tories. These are bound to exercise vigilant care that
none be admitted but upright judicious men, zealous
for the good cause of education, and esteemed by
their fellow-citizens.
"They shall have the right of refusing the ratifi-
cation of the nomination of incompetent persons, of
demanding new elections, and, if the second nominee
for the same place be ineligible, of immediately filling
up the place themselves.
"5. The members introduced by election shall be
confirmed for six years, and may be re-elected. On
the other hand, no elected member shall be obliged
to act in these commissions for more than three
years.
"No man can refuse to act in these commissions,
except for the same reasons which release from the
obligation to join the managing committees of vil-
lage schools, namely, municipal duties.
6. The authority of the school-commissions ex-
tends over all the schools of each town, which they
shall preserve in harmony one with the other.
(C
Throughout the whole extent of their jurisdic-
tion, their duty is,-
1.) To take care that the town be provided with the
necessary schools of different degrees, and properly
connected with each other:
<<
2.) To inquire into the wants of the schools, and
the means of supplying them, and to assist in the as-
sessment and collection of the rates or loans of the
householders:
"3.) To make themselves well acquainted with the
state of all the school-funds and revenues, general as
well as particular:
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
89
"4.) To take charge of the general fund of the
schools of the town:
((
5.) To enforce the execution of whatever is
ordained by the law, the minister, or the provincial
consistories, in order to secure proper instruction to
all children of an age to go to school, and to prevent
even the poorest among them from growing up neg-
lected and without education, in beggary and all the
vices which idleness begets and fosters:
"6.) To apply themselves diligently to the im-
provement of the schools, and to animate the zeal of
their fellow-citizens; to offer suggestions on this.
subject to the magistrates and town-authorities, and
enable them, from exact information on all that re-
lates to the schools of the place, to judge correctly
of their wants, and of the best means of supplying
them; to keep alive the zeal of the teachers, and
give them advice and direction.
"7. Their immediate jurisdiction shall extend over
all the primary schools of the town, and the educa-
tional establishments of the same grade; over the
orphan-houses, the poor's schools, and those sup-
ported by pious endowments in the towns and their
suburbs.
(*
They shall superintend and direct the internal
as well as the external affairs of these establishments;
and in this respect they represent the whole autho-
rity of the town, except in the election of the head
master, the administration of the property, and ma-
nagement of the judicial matters of the schools.
"The several committees of the different circles
of large towns shall have the superintendence of
their several schools; but they are subordinate to
the school-commission of the same towns.
66
8. Their superintendence shall extend to the
primary schools and houses of education of the same
grade belonging to the church or to other corporate
90
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
bodies, only in as far as it shall be necessary to keep
these schools within the limits of the law, their ma-
nagement being left to those whom it concerns. The
commission can have no cognisance of those schools,
except through the reports of the special managing
bodies, from which it will derive the required inform-
ation on the internal and external condition of such
schools; it shall, however, have power to procure
more exact information by the visits of such of its
members as are conversant with these matters.
"9. The school-commission has no other con-
nexion with the gymnasia of the town, than the receiv-
ing the information necessary for regulating the at-
tendance of the children who are of an age to go
there.
"10. The particular schools of small Christian
sects in towns shall hold the same relation to the
commission and committees of the town schools, as
the same schools in the country do to the inspectors
of circles.
"11. Every Jewish school in a town should have
a managing body of its own, composed of members of
the Jewish community; but such schools shall also
be subject to the superintendence of the school-
committees, which may not only demand of the ma-
nagers any information they may need, but by fre-
quent visits may ascertain the actual state of such
schools.
"12. All private establishments for instruction or
education in large towns are under the superintend-
ence of the school-commission, through the medium
of the school-committees; and in small towns, under
that of the committees, as we shall see hereafter.
"13. The labours of these committees, and of the
commission, shall be so divided amongst the mem-
bers, that the external affairs of the school shall fall
more especially to the charge of the laymen, and the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
91
internal arrangements to that of the clergy, and of
those peculiarly versed in such matters.
"14. The school-commission and the committees
of circles shall regularly meet once a month, and
shall hold extraordinary meetings whenever circum-
stances require. The presidents or chairmen of
these meetings shall always be elected for three
years by the members, and confirmed by the pro-
vincial consistories.
"Questions shall be determined by a majority of
voices, except such as relate to the internal affairs of
the school, which shall be decided by the opinion of
the ecclesiastical members and those familiar with the
subject; but no person in the commission shall have
two votes, even when he holds two offices.
"15. The committees shall be free to convoke all
or part of the clergy and schoolmasters of the circle,
to assist in extraordinary meetings.
"16. The servants and officers of the municipal
authorities also work for the school-committees and
commissions, when the local school-funds are not
able to pay officers of their own.
"17. The members of the committees and com-
missions fill their posts gratuitously. The treasurers
(Rendanten) alone shall have a claim to remunera-
tion, proportioned to their services.
"18. At the end of each year the school-commis-
sions shall send up to the provincial consistories
circumstantial reports of the condition of the schools
within their jurisdiction. In small towns, and in the
country, this report shall be made through the in-
spectors of circles, a new school-authority, whose
character and functions must now be explained.
Authorities or Officers of Circles.
"1. There shall be a general superintendence of
the lower schools in the country and in the small
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
towns of a circle, as also of all the managing com-
mittees of these schools: and this superintendence
shall be exercised by the overseer or inspector of
the circle (Kreisschulaufseher or Kreisschulinspector).
"The school-circles shall be the same as, or shall
be commensurate with, the circles of ecclesiastical
superintendence for protestants, and the correspond-
ing divisions for catholics.
"Those ecclesiastical circles which are too wide for
one range of school-inspection, shall be divided into.
two or three circles of school-inspection.
"2. In general, the superintendents shall be the
circle-inspectors for the evangelical (i. e. protestant)
schools; and therefore great care shall be taken, at
the time of their nomination, to raise to this post
none but clergymen who possess, besides the quali-
ties indispensable in their profession, a considerable
acquaintance with schools, who enter upon it with
zeal and alacrity, and who are fit for their office.
Clergymen who are not superintendents, may be
appointed inspectors of school-circles, particularly
when an ecclesiastical circle shall be divided into se-
veral circles of school-inspection; and also when it
is desired by the superintendent himself, on account
of his age, infirmities, or multiplied occupations; or
when the provincial consistory, for other important
reasons, shall deem it advisable. In the two first
cases, it is necessary to have the assent of the super-
intendent to the choice of the inspector of the circle;
in the last, the opinion of the minister of public in-
struction and ecclesiastical affairs shall be taken.
"Laymen also, when circumstances require, may
be appointed circle-inspectors, with the previous ap-
probation of the minister of public instruction and
ecclesiastical affairs; but especial care shall be taken
to choose none but such men as are remarkable for
good sense, and activity in the cause of education, and
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
93
who are generally esteemed for the dignity of their
character and conduct.
"3. The circle-inspectors for catholic schools are
commonly the deans. The appointment of other
ecclesiastics, or of laymen, as inspectors of school-
circles, is authorised in like cases and on like con-
ditions as in the evangelical (protestant) schools.
"4. The circle-inspectors for protestant schools.
shall be nominated by the provincial consistories, and
confirmed by the minister of public instruction.
The
"The circle-inspectors for catholic schools shall
be proposed by the bishops, and presented, with
a statement of the grounds of recommendation, by
the provincial consistories to the minister of public
instruction, who confirms the appointment.
minister shall have the power to refuse the confirma-
tion, if well-founded objections can be established
against the party, and to require the bishop to pro-
pose a new candidate.
Without the previous confirmation of the mini-
ster of public instruction, no circle-inspector, pro-
testant or catholic, shall be installed or enter upon his
office.
"5. The duties of the circle-inspectors shall be, to
examine into the interior of schools, and the conduct
of the committees and masters of such schools.
The whole system of teaching and of education pur-
sued in the schools shall be submitted to their revi-
sion and their superior direction
<<
They shall strive to arrange each school in har-
mony with the present law, with the particular rules.
of the provincial consistories for each province, and
with the instructions those consistories may issue.
<6
They shall animate and direct the schoolmasters
and the ecclesiastical members of the committees,
encourage those who do well, admonish betimes those
who do ill; and, if these admonitions are insufficient,
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
report them to the higher authorities. The same obli-
gation is imposed upon them with respect to the
moral conduct of the schoolmasters. One essential
part of their task is, to watch over and promote the
continual improvement of the head masters and their
assistants.
"6. The inspectors of circles shall take care to
be constantly informed, on the state of the schools in
their circle, by means of the reports which the paro-
chial committees are bound to send them every
six months, of all changes and events of any im-
portance occurring in the schools; by attending the
examinations; by making as many visits as possible
in person and unexpected, and by the solemn revi-
sions which every circle-inspector is to make, once
every year of all the schools within his district. At
these revisions they shall examine the children in
public; they shall also inquire into all that concerns
the school; they shall exact an account of the inter-
nal and external administration from the committee
of management; listen to the complaints or the wishes.
of the members of the association, and take measures
to remedy whatever is amiss. They shall send a com-
plete report of the revision to the provincial con-
sistories, which from time to time shall appoint coun-
cillors from their own body to assist in these re-
visions, or order revisions extraordinary.
"7. In what relates to the external affairs of the
country schools, the circle-inspectors shall act in
concert with the councillors of the circle included
within the range of their inspection. These coun-
cillors (Landräthe) shall give active attention to all
things which concern the external state of the schools,
whether their co-operation have been claimed by
the inspectors of circles or by the provincial consis-
tories.
"8. The installation of the school-committees of
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
95
management is conducted by the circle-inspectors;
but these shall invariably give notice to the coun-
cillor of the circle (Landrath), that he may be pre-
sent at the ceremony.
"9. All orders, all inquiries of the provincial
consistories relative to the internal affairs of the
schools, shall be addressed to the circle-inspectors;
and, on the other hand, it is their place to lay the
internal wants of the schools, and of their masters,
before the provincial consistories.
"The inspectors of catholic schools shall be bound
to give the bishop of their diocese every information
required of them on all the religious part of the con-
stitution of schools, and their spiritual discipline;
they shall receive the instructions of the bishops on
this subject: but their first duty is to make known
to the provincial consistories the general state of
the schools. On the other hand, they shall com-
municate to the bishops the report of the annual
revision addressed to the provincial consistories.
"10. The protestant inspectors, both in this capa-
city and in virtue of the places they already hold as
ecclesiastics, are in connexion with the synods; but
they, as well as the clerical members of the com-
mittees of management, shall inform the synods of
the condition and wants of the schools, and shall in-
terchange the fruits of their experience and their
opinions on primary education at their meetings.
Suggestions on this subject may be inserted in the
reports of the synods. The lay-inspectors shall give
the synods written accounts of the state of the schools
in their jurisdiction.
"11. The superintendence of the schools of pe-
culiar churches, such as the scattered members of
the smaller Christian sects in the country, is confided
to the inspectors of circles.
"12. Private establishments for education in the
96
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
country shall also be committed to the superintend-
ence of the said inspectors.
"But with respect to general police, they are,
like the establishments above mentioned, in the ju
risdiction of the ordinary police-authorities of the
country.
13. Every school-inspector shall receive an an-
nual allowance for the travelling expenses of the re-
visions and visitations made in the course of his duty.
The provincial consistories shall determine the sum,
as well as the funds from which it shall be drawn.
"At the time of the annual revision of the schools,
the school-associations shall fetch and send back the
circle-inspectors; but for extraordinary visits out of
their districts, they shall (according to the ordinance
of the 28th February 1816, relative to allowances for
board and travelling,) either travel post with three
horses, or hire a carriage, and send in their account
to the departmental authorities.
"14. The provincial consistories shall publish
more precise instructions, based upon this law, rela-
tive to the powers of the circle-inspectors over the
schools of both communions.
"But in confirming and determining here anew
(says the royal edict of 1819) the share of the clergy
in the superintendence of the schools, we at the same
time ordain, to the end that they may exercise this
superintendence in a more enlightened manner, and
that they may thus be enabled to maintain their dig-
nity with the schoolmasters, that every clergyman,
whether of the protestant or catholic church, study
both the theory and practice of popular instruction;
that he strive to render his studies, whether at the uni-
versity, the catholic faculties of theology, or the pri-
mary normal schools, available to this end; and, if he
do not himself teach in the public schools whilst he
is a candidate for holy orders, that at least he acquaint
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
97
himself with their organization, and with the subjects
there taught.
"At the time of the examinations for a curacy, or
for the office of pastor, particular attention shall be
paid to the knowledge the candidate possesses on the
subject of education and teaching; and, in future,
none shall be admitted into holy orders, if at these
examinations he do not give proof of the knowledge
necessary for the right management and superin-
tendence of schools. In the provinces possessing
establishments in which the clerical candidates can
acquire such knowledge, this regulation shall come
into force in one year after the promulgation of the
present law; and at the end of two years, in provinces
which have not the same advantages.
"From a just reliance on the religious sentiments
and enlightened views of the whole ecclesiastical
body, we are confident that the share of salutary
superintendence of the lower schools, which is en-
trusted to them in order to preserve the bond between
the church and the schools, will be performed with
dignity, but also with gentleness and love; that they
will honour the respectable profession of teacher in
the persons of all its members; that they will endea-
vour to secure to them, in their parishes, the consi-
deration which is their due, and will always support
them with vigour and firmness."
The law of 1819 concludes with the circle-
inspector. But I ought to add, that above this
inspector, the departmental councillor to whom
he addresses himself, and who, in the business
of primary instruction, represents the depart-
mental authorities so often mentioned here, is
the school-councillor (Schulrath), an officer be-
longing to the council of civil administration of
II
98
PRIMARY INSTRUction.
the department, and who nevertheless is named
by the minister of public instruction and eccle-
siastical affairs. This administrative council
of the department, the regency (Regierung),
represented by the Schulrath, must not be con-
founded with the provincial consistories, of
which the school-board (Schulcollegium) forms
a part. This high scholastic authority, which
is provincial and not departmental, does not
interfere with primary instruction, except on
the most important points; as, for example, on
all that relates to the primary normal schools,
which are above the jurisdiction of the several
regencies, of the Schulrath, and of the circle--
inspector.[See above, General Organization
of Public Instruction, pp. 15-19]. .
TITLE VI.
PRIVATE SCHOOLS.
Public schools are the basis of popular in-
struction in Prussia. The government of that
country takes good care not to leave to chance
or private speculation the noble task of the
training of youth; nor does primary instruction
depend at all upon private schools. Establish-
ments of this kind, however, are not proscribed;
custom, as well as the law of 1819 (§§ 91—113),
authorizes them, on the conditions hereinafter
defined.
"Under the denomination of private establish-
ments of instruction and education, are compre-
hended scholastic institutions, founded by persons
of either sex, at their own proper cost, and without
receiving any salary for it from the state or the parish;
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
99
always, however, with the approval of the state,
which, without interfering with the details of their
management, exercises a general supervision over
them. These regulations for private schools are not
applicable to individuals chosen by families to con-
duct the education of their children.
"Those who wish to establish schools, or houses
for private education, shall announce the same, in
towns to the school-commission, and in the country
to the inspector of the circle in which they intend
forming their establishment, by presenting a regular
certificate of their conduct and profession up to that
time. When the moral conduct of the applicant is
unexceptionable, the commissioners and inspectors
shall forward the petition to the provincial consis-
tory, which shall cause him to be examined, accord-
ing to the circumstances of the case; ordinarily, by
the circle-inspector, in the case of country schools;
and in towns, by those members of the commissions
who are familiar with these matters. After the ex-
amination, the examiners shall return the certificates
and other papers, with their opinion, to the provincial
consistory.
"The examination shall always be according to
the rank of the school which the petitioner wishes to
establish; he shall therefore always specify in his ad-
dress whether he wishes to establish an elementary
school or one of a higher order.
"The petitions of married persons of both sexes
shall, in general, be granted, provided there be no
objection to the parties themselves; but unmarried
men shall not have permission to establish either
middle or higher schools for girls. On the other
hand, this permission shall never be refused to
widows and unmarried women of a certain age, when
there are, in other respects, no unfavourable circum-
stances.
DorM
H 2
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
"If the provincial consistory find no obstacle to
the granting of the petition, it shall send its sanction
or license to the general administration for schools
in towns, or to the inspector of the circle, mentioning
the details of the certificates, and particularly indi-
cating the kind of school which the petitioner shall
be allowed to establish.
"It is not till after this license has been granted,
that the persons whom it concerns shall be permitted
to open their houses of education, and to announce
the same in the public papers.
"Whoever possesses a certificate given by the
scientific commission of examination attached to the
provincial consistory*, and desires to establish a pri-
vate school, shall present this certificate to the pro-
vincial consistory, which shall send the necessary
license to the school-authorities of the town or di-
strict. There is no reason why permission to esta-
blish a private school should be refused, when the
petitioner produces, together with his testimonies of
morality and good conduct, a certificate of ability,
even though this certificate was originally obtained
without any view to the establishment of a private
school.
"Pastors and public teachers are not authorized by
their profession alone to open private schools; they
shall present their petition on this subject to the
local school-authorities, who shall transmit it, with
their opinion, to the provincial authorities. These
last shall decide, and grant the license in the usual
way.
"As soon as license to establish a school or house
of private instruction has been given, the committee
of management, or the school-commission, is bound
to assign this establishment to the special super-
vision of one of its members, and to inform the
* See above, General Organization, p. 17.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
101
police of its opening. In the case of a country school,
the police shall be informed by the inspectors of
circles.
"The superintendence of private establishments
has relation to the discipline and to the progress of in-
struction in general. The particular plan of tuition,
the choice of books, of methods, and the rules of the
school, shall be left to the masters and mistresses;
but, even in these, the spontaneous suggestions of
an enlightened superintendence may be of service.
Should anything, however, be discovered, calculated
to lead youth astray, or to endanger their morality or
piety, should it be found that bad masters or bad
books are employed, the inspectors shall remonstrate;
and if these remonstrances do not avail to remove
the evil, their duty then is to demand an investigation
by the provincial consistories, and, after such in-
vestigation, these shall have power, upon sufficient
reasons, to withdraw the license and shut up the
school.
"The establishment of a school of any other degree
than that specified in the license is strictly forbidden.
Those who have obtained a license to establish cer-
tain schools, and wish to establish others, must pass
through a new examination, and must apply for that
purpose to the provincial consistories.
"The directors and directresses of private esta-
blishments in large towns, may receive as many pu-
pils as choose to come to them, so long as this is of
no disadvantage to their school; they may reside
in what part of the town they please, but they shall
send the school-commission a written notice of any
changes of residence.
"If the public schools fear injury from the neigh-
bourhood of private ones, they have only to endea-
vour to avert the evil by redoubling their efforts
after perfection.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
"As to terms, the masters and mistresses of private
schools shall be entirely free to fix, change, or remit
them, either wholly or in part; only they shall be
bound to give, when required by the school-authori-
ties, the most exact information on this point.
"The choice of assistant masters or mistresses is
in like manner the business of the director or direc-
tress who has obtained a license; only they must
make strict inquiry into the morality of the assist-
ants. They shall give no religious instruction with-
out the permission of the ecclesiastical authorities ;
and whenever they send away assistants, or engage
new ones, they shall inform their superintendent.
They shall be responsible for all their assistants, and
expose themselves to the loss of their license, if, both
in engaging and controling them, they do not act in
the most rigorously conscientious manner.
"At all the solemn examinations of the schools
and houses of private education, the special inspec-
tors of such establishments shall be invited to attend.
Public examinations, recitations, or other exhibi-
tions, are prohibited in girls' schools, private as well
as public.
"The license given to a founder or foundress of
a private school shall be valid only for the person
whose name it bears.
"This license extends only to the life of the holder,
and so long only as he is able to fulfill the obligations
it imposes.
"'I'hose directors and directresses who wish to
break up their establishments, shall announce the
same in writing, and send back their license. If a
private school be shut up for six months, unless from
necessity (as for instance in consequence of sick-
ness), a new license must be obtained from the com-
mission or the inspector of the circle, though a new
examination is not necessary.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
103
i
"Those who have already opened private schools
without a license according to the form prescribed
by the present law, shall submit to a scrupulous in-
vestigation on the part of the school-authorities; and
from the results of this inquiry, and of the examina-
tion which they shall undergo, it shall be determined
whether permission to continue their school shall be
granted them or not.
"Such persons shall, for this purpose, present
themselves to the competent authorities at the latest
.within three months after the promulgation of this
law; if not, at the expiration of that time their schools
shall be shut, without other formality, by the police
of the place.
"The local school-authorities shall, within the
same period of time, send a list of the schools not yet
licensed to the provincial consistories, by whom the
masters shall be summoned to undergo an examina-
tion; and also a list of the schools which, from the
course they have previously gone through, shall be
exempted from this measure.
"Whoever, after the promulgation of the present
law, shall illicitly establish a private school, must
expect not only that the school thus clandestinely
established will be broken up, but he shall not be
permitted to open a private school for three years,
even though in other respects his qualifications ap-
pear satisfactory.
Boarding-Schools.
"Those who receive young persons as boarders
shall also ask permission, even when they intend the
instruction to be given by private masters, or in
other schools. The local school-authorities shall
examine into the moral fitness of the parties, and
whether their house be suited to their undertaking;
and, if no objection present itself on any point, they
104
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
shall grant the license required, which shall not need
to be confirmed by the provincial consistory.
"If the directors and directresses of private esta-
blishments, already licensed, desire to take boarders
also, they shall submit to the like examination by the
local authorities, and also, express mention shall be
made in their licenses of the new permission given
them to receive boarders.
"Boarding-schools shall be under the immediate
superintendence of the town-commissions, who shall
give them special superintendents, examine them
from time to time, and inquire generally into the
physical as well as moral education of the boarders.
Schools for teaching to sew, knit, and embroider.
"The schools in which nothing is taught but sew-
ing, knitting, and embroidery, are not included among
the private schools referred to here; but since they
have for a long time been in the practice of giving the
same sort of instruction as other schools, it is here or-
dered, that not only shall a license for schools of this
kind be procured from the school- as well as the po-
lice-authorities, (since this falls within the description
of a handicraft,) but those who keep such schools, not
having the right to undertake the instruction of chil-
dren, shall not admit any that have not already gone
through the ordinary course of instruction, or that
are not receiving it at the same time that they take
lessons in these manual works. From this day forth no
child shall be received into schools for sewing, knit-
ting, &c. without permission from the committee of
superintendence, in a certificate, which shall be pre-
served by the persons at the head of the establish-
ments, attesting that the child has already had the
benefit of, or continues to receive, primary instruc-
tion.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION,
105
Of Masters who give lessons by the hour.
"Those whose profession is to give lessons in pri-
vate houses, shall present themselves to the inspec-
tors of circles or the school-commissions, that they may
satisfy them of their capability and irreproachable
conduct, and to obtain a certificate which shall serve
as a license, and which shall be withdrawn if they
are guilty of immoral or illegal conduct.
"Persons who teach at particular hours, and on
some special subjects only, need not have a license;
only if they intend to give religious instruction, they
shall present themselves to the provincial ecclesiasti-
cal authorities, or, if they are catholics, to the bishop
of the diocese ; and these authorities shall cause them
to be examined and shall license them.
Infant-Schools, or Dames' Schools, (Asyles.)
"Women, and particularly schoolmasters' widows,
shall be permitted to take under their care, during
the day, children who are not yet old enough to go
to school. In respect of these persons, the town
and country school-authorities shall merely see that
their conduct is without reproach, and suited for the
earliest training of children; that their dwelling is
healthy, and sufficiently large; that they do not
keep the children beyond the age at which they
should go to school; and lastly, that they have suffi-
cient capacity to exercise a beneficial influence over
the manners and reason of the children. To establish
these infant-schools, which shall likewise be under
the superintendence of a special inspector, it shall
only be necessary to have the consent of the town
school-commissions and the inspectors of circles."
The six points, Sir, which I have now gone
over in succession, embrace the entire organiza-
106
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
tion of primary instruction in Prussia. There
is not a single article which is not translated
from the text of the law of 1819. This law,
without going into detail with relation to any
particular branch, omits no topic of interest,
and is the most extensive and complete law on
primary instruction of which I have any know-
ledge.
It is impossible not to be struck with its
profound wisdom. No inapplicable general
principles, no spirit of system, no partial or
exclusive views govern the legislator. He
avails himself of all the means that can conduce
to his end, however widely these means may
differ. It is a king, and an absolute king, who
issued this law; it is an irresponsible minister
who advised or who digested it; and yet we find
no injudicious spirit of centralization or of
official despotism (bureaucratie ministérielle);
almost everything is left to the parochial, de-
partmental, or provincial authorities; little more
than the general supervision and direction are
reserved to the minister. The clergy have a great
share in the management of popular instruction,
and householders are also consulted in the towns
and villages. In a word, all persons or classes
who have an interest in the subject, find their
appropriate place in this organization, and con-
cur, each in his own manner and degree, to the
common end, which is, the civilization of the
people.
On these grounds the Prussian law of 1819
appears to me excellent; nor is it to be imagined,
that such a law could be conceived and matured
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
107
by the wisdom of an individual. Baron von Al-
tenstein rather digested than created it. In-
deed we may almost say, that it already existed
in a vast number of partial and detached ordi-
nances, and in the manners and customs of the
country. There is, perhaps, not a single article
of this long law to which numerous anterior
regulations did not serve as a groundwork;
and, in a paper on the history of primary in-
struction in Prussia inserted in the first number
of the second volume of the Journal of Primary
Instruction, by Councillor von Beckedorff, I find
rules as old as the years 1728 and 1736 which
comprise a number of the provisions of the law
of 1819. The obligation of parents to send
their children to school is of great antiquity in
Prussia. The powerful and active superinten-
dence exercised by the church over the educa-
tion of the people, dates from the origin of
protestantism, of which it is an inherent cha-
racteristic. It is evident that the authors of a
revolution effected in the name of liberty of con-
science must necessarily labour at the eman-
cipation of the popular mind, and the diffu-
sion of knowledge, as the only secure means
of defending their cause and rooting it in the
minds of the people. Unquestionably the law of
1819 raises education to a sufficiently high pitch
in the elementary schools and those for the
middle classes; but if the course of instruction
seem somewhat too full for some places or di-
stricts, it must be remembered that it was al-
ready acted up to, and even surpassed, in many
others. The boldest measure was the establish-
108
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
ment of a grand primary normal school for each
department; but there were already similar
establishments in most of the old provinces
of the monarchy. In short, this law does little
more than methodize what already existed, not
only in Prussia, but throughout Germany*
It is not, then, a metaphysical, arbitrary and
artificial abstraction, like the greater part of our
laws on primary instruction; it is founded on
reality and experience, and has, for that reason,
been carried into execution, and produced the hap-
piest results with extraordinary rapidity. Having
taken care to ascertain that it was everywhere
practicable, the Prussian minister peremptorily
required that it should everywhere be practised;
leaving the details to the authorities appointed
to execute them, and reserving to himself only
the general guidance and supervision. This
guidance has been so firm, this supervision has
been so vigilant, and the parochial, departmental
and provincial authorities (i. e. the Schulcol-
legium or school-board in the provincial con-
sistories, the Schulrath in each departmental
council, or regency, the Commissions in the
towns, and the Committees in each urban or
rural parish)-in short all the individuals or bo-
dies entrusted with the management of schools
have displayed so steady and well-directed a
zeal, that in almost every part of the kingdom
the reality actually goes beyond the law; and,
on all points at least where zeal alone is required,
even more is done than is commanded. Thus,
See in the former part of the Rapport all that regards
primary instruction at Frankfort, Weimar, and Leipsig.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
109
for instance, the law established one great pri-
mary normal school in each department; now,
not only is this fulfilled to the letter, but in
many departments there are, besides, several
small subsidiary normal schools;-a result
which implies all the others; since primary nor-
mal schools can flourish only in proportion to the
demand for masters, and the existence of situ-
ations affording a decent subsistence to masters
says everything that can be said as to the pre-
valence of primary instruction. Schoolmasters
are regarded by the law of Prussia as servants
of the state; as such, they have a claim to a
retiring pension in their old age; and in every
department a society, which the law recom
mended rather than enjoined, has been formed
for the relief of the widows and orphans of
schoolmasters. I have before me the regula-
tions of a great number of these societies, and
I transmit them for your inspection. The re-
sults are the same in all, though the means
employed vary more or less. If this report
were not already too long, I should have sub-
joined a translation of one of these lists of
regulations*, as a sort of model for the associa-
tions of the same kind which I wish to see
formed in every department of France.
The law required plans of school-houses
of different sizes, and commanded that none
should be built or repaired except according to
such plans. The ministry has shown the most
* A translation of these regulations is given in M. Cousin's
Appendix; but as they are little more than one application of
the principle of benefit-clubs, so well understood here, I have
omitted them.-TRANSL.
110
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
praiseworthy perseverance on this point, and I
have now under my eye a general order ad-
dressed to all the regencies, containing a de-
tailed description of the best and most econo-
mical manner of building school-houses. I send
you, together with this order, six plans of houses
of different sizes for primary normal schools.
I earnestly request that you will have them
examined, and, if they are approved, will send
similar ones into all our departments; for the
construction of school-houses which are to serve
both for boys and girls must not be left to inex-
perience, or to an injudicious economy.
The greatest difficulty was to obtain from
the new provinces, and particularly those on
the Rhine, so recently annexed to the monarchy,
the execution of that article of the law which
imposes on parents, under severe penalties, the
obligation of sending their children to school.
The ministry had the wisdom to suspend this
part of the law in these provinces, and to labour
to bring about the same results by persuasion
and zeal. When the taste for instruction had
been thus gradually diffused, and the population
of these provinces appeared sufficiently prepared
for such a measure, the law was rendered obli-
gatory. This took place in 1825, and from
that momentit has been steadily and rigorously
enforced. I have now before me an order of the
regency of Köln, dated 1827, by which the Ca-
binet-order of the 14th of May 1825, on the ob-
ligation of attending school, is enforced. I have
a similar order of the regency of Aachen (Aix-
la-Chapelle) dated March 7, 1826, and another
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
111
of that of Düsseldorf of the 20th of July of the
same year. The law has everywhere been carried
into effect, but with a judicious mixture of
gentleness and severity: thus, in 1826, which
was a remarkably bad year, the ministry even
saw fit to moderate the zeal of the local admi-
nistrations, and to enjoin them not to compel
the parishes to contribute to the repairs and
improvements of schools, but first to have
recourse to every means of persuasion. This
circular is dated the 12th of May 1826. It
appeared to me useful to study the manner in
which the government applied the general law
of 1819 to the Grand Duchy of Posen, so far
behind the Rhenish provinces in civilization. I
have accordingly collected a great number of do-
cuments, which prove the wisdom of the course
pursued by the ministry, and the progress which
popular instruction and civilization, over which
it presides, have made throughout the Polish
part of the kingdom. It would also be desirable
that all the instructions which emanated from
the ministry, or from the provincial bodies, with
a view of applying the law of 1819 to the Jews,
should be published in French. It would be
seen what measures were taken to diffuse the
taste for knowledge among a portion of the
Prussian people, who, though numerous and
wealthy, are generally unenlightened, and dread*
the effect which attendance on public schools
may
have on the faith of their children.
Without question, Sir, in the present state
of things, a law concerning primary instruc-
tion is indispensable in France; the question is,
112
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
how to produce a good one, in a country where
there is a total absence of all precedent and all
experience in so grave a matter. The education
of the people has hitherto been so neglected,-
so few trials have been made, or those trials have
succeeded so ill, that we are entirely without
those universally received notions, those predi-
lections rooted in the habits and the mind of a
nation, which are the conditions and the bases
of all good legislation. I wish, then, for a law;
and at the same time I dread it; for I tremble
lest we should plunge into visionary and imprac-
ticable projects again, without attending to what
actually exists. God grant that we may be wise
enough to see that any law on primary instruc-
tion passed now, must be a provisional and not
a definitive law; that it must of necessity be
re-constructed at the end of ten years, and that
the only thing now to be aimed at is, to supply
the most urgent wants, and to give a legal sanc-
tion to some incontestable points! What are
these points? I shall endeavour, Sir, to deter-
mine them, following the path marked out by
existing facts.
Revolution!
The idea of compelling parents to send their
children to school is perhaps not sufficiently
diffused through the nation to justify the expe-
riment of making it law; but everybody agrees
in regarding the establishment of a school in
every commune as necessary. It is also will-
ingly conceded that the maintenance of this
school must rest with the commune; always
provided that, in case of inability through po-
verty, the commune shall apply to the depart-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
113
This
ment, and the department to the state.
point may be assumed as universally admitted,
and may therefore become law. Indeed prac-
tice has already anticipated law; for a year
past all the municipal councils have voted as
large a portion of their funds as they could
possibly spare, for the support of popular in-
struction in their communes. Nothing further
is required, therefore, than to annex to this
fact, which is nearly universal, a legal obliga-
tion.
You are likewise aware, Sir, that many of
the councils of departments have felt the ne-
cessity of securing a supply of schoolmasters,
and a more complete education for them, and
have, with this view, established primary nor-
mal schools in their departments. Indeed, they
have often shown rather prodigality than par-
simony on this head. This, too, is a most
valuable and encouraging indication; and a law
ordaining the establishment of a primary nor-
mal school in each department, as well as of a
primary school in each commune, would do
little more than confirm and generalize what is
now actually doing in almost all parts of the
country. Of course this primary normal school
must be more or less considerable according to
the resources of each department.
Here we have already two most important
points on which the country is almost unani-
mously agreed. You have also, without doubt,
been struck by the petitions of a number of
towns, great and small, for the establishment
of schools of a class rather higher than the
I
114
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
common primary schools; such as, though still
inferior in classical and scientific studies to
our royal and communal colléges, might be
more particularly adapted to give that kind of
generally useful knowledge indispensable to
the large portion of the population which is
not intended for the learned professions, but
which yet needs more extended and varied ac-
quirements than the class of day-labourers and
artisans. Such petitions are almost univer-
sal. Several municipal councils have voted.
considerable funds for the purpose, and have
applied to us for the necessary authority, for
advice and assistance. It is impossible not to
regard this as the symptom of a real want,-the
indication of a serious deficiency in our system
of public instruction.
You, Sir, are sufficiently acquainted with my
zeal for classical and scientific studies ; not
only do I think that we must keep up to the
plan of study prescribed in our colléges, and
particularly the philological part of that plan,
but I think we ought to raise and extend it,
and thus, while we maintain our incontestable
superiority in the physical and mathematical
sciences, endeavour to rival Germany in the
solidity of our classical learning. Indeed, clas-
sical studies are, without any comparison, the
most important of all; for their teudency and
their object is the knowledge of human nature,
which they consider under all its grandest as-
pects; here, in the languages and the literature
of nations which have left indelible traces of
their passage on earth; there, in the fruitful
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
115
vicissitudes of history, constantly re-modelling
and constantly improving the frame of society;
lastly, in philosophy, which reveals the sim-
plest elements, and the uniform structure of
that wondrous being, whom history, language
and literature successively invest with forms
the most varied, yet all connected with some
part, more or less important, of his internal
constitution. Classical studies keep alive the
sacred tradition of the moral and intellectual
life of the human race. To curtail or enfeeble
such studies would, in my eyes, be an act of
barbarism, a crime against all true and high
civilization, and in some sort an act of high
treason against humanity.
Let our royal colléges then, and even a great
proportion of our communal colléges, continue
to lead the youth of France into this sanc-
tuary; they will merit the thanks of their coun-
try. But can the whole population enter learned
schools? or, indeed, is it to be wished that it
should? Primary instruction with us, however,
is but meagre; between that and the colléges
there is nothing; so that a tradesman, even in
the lower ranks of the middle classes, who has
the honourable wish of giving his sons a good
education, has no resource but to send them to
the collége. Two great evils are the conse-
quence. In general, these boys, who know
that they are not destined to any very distin-
guished career, go through their studies in a
negligent manner; they never get beyond me-
diocrity; and when, at about eighteen, they go
back to the habits and the business of their
1 2
116
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
fathers, as there is nothing in their ordinary
life to recall or to keep up their studies, a few
years obliterate every trace of the little classical
learning they acquired. On the other hand, these
young men often contract tastes and acquaint-
ances at college which render it difficult, nay, al-
most impossible, for them to return to the hum-
ble way of life to which they were born: hence
a race of men restless, discontented with their
position, with others, and with themselves;
enemies of a state of society in which they feel
themselves out of their place; and with some ac-
quirements, some real or imagined talent, and
unbridled ambition, ready to rush into any career
of servility or of revolt. The question then is,
Sir, whether we are prepared to make ourselves
responsible to the state and society for training
up such a race of malcontents? Unquestion-
ably, as I shall take occasion to say elsewhere,
a certain number of exhibitions (bourses) ought
to be given to poor boys who evince remarkable
aptness; this is a sacred duty we owe to talent;
a duty which must be fulfilled, even at the risk
af being sometimes mistaken. These boys, cho-
sen for the promise they give, go through their
studies well and thoroughly, and on leaving
school experience the same assistance they re-
ceived on entering. Thus they are enabled, at a
later period of life, to display their talents in the
learned and liberal professions which are open to
them, to the advantage of the state to which they
owe their education. As, however, it is im-
possible for any government to find employment.
for everybody, it ought not to furnish facilities
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
117
for everybody to quit the track in which his
fathers have trod. Our colléges ought, without
doubt, to remain open to all who can pay the
expense of them; but we ought by no means to
force the lower classes into them: yet this is the
inevitable effect of having no intermediate esta-
blishments between the primary schools and
the colléges. Germany, and Prussia more espe-
cially, are rich in establishments of this kind.
I have described several in detail, at Frankfurt *.
Weimart, and Leipsigt. The Prussian law of
1819 sanctions thems. You perceive, Sir, that
I allude to the schools called tradesmen's or
burghers' schools, or schools for the middle.
classes (Bürgerschulen), écoles bourgeoises,-
a name which it is perhaps impossible to trans-
plant into France, but which is accurate and ex-
pressive, as contradistinguishing them from the
learned schools (Gelehrteschulen), called in Ger-
many gymnasia, and in France colléges, (in
England, 'grammar-schools'),-a name, too,
honourable to the class for whose especial use
and benefit they are provided,-honourable to
those of a lower class, who by frequenting them
can rise to a level with that above them.
burgher schools form the higher step of primary
instruction, of which the elementary schools are
the lower step. Thus there are but two steps or
gradations: 1°. Elementary schools,-the com-
mon basis of all popular instruction in town and
country; 2°. Burgher schools, which, in towns
* See first part of the Rapport, p. 4–8.
† Ibid., pp. 48-55.
§ See Title III. pp. 51--56,
Ibid., p. 125.
The
118
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of some size and containing a middle class, fur-
nish an education sufficiently extensive and libe-
ral to all who do not intend to enter the learned
professions. The Prussian law, which fixes a
minimum of instruction for the elementary
schools, likewise fixes a minimum of instruction
for the burgher schools; and there are two kinds
of examination, extremely distinct, for obtain-
ing the brevet of primary teacher for these two
gradations. The elementary instruction must
be uniform and invariable, for the primary
schools represent the body of the nation, and
are destined to nourish and to strengthen the
national unity; and, generally speaking, it is
not expedient that the limit fixed by the law for
elementary instruction should be exceeded: but
this is not the case with the burgher schools,
for these are designed for a class among whom
a great many shades and diversities exist,—the
middle class. It is therefore natural and rea-
sonable that it should be susceptible of exten-
sion and elevation, in proportion to the import-
ance of the town, and the character of the po-
pulation for whom it is destined. In Prussia
this class of schools has, accordingly, very
different gradations, from the minimum fixed
by the law, with which I have already made
you acquainted*, to that point where it becomes
closely allied with the gymnasium, properly so
called. At this point it sometimes takes the
name of Progymnasium.
I have now before me a report on the differ-
ent progymnasia existing in the department of
* P. 56, 57.
.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
119
Münster: you will see that these establishments
are, as their title implies, preparatory gymna-
sia, in which classical and scientific instruction
stops short within certain limits, but in which
the middle or trading class may obtain a truly
liberal education. In general, the German
burgher schools, which are a little inferior to
our communal colléges in classical and scien-
tific studies, are incomparably superior to them
in religious instruction, geography, history, mo-
dern languages, music, drawing, and national
literature.
In my opinion, it is of the highest import-
ance to create in France, under one name or an-
other, burgher schools, or schools for the mid-
dle classes, which give a very varied education;
and to convert a certain number of our com-
munal colléges into schools of that description.
I regard this, Sir, as an affair of state. I en-
treat you not to listen to those who will tell
you that we have several gradations in primary
instruction, and that what I ask for has been
already provided. It is no such thing: we have
three stages it is true, but they are ill defined,
which reduces the distinction to nothing. Be-
sides, three degrees form an arbitrary classi-
fication, the reason of which I confess myself
at a loss to find; whereas the two degrees deter-
mined by the Prussian law are founded on the
most obvious and natural distinctions. Lastly,
while we circumscribe these two degrees within
the limits of primary instruction, it is not un-
important to define and characterize them by
different names. Those names in use among us
120
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
-schools of the third, second, and first degree,
-mark nothing but abstract differences; they
say nothing to the imagination, and therefore do
not impress themselves on the mind. In Prus-
sia, the names of elementary school and of
burgher school, representing the lowest and the
higher degree of primary instruction, are po-
pular and significant; that of Mittelschule
(middle or intermediate school), instead of
Bürgerschule, is also in use in some parts of
Germany*. I beg of you, Sir, to consider
whether this name could not be introduced
amongst us; middle school and elementary
school would comprehend the two essential de-
grees of primary instruction, and our primary
normal schools would equally furnish masters to
these two degrees; for which, however, there
would be two sorts of examination and two sorts
of brevet. You would only have to fix a mini-
mum of instruction for the middle schools, as
you would doubtless do for the elementary;
having care to let each establishment gradually
go beyond this minimum according to its re-
sources, and, above all, according to its success.
This, Sir, appears to me to be substantially the
object of all those petitions which the towns
are now addressing to you; some, for a change
in the scheme of our communal colléges; some,
for instituting a course of instruction of a more
general utility in our royal colléges, collaterally
with the scientific and classical course now
given; some, to have schools for which they
know not very well how to find a name, and
Part I. of the Rapport, Letter I. p. 4-7.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
121
which have sometimes been called écoles in-
dustrielles, in contradistinction from our col-
léges. On no account must you reduce or
abridge the classical course of our colléges: on
the contrary, I repeat, it ought to be rendered
more profound and extensive. We must not
introduce into our colleges two sorts of scho-
lars; this would be contrary to all sound disci-
pline, and would infallibly enfeeble the more
difficult studies for the benefit of the more easy.
Neither must we give the name of écoles in-
dustrielles-schools for the manufacturing and
trading classes *-to schools where the pupils
are not supposed as yet to have any special
calling. The mass of the people are conscious
only of their wants; to you, Sir, it belongs to dis-
cover the true means of satisfying those wants.
There is a cry raised from one end of France to
the other, demanding, on behalf of three fourths
of the population, establishments which may
fill the middle ground between the simple ele-
mentary schools and the colléges. The de-
mands are urgent and almost unanimous. Here,
then, we have another point of the highest im-
portance, on which it would be easy to come to
an understanding. The general wish, and nu-
merous attempts, more or less successful, here
call for the intervention of the legislature, and
render it at once necessary and easy.
The most difficult point in a law on primary
instruction is the determination what are the
We have the word commercial as applied to schools, but
these are notoriously so far from approaching the point M. Cou-
sin aims at, that I dislike to employ it.-TRANSL.
122
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION,
authorities to be employed. Here also let us
consult facts. Since you have been charged
with the direction of public instruction, where,
Sir, have you found an active, efficient ally in
your solicitude for the education of the people?
who have assisted you? who have made sa-
crifices in common with those of the state? who
have built schools, paid masters, set on foot
normal schools? In all directions it has been
the municipal councils, and the councils of the
departments, stimulated and represented by the
maires and the prefects. Wherever the munici-
pal and departmental councils have had the will,
they have found the means; and they have had
the will, wherever the maires and the prefects
have had it too: and these latter have invari-
ably followed the impulse of the superior autho-
rity which appoints them, and to which they
are responsible. Here, then, is the clue you
must follow. You must look for support and
assistance from that quarter where you have
always found them,-the quarter, I will add,
in which the whole force and vitality of France
reside. The French administration is the glory
and the masterwork of the imperial government.
The organization of France in mairies and
prefectures, with municipal and departmental
councils, is the foundation of government and
of social order. This foundation has stood firm
amidst so much ruin, that prudence and policy
seem to point to it as the best and safest prop.
Moreover, this organization has just been re-
formed and vivified by rendering the municipal
and departmental councils elective and popular.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
123
Thus the French administration unites all that
we want, activity and popularity. The admini-
stration, then, is what you must call to your aid.
Recollect, also, that it is these local councils
that pay, and that you cannot fairly expect
much from them unless they have a large share
in the disbursement of the money they have
voted. These councils are chosen out of the
body of the people, and return to it again; they
are incessantly in contact with the people; they
are the people legally represented, as the maires
and the prefects are these councils embodied,
if I may so say, in one person, for the sake
of activity and dispatch. I regard, then, as
another incontestable point, the necessary in-
tervention of the municipal and departmental
councils in the management of public instruc-
tion. As there ought to be a school in every
commune, so there ought to be for every com-
munal school a special committee of superin-
tendence, which ought to be formed out of the
municipal council, and presided over by the
maire. I shall perhaps be told, that men who
are fit to conduct the business of the commune
are not fit to superintend the communal school.
I deny it nothing is wanted for this superin-
tendence but zeal, and fathers of families cannot
want zeal where their dearest interests are con-
cerned. In Prussia no difficulty is found in
this matter, and every parish-school has its
Schulvorstand, in great part elective. Over the
heads of these local committees there ought to
be a central committee in the chief town of each
department, chosen out of the council of the
:
124
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
department, and presided over by the prefect.
The committee of each commune would corre-
spond with the committee of the department;
that is to say, in short, the maire, with the pre-
fect. This correspondence would stimulate the
zeal of both committees. By it, the depart-
mental committee would know what is the an-
nual supply of schoolmasters required for the
whole department, and consequently, the num-
ber of masters the normal school of the depart-
ment ought to furnish, and consequently, the
number of pupils it ought to admit. It would
have incessantly to urge on the zeal of the
local committees in establishing and improving
schools, for the sake of providing as well as
possible for the pupils it sends out of its nor-
mal school. Nothing can be more simple than
this organization. It is, applied to primary in-
struction, what takes place in the ordinary ad-
ministration: I mean, the combined action of
the municipal councils and the departmental
councils, of the maires and the prefects.
After the administrative authorities, it is un-
questionably the clergy who ought to occupy the
most important place in the business of popu--
lar education. How is it possible they could
neglect, nay even repugn, such a mission? But
that they have done so is a fact, which, how-
ever deplorable, we are bound to acknowledge.
The clergy in France are generally indifferent,
or even hostile, to the education of the people.
Let them blame themselves if the law does not
give them great influence over primary instruc-
tion; for it was their duty to anticipate the law,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
125
and to take up a position which they must
necessarily have continued to occupy. The law,
offspring of facts, will therefore place small
reliance on the clergy; but if it rejected them
altogether, it would commit an egregious fault;
for it would set the clergy in decided opposition
to primary instruction, and would engage in a
conflict, open, scandalous and perilous. The
rational middle course is to put the curé or the
pastor*, and if need be both, on every communal
committee; and the highest dignitary of the
church in each department, on the departmental
committee. To make ecclesiastics presidents.
of these committees, as the restored govern-
ment did with regard to its committees of can-
tons, would be neither more nor less than to
intend what that government intended, viz.
that these committees should never meet at all,
or should meet to no end. On the other hand,
to exclude ecclesiastics from our committees,
as certain persons who fancy themselves great
philosophers would fain do, would be a reaction
very pernicious in various ways. We must
neither deliver over our committees into the
hands of the clergy, nor exclude them; we must
admit them, because they have a right to be
there, and to represent the religion of the
country. The men of good sense, good manners,
and of consideration in their neighbourhood, of
whom these committees ought to be, and will
be, composed, will gradually gain ascendancy
over their ecclesiastical colleagues, by treating
them with the respect due to their sacred func-
* i. c. the catholic and the protestant clergyman.--TRANSL.
126
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
tions. We must have the clergy; we must neg-
lect nothing to bring them into the path towards
which everything urges them to turn,-both
their obvious interest, and their sacred calling,
and the ancient services which their order ren-
dered to the cause of civilization in Europe. But
if we wish to have the clergy allied with us in the
work of popular instruction, that instruction
must not be stripped of morality and religion ;
for then indeed it would become the duty of the
clergy to oppose it, and they would have the
sympathy of all virtuous men, of all good fathers
of families, and even of the mass of the people,
on their side. Thank God, Sir, you are too en-
lightened a statesman to think that true popular
instruction can exist without moral education,
popular morality without religion, or popular
religion without a church. Christianity ought
to be the basis of the instruction of the peo-
ple; we must not flinch from the open profes-
sion of this maxim; it is no less politic than
it is honest. We baptize our children, and
bring them up in the Christian faith and in the
bosom of the church; in after-life, age, reflec-
tion, the breath of human opinions, modify their
early impressions, but it is good that these im-
pressions should have been made by Christi-
anity. Popular education ought therefore to
I
be religious, that is to say, Christian; for,
repeat it, there is no such thing as religion in
general; in Europe, and in our days, religion
means Christianity. Let our popular schools
then be Christian; let them be so entirely and
earnestly. By degrees the clergy will open
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
127
their eyes, and will lend us efficacious assist-
ance. Indeed, it seems to me impossible that
poor priests, scattered through remote villages,
dependent on the people, to whom they owe
their subsistence, and among whom they live,
should long escape the enlightened influence of
a power at once national, strong and benevo-
lent. The higher clergy are yours by your
power of nomination, and by their temporal in-
terests. By degrees they will come into your
views. Meantime, let us watch them; but treat
them with respect, and with regard for their
interests and their office. Let us throw open
our schools to them, for we have nothing to
conceal; let us call upon them to cooperate in
the holy work we are undertaking. If, after
all we can do, they refuse their assistance, we
shall have vindicated our prudence and fulfilled
our duty. The rest is in the hand of Provi-
dence, veiled amid the impenetrable destinies
of European society,
But, Sir, you will have remarked that I have.
not alluded to the share which the university
should have in public instruction. In the first
place, I profess myself ignorant of what the uni-
versity now is; I know no university but the
imperial university; and that, after having ren-
dered eminent services, expired in 1815. It was
succeeded, first, by the royal commission of
public instruction, and afterwards by the mi-
nistry of public instruction and ecclesiastical
affairs. That is the law of the land as at pre-
sent established. Now nobody contests that
the proceedings of the communal and depart-
128
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION,
mental committees, the maires, sub-prefects
and prefects, ought, like all the other parts of
the administration, to refer to one common
centre, from which a vigorous impulse and a su-
preme guidance may emanate, and upon whom
all the responsibility before the chambers may
rest.
reason.
This centre, in France, as in Prussia, is, the
ministry and council of public instruction. This
is not only according to law, but to nature and
It is perfectly consistent to leave pri-
mary instruction to the minister who has all
the rest of public instruction, as well as eccle-
siastical affairs, in his hands; that is to say,
the two things with which the education of the
people is the most intimately connected. What
could be gained by consigning primary instruc-
tion to the office of the minister of the interior?
If the arts have been put there, that is a capital
error which must on no account be repeated.
Has any evil resulted from the present order
of things? Far from it: everybody is agreed
that the minister and his council have done a
great deal for primary instruction since the
revolution of July. As you, Sir, would have
been able to effect nothing without the muni-
cipal and departmental councils, the maires
and prefects, so those authorities acknowledge
that they could have done little or nothing with-
out your cooperation and direction. It is you
who excited their zeal, who supported and en-
couraged them; you who, as the enlightened
dispenser of the funds placed in your hands by
the two chambers, have given vigour to public in-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
129
struction, by giving proportionate aid to neces-
sitous places. You will render an account to the
chambers, and I do not think your statements
will induce them to reverse the actual division
of public business, or to abridge your powers,
which they ought rather to extend. Reason-
able men do not wish to take primary instruc-
tion out of your hands; they know that it
properly falls within your department.
So far there are no difficulties; but difficul-
ties will arise as soon as you seek to govern
primary instruction by means of your ordinary
agents, the academical rectors and inspectors.
Here you have to encounter an almost universal
resistance. We must inquire into the causes
of this resistance. People in general do not
see what primary instruction has to do with
academical or university education or disci-
pline: they think that this instruction being
essentially communal and departmental, the
authorities under whose superintendence it na-
turally falls are those of the commune and the
department. They think, too, that primary in-
struction demands constant, and therefore local,
superintendence; and they think that the rec-
tor and the inspectors of an académie*, which
often embraces three, four, or five departments,
-as for instance that of Britanny,-are inca-
pable of such superintendence, seeing that in
Germany there is a special inspector not only
for every regency, but for every circle. And
besides, between ourselves, with some few ex-
ceptions, your academical inspectors inspect
*See Explanatory Freface.
K
130
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION,
very little more than your inspectors-general.
In short, I shall never cease to repeat,-no in-
spections are good for anything that are not
special. The same man cannot, to any pur-
pose, inspect faculties, royal and communal
colléges, a countless mass of institutions, board-
ing-schools, and establishments of primary in-
struction, all differing very widely. These dif-
ferent stages of instruction demand different
inspectors. I therefore strongly recommend
the creation of a special inspector of primary
instruction for each department. Our acade-
mical inspectors should be reserved for schools
of the second class, which will suffice, and
more than suffice, to employ all their powers
and all their diligence. Your natural agents
and correspondents for primary instruction are
the prefects, who would preside over the de-
partmental committees, and to whom the cor-
respondence of maires and communal commit-
tees, as well as the report of the departmental
inspector, would be addressed.
The prefects would correspond officially with
you, as they have hitherto done extra-officially;
and there would be a councillor in the central
council of public instruction, specially charged
with the reports to be made on that portion of
the business, as in fact there is now.
This
machinery is very simple, and would produce
quick results; being less complex, it would work
more freely. The only thing in which I would
employ agents taken from the body of teach-
ers would be, the commission of examination
appointed for granting schoolmasters' brevets.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
131
No one disputes that professors have peculiar
qualifications, and all the necessary impartiality,
for that office. I should wish, then, that the
examination-commission should be appointed
by you, and composed of masters or professors
of the royal or the communal colléges of the de-
partment; adding, for the religious part, a cler-
gyman proposed by the bishop.
As to private teachers, and what people are.
pleased to call liberty of primary tuition, I can
only repeat what I have said elsewhere*,-we
must neither oppose it, nor reckon upon it.
There are branches of the public service which
must be secured against all casualties by the
state, and in the first rank of these is primary
instruction. It is the bounden duty of govern-
ment to guarantee it against all caprices of pub-
lic opinion, and against the variable and un-
certain calculations of those who would engage
in it as a means of subsistence. On this prin-
ciple are founded our primary normal schools
in each department, bound to furnish annually
the average number of schoolmasters required
by the department. We must rely exclusively
on these normal schools for the regular supply
of communal teachers.
But if, in the face of our primary commu-
nal schools, there are persons who, without
having passed through the normal schools,
choose to establish schools at their own risk
and peril, it is obvious that they ought not only
to be tolerated, but encouraged;-just as we
rejoice that private institutions and boarding-
* Part I. of the Rapport, pp. 60, 61.
K 2
132
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
schools should spring up beside our royal and
communal colléges. This competition can-
not be otherwise than useful, in every point of
view. If the private schools prosper, so much
the better; they are at full liberty to try all
sorts of new methods, and to make experiments
in teaching, which, on such a scale, cannot be
very perilous. At all events, there are our
normal schools. Thus all interests are recon-
ciled,—the duties of the state, and the rights of
individuals; the claims of experience, and those
of innovation. Whoever wishes to set up a pri-
vate school must be subject to only two condi-
tions, from which no school, public or private,
can on any pretext be exempt,—the brevet of
capacity, given by the commission of examina-
tion, and the supervision of the committee of
the commune and of the inspector of the de-
partment. I would very readily give up the
certificate of moral character, as illusory, and
as implicitly contained in that of fitness, es-
pecially if there be, as there ought to be, a
clergyman on the commission.
Here, much more than in Prussia, the priva-
tion of a schoolmaster's brevet ought to be pro-
nounced only after a judicial sentence, and by an
ordinary court of justice; only, that court must
admit special proceedings for special offences.
Indeed, everybody understands well enough
that a man may be a very bad schoolmaster
without having committed any of the crimes or
misdemeanours provided against by the law.
All these measures, on which I will not
enlarge, are more or less founded on existing
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
133
facts; they have the sanction of experience ;-
it would be simply advantageous to add that of
law. On all the points concerning which the
law is silent, experiments might be made.
Among these experiments some would proba-
bly be successful: when sufficiently long prac-
tice had confirmed them, they might be inserted
in a new law; or ordonnances and instructions,
maturely weighed by the royal council, would
convert them into general and official measures.
Nothing must pass into a law which has not
the warranty of success. Laws are not to be
perilous experiments on society; they ought
simply to sum up and to generalize the lessons
of experience.
134
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
II.
STATISTICS OF PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
Sir,
You are now acquainted with the organiza-
tion of primary instruction in the kingdom of
Prussia. You know what are the legal duties
of parents, and those of parishes; what the
general objects of education, in the two differ-
ent degrees into which primary instruction is
divided; what the mode of recruiting, of ap-
pointing, and training masters; the system of
superintendence, and the various authorities to
which it is confided; in a word, you know the
law. It is now time to enter upon details :
you possess a tolerably complete idea of the
external mechanism of popular instruction;
you have still to learn what this mechanism
has produced; that is to say,-
1. How many primary schools, elementary
and burgher, there are in Prussia; how many
children attend them; how many masters are
employed, and what are their salaries.
2. How many primary normal schools there
are, and what they cost.
I will endeavour, with the aid of official do-
cuments, to establish these statistics of primary
instruction in Prussia*.
*The reader will find the latest, fullest and most accurate
details on this subject in the Supplement, published by M.
Cousin in 1833, and annexed to this volume, of which it forms.
a most important part. It gives a view of the state of public
education in Prussia in the year 1831.-TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
135
It is evident that, in a country where popular
instruction is essentially parochial and depart-
mental, the firmest and best obeyed government
cannot, by any exertion of care, obtain in a day
complete information on all the schools in every
village and every town throughout a great mon-
archy. In April 1819, the minister of public
instruction, at the same time that he arranged
and systematized all existing regulations re-
specting primary instruction, was desirous of
ascertaining the precise point from which he
started, and required from each of the Regencies
tables, framed according to law, of all the exist-
ing town and country schools in their jurisdic-
tion. These tables were not completed till
February 1821, and the government published
them some time after in Beckendorf's journal.
They represent the state of these schools as
long ago as 1821, or perhaps only in 1819,
the time at which they were ordered and com-
menced. Now it appears from these tables that,
even at that time, the kingdom contained 2462
town schools, with 3745 masters, and 17,623
village schools, with 18,140 masters. I subjoin
the tables, which contain the number of town
and village schools in each department of Prus-
sia, with the protestant schools distinguished
from the catholic, and an average of the salaries
of the masters, protestant and catholic, of all
the schools in each department.
136
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
No.
TOWN SCHOOLS,
WITH THE AVERAGE SALARIES OF SCHOOLMASTERS.

1
Protest-
or
ant
schools.
Regencies
departments.
Total
Catholic number Average salaries
schools. of
schools.
of
schoolmasters.
Thlr. Gr. Pf.
Prot. 186 18
1 Königsberg..
2 Gumbinnen..
3 Dantzig
97
16
113
Cath. 119
52
•
1
53
270 12
49
8
57
273 14
4 Marienwerder.
• ·
57
24
81
201 2
5 Posen
80
71
151
132 15
6 Bromberg
26
36.
62
148 18
7 Berlin.
101
1
102.
639 6
8 Potsdam
131
1
132
236 19
Prot. 223 15
9 Frankfurt-on-Oder 155
to
2
157
Cath. 102
10'Stettin
75
• .
75
291 12
11 Cöslin
35
35
242
12 Stralsund
13 Breslau
14 Oppeln
15 Reichenbach
16 Liegnitz.
17 Magdeburg.
18 Merseburg
•
མང་ཐ
34
1
35
200 4
Prot. 228
45
103
Cath. 146
16
42
58
170 21 8
33
33
66
180 19
Prot. 179 6
83
•
25
108
Cath. 145 2
142
•
7
149
284
158
•
1
159
183 4
Prot. 134
19 Erfurt
67
16
83
Cath. 104 13
20 Münster
10
92
•
102
138 18 6
21 Minden
21
13
34
239 10
22 Arnsberg.
23 Köln
24 Düsseldorf
89
61
•
150
154
5
62
67
149
36
35
71
297 17
25 Cleve
37
32
69
164 11
•
26 Coblentz.
29
43
72
149 14
• • •
Prot. 218 5
27 Trier
10
20
30
Cath. 190 11
28 Aachen
10
78
88
177 3
Total
1696
766
2462
Amongst these 36 schools there are 13 called Simultan-
Schulen, that is, which have masters and pupils of both commu-
nions, protestant and catholic.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
137
VILLAGE SCHOOLS,
WITH THE AVERAGE SALARIES OF SCHOOLMASTERS.

No.
Regencies
departments.
Protest-
Total
or
ant
Catholic number Average salaries
schools. schools. of
schools.
of
schoolmasters.
Thir. Gr. Pf.
1 Königsberg
2 Gumbinnen
Dantzig
1026
95
1121'
63 7 1
921
921
109 4 4
227
190
417
98 4 8
4 Marienwerder
461
239
700
80
8 9
5 Posen.....
250
196
446
50 2 8
6 Bromberg
205
113 *
318
44 11 7
7 Berlin.....
...
8 lotsdam...
1329
1329
96 7 1
9 Frankfurt-on
-Oder.......
1188
11
1199
80 11 4
10 Stettin
917
917
71 5
11 Cöslin
847
847
30 18 3
12 Stralsund
257
257
53 2
13 Breslau
Prot. 90 3
661
191
852
Cath. 107 10
14 Oppeln
67
568
635
66 6
15 Reichenbach
...
340
268
608
95 1
16 Liegnitz
17 Magdeburg
18 Merseburg.
19 Erfurt
20 Münster.
21 Minden
22 Arnsberg
23 Düsseldorf.
24 Cleve
25 Köln
26 Coblentz
27 Trier
Prot. 144
1
603
106
709
{Cath. 95
871
9
880
113 20 3
...
1008
1008
117
291
115
406
95 4 6
59
292
331
49
225
241
466
119 19
358
268
626
91 12
194
157
351
152 16
81
102
183
80
....
64
311
375
75 22
307
479
786
77 16
...
57
509
566
Prot. 106 2
Cath. 65 11
28 Aachen
15
354
369
61 16
Total
12,809 4814
17,623
* Of these 113 schools, 37 are common to protestants and catho-
lics.
138
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
The following is a comparative view of the
salaries of schoolmasters, extracted from the
foregoing tables.
IN TOWNS.

Salaries
No.
of
Total
Protestant. Catholic. number of
schoolmasters.
masters.
1
Under 50 thaler..
68
54
122
2 Between 50 and 100..
298
195
493
3
100 and 150..
447
295
742
4
150 and 200..
506
188
694
5
200 and 250..
443
113
556
6
250 and 300.
•
344
48
392
7
500 and 550..
237
24
261
8
350 and 400. ·
139
19
158
9
400 and 450.
108
6
114
10
450 and 500..
50
9
59
11
500 and 550.
35
2
37
12
550 and 600.·
·
102
2
104
13
600 and 650.
7
14
650 and 700· ·
3
15
700 and 1200··
•
3
733
Total number of
schoolmasterships
2790
955
3745
The annual cost of maintaining all these
town schools amounts to 796,523 thaler 11
groschen (about 119,4787. 10s.), to which the
state contributes 69,329 thlr. 19 grs. (10,3997.
9s.), partly in money, partly in kind, as wood
and other materials.
The average salary of a town schoolmaster is
212 thlr. 2 groschen 9 pfennig (about 317.
16s.) per annum.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
139
No.
IN VILLAGES.

Salaries
of
Total
Protestant. Catholic. number of
1234567
schoolmasters.
Under 10 thaler
2 Between 10 and 20...
masters.
263
60
323
...
641
216
857
20 and
40...
1652
635
2287
40 and
60...
2002
824
2826
60 and 80...
2116
841
2957
80 and 100...
1807
1026
2833
100 and 130...
1652
766
2418
8
130 and 150...
869
283
1152
9
150 and 180...
794
292
1086
10
180 and 200...
333
81
424
11
200 and 220...
209
47
256
12
220 and 250...
222
31
253
13
250 and 300...
221
23
244
14
300 and 350...
124
8
132
15
350 and 400...
82
2
84
16
400 and 450...
12
12
17
450 and 500 ..
6
6
Total number of
schoolmasterships
} 13005
5135
18150
The annual cost of maintaining all these vil-
lage schools is 1,556,229 thlr. (about 233,4347.
7s.), to which the state contributes 78,048 thlr.
(about 11,7077. 4s.), partly in money, partly in
kind, as wood and other materials.
The average salary of a village schoolmaster
is 85 thlr. 16 gr. (12l. 16s. 6d.) per annum.
The preceding tables abound in interesting
results of every kind; I shall point out but
one. A kingdom which has not thirteen mil-
lions of inhabitants, annually pays for primary
instruction (not including the primary normal
schools, which are not noticed here) nearly
300,000l., a considerable sum, to which the
140
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
state contributes the inconsiderable portion of
22,0001. This is the happy result of the strict
observance of the two following points, without
which there can be, in my opinion, no popular
education. 1st, An obligation on all parents to
pay something towards the instruction of their
children, unless they can prove extreme po-
verty: 2nd, An obligation upon every parish to
support the schoolmaster out of its own funds,
in addition to the money paid by those children
whose parents can afford it, except the said pa-
rish can prove its real inability to do so.
At the end of 1825, the minister of public
instruction caused a new census of the number
of primary schools, and of the number of the
masters who were employed therein, to be made,
as in 1819. This comprises a most important
element omitted in the former,-viz. the num-
ber of children who frequent the schools. It
distinguishes the elementary schools and the
burgher schools; but it omits an important
feature inserted in that of 1821,-the salaries
of the masters. The results of this new statis-
tical inquiry have been published in the Royal
Gazette of Berlin, the Staats-Zeitung, No. 79,
29th March, 1828. The following is an extract
from this article :—
(6
According to the census made at the end of
1825, the number of inhabitants in the whole Prus-
sian monarchy amounted to 12,256,725; amongst
whom were 4,487,461 children under 14 years of
age; which gives 366 children for every 1,000 in-
habitants, or about eleven thirtieths of the nation.
"Admitting education in the public schools to
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
141
begin at the age of 7 years complete, we may cal-
culate that three sevenths of the entire population of
children are of an age to go to school, and we should
have for the entire Prussian monarchy the number of
1,923,200 children capable of receiving the benefits
of education. Now, at the end of 1825 there were
in the kingdom,-
Elementary schools for town and country, ordinarily
for both sexes together........ 20,887
Burgher or mid- f for boys..458)
for girls..278]
dle schools
736
Total.. ... 21,623 schools.
In which were employed-
Masters
Mistresses
22,261
704
Total. .... 22,965
to which must be added 2,024 assistants.
"These schools extended instruction to—
S Elementary schools .. 822,077
Boys
Burgher schools
Girls
Burgher schools
871,246
49,169
792,972
37,050
Elementary schools.. 755,922
Total number of children .... 1,664,218
"Now we have reckoned the total population of
children from 7 to 14 years of age, in the whole mon-
archy, at 1,923,200. It follows, then, from the fore-
going calculations, that out of every fifteen children,
thirteen actually attend the public schools; and as we
have to allow for those who go to private schools, or
who receive instruction at their fathers' houses, or
who have perhaps already entered the lower classes
142
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of the gymnasia, the general state of things appears
sufficiently gratifying.
"But, it must be owned, there is no proportion
between the different provinces of the kingdom, as
respects popular instruction. In some provinces in
which education is very generally diffused, the num-
ber of children who go to the schools at the age of
six years, and even under, greatly exceeds three se-
venths of the whole population of children, whilst in
several other less advanced provinces, the number of
scholars sent to the schools is considerably less, and
sometimes does not exceed a seventh of the whole
population of children.
"Of 1000 children under 14, we reckon that those
from 7 to 14 form three sevenths, which gives about
429 in every thousand, of an age to go to school.
Here follow the comparative results, furnished by
all the regencies of the kingdom at the end of 1825,
of the number of children who attend the public
schools, elementary or burgher.
REGENCIES.
Magdeburg, out of 1000
children,
000 }
524
Trier (Trèves)..
410
Oppeln
380
Merseburg
495
Coslin
370
Erfurt
Liegnitz.....
467
Gumbinnen
355
459
Königsberg
345
Arnsberg
443
Köln (Cologne)……..
311
Breslau
438
··
Dantzig
295
Münster.....
432
Düsseldorf.
295
Frankfurt
423
Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) 272
Coblentz
423
Marienwerder
242
Potsdam.....………………
416
Stralsund
202
Stettin
413
Posen.....
182
2
Minden
412 Bromberg
148
66
According to this extract, the average for the
whole kingdom was 371 children out of 1000, in-
stead of 429, which is the three sevenths of 1000.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
143
It will be seen that if, on the one side, 7 regencies
exceed this last proportion, on the other, 5 do not
even reach two sevenths of the total number of
children, viz. 286 out of 1000. But we must con-
sider that in these latter regencies, public education
has been very much neglected by the governments
which have preceded the Prussian, and that there
is a great number of private schools which have not
been included in the general census, and which
would perhaps alter the proportion above stated with
relation to the more central regencies, where there
are very few private primary schools."
The progress of public instruction in Prussia
from 1819 to 1825 may give some idea of the
advance which it must have made from 1825 to
1831, a period during which the normal schools
have been in full activity, and have given a
great impulse to all primary instruction. A
new census, which would define the present
state of things, would be infinitely valuable*;
but government would require more than another
year to collect the materials for statistical ta-
bles, like those of 1821 and 1825. In default
of which, the government has furnished me
with a document which may, in some degree,
serve as a substitute; I mean the account of its
own expenditure for this object. The following
is the statement of the pecuniary aids granted
by the state for popular instruction in the year
1831.
*For this, see Supplement,-State of Public Education in
Prussia in 1831.
144
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.

No.
Provinces.
Sums for 1831.
Thlr. Gr. Pf.
6 7
1
East and West Prussia
...
52,012
2 Brandenburg
71,739 17 11
3
Pomerania
8,957 18 1
4
Silesia
5
Posen
6 Saxony
7 Westphalia
8 Kleve-Berg
9,186
24,689 26
19,889 17 1
11,098 26 11
17,796 23 0
6
1
6
9
Lower Rhine
5,557 2 10
10 For popular instruction in general
9,390 0 0
Total
22 0
230,317
(About 34,5471. 12s.
Thus, nearly a million of francs (40,0007.)
was granted by the state, from the general
budget, for primary instruction in the year
1831; whilst, in 1821, the corresponding grant
amounted to but little more than half that sum,
out of a total expenditure of nearly nine millions
of francs (300,000l.): whence we may infer that,
if the parishes have severally increased their
outlay in the same proportion, the sum total
of the expenditure of the state and of the pa-
rishes for primary instruction, will be increased
for the year 1831 to about fourteen million
francs (560,0007.). And this supposition will
still appear to be below the reality, if we re-
collect the fundamental principle of primary
instruction in Prussia; viz., that it shall be
a parochial expense, to which the state shall
contribute as little as possible. The contrary
principle is in force amongst us. Yet, act-
ing under this principle, the French govern-
ment, up to 1828, granted for primary instruc-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
145
tion, out of the general budget, the miserable
sum of 60,000 fr. (2,4007.). In 1828 the cham-
ber increased this sum to 300,000 fr. (12,0007.).
The government of July has raised it to 700,000
fr. (28,0001.), and afterwards to 1,000,000 fr.
(40,000l.), that is, to a sum very little exceeding
that granted by the Prussian government, act-
ing on the parish principle, for a population of
only twelve millions; and that, without reckon-
ing the expense of the primary normal schools.
I come now to these latter establishments.
In Prussia, although the law obliges the pa-
rishes to found and maintain schools which the
whole population is compelled to attend, the go-
vernment fosters and supports this grand system
by taking upon itself the duty of training upright
and able masters for the supply of the parishes.
The parishes maintain the primary schools, the
state affording them but slight assistance; but
the contrary holds in the case of the primary
normal schools; these are instituted and mainly
supported by government; the several districts
are only called upon for small subsidies.
What follows will show whether the Prussian
government has performed well the task it has
imposed upon itself. At the present time there
is not in the Prussian monarchy a single pro-
vince in which each department or regency
(Regierungsbezirk) has not its primary normal
school; and by this I mean, a great normal
school (Haupt-Seminar), rich in masters and in
pupils; sometimes even with one or more branch
normal schools (Hülfs-Seminarien), that is,
small normal schools (kleine Seminarien),
where the number of the pupils, of the masters,
L
146
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the instruction, and the cost, are all confined
within very narrow limits. These little normal
schools are very numerous. In their obscurity
they render the most important service. Mr. von
Beckedorff in his Journal, vol. 6, No. I. for 1807,
gives the following note on those small primary
normal schools which had come under his notice.
EAST AND WEST PRUSSIA.
Department of Königsberg.
One at Mülhausen, founded in 1811: income
fixed; 700 thaler (1057.) granted by the state
for the entire support of six pupils. A much
greater number attend at their own expense.
This little school is most beneficial in its effects.
Department of Gumbinnen.
One at Zabienen, founded in 1821; it was
a moveable or ambulating school, and went a
circuit to train the Polish masters for the whole
province. This singular establishment was
broken up in 1825, but it had been of great ser-
vice to the whole province.
There has been formed at Angerburg, on the
confines of the two departments, a little normal
school of twenty-four pupils, which receives from
the state a fixed revenue of 1200 thaler (1801.).
BRANDENBURG.
Department of Frankfurt-on-the-Oder.
At Alt-Döbern there was a little primary
normal school, which has been merged in the
great school of Neuzelle.
Department of Potsdam.
The little normal school of Gross-Böhnitz,
founded in 1811, and which in 1825 numbered
twenty-six pupils, has been merged in the great
و
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
147
i
school of Potsdam. But another has been
founded at Jüterbock, which prepares for the .
great school at Potsdam.
POMERANIA.
Department of Stettin.
From 1820 to 1823 there was a little school
at Fritzow which was very useful.
At Stettin a similar school has been formed
in the suburb named Lastadie. This school
only trains masters for the humblest places,
where the salary is very small.
At Pyritz, the same kind of establishment.
Department of Köslin.
At Bartzwitz, the same again, but on a larger
scale. In 1818 it had but ten pupils, but at
the beginning of 1827 there were fifty, thirty-
two of whom were masters already appointed,
who came there to perfect themselves. It has
a grant from the state.
SILESIA.
In all this province there is but one small
normal school, at Schlegel in the county of
Glatz, but it has been very long established,
and suffices for the wants of the county. It
has from ten to twelve scholars, and receives a
grant from the state.
POSEN.
Department of Posen.
One small protestant normal school at Frau-
stadt; a second, a small catholic school, is pro-
jected.
Department of Bromberg.
One protestant at Fordon, one catholic at Lob-
sens. Many other establishments of this kind are
already projected for the grand duchy of Posen.
I. 2
148
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
SAXONY.
Department of Magdeburg.
One at Gardenleben, which is very flourish-
ing, and which in 1825 numbered sixty-four
pupils; there are many other establishments
of this kind in the same department.
Department of Merseburg.
The number of small normal schools in this
department in 1821 was as follows:-one small
normal school for music at Zeitz, annexed to
the gymnasium; another at Eisleben, in the
gymnasium of that town, (it was proposed to
lodge the pupils in Luther's house, which serves
also for a charity-school); another at Sanger-
hausen, in the town school; one at Queerfurth,
conducted by two masters from the town school;
one at Herzberg, conducted by two masters
from the town school, and containing more than
twenty pupils; one at Jessen; one at Lieben-
werda, founded since 1801; one at Seyda; one
at Halle, intended to perfect schoolmasters;
one at Bitterfeld; one at Eilenburg, with three
masters; one at Rochwitz; one at Mucken-
berg; one at Stolzenhain; one at Saathain ;
one at Corbetha, which in 1825 had eleven
scholars; one at Tauchern; one at Wittenberg.
Department of Erfurt.
A catholic normal school at Heiligenstadt.
Mr. von Beckedorff declares that this depart-
ment must have many more establishments of
this kind of which he has no knowledge.
WESTPHALIA.
Department of Minden.
An excellent primary normal school at Pe-
tershagen, which had twenty-five pupils in 1825,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
149
and in 1827 thirty-two; another at Münster, once
very flourishing, but now weakened by the neigh-
bourhood of the great normal school of Büren.
RHINE.
Many establishments of the same kind.
These accounts, incomplete as they are, will
yet give an idea of the number and effect of these
lesser primary normal schools. The assistance
they receive from government is entirely matter
of favour. It almost always contributes some-
thing to the stipend of the head master. It
gives general encouragement to these small
normal schools, but its dependence is on the
great ones. These it founds itself, defrays a
great part of their expenses, watches over them
with unwearied solicitude, requires from the
provincial consistories frequent and detailed re-
ports, and obliges the directors at stated periods
publicly to give an account of the establishments
under their charge. So early as the year 1826
there were twenty-eight great normal schools
in full activity, that is to say, one for each de-
partment. I here present you with a table,
made at that time, of all these excellent esta-
blishments, province by province, with the
names of the towns in which they are placed,
the year of their foundation, the amount of
their outlay, the number of masters, and that
of the pupils, called seminarists, the length of
their stay in the normal school, the number of
whole or half purses or exhibitions (bourses), or
simple grants (stipendia), and some brief re-
marks on the director or head master; for it is
an admitted principle in Prussia, that as is the
director, so is the school.
150
No.
TABLE
Of all the great Primary Normal Schools of Prussia.
Number
of
masters Number
ན།
Place.
Year of
founda-
tion.
Income.
and their
assist-
ants.
of
scholars.
Length
of resi-
dence,
Number of free
scholarships and
exhibitions.
Remarks.
1 Königsberg.
1701. 6497 thlr.
4
Protestant.
Reorga- | 17 grosch.
nized in
1809.
'7 pfen.
(3166 thlr.
from the
royal
I. EAST PRUSSIA.
30
purse.)
2
Karalene.
Protestant.
1811.
6644 thir.
6
33.
8 grosch.
10 pfen.
(5984 thlr.
8 grosch.
10 pfen.
from the
royal
purse.)
not fixed 30 free scholar-
ships.
Director wanting.
2 and 3 25 free scholar-
years.
ships.
Mr. Patzig is director. The in-
stitution, being in the country, has
buildings of its own, and a village
school, as school for practice.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
151
2828 thlr.
3
44
2 years.
Kleindexen. 1772.
Protestant.
23 grosch.
6 pfen.
(2250 thlr.
from the
state trea-
32 free scholar-
ships.
not fixed. 20 free scholar-
ships.
The pu-
pil quits
when he
appears
suffici-
ently ad-
vanced,
and finds
Mr. Riedel, pastor, is director.
Out of the two years of residence,
one and a half are chiefly devoted
to theory, and the rest to practice.
The institution has its own build-
ings, in the country, and the village
school for practice.
Mr. Burgund, an old ecclesiastic
of a catholic order, is director.
The institution has no school for
practice belonging to it. There
are some day-pupils out of the
house.
sury).
4 Braunsberg.
Catholic.
1810.
4100 thlr.
3
22
from the
state trea-
sury.
5
a place.
II. WEST PRUSSIA.
38
not fixed. All free.
The
Mr. Kawerau is director.
institution is in the country, and
forms a little isolated colony.
Although the masters are protest-
ant, the greater number of the pu-
pils are catholics. The school for
practice is attended by children
from the village which is close by.
Schoolmasters already appointed
receive there a supplementary
course of instruction.
There are
generally six of them.
Jenkau.
In this school
1798.
5158 thlr.
7
Founded
children of
by the
Cham-
each faith are
admitted.
berlain
von Con-
radi.
152
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
No.
Place.
Year of
founda-
tion.
6 Marienburg.
Open to both
churches.
Number
of
masters
Number
Income.
of
and their
Length
of resi-
assist-
scholars.
dence.
ants.
3033 thlr.
6
56
3 years.
10 grosch.
from the
royal
purse.
7 Graudenz.
Open to both
churches.
1817.
2000 thlr.
16 grosch.
8 pfen.
from the
state trea-
sury.
Number of free
scholarships and
exhibitions.
4
60 and
3 years.
more.
Remarks.
1256 thaler are
distributed to 46
scholars, in 5
classes.
The sum of 1160
thaler is divided
annually among
40 scholars.
Mr. Häbler, pastor and school-
inspector, is the director and ori-
ginator of the establishment.
He has under him 5 masters,
who belong, not to the normal
school, but to the schools of the
town. Among the 65 pupils of the
past year, 12 were catholic, and
received religious instruction from
the catholic curate of the place.
The lowest class serves as a school
for practice to the higher classes.
Mr. Dietrich, a catholic, is di-
rector. The institution possesses
a spacious edifice,formerly a Jesuit
college, and is connected with a
town school. The director and
40 pupils live in the house.
time of residence, which should be
two years, is sometimes shortened
to supply the wants of the province,
The
}
A


PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
153
8
Neuzelle.
Protestant.
17.
8856 thlr.
At this 2 gr. 6 pfen.
time the (5500 thlr.
semina- 2 gr. 6 pf.
ries of
Lukkau
and Zul-
lichau
from the
state trea-
sury).
were uni-
ted and
transfer-
ed to
Neuzelle.
7
III. BRANDENBURG.
90
3 years.
24 scholarships
wholly gratuitous,
and 22 half gra-
tuitous.
9 Potsdam.
Protestant.
1817.
5438 thlr.
6
63
3 years.
25 gr.
Mr. Krüger, pastor, is
is di-
rector. The institution is in the
vast edifice of a secularised con-
vent, where the two masters and
all the pupils live. The school
for practice is the orphan-house
of thirty children, annexed to the
normal school.
10 scholarships
wholly, and as
many half, gra-
tuitous. Besides
which a fixed sum
is divided amongst
the other scholars,
as a donation ex-
traordinary.
This normal school was at first
a private establishment of the con-
sistory councillor, Mr. Höcker. It
was created at Berlin in 1748,
made a public establishment in
1753, and transferred to Potsdam
in 1817, with an increase of funds.
Mr. Strietz, pastor, is director.
A charity-school is joined to the
normal school. The institution
has its own buildings, where the
pupils have lodging and board.

154
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
No.
Number
Place.
Year of
founda-
of
masters
Number
Income.
tion.
and their
assist-
ants.
of
scholars.
Length
of resi-
dence.
Number of free
scholarships and
exhibitions.
Remarks.
10 Alt-Stettin.
Protestant.
1735.
2909 thlr.
5
IV. POMERANIA.
32
2 years.
11
Cöslin.
Protestant.
1816.
2516 thlr.
4
34
2 years.
(2436 thlr.
from the
state trea-
sury).
12 Greifswald.
Protestant.
1791.
206 thlr.
2
5
19 gr. 4 pf.
not fixed.
600 thlr. a-year
are entered in the
state-budget for
the support of the
pupils.
The state gives
yearly, as a dona-
tion, 36 thlr. for 3
pupils, 24 for 17
others, and 12
more for 170thers.
The state gives
128 thlr. 9 grosch.
1 pfen., for the
support of the pu-
pils.
Mr. Grassmann, assessor to the
consistory, is director. The insti-
tution is in a place which it hires,
and where some pupils are lodged
gratis; but in a short time it will
have a place of its own.
Mr. Runge is director. The in-
stitution has its own edifice, which
must shortly be rebuilt from the
foundation. The pupils lodge in
the bouse, but board in the town.
The elementary school of the town
serves as a school for practice.
This normal school will be
wholly reorganized, and the esta-
blishment of a new normal school
for Pomerania, at Cammin, has
been deferred, only because the
liquidation of the estates of the
chapter of Cammin, destined for
that purpose, has not yet been ac-
complished.

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
155
V. SILESIA.
2 years.
To 44 free scho- Mr. Hientsch is provisional di-
larships are at-rector. The building of the insti-
tached 829 thlr. 21 tution will be enlarged by the
gr. 5 pfen. per ann. purchase of the neighbouring house.
Admissions are The normal school has its school
granted altoge- for practice, and a private prepa-
ther, or half gratu- ratory class. Two masters and all
itously, according the pupils now lodge in the house;
to circumstances. the latter board there.
Besides the above,
26 thlr. 8 gr. 7 pf.
are entered in the
state budget, for
extraordinary do-
nations.
Breslau.
1768.
5038 thlr.
80
Protestant.
(3400 thlr.
from the
state trea-
sury).
Breslau.
Catholic.
1765.
3137 thlr.
6
75
2 years.
(786 thlr.
from the
state trea-
sury).
The state gives
for dinners for 31
pupils, 587 thlr.
17 gr. 2 pf., and
65 thlr. 12gr.10pf.
as extraordinary
donations.
Mr. Wurst, an ecclesiastic, is di-
rector. He, with one of the head
teachers, and all the pupils who are
boarded, live in the normal school,
in which is the school for practice.
13
14
156
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
Number
of
No.
Place.
Year of
founda-
tion.
Income.
masters
and their
Number
of
scholars.
Length
of resi-
dence.
assist-
ants.
15
Buntzlau.
Protestant.
1816.
3700 thlr.
15
83
They
serve
also for
the or-
phan.
house to
which the
normal
school is
annexed.
2 years.
16 Ober-Glogau.
Catholic.
1801.
2625 thlr.
4
67
2 years.
1 gr. 5 pf.
(325 thlr.
from the
depart-
mental fund
of Oppeln,
and 2300
thlr. from
the funds of
Neuzelle.)
Number of free
scholarships and
exhibitions.
One sum of 36
thlr. yearly is fixed
for 19 pupils, and
for 22 others an-
other sum of 18
thlr.; 12 Lusacians
receive 36 thlr.
yearly. Eatables
to this amount are
given them by the
orphan-house.
Remarks.
Mr. Hoffmann, a pastor, is di-
rector of these united establish-
ments. The institution possesses
spacious buildings, and some pieces
of land. A charity-school of the
town serves as school for practice.
The institution was originally a
private foundation of Zahn, a mas-
ter mason of Bunzlau,and was first,
in 1744, a poor's school. In 1753, it
was erected into an orphan-house;
in 1805, it obtained an increase of
funds; in 1816, a primary normal
school was established there.
Mr. Müller, an ecclesiastic, is di-
The institution has its
own building, and a town-school
serves as school for practice.
1080 thlr. are en-
tered in the state-rector.
budget for the sup-
port of 36 pupils.
Latterly this sum
has been made to
furnish dinners for
52 pupils.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
157
17 Bromberg.
Hitherto con
mon to both
churches, but
henceforth
Protestant.
VI. POSEN.
1819.
2633 thlr.
10 grosch.
4
51
2 years.
518 thlr. 10 gr.
per ann. are al-
lowed by the state
for the support of
the pupils.
18 free scholar-
ships.
Mr. Grützmacher, pastor, is di-
rector. Care will be taken to pro-
cure for the institution a building
of its own, the place where it now
is being dilapidated.
Catholic director wanting. The
provisionary director, Mr. Grus-
The
czynski, is a protestant.
normal school has its own build-
ing, gardens, and a school for
practice of three classes, with 266
scholars.
18
Posen.
1804.
4205 thlr.
5
40
3 years.
Hitherto com-
from the
mon to both
churches, but
henceforth
Catholic.
provincial
funds of
Posen.
VII. SAXONY.
19 Magdeburg.
1790.
3607 thlr.
12
70
2 years.
Reorga- 2 grosch.
24 pupils have
free commons.
Protestant.
nized in 6 pfen.
1824.
Mr. Zerrenner, a consistory and
school-councillor, is director.
There are but 2 other masters ex-
clusively attached to the institu-
tion. The rest are assistants, and
principally town schoolmasters,
who are found to be qualified for
the institution. The normal school
has its own building, where the
pupils are lodged and boarded, as
well as its school for practice.
158
Number
Remarks.
12
Mr. Brederlow, pastor, is di-
rector. The place of head master
is only filled provisionally. The
institution has its own building in
an ancient canonry, where the di-
rector, two masters, and the pupils
live. It is in connexion with two
schools.
No.
Place.
Year of
founda-
tion.
Income.
of
masters
and their
Number Length
Number of free
ussist-
of
scholars.
of resi-
dence.
scholarships and
exhibitions.
ants.
20 Halberstadt.
Protestant.
1778.
2145 thlr.
4
43
2 years.
6 gr. 1 pf
To support
pupils, there is a
sum of 360 thlr.
(1100 thlr.
2 gr. 6 pf.
from the
foundation
of the con-
vent ofBerg.
717 thlr.
3 gr. 7 pf.
from the
funds of the
state.)
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
21 Weissenfels.
Protestant.
1794.
3207 thlr.
6
61
2 years.
18 gr 5 pf.
(1200 thlr.
8 town exhibi-
tions, each of 30
thlr.; and 4 an-
from the
state funds,
and 1266
thlr. 7 gr.
6 pf. from
the royal
purse of
Saxony, for
the pupils.)
The
Dr. Harnisch is director.
institution has its own buildings,
and large gardens, but it will pro-
cient royal exhibi-bably be removed from the suburbs
tions of 30 thlr. to the convent of St. Clara. The
To these 12 exhi- pupils lodge and board in the in-
bitions are added stitution. A numerous suburban
20 thlr. in paper school, in the same house, serves
money: There are as school for practice.
11 new royal exhi-
bitions, each of 24
th.; and a knights'
exhibition, of 24th.


PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
159
Q
N
Erfurt.
Common to
both
churches.
1820.
Provi-
sionally.
:.
13
113 in
1824.
The nor-
3 years.
mal num-
ber, or
comple-
ment, is
80.
its establish-
At present it
One master
The institution is under the pro-
visional direction of Mr. Hahn, a
regency-and school-councillor,who
contributed by the great success
of his exertions to
ment and support.
has no fixed income.
only and an inspector are employ-
ed exclusively for the normal
school; the rest have other occu-
pations besides; some teach gra-
tuitously, others for very small
fees. The site of the institution is
the ancient convent of the Au-
gustins. Several other institutions
are in connexion with the normal
school; a model school, a school
of artisans, a higher school for
girls, and an institution for the
deaf and dumb. When removed
to a building of its own, it will be
completely organized and simpli-
fied.
160
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
No.
23
Number
Place.
Year of
founda-
of
masters
Number
Income.
and their
tion.
of
scholars.
Length
of resi-
dence.
assist-
ants.
Soest.
Protestant.
Number of free
sholarships and
exhibitions.
VIII. WESTPHALIA.
This
3070 thlr.
5
57
2 years.
normal
school
(2506 thlr.
from the
was for state funds.)
merly at
Wesel;
after the
occupa-
tion of
that town
by the
French,
it was
trans-
ferred to
Söst.
Remarks.
1000 thlr. are di-
vided into 36 exhi-
; 16 of 25
bitions
thlr.; 10 others,
30 thlr.; and the
remaining 10, 40
thlr. per ann.
The
Mr. Ehrlich is director.
greater part of a secularised con-
vent was granted to the institution
in 1818. The school of that quarter
of the town in which the normal
school is situated, has served,
since 1819, as the school for prac-
tice; 44 pupils, the director, and
the music-master lodge in the in-
stitution, but board elsewhere.

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
161
24
Büren,
catholic.
1825.
about
3
on
4000 thlr.
M
from the
25
Neuwied,
1818.
2999 thlr.
protestant. Organiz- 17 gr. 6 pf.
ed defi-
БО
2 years.
Mr. Klocke, the curate, is di-
rector. A part of an old jesuit
college has been assigned to the
institution. A school for practice,
consisting of two classes, will also
be established. This normal school
will shortly be opened.
IX. AND X. RHENISH PROVINCES.
4
38
2 years.
3
30
2 years.
are
1130 thlr.
granted for
for the
pupils; so that 3
receive 80 per
ann.; 4, 50; 5, 49;
8, 30; and 10, 25.
The same as Neu-
wied.
|
Mr. Braun is director. The in-
stitution has its own building, in-
habited by the director, the head
master, and the pupils. Those
among them who receive an exhi-
bition of 80 thlr. are bound to
give lessons to the younger scho-
lars.
Mr. Diesterweg is director. The
institution has its own buildings,
and its own school for practice.
The directors, masters, and pupils
live in the house, and the pupils
board there. Those who receive an
exhibition of 80 thlr. are under the
same obligation as the scholars at
Neuwied.
nitively state funds.
in 1823.
26
Meurs,
protestant.
1820.
Organiz-
ed defi-
3000 thlr.
12 gr. 6 pf.
from the
nitively state funds.
in 1823.
162
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.

Number
Number of free
scholarships and
exhibitions.
No.
Place.
Year of
founda-
tion.
Income.
of
masters
and their
Number
Length
assist-
of
scholars.
of resi-
dence.
ants.
27
Brühl,
catholic.
1823.
6661 thlr.
5
100
2 years.
10 gr.
(6599 thlr.
10 gr.
from the
state funds).
Remarks,
3150 thlr. are di-
vided into 87 exhi-
bitions, which are
Mr. Schweizer, an ecclesiastic, is
director. The building, inhabited
by all the masters and pupils, was
thus distributed. | formerly a convent of Franciscans.
Those who receive an exhibition
of 80 thlr. are under the like obli-
gation to teach the younger ones.
Hitherto, there have been but four
masters.
Among 6 scholars,
80 per ann.;
among 12 others,
50; among 15, 40;
among 24, 30;
lastly 25, among
30.
1 and There is nothing
2 years. fixed for the sup-|
port of the pupils.
The pu-
Mr. Schülzgen, curate, has been
director, since the resignation of
the canon, Mr. Dewora.
pils lodge with the citizens of
Trier, or in the houses belonging
to the suburb of St. Matthew,
The lessons are given in a room
in the curate's house.
735 thlr.
2
45
from the
state funds.

28 St. Matthew,
at Trier,
catholic.
1910.
It was
broken
up during
the war
in 1813,
and re-
establish
ed in
1816.

PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
163
The foregoing table gives the following results:
Of these twenty-eight establishments, only
fourteen existed before 1806; and, again,
amongst these there were three which were not
then definitively constituted normal schools, viz.
those of Königsberg, Jenkau, and Buntzlau.
All the others have been founded either since
the war or even during the war, but chiefly
since the peace of 1815. It follows, then, that
since 1808 there have been established seven-
teen primary normal schools, of which twelve
date from 1816.
The cost of the support of these establish-
ments, without counting that of Erfurt, which
has not yet a fixed revenue, amounts to 99,815
thlr. 7 gr. 11 pfen. (14,9727. 6s.) per annum.
Fifteen hundred pupils are instructed there;
so that each pupil costs 66 thlr. (97. 18s.) per
annum.
897 pupils remain in the normal schools two
years, and 483 three years; but, for 120, the
time of stay is not fixed. There leave annually
161 of those who stay three years, and, in all,
609 per annum, who are called Candidaten.
We must reckon nearly 21 more who quit those
normal schools where the length of stay is not
fixed, which brings the number of well-prepared
candidates to 630; and if we include about 120
of those who quit, with adequate acquirements,
the small normal schools, we shall find that the
primary normal schools of Prussia, altogether,
annually furnish 750 candidates.
Now, according to the census of 1821, it has
been seen that there were in the whole king-
dom 21,885 schoolmasterships. Here, then,
M 2
164
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
are about 21,000 places for the candidates who
quit the normal schools. If, again, from these
750 annual candidates, we deduct a fifteenth
who change their career, who leave the profes-
sion of schoolmaster, or who become preceptors
in private families, there remain for the 21,000
schoolmasterships, 700 new applicants every
year, that is, three for every hundred places.
Up to the present time the proportion of new
masters annually required has not been more
than two or three per cent. Supposing, then,
that we must reckon, that of a hundred places,
four annually become vacant, there will then
be wanted, for the whole kingdom, 840 can-
didates per annum; so that to complete this
number will require 140 candidates who have
not yet quitted the normal schools, and who
do not always give all the necessary assurance
of fitness. This number will diminish by de-
grees, when a decided preference shall every-
where be given to the candidates from the nor-
inal schools. This preference has already been
recommended to all the parish authorities by a
ministerial ordinance; and it is the more just,
as each normal school pupil is obliged, for the
first three years after he has quitted, to accept
any place which government offers him.
It must also be considered, that if the places
of schoolmaster are eventually occupied by pu-
pils of the normal schools only, that is to say,
by persons, on an average, of twenty-four years
of age, we may calculate that in general they
will, one with the other, remain in office thirty-
three years and four months, and that thus there
will be annually only three places vacant out
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
165
of a hundred. 700 pupils from the normal
schools will then suffice for the 21,000 school-
masterships, and thus the existing number of
normal schools will be enough to supply the
whole kingdom with the required number of
schoolmasters, so that the humblest village
school shall be held by one thoroughly trained,
and able to fulfill his mission worthily.
Such are the results at which, since 1826,
the Prussian government has constantly aimed.
Towards this point it has regularly proceeded,
by the uninterrupted improvement of its nor-
mal schools. Since 1826 many small normal
schools, for example, Mühlhausen, Angerburg,
Bartzwitz, Gardeleben, Düsseldorf, Petersha-
gen, are almost become great normal schools,
with an increase of expenditure and of pupils.
I requested and obtained from the Prussi: n
government the budget of the expenses of the
great primary normal schools for the year 1831.
Now the sum in this budget is 101,553 thlr.
(16,5837.), whilst in 1826, by the table above,
it was only 99,000 thlr. (14,8507.). This
difference of 11,000 thlr. indicates a very con-
siderable progress.
In fact, in 1826 there
were only twenty-eight normal schools; in this
table there are thirty-three. It is also to be ob-
served, that there is no mention made of the
normal school of Königsberg, an omission
which I cannot at all understand. The follow-
ing table exhibits the cost of the great primary
normal schools of the Prussian monarchy during
the year 1831, province by province, with the
sum total of the outlay, and the part which the
state bears.
166
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.

No.
123
8
Provinces.
EAST & WEST PRUSSIA.
Normal School of Braunsberg
of Dexen
of Mühlhausen.
of Angerburg
of Karalene
of Marienburg
of Graudenz...
of Jenkau.
BRANDENBURG.
Total
Grants in aid
expenditure. from the state.
Thlr. s.g. pf.
Thlr. s.g. pf.
4149 10 9
2250 0 0
...
...
4440 11 9
2846 25 6
700 O 0
1590 0 0
6656 0 0
700 0 0
1300 0 0
0
5980 0 0
2147 10 0
2147 10 0
...
2050 16 3
2050 16 3
5311 18 1
9
of Berlin
2000 0 0
2000 0
0
10
of Potsdam
5430 0 0
11
of Neuzelle
11554 2 6
5430 O 0
6945 2
6
POMERANIA.
12
13
14
234
of Stettin
3410 0 0
3069 0
0
of Cöslin
2608 0 O
2556 O 0
of Bartzwitz......
250 0 0
250 0 ว
SILESIA.
15
16
of BreslauCath. 3287
S Prot.
4543 6 0
3287 0 O
3909 6 0
3287 0 0
17
of Bunzlau
3800 0 0
400 0 0
18
of Ober.Glogau
2700 0 0
2700 0 0
POSEN.
19
20
of Posen
4675 0 0
4675 0 0
||
21
22
23
24
25
26
of Bromberg
SAXONY.
of Halberstadt
of Magdeburg
of Gardeleben
of Weissenfels
of Erfurt
WESTPHALIA.
of Büren
2683 10 0
2633 10 0
...
...
2750 0 0
4782 0 0
685 0 0
3419 10 10
3706 0 0
2150 0 0
2650 0 0
685 0 0
2404 7
3255 0
2
0
4494 2 O
27
of Soest.....
3270 0 0
28
of Petershagen
522 15 0
4127 2 0
3120 0 0
300 0 0
CLEVE-BERG.
31
285
29
of Meurs
3000 12 6
30
of Düsseldorf
787 23 9
of Brühl
6809 5 이
​3000 12 6
100 20 10
6599 10 0
מא
מא
32
33
23
LOWER RHINE.
of Neuwied
village near Trier
2999 17 6
2999 17 6
of St. Matthew,
2155 0 0
500 0 0
Total
Or about
110553 3 8 88323 5 6
16,583 0 0 13,249 0 0
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
167
When, Sir, will France have reached this
high degree of prosperity in the business of
popular instruction? The law which you con-
template will make it imperative on each com-
mune to support a school; I trust it will equally
compel each department to support a primary
normal school, great or small, according to the
extent, population and wealth of the department,
and to the number of masters wanted each year.
Here, above all, it is for you to originate and
to superintend; and there can be no better em-
ployment of the funds entrusted to you by
the Chambers, for the promotion of the educa-
tion of the people.
Impressed with the high importance of nor-
mal schools in general, and with the excellence
of those in Prussia, I have minutely examined
these establishments, and beg permission, Sir,
to devote to them a distinct chapter of this
report.
168
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
SIR,
III.
OF PRIMARY NORMAL SCHOOLS.
You are already acquainted with the title of
the law of 1819, which institutes primary nor-
mal schools, and lays down the principles of
their organization*. You also know what was
the number of them in 1826 and in 1831, the
number of the scholars, that of the masters,
and what each school cost the province and the
state. We must now proceed to survey the in-
terior of these establishments, and to observe
their discipline, their plan of study, and their
moral and intellectual government. On these
points I shall lay before you a mass of details,
which the importance of the subject will, I hope,
justify in your eyes. I shall not hesitate to
multiply official documents and information, of
which I have collected a great quantity, chiefly
in manuscript. I shall give them frequently with-
out any abridgement, that facts may speak for
themselves, and may produce their own proper
effect. I shall reserve to the end the reflections
suggested to me by an attentive examination of
these documents, and by the verification of them
by personal visits to the most celebrated nor-
mal schools of Prussia.
I begin with the small normal schools. But
as these are almost all private establishments,
the state, though it watches over them, does not
* See p. 62.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
169
subject them to the same publicity it requires of
its great schools. These lesser schools court
obscurity rather than display. This is their hap-
piness and their merit. But it renders it diffi-
cult to know them. I have, however, succeeded
in procuring the regulations of some of them.
The small normal schools differ, generally,
from the large, not only in the number of pupils,
which is much smaller, but above all as being
nurseries of village schoolmasters for the very
poorest parishes. This is their proper object; this
it is which gives them so peculiar a character, so
profound a utility. The great schools, it is true,
furnish masters for the country as well as for
the towns; and their pupils,-those at least who
receive the stipendia, or exhibitions,-are for
many years at the disposal of the government,
which sends them where it likes; a right which,
from the well-known rigour of the Prussian go-
vernment in making all public servants work,
we may be sure it exercises. But in every coun-
try there are parishes so poor, that one would
hesitate to send a schoolmaster of any eminence
to live in them; and yet it is precisely these
miserable villages which stand in the greatest
need of instruction to improve their condition.
This need, then, the small normal schools are
destined to supply. They labour for these poor
and backward villages. To this their whole or-
ganization, their studies, their discipline, are to
be directed. Unquestionably, the great normal
schools of Prussia are entitled to the highest re-
spect; but never can there be veneration enough
for these humble labourers in the field of public
170
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
į
instruction, who, as I have said, seek obscurity
rather than fame; who devote themselves to the
service of poverty with as much zeal as others
to the pursuit of riches, since they toil for the
poor alone; and who impose restraints on every
personal desire and feeling, while others are
excited by all the stimulants of competition.
They cost scarcely anything, and they do infi-
nite good. Nothing is easier to establish,-but
on one condition, that we find directors and pu-
pils capable of the most disinterested, and, what
is more, the most obscure, devotion to the cause.
Such devotion, however, can be inspired and kept
alive by religion alone. Those who can consent
to live for the service of men who neither know
nor can appreciate them, must keep their eyes
steadfastly fixed on Heaven: that witness is ne-
cessary to those who have no other. And, ac-
cordingly, we find that the authors and directors
of these small schools are almost all ministers
of religion, inspired by the spirit of Christian
love, or men of singular virtue, fervent in the
cause of popular education. In these humble
institutions, everything breathes Christian cha-
rity, ardour for the good of the people, and po-
verty. I shall lay before you a description of
two;-one hidden in a suburb of Stettin, and
the other in the village of Pyritz in Pomerania.
Stettin has a large normal school, instituted
for the training of masters for the burgher
schools. An excellent man, Mr. Bernhardt,
school-councillor (Schulrath) in the council of
the department, was the more powerfully struck
by the necessity of providing for the wants
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
171
of the country schools. He founded a small
normal school for this sole purpose, and placed
it, not in the town, but in a suburb called
Lastadie: he laid down regulations for its go-
vernment, which I annex nearly entire.
Small Primary Normal School of Lastadie, near
Stettin.
1. This school is specially designed for poor young
men who intend to become country schoolmasters,
and who may, in case of need, gain a part of their
subsistence by the labour of their hands.
2. Nothing is taught here but those things neces-
sary for small and poor country parishes, which re-
quire schoolmasters who are Christians and useful
men, and can afford them but a very slender recom-
pense for their toils.
3. This school is intended to be a Christian school,
founded in the spirit of the Gospel. It aspires only
to resemble a village household of the simplest kind,
and to unite all its members into one family. To
this end, all the pupils inhabit the same house, and
eat at the same table with the masters.
4. The young men who will be admitted in pre-
ference, are such as are born and bred in the coun-
try; who know the elements of what ought to be
taught in a good country school; who have a sound
straightforward understanding, and a kindly cheer-
ful temper. If, withal, they know any handicraft,
or understand gardening, they will find opportu-
tunities for practice and improvement in it in odd
hours.
5. The school of Lastadie neither can nor will
enter into any competition with the great normal
schools completely organized; on the contrary, it will
strive always to keep itself within the narrow limits
assigned to it.
6. The utmost simplicity ought to prevail in all
172
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the habits of the school, and, if possible, manual la-
bour should be combined with those studies which
are the main object, and which ought to occupy the
greater portion of the time.
7. The course of instruction is designed to teach
young people to reflect, and by exercising them in
reading, writing, arithmetic, and singing, to put it in
their power to instruct themselves, and to form their
own minds. For the humblest peasant ought to be
taught to think; but to enlighten him, to make him
a rational and intelligent being, does not mean to
make him learned. "God willeth that all men be
enlightened, and that they come to the knowledge of
the truth."
8. The instruction ought to have a direct con-
nexion with the vocation of the students, and to in-
clude only the most essential part of the instruction
given in the great normal schools.
9. The objects of instruction are, religion, the Ger-
man language, reading, writing, arithmetic, and sing-
ing. To these are joined the first elements of geome-
try, easy lessons in natural history, narratives drawn
from the national history, (particularly that of Pome-
rania,) and geographical descriptions. The principal
object, and the foundation of all education, is reli-
gion, as learned from history and the Bible. The
principal books are the Bible, the psalter, and the ca-
techism. The school of Lastadie will also strive to
excite and cherish in its pupils a love of nature, and
to that end will cultivate a taste for gardening and
planting.
10. In treating of all these subjects, the pupils must
be trained to speak in pure and accurate language;
for after the knowledge of religion and of nature,
there is nothing of which the children of peasants
stand so much in need, as to learn to express what
they know with simplicity, truth, and accuracy.
11. The students know enough, when they speak,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
173
read, and write well; when they can produce a good
composition in the German tongue; when they can
calculate with facility and with reflection, and when
they sing well; they know enough, when they are
thoroughly versed in the Bible, when they possess
the most essential notions of the system of that uni-
verse which they have constantly before their eyes,
of that nature in the midst of which they live: they
have attained much, when they are Christian, rational,
and virtuous men.
12. The period of study is fixed at two years.
The first year the pupils learn what they are here-
after to teach to others; besides which, they assist
at the lessons the masters give to the children of the
school annexed to this small normal school. In the
second year the future teacher appears more distinct-
ly, and from that time everything is more and more
applied to practice. They continue the whole year
to practise teaching, and at the end they receive a
set of rules, short and easy to understand, for the ma-
nagement of a school of poor country children.
13. To the school of Lastadie is joined a school
of poor children, in which the young men have an
opportunity of going over what they have learned,
by teaching it to others, and of exercising themselves.
in tuition according to a fixed plan. This school
consists of a single class, in order that the students
may see how a good school for poor children should
be composed and conducted, and how all the chil-
dren may be kept employed at once.
14. The number of pupils is fixed at twelve. The
pecuniary assistance they receive will depend on cir-
cumstances. The instruction is gratuitous. Six
pupils inhabit each room. The master lives on the
same floor. They take their simple but wholesome
meals together. Servants are not wanted.
pupils do the work of the house.
The
174
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
15. The daily lessons begin and end with prayers
and psalmody. It rests with the master to fix the
hours of devotion, (founded chiefly on the Bible and
the book of psalms,) as well as their number. So long
as the true spirit of Christianity-faith quickened by
charity-shall pervade the establishment, and fill
the hearts of masters and of pupils, the school will be
Christian, and will form Christian teachers; and this
spirit of faith and of charity will be productive of
blessings to the poor and to the mass of the nation.
16. It will not, therefore, be necessary to lay
down minute regulations; but practical moral train-
ing must be combined as much as possible with in-
struction. "The letter killeth, the spirit quickeneth."
But what will it not require to imbue the whole es-
tablishment with the true spirit of Christianity, so
that masters and pupils may devote themselves with
their whole hearts, and for the love of God, to the
children of the poor?
17. Whoever wishes to be admitted into this esta-
blishment, must not be under eighteen nor above
twenty years of age. He must bring the certificates
of his pastor, of the authorities of his parish, and of
the physician of the circle, as to his previous con-
duct and the state of his health. He must, more-
over, have such preliminary knowledge as is to
be acquired in a well-conducted country school, on
Biblical history, reading, writing, arithmetic and
singing. Those who join to these acquirements the
principles of piano-forte or violin playing, will be
preferred. The candidates for admission give notice
to the director, and are examined by the members of
the departmental authorities who have the care of
the people's schools.
18. There is no public examination. The ex-
amination on quitting is likewise conducted by the
school-councillors of the department, and the certi-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
175
ficates of capacity are founded on this examination,
according to the gradations 1, 2, 3, and are delivered
by the departmental authorities.
19. As to the placing of the pupils, it is desirable
that they should work some years as assistant-mas-
ters, in order that they may gradually acquire the
necessary experience and confidence, and may be-
coine well acquainted with children, and with the
inhabitants of villages. Under this supposition, the
age of admission might be conveniently fixed at six-
teen; and this arrangement would be a great relief
to aged schoolmasters who are become burthensome
to themselves and to their parishes.
20. Particular attention is paid to singing and to
horticulture; as means of ennobling and animating
the public worship of God, and the general course of
a country life; of providing the pupils with an agree-
able recreation, and, at the same time, a useful oc-
cupation; and, further, of combating the grossness of
mind and the obstinate prejudices to which unedu-
cated husbandmen are prone.
21. All the students attend divine service in the
church of Lastadie on Sundays.
22. The vacations must not exceed four weeks
for the whole year: they are at Easter, in the autumn,
and at Christmas.
23. The establishment has no other revenues than
what it owes to the bounty of the minister of public
instruction. These funds are employed,-
1. In maintaining the poorest students.
2. In indemnifying the assistant masters of singing
and gardening.
3. In paying for the school tuition.
4. In paying the expenses of lodging the students.
5. In lighting and warming the school-room and
the two lodging-rooms.
6. In extraordinary expenses.
176
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
The expense of the meals taken at noon and even-
ing, in common, is also chiefly defrayed from these
grants; the students, however, contribute a little
from their own means.
The school of Lastadie pays the head master from
its own resources.
May this establishment, (concludes Mr. Bern-
hardt,) which owes its existence to such fervent
charity, not be deprived of that blessing, without
which it can do nothing!
Assuredly there is not a virtuous heart which
does not unite its prayers with those of the
worthy and benevolent councillor.
The second small normal school of this de-
scription was founded in 1824, in honour of
Otto, bishop of Bamberg, who introduced
Christianity into Pomerania, having baptized
4000 Pomeranians in 1124 near the fountain
of Pyritz. When the minister of public in-
struction granted the license for its establish-
ment, he made it a condition that the students
should be instructed in agriculture, not merely
as a recreation, but as essential to their desti-
nation; that they should be bound to study
gardening, the cultivation of fruit-trees, and of
silk-worms. The special superintendence of
this house is entrusted to the pastor of the
place. The regulations are as follows:-they
resemble those of Lastadie in many respects,
but go into greater detail, and are perhaps
still more austere as to discipline.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
177
Rules of the small Normal School of Pyritz in Pome-
rania.
I.
1. The purpose of this endowment is to give to
every pupil the training and instruction suitable for
a good and useful country schoolmaster: this, how-
ever, can only be done by the union of Christian
piety with a fundamental knowledge of his vocation,
and with good conduct in the household and in the
school.
2. Piety is known—
By purity of manners;
By sincerity in word and deed;
By love of God and of his word;
By love of our neighbour;
By willing obedience to superiors and masters;
By brotherly harmony among the pupils;
By active participation in the pious exercises of
the house, and of public worship;
By respect for the king, our sovereign, by un-
shaken fidelity to our country, by uprightness of
heart and of conduct..
3. A thorough knowledge of the duties of a teacher
are acquired-
By long study of the principles and elements;
By learning what is necessary and really useful in
that vocation;
By habits of reflection and of voluntary labour;
By constant application to lessons;
By incessant repetition and practice;
By regular industry and well-ordered activity ;
according to this commandment, "Pray and work."
4. Good conduct in the house and the school re-
quires-
A good distribution and employment of time;
N
178
FRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
Inflexible order, even in what appears petty and
insignificant ;
Silence in hours of study and work ;
Quietness in the general demeanour ;
Care and punctuality in the completion of all
works commanded ;
Decent manners towards every person and in
every place: decorum at meals;
Respect for the property of the school, and for
all property of others;
The utmost caution with regard to fire and light;
Cleanliness of person and of clothing;
Simplicity in dress, and in the manner of living;
according to the golden rule, "Every thing in its
time and place. Let things have their course.
Provide things honest in the sight of all men."-
Rom. xii. 16, 17.*
II.
1. All the pupils inhabit one house and one room;
for they must live in union, and form one family of
brothers, loving one another.
2. The whole order of the house rests on the
master of the school; he lives in the midst of the
pupils; he has the immediate superintendence of
them, of their conduct, and of their labours. He ought
to be to those under his care what a father of a
Christian family is in his household.
He is responsible for the accounts of the esta-
blishment, the registers, the result of the quarterly
examinations, and for the formation of the necessary
lists. He has the special care of the provisions, the
*I do not happen to have the French version of the Bible.
The texts as quoted by M. Cousin do not agree with those in
our version. Ver. 11. is rendered by Luther, Schichet euch in
die Zeit, Adapt yourselves to the time; which is not given in our
version. The next clause above, I find neither in his version nor
in ours.TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
179
rooms, the library, the furniture. He is responsible
to the school-administration for good order in every
department.
3. The oldest and most intelligent of the students
assists the master. He is called the master's assist-
ant. He must take care-
That every one in the room under his care rises
and goes to bed at the appointed moment:
That nobody, without the master's permission,
leave the house, smoke, or carry candles into the
passages or the loft:
That no one wantonly injure the windows, doors,
or furniture, or throw anything out of the windows:
That the utmost cleanliness be observed in the
sitting-room, the passage, and the sleeping-room;
That all clothes, linen, books, &c., be in their places;
That no noise be made in going up and down
stairs, or in going to the children's school.
He
It is his especial business to help his companions
in the preparation of their lessons, to hear them re-
peat, to prepare the exercises for the master, and to
assist him as far as he can in all his business.
ought to be to his fellow-students what a good elder
brother is to his younger brothers and sisters. He
is chosen, on the master's recommendation, by the
school-committee.
4. The humbler sort of household work, such as
cleaning and putting in order the rooms, dusting the
furniture, fetching water, cleaving wood, &c., is done
by the pupils, who serve a week in rotation. The
time of service is prolonged by order of the master,
in case of negligence.
5. The order of the day is as follows:
In winter at five, in summer at half-past four in
the morning, at a given signal, all the pupils must
rise, make their beds, and dress.
Half an hour after rising, that is at half-past five
N 2
180
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
in winter, and five in summer, all the pupils must be
assembled in the school-room. The assistant first
pronounces the morning benediction, and each pupil
then occupies himself in silence till six. If any re-
petitions stand over from the preceding day, they
must be heard now. After this, breakfast.
In winter, as well as in summer, the lessons be-
gin at six o'clock, and last till a quarter before eight.
Then the students go with their master to the child-
ren's school, attached to the normal school, where
they remain till ten, either listening, or assisting in
teaching some small classes; or they may be em-
ployed in their own studies at home.
To these employments succeeds an hour of recre-
ation, and then an hour's lesson in the establish-
ment.
At noon, the students assemble in the master's
room, where they find a frugal but wholesome meal,
consisting of vegetables, meat and fish, at the rate of
two thaler (six shillings) a month.
The time which remains, till one o'clock, may be
passed in music, gardening, or walking.
In the afternoon, from one till three, while the
master is teaching in the town school, the pupils ac-
company him, as in the morning. From three till
five, lessons.
The succeeding hours, from five till seven, are,
according to the seasons, employed in bodily exer-
cises, or in the school-room in quiet occupations.
At seven they assemble at a simple cold supper.
From seven to eight they practise singing and the
violin; then repetitions or silent study till ten, when
all go to bed.
Two afternoons of each week are free, and are
usually spent in long walks. The time from four
to six, or from five to seven, is devoted to the prac--
tice of music.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
181
On Sundays or holydays all the pupils must attend
divine service in the church of the town, and assist
in the choir. The remainder of these days may be
passed by every one as he pleases: in the course of
the morning, however, the students must write down
the heads of the sermon (the text, the main subject,
the distribution), and in the evening must give an ac-
count of the manner in which they have spent the day.
Every evening, as well as on the mornings of
Sundays and holydays, a portion of time is spent in
meditation in common.
A few Sundays after the setting-in of winter, and
after the festival of St. John*, the students partake
of the Lord's supper, in company with their masters.
Every student, from the time of his admission,
must solemnly engage (in token of which he gives
his hand to the master and signs his name) to follow
the rules of the house, which may be summed up in
these three principal maxims:-
1. Order in behaviour and in work, combined
with the utmost simplicity in all things; to the end
that the students who belong to the poorer classes,
and whose destiny it is to be teachers of the poor,
may willingly continue in that condition, and may
not learn to know wants and wishes which they will
not, and ought not to have the power of satisfying.
For this reason they must be their own servants.
2. As to the course of instruction, the repetitions
must always be heard by the forwardest pupils. The
pupils must be made, as much as possible, to teach
each other what they have learned of the master, in
order that they may perfect themselves in the art of
teaching.
3. Piety and the fear of God should be the soul
of their little community, but a true Christian piety,
* May 6th.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
a fear of God according to knowledge and light, so
that the pupils may do all to the glory of God, and
may lead a simple, humble and serene life, resigned
and contented in labour and travail, according to the
exhortation of the Apostle:
"Fulfill ye my joy, that ye be like-minded, having
the same love, being of one accord, of one mind.
Let nothing be done through strife or vainglory;
but in lowliness of mind let each esteem other better
than themselves."—Philipp. ii. 2, 3.
"And as many as walk according to this rule,
peace be on them and mercy!”—Galat. vi. 16.
I abstain from all comment on these two sets
of regulations, which seem to have been dictated
by the spirit of St. Vincent de Paule. The
greater number of the small normal schools of
Prussia are founded and governed in the same
spirit. All rest on the sacred basis of Christi-
anity. But beneath their simple lowly exterior we
trace a taste for instruction, a feeling for nature, a
love of music, which take away every vestige of
coarseness, and give these modest institutions
a character of liberality. Undoubtedly all this
is the offspring of the national manners, and of
the genius of Germany; yet Christian charity
might transplant a good deal of it into our
France; and I should esteem myself happy, if
the regulations of the little schools of Lastadie
and of Pyritz were to fall into the hands of
some worthy ecclesiastic, some good curate or
village pastor, who would undertake such an
apostolic mission as this.
The great normal schools exhibit a character
rather different. They form the masters for the
two degrees of primary instruction; that is to
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183
say, for the elementary schools and the burgher
schools. The law of 1819, which institutes
them, deferred their organization to ulterior
ordinances; and it is impossible too much to
admire the zeal and constancy with which the
ministry of public instruction has laboured at
the perfecting of these noble establishments.
In the first place, to that ministry they belong.
It is the parish which supports the parochial
school; it is the provinces and the state which
combine to maintain the normal schools. The
government organizes the system and appoints
the masters; while the provincial school-autho-
rity, that is to say, the school-board (Schul-
collegium), is charged with the superinten-
dence. Thus every normal school is depart-
mental as to its destination, (which is, to furnish
masters to the department or regency in which it
is situated;) but it is responsible only to the pro-
vince and the state; we may indeed affirm, that
it is the state-the ministry of public instruc-
tion and ecclesiastical affairs-which has the
principal share in the progress these institutions
have made in the very short space of time from
1825 to 1831.
The first thing to do was, to secure the stu-
dies of the normal schools from all interruption,
by exempting the students from military ser-
vice. As long ago as the 27th of May 1819,
the law exempted schoolmasters who were in
the active exercise of their calling from service
in the army on duty, and from the first ban or
levy of the Landwehr, and placed them in the
second levy; always understood, that these ex-
:
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
184
emptions were only to have force in time of
peace. A new decision, of the 26th of June
1822, settled all the conditions under which a
schoolmaster was enrolled in the second levy of
the Landwehr. A circular, of the 4th of Sep-
tember 1826, which I transmit to you, con-
firms all the previous decisions, and enjoins the
commandants of provinces to exempt all school-
masters from the periodical drill of the first
levy.
But it was not sufficient to establish these
regulations in favour of the acting schoolmas-
ters. It was necessary to apply them to the
pupils of normal schools. This was done by
a Cabinet-order of the 29th of November 1827,
confirmed and amplified in a circular of the 5th
of January 1829, the principal provisions of
which I subjoin.
1. So long as the pupils remain at the primary
normal schools, they can neither be called out in the
active army nor in the Landwehr; and this is in so
far a departure from the instructions of the 30th of
June 1817, concerning recruiting, which require an
uninterrupted service in the active army up to the
age of twenty-two inclusive.
2. The pupils of the normal schools shall draw
lots, like other young men of twenty of the class
called out. They shall be exempted from all ser-
vice till the expiration of their time at the normal
school. Then, whether they have drawn the lot for
the line or for the reserve, they must serve six weeks,
for the purpose of learning military exercises.
3. In order that the candidates for schoolmaster-
ships may go through their six weeks of drill, when
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
185
they have drawn either for the line or the reserve,
(conformably with the order of the 29th November
1827,) the provincial consistories shall arrange so as
to make the conclusion of the courses of the normal
schools coincide as nearly as possible with the be-
ginning of the time of drill; that is, about the 1st of
April.
4. The candidates cannot be fixed as schoolmas-
ters till after they shall have fulfilled these condi-
tions of the law concerning military service. The
candidates for the higher class of tuition shall enjoy
the same advantages as those of the primary normal
schools, when they leave the normal schools devoted
to the learned professions (Seminaria theologica, phi-
lologica, &c.).
Nay, further; a Cabinet-order of the 24th of
December 1829, a circular of the minister-at-
war of the 4th of February 1830, another
Cabinet-order of the 20th of February of the
same year, followed by a ministerial circular of
the 27th, reduce all the military exercises before
required of schoolmasters and of candidates who
have just quitted the normal schools, to a
month's duty in the active army, at whatever
time they themselves choose. Such is the pre-
sent state of things; and it is as little burthen-
some as it can be in a military state like Prussia.
The preceding measures protected the pri-
mary normal schools against the vexatious in-
terruptions of military service. I add another,
which secures to the candidates, on their quit-
ting the normal schools, almost an exclusive
appointment to masterships. It is dated the
1st of June 1826, that is, the time when normal
186
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
schools were established in all parts of the
kingdom, completely organized and in full ac-
tivity. It could not be anterior to that time,
for this would have been to demand privileges
for normal schools before it was certain that
they deserved them.
Circular of the 1st of June 1826.
1. In all nominations of schoolmasters dependent
on the king's government, particular regard shall be
had to the pupils of the higher normal school of the
province who are furnished with certificates of fit-
ness; and so long as there are any such unprovided
for, it shall not be lawful to take young men trained
to the business of schoolmaster in any other manner.
2. Parishes which have the right of election or
presentation to schoolmasterships, shall be subject
to the same rule.
3. Private founders of schools shall also be re-
commended to choose pupils of the normal schools
in preference; at all events they can appoint only
such persons as are furnished with a certificate of
examination, attesting their fitness for the office.
4. The certificate attesting the fitness for being
placed at the head of a school must in every case be
given by the director and masters of a higher normal
school, and countersigned by the school-councillor
of the regency.
5. The examinations on which are founded the
certificates of fitness granted to candidates who have
not been educated in a higher normal school, shall
take place at certain periods announced in the news-
paper of the district in which the normal school is
situated; in compliance with Article 10 of the circular
now addressed, together with these presents, to the
school-boards of the provincial consistories.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
187
6. Persons who, without having been trained at a
higher normal school, shall desire to pass their exa-
mination as teachers, shall apply to the authorities
for that purpose, and shall transmit,
a.) The certificate of a physician;
b.) An account of their lives, written by them-
selves;
c.) The requisite proofs and certificates, showing
that they have received a good education, generally,
and that they have, in particular, prepared themselves
for the business of a schoolmaster;
d.) The certificate of the local authorities and the
pastor, attesting that they have hitherto led an irre-
proachable life, and have the moral and religious
qualities fitting them for the office of teacher.
7. The members of the royal administration are
hereby directed to examine these certificates, to
make scrupulous inquiries, and not to require the
higher normal school to examine the applicant until
after they have obtained the most perfect conviction
that there is nothing to object to him, physically
or morally.
8. Students thus examined and judged duly qua-
lified, must, notwithstanding, without exception,
serve as provisional schoolmasters for one, two, or
three years; but this term may be shortened for those
who particularly distinguish themselves. At the
expiration of that time, they cannot be definitively
appointed till after they have given fresh proof of
their capability. It shall, however, rest with the
royal administration to decide whether or not a new
examination is necessary.
9. Every candidate who has been examined and
declared duly qualified, but has not immediately re-
ceived an appointment, must give notice to the royal
administration of the place he intends to reside in.
He will then be under the special superintendence of
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the school-inspector, who will make regular reports.
on his studies and conduct.
10. A student who has been expelled from school,
or who has quitted it voluntarily and without a
parting certificate, must in no case be admitted to
examination, and still less appointed to a place as
schoolmaster.
The privilege of recruiting the ranks of pri-
mary instruction, not to the exclusion of, but
in preference to, all others, secured the pros-
perity of the normal schools, and attracted a
great number of students to them. Having
gained this point, and being perfectly sure of
never wanting students, the minister was en-
abled to subject these establishments to very
strong internal measures, which gradually raised
their character, and rendered them more and
more worthy of their high mission, of the fa-
vour and bounty of the government, and of the
confidence of the people.
The first measure was to institute a severe
system of examinations at quitting, which
confer the quality of candidate for schoolmaster-
ships; to grant, at first, only a provisional
nomination, and from time to time to summon
back to the normal school candidates already
appointed, in order to perfect their education.
In this point of view, the following circular
merits the utmost attention. Its date is the
same as that of the foregoing circular. The
very day a privilege was conferred, it be-
came matter of strict justice to take such steps
that it might be certain to be deserved, and
might not degenerate into a barren monopoly.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
189
Second Circular of the 1st of June 1826.
1. From this time forward, (as indeed has been
practically the case in most instances hitherto,) all
the great primary normal schools in the kingdom
shall subject all students quitting school to rigorous
examinations at the seasons fixed for the departures.
2. The pupils shall be examined by the masters
of the school in all the branches of knowledge taught
in the establishment, in the presence and under the
direction of one or more commissioners deputed by
the school-board. The superintendent, the principal
pastor, and in general all clergymen, shall be per-
mitted to be present at these examinations, which,
however, are not to be public.
3. The examinations shall also include a trial of
the student's manner of teaching, by which to judge
of his peculiar aptitude for his profession.
4. According to the result of these examinations,
and especially after requiring the precise and consci-
entious opinion of the director and masters of the
school, each of the students about to leave shall re-
ceive a parting certificate (Abiturienten-Schein), given
by the director and masters, and countersigned by the
commissioners.
5. This certificate must not only testify to the
different branches of knowledge acquired in the
school, but moreover to the ability to teach, to the
moral fitness for the functions of schoolmaster, to the
conduct and character. It ought also to notify what
may reasonably be hoped from the examinee hereafter.
All this must be conscientiously set forth, and at the
end, summed up in these words, 'excellent', 'suffi-
cient' (or 'good'), 'passable', (vorzüglich, hinlänglich,
nothdürftig,) and marked by the numbers 1, 2 and 3.
6. This certificate only renders the candidate eligi-
ble to an appointment for three years. At the end
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of that time, he must present himself for a second
examination at the normal school. Nevertheless,
any student who has received a certificate No. 1.
('excellent'), and who is immediately placed as teacher
in a public school, is not required to go through a
second examination; all others can only be installed
provisionally.
7. The second examination is not to take place at
the same time as the parting examinations, but in the
presence, under the direction, and with the participa-
tion of the school-councillors, at a fixed time for each
primary normal school.
8. As the special object of the parting examina-
tions is to ascertain whether the students have com-
pletely mastered the course of instruction given in
the school; whether they thoroughly understand it,
and are competent to communicate it to others, the
second examinations ought not to bear immediately
on the instruction received in the school, but ought
to be directed to the general solidity of attainments,
the tendency and the originality of views, and parti-
cularly to the practical skill and capacity.
9. A certificate shall likewise be delivered as to the
result of this examination, and annexed to the former.
It shall express in how far the hopes conceived have
been justified, surpassed or deceived, and that in a
precise manner; it shall also specify what branch of
public instruction may be most advantageously con-
fided to the candidate.
10. At the same time, and according to the same
principles, shall be held the examinations of candi-
dates who have not been trained in the higher normal
schools, and whom the royal administration shall send
for this purpose to a normal school. At the end of
the examination, such candidates are to be furnished,
like the others, with certificates, stating with the
greatest possible exactness the degree of their ac-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
191
quirements, of their ability, and above all of their
practical talents.
11. But in order that the beneficial influence of the
normal schools may extend to acting schoolmasters
who want assistance, or whose intelligence and know-
ledge make no progress, or even rather fall off, such
masters shall be recalled to the normal school for a
greater or less period of time, according to their wants;
either to go through a complete course of methodo-
logy, or to exercise themselves in some peculiar
branch, or to be subjected to the moral discipline of
the school; at the same time they shall be attached
to the boys' school. With regard to the manner of
carrying this measure into execution, the ministry
will be glad to receive the suggestions of the school-
board, after that body shall have consulted with the
provincial authorities.
12. Both for the purpose hereabove stated, and,
generally, to obtain an exact knowledge of the na-
ture and the wants of the schools in their regency,
the directors or head masters of the primary normal
schools must yearly, during their vacations, visit a
part of the regency or of the province for which
masters are trained in their establishment: in their
quality of commissioners, they shall examine into the
state of country schools; they shall render an account
of their observations to the ministerial authorities; a
copy of their report must also be sent to the school-
board, which will take the measures judged necessary,
and particularly that of summoning back to the nor-
mal schools masters who fall under the description
given in No. 11. The cost of these journeys shall be
taken from the funds of the province appropriated to
the improvement of primary instruction. These same
funds will also serve to defray the expense attending
the displacing of acting masters who have to go
through the course of methodology.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
13. It is expedient that the vacations of the pri-
mary normal schools be fixed in such a manner, that
the masters may be able to visit other establishments
of the same kind as their own, when in full activity.
But the provincial school-boards must be left to make
the necessary communications on this subject.
The ministry expects to receive in due time the
circumstantial report of all that shall have been done
and decided, conformably with the provisions of this
circular, by the school-board, in concert with the
royal authorities of the province.
We have already said, that the pupils of pri-
mary normal schools who receive exhibitions
from the government or from the provinces, are
bound, after going through the parting examina-
tion and being entered as candidates, to remain
three years at the disposal of the state, and to
accept any place which is offered them. This
obligation, a just acquittal for all the care and
all the cost bestowed upon them, is contained
in the following ministerial rescript of the 28th
February 1825.
The reports of the departmental authorities state,
that the candidates who have just quitted normal
schools, often refuse the schoolmasterships offered them,
under the pretext that they are not lucrative enough,
and try to gain a subsistence by giving private lessons
or becoming tutors in families. This is extremely in-
jurious, not only to the interests of the schools, but
to those of the young men themselves, who thus con-
tract wants that cannot be supplied on the salary of
a village schoolmaster, to which they are generally
obliged to have recourse at last. And as, moreover,
the heavy expense incurred by the state for the main-
tenance of normal schools is not incurred with a
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
193
view to the training of private tutors, it is ordered
as follows:
1. Every pupil of a primary normal school shall
be at the disposal of the regency in which the said
school is situate, for three years from the time of his
quitting it, and shall be bound to accept the school-
mastership assigned to him. No engagement he may
have contracted elsewhere will be accepted as an
excuse.
2. Whoever shall refuse to fulfill this obligation,
as soon as he is required, shall be bound to reimburse
the normal school for his expenses, viz.: the sum of ten
thaler (17. 10s.) for every half-year he was at the
school, over and above his board and lodging.
3. All the pupils now in primary normal schools shall
declare, with the consent of their parents, that they
bind themselves to fulfill the conditions of the present
decree, or shall immediately quit the school.
I have now lying before me a great number of
general measures taken by the minister of public
instruction for the progressive amelioration of
the normal schools, both as to moral discipline
and instruction. I shall describe some of these
measures, for the sake of making known the
spirit which presides over the management of
these important establishments,
The discipline is generally very severe. Thus
music, so natural and so dear to Germans, is
doubtless cultivated with great assiduity; but
the government does not suffer the students to
regard this acquirement as a source of mere
amusement, nor allow them to display it in
public concerts, which, though innocent, are of
a light character. It permits them to join
publicly in church-music alone. I find this re-
C
:
194
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
striction in a ministerial circular of the 8th of
June 1814.
I also find quoted, in a report of the normal
school of Soest, an order of the minister of pub-
lic instruction, declaring that any out-pupil of
a normal school who should be seen in a public-
house (cabaret) should be instantly expelled.
Indeed, it is obvious that the conduct of those
students who do not lodge in the school-house
must be subject to a special police, and that
is, in fact, everywhere the case. One of the
most useful things in the primary schools, and
particularly those in towns, is the gymnastic
training; consequently it is necessary to intro-
duce it into the normal schools. Though the
recollections attached to the gymnastic exer-
cises of the celebrated Jahn were not calculated
to render the Prussian government favourable
to them, it had the good sense to overcome
this natural repugnance, and to institute regular
gymnastic exercises in all the primary schools
of the monarchy, as we see from the following
circular.
Circular of the royal ministry of public instruction
and ecclesiastical and medical affairs, to all school-
boards, concerning the gymnastic exercises in pri-
mary normal schools.
February 26, 1827.
It is by no means the intention of the ministry to
introduce into primary normal schools, (and especially
those which have not annexed schools,) gymnastic
exercises classed among the regular objects of study,
systematically taught with the aid of a special appa-
ratus in halls or places set apart for the purpose, and
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
195
with a particular costume, all of which would lead to
the belief that the old gymnastic exercises (Turnen)
were re-established. This would be wholly contrary
to the intention of the ministry, to the object of the
primary normal schools, to the destination of the stu-
dents, to the station and character of the masters and
teachers, and to the system of those establishments,
as well with relation to the course of study, as to the
habits of life which are desirable for the pupils.
Nevertheless, it is expedient to take into consider-
ation, and to provide for, the physical training of the
pupils.
In the first place, on account of the health. Ex-
perience proves that the change in the manner of
living to which the pupils who enter these schools
must habituate themselves, is unquestionably detri-
mental to the health. Most of them, coming from
the country, are accustomed to live in the open air,
and have not been used to very assiduous mental
labour. At an age when the growth is not complete,
they must accustom themselves to a sedentary life, to
long and uninterrupted study, to change of diet;
they must give up the indulgences of home. They
are, moreover, exposed to trials which are really severe
and painful. They must curtail themselves of sleep;
work ten hours and more a day, in classes and rooms
full of people; sleep in hot rooms in summer, and in
cold ones in winter; go to work immediately after meals,
and employ even their hours of recreation in occupa-
tions in which the mind is still on the stretch. Such a
life must needs be unfavourable to health; and for that
very reason it is necessary to contrive bodily exercises
which prevent exhaustion, promote the free action of
all the organs, and preserve the elasticity, gaiety and
freshness of the mind. Nothing, moreover, can be
worse for a schoolmaster than to habituate himself
to too sedentary a life. In the first place, the taste
0 2
196
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
for such a life would be extremely injurious to the
school, where the example of a masculine and sustained
activity is absolutely indispensable; secondly, it would
favour an air of retirement and grandeur incompatible
with the position of a country schoolmaster, who is
usually forced to go through severe bodily labour for
the support of his family.
2. For the deportment and good carriage of the body.
Awkward and embarrassed manners justly make an
unfavourable impression, because they generally prove
that a man is coarse and ignorant, or at least, ill-
assured in the use of his faculties and his powers.
And as presence of mind, courage and firmness are
shown by physical address and ability, pure moral
sentiments by a decorous air, an amiable and gracious
temper by politeness and good manners; so, a good
and graceful carriage of the body re-acts on the moral
part, and strengthens the good qualities of the soul.
Moreover, physical address gives a man invaluable ad-
vantages in the inevitable accidents of life, both for
his own defense and the assistance of others in times
of danger. But it is above all things urgent that a
schoolmaster should have a decent and engaging ex-
terior, joined to physical strength, whereby he may
gain the esteem and confidence of the parents, and
the affection of the children.
3. Also on account of his calling. The future
master ought to be familiar with all that contributes
to the development of the body, and with all salutary
exercises. As master, he is bound to watch over the
physical accomplishments and the health of his pupils.
He ought therefore to know, at least, what are the
means proper for the preservation of the health, and
in what way bodily exercises may be combined with
the games and employments of children. It follows,
that bodily exercises must form a part of every system
of education of schoolmasters.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
197
But how are these exercises to be arranged, so as
to fulfill their end in accordance with the three ob-
jects indicated above? This is a question which
cannot be answered in a precise and general manner.
It must be left to the judgement of the master and
teachers, and to the local capabilities of each indivi-
dual school.
Establishments like those of Bunzlau, Jenkau,
Neuzelle, to which are attached small charity schools
for children, are in a most advantageous position.
There, children may be trained more regularly and
strictly to bodily exercises, and the students of the
normal school be made to superintend, and even take
an active part in them; the exercises may even be
made according to military rules.
But in the primary normal schools to which no
such institutions are annexed, bodily exercises must
be the more carefully combined with all the ordinary
occupations of the pupils,-with their labours in the
garden and their excursions. In the evening when
they return from bathing and swimming, they shall
exercise themselves at their pleasure in running and
leaping. When they go out botanizing, or are oc-
cupied in household employments, they shall take
every occasion of increasing the agility, suppleness
and strength of their bodies.
But all will depend on the manner in which the
masters manage this. If they contrive that these ex-
ercises, established in reality for purposes of utility,
appear to the pupils an agreeable and healthful
amusement; if they equally avoid a pedantic for-
mality and a scornful indifference; if they have the
art of inspiring a taste for these exercises, yet of
keeping them always subordinate to the main object,
—moral and intellectual education; lastly, if they can
observe a just measure in the whole conduct of the
matter,—not only is there no danger to be feared, but
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
several advantages may be hoped for. Among others,
this: that the pupils, preserved in a certain vigour
and agility of frame, may be kept from falling into a
heavy gravity, or a melancholy ill suited to their time
of life, and above all to be dreaded in men destined
to pass their lives among children.
Every possible arrangement must therefore be made
in all normal schools for favouring the physical de-
velopment. It is not to be imagined that there can
be any want of time for these exercises; and if there
really were, according to the present distribution of
the lessons, this would afford a sufficient reason for
making such alterations as would leave time.
The minister leaves to the school-boards the care
of making known the resolution contained in this
circular, to the directors of primary normal schools;
whether by communicating it to them entire or
abridged, or by means of special circulars founded on
the peculiar situation of each school; and at the same
time, of charging the said directors, in all their future
annual reports, to state the manner in which the bo-
dily exercises are practised at their establishment.
One of the most interesting documents I
have obtained is the circular of the 21st of
March, 1827, which regulates the course to be
followed by schoolmasters recalled for a time
to the primary normal schools with a view to
perfect themselves in their art. The following
is an abridgement of it:
The circular of the 1st of June 1826 decrees that
acting masters may be recalled to the normal school,
with a view to their improvement, when it shall be
judged necessary; and that they are there to go
through a course of methodology (methodologischer
Lehrcursus, methodological teaching-course); or to
exercise themselves in any particular branches of
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
199
teaching; or, lastly, to acquire the art of keeping a
class in good order, by practising in the school at-
tached for that purpose to the normal school.
According to the observations furnished by expe-
rience, and the different suggestions made on this
head by the competent authorities, the minister of pub-
lic instruction hereby makes known, that these mea-
sures are not applicable to all the normal schools, which
as yet have not complete and methodical courses.
on all the principal branches of primary instruction.
Indeed it cannot be required of the masters of normal
schools that they should repeat their regular annual
courses, for the benefit of the young masters recalled
for improvement; nor would much advantage result
from compelling such masters to follow the ordinary
courses for the short time they have to spend there.
It will therefore be more expedient to form small so-
cieties or meetings of schoolmasters, for three or
four weeks, in order that they may go over, methodi-
cally and in concert, some special portion of what
they have to teach, as, for instance, arithmetic, sing-
ing, the German language, or religion.
This plan will have the advantage of always bring-
ing together men of equal attainments on one single
point, which will thus be studied more fundamen-
tally; and of taking off the attention of only one mas-
ter of the normal school; namely, of the one who
habitually presides over that branch, and who can
easily submit to this slight increase of work for a few
weeks.
After going over all the several branches of instruc-
tion with the same individuals, (who will have been
annually recalled for some years,) a general and more
extensive course may be arranged, which will find its
natural place during the four weeks before the close
of the annual labours of the students of the highest
class, when they go through the general repetition of
•
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the courses of Didaktik, Methodik, and Pädagogik*.
The acting schoolmasters may be present at these
repetitions, and indeed their presence will be advan-
tageous to the pupils of the normal schools.
If necessary, the vacations may be given up to this
purpose, one every three or four years.
Indemnities may, in such cases, be granted to the
most zealous masters of the normal schools, as also
to the most necessitous of the schoolmasters recalled
for these studies.
The superintendents and inspectors, on their part,
shall take care to provide temporary substitutes for
these schoolmasters. If, however, a school were to
be shut a month, (which, if possible, must always be
avoided,) the children under their care would still be
the gainers, from the increase of knowledge and of
skill the master would acquire during his absence.
The principal aim of these measures is to
stimulate the zeal and emulation of the masters,
and to keep them all in a state to diffuse edu-
cation throughout the country in a uniform
manner, and to participate in the progress which
time gradually brings, so as to render the nor-
mal school the centre of all primary instruction.
This excellent measure recalls to me another of
* As we have no single words approaching to these, I have
determined to put the original German, or rather Greek, and to
give the definitions in a note. M. Cousin's words are, de didac-
tique, de méthode, et de pédagogie. Méthodique would seem more
analogous: it is not method, but the science of methods.
Pädagogik. The science of education (or training); the still
more difficult art of education.'
"Didaktik.
of teaching."
"Methodik.
A part or division of Pädagogik, namely, the art
The theory or science of methods; i. e. a guide
to the discovery of the best possible methods in any science or
ast."—Krug's encyclopädisch-philosophisches Lexicon.—TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
201
.
the same kind, which, though it forms no part
of the internal regulations of normal schools,
has equally in view the improvement of the
acting masters; I mean those conferences of
the schoolmasters of a circle or district, in
which each communicates to his brethren his
own methods and experience, and all are en-
lightened by the interchange of views and
thoughts. These conferences are voluntary, it
is true; but the government encourages them,
counsels them, and often arranges them itself
by means of the school-inspectors. We may
judge of the importance of these periodical
meetings by the regulations for one of them,
which I translate here.
·
1. From the 1st of May to the end of August,
the meetings are held once a week on Wednesday
afternoon*, from two to six o'clock; from the 1st of
September to the end of October, once a fortnight,
from two to five; from the 1st of November to the
end of February, once a month, from two to five,
after the moon's first quarter; and from the 1st of
March to the end of April, once a fortnight†.
The chief subject of discussion at these meetings
is, method. The best, it is true, must ever reside in
the accuracy of judgement, the zeal and activity, of
the master, which alone can give interest and life to
his school. Nevertheless, it is desirable that simi-
larity of method should, as far as possible, prevail
throughout a district; order and regularity in teaching
must be promoted by it. The masters shall examine,
therefore, what is the best known method for teach-
*Wednesday afternoon is a holiday in Germany, as Thursday
is in France.
No other conferences meet more than once a month.
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ing reading, arithmetic, and singing; and what the
best elementary books. They shall pass in review all
the new works which have appeared on any of the
branches of instruction: Dr. Harnisch's method of
reading, Pestalozzi's Elements of Arithmetic, or those
of Kawerau, Mucke,, Schellenberg, Fischer, Renn-
schmidt, and others; or Scholz's excellent work on
arithmetic. They will inquire whether Rothweil's
or Natorp's methods of teaching singing are satisfac-
tory? Which is preferable for singing, music written
in cipher or with notes? What are the best pieces to
give pupils? What is the best reading-book for the
second class of country schools? And, among many
good works, is Wilmsen's Children's Friend to be
preferred, or Dr. Harnisch's Second Reading Book?
Religious instruction, as the foundation of all po-
pular education, shall form the first object of the de-
liberations of the conference. Ought the catheche-
tical method to be neglected, as it has been of late
years? What are the works necessary to the master,
besides the Bible and Luther's Catechism? Does he
find sufficient directions in Hoffmann, Geisser, Han-
del, Hänel, and Kohlrausch? In consequence of the
recent extension of the instruction given in our vil-
lage schools, the conference shall discuss how far the
elements of geometry and of drawing may be expe-
diently pursued; within what limits the lessons in
geography, history, and the natural sciences are to
be circumscribed, and whether these additions are
likely to be really useful, or only a barren work of
memory.
Discipline is one of the prime conditions of the
success of a school; and here the question presents
itself as to the employment of rewards and punish-
ments. Experience has proved that this is the part
of education the most difficult to handle. Special at-
tention must be paid to it, and all difficulties will be
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
203
overcome by those who, filled with the spirit of the
Gospel, are convinced they owe to their pupils what-
ever is enjoined by a religious love and a boundless
devotion to the holy office they hold.
It is no less the object of these conferences, to fur-
nish the masters with an opportunity of gaining new
lights and of extending their own knowledge. Ques-
tions in grammar, in the German tongue, in arith-
metic, &c. will therefore always form part of the
business of the meeting; as likewise, the reading of
works on education, and other books which are likely
to furnish matter useful to schoolmasters; the prac-
tice of singing, and reciprocal communication of the
experience of each.
Among the works on education (ouvrages pédago-
giques) particularly recommended, they will have the
journals on primary instruction published in Prussia
and throughout Germany.
The pastors charged with the inspection of the
conferences may propose questions, which shall be
treated in writing, and afterwards discussed at the
conference.
A report shall be made of all the meetings.
(Extract of the report of Mr. Falk, of Lan-
deshuth, superintendent of the conferences
of schoolmasters, within the range of his
school-inspection. Beckedorff's Journal,
Vol. ii. No. 2.)
But vainly would all these measures (which
I could have multiplied) have been taken by
the minister of public instruction, had he not
required an accurate yearly report of the state
of the primary normal schools. Thus so long
ago as 1823, an ordinance of the 4th of April
rendered it imperative on the school-boards of
the provincial consistories to send the minister
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an annual report of the different normal schools
of the province. This report must be complete,
circumstantial, and embracing all the following
topics:-
1. State of buildings, repairs, increase or
diminution of the furniture, library, collections,
instruments, &c.;
2. Number of students;
3. State of their health;
4. Order, discipline, moral condition;
5. Method of teaching, and state of the
school for practice annexed to the normal
school
6. Masters, change of functionaries, distri-
bution of the subjects taught;
7. Results of the examination at departure;
8. Appointment of the students who have
quitted;
9. Account of pupils newly admitted;
10. Distribution of exhibitions among the
pupils ;
11. Historical notice of the year; inspec-
tions, visits received, festivals, &c. ;
12. Wants of the school, requests, sugges-
tions.
The school-board requires this report at the
hands of the director or principal of the normal
school, and sends it to the minister, adding the
opinion and remarks of the board.
From year to year the ministry goes on re-
forming abuses, whether in men or things, and
labours at the perfection of the establishment.
Frequently, in accordance with the spirit of the
law of 1819, this report of the director is pub-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
205
lished; and the different reports of the normal
schools throughout the kingdom are instructive
to all connected with them, and keep up a be-
neficial emulation and a useful interchange of
proceedings.
This publicity is not only useful, but neces-
sary, to the parishes of each regency, which
become more zealous in their demands for mas-
ters from the normal schools, in proportion as
they know them better and watch their pro-
gress from year to year. The reports are scru-
pulously exact, as the superintendence of the
school-boards is real and effective, and the go-
vernment is punctually obeyed.
I have, Sir, under my eye, a considerable
number of these reports, from 1825 to the pre-
sent time, as well as the rules of most of the
normal schools. The repetitions and resem-
blances would prove the identity of the plan
followed by the ministry, while the differences
show the diversities which exist among the
several provinces of the Prussian monarchy.
These differences would also have the advantage
of offering a greater number of facts to the dis-
creet imitation of our normal schools. In this
great variety of arrangements, adapted to differ-
ent localities, there is not one of our normal
schools which would not find something fitted
to its use. Prussia contains normal schools for
catholics, for protestants, and again others
where pupils of both communions are admitted.
Generally speaking, the catholic normal schools,
though not lax, are less austere in their disci-
pline than the protestant. The latter are al-
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
most excessive in the rigour of their discipline;
if, in a numerous boarding-school of young
men from sixteen to twenty-two, it were pos-
sible to be too rigorous. Experience has shown
that young men taken from the lowest classes,
and not yet divested of a certain coarseness,
cannot with impunity be shut up together for
two or three years, unless a strong religious
spirit pervade the society, and a vigorous dis-
cipline keep them constantly to their duties.
The rule of such societies is condemned to be
somewhat monastic and military; and this is,
to some extent, the character of the discipline
of the normal schools of Prussia. The regu-
lations of the studies differ less in the schools
of the two churches; yet they are also conceived
in a more severe spirit in the protestant normal
schools, and it may be generally affirmed that
these are superior to the catholic. The main
reason is, that they are older; and that here,
as in everything, time and experience have im-
mense advantages. It is natural, too, that the
normal schools of backward provinces, as for
instance the Polish, Westphalian, and Rhenish,
should partake in some degree of the state of
the district from which they are recruited; while
the normal schools of the central provinces owe
to the higher civilization of those provinces a
prosperity which is every year increased by its
own effects. When we enter one of the great
normal schools of Saxony, or of Brandenburg,
we cannot help being struck with the perfect
order and the austere discipline which prevail
there, as in a Prussian barrack; while at the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
207
same time everything breathes liberality of
thought, and love of science and letters. As it
will be impossible for me to give a just notion
of the twenty-eight great normal schools of
Prussia, I prefer selecting one or two, with
which I can make you thoroughly acquainted,
to giving a superficial account of all. I shall
take the two most unlike, both from their reli-
gious creed, and from the state of the provinces
in which they are placed. I shall choose, as a
specimen of a catholic normal school, belonging
to the provinces recently annexed to the mon-
archy, the catholic normal school of Brühl, on
the banks of the Rhine. This district has only
belonged to Prussia since 1815. The school
itself is no older than 1823. It is therefore a
recent creation, such as we are now attempting
in France. The Principal is a catholic clergy-
man, Mr. Schweitzer, curate: the report was
made in 1825, that is, two years after its foun-
dation. The other which I wish to exhibit to
you, as type of a protestant normal school, and
belonging to Old Prussia, is that of Potsdam.
It was founded upon a small normal school pre-
viously existing, and was organized in its pre-
sent form in 1817. Its Principal is Mr. Strietz,
a protestant clergyman: the report is dated
1826. I must add that these two great schools
have a sufficient and suitable income, but in-
ferior to that of some other schools, especially
the great school of Neuzelle; so that here is
nothing to dishearten our normal schools, and
everything to excite their emulation. I shall
now give a somewhat abridged translation of
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these two reports, the tone and manner of which
differ as widely as the two establishments they
describe. Mr. Schweitzer shall speak first.
"Annual Report of the Catholic Primary Normal
School of Brühl, from 1824 to 1825, by Mr.
Schweitzer, curate, Principal of the establishment.
"It will not, I imagine, be out of place to begin
this report with some details respecting the little
town of Brühl, in which the establishment in question
is situated.
"The town of Brühl stands in a beautiful plain on
the left bank of the Rhine, two leagues from Köln,
three from Bonn, and a short league from the river.
It is surrounded by fertile fields and picturesque
villages. Directly before it majestically rises the
ancient Colonia, with its numerous towers and
steeples, and its colossal cathedral. It bounds the
view on that side: on the right, the Siebengebirge*
traces its gigantic outlines on the blue distance,
and on that side presents to the eye a picture of
grandeur and repose. From some neighbouring
heights the lover of natural beauty looks down
with admiration on the plains which lie outspread
before him, and the silvery lustre of the majestic
Rhine, which, in its ample windings, rolls peace-
fully along, as if it delighted to linger in these smiling
regions, while two long chains of hills seem to hold
this magnificent plain in their embrace. One of these
chains stretches along the left bank of the Rhine, to
the Eifel mountains, and is for that reason called
the Vorgebirge,(fore or introductory range): at the
foot of this chain is Brühl. The summit is clothed
with the forest of Vill, and the undulating sides are
dotted with country-houses and pretty villages, the
* The cluster of seven mountains nearly opposite to Bonn.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
209
houses of which are half hidden among fruit-trees.
At the blossoming season these villages present the
most delightful aspect, and help to compose a picture
of enchanting variety. It is not without reason, then,
that Brühl was the favourite residence of the Elec-
toral Archbishops of Köln, and in former times
this little town was far more important than it now
is. At the present day Brühl consists of only 278
houses, among which are many poor mud cottages,
and contains only from fourteen to fifteen hundred in-
habitants. Since it ceased to be the residence of the
Electors, its inhabitants nearly all live by agriculture,
and by a small trade. There are only two remark-
able buildings, the palace, which is abandoned, and
the monastery. This latter building is occupied by
the establishment under my care.
The monastery was formerly the nursery of the
order of Franciscan monks for the whole province of
Köln. After the suppression of the order on the
left bank of the Rhine, in 1807, Napoleon gave the
monastery and its dependences to the town of Brühl,
which, in 1812, granted them to Messrs. Schug and
Schumacher for the establishment of a secondary
and commercial school, whose existence closed in
1822. At the end of that year, the town ceded these
buildings to the government, for the establishment
of the primary normal school which now occupies
them.
1. BUILDINGS.
The house is built in a grand style, with three
stories, and in a quadrangular form. The entrance
is to the north, and leads by a small fore court, on
the one side into the convent, on the other into the
church, which is handsome, light and lofty. The
high altar, of artificial marble, and the organ, are
much admired. On the south side are two wings,
which give the buildings a handsome and palace-like
P
210
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
appearance. From the very entrance, the cloisters
are wide, with lofty vaulted roofs, cheerful and well
lighted. They run quite round the building, as do
the corridors over them on the first and second
stories. On the ground-floor we have four rooms
or halls for study, and a large and very light dining-
hall which serves also for our public meetings, for
study and for prayer. Beside it, are two school-rooms,
and two rooms for the steward, with kitchen, offices
and servants' hall in the basement story, where the
porter has also his kitchen and two rooms. The
establishment has a pump, abundantly supplied with
fine water, near the kitchen; a rivulet which runs
under the two wings is of great importance for pur-
poses of cleanliness.
The director occupies the eastern side of the build-
ing on the first floor; the inspector, the left wing and
a part of the southern side; the steward has the rest
of that side; the right wing and the western side
are inhabited by an ancient father and brother of
the Franciscan order,—regarded as the last remnant
of a once flourishing body, now extinct,--and by the
master of the school for practice (Uebungsschule).
There are no rooms to the north, only corridors ad-
joining the church.
The assistant masters inhabit the upper story,
in which are also five hospital rooms to the south, and
two large dormitories for the students to the east
and west of the main building. A granary or loft,
in good repair, runs over the whole of the building,
and affords both steward and masters convenient
stowage for their stock of grain of all kinds.
Both masters and pupils have ample reason to be
satisfied with the rooms for study and for dwelling.
The masters' apartments are not handsome, it is true;
other schools have better: with a little cleaning and
decoration they might however be made very com-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
211
fortable. The students' dormitories are cheerful, and
better fitted up than any I have seen in
I have seen in any normal
school; their appearance is very neat and agreeable,
with the clean beds all covered alike, which can be
done only where they are furnished by the establish-
This house has only one inconvenience,—
violent currents of air, but these might I think be
remedied.
ment.
The outside of the building is as agreeable as the
inside is convenient; it is situated on the prettiest
side of the town, and has no communication with
any other building except the palace, with which it
is connected by a covered way, and by the old
orangery. It has a magnificent view over delightful
country, a large kitchen-garden, a commodious court,
and two flower-gardens.
The building is of stone, and consequently very
substantial; its aspect is indeed a little hoary now, but
a new coat of plaster would soon give it a cheerful
appearance. The roof is in good condition, and if
once the building underwent a thorough repair the
whole might be kept up at a very small expense.
During the past year no great repairs have been
done.
(Here follow a list of repairs and alterations, and
the inventory in the prescribed form).
The following books have this year been added to
the library of the normal school.
The Christian Popular School, by Krummacher.
What it is necessary to know of Physical Science,
by Herr.
A Herbarium Vivum, consisting of three hundred
and sixty-nine numbers.
2. NUMBER OF STUDEnts.
The number of students is fixed at a hundred; at
this moment there are ninety-two. The object of
P 2
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the establishment is to train schoolmasters for the
catholic parishes of the four regencies of Coblentz,
Köln, Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) and Düsseldorf.
Its position with relation to the government, is,
in principle, to receive the pupils from its hands,
and to render them back accomplished for their
task. In the other normal schools the rule is, that
the candidates for admission be examined by the
schoolmasters, and by them declared fit or unfit
to be either entered or immediately admitted; but
here it is the custom for them to be examined in
the department they come from, without any inter-
vention of the school, and afterwards admitted by
the director on the nomination of the government.
On the other hand, the parting examination rests
with the school, under the condition of a special
commissioner being present. The pupil declared
fit for nomination is not subject to be re-examined by
the government authorities. According to its regu-
lations, the school is not only authorized but obliged,
at the end of the first year, to send away the pupils
who are judged incapable of attaining the requisite
excellence. At the time of the last parting exa-
mination, the school had been obliged to exercise
this power in the case of eight pupils, which reduced
their number to ninety-two.
3. SANITARY STATE OF THE STUDENTS.
The health of the students was not so good in
1824 as in the preceding year; as sufficiently ap-
pears from the bill for medical attendance for the
two years.
In 1823 this amounted to 66 thaler (97. 18s.),
in 1824 to 177 thaler (261. 11s.). But we must
not forget that the number of pupils in the latter
year, as compared with the former, was as three
to two. There have indeed been no contagious dis-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
213
eases, and few of a serious character, but frequent
inflammatory and catarrhal fevers, some intermit-
tent and one nervous fever. Inflammatory ophthal-
mia, attacks on the chest, and palpitations of the
heart have not been rare. The physician has paid
the pupils great attention, indeed I might almost
say too much; and I have agreed with him that he
shall not order them medicines, except in cases
where diet, rest, perspiration and domestic remedies
are insufficient. In order to prevent the young men
from abusing the facility of applying to a physician,
I have ordered that no one shall for the future con-
sult him without my permission. Infectious cuta-
neous diseases are avoided by having the pupils
examined by the physician on their entrance, and
again a week after. If any well-founded suspicions
arise, separation takes place as a measure of precau-
tion; if the appearances of a contagious disease are
certain, the pupil is sent home till perfectly cured.
Since the foundation of the establishment two pupils
have been attacked by consumption and died at
their fathers' houses; the one, Johann Heinrich
Schmitz of the department of Köln, on the 23rd of
May of the last year; the other Joseph Waldnehl of
the department of Düsseldorf, on the 21st of January.
Doctor Scholl has drawn up a succinct report of the
maladies which have occurred, and their causes,
which I subjoin. (Then follows the report.)
order, we could not
In an establishment
4. ORDER, DISCIPLINE, MORALITY.
Without rigid attention to
hope for the smallest success.
composed of various elements, like this normal school,
where young men who differ in language (dialect),
manners and education are gathered together, there
must be rigorous obedience to rule. In domestic
life, the head of the family is the rule; and in a large
establishment, unquestionably those who govern are
·
214
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
strictly bound to furnish an example to all under
them. They are that spring of the great machine
which cannot cease to move without stopping the
whole. But it is also necessary that the establish-
ment should have its precise rules, its written code
of laws. The governors, it is true, fill the place of
the law whenever it is silent; but all, without distinc-
tion, ought to know accurately what they must do,
and what they may do. For this reason the under-
signed cannot share the opinion of some very esti-
mable teachers who think it not necessary, nor even
expedient, that there be written laws for an esta-
blishment like the primary normal schools; nay, that
their promulgation may operate only as an incite-
ment to break them. Laws seem to me to grow
out of the very nature of the institution. Gather
together a number of young men without laying
down any rule for them; they themselves will soon
feel the necessity of making laws for the government
of their intercourse with each other, and will choose
one of their body as guardian of these laws. It is
then natural, useful and fitting, that the managers
and masters should make laws for the school con-
fided to them. If it be true that laws create the
temptation to break them, that is a reason why laws
for all human society ought to be abolished. Fixed
laws give to an institution a steady course, protect
the weaker against caprice and tyranny, prevent
mistakes and precipitation, and, what is more impor-
tant for the future, they show in a clear and striking
manner the necessity of laws for the commonwealth,
and train youth to a reasonable and willing obedience
to them. The opinion I offer here springs from my
general conviction of the utility of positive written
laws, which my own experience has greatly strength-
ened. For in those infractions of order and disci-
pline which have occasionally happened, I have con-
tented myself with punishing the fault by reading
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
215
the infringed law to the culprit, in a calm but severe
manner, either in private or before all the pupils as-
sembled; and this punishment has never failed of
its effect.
After this digression which I have thought it
expedient to insert here, I return to the order of the
house. It is our duty to make the utmost possible
use of the day-light, as being more healthful, more
cheerful, and more perfect than lamp-light, and cost-
ing nothing. In our situation it would be unpar-
donable to turn night into day. I make it a great
point, too, that the young men should get the habit
of rising early, so that in the evening they may lay
aside all anxiety and all labour, and give themselves
up to the enjoyment of tranquil and refreshing sleep.
In summer, therefore, we rise at four, and even ear-
lier when the days are at the longest; in winter at
six, in spring and autumn at five. In summer, I
and my pupils go to bed at nine or half-past, in
spring and winter at ten. The pupils ring the réveil
by turns; a quarter of an hour after, the bell rings
again, and all assemble in the dining-hall, where the
morning prayer is said; then they all follow me to
the church, where I perform the service of the holy
mass. One of the students assists in the service;
the others sing the responses; this religious act, for
which we use the prayer-book and psalter of Bishop
von Hommer, is sometimes mingled with singing,
but rarely, because singing very early in the morn-
ing is said to be injurious to the voice and chest.
All is terminated in an hour; and the pupils, after
having thus sanctified the first hour of morning, re-
turn to the house, make their beds, breakfast, and
then prepare for lessons, which begin at seven or at
eight according to the season. In establishing this
rule, I had some fears at first, that rising so early
and going directly into a cold church in the depth
་
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of winter, might be injurious to their health; but I
am always there before them, and I have never suf-
fered. It may be said that I am more warmly clothed
than the young men; but then they are young, their
blood is warmer than mine, and that restores the ba-
lance. Moreover, it cannot but be advantageous to
them to harden themselves, while habits of indulgence
and delicacy would be extremely unfavourable to
them in their profession. On the Sundays and fes-
tivals of the church, I say mass to the students at
half-past eight in the morning. They sing a German
mass for four voices, or simple chants and hymns;
and, on high festivals, a Latin mass. During the
last year, the pupils of the first class have several
times executed some easy masses extremely well.
But, generally speaking, I am not perfectly satisfied
with our church music; not that our masters and
pupils do not do their best, but we have not a suit-
able supply of church music. The singing in ca-
tholic churches is subject to a particular condition;
it must be connected with the acts of the mass; it
must form a whole, distinct, and yet in harmony with
the mass, and moreover must be adapted to each of
the epochs of the ecclesiastical year. Now we have
very little church music fit for the people. What
there is, is in the hands of a few individuals who do
not choose to part with it. There is doubtless an
abundance of sacred music suited to every occasion,
but it is all in the most elevated style; and to what
good end should the studies of the pupils be pushed
so far beyond what can be of use to them in their
future sphere of action? Music of the highest
order never can nor ought to become the property
of the people. Music ought not to be cultivated as
a mere gratification of a sense; it ought to help to
ennoble and refine the heart, and to form the moral
taste.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
217
It does not signify so much how they sing, as what
they sing. In primary normal schools music ought
not, any more than reading, to be the principal ob-
ject; it must be regarded and treated as a means
towards a higher end, which is, education and moral
culture. It is therefore with reason that the pri-
mary normal schools are required to diffuse a nobler
and more worthy kind of popular sacred music; this
is, as regards music, their proper office. A good
composer, who would devote himself to this object,
might acquire immortal honour. It is to be wished
that the higher authorities, particularly of the church,
would encourage composers who show a genius for
sacred music, to fill this chasm. In these remarks
I have in view, it is true, only the catholic church.
It is quite otherwise with the protestant, which pos-
sesses a great store of psalms; there is only to choose
what are appropriate to the sermon. This greatly
facilitates the task of the protestant normal schools.
In the catholic worship, on the contrary, the sermon
is only a subordinate part of a higher whole, with
which the singing must harmonize, adapting itself to
the different important moments, and hence the
scarcity of simple counterpoint fit for the purpose.
To attain the proposed end, we ought to have, not
only a good organist, but also an able composer,
which it is not easy to find. I return to the order
of the day.
As the day begins with prayer, so it ends with it.
A quarter of an hour or half an hour before going
to bed, all the pupils assemble, at the sound of the
bell, for evening devotions. A short portion of the
holy Scripture is read, and after enlarging more or
less on a text, and recommending it to imitation,
I conclude by a prayer. During the past year I
preached a homiletical discourse on the lesson of the
day, before mass every Sunday morning; but as it
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
becomes difficult for me to speak fasting, I now re-
serve it till evening. It has also been decided, that
as a means of keeping alive religious and moral feel-
ings, the pupils should confess and communicate
once a month, unless particular reasons render it ex-
pedient to prolong the interval to six weeks, or, at
furthest, two months. The rest of the day is em-
ployed according to the scheme of lessons and the
order enjoined by the minister. The pupils are not
allowed to go out, except on the weekly afternoon
holiday; and this is sufficient for their health, be-
cause in all their hours of recreation they can take
exercise in a garden of two acres which belongs to
the establishment. Nevertheless, on fine days I oc-
casionally give them leave to make expeditions into
the country, when I think their health will be bene-
fited by it; making it an express condition that they
shall take no pipes.
It is good to correct faults; better still to prevent
them. Abundance of arguments have been adduced
in support of the principle that we must let children
have their will, in order that their will may become
vigorous, and wait till the time when the reason ex-
pands to give it a lofty direction. But this is letting
the tares overtop the wheat before we attempt to
root them out. Experience proves that the good
seed springs up more vigorously and thrives better
when the soil has been cleared of weeds. Discipline
ought, therefore, to precede and to accompany the
instruction of young men, as docility and modesty
that of children. Doubtless external reverence and
reserve are but the beginning of wisdom; man must
be brought to think spontaneously and without ex-
ternal impulse, of the duties he lies under, so that it
may become his inclination to fulfill whatever he has
clearly recognised as a duty, to consult nothing but
conscience, and to set himself above the praise and
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
219
the blame of men. This is true and uncontested;
nevertheless, the flesh is always weak, even though
the spirit be willing; and there are few of those elect
for whom approbation and censure, remonstrances
and encouragements, hope and fear, are not neces-
sary helps; and for that reason, such helps are used
for great and small, in private houses as well as in
schools, in church as well as in state, and will never
fail, if wisely used, to have a salutary effect. A hard
ascetical constraint and discipline are as far from
my taste as from my principles; but experience de-
mands rigorous order in great schools, especially at
their outset. When order has once been thoroughly
established, when the will of each has learned to
bend to the unity of the collective body, the early
severity may be relaxed, and give place to kindness
and indulgence. As long as I can recollect, I have
observed that the education of children is best in
houses where this principle is observed. To let
children grow perverse and wayward in their infancy
through weak tenderness and indulgence, and then to
reprove and chastise them with harshness when their
habits are formed, cannot be other than a false sy-
stem. For these reasons we always begin by reading
the rules and disciplinary laws of the house, so that
the pupils may distinctly know what they have to
do; we then take care that these laws are strictly
enforced. The masters, on their side, are careful
to show the most punctual obedience to all their
duties. We afterwards read portions of the rules, ac-
cording to circumstances, and to the demand for any
particular part; thus the discipline is strengthened
and facilitated. The highest punishment is expulsion;
and last year we were obliged to resort to this twice.
In all cases we try to proportion the punishment to
the fault, so as to conduce to the amendment of the
culprit and the good of all. For instance, if one of
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the pupils lies in bed from indolence, he is deprived
of his portion of meat at dinner, and for four days, a
week, or a fortnight, as it may be, is obliged to de-
clare his presence when we meet in the morning.
Being kept at home on holidays, ringing the bell,
fetching water, &c. are the only corporal punish-
ments for faults of indolence and infractions of order.
Faults of impatience or carelessness, of insincerity or
mischievousness, of coarseness or any sort of inci-
vility, offences against decency or good manners, are
punished by notes in the inspection-book, which the
culprits themselves are obliged to sign. As to the
conduct of the students when out of the house, the
authorities and inhabitants of the whole neighbour-
hood unanimously bear witness that the presence of
these young men is in no way perceived. It is not
difficult to speak to their hearts, and by expostu-
lations suited to their age and station to touch them
even to tears.
I
Of this I could cite several instances, did I not fear
prolonging this report. I will, however, give one.
Last year the students of the highest class were dis-
satisfied with the steward, and presented a petition very
numerously signed, in which they enumerated their
causes of complaint, and asked to have him removed.
gave the petition to him, that he might answer the
charges; and after he had made his defence, I suffered
accusers and accused to plead their cause, at the
time of one of the religious lessons. The steward
was not irreproachable; his fault was, indeed, evident
enough: on the other hand, the complaint was exagge-
rated, invidious, inexact, and inconsiderate; for seve-
ral had signed without reading; others had signed be-
cause such or such a point seemed to them just; others
again had shown themselves extremely active in col-
lecting signatures, and had reproached those who
refused to sign. The affair being clearly and cir-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
221
cumstantially stated, the steward had his share of
the reprimand, and was deeply affected by it; others
were moved to tears; and the offenders, when the
unbecoming, inconsiderate, and even criminal points
of their conduct was distinctly explained to them,
acknowledged their injustice, and promised never to
act in the like manner again.
Order and discipline, instruction and prayer, are
thus regarded and employed as so many means,
general and particular, for cultivating the morality
of the pupils; and the undersigned, during the short
time he has had the care of the institution, has had
the satisfaction of seeing many who entered it with
bad and distressing habits, leave it metamorphosed
and renewed. Sedateness and modesty have been
substituted for giddiness; the spirit of temperance
for craving after sensual enjoyments; and those
who came to seek but ordinary bread, have ac-
quired a taste for purer and higher food. It is
hardly possible that among so many, a vicious one
should not occasionally creep in; and last year, among
the new comers, was a cunning and accomplished
thief, whose depredations filled the establishment
with dissatisfaction and alarm. It was difficult to
find him out, but falsehood and perversity betray
themselves in the end. Heavy suspicions were ac-
cumulated during the year on the head of the cri-
minal; and though there were not positive proofs, he
could not so escape our vigilance as not to leave us
in possession of a moral certainty against him. He
was expelled at the examination of last year. Never-
theless, as there was no legal proof, his name was not
stigmatized by publicity, and the higher authorities
will readily excuse my not mentioning it here, and
will be satisfied with the assurance that no misfortune
of the kind has since occurred.
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
5. INSTRUCTION.
The business of the primary normal school is to
form schoolmasters. It must therefore furnish its
pupils with the sum of knowledge which the state has
declared indispensably necessary to the intellectual
wants of the lower classes of the people, of whom
they are to be the teachers, and must afterwards fit
them to fulfill their important vocation with zeal and
with a religious will and earnestness.
No more than grapes can be gathered from thorns,
or figs from thistles, can anything good be hoped
from schoolmasters who are regardless of religion
and of morality. For this reason religious instruc-
tion is placed at the head of all other parts of edu-
cation its object is to implant in the normal schools
such a moral and religious spirit as ought to pervade
the popular schools. The course of religious in-
struction has undergone no change from that stated
in the report of last year, except that the several
classes have been united for the Biblical part. During
the present year we propose to treat the concordance
of the Gospels, the history of the Apostles, and some
of the Epistles. The course adopted is this :--The
series of the concordance is established and dictated*
by the master; the passages and discourses are ex-
plained, and, if thought expedient, learnt by heart by
the pupils. For the catechising, or religious and
moral instruction, properly so called, the classes are
separated. The great catechism of Overberg is taken
as a groundwork; and we treat first of faith, then of
morals, so that the latter may be intimately connected
with the former, or, to speak better, that morality
may flow from faith as from its source. I regard
*The Professors of German Universities used to pronounce
their lectures very slowly, in order that the pupils might write
notes. This dictation is now nearly discontinued.-TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
223
:
religion as a disposition or affection of the soul,
which unites man, in all his actions, with God; and he
alone is truly religious who possesses this disposition
and strives by every means to cherish it. In this
view of the subject all morality is religious, because
it raises man to God, and teaches him to live in God.
I must confess, that in religious instruction I do not
confine myself to any particular method; I try by
meditation to bring the thing clearly before my own
mind, and then to expound it intelligibly, in fitting
language, with gravity and calmness, with unction
and earnestness, because I am convinced that a clear
exposition obliges the pupils to meditate, and excites
interest and animation.
As for the historical part, I have made choice of a
short exposition of the history of the Christian church,
with an introduction on the constitution of the Jewish
church. I think it impossible to learn anything of
universal history, that can be useful or instructive to
the students, in less than a hundred lessons. It sig-
nifies little whether a village schoolmaster knows the
history of India, China or Greece; but he ought to
know something of the history of the church, be-
cause it is in many points nearly connected with that
of religion. I must confess that, in the measure of
time allowed us, I cannot make universal history
very interesting or profitable to the pupils; but it
is otherwise with ecclesiastical history.
I introduce the theory of education and tuition by
experimental psychology. This course of study is
of infinite use, in teaching the science of education
(Pädagogik), and of tuition (Didaktik), as likewise
in teaching morals and religion: but I regard the
school for practice, and the method there pursued,
as the best course of pædagogical instruction. I have
come to the conviction that, generally speaking, it is
necessary to recommend to the pupils of the normal
224
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
schools, and to all young schoolmasters, a firm and
decided plan, leaving it to them to modify it as time
and experience dictate. It is with them, as with a
traveller going to a place he has never been at be-
fore; it is best to show him the high road, that he
may not lose himself; when he is familiar with that,
he may try cross roads, if he thinks they will abridge
his journey. The masters of the school agree in
my views on this point, and endeavour to act up
to them. The following are their courses of in-
struction in their several departments, furnished by
themselves.
Mr. Wagner, inspector and first master.
Language.
First class, or class of the first year. In the first
half-year we begin with the simplest elements, and
gradually go through all the parts of speech, but
without their subdivisions. In the second half-year
we go through the subdivisions in like manner; so
that, in the first year, a thorough knowledge is ac-
quired of the simple and compound elements, as well
as of the divisions and subdivisions, of speech. The
course of instruction is partly synthetic, and partly
analytic; that is to say, what has been learned in
the first manner, is made thoroughly clear in the
second, by the analysis of a passage from some author.
Second class, or class of the second year. This
class, proceeding in a similar way, goes through the
most complicated periods. In the second half-year
the pupils are familiarized with the most important
principles of logic and of etymology.
Arithmetic.
Second class*. In the first half-year are studied
* Another master takes the arithmetic for the first class or
first year.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
225
the rule of three, single and compound interest,
and discount; in the second, the extraction of the
square and cube roots, as far as equations of the first
and second degree. The result of this course is a
complete familiarity with all the branches of common
arithmetic. These two departments of instruction,
language and arithmetic, are taught according to the
views of the inspector.
Geometry.
Second class. In the first half-year they get through
what relates to rectilinear figures and the circle; in
the second, the theory of the transmutation of figures
is added; and after that, the most important princi-
ples of geometry and the measurement of solids. The
books of instruction are those of F. Schmid and von
Türck.
Drawing.
First class. In the first half-year drawing is car-
ried as far as the knowledge of the most important
laws of perspective, so as to place objects, not too
complex, according to the laws of perspective. In
the second half-year they study light and shade.
Second class. During the first half-year the at-
tention is directed to the relief and shading of works
of art, such as houses, churches, vases, &c. In the
second half, the pupils copy good drawings of land-
scapes, flowers, &c., with a view to familiarise them
with the style of the best masters. The method
adopted is that of F. Schmid.
Reading.
First class. Begins by the enunciation of some
simple propositions, which are decomposed into
words; the words are reduced to syllables, and these
to their simple sound. This course has been adopted
with the pupils, that they may themselves use it with
the younger children, and thus acquire a familiar ac-
Q
226
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
quaintance with it. It is taught according to the
views of the inspector.
Second class. In the first class the principal object
is reading with ease; in the second, reading with
expression. The chief means of instruction consist
in the masters reading aloud frequently, because it
is considered that this plan is more unfailing and
more easy than any rules. Since, however great the
application on the part of both master and pupil, the
art of reading is at all times difficult to acquire, this
branch of instruction occupies a whole year.
Singing.
First class. In the first half-year they begin with
easy exercises in time and melody; the next step is
to easy pieces for four voices. The second half-year
is devoted to more difficult exercises of the same
kind; so that, by the end of the year, the pupils have
acquired a tolerable facility in reading. The method
followed is that of Nägeli and Schneider.
Natural Philosophy.
Second class. During the first half-year the atten-
tion is directed to the general and particular properties
of bodies; to those of the elements, water, air and fire ;
then to the theory of sounds, the velocity of winds,
the equilibrium of fluids, and aqueous meteors. In
the second half-year comes the theory of light, elec-
tricity, the lever, the inclined plane, luminous me-
teors, optics, &c. The principal object is to render
the pupils attentive to the most striking phenomena
of nature, and to accustom them to reflect upon her
laws and secrets. The method adopted here is that
of the inspector.
Mr. Richter, assistant master.
During half of last year my lessons embraced the
following points.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
227
Mental Arithmetic.
1, The knowledge of numbers with reference to
their value and form; 2, addition; 3, subtraction;
4, subtraction and addition combined; 5, multiplica-
tion; 6, multiplication combined with the preceding
rule; 7, division; 8, varied combinations of the four
fundamental rules.
Each rule was accompanied by its application, and
by examples drawn from common life. My princi-
pal aim was to exercise the pupils in applying the
rules to practice. I have endeavoured also to draw
their attention to the theory, and especially to the
mode of using different rules in the solution of the
same problem: with this view I have always alter-
nated the oral and written exercises.
Arithmetic on the slate.
Calculation on the slate is based upon mental
arithmetic, insomuch that the latter may be con-
sidered as a preparation for the former. When the
four first exercises in mental arithmetic are gone
through, the pupils begin to use the slate. I have
laboured not only to give them practical dexterity,
but also solid knowledge, and with this aim have ac-
customed them to try various ways of working the
questions.
Elements of Geometry.
I have followed the work of Harnisch, and his the-
ory of space drawn from the theory of crystals,
and employed by him as a basis to the mathematics.
NATURAL HISTORY.
Botany.
The principal parts of a plant are first pointed out
and named; then each of these parts is examined se-
parately;-1, the root, its form and direction; 2, the
stem, its internal construction, its figure and its
covering; 3, the buds, their place upon the stalk;
Q 2
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PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
4, the leaves, their variety according to their situa-
tion, their mode of insertion, their figure, their place;
5, the flower-stalks; 6, the flowers according to their
species, the manner in which they are fixed, their
composition; the calyx, corolla, stamina, pistil, the
fruit, seed-vessel, and sex of the plants.
All this has been shown to the pupils, either in
the plants themselves, or in drawings which I have
traced on the slate. I interrupted the botany, till
we could take it up again after Easter, and began
Mineralogy.
I have pursued the same course here. The pupils
have first been familiarised with the properties which
distinguish minerals one from another, as their co-
lours, the arrangement of parts, the external form,
regular and irregular, or crystalline, form; the polish,
texture, transparency, vein, hardness, alteration of
colour, effervescence in acids: all these properties
have been observed by the pupils in the minerals of
our collection. To this succeeded the classification
of minerals, from which the pupils have learned the
names and uses of the most important.
Singing.
Having devoted last year, with my singing pupils,
to time, tune and acoustics, I have, during the past
six months, combined the three branches of the art
of singing which I had before taught separately, and
have practised them chiefly on sacred vocal music,
such as a psalm of Schnabel's, a chorus from Händel's
Messiah, a mass of Hasslinger, and another of Schie-
dermeyer, a chorus from Haydn's Creation, two songs
by von Weber, &c.
Mr. Rudisch, assistant master.
Thorough-Bass.
The lessons I have given in this science have been
according to Hering's practical introduction, or to
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
229
my own ideas.
The following course has been
adopted: 1, the theory of intervals; 2, the theory of
harmonic thirds, a. if they comprise a scale, b. if they
belong to the whole system; 3, the theory of the
chord of the seventh, a. if it belongs to a scale, b. if
it belongs to the whole system of chords; 4, modu-
lation, a. in a free style, b. in a free style, with par-
ticular reference to the organ; 5, written exercises
in parts for four voices.
Geography.
We have finished Germany and begun Europe: the
following course has been adopted. First we made
the pupils acquainted, as exactly as possible, with
the Rhenish provinces-our own peculiar country;
then with Prussia, then with the rest of Germany.
This was done in the following manner: 1, the
boundaries; 2, the mountains; 3, the rivers; 4, the
natural divisions according to the rivers; 5, the
towns. We then considered Germany in its politi-
cal divisions, paying attention to the position and
natural limits of the countries. All the exercises on
this subject were done with skeleton maps. If time
permit, (though only one year with two lessons a
week are allotted to this department,) Europe will be
followed by a general review of the earth.
Writing.
In the writing I have followed exactly the system
of Hennig; by giving, 1, the easiest and simplest let-
ters of the running alphabet to be copied, each letter
separately, till the pupil can make them with ease;
2, words composed of such letters as they have
practised; 3, at the opening of the course, after
Easter, will come the capital letters, in the same
way; 4, English handwriting*. In practising single
* i. e. The Italian handwriting, as distinguished from the cur
rent German hand.-TRANSL,
230
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
letters, I have especially pointed out how one was
formed out of another, and the letter they were prac-
tising as making part of that which followed.´ Af-
terwards copies, written, not engraved, are placed
before the pupils, because these last, according to the
opinion of good penmen, discourage the pupils.
Orthography.
For orthography, the grammar of Heyse is adopt-
ed. 1, The object and utility of orthography; 2,
general rules of German orthography; 3, the use of
capital letters; 4, the regular use of isolated letters;
5, the division, composition and abbreviation of
words.
These rules are alternately put in practice in the
dictations.
The director, with the assistance of the masters,
examines in each department every three months.
Instrumental music, on the violin, piano-forte and
organ, is taught by Mr. Richter and Mr. Rudisch, with
the assistance of two pupils.
School for Practice.
It is difficult, in a written description, to convey a
just idea of a school, or of any large establishment for
instruction. Nevertheless I will endeavour to give
a brief sketch of this institution, and of the manner in
which the pupils are there occupied. The regulations
fix from one to three in the afternoon for the lessons
of practice. The children of the school for practice
are divided into eight classes, and one of the pupils
from the normal school presides over each of these
divisions alternately, so that twenty-four are oc-
cupied from one to two, and twenty-four from two
to three; and whilst the first twenty-four are teach-
ing, the others listen, that they may be ready at any
moment to take it up and continue the lesson. This
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
231
can be done only where a fixed and complete mode
of instruction is laid down.
Arith-
The branches taught by the pupils are grammar,
reading, composition, writing, drawing, arithmetic,
mental exercises, singing, religion. Language is
taught partly after Krause, and partly on the plan of
the inspector, Mr. Wagner. Reading is closely con-
nected with writing, according to the method of the
inspector. The pupils of the higher classes have
subjects of familiar compositions given them; at the
same time, they are made to learn by heart short
letters, narrations and descriptions, because this is.
deemed the best method of familiarising children
with the language, and enabling them to express
themselves with ease in writing. When they have
learnt a piece by heart, they endeavour to write
it without a fault, and with the proper punctuation;
the comparison with the original and the correc-
tion are left to themselves, that the thing may be
more deeply impressed upon their mind.
metic is taught on the system of Schumacher and
Jos. Schmid. In the lower classes great care is
taken that the numbers are always correct, in order
to avoid the inefficient and too artificial mental arith-
metic of Pestalozzi, and to make arithmetic itself an
exercise of language. Singing is taught by the two
forwardest pupils of the school, who give two lessons
in the morning, and drawing by the two most skilful
draughtsmen. For exercises in language and men-
tal activity, use is occasionally made of Krause's
Exercises for the Mind, and Pestalozzi's Mothers'
Book. On religion the pupils give but one lesson a-
week, under the particular guidance of the director.
The special superintendence of this school is confided
to the inspector, Mr. Wagner, who, besides a daily
visit during the lessons, subjects them to a slight ex-
amination every week, to keep up a persevering ac-
232
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
tivity in the young men, and to know exactly what
progress is made.
The satisfaction of the parents
at the pupils' mode of teaching is proved by the regu-
lar attendance at the school. I am well satisfied with
the practical ability hitherto shown by the pupils.
6. MASTERS OF THE ESTABLISHMENT.
Two masters, besides the director, were last
year
annexed to the establishment,—the inspector Mr.
Wagner, and Mr. Richter. The assistant master Mr.
Rudisch was added at the beginning of this year.
These masters give their entire and undivided atten-
tion to the school; yet they are not sufficient for this
great establishment; two pupils and the organist of the
town assist in the department of instrumental music.
The following branches of instruction devolve upon
the director: religion, history, the science of educa-
tion (Pädagogik), the theory of composition,—twelve
lessons a-week; adding the hours of devotion, the
number of his lessons amounts to nineteen.
Mr. Wagner has the charge of language, arith-
metic, singing, natural philosophy, the theory of com-
position, and reading, twenty-three lessons a-week.
Mr. Richter attends to the arithmetic, geometry,
reading, orthography, theory of composition, natural
history, singing, and the violin,--twenty-one lessons
a-week.
Mr. Rudisch, assistant master, teaches orthography,
geography, writing, the piano-forte, and thorough-
bass; besides which, he gives lessons in the school for
practice altogether his lessons amount to twenty.
:
Simon the organist gives two lessons a-day on the
organ and piano-forte, and the pupils Mohr and
Schwippert give a lesson every day on the violin.
It is evident from this, that the complement of
masters is not yet perfect, and that besides the mas-
ters already annexed, a good organist is especially ·
FRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
233
:
needed, the town organist being employed only for
want of a better.
Although the general superintendence rests upon
the director, yet, to relieve him, one of the masters in
rotation has hitherto conducted the special inspection
each week. But I see every day more clearly, that the
whole inspection ought to devolve upon the director
alone;-in a well-regulated house there should be
but one head. The other masters also recognise
this principle; and in the end the director will have
the whole superintendence, and, in case of need, will
transfer it to the inspector. But as the director and
the inspector cannot be always with the pupils, and as
it is nevertheless necessary that there should be some
fixed person to refer to when disturbances or com-
plaints occur, the established custom will be conti-
nued of appointing the student who is deemed the
best fitted as superintendent of his fellow-students.
This plan may, besides, have a very useful effect in
the education both of the young superintendent and
of his schoolfellows.
7. RESULTS OF THE EXAMINATION AT QUITTING
THE SCHOOL.
The first parting examination took place from the
15th to the 19th of September, under the auspices of
the consistory-councillor, Mr. Poll, of Köln, and the
following left the school :
6 pupils with the certificate, No. 1
11
8
13
6
2, nearly No. 1.
2
3, nearly No. 2.
3
In all forty-four. There had been, it is true, fifty
pupils admitted since the opening of the school; but
at the end of the first year, three pupils were per-
mitted by high authority to begin the course anew:
234
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
:
one other, by a decision of the Chief-president of the
province, bearing date Nov. 24th, 1823, was ex-
pelled the fifth, Henry Joseph Schmitz, died of
consumption, on the 3rd of May of the preceding
year and the sixth, Joseph Waldnehl, sent back to
his parents on account of illness before the examina-
tion, died of consumption, as has been already stated,
on the 21st of January.
S. THE PUPILS' PROSPECT OF APPOINTMENT AFTER
LEAVING THE SCHOOL.
As the school is not in direct correspondence with
the central government, and the newspapers of the
district do not mention the subject, I do not know
exactly if all the pupils have met with appointments.
From a private communication of Mr. Husgen, con-
sistory-councillor at Aachen(Aix-la-Chapelle), I learn,
that the pupils from this department are all appointed,
and that the parishes are perfectly satisfied with them.
I learn also from Mr. Schmitz, consistorial assessor at
Köln, that the greater part of the pupils from that
department, perhaps all by this time, are appointed:
since which, the Köln journal expressed the satisfac-
tion of the parishes respecting the pupils of the pri-
mary normal school of Brühl. I do not know the
author of this article. The news is without doubt
gratifying to the masters and encouraging to the pu-
pils, but we are not puffed up by it, our self-satisfac-
tion resting on another foundation.
9. PUPILS LATELY ADMITTED.
The law of the school says (§ 44), that every pupil,
who, at the end of the first year, shall not have made
progress enough to warrant the expectation that at
the end of the course he will be capable of fulfilling
the duties of a schoolmaster, shall be sent back. This,
ther, fixes a year as the time of trial, and it appears
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
235
to me a wise regulation. Experience has shown us
that many who enter weak become strong, whilst
others who appeared very forward at first are left
behind. A few acquirements more or less are not so
important in the new-comers as good natural capa-
city and love of work. I have not yet been three
months with the new pupils, so that I cannot give a
decided opinion respecting them; but the masters
agree in saying, that although none have yet spe-
cially distinguished themselves, there are some of very
good capacity, and very few who seem weak. I
have pleasure in being able to state that a peaceful
and joyous spirit reigns amongst them.
10. DISTRIBUTION OF THE GRANTS.
The grants are fixed by the Chief-president of the
province, at the time of the admission of the pu-
pils, according to the contributions of each depart-
ment. The whole amount of the grants for these
two years* is 2645 thaler (3967. 15s.); that of the
preceding amounted to 2978 thlr. (4467. 14s.), which
gives an excess of 333 thlr. Although I lament this
falling off, I am willing to believe it is the effect of
demands of paramount importance. The contribution
of each department to the sum stated is as follows:
Thlr. Gr. £. S. d.
0
1. Coblentz .. for 23 pupils 637 11 or 95 12
2. Düsseldorf.
3. Köln..
4. Aachen..
20
547
1- 82 1 0
24
651
16-
97 14
97 14
0
27
809
2-121
7 0
Total.. 94
2645 0 £396 14 0
Two pupils quitted the school this year, not having a
decided turn for teaching: by this withdrawal a stipen-
dium of 45 thlr. 15 gr, (67. 16s. 6d.) is become vacant.
* The course at this school lasts only two years.
236
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
11. HISTORICAL NOTICE OF THE YEAR.
(Here occurs an account of some visits.)
His Majesty's birth-day was celebrated by religious
solemnities and a joyous feast. In acknowledging
my report of the 6th of August, the Chief-president
was pleased to testify his high satisfaction at the
manner in which this festival had been celebrated by
the school. I could not forbid the pupils from cele-
brating the birth-days of the masters, because similar
festivities are customary in well-regulated families.
The pupils brought a garland of ivy, and decorated
the door and the pulpit with wreaths of it, sung
some couplets, and presented their congratulations
in writing.
12. WISHES AND SUGGESTIONS.
(Not to be made public.)
I have almost need to ask your pardon, Sir,
for the length of this report, which however I
have often abridged. But it bears such marks
of sincerity, candour, and judicious kindness
and indulgence, it so thoroughly shows the
spirit in which this great establishment is go-
verned, that I thought it better to let the worthy
Curé speak for himself, craving some little in-
dulgence for his diffuseness.
I now submit to you a report of another esta-
blishment of the same kind, which, while it
preserves the identity of the fundamental prin-
ciples, exhibits quite a different character,—that
of protestantism, and the severe methodical
spirit peculiar to Northern Germany. But
before I give the entire report of the director
of the protestant normal school of Potsdam, I
think it right to translate the original rules of
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
237
that school, or rather the ministerial instruc-
tions, which, from the perfect confidence re-
posed by government in the director, were al-
lowed to be of the most general kind. This is the
constant practice of the ministry in Prussia,-
to be scrupulous to the last degree in the choice
of a director, and then to leave him great lati-
tude at the beginning, with reservation to the
minister to judge of the whole by the results,
and to interpose his authority after full know-
ledge of facts.
Extract of the Instructions (Dienst-Instruction,-
service-instruction,) for the Director of the Frimary
Normal School of Potsdam.
These instructions, which prescribe the duties of
the director, are rather calculated to suggest the
point of view under which he ought to regard his
office, than to define his functions and occupations
with precision. These may undergo various modifi-
cations from unforeseen circumstances; and the di-
rector of an establishment ought not to adhere to the
literal meaning of official rules, but to be guided by
more large and elevated conceptions, and, wherever
the law is silent, to supply the deficiency from his own
intelligence.
All that a rational and pious father of a family is
to his household, the director ought to be to the whole
establishment and to each of its members; the kind
friend and colleague of all the pupils and masters
who are animated with a true feeling of their duties;
on the other hand, the severe and inflexible ruler of
those who refuse to listen to the voice of reason and
of religion.
He ought to pay attention to the smallest things
as well as to the greatest, that nothing may trouble
238
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the harmony of the entire machine committed to his
watchful guidance.
He is bound especially,-
1. To manage the pecuniary affairs of the esta-
blishment, unless they be placed in the hands of some
other authority ;
2. To superintend the domestic economy and the
steward; to have an eye to the library and to all the
instruments, &c. necessary for the school;
3. To preserve and add to these, and to give an
account of the funds appropriated to the purchase of
books, &c.;
4. To carry on the correspondence, to make the
report to the school-board on the normal school and
the school attached to it; to send in the list of can-
didates for admission, to keep the archives, &c.;
5. To call up, examine, and choose the candidates
for admission, with the advice of the masters; and to
divide and distribute the grants, or exhibitions, ac-
cording to fixed principles;
6. To draw out and present plans of study, after
having referred them to the conference of schoolmas-
ters, and to distribute and arrange the subjects of
instruction, according to the plan approved by the
competent authorities;
7. To overlook and direct the masters, both in their
moral conduct and their functions;
8. To organize and direct the schoolmasters' con-
ferences, and to draw up prospectuses for them;
9. To fix and direct the public examinations of the
normal school and the school attached;
10. To maintain the high discipline of the normal
school, and of the school attached, by all possible
means, even to the expulsion of a student, after the
decision of the conference of masters; subject, how-
ever, to the obligation of making an immediate and
circumstantial report to the competent authorities.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
239
*
It is impossible more completely to justify
the confidence of the ministry than Mr. Striez
has done. From year to year the normal school
confided to his care has made extraordinary
progress, and in 1826 he laid before the public
an account of it, which excited the liveliest in-
terest. This account I place before you; it will
give you an accurate and complete idea of the
material and moral condition,—of the whole
internal life,—of one of the best primary normal
schools of Prussia.
Report of the Primary Normal School at Potsdam,
by F. L. G. Striez, Director of this School and
Minister of the Holy Gospel.
I.
HISTORICAL STATEMENT.
Until the middle of the last century there were no
primary normal schools in Brandenburg. The school-
masters were appointed by the parishes, either with
the approbation of the authorities or without their
knowledge, and were all drawn from the primary
schools then established. All that was required of
these masters, who were chiefly mechanics, was to
be able to read, say the catechism, sing tolerably
a few well-known psalm-tunes, and to write and
cipher a little. Numbers of shepherds, employed in
summer-time in keeping sheep, during winter assumed
the office of teachers of youth. The nobility used
generally to bestow the place of schoolmaster (if it
was at their disposal,) on their valets or grooms, as a
reward for past services. The primary schools in
towns sometimes had masters a little better informed,
but even they had neither good taste nor method in
their manner of teaching.
240
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
Johann Julius Hecker, chief councillor of the con-
sistory at Berlin, and minister of Trinity church, was
the first who undertook to train young men for the art
of teaching. With this view he founded a school to
supply masters for his own diocese.
This establishment, founded in 1748, remained for
some time a private one; in the year 1753 it was
raised to the rank of a royal primary normal school
for schoolmasters and parish-clerks. The provincial
authorities were enjoined, in a Cabinet-order pub-
lished the 1st of October, 1753, to select, as far as
possible, the members of this establishment for the
royal places of parish-clerk and schoolmaster.
But this primary normal school was still far from
meeting the constantly increasing wants of the pro-
vince, and little merited the name of a royal school.
The pupils, scattered in all parts of the capital, were
not properly watched nor directed in their studies.
Being all mechanics, they laboured at their trades
rather than their studies, and were besides exposed
to the influence of the corporation spirit*, and to
the seductions of a great town. In fact, the time
which they devoted to their studies at the normal
school was in general too short to afford any hope of
effecting the end proposed.
In 1771 Frederick the Great appropriated 4000
crowns, interest upon a capital of 100,000 crowns,
to the improvement of the country schools in the Elec-
toral March; he used on this occasion the following
expressions: "Primary education, especially in the
country, has been hitherto much neglected; it be-
comes imperative to remove the bad masters, and re-
place them by competent men." Understanding that
the schools were better organized in Saxony, he or-
dered that masters should be drawn thence, and put
* In Germany the members of each trade, till very recently,
composed a Zunft,-guild, or corporation.-TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
241
in the place of those whom it might have seemed fit
to remove, in spite of their being dependents on the
crown or on the nobles. An increase of salary was to
be allowed to the new masters, from the special fund
lately created; and the individuals most distinguished
among them to be held out to the primary normal
school as models for masters in training.
But the benevolent intention of the king could not
be entirely realized; either the persons entrusted with
its execution were negligent, or they found it difficult
to draw skilful masters from Saxony. To obviate
this inconvenience, it was determined to place in the
schools which were susceptible of reform, theological
candidates, who should fill the office of masters. The
only effect, however, of all this was to attach a better
salary to a certain number of schoolmasterships, and
to relieve the inhabitants of the parishes of Branden-
burg from the obligation of paying for the educa-
tion of their children,-the better-paid masters being
bound to give gratuitous instruction. Such is the
origin of the so-called charity-schools.
Some lesser normal schools, indeed, sprang up in-
sensibly at Berlin; but either they were not of long
continuance, or they remained unimportant; or else
they had no other view than to form masters for
Berlin and the neighbouring towns of an inferior
order.
Such was the state of things when, in 1809, the
regency of Potsdam, the ecclesiastical authorities, and
the school-deputation began to give a new direction
to the system hitherto followed in primary instruc-
tion.
Nothing was more strongly felt than the want of
good masters. Exact information was eagerly sought
as to the condition of the primary normal school at
Berlin, and in 1810 great improvements were effected
in this establishment. Upon their success depended,
R
242
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
in part, whether this school should be continued and
remain at Berlin, or whether it should be transferred
to another place. Now, on experiment, the measures
adopted appeared inapplicable to the establishment
at Berlin, and a serious intention was consequently
formed of founding another. As the chapter-house
of Havelberg, which they had in view, was not at that
time to be disposed of, it was, in 1815, resolved to
establish provisionally the new normal school at
Potsdam. The license was granted in 1816, and the
project executed in 1817.
The primary normal school of Berlin having been
superseded by that of Potsdam, the best pupils of the
old establishment formed the nucleus of the new one.
The building which the royal government had pur-
chased in 1817 was granted the normal school in fee,
towards the end of the year 1819.
As early as the commencement of this year, Pro-
fessor Schärtlich entered on his duties in the normal
school. Then came Mr. Runge, a candidate for holy
orders, who, under the direction of Mr. von Türck,
councillor of primary instruction (Schulrath), worked
at the first organization of this establishment. The
same year Mr. Löffler and Mr. Klöden were engaged,
the one as second, the other as head master. A house-
keeper was charged with the domestic economy.
Soon after Mr. Klöden was made director, and Messrs.
Zeisiger and Lichtwert were appointed to teach wri-
ting and drawing.
According to the rules, the pupils should have
been lodged and boarded in the establishment; but
the considerable expense and the small number of
purses or exhibitions (eight whole and eight half
purses,) rendered it necessary gradually to release.
some of the pupils from conforming to these regula-
tions.
The normal course was fixed at three years; but as
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
243
the' means of instruction were insufficient for three
classes, they were compelled to limit themselves to
two, and adopt, as the term of study for each, the
period of a year and a half.
The royal government had founded a school for
practice, in connexion with the normal school; but
its distance from the normal school so hindered the
progress of the studies, that it was long before it ac-
complished the object of its institution.
To instruct the pupils in gardening, in 1821 an
old burial-ground, situated before the Nauen gate
was hired.
The swimming-school, before the Berlin gate,
established by Mr. von Türck, on the principles of Ge-
neral Pfuhl, soon presented an excellent opportunity
for teaching to swim.
The number of pupils, up to Michaelmas 1824,
amounted to about sixty, and, including the young
men who had at that time left the school, it had al-
ready supplied the province with more than a hun-
dred masters.
At the Easter of 1824, Mr. Runge, called to the
directorship of the primary normal school at Cöslin,
was succeeded by Mr. Sellin, candidate for holy orders.
In July, the same year, Mr. Klöden, being put at the
head of the new school of arts and trades at Berlin,
the author of this report succeeded to the office of
director. Mr. Löffler, removed to another post, was
replaced by Mr. Schön; and Mr. Heinrich was ap-
pointed master for writing and drawing, and assist-
ant master for different branches of instruction.
These changes were accompanied by improvements
in the internal and external management of the esta-
blishment. The number of classes was increased to
three, and instead of eighteen months, the pupils
passed a year in each. The lesser normal school of
Grossbänitz having been closed, the number of pupils
.
.
R 2
244
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
in that of Potsdam was considerably increased. A
great diminution was made in the charge for board,
and the system of economy in the house underwent
a change. The grants were augmented, and all the
pupils without exception compelled to live in the
establishment, to board there, and continue three
years. The new arrangements admitted the masters
to lodge in the normal school; and lastly a special
school divided into four classes, was founded to serve
as a school for practice to the young masters.
II.
PRESENT ORGANIZATION OF THE NORMAL SCHOOL.
1. Direction and Inspection.
The normal school and its annexed school are
placed under a director or principal, subordinate to
the royal school-board of the province of Branden-
burg at Berlin, and to the minister of public instruc-
tion and ecclesiastical and medical affairs.
The last-named authority lays down the principles
to be followed in this school, as in all other public
schools; exacts an account of all important matters,
such as the nomination of the masters, and any change
in the fundamental plan of the studies; and receives
every year, through the medium of the royal school-
board, a detailed report, prepared by the director of
the school.
The school-board is charged with the special in-
spection of the normal school: it must watch its
progress, and from time to time send commissioners
to make inquiries on the spot. It examines also and
approves the plan of studies presented every half-
year and decides on all questions submitted to the
consistory.
The director should superintend the whole esta-
blishment, observe and direct the masters and ser-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
245
vants, make reports to the superior authorities, carry
on the correspondence, &c.
2. Building.
The normal school, situated near the canal and
the Berlin gate, is a large edifice two stories high,
with a frontage of 127 feet, and considerable back-
buildings, which, joined to the main building, form a
square within which is a tolerably spacious court.
The whole comprehends:
1. A family residence for the director or principal,
and another for a master;
2. Three apartments for three unmarried masters;
3. An apartment for the steward and his servants,
and sufficient convenience for household business and
stowage ;
4. A dining-room for the pupils, which serves also
for the writing and drawing class;
5. An organ-room, in which the music-lessons are
given, the examinations take place, and the morning
and evening prayers are said;
6. Two rooms for the scientific instruction of the
pupils ;
7. Four rooms for the classes of the annexed school;
8. Five rooms of different sizes, and two dormi-
tories for the pupils;
9. Two infirmaries;
10. A wash-house;
11. Two cabinets of natural history;
12. Granaries, cellars, wood-houses, &c.
3. Revenues.
The normal school receives yearly 5,400 thaler
(8107.) from different state funds. To which we
must add nearly 2,750 thaler (4127. 10s.), paid by the
pupils, and 250 thaler (327. 10s.) by the children of the
annexed primary school; so that the annual income
:
246
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of the whole establishment amounts to 8,400 thaler
(1,2607.)
This sum serves to pay,
1. The salaries of the masters ;
2. The household expenses ;
3. The materials for instruction for the normal
school and the school annexed;
4. The garden-ground;
5. The heating and lighting;
6. The repairs of the building, furniture and
utensils, the insurance, taxes and expenses of the
house, &c.;
7. The maintenance of the pupils, the ten purses
or exhibitions, and half-purses, and the sundries;
8. The physician and surgeon.
4. Inventory.
The establishment contains the following articles;
1. Things required in the economy of the house,
kitchen-utensils, tables, forms, &c.;
2. Sufficient and suitable furniture, consisting of
chests of drawers, tables, forms, chairs and boxes, for
the classes of the normal school, and the school for
practice, and for the masters' rooms, &c. There is
also, for the poorer pupils, a certain number of bed-
steads with bedding;
3. A considerable library for the masters and pu-
pils, as well as a good collection of maps and globes
for the teaching of geography;
4. A tolerably complete collection of philosophical
instruments;
5. A collection of minerals, presented to the esta-
blishment by Councillor von Türck;
6. A collection of stuffed birds, and other objects
in natural history;
7. The instruments most required in mathematical
instruction;
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
247
8. Complete drawing apparatus ;
9. A very considerable collection of music;
10. A very good organ, a piano-forte, seven harp-
sichords, and many wind- and string-instruments.
Additions are made every year, from funds specially
appropriated to this purpose, and by the care of the
superior authorities; the whole inventory of the esta-
blishment is insured for 7,500 thaler (1,1257.) in the
insurance-office at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle), at a
premium of only about 14 thaler (27. 2s.).
5. Domestic Economy and Maintenance of the Pupils.
To support about eighty pupils, and to preserve
cleanliness in the house, a steward has been appointed,
whose duties are specified in a contract renewable
every year.
The food of the pupils is good and wholesome,
which is proved by the state of their health. Some
parents think it needful to send their children eatables,
or money to purchase them. They are wrong, for the
children have no such want; on the contrary, so far
from being advantageous, these presents only serve to
take away their appetite at meals, and to make them
dainty and gluttonous. The orphans,and those whose
parents are too poor to send them any thing, are ex-
actly those who are the strongest and healthiest.
The director is almost always present at meals, to
be sure of the goodness of the food, and to prevent
any irregularity in the serving up.
Sick pupils are sent to the infirmary, and are
attended by the physician or surgeon of the establish-
ment.
6. Masters.
1. Mr. Schärtlich, from Saxony, pupil of the pri-
mary normal school of Dresden, is charged with the
theoretical and practical instruction in singing and
music.
2. Mr. Sellin, from Pomerania, pupil of the pri-
248
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
mary normal school of Stettin, and student in theo-
logy at Berlin, gives instruction in religion, history,
the German language, arithmetic, &c.
3. Mr. Strietz, from the Middle March, first, master
of the orphan-house of Potsdam, then director of the
primary normal school and of the orphan-house at
Neuzelle, and minister of the Gospel, is now director
of the normal school of Potsdam. He instructs in
religion, in the principles of education or training, of
the art of teaching, and of the methods of study.
(See p. 200, note.)
4. Mr. Schön, from Silesia, pupil of the normal
school of Bunzlau, having studied at Berlin the ma-
thematics, natural philosophy, geography and natural
history, teaches principally these sciences.
5. Mr. Heinrich, from the New March, pupil of the
primary normal school of Neuzelle, and of the draw-
ing school of Mr. Schmid at Berlin, teaches writing,
drawing, arithmetic, &c.
All these masters belong exclusively to the esta-
blishment, in which also they live. Each of them, with
the exception of the principal, (whose number varies
from twelve to sixteen,) gives from twenty-four to
twenty-seven lessons a-week, and Messrs Sellin and
Schön have alternately the special superintendence of
the pupils.
The number of lessons being so great, one of the
cleverest pupils trained in the house is employed as
assistant master, so that the number of masters
in fact amounts to six.
7. Number of Pupils.
The number of the pupils is fixed by the regulation
at from 75 to 80, and is now 78, of whom 72 live in
the establishment; the other six have obtained a
license to remain with their parents in order to lessen
the expense of their maintenance.
This number is determined not only by the build-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
249
ing, but also by the wants of the province. Bran-
denburg contains about 1500 masterships of primary
schools, in town and country. Supposing that out
of a hundred places, two become vacant every year,
there will be at least thirty masters required for this
province; but these places for the most part pay so
badly, that they are compelled to be content with
but moderately qualified masters, who, perhaps, have
not been educated at a normal school, and who some-
times follow some trade or handicraft. If, then, the
normal school contains 78 pupils who form three
classes, one of which quits annually, it will furnish
each year 26 candidates, which about meets the wants
of the country.
8. What is required of Applicants for Admission.
Once a-year, at Michaelmas, 26 pupils are ad-
mitted. Of these are required—
1. Good health and freedom from all bodily infirmi-
ty. (Obstacles to admission would be, exceeding small-
ness of stature, short-sightedness, or a delicate chest ;)
2. The age of 17 complete ;
3. The evangelical religion;
4. A moral and religious spirit, and a conduct
hitherto blameless;
5. A good disposition and talents, amongst which
are a good voice and a musical ear ;
6. To be prepared for the studies of the normal
school by the culture of the heart and mind; to
have received a good religious education (which shall
include a knowledge of the Bible and biblical hi-
story); to be able to read; to know the grammar
of the German language, of composition, arithmetic,
the principles of singing, the piano-forte and violin.
A written request for admission must be sent to the
director, by June at the latest, accompanied with—
1. A certificate of birth and baptism;
250
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
-
2. A school certificate, and one of good conduct;
3. A police certificate, stating the condition of the
young man or his father, or else a written declaration
from the father or guardian, stating the time within
which he can and will pay the annual sum fixed by
law; i. e. 48 thaler (67. 16s.).
The director enters the petitioners on a list, and in
the month of June or July invites them, by letter, to
present themselves at the examination which takes
place in July or August.
The examination is conducted partly in writing,
and partly vivá voce.
As a means of ascertaining the acquirements of the
candidates, and of judging of their memory, their style,
and their moral dispositions, an anecdote or parable
is related in a clear and detailed manner, summing
up
and repeating the principal points, after which they
produce it in writing, with observations and reflections.
The oral examination usually includes only reli-
gion, reading, grammar, logical exercises, and arith-
metic.
They are also examined in singing, the piano-forte
and the violin.
After the examination, the talents and merits of
the respective candidates are conscientiously weighed
and compared, in a conference of the masters. The
choice being made, it is submitted to the sanction of
the royal school-board, with a detailed report of the
result of the examination.
At the end of some weeks the candidates are in-
formed of the decision; their admission is announced,
or the reasons which prevent it stated; with either
advice to give up their project entirely, or suggestions
relative to their further preparation.
The admitted candidate is bound to bring, besides
his clothes and books, amongst which must be the
Bible and the prayer-book used in the establishment,
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
251
half-a-dozen shirts, six pairs of stockings, a knife and
fork, and, generally, a bedstead with all requisite
bedding.
He is also bound to sign, on his entrance, the fol-
lowing engagement to the director, with the consent
of his father or guardian.
COPY OF THE ENGAGEMENT WITH THE DIRECTOR, TO
BE SIGNED BY THE PUPIL ON HIS ENTRANCE.
•
N——
"I, the undersigned, N of N-, by these
presents, bind myself, conformably with the ordinance
of the royal minister of public instruction and eccle-
siastical and medical affairs, dated Feb. 28th, 1825,
with the consent of my father (or guardian) who
signs this with me,
.. to place myself
during three years after my leaving the normal
school, at the disposal of the king's government; and
consequently not to subscribe anything contrary to
this engagement; or, in such case, to refund to the
normal school the expenses incurred by the state for
my instruction, namely :
.
1. Ten thaler for each half-year passed in the
normal school, and for the instruction received in
this period of time;
"2. The whole amount of the grants and exhibi-
tions I may have received.
Potsdam, the
&c."
The applicant rejected, but not advised to choose
another course, is summoned to a fresh examination
the following year.
The number of applicants having been for some
time past very great, the author of this report thinks
it his duty to warn parents, (especially school-
masters,) whose children do not evince talent and
have not a decided taste for teaching, not to suffer
them to lose the precious time which they might em-
ploy with much more success in some other career.
252
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
This respects chiefly the poorer youths, who can
have no claim to the exhibitions, unless they give
proofs of an extraordinary capacity, from which the
state and society may derive a real advantage.
The normal school is by no means designed for those
who are unfit for any business, and think, if they can
read and write, they are capable of becoming school-
masters. This notion is so deeply rooted, that you
hear fathers declare with all the simplicity in the
world-"My son is too delicate to learn a business,"
or "I don't know what to make of my son, but I
think of getting him into the normal school." We
reply to such, that the pupils of the normal school
must, on the contrary, be sound both in body and
mind, and able to brave the toils and troubles of a
career as laborious as it is honourable.
Much neglect unfortunately still exists on a subject
which is of the highest importance, the methodical
preparation of these young men for the calling which
it is desired they should embrace.
A false direction is often given to their preliminary
studies. A young man is believed to be well pre-
pared for the normal school, if he have passed the
limits of elementary instruction, and if he have ac-
quired a greater mass of knowledge than other pupils.
It frequently happens, however, that candidates who
come strongly recommended from school, pass the ex-
amination without credit, or are even rejected.
The most immediate and the most important aim
of all instruction, is to train up and complete the Man;
to ennoble his heart and character; to awaken the
energies of his soul, and to render him not only dis-
posed, but able, to fulfill his duties. In this view alone
can knowledge and talents profit a man; otherwise,
instruction, working upon sterile memory and talents
purely mechanical, can be of no high utility. In order
that the teacher, and particularly the master of the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
253
primary school, may make his pupils virtuous and
enlightened men, it is necessary he should be so him-
self. Thus, that the education of a normal school,
essentially practical, may completely succeed, the
young candidate must possess nobleness and purity
of character in the highest possible degree, the love
of the True and the Beautiful, an active and pene-
trating mind, the utmost precision and clearness in
narration and style.
Such above all things are the qualities we require of
young men.
If they have reached this state of moral
and intellectual advancement by the study of history,
geography, mathematics, &c., and if they have ac-
quired additional knowledge on these various branches,
we cannot but give them applause; but, we frankly
repeat, we dispense with all these acquirements, pro-
vided they possess that formal instruction of which we
have just spoken, since it is very easy for them to
obtain in the normal school that material instruction
in which they are deficient.
It is nevertheless necessary to have some prelimi-
nary notions, seeing that the courses at the normal
school are often a continuation of foregone studies,
and that certain branches could not be there treated
in their whole extent, if they were wholly unknown
to the young men when they entered. We have
already mentioned the branches they should be most
particularly prepared in; but this subject being of the
greatest interest, we shall conclude this chapter with
some suggestions on the plan to be followed.
I. Religion. To awaken and fortify the religious
spirit and the moral sentiments. For this purpose
the histories and parables of the Bible are very useful.
Frequent reading and accurate explanation of the Bible
are necessary. The pupils should be able to explain
the articles of faith, and the most important duties,
as laid down in the catechism. Many sentences,
254
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
whole chapters and parables from the Holy Scriptures,
hymns and verses, should be known by heart; they
should be able to give answers on the most interesting
points of the history of the church and the reforma-
tion.
Useful books on the subject:
1. Hübner, Biblical Stories, published by Rau-
schenbusch, and his Schoolmaster's Manual, 3 vols.,
Schwelm, 1824 ;
2. The manifestation of God in the histories of the
Old Testament, with the Life of Jesus Christ according
to the four Evangelists, and the History of the Apostles
according to St. Luke, 8 vols., Halle, 1820;
3. Krummacher, Biblical Catechism;
4. Huber, Introduction to all the Books of Holy Writ,
Basel, 1812;
5. Hornung, Manual for the Explanation of Biblical
History and Geography, 1825;
6. Catechism of the Christian Doctrine for Children,
Hirschberg, 1809:
7. Hornung, Summary of the Christian Faith,
Berlin, 1823;
8. Schmid, Sketch of the History of the Christian
Religion and Church, Berlin, 1823.
II. As to general history, there is no need of its
being circumstantially or profoundly known; but the
young men should be able to refer with exactness to
those historical facts which may be profitably used to
form the heart, to exercise and rectify the judgement,
to infuse a taste for all that is grand and noble, true
and beautiful.
Useful books on the subject:
1. Ewald, Examples of Virtue, a collection of noble
deeds and characteristic traits from universal history,
&c., 3 vols., Stuttgard, 1813;
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
255
2. School of Wisdom and Virtue, Stuttgard, 1813;
3. Wagnitz, Examples of Virtue, 2 vols. ;
4. Fischer, Lives of celebrated Reformers;
5. Pflaum, Lives of celebrated Men, for the use of
young persons;
6. Kraft, The Modern Plutarch;
7. Niemeyer, The German Plutarch.
III. Geometry (the study of forms) combined with
elementary drawing, the one as a basis for instruction
in writing and drawing, and as a preparation for the
mathematics; the other to exercise the hand, the eye,
and the taste.
Useful books on the subject:
1. J. Schmidt, Elements of Form and Size, Berne,
1809;
2. Von Türck, The Doctrine of Form and Size;
3. Hoffmann, The Geometrical Doctrine of Forms,
Mainz, 1818;
4. Stein, The Doctrine of Forms in connexion with
elementary Drawing, Züllichau, 1824;
5. J. Schmidt, Elements of Drawing, Berlin, 1809;
6. Sickel, Practical Doctrine of Forms, Leipzig,
1824.
IV. Writing. The copies by Heinrich and Henning
only ought to be used, which, after long practice, give.
and preserve a beautiful hand, even when writing fast
and much.
V. Logical Exercises. These ought to tend to pro-
duce in young minds clearness and accuracy of ideas,
justness of judgement, and, by consequence, precision
and facility in oral and written explanations.
Useful books on the subject:
1. Niemeyer, Principles of Education and of Instruc-
tion, 2nd vol., 3rd part, 2nd section, 1st chapter;
2. Grassmann, Manual of Practice in thinking and
speaking.
256
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
3. Krause, Exercises for learning to think in a
methodical and natural manner.
4. Schaller, Magazine of Logical Exercises, 1st
vol.
VI. Reading. When once the pupil can read fluently,
he must be taught to give emphasis to his reading,
and to feel what he reads. He should be habituated
to recite, and even gradually to analyse the phrases
and periods he has just read, to change the order, and
express the same idea in different words,-to put, for
example, poetry into prose, &c. Thus these exercises
serve at the same time to teach him to think, and to
speak. We advise also that he be made to declaim
pieces he has learnt by heart.
Reading books:
1. Wilmsen, The Children's Friend, 2nd and 3rd
parts;
2. The Reading Book published by the professors
of the gymnasium of Helmstädt;
3. Seidenstücker, Eutonia ;
4. The best books of hymns.
VII. German language and composition. Language
should be regarded and treated on the one hand as a
means of formal instruction,—as practical logic, and
on the other as an indispensable object of material
instruction.
See, under the former point of view,
Tillich, The Teaching of languages a powerful means
of Education, Leipzig, 1803, and his reading book,
1st and 2nd parts.
Under the other head,
Krause, German grammar, and his Systematic
manual of the German Language.
See also the grammars of Heyse, Hahn, Rothe, and
Bernhardt.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
257
The young men should be made to write many
compositions and epistolary exercises.
Useful books on the subject:
1. Falkmann, System of Exercises in German Style;
2. Do. Elementary Book on Style;
3. Do. Manual of Exercises in German Style ;
4. Baumgarten, Plans and Materials for Composi-
tions;
5. The Little Letter-Writer of Baumgarten, Schlez
and Dolz, &c.
VIII. Arithmetic. This does not include either
methods of abstruse calculation or practical arith-
metic. Nothing more is required of the pupil than
to use figures without difficulty, and to calculate in
his head.
Useful books on the subject:
1. Pestalozzi, Tables of whole Numbers and Frac-
tions ;
2. His Explanation of the Relations of Numbers;
3. J. Schmidt, Elements of Numbers, and the Ele-
ments of Algebra ;
4. Kawerau, Book of Arithmetic.
IX. Singing, piano-forte, violin. The formation of
the voice and ear. Škill and firmness in producing
sounds. Exercises in elementary singing. Psalmody.
For the piano-forte and violin, as much dexterity
as can be expected, and a good fingering for the
former instrument.
If these suggestions have the effect of inducing a
conscientious master to train well even a few young
candidates, they will have attained their object.
The enumeration of a great number of works from
which assistance may be derived, at least facilitates
the choice.
S
is
258
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
9. Outward condition of the Pupils; and the nature of
their connexion with the Normal School.
If the young men have no relations at Potsdam who
can answer for their good conduct and application,
they are all, without exception, bound to live in the
normal school, and to take their food there, paying to
the director the sum of 12 thaler (17.16s.) per quarter.
Each pupil costs the establishment 100 thaler a-
year. In paying, therefore, the yearly sum of 48
thaler, required by law, he defrays only half his ex-
penses. A bursar is entitled to lodging, firing, board,
candles, and instruction. A half-bursar pays only
24 thaler a-year. He has then only to buy his clothes,
to pay for his washing, his books, paper, pens, ink,
and whatever is wanted for music and drawing.
The pupils pay for medicine; the establishment,
however, willingly lends assistance, if, at the end of
a severe illness, the cost is very great.
As to clothes, (which, however, must be clean, and
not ragged,) and books, no one is compelled to incur
greater expense than his means will allow.
During their stay in the normal school the young
men can earn nothing, since they have no time left
to give private lessons, which, moreover, would cause
great inconvenience.
With respect to lodging, they are distributed into
five large rooms with stoves, appropriated to the pu-
pils; and they live and work, to the number of eight,
twelve, or sixteen, in one of these rooms, which is
furnished with tables, chairs, drawers, book-cases,
bureaus, and piano-fortes. Their beds and chests
are put in two dormitories. Each sitting-room, each
bed-room, has its inspector, chosen from among the
pupils, who is responsible for its order. It is the duty
of one of the pupils belonging to the chamber to
arrange and dust the furniture, &c. every day. Neg-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
259
lect in the fulfilment of his office is punished by the
continuance of it.
So long as the pupils remain at the normal school,
and behave with propriety, they are exempt from
military service.
All the pupils are bound to pursue the course of
the normal school for three years; their acquirements
and instruction would be incomplete if they did not
conform to this regulation.
10. Education of the Pupils by means of Discipline
and of Instruction.
This important subject is of far too great extent
for us to attempt to exhaust it here. We shall take
a future opportunity of entering upon it, and show
how all the branches of instruction are treated in the
normal school. At present we shall content ourselves
with the mention of the principles which regulate the
instruction and general discipline.
In the education of the masters of primary schools
the wants of the people must be consulted.
We have abundant proof that the well-being of an
individual, like that of a people, is nowise secured by
extraordinary intellectual powers or very refined ci-
vilization. The true happiness of an individual, as
of a people, is founded on strict morality, self-govern-
ment, humility and moderation; on the willing per-
formance of all duties to God, his superiors, and his
neighbours.
A religious and moral education is consequently
the first want of a people. Without this, every other
education is not only without real utility, but in
some respects dangerous. If, on the contrary, reli-
gious education has taken firm root, intellectual edu
cation will have complete success, and ought on no
account to be withheld from the people, since God
has endowed them with all the faculties for acquiring
s 2
260
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
it, and since the cultivation of all the powers of man
secures to him the means of reaching perfection, and,
through that, supreme happiness.
Religious and moral instruction, far from leading
to presumption and a disputatious spirit, on the con-
trary produces in man a consciousness of his weak-
ness, and, as a consequence, humility. The object
then should be, to give the people solid and practical
knowledge, suited to their wants, which will naturally
refine and soften their habits and manners.
If such be the instruction the people ought to re-
ceive, that of the masters of the primary schools is at
once determined, and the principles to be followed
in the instruction of our pupils are equally clear.
A more definite direction is given to religious and
moral instruction by the belief in the revealed word
of God in the Holy Scriptures. But this belief must
not be simply historical, as amongst the learned; nor
amuse itself with obscure and mystical notions; nor
be expressed with affectation, in word, gesture, or
deed. It ought rather so to penetrate the heart of
man as to produce a constant endeavour to have his
thoughts, sentiments, and actions in strictest harmony
with the word of God. It is, then, on the living con-
viction of the truths and doctrines of Christianity
that we base the religious and moral character of
our pupils. Enemies to all needless constraint, we al-
low the young men all the liberty compatible with
our responsibility, with our duty of guarding them
from every seduction, and with the internal order of
the establishment. We are indulgent to faults which
arise not from bad disposition, but we punish unkind-
ness and rudeness even in look and gesture. To be
cringing and hypocritical is a bad way of seeking our
favour, but we encourage to the utmost of our power
real unassuming piety, docility, zeal, and industry.
To sustain and confirm the religious and moral
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
261
:
spirit of our pupils, we adopt various means. We take
particular care that they go to church every Sun-
day they are not compelled to attend exclusively
the Heilige Geist Kirche (church of the Holy Ghost),
which is the parish church of the normal school, and
which it supplies with a choir of singers; but on the
Monday they are required to name the church they
went to, and to give an account of the sermon. Every
Sunday, at six o'clock in the morning, one of the
oldest pupils reads, in turn, a sermon, in the presence
of all the pupils and one master. At the beginning
and end they sing a verse of a psalm, accompanied on
the organ. A prayer, about ten or fifteen minutes long,
is offered up every morning and night, by one of the
masters. They begin with singing one or two verses ;
then follows a religious address, or the reading of a
chapter from the Bible, and, in conclusion, another
verse.
To obtain a moral influence over the pupils, we
consider their individual position, their wants, and
their conduct. Much aid in this respect is derived
from the weekly conferences of the masters, and par-
ticularly from the quarterly report (Censur) of the pu-
pils, or judgement on the application, progress, and
conduct of each. This is written in a particular book,
called the report-book (Censurbuch), and forms the
basis of the certificates delivered to the pupils on
their leaving the establishment, as well as of private
advice given at the time.
The means of correction adopted are, warnings,
exhortations, reprimands; at first privately, then at
the conference of the masters; lastly, before all the
pupils. If these means do not suffice, recourse is
had to confinement, to withdrawing the stipendia or
exhibitions, and, in the last resort, to expulsion. But
we endeavour, as much as possible, to prevent these
punishments, by keeping up a friendly intercourse
with the pupils, by distinguishing the meritorious,
262
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
by striving to arouse a noble emulation, and to stir
up in their hearts the desire of gaining esteem and
respect by irreproachable conduct.
It is on the interest given to the lessons that espe-
cially depends the application to study out of class.
Certain hours of the day are consecrated to private
study, and each master by turns takes upon himself
to see that quiet is maintained in the rooms, and that
all are properly occupied.
At the end of each month, the last lesson, whatever
the branch of instruction, is a recapitulation, in the
form of an examination, on the subjects treated of in
the course of the month.
As to the branches of knowledge taught, and the
course of study, the following is the fundamental
plan:-[See the opposite Table.]
In the first year formal instruction predominates;
in the second, material instruction; in the third, prac-
tical instruction*. The pupils, having then about ten
lessons a-week to give in the annexed school, (lessons
for which they must be well prepared,) follow fewer
courses in the school.
Our principal aim, in each kind of instruction, is
to induce the young men to think and judge for them-
selves. We are opposed to all mechanical study and
servile transcripts. The masters of our primary schools
must possess intelligence themselves, in order to be
able to awaken it in their pupils; otherwise, the state
would doubtless prefer the less expensive schools of
Bell and Lancaster.
We always begin with the elements, because we
are compelled to admit, at least at present, pupils
whose studies have been neglected; and because we
wish to organize the instruction in every branch, so
as to afford the pupils a model and guide in the les-
sons which they will one day be called upon to give.
With respect to material instruction, we regard
* See page 270.
FIRST YEAR.
Fundamental Plan of the Studies at the Primary Normal School of Potsdam.
SECOND YEAR.
THIRD YEAR.
[To face Page 262.]

SUBJECTS OF
FIRST HALF YEAR.
SECOND HALF YEAR.
THIRD HALF YEAR.
INSTRUCTION.
FORMAL INSTRUCTION.
WINTER.
LESSONS.
SUMMER.
LESSONS.
WINTER.
FOURTH HALF YEAR.
MATERIAL INSTRUCTION.
LESSONS.
SUMMER.
FIFTH HALF YEAR.
SIXTH HALF YEAR.
PRACTICAL INSTRUCTION.

LESSONS.I
WINTER.
LESSONS.
SUMMER.
LESSONS.
1. RELIGION.
Introduction to the Bible and bibli-
cal history.-Old Testament.-Read-
ing and explanation of the Bible.
4.
Introduction to the Bible and bibli-
cal history. New Testament.-Read-
ing and explanation of the Bible.-
Sketch of ecclesiastical history and of
the Christian religion.
4.
Christian faith and morals.
4.
Christian faith and morals.
4.
2.
GERMAN
LANGUAGE.
Preparatory logical exercises.-
Study of sounds, syllables, and words.
-Compositions.
4.
End of the studies commenced.-
Orthography.-Composition.
Construction.—Punctuation.-Com-
4.
4.
position.
Formation of periods.-Style.-—
Composition.
4.
Composition.
1.
Composition.
1.
Exercises in correct and systematic reading from good books.-Recitation and declamation.
2.
3. READING.
2.
4. ARITHMETIC.
Exercises in integral numbers.
4.
Exercises in fractions.
2.
Practical arithmetic.
4.
5. GEOMETRY AND
MATHEMATICS.
The whole of geometry, as an exer-
cise of thought and the basis of writ-
ing and drawing, and as a preparation
for the mathematics.
3.
Pure mathematics, as a means of
formal instruction.
4.
Mathematics, as far as measurement
of solids, with a practical tendency.
3.
2.
4.
Exercises in different species of
higher calculation.
4.

Calligraphy. Exercises in the different kinds of writing.
૧૭
Exercises in all kinds of writing.
1.
1.
6.
WRITING.
7. DRAWING.
Elements of German and English
handwriting.
A.
Calligraphy.-German and English
4.
2.
running-hand.
Continuation of these exercises-Heads and landscapes.
2.
Drawing after nature, and drawings finished in various ways.
2.
2.
Elementary and linear drawing.
2.
Drawing from casts.
2.
2.
S.
SINGING.
Elementary exercises. Church-
singing, or psalmody.
4.
First exercises in singing in parts.
Psalmody.
4.
Singing in parts or chorus.—
Psalmody.
4.
Singing in parts or chorus; solo.
Psalmody.
Vocal harmony, and method of leading chorusses.-Church singing.
3.
4.
3.
9. THOROUGH-BASS.
-ORGAN.
10.
INSTRUMENTAL
MUSIC.-VIOLIN.
11. ART OF INSTRUCTION
AND OF EDUCATION.
Gamuts and chords.
2.
Modulations.
2.
Transpositions of the bass.
3.
Lessons on the organ, preludes, in-
terludes.-Mode of preserving and
repairing organs.
Continuation.-Exercises in composition.
3.
3.
5.
5.
3.
3.
3.
3.
The most important parts of psy-
chology and the art of educating.-
Catechetical exercises, written and
vivá voce.
3.
Didactic art.-Science of methods.
3.
3.
12. GEOGRAPHY.
13. NATURAL HISTORY.
14.
HISTORY.
15. PHYSICS, OR NATU-
RAL PHILOSOPHY.
Number of lessons per week
32.
33.
General, physical, and mathematical
geography.-A little of natural phi-
losophy.
4.
35.
Special geography.
4.
Introduction to natural history.-
Botany. Natural history in general.
4.
In the proper seasons, gardening and swimming are taught every day during the hours of recreation.
2.
Botany and Mineralogy.
2.
t
Zoology.
Introduction to history.-Chrono-
logical sketch of history.-Ancient
history.
3.
History of the middle ages and mo-
dern history; above all that of Ger-
many and Prussia, and particularly of
Brandenberg.
༣.
Study of bodies and of their qualities.
2.
Study of the phenomena of nature.
2.
23.
27.
36.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
263
much more the solidity, than the extent, of the ac-
quirements. This not only accords with the inten-
tions of the higher authorities, but reason itself de-
clares that solidity of knowledge alone can enable a
master to teach with efficacy, and carry forward his
own studies with success. Thus, young men of de-
licate health are sometimes exempted from certain
branches of study, such as the mathematics, thorough-
bass, and natural philosophy.
Gardening is taught in a piece of ground before
the Nauen gate; and swimming, in the swimming-
school established before the Berlin gate, during the
proper season, from seven to nine in the evening.
Practical instruction we consider of the greatest
importance.
All the studies and all the knowledge of our pu-
pils would be fruitless, and the normal school would
not fulfil the design of its institution, if the young
teachers were to quit the establishment without
having already methodically applied what they had
learned, and without knowing by experience what
they have to do, and how to set about it.
To obtain this result, it is not sufficient that the
young men should see the course gone through under
skilful masters, or that they should themselves occa-
sionally give lessons to their schoolfellows; they must
have taught the children in the annexed school for a
long time, under the direction of the masters of the
normal school. It is only by familiarising themselves
with the plan of instruction for each particular branch,
and by teaching each for a certain time themselves,
that they can acquire the habit of treating it with
method.

11. Annexed School.
The annexed school was founded in 1825, and
receives gratuitously from 160 to 170 boys. The
higher authorities, in granting considerable funds
264
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
for the establishment of this school, have been espe-
cially impelled by the benevolent desire of securing
to the great mass of poor children in this town the
means of instruction, and of relieving the town from
the charge of their education.
The town-authorities agreed, on their part, to pay
the establishment one thaler and five silber-groschen
(3s. 6d.) a year for each child. On this condition
we supply the children gratuitously with the books,
slates, &c. which they want.
The annexed school is a primary school, which is
divided into four classes, but reckons only three de-
grees the second and third classes are separated from
each other only for the good of the pupils, and for
the purpose of affording more practice to the young
masters.
The first class, with the two above it, forms a good
and complete elementary school; while the highest
presents a class of a burgher school, where the most
advanced pupils of the normal school, who will proba-
bly be one day employed in the town schools, give in-
struction to the cleverest boys of the annexed school.
Here is a table of what is taught in this school.

Subjects taught.
The two
Lowest
class.
Highest
class.
middle
classes.
Lessons. Lessons. Lessons.
1. Religion
2. Reading
3. The German language
4. Arithmetic
5. Geometry and drawing..
6. Writing
7. Singing
8. Mathematics
9. Geography
10. Natural History.
11. History
....
4663 2 3 2
Total number of lessons in the week 26
4
3
6
2
4
4
4
4
2
2
5
4
3
3

2222
26
30
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
265
We shall add a few remarks on this plan.
1. In the two middle classes, the most common
sorts of knowledge are taught, together with reading,
on the plan of Hempel (The Primary School's Friend).
2. The lessons in language consist, in the lower
class, of logical exercises and anecdotes; and, in the
middle classes, of exercises in language and gram-
mar (after Krause).
3. Writing, properly so called, is not taught in
the lower class, except to the most advanced pupils;
all the others are taught linear drawing and geometry.
The most advanced class of the students of the nor-
mal school to be employed in the school for practice,
is divided into five catus, or divisions, each composed
of five or six pupils. Each division teaches two
subjects only during two months and a half, and then
passes on to two other subjects; so that each has
practical exercise in all the matters taught, in suc-
cession.
As far as possible, all the classes of the school for
practice attend to the same subject at the same hour.
The master of the normal school, who has prepared
the young masters beforehand, is present during the
lesson. He listens, observes, and guides them during
the lessons, and afterwards communicates his obser-
vations and his opinion of the manner in which the
lesson was given. Each class has a journal for
each branch of instruction, in which what has been
taught is entered after the lesson. As far as possi-
ble, the young master who is to give the next lesson,
witnesses that of his predecessor. By this means,
and particularly through the special direction of the
whole practical instruction by a master of the normal
school, the connexion and gradation of the lessons is
completely secured.
It is requisite that every pupil of the normal school
should teach all the branches in the lowest class in
266
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
:
succession; for the master of a primary school, how-
ever learned he may be, is ignorant of the most in-
dispensable part of his calling, if he cannot teach the
elements.
12. Departure from the Normal School; Exami-
nations; Certificate and Appointment.
The pupils quit the normal school after having
pursued the course for three years; for the lengthen-
ing of their stay would be an obstacle to the recep-
tion of new pupils.
But they must first go through an examination in
writing and viva voce, as decreed by the ordinance of
the minister of public instruction and ecclesiastical
and medical affairs, of which we give an abstract.
"1. All the pupils of the primary normal schools
in the kingdom shall go through an examination on
leaving.
"2. The examinations shall be conducted by all
the masters of the normal school, on all the subjects
taught in the house, in the presence and under the
direction of one or more commissioners delegated by
the provincial school-board.
"3. Every pupil, before leaving, shall give a pro-
bationary lesson, to show to what degree he pos-
sesses the art of teaching.
"4. After the examination is over, and exact ac-
counts of the pupils leaving are given by the director
and all the masters, a certificate shall be delivered to
each pupil, signed by the director, the masters and
the commissioners.
‘5. This certificate shall specify the knowledge
and talents of the pupil; it shall state whether he
possesses the art of teaching, and whether his moral
character renders him fit for the office of primary
schoolmaster. It shall include, besides, a general
opinion of his character and attainments, expressed
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
267
by one of the terms, 'excellent,' 'good,' 'passable,'
and answering to the numbers 1, 2, 3.
"6. This certificate only gives the pupil a pro-
visional power of receiving an appointment for three
years. After that time he must undergo a new ex-
amination at the normal school. But any pupil who,
on leaving the establishment, obtained number 1,
and has, in the course of the three first years, been
teacher in a public school, shall not have to pass
another examination. No others can take a situation,
except provisionally.
7. These new examinations shall not take place
at the same time as those of the pupils who are leav-
ing; but, like those, always in the presence and
under the direction of the commissioners of the
school-board.
"8. In the first examinations the principal object
is, to ascertain if the pupils have well understood the
lessons of the normal school, and learned to apply
them; in the last, the only object of inquiry is the
practical skill of the candidate.
"9. The result of this new examination shall like-
wise be expressed in a certificate, appended to the first,
and care shall be taken to specify therein the fitness
of the candidate for the profession of schoolmaster.”
For which reason, the pupils on their departure
receive a certificate, the first page of which describes
their talents, character and morality, and the two fol-
lowing contain an exact account of the result of the
examination on all branches of study.
Those who have not obtained appointments in the
interval between the two examinations, shall present
this certificate to the superintendents and school-
inspectors of the places where they live, and, on leaving
that place, shall demand a certificate of conduct, which
they shall produce at the time of the second exami-
nation. Those who have been in situations during
268
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the three first years, shall produce certificates from
their immediate superiors.
All the pupils cannot be appointed immediately on
their leaving the school; but a great number of them
are proposed by the director for vacant places, and
are sought after by the royal government, by super-
intendents, magistrates, &c.; so that at the end of a
year we may calculate that they are all established.
I can answer for the perfect fidelity of this de-
scription of the normal school of Potsdam; and
in the long visit and minute investigation of this
great establishment which I made in person, I
came to the conviction that the representation I
have now submitted to you, Sir, and which was
drawn up in 1826, was, in 1831, below the reality.
The primary normal school of Potsdam now
contains eighty students: they all board in the
house. The charge is 48 thaler a-year (77. 4s.).
Half the students pay this entire sum; others
have purses (exhibitions) or half-purses. The
director and the masters, to the number of
five, are all lodged in the house. The director's
salary is 1060 thaler a-year (1597.); the five
masters have 530, 480, 400, 220, and 200
thaler, not including an allowance for wood.
180 thaler a-year are devoted to the mainte-
nance of a garden, and of a gardener, who gives
instruction in his art. 120 thaler a-year are
spent in books; the library already contains
more than a thousand volumes. There is a
little cabinet of mineralogy and natural history,
a collection of seeds, a tellurium for the illus-
tration of geographical and astronomical les-
sons; there is also a fine organ, for every one
Plan of Study for the Summer half of the year 1831.
[To face Page 269.]

Hours.
MONDAY.
TUESDAY.
WEDNESDAY,
THURSDAY.
FRIDAY.
From 55 Normal
I. means first year.
to 6.
school.
II.
III.
second year.
third year.
I. History
III. Writing
Uhde.
Haberkern.
II b.
Violin
Koch.
III.
Geometry
Haberkern.
I.
...
I.
Normal
school.
Thorough-bass
Schärtlich. I.
Drawing
II.
From 7
III.
Religion
Religion
Strietz.
II.
Religion
Uhde.
III.
Religion
Haberkern. I.
Strietz.
Uhde.
Natural philosophy. Schön.
1.
Drawing
II.
Thorough-bass
III.
Geometry
Schärtlich. II. Religion
Haberkern. III.
Religion
Haberkern. I.
Strietz.
Uhde.
III.
to 8.
School for
I.
Geography
Schön.
I.
Natural history..
practice.
II a.
German language... Wapler.
II.
German language
...
Schön.
Wapler.
I.
Religion
Wapler.
I.
II.
Geography
Schön.
German language... Wapler.
I.
Religion.........
II.
Geography...... ...... Haberkern. III.
Natural philosophy. Schön.
Religion...
Geometry
T.
SATURDAY.
Piano-forte
Koch,
Method
Strietz.
Strietz.
Haberkern. III.
IL
Thorough-bass...... Schärtlich.
Religion
Uhde.
I.
Natural history
...
Wapler.
II b. Religion
Schön.
Wapler.
I.
Singing
Schärtlich.
I.
Writing...
Haberkern. I.
Normal
school.
II.
From 8
to 9.
III.
I.
School for II a.
practice. II b.
German language... Uhde.
Arithmetic...
Wapler.
II.
III.
German language... Uhde.
Piano-forte
Koch.
II.
Organ
Arithmetic..
III.
Writing..
Schärtlich. I.
Koch.
II.
Haberkern. III.
...
Thorough-bass... Schärtlich.
German language... Uhde.
II.
Writing
Haberkern. III.
I.
Violin
...
German language
Writing
...
I.
1.
Geometry
I.
I.
Religion
Strietz.
II a.
II b.
III.
Religion..........
Strielz.
II a.
II b.
III.
German language... Uhde.
II a.
II b.
II a.
Religion
Strietz. IIb. Religion.…………………..
Schön.
Strietz.
III.
Koch.
Uhde.
II.
Haberkern. III.
I.
II a.
II b.
III.
I.
Organ
Arithmetic
Arithmetic
Schärtlich.
Koch.
Wapler.
German language... Uhde.
III.
III.
Normal
school.
II.
III a.
Organ lesson
Violin......
Schärtlich.
Koch.
I.
II.
III.
Violin
Drawing
Koch.
Haberkern.
German language... Wapler.
I.
Organ
II.
III.
Geometry
Schärtlich.
Schön.
II.
III.
Writing
Singing
Haberkern. II.
Schärtlich. III.
Organ
Schärtlich.
German language... Wapler.
II.
III.
Geometry
German language Uhde.
Schön.
...
German language... Uhde.
I.
From 9
to 10.
I.
I. 1
1.
I.
II a.
School for II a.
practice. IIb.
Arithmetic............ Schön.
III.
II a.
II b.
III.
Arithmetic.........
Schön.
II a.
II b.
III.
Writing.
Haberkern.
Arithmetic............ Schön.
IIb.
I.
II a.
II b.
Arithmetic............ Schön.
II a.
II b.
III.
Singing...
Schärtlich.
III.
III.
I.
Organ
....
Normal II.
school.
III.
Arithmetic...
Singing
Koch.
Schärtlich. III.
II.
Geometry
Singing
Schön.
Schärtlich. III.
II.
Singing
Thorough-bass
Schärtlich.
Koch.
II.
.....
III.
Natural history
Arithmetic...
Schärtlich.
Schön.
Wapler.
II.
III.
Arithmetic......
Arithmetic....
Koch.
Wapler.
II.
III.
Singing
Violin
Schärtlich.
Koch,
From 10
to 11.
I.
I.
Geometry
Schön.
I.
I.
School for II a.
practice.
Reading...
Uhde.
II b.
III.
II a.
II b.
III.
II a.
II a.
History
Uhde.
IIb. Reading.
III.
Uhde.
IIb.
Reading...
Uhde.
III.
I.
II a.
II b. Reading......
III.
Singing
Schärtlich. L History
II a.
Ulde.
Uhde.
II b. Reading
Unde.
III.
I.
Method
I.
From 11
to 12.
Normal
school.
II.
III.
German language.. Strietz.
Natural history
Schön.
German language... Uhde.
I.
Natural history
...
II.
Thorough-bass
III c.
Violin......
Schön.
Schärtlich.
Koch.
I.
II.
III.
History
Uhde.
Geography
Schön.
II.
f Geometry
Strietz.
Schön.
I.
Natural history
.....
II.
Organ
Organ
Schärtlich.
III b.
Violin
Schön.
I.
Schärtlich. II
Koch.
III.
History
Geography
Thorough-bass
Koch.

Schön.
Кост
...
Piano-forte
Koch.
III.
German language... Uhde.
Normal II.
school. III.
Reading.....
Piano-forte
Uhde.
Koch.
II.
Writing
III.
Piano-forte
Haberkern.
Koch.
II. Drawing
IIIa. Violin.....
Haberkern.
Koch.
II a.
Violin
Koch.
III.
Reading
Wapler.
··
I.
I.
I.
From 2
to 3.
L
II a.
II a.
School for II a.
practice. Il b.
III.
Normal II.
school. III.
Drawing and geo-
metry.......
II a.
German language... Uhde.
German language... Uhde.
II b.
II b.
Drawing and geo-
metry
Haberkern.
Haberkern.
IIb.
III.
III.
III.
I.
Writing
Piano-forte
Haberkern.
Koch.
I.
II.
III.
II b.
Violin
Psalmody
Schärtlich.
III.
Reading...
Koch.
Wapler.
II.
III c.
Method.
Organ
Violin
Strietz.
Schärtlich.
Koch.
I.
From 3
I.
to 4.
I.
School for II a.
practice.
Singing.
Schärtlich.
II b.
III.
I.
II a.
II b.
III.
II a.
Writing...
Haberkern.
II b.
Writing.
Haberkern.
II a.
II b.
Writing.
Haberkern.
III.
III. Exercises in logic... Uhde.
Instrumental music
Instrumental music
From 4
Normal
I.
to 5.
school.
II.
} Psalmody
Schärtlich.
Koch.
I.
II a.
III.
Singing
Violin
Drawing
Schärtlich.
II.
Reading.......
Wapler. I.
Koch.
III.
Drawing
Haberkern.
Psalmody
Schärtlich.
Koch.
II.
Haberkern.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
269
of the pupils is expected to be able to act as
organist. Each study has its piano-forte, each
pupil his violin, and a small collection of books.
I have said that there are eighty students: at
least a hundred applicants for admission pre-
sent themselves yearly, out of whom twenty-six
or twenty-seven are chosen,-about the same
number as quit the school. No one can be ad-
mitted before the age of seventeen or eighteen,
but they may enter considerably later; and I
have seen students as old as four-and-twenty.
Before they are admitted they undergo an exa-
mination, which is a trial of strength, from the
identity of the subjects it embraces, and the
number of competitors. During the three years
of residence at the school, liability to military
service is suspended. At the end of three years
there is a parting examination; those who go
through it with credit are entered as candidates
for the mastership of an elementary or burgher
school.
The punishment for any offence is, first, an
admonition of the director in private; secondly,
before the conference of schoolmasters, which
takes place every week: if the bad conduct
continues, the culprit is subjected to a trial or
investigation, and finally expelled.
The course of instruction is very solid, and
at the same time very extensive; as has been
seen in the fundamental plan, which forms part
of the preceding report, and by the annexed
table containing the prospectus, or scheme, of
the lessons for the summer half-year of 1831.
I saw this scheme in action. The spirit
270
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
which dictated the arrangement and distribution.
of the tuition is excellent, and equally pervades
all the details. The normal course, which occu--
pies three years, is composed, for the first year,
of studies calculated to open the mind, and to
inculcate on the pupils good methods in every
branch, and the feeling of what is the true voca-
tion of a primary teacher. This is what is called
the formal instruction, in opposition to the ma-
terial or more positive instruction of the second
year, in which the pupils go through special
studies of a very solid kind, and learn consi-
derably more than they will generally be called
upon to teach. The third year is entirely prac-
tical, and is devoted to learning the art of
teaching. This is precisely the plan which I
take credit to myself for having followed in the
organization of the studies of the great central
normal school of Paris, for the training of mas-
ters for the royal and communal colleges. At
Potsdam, likewise, the third year comprises
the sum of the two preceding, and the pupils
are already regarded as masters. In this view
there is a primary school annexed to the normal
school, in which the students, in their third
year, give lessons, under the superintendence of
the masters of the normal school. The children
who attend this primary school pay, or rather
the town pays for them, only four thaler (12s.)
a-year; there are 170. They are divided, ac-
cording to their progress, into four classes,
which are taught by the twenty or five-and-
twenty students, or apprentice-masters, in their
third year, with all the ardour of youth and of
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
271
a new vocation. I was present at several of
these lessons, which were extremely well given.
A master of the normal school frequently at-
tends one of the classes, and, when the lesson
is finished, makes observations to the young
masters, and gives them practical lessons, by
which they can immediately profit.
As appears from the prospectus, the musical
instruction is carried to a very high point.
There are few students who have not a violin,
and many of them leave the school very good
organists and piano-forte players. Singing
is particularly cultivated. The course of in-
struction embraces not only a little botany,
mineralogy, physical science, natural history,
and zoology, but exercises in psychology and
logic, which tend to give the young men the
philosophy of that portion of popular education
entrusted to their care. I was present at seve-
ral lessons; among others, one on history and
chronology, in which, out of courtesy to me,
the pupils were interrogated on the history of
France, particularly during the reigns of Charles
IX., Henry III., and Henry IV.,—a period of
which protestantism is so important a feature.
The young men answered extremely well, and
seemed perfectly familiar with the dates and
leading facts. I say nothing of the gymnastic
courses, as Prussia is the classic land of those
exercises.
What struck me the most was the courses,
called in Germany courses of Methodik and
Didaktik, as also those designated by the name
of Pädagogik: the two former intended to
·
272
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
teach the art of tuition, the latter the more dif-
ficult art of moral education. These courses
are more particularly calculated for the act-
ing masters, who come back to perfect them-
selves at the normal school; for which reason
they are not entered in the table, or prospectus,
which exhibits only the regular studies of the
school. These courses are almost always given
by the director, who also generally gives the
religious instruction, which here comes in its
proper place,—that is, first. There are many ex-
amples in Germany of laymen who teach reli-
gion. As all schoolmasters, who are of necessity
generally laymen, are bound to give religious
and moral instruction in their several schools,
it follows of course that the teaching the art of
giving such instruction cannot be confined to
ecclesiastics. Nevertheless, such lessons can
come from no one with more fitness and autho-
rity than from an ecclesiastic; and for that
reason most of the directors of normal schools
are either catholic curés or protestant pastors,
or persons who, after having gone through a
regular course of theological study, devote
themselves to public instruction. Mr. Striez
is a minister of the Gospel (i. e. a protestant
clergyman), a man of gravity and learning, who
reminded me of Mr. Schweitzer, of the normal
school of Weimar*. I ought to add that all
the students of the school at Potsdam had a
cheerful happy air, and that their manners were
very good. If they brought any rusticity to
the school, they had entirely lost it. I quitted
*See first part of the Rapport, p. 52-55.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
273
the establishment highly satisfied with the stu-
dents, full of esteem for the director, and of
respect for a country in which the education
of the people has reached such a pitch of pro-
sperity.
I indulge the hope, Sir, that this mass of
authentic documents, relating to the primary
normal schools of Prussia, will not be useless
to you in your efforts to reform the system of
our own. I have designedly accumulated offi-
cial papers, from the conviction that it is im-
possible to collect too much information on a
point on which depends the whole of primary
instruction. In fact, from the moment the law
has compelled each commune to have a pri-
mary school, nothing remains (supposing the
law executed,) but to furnish them with good
masters. Now the normal schools of Prussia
prove that it is possible, in a very few years,
to bring these establishments to a remarkable
degree of perfection. Most of them are poste-
rior to the law of 1819, some are as late as 1825,
and thus three or four years have sufficed to
place them on solid foundations, and to enable
them to render the most important services.
To effect all this, little is wanted on the part of
the minister, but a firm hand and the determi-
nation to be obeyed; success depends on a very
small number of rules, inflexibly adhered to.
I have, Sir, already remarked, that as every
commune must have its primary school, so
every department must have its primary normal
school. If the same law which shall render the
former imperative on the communes, should ren-
T
274
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
der the latter equally imperative on the depart-
ments, we should have made a great advance.
If the law does not go so far as that, you must
at all events come at the same results by ad-
ministrative measures; you must require every
council-general of a department, through the
medium of the prefect, to vote funds for the
establishment of a primary normal school, under
condition of binding yourself to contribute a
greater or less portion of the total expenditure,
and to take upon yourself, 1. the salary of the
director, whom you would nominate; 2. the
books, maps, and instruments necessary for the
use of the students. The outlay to which you
would thus bind yourself would be, in all re-
spects, worthy of a minister of public instruc-
tion;
it would secure to you the moral and lite-
rary direction of the school. As to the outlay for
the matériel, which you require the department
to furnish, if it is managed with prudence and
intelligence, it will not be very considerable at
first. It must be laid down as a principle, that
every department must have its normal school;
but that school should be proportioned to the
extent and the wealth of the department, and it
may, with equal propriety, be small in one and
large in another. I have already shown*, and
I take the liberty of recurring more at length
to, the very simple and very economical plan on
which a primary normal school may at first be
organized.
Choose the best-conducted primary school in
the department, that which is in the hands of
*First part of the Rapport, p. 59.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
275
the master of the greatest ability and trust-
worthiness. Annex to this school a class
called normal, in which this same master shall
teach his art to a certain number of young men
of the department, who are willing to come to
it to form themselves for schoolmasters. The
number of pupils to be admitted is very easily
determined. It depends on the average number
of new masters required in a year by the de-
partment. This principle is fundamental. It
is absurd to gather together at random a crowd
of students, who have no security for obtaining
employment. Indeed this would, in all fair-
ness, deprive us of the right of exacting from
them an engagement to devote themselves for a
certain number of years exclusively to public
instruction. You must therefore begin by
clearly ascertaining, at the beginning of every
year, the number of masters the department is
likely to want, and must determine by that the
number of pupils to be admitted into the nor-
mal school. None should be admitted till after
an examination, made by a commission ap-
pointed by you*. This commission must send
you
the results of its labours; and it would be
well that the admission of the students to the
primary normal school should be signed by you,
as is the case in the admission of students to
the great normal school for instruction of the
second degree. This small normal school ought
never to be placed in a very large town, the in-
fluence of which would be adverse to that spirit
of poverty, humility and peace, so necessary to
See pp. 130, 131.
Ꭲ ?
276
FRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the students. There is no objection to their
being day-pupils, provided they be subject to
the special control of a police responsible for
their conduct out of the house. Nor is it ne-
cessary that all should receive exhibitions, or
purses, especially whole purses. In all small
towns there are families in which a young man
may be boarded and lodged for about 300
francs a-year (127.); so that 3000 francs, pru-
dently divided into whole, half, and quarter
purses, would easily defray the cost of ten or
fifteen students. Give the master the title of
Director of the normal school, which would be
a real gain to him, inasmuch as it would increase
his consideration; and for the additional labour
you impose upon him, give him a salary of 700
or 800 francs. Add a yearly allowance of 400
or 500 francs for books, maps, and other things
required in teaching; and thus, for 5000 francs
(2007.), at the utmost, you have a small normal
school, which will be extremely useful to the
department. The pupils should be permitted
to leave it, if they choose, in a year, provided
they be able to go through the examination at
quitting, on which depends their obtaining the
brevet of primary teacher. Yes, Sir, it rests
with you, by means of a circular to this effect,
addressed to all the prefects of the kingdom, to
have, in a few months, eighty-four small pri-
mary normal schools in France. These eighty-
four small schools, at 5000 francs each, would
cost a little more than 400,000 francs (16,0007.),
a part of which you could supply from the
funds entrusted to you by the Chamber for the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
277
diffusion of primary instruction. By this plan,
I repeat, before six months are over, you may
have in each department an excellent little nor-
mal school, which from year to year you can
improve, extend, enlarge. But to wish to begin
at the end, at once to found normal schools
costing 50,000 or 60,000 francs each, with
masters sufficient for sixty pupils, before you
know the annual wants of the department, and
to urge the zealous but inexperienced depart-
mental councils into expensive and perhaps un-
called-for measures, is, Sir, to expose yourself
to serious disappointments; it is to oppress the
present, for the sake of a very doubtful future.
The plan which I propose does not commit you
to any future measures, yet it at once covers
France with normal schools which will supply
our first wants. It is for time, zeal, intelligence
and perseverance to do the rest. There must
always necessarily be a great difference among
the normal schools of our eighty-four depart-
ments; but the best way is, to go on gradually
improving, in proportion as experience shows
you what is required. Even with this wise
tardiness, three or four years will suffice to
improve all these small normal schools, and to
raise a great number to the rank of complete
great normal schools.
What, we must here ask, is a great normal
school?
The difference between a great and a small
normal school consists in this: a small normal
school is only an appendage to a primary
school, whilst a great normal school is an esta-
278
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
blishment subsisting by and for itself, to which
a primary school (and if possible that should
comprise both an elementary and a middle
school,) is annexed.
This difference gives the measure of all other
differences. In the small normal school there
are only day-pupils, or at most a few boarders.
In the great, the majority may be boarders.
In the one, the course may be terminated in a
year; in the other, it should extend through two
years, as at Brühl; and even, in time, according
to the resources of the departments and the
progress of public education, it might embrace
three years, as in most of the great normal
schools of Prussia,-Potsdam, for example. The
departments must be the judges of their re-
sources and of their wants. A department
which wants twenty schoolmasters a-year, and
which has a certain number of middle or burgher
schools, as well as many elementary schools, can
very well receive twenty pupils a-year; which,
supposing the course to occupy two or three
years, amounts to forty or sixty pupils at a time
in the school. Then there must be accommo-
dation for boarding them, a large building, a
greater number of masters, more exhibitions
(bourses), more expense of every sort.
With the funds at your command, Sir, you
will meet a part of these expenses; but first you
will judge of the utility of them, and will see
that the scientific and moral improvement of
the normal schools keeps pace with their out-
ward growth; for the latter is useless, except
as conducing to the former. But I cannot too
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
279
often repeat,-improvements, to be rea and
lasting, must be founded on experience. We
must incessantly tend towards great results,
but we must never forget that they can be ef-
fectually secured by perseverance alone, and
that nothing truly great can be forced in a hot-
bed.
In the hope that the few great primary nor-
mal schools we already possess will soon be suc-
ceeded by others, I beg your attention to the
following maxims, deduced from general expe-
rience, and from all the data I have accumulated
here.
I. To begin by giving instructions rather
than rules; to confine yourself in these instruc-
tions to the establishing of a few essential
points, and to leave the rest to the departmen-
tal committee. To discuss and decide this small
number of points in the royal council; not to
multiply them, but inflexibly to enforce their
execution. The fewer they are, the more easy
will this execution be, and the more susceptible
will they be of application to all the normal
schools of France; so that there would be a
common groundwork for all; a unity, which,
passing from the normal schools into the
whole body of popular education, would have
a beneficial influence in strengthening the na-
tional unity. At the same time, this unity would
not be prejudicial to local diversities; for the
departmental committee would be desired to
apply your general instructions according to
the peculiar manners or usages of the depart-
ment. From the combination of the uniformity
280
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
of these instructions, with the diversity of
arrangements which the prudence and intelli-
gence of the committee, and the experience of
each year, will recommend, a set of regulations
for each normal school will gradually arise,
more or less definitive, and therefore fit to be
made public. The plan of study of the great
normal school at Paris, for the supply of the
royal and communal colléges, is the fruit of
fifteen years' experience. This school, which
was founded in 1810, had no written laws
till 1815. We made important modifications in
those laws at the revolution of 1830, and it was
not till then that we ventured to print them, as
the result, nearly definitive, or at least likely
to endure for some time, of all the experiments
successively tried. Let us imitate this caution,
and begin with a simple set of instructions from
the minister. Rules for the studies and the
discipline will gradually arise. Every year will
modify them. The important thing is, to exact
an accurate account of the proceedings and re-
sults of the year, drawn up by the director, and
transmitted to you, together with all the neces-
sary documents, by the departmental committee
and the prefect, who will subjoin their own opi-
nion. Then, and then only, you, Sir, will inter-
pose your authority, with that of the royal coun-
cil, which will revise this report every year at
the vacation, and pronounce on the improve-
ments to be introduced.
II. To attach the greatest possible import-
ance to the choice of a director. It is a principle
generally established in Prussia, that the good-
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
281
ness of a normal school is in exact proportion
to the goodness of the director; just as the
primary school is what its master is. What
constitutes a normal school is not a fine build-
ing; on the contrary, it is not amiss that it
should not be over commodious or splendid.
It is not even the excellence of the regulations,
which, without a faithful and intelligent execu-
tion of them, are only a useless bit of paper.
A normal school is what its director is. He is
the life and soul of it. If he is a man of ability,
he will turn the poorest and humblest elements
to account; if he is incapable, the best and
most prolific will remain sterile in his hands.
Let us by no means make our directors mere
house-stewards. A director ought to be at the
head of the most important branches of instruc-
tion, and to set an example to all the other mas-
ters. He must have long fulfilled the duties of
a master; first, in different classes of a normal
course of education, so that he may have a gene-
ral knowledge of the whole system; secondly,
in several normal schools, so that he may have
experience of difficulties of various kinds;
lastly, he must not be placed at the head of a
normal school of the highest class, till he has
been director of several of an inferior class, so
as to graduate promotion according to merit,
and thus keep up an honourable emulation. It
is a principle which I have insisted on a hun-
dred times to the council, that the director ought
to look to you alone for his salary, and that you
ought also to pay for all the literary furniture of
the school; since by these means you will go-
282
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
vern more firmly, and keep the reins of popular
education in your own hand.
III. An excellent practice in Germany is, to
place the candidates, immediately on their leav..
ing the normal school, as assistant masters in
schools which admit of two. The young men thus
go through at least a year of apprenticeship,-a
very useful noviciate: they gain age and experi-
ence, and their final appointment depends on
their conduct as assistant masters. In Holland
there are no normal schools, and the masters
are formed almost exclusively by converting the
most promising pupils into masters' assistants.
I am far from regarding this mode of recruiting
as sufficient, or as securing the needful regu-
larity to a most important branch of the public
service; but I regard every gradation as ex-
tremely useful, and I think a little graduated
scale of powers and duties might be advantage-
ously introduced into primary instruction.
Ist. Pupil of a normal school admitted after
competition, holding a more or less high rank
in the examination list at the end of each year,
and quitting the school with such or such a
number. 2nd. Same pupil promoted to the
situation of assistant master. 3rd. School-
master successively in different schools rising
in salary and in importance. 4th. After distin-
guished services, inaster in a primary normal
school. 5th. Lastly, director of a school of that
class, with the prospect of gradually rising to
be director of a numerous and wealthy normal
school, which would be a post equal to that of
professor of a royal collége. The human soul
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
293
lives in the future. It is ambitious, because it is
infinite. Let us then, Sir, open to it a progres-
sive career, even in the humblest occupations.
IV. We cannot be too deeply impressed with
this truth ;—that paid instruction is better than
gratuitous instruction. The entire sum paid
for board at a normal school must be extreme-
ly moderate, for the young men of the poorest
classes to be able to pay it. We must give
only quarter or half exhibitions (bourses), re-
serving two or three whole ones for the two
or three young men, out of the fifteen ad-
mitted annually, who stand first on the list;
and even this should not be continued to them
the second year, unless their conduct had been
irreproachable and their application unremit-
ting. The school would thus cost less, and more
work would be done. It would perhaps be ad-
visable that the exhibition for the first student
should always come from you, as well as the
literary furniture and the director's salary.
On the same principle as that laid down
above, the elementary school annexed to the
normal school ought not to be entirely gratui-
tous; it ought to have no other masters than
the forwardest pupils of the normal school,
acting under the direction of their masters.
The profits of the elementary school for practice
would go to diminish the total cost of the nor-
mal school. As for the middle school for prac-
tice, it would be contrary to the principle of all
middle schools to have it gratuitous. Here,
then, is a fresh source of profit, which, if well
managed and economized, ought to indemnify
the department for a part of its expenditure.
.
284
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
V. Divide the studies of all normal schools
into two parts: during the first, the pupils
should be considered simply as students, whose
acquirements are to be confirmed, extended,
and methodised: during the second, as masters,
who are to be theoretically and practically
taught the art of teaching. If the normal course
only lasts a year, this part of it ought to occupy
at least six months; if it lasts two years, it ought
to occupy a year; if three years, it would still
occupy only a year. The students in this last
year would give lessons in the elementary and
middle schools annexed to the normal school.
VI. The examination at quitting ought to be
more rigid than that at entering the school.
The important thing is to have young men of
good capacity, even if they know little; for they
will learn rapidly; while some, who might hot
be deficient in a certain quantity of acquired
knowledge, but were dull or wrong-headed,
could never be made good schoolmasters. No
latitude whatever must be left to the commission
of examination at departure. Here, intelligence
must show itself in positive attainments, since
opportunity to acquire them has been given.
Nothing but negligence can have stood in their
way, and that negligence would be the greatest
of all faults. This latter examination, there-
fore, must be directed to ascertain the acquired,
and not the natural, fitness. But in the ex-
amination on entering, I wish that the com-
mission should more particularly inquire into
the talents and natural bent, and, above all,
into the moral character and disposition.
little discretionary power ought to be confided
A
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
285
to it. This applies more especially to those nor-
mal schools, the course of which lasts two or
three years. Three years of study will not give
intelligence; but they will give all the necessary
attainments in abundance.
VII. It is my earnest desire, that conferences,
similar to those whose rules I have laid before
you*, should be formed among the schoolmasters
of each canton. I wish it, but I have but little
hope of it, at least at first. Such conferences sup-
pose both too great a love for their profession,
and too great a familiarity with the spirit of as-
sociation. A thing much more easy to accom-
plish is, that, during the vacations of the pri-
mary schools, a certain number of masters
should repair to the normal school of the de-
partment to perfect themselves in this or that
particular branch, and to receive lessons appro-
priate to their wants, as is the case in Prussiat.
This time would be very usefully, and even
very agreeably, employed; for the young mas-
ters would be brought into contact with their
old instructors and companions, and would have
an opportunity of renewing and cementing old
friendships. Here would be an interesting
prospect for them every year. For such an
object, we must not grudge a little expense for
their journey and their residence. I should
therefore wish that the vacations of the pri-
mary schools, which must be regulated by cer-
tain agricultural labours, should always precede
those of the primary normal schools, in order
that the masters of the former might be able to
*Pp. 201-203.
† Pp. 198-200.
286
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
take advantage of the lessons in the latter, and
might be present at the parting examinations
of the students of the third year, which would
be an excellent exercise for the young acting
masters.
I am convinced of the utility of having an
inspector of primary schools for each depart-
ment, who would spend the greater part of the
year in going from school to school, in stirring
up the zeal of the masters, in giving a right di-
rection to that of the communal committees,
and in keeping up a general and very beneficial
harmony among the maires and the curés. It
is unnecessary for me to say, that this inspector
ought always to be some old master of a normal
school, selected for his talents, and still more
for his tried character. But if this institution,
which is universal in Germany, were not popu-
lar among us, nearly the same results might be
obtained by authorizing the director, or, in de-
fault of him, some masters of the normal school,
to visit a certain number of the schools of the
department every year, during the vacation of
their own school, and to do what would be done
by the inspector above named. They would
find great facilities from their old habits of
intercourse and friendship with most of the
masters, over whom they would exercise al-
most a paternal influence. On the other hand,
they would gain by these visits, and would
acquire a continually increasing experience,
which would turn to the advantage of the
normal schools. You have seen that in Prussia,
besides the visits of the circle-inspectors, the
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
287
1
directors of normal schools make visitations
of this kind, for which they receive some very
slender remuneration; for these little journeys
are sources of pleasure to them, as well as of
utility to the public.
VIII. Let solidity, rather than extent, be
aimed at, in the course of instruction. The
young masters must know a few things fun-
damentally, rather than many things super-
ficially. Vague and superficial attainments.
must be avoided at any rate. The steady con-
tinuous labour which must be gone through to
know anything whatsoever thoroughly, is an
admirable discipline for the mind. Besides,
nothing is so prolific as one thing well known;
it is an excellent starting point for a thousand
others. The final examinations must be mainly
directed to the elements,-they must probe to
the bottom, they must keep solidity always in
view.
IX. Avoid ambitious methods and exclusive
systems attend, above all, to results, that is to
say, to solid acquirements; and, with a view to
them, consult experience. Clear explanations
on every subject, connectedness and continuity
in the lessons, with an ardent love for the busi-
ness of teaching, are worth all the general rules
and methods in the world.
X. A branch of study common to all schools
ought to be the French tongue; the just pro-
nunciation of words, and the purity and correct-
ness of language. By this means the national
language would insensibly supersede the rude
unintelligible dialects and provincialisms. In

288
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
the normal schools where German is still the
language of the people*, German and French
must both be taught, in order not to offend
against local attachments, and at the same time.
to implant the spirit of nationality.
XI. Without neglecting physical science, and
the knowledge applicable to the arts of life, we
must make moral science, which is of far higher
importance, our main object. The mind and
the character are what a true master ought,
above all, to fashion. We must lay the foun-
dations of moral life in the souls of our young
masters, and therefore we must place religious
instruction, that is, to speak distinctly, Chris-
tian instruction,-in the first rank in the edu-
cation of our normal schools. Leaving to the
curé, or to the pastor of the place, the care of
instilling the doctrines peculiar to each commu-
nion, we must constitute religion a special object
of instruction, which must have its place in each
year of the normal course; so that at the end
of the entire course, the young masters, without
being theologians, may have a clear and precise
knowledge of the history, doctrines, and, above
all, the moral precepts of Christianity. With-
out this, the pupils, when they become masters,
would be incapable of giving any other reli-
gious instruction than the mechanical repetition
of the catechism, which would be quite insuf-
ficient. I would particularly urge this point,
Sir, which is the most important and the most.
delicate of all. Before we can decide on what

* Alsace, Franche Comté, &c.-TRANSL.
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
289
should constitute a true primary normal school,
we must determine what ought to be the cha-
racter of a simple elementary school, that is, a
humble village school. The popular schools
of a nation ought to be imbued with the reli-
gious spirit of that nation. Now without
going into the question of diversities of doc-
trine, is Christianity, or is it not, the reli-
gion of the people of France? It cannot be
denied that it is. I ask, then, is it our object
to respect the religion of the people, or to de-
stroy it? If we mean to set about destroying
it, then, I allow, we ought by no means to have
it taught in the people's schools. But if the
object we propose to ourselves is totally different,
we must teach our children that religion which
civilized our fathers; that religion whose liberal
spirit prepared, and can alone sustain, all the
great institutions of modern times. We must
also permit the clergy to fulfill their first duty,
-the superintendence of religious instruction.
But in order to stand the test of this superin-
tendence with honour, the schoolmaster must
be enabled to give adequate religious instruc-
tion; otherwise parents, in order to be sure
that their children receive a good religious
education, will require us to appoint ecclesi-
astics as schoolmasters, which, though assuredly
better than having irreligious schoolmasters,
would be liable to very serious objections of
various kinds. The less we desire our schools
to be ecclesiastical, the more ought they to be
Christian. It necessarily follows, that there
must be a course of special religious instruction
U
290
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
in our normal schools. Religion is, in my eyes,
the best—perhaps the only-basis of popular
education. I know something of Europe, and
never have I seen good schools where the spirit
of Christian charity was wanting. Primary
instruction flourishes in three countries, Hol-
land, Scotland, and Germany; in all it is
profoundly religious. It is said to be so in
America. The little popular instruction I ever
found in Italy came from the priests. In France,
with few exceptions, our best schools for the
poor are those of the Frères de la doctrine
Chrétienne (Brothers of the Christian doctrine).
These are facts which it is necessary to be in-
cessantly repeating to certain persons. Let
them go into the schools of the poor,-let them
learn what patience, what resignation, are re-
quired to induce a man to persevere in so toil-
some an employment. Have better nurses ever
been found than those benevolent nuns who
bestow on poverty all those attentions we pay to
wealth? There are things in human society,
Sir, which can neither be conceived nor accom-
plished without virtue,-that is to say, when
speaking of the mass, without religion. The
schools for the middle classes may be an object
of speculation; but the country schools, the mi-
serable little schools in the south, in the west,
in Britanny, in the mountains of Auvergne, and,
without going so far, the lowest schools of our
great cities, of Paris itself, will never hold out
any adequate inducement to persons seeking a
remunerating occupation. There will doubtless
be some philosophers inspired with the ardent
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
291
philanthropy of Saint-Vincent de Paule, with-
out his religious enthusiasm, who would devote
themselves to this austere vocation; but the
question is not to have here and there a master.
We have more than forty thousand schools to
serve, and it were wise to call religion to
the aid of our insufficient means, were it but
for the alleviation of the pecuniary burthens of
of the nation. Either you must lavish the trea-
sures of the state, and the revenues of the com-
munes, in order to give high salaries, and even
pensions, to that new order of tradesmen called
schoolmasters; or you must not imagine you
can do without Christian charity, and that spi-
rit of poverty, humility, courageous resignation,
and modest dignity, which Christianity, rightly
understood and wisely taught, can alone give
to the teachers of the people. The more I
think of all this, Sir, the more I look at the
schools in this country, the more I talk with
the directors of normal schools and councillors
of the ministry, the more I am strengthened
in the conviction that we must make any efforts
or any sacrifices to come to a good understanding
with the clergy on the subject of popular educa-
tion, and to constitute religion a special and
very carefully-taught branch of instruction in
our primary normal schools.
I am not ignorant, Sir, that this advice will
grate on the ears of many persons, and that I
shall be thought extremely dévot at Paris. Yet
it is not from Rome, but from Berlin, that I
address you. The man who holds this language
to you is a philosopher, formerly disliked, and
7
U 2
292
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
even persecuted, by the priesthood; but this
philosopher has a mind too little affected by
the recollection of his own insults, and is too
well acquainted with human nature and with
history, not to regard religion as an indestruc-
tible power; genuine Christianity, as a means
of civilization for the people, and a necessary
support for those on whom society imposes irk-
some and humble duties, without the slightest
prospect of fortune, without the least gratifica-
tion of self-love.
I am now, Sir, arrived at the termination of
this long Report. May it be of use to you in
the important work which now engages your
attention! My illustrious colleague M. Cuvier
has already exhibited to France the organization
of primary instruction in Holland. The ex-
perience of Germany, and particularly of Prus-
sia, ought not to be lost upon us. National ri-
valries or antipathies would here be completely
out of place. The true greatness of a people
does not consist in borrowing nothing from
others, but in borrowing from all whatever is
good, and in perfecting whatever it appro-
priates.
I am as great an enemy as any one to artifi-
cial imitations; but it is mere pusillanimity to
reject a thing for no other reason than that it
has been thought good by others. With the
promptitude and justness of the French under-
standing, and the indestructible unity of our
national character, we may assimilate all that
is good in other countries without fear of
ceasing to be ourselves. Placed in the centre
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
293
•
of Europe, possessing every variety of climate,
bordering on all civilized nations, and holding
up perpetual intercourse with them, France is
essentially cosmopolitan; and indeed this is the
main source of her great influence. Besides,
civilized Europe now forms but one great fa-
mily. We constantly imitate England in all
that concerns outward life, the mechanical arts,
and physical refinements; why, then, should we
blush to borrow something from kind, honest,
pious, learned Germany, in what regards inward
life and the nurture of the soul?
For my own part, Sir, I avow my high es-
teem and peculiar affection for the German
people; and I am happy that my mission proved
to them that the revolution of July,-that re-
volution, as necessary and as just as the legi-
timate right of self-defence; that revolution,
sprung from the unanimous resistance of a
great people to a capricious aggression, an open
violation, not of hypothetical rights, but of
liberties secured by law,-is not, as its enemies
pretend, a return to the impiety, the licentious-
ness and the corruption of a fatal period; but, on
the contrary, the signal for a general improve-
ment in opinion and in morals; since one of
the first acts of the new government has been
the holy enterprize of the amelioration of public
education, of which the instruction of the peo-
ple is the basis.
I shall have the honour, at a future time, to
address to you two special Reports, as circum-
stantial as the foregoing, on the state of secon-
294
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION.
dary instruction and of higher instruction in
Prussia. They will complete the general Report
which it is my duty to lay before you.
Accept, Sir, the assurance, &c. &c.
VICTOR COUSIN.
295
APPENDIX.
NOTWITHSTANDING the length of this Report, many
interesting papers on the subject of primary instruc-
tion have been necessarily omitted. I cannot, how-
ever, persuade myself to leave out the following,
since it treats of a point of the greatest importance
and difficulty, the organization of the instruction of
the mass of the population of very large cities. Every
child, however poor, should receive some instruction;
to effect which a great number of charity schools
are required, whose character must be adapted pe-
culiarly to this class of persons. This is a problem
which claims the most serious consideration of every
great town, and which Berlin has, as it appears to me,
successfully resolved. In 1827, the subjoined plan
was proposed by the excellent Mr. Reichhelm and
carried into execution by him to the satisfaction of
the government and of the inhabitants of the city.
Plan for the Organization of the Parish Poors' Schools
of the city of Berlin, proposed by Mr. Reichhelm,
Member of the Council of Regency charged with
the special care of Schools, adopted by the high
authorities, in January 1827.
BERLIN contains two hundred thousand inhabitants.
The children of an age to go to school amount to
thirty thousand, including six thousand pauper children,
of whom five hundred are supported by Jewish religious
communities, by the French colony, by various societies,
296
APPENDIX.
&c. There remain, then, at the charge of the city, about
four thousand five hundred; three thousand five hundred
of whom receive gratuitous instruction. But there are
about a thousand children that do not go to school at all,
notwithstanding the law, the execution of which is diffi-
cult nowhere but in great cities, where it is easy to elude
even the most watchful superintendence.
These three thousand five hundred children that receive
gratuitous instruction, are distributed, 1st, into seven charity
schools (Armen-Schulen), which contain nine hundred and
ninety children; 2ndly, into thirty-seven private schools,
which receive, without charge to their parents, two thou-
sand five hundred, for each of whom the town pays about
eight groschen (ten pence) a-month, without counting a
supply of wood, paper, &c.
The funds appropriated to the charity-schools in 1826
amounted to 17,049 thaler (25607.): deducting all other
accessory and inevitable expenses, there remains an
actual expenditure of 15,723 thaler, for three thousand
five hundred children; or four thaler and a half for each
child (13s. 6d. a-year). To obtain perfectly satisfactory
results it would be necessary,-
1st, To reconstruct the charity-schools, in the manner
best suited to the poorest classes.
2ndly, To provide for the wants of the poor population
by establishing a sufficient number of schools.
Let us consider the first point.
With the money paid to private schools for poor chil-
dren, there might be raised, for the same number of
children, special schools, where the education would be
of a character more suited to their station and wants.
Although, in the middle class, the co-operation of the
parents and the influence of families may be depended on,
the contrary holds with children of the lowest, whom it is
often necessary to withdraw as much as possible from the
baleful influence of the bad example of their parents. In
the case of these children, the exertions of the school are
wholly unassisted.
In the new organization, the two sexes should be sepa-
rated; which will not increase the expense, provided the
schools be so proportioned, as that one complete school
shall contain two divisions having seventy-five each, one
APPENDIX.
297
for boys and one for girls; these two divisions forming
but one parish school for three hundred children, in one
building.
INSTRUCTION.
The special character of the instruction proper for
poor children, is defined in these two words, prayer and
work.
The subjects of instruction for the first class should be:
1. For Religion: the Bible, catechism, the positive truths
of Christianity.
2. For the German language: language considered as
the expression of thought; the most general rules of
grammar, clear and intelligible pronunciation, reading
and orthography.
3. Writing.
4. Arithmetic, to fractions and the rule-of-three, in-
clusive.
5. Singing, and particularly exercises in sacred choral
music.
For the second class of boys, the most general elements
of the natural sciences, of geography and national history,
as well as the elements of geometry and linear drawing,
should be added.
For the second class of girls, instruction in needle-work,
knitting, &c.
DIVISION OF WORK.
For boys of from six to ten years of age, first class,
twenty-six lessons of one hour each per week, from eight
to eleven, and from two to four, every day; thus,—
3 hours for religious instruction, (principally narratives
from the Bible);
12 hours for the German language, pronunciation, read-
ing, orthography, &c.;
5 hours for arithmetic,-3 for the slate as far as division,
and 2 for mental arithmetic;
4 hours for writing;
2 hours for singing (without counting the verses sung
at the beginning and end of each day.)
26 hours.
298
APPENDIX.
For the second class of boys, from ten to fourteen years
old, thirty-two hours of lessons per week, from eight to
twelve, and from two to four, every day; thus,—
6 hours for religion, instruction in the Bible, and cate-
chism;
10 hours for the German language, reading, grammar,
intellectual exercises;
5 hours for arithmetic, on the slate and in the head;
4 hours for writing;
2 hours for geometry and linear drawing;
3 hours for natural philosophy, geography and history,
&c.;
2 hours for singing (not including the verses sung morn-
ing and evening).
32 hours.
Girls' school, first class, from six to ten years old, twenty-
six hours' lessons a-week; thus,-
3 hours for religion (narratives from the Bible);
7 hours for the German language;
3 hours for arithmetic, on the slate and mentally;
3 hours for writing;
2 hours for singing;
8 hours for needle-work, &c.
26 hours, from eight to eleven, and from two to four.
The second class of girls, from ten to fourteen, thirty-two
hours' lessons; thus,-
6 hours for religion ;
8 hours for the German language;
4 hours for arithmetic ;
3 hours for writing;
3 hours for singing;
8 hours for needle-work &c. (in the afternoon).
32 hours, from eight to twelve, and from two to four.
A child shall be in a condition to pass from the first class
to the second as soon as it can read well.
It may perhaps seem strange, that in this plan of study
no mention should be made of the time devoted to ex-
ercises of the memory and the mental powers. But the
APPENDIX.
299
committee has considered that these exercises are included
in the course of study, which keeps the memory and intel-
lect constantly in action. The lessons in the German lan-
guage will always furnish exercises of this kind; and in
charity-schools, above all others, it is necessary to avoid
whatever is superfluous.
DISCIPLINE.
This question is one of the most difficult to solve. The
children of the lowest class have generally received an ill
bent from the example of their parents; the strictest disci-
pline is therefore required. Order, neatness, activity,
prompt obedience, are by no means the least important
things a child has to learn. The kind of instruction, the
gravity of the master, his devotedness to his pupils, are of
themselves a solid groundwork for discipline. But rigour is
sometimes necessary; and in a school for the poor, espe-
cially, discipline should be inflexible in cases of disorder or
indolence. But let the masters never forget, that the se-
verest measures of discipline should be pervaded by a senti-
ment of tenderness and love, which chastises only to im-
prove.
The point at present to be determined is, the num-
ber of schools necessary to meet the wants of the
poor.
Each school having two divisions, one for boys, the
other for girls, of two classes each, and seventy-five in a
class, in all three hundred children, the sum at present set
apart for the education of the poor would suffice to esta-
blish eleven schools for three thousand three hundred chil-
dren.
It would remain to provide for the establishment of new
schools for the twelve hundred children which make up the
number of four thousand five hundred,—a near estimate of
the poor population of the town.
The committee is of opinion that three new schools for
nine hundred children would be sufficient; and thus the
total number of poors' schools in the town, complete and for
both sexes, would be fourteen, capable of receiving four
thousand two hundred children.
The remaining three hundred may not be in a condition
300
APPENDIX.
to be sent to charity-schools. In this number are included the
children of parents belonging to a higher class, who may have
been ruined by misfortunes, and whose children it would
be cruel to send to the parish charity-school because they
are not able to pay the school fees. The municipal coun-
cil will not refuse to furnish such children with the means
of one day regaining the station in which they were born.
They may be placed in the principal parish or private
schools, where it will be easy to make terms for them at
the rate of twelve groschen (Is. 3d.) per month. The city
has also the right of placing children, free of expense, in
the higher schools which are under its patronage. But to
avoid all abuse, a scrupulous examination must be made
into the real state of the parents who petition for such
favours, and an annual sum must be fixed for this purpose
and not exceeded.
There are seven evening-schools in Berlin. It will be
sufficient to institute three more of fifty scholars each, two
for boys and one for girls. The three ablest and most
zealous parish schoolmasters shall be engaged to give from
eight to twelve hours' lessons a-week in the evening, for
which they shall be paid a hundred thaler (157.). Read-
ing and writing will be constantly taught there, and two
hours a-week devoted to religious instruction.
A greater number of evening-schools will be opened, if
they are found to be wanted.
Before entering upon a detail of the expenses which the
city must bear for the support of fourteen parish charity-
schools, we will mention the very slight revenue which
these schools can draw from other sources.
1. A goverment order, dated Jan. 30, 1827, directs that
in every parish charity-school each pupil shall pay a fee of
one silber-groschen [about five farthings] a-month, in order
not to violate the principle, that every father of a family is
bound to contribute something to the school, even though he
should claim for his children the favour of a gratuitous edu-
cation; for the exaction of this trifling payment does not take
from the instruction its gratuitous character, and this imper-
ceptible charge produces nevertheless, in a school of three
bundred children, the sum of 120 thaler (187.).
2. Amongst the poor, many who are unable to pay the
terms of private schools, can nevertheless very well give,
APPENDIX.
301
besides the groschen per month fixed by the minister of
public instruction, a further sum, varying from five groschen
as a minimum, to ten as a maximum. Out of three hundred
children, this would apply to at least a fifth; and the mini-
mum five groschen for sixty children, will give a revenue
of 120 thaler, or 1680 for the fourteen schools (1367.).
This extraordinary fund (Aushülfe-Fond) may be appro-
priated to the maintenance of the evening-schools, to the
instruction of children of a higher class who have fallen
into poverty, and to rewards or pensions for schoolmasters
in their old age, or to methodological courses for their
improvement; so that the town would have no other ex-
pense to support than that of the fourteen parish charity-
schools.
3. Finally, the donations which the generosity of the
citizens may give to the schools, but which cannot be cal-
culated on here, will form another resource for improve-
ment in the education of the poorer classes.
We will now examine into the expense of the establish-
ment and maintenance of the fourteen schools, composed
each of four classes and two divisions (boys and girls).
BOYS' SCHOOL.
Fixed salary of the head master
Perquisites:-
1. Lodging gratis.
•
·
300 th. [451.]
2. Two fifths of the produce of the fee
of one groschen per month.
3. For firing for the two boys' schools
4. For cleaning the house, and espe-
cially the school-rooms
Fixed salary of the assistant master of
the boys' school, revocable at
will.
•
Perquisites:-
A fifth of the produce of the fee of
one groschen per month.
GIRLS' SCHOOL.
Fixed salary of the head-master
50 th. [7. 10s.]
50 th. [71. 10s.]
120 th. [187.]
•
300 th. [457.]
Lodging gratis.
302
APPENDIX.
The two remaining fifths of the fee
of one groschen per month.
Firing.
For lessons in needle-work given gene-
rally by the wife of the head mas-
ter, who will superintend the class
conjointly with her
•
•
50 th. [77. 10s.]
.. 50 th. [77. 10s.]
Salary of the assistant master of the
girls' school, (also revocable at
will,) who gives only 18 lessons
a-week (3 hours every morning) 100 th. [157.]
Salaries, firing and cleaning, (not
including the perquisites)...1020 th.[1537.]
The children shall be required as
far as possible to supply them-
selves with the necessary books,
paper and pens. Since, how-
ever, the school will be obliged
to find these for most of them,
there will be allowed for each
school
The hire of the building, or the inter-
est of the capital laid out on its
erection, may be reckoned at . .
Repairs and other extraordinary ex-
penses.
•
In all, for each parish school, (not in-
cluding the accidental revenues
of the school)
•
100 th. [157.]
500 th. [75%]
80 th. [127.]
.1700 th.[255.]
that is to say, about 17s. 6d. a-head for 300 children.
Until the town shall have cancelled the debt by the ac-
quisition of school-houses, there will be,
schools, an outlay of .
[about 35701.] per annum, of which we
may reckon 7000 thaler [about 10507.]
solely for the building.
We have seen above that in 1827 the
town expended
It is, then, only a difference of about
for the fourteen
23,800 thaler
•
15,723 thaler
8,100 thaler,
APPENDIX.
303
which is wanted to effect a complete and special organiza-
tion of the charity-schools, and to secure to a thousand more
children the benefits of a good elementary education.
1
We have already seen that the expense of the evening-
schools (300 thaler), and the amount of the sum paid by
the city to the private schools for impoverished children of
a higher class (about 700 thaler), would be covered by
the extraordinary fund (Aushülfe-Fond).
CHOICE OF THE MASTERS OF SCHOOLS FOR THE POor.
The excellence of a school depends entirely upon the
master; the choice of the master is therefore a matter of
the first importance. In a school for the poorest class
especially, where everything is to be done, and where the
master has constantly to struggle against the pernicious
influence of the family and companions of the child, he
should possess devotedness to his calling, patience, know-
ledge, an aptitude and taste for teaching; and, with all these
qualities, that rare disinterestedness which induces perse-
verance in a career at once humble and unaltering, and
that enduring serenity of soul, that pious zeal which alone
can secure prosperity to a school. Until a normal school
for the schoolmasters of the city be established in Berlin
itself, it would not be difficult to select suitable persons
from among the private schoolmasters or the submasters of
other schools, or even from among the pupils of the pri-
mary normal schools of the province, from Potsdam or
Neuzelle.
If the new plan withdraws from the private school-
masters the sums paid them by the town for the reception
of pauper children, many of them will no longer have a suf-
ficient number of pupils to live by; and the managers of the
affairs of the poor will feel it just to choose from among them
the masters of the new schools, provided they produce the
necessary guarantees; for in such cases, to be influenced by
favour or compassion, would be a crime against the children
of our poor.
The masters who are examined and declared capable,
shall be appointed for life; nevertheless, in case of negli-
gence or misconduct, they shall be dismissed without ap-
peal, by an order from the town-authorities, approved by
the school-board.
Care shall be taken, that whenever it is possible, the
304
APPENDIX.
wives of the schoolmasters shall instruct the little girls in
needle-work.
The immediate superintendence of each poor's school
shall be specially confided to a committee consisting of one
of the clergymen of the parish, named by the town-school
committee, and a member of the administration of the poor's
fund, charged specially with the inspection of the external
business of the school.
The supreme superintendence resides with the poor's
administration and the town-school committee, of which the
Stadt-Schulrath, or school-councillor for the town, shall
always be a member.
The under-masters shall be subject to the head-masters:
they may be dismissed at will either for incapacity or mis-
conduct.
The purchase and maintenance of buildings for the
schools in the various quarters, the choice and superinten-
dence of the masters, the administration of the school-funds,
belong to the administration of the poor.
The charity-board of each quarter, the clergyman, and
the officer charged with the special superintendence, shall
attend to,-
1. The admission of pupils;
2. The control of the attendance at the schools ;
3. The departure of the pupils;
4. The annual reports.
1. As there will be fourteen parish charity-schools re-
quired, the town will be divided into fourteen school-wards
or -districts, each having a complete school (boys and girls).
All parents living in each district, shall apply to the charity-
board, and particularly to the special officer, to obtain ad-
mission for their children to the school.
This admission shall take place generally at two periods
of the year, Easter and Michaelmas, at the commencement
of the course.
The officer shall determine whether the child shall be
admitted gratuitously (always paying one groschen per
month), or be made to pay from five to ten silber-groschen,
which will form the extraordinary fund.
This sum shall be paid in advance, from month to month,
to an officer of the charity-board chosen for this purpose,
and shall be added each month to the extraordinary fund.
APPENDIX.
305
When the number of pupils fixed for each class of boys
or girls (seventy-five) shall be complete, no more shall be
admitted, and applicants shall be sent to the neighbouring
schools.
2. The regular attendance at the school shall be an ob-
ject of special control and the most active vigilance; for
this is the source from which flow all the advantages the
school can produce. It would be very fortunate if parents
and children were always willing of themselves to facilitate
the measures adopted to secure regular attendance at the
schools. Unhappily this is not the case, particularly in great
cities. Although it is lamentable to be forced to use con-
straint, it is almost always necessary to commence with it;
though in a town so populous as Berlin, its enforcement is
attended with much difficulty.
In order to draw to the school all the children of an age
to attend, the schoolmasters shall keep a register of attend-
ance, and shall send, at the end of each month, an extract
from this register, pointing out those who are most fre-
quently absent.
The poor's commission, or one of its members, shall
send for the parents, and if the excuses are insufficient,
shall warn and threaten them. Every three months a
list shall be made of the parents who will pay no regard
to the repeated remonstrances of the commission, and the
poor's administration shall then have recourse to means of
constraint, conformably to § 48. of Title XII.*, in the second
part of the general Code, which adjudges the penalties for
this offence. As an example to others, it would be well to
publish, from time to time, a list of the parents who shall
have been fined for not sending their children regularly
to school.
But it is not enough to ensure, as far as possible, this
regularity in the children who come to school; other mea-
sures are needed to secure that no poor child whatever
be deprived of elementary instruction. In great cities there
are always a considerable number of unfortunate persons
who have no fixed residence, who are shifting about every
quarter, every month, and often every day. We see only
one way of coming at these, which is this; to communicate
* See pp. 25-29.
X
306
APPENDIX.
with all the private establishments of elementary instruc-
tion, that are not under the direction of the town, and to
arrange that, at a certain time, all the primary schoolmas-
ters in the town, without exception, shall deliver to their
upils a certificate of attendance, the form of which shall
be printed and sent to all the schools. The parents shall
be obliged to show these certificates. At the same period,
the municipal police, or commissions chosen from ameng
the citizens, shall, by the aid of the census tables, effect a
general and simultaneous inspection of the whole town.
The list of the parents who shall not have shown the cer-
tificates of attendance at school, shall be made up in each
district, and they shall be summoned before the correctional
police and fined according to law, and compelled to enter
their children in the schools.
The execution of such a measure would doubtless depend
much on the zeal of the authorities entrusted with it; but
difficulties should not deter us from the performance of the
sacred duty of remedying so deplorable an evil.
3. The law requires that the instruction of the school
should be continued, until the clergyman charged with the
examination of the children shall deem them sufficiently
enlightened on the subjects most important to a rational
being of their class. No fixed age will therefore be named
at which they shall quit the school. This will be de-
termined by an order from the master of the school, and the
clergyman charged with the special inspection; and ince
nothing superfluous will be taught in any parish poor's
school, this decision will depend upon the child's having pro-
fitably gone though the course of instruction of the school,
and acquired those moral qualities which its influence ought
to have produced.
It will in general require at least six years fully to accom-
plish the end of an intellectual and moral education. Thus,
the greater part of the children who enter at six or seven,
will be sufficiently instructed at thirteen to quit.
The leaving of the school shall take place only at two
periods of the year, Easter and Michaelmas, after a public
examination. At the end of this examination, the eccle-
siastical inspector and the master of the school shall make
a list of the pupils who may quit. There shall be delivered
to each a certificate of departure, the form of which shall
APPENDIX.
307
be printed; and the most distinguished shall receive, by way
of encouragement, books suited to their capacity; the ex-
pense will be defrayed by the extraordinary fund.
It would also be very useful that the citizens should be
bound under a penalty not to take into their service or
apprenticeship any child who had not a certificate either
of departure or of attendance.
4. The annual reports of the ecclesiastical inspector and
the officer of the charity-board will serve to measure the
progress of the schools. They shall treat of the internal
state of the school; of the instruction and discipline, as
well as the household expenses; and shall point out imper-
fections, to the remedy of which the poor's administration
and the school-board shall direct their efforts.
This general plan for the establishment of schools for
the city poor must, it is evident, be gradual in its execution,
according as the difficulties presented in various places
shall be surmounted; but it is hoped, that the municipal
council will not hesitate to grant the funds necessary to ef-
fect, as promptly as possible, the complete organization of
public elementary instruction.
We have seen that the fourteen parish charity-schools
would cost annually
24,800 th. [37201.]
from which deduct (supplied from
the extraordinary fund)
Remainder.
•
At present the education of the
poor costs
·
which gives an increase of
•
•
1,000 th.
[1501.]
23,800 th. [35701.]
15,723 th.
[23581.]
8,077 th. [12117.]
From this sum 7000 thaler (10507.) are taken to pay the
hire, or the interest of the capital employed in the con-
struction, of new schools; and the remaining 1100 thaler
(1657.) will have provided for the education of a thousand
more children.
The greatest difficulty will be to find buildings fit for
parish schools, for two classes of boys and two of girls, of
seventy-five in a class. Each school will require, allowing
five square feet for each child, four rooms of about twenty
feet by nineteen, besides apartments for the two principal
masters.
x 2
308
APPENDIX.
The plan allows 500 thaler (757.) for the rent of each
school-house. But in some parts it will be almost impossible
to find, on these terms, a building containing a sufficient
number of large rooms for the classes. It will be neces-
sary to hire separate places for the boys and girls, which
would cause serious inconveniences; besides, there is no
guarantee for the continuance of a school established in a pri-
vate hired house. It is therefore much better that the town
should build school-houses, or purchase buildings suited to
the purpose.
The 7000 thaler appropriated to the rent of the fourteen
schools, or to the payment of the interest of the cost of
their erection, represent a capital of 140,000 thaler (21007.);
but as the town could not afford all this expenditure at one
time, it is proposed to create shares of 100 thaler (157.),
bearing interest five per cent, and with the capital thus
raised to erect the necessary buildings. The town would
guarantee the payment of the interest, and, by means of a
sinking fund, would by degrees obtain the freehold of these
fourteen charity school-houses.
STATE
OF
PRIMARY INSTRUCTION
IN THE
KINGDOM OF PRUSSIA
AT THE END OF THE YEAR 1831.
By M. VICTOR COUSIN,
Member of the Royal Council of Public Instruction.
Supplement to the Report on Public Instruction in Prussia,
published in 1833.
PRIMARY instruction is too far advanced in
Prussia to render it necessary to make very
frequent reports on the subject. There was an
interval of six years between the publication of
the two last by the government. The first was
in 1819, the second in 1825. I have stated else-
where the results of these two important works*.
A similar one has just been accomplished at
Berlin, giving the state of primary instruction in
Prussia at the end of the year 1831, the num-
ber of schools, that of the children who attend
those schools, and of the masters employed in
them. This document has not yet been made
public; I am indebted for it to the kindness of
* See Report, &c. p. 134. to p. 167.
310
SUPPLEMENT.
Baron von Altenstein, minister of public in-
struction and ecclesiastical affairs *.
Figures are only general expressions of facts.
Before we use them, therefore, we must begin
by scrupulously asking ourselves what are the
facts which those figures represent, and what
the evidence on which they rest. We shall find,
that in this case, guarantees for the accuracy
of the data exist in superabundance.
As the Prussian law renders it legally obli-
gatory on parents to send their children to
school, unless they can prove that they give
them a sufficient education at home, the com-
mittee of management (Schulvorstand), which
in every parish is appointed to watch over the
execution of the laws concerning primary in-
struction, makes an annual return of the chil-
dren who are of an age, and consequently come
under the obligation, to go to school. The
master authenticates their presence or absence,
and also returns a list of attendance, which
must agree with the legal list furnished by the
committee. He is bound to send in this at-
tendance-list once a fortnight to the committee,
which takes all the measures necessary to en-
sure the execution of the law, and which is,
* In the Anzeigeblätter of the Berliner Jahrbücher für Wis-
senschaftliche Kritik, three very curious and interesting tables
have appeared successively in the Nos. for October, November
and December 1833; the first showing the state of the Univer-
sities of Prussia, the second that of the Gymnasia, the third that
of the Popular Schools. These were drawn up by persons in
the service of government, and are highly worthy of the atten-
tion of all who are interested in the statistics of education.-
TRANSL.
SUPPLEMENT.
311
in its turn, obliged to present this list, certified
as exact, to the inspector of the circle for pri-
mary schools (Kreisschulinspector). This of-
ficer, after carefully verifying the facts which
prove that the law is carried into effect through-
out his circle of inspection, sends in this same
list, countersigned by himself, to the councillor
of the department or regency, who is charged
with all that relates to primary instruction in
the departmental administration. The depart-
mental administration is equally obliged to au-
thenticate all these returns, and to forward
them to the provincial authority in which re-
sides the supreme superintendence of schools.
throughout the whole province (Schul-Colle-
gium). Lastly, the provincial authority must
render an account of all these proceedings to
the central ministerial authority. One branch
of this ministry consists of a special board or
office for statistics, whose sole business is the
verification and generalization of all the docu-
ments furnished by the public authorities in
every step of this ascending scale of power
and responsibility. Mr. Hoffmann, a distin-
guished member of the Academy of Sciences of
Berlin, is at the head of this office, where the
work assumes its last and most perfect form,
and is sent up with all the documentary proofs
to the minister, who lays it before the public.
We
e may therefore place implicit confidence in
figures obtained by such a process, and ulti-
mately resting on the legal lists of children of
age to go to school, and on the lists of actual
attendance, checked by the several authorities.
312
SUPPLEMENT.
I subjoin models of these two kinds of lists,
which are the same for all the schools through-
out the monarchy. It must be observed, that
the attendance-lists being verified twice every
month, prove not only the presence of the
children at the commencement of the year, but
the punctuality of their attendance throughout
the year. Thus there are no false appearances,
no fictitious lists. The number of days a child
has missed school during the whole year is
known with perfect accuracy. The sum total
of the children of a school, sent by the master
to the parochial committee of that school, is
subject on the spot to the immediate and con-
stant check of that committee, and to the fre-
quent control of the primary inspector of the
circle. The accuracy of the whole series of sub-
sequent figures rests on the accuracy of this
first total, and this is guaranteed by the reci-
procal check of the several authorities, all acting
on the spot, or in the district. We may there-
fore proceed with perfect confidence, and may
deduce from the figures all the consequences
they comprise; because these figures represent
facts, the truth and accuracy of which are in-
contestible.
The most general result given by the statis-
tical tables now under my eye is as follows:
According to the latest census, the popula-
tion of Prussia is 12,726,823. Out of this
population, it was estimated in 1831, that
* As these lists are precisely the same as those already given
in the body of the Report, pp. 31, 32, I have not thought it
necessary to repeat them.-TRANSL.
SUPPLEMENT.
313
+
4,767,072 were children of from one day to
fourteen years old.
gency
This total sum is founded on the several
sums returned by each province and each re-
of Prussia in Table III. hereto annexed.
We must observe, that from punctilious
exactness, the children of the garrisons main-
tained by Prussia at Mainz and Luxemburg
are not included in this calculation, because
these children do not attend the schools of
Prussia. The number of them is 660, of whom
327 are boys and 333 girls.
In Prussia the age fixed by the law for going
to school is from 7 to 14 inclusive; and I must
here take occasion to remark the extreme uti-
lity of having a legal age for education. People
are thus accustomed to regard a portion of their
lives as necessarily set apart for learning. In
France, there is a fixed age for entering the col-
lége, and for leaving it. It is much to be desired
that, in like manner, an age should be appointed
for going to the primary school, and for quitting
it. It is obvious that children of this class can-
not be kept at school beyond fourteen; for any
longer sacrifice of their time and labour would
become burthensome to poor families; and besides
the children ought then to enter on the special
business by which they are to gain a livelihood.
If they are to quit school at fourteen, it is rea-
sonable they should enter it at seven; for seven
years afford time sufficient for the solid acqui-
sition of the small number of branches of know-
ledge of which primary instruction consists;
314
SUPPLEMENT.
and, on the other hand, they do not afford too
much, considering the necessary interruptions.
occasioned by rural labours at certain seasons
of the year.
The General Law of Prussia
(Preussisches Landrecht) fixed five as the age
for going to school. The special law on pub-
lic education, however, puts it at seven, and it
is not till then that legal compulsion begins.
It is a rule of statistics that, calculating the
relative mortality of the several ages, out of a
hundred children of from one day to fourteen
years, those between seven and fourteen form
three sevenths, which gives, out of every hundred,
about forty-three of age to go to school, (or, to
give the minutest fractions, 42,857 in 100,000,)
and, consequently, in Prussia, 2,043,030 chil-
dren of the 4,767,072 composing the total po-
pulation of children from a day to fourteen years
old. Hence it follows, that if we find that there
are in fact 2,043,030 children in the schools of
Prussia, we may be certain that there does not
exist a single human being throughout that
monarchy who does not receive an education
sufficient for the moral and intellectual wants
of the laborious classes. This were indeed an
admirable result, and one which would raise to
a high pitch of distinction the system of pri-
mary instruction which had produced it. Now
this result, glorious and admirable as it is, is an
incontestible fact. I have under my eyes, and
the Table No. III. already cited exhibits, regen-
cy by regency, and province by province, the
actual number of children who, according to
SUPPLEMENT.
315
the accurate calculation of the attendance-lists,
frequented the public primary schools in the
year 1831; and this number is 2,021,421 chil-
dren.
The difference is therefore only 21,609 be-
tween the real and the normal number.
This difference is very slight, and even this
will vanish if we take into account the follow-
ing considerations.
1. These calculations are founded only on
the public primary schools, and do not include
the private ones, which, though not very nu-
merous, still contain a good number of children,
especially in the large towns, and in the more
backward provinces, in which the whole dignity
of public education is not yet felt.
2. No account is likewise taken of the chil-
dren educated at home, which would include
the greater part of the children of the higher
classes.
3. Neither are the boys belonging to the
lower classes of the gymnasia reckoned, almost.
all of whom are under fourteen years of age;
and whose number, in the hundred and ten
gymnasia of the monarchy, amounted, in the
course of the summer of 1832, to 17,935, while
the two higher classes amounted to only 5,848.
Taking into account these three new elements,
it is clear that not only the number of children
under fourteen who receive, in one way or an-
other, the benefits of education, is equal to the
normal number of the three sevenths of the po-
pulation, but that it must actually exceed that
number. This remarkable circumstance can be
316
SUPPLEMENT.
explained only by a supposition which we shall
presently see borne out by indisputable fact,
namely, that in the most civilized provinces of
Prussia, in those of Saxony and Brandenburg
for instance, the taste for instruction is so ge-
nerally diffused that parents anticipate the age
fixed by law for sending their children to school.
We have here, I repeat, arrived at a result truly
admirable; and with the guarantees for its ac-
curacy which I have pointed out, a result above
all suspicion or uncertainty. We must regard
it under its most important aspects.
The first thing to consider is, the relative
proportion of each province in that total sum
of 2,021,421 children attending public schools.
The knowledge of this proportion is of the
greatest value, as a test of the relative civili-
zation of the different parts of Prussia. But
this is a question which does not directly con-
cern us, and I shall therefore content myself with
referring to Table III. It will there be seen
that, of the eight provinces of which the king-
dom is now composed, five greatly exceed the
normal number of three-sevenths; that one of
them, the province of Saxony, including the re-
gencies of Magdeburg, Merseburg and Erfurt,
exhibits a proportion of 54,515 children going
to the public schools, in every 100,000 between
the
ages of one day and fourteen years; and that
the single department of Magdeburg actually ex-
hibits a proportion of 55,733 in every 100,000.
As may be expected, the province of Posen is
the least advanced. Berlin shares the fate of all
great cities, where a thoroughly exact control
SUPPLEMENT.
317
is peculiarly difficult, and where the law cannot
be so rigorously enforced. There are also at
Berlin, as in all large cities, a great many pri-
vate schools. Besides, the organization of prî-
mary public instruction is recent in that city.
On the other hand, Berlin contains six gym-
nasia, which in the summer of 1832 had 2,061
scholars; of whom 396 are in the higher, and
1,665 in the lower classes, which comprise a
great number of boys under fourteen.
A more important point for our considera-
tion is, the relative proportions of the sexes in
the sum total of children receiving primary in-
struction. This proportion is, in every country,
the measure of the true strength of primary
instruction; for education has no firm root, no
stable and certain existence, when that sex which
exercises so varied and so powerful an influence
over the other is deprived of a just share of its
advantages.
God be praised, every human being in Prussia
falls under the beneficent protection of the law;
the legal obligation to go to school is equally
binding on both sexes. Accordingly, the differ-
ence in the proportion of girls and of boys in the
sum total is inconsiderable. Out of 2,021,421
children attending school, there were, in 1831,
1,044,364 boys; that is to say, 43,694 in
100,000,-i. e. more than three-sevenths of the
total population of children under fourteen years
of age; and 977,057 girls, that is, 41,106 in
100,000. The difference plus for the boys is ex-
plained by their going to school before the age of
seven; the difference minus for the girls is easily
318
SUPPLEMENT.
accounted for, if you recollect that, the educa-
tion of girls being in its nature more domestic,
the number of children of the female sex brought
up wholly under their mothers' roof, especially
in the more affluent classes, is of necessity much
more considerable than that of boys.
I ought now to describe the nature of the
public schools to which these 2,021,421 chil-
dren, boys and girls, resort. In Prussia (as
henceforward in France, if the project of a
law on primary instruction is adopted by the
Chambers*,) primary instruction is divided
into two degrees; the one including those ele-
mentary kinds or branches of knowledge of
which no human being can be devoid without
extreme danger to himself and to society; the
other, more elevated, yet not very much so,
adapted to that portion of the people who,
though not rich, are not pressed down by
poverty, and who stand in need of an education
a little more liberal and enlarged.
The first degree-lower primary instruction
-comprehends the schools called elementary,
from the nature of their objects; the second-
higher primary instruction-comprehends the
schools called burgher, because they are intend-
ed for that part of the population which in Ger-
many is still called Bürgerschaft (bourgeoisie,
citizens). These schools are likewise called
middle or intermediate schools, because they
stand in the midway between the elementary
*This Projet de Loi passed the Chambers in June 1833.-
TRANSL.
SUPPLEMENT.
319
schools and the learned schools, or gymnasia *.
This latter name-middle schools-taken from
the nature of the thing, is perfectly suitable; and
necessity and the public instinct have already
begun to naturalize it in France. I have given
an account of the course of tuition in an elemen-
tary and in a middle school in another placet.
Here I have only to give the total amount of both
sorts of schools in Prussia, at the end of the
year 1831.
In the annexed table, No. IV., it will be seen
that there are 22,612 primary public schools
for the 2,021,421 children who frequent them.
Of these 22,612 schools, 21,789 are elemen-
tary, and 23 middle, schools; of which 481 are
for boys, and 342 for girls. Now, there are
1,021 towns in Prussia, only 26 of which con-
tain more than 10,000 souls. Thus, not only
all the towns containing 10,000 souls, but three
fourths of all towns whatever, have, besides the
elementary schools indispensable for the lowest
class of citizens, middle schools calculated for
the tradespeople of those towns.
Out of the number of children who go to the
schools, the elementary schools are attended
by 987,475 boys, and by 930,459 girls; and the
middle schools by 56,889 boys, and by 46,598
girls; which gives the total amount stated
above, of 1,044,364 boys and 977,057 girls, in
actual attendance on school. It must be re-
* They are also called Realschulen, real schools, or schools in
which knowledge of the most practical kind, the most applicable
to things (res), is taught.-TRANSL,
† Report, &c. pp. 51, 55, 57.
320
SUPPLEMENT.
marked that, generally speaking, the elementary
schools, especially in the country, are common
to both sexes, and are only divided, at least in
the lower classes, by occupying a distinct part
of the same room; whilst, in the middle schools,
all the classes of boys and girls are separated,
and sit in different rooms which have no com-
munication.
It is reckoned that there are, on an average,
88 children for an elementary school of boys
and girls ;
118 children for a middle school of boys;
136 children for a middle school of girls.
Thus it must be observed, that in elementary
schools there is usually but one master, where-
as in middle schools there are two, three and
often more, masters and mistresses.
This leads us to the last point for considera-
tion, the number of masters and mistresses
employed in the different primary schools.
Table IV. shows that for the 22,612 public
schools, elementary and intermediate, of the
monarchy, there are in all 27,749 masters and
mistresses, who are distributed as follows:
21,789 elementary schools.
481 middle or burgher f
schools for boys.
342 middle or burgher
schools for girls.
22,211 regular masters.
694 regular mistresses.
2,014 assistant masters and
mistresses.
1,172 regular masters.
360 assistant masters.
538 regular masters.
289 regular mistresses.
471 assistant masters and
mistresses.
SUPPLEMENT.
321
These numbers give an important result; i. e.
the smallness of the number of mistresses com-
pared to that of masters. In the elementary
schools, the number of 694 mistresses, com-
pared to that of 22,211 masters for 21,789
schools, shows that there is not a single school
which has not its regular master; while I can
assert, that I never found a single public school
in Prussia under the management of a woman.
It is the opinion there, that, generally speaking,
the government of a school requires the hand
of a man; the director is indeed allowed to have
a female assistant when needed, but he must
retain the head management. In villages, this
assistant is usually the schoolmaster's wife or
daughter. She is never entrusted with any
but the accessory lessons, those manual works
peculiar to her sex, and, in towns, with the
singing lessons. When the school is rich, and
on an extensive scale, this woman has the rank
of regular mistress; and of such there are, as
we see, but 694 for the 21,789 elementary
schools: ordinarily, she is a mere assistant to
the head master. It is a prejudice, and a most
pernicious prejudice, that in day-schools,—as all
public schools (that is, schools for the public,)
are or ought to be,-only a woman is fit to direct
the education of girls; in that case education
on a grand scale were impossible, for it would
be impossible to find capable mistresses suffi-
cient for all the classes of all the 21,789 schools
of the monarchy. Normal schools must then
be created for the training of school-mistresses
Y
322
SUPPLEMENT.
masters.
in equal number with those for the training of
This would be to create enormous
difficulties, only to come at an undesirable re-
sult; for education would be far from gaining
in solidity and weight; and, in a girls' school,
the sight of a woman, chief and manager, and a
man her subordinate and assistant, is of itself a
bad sort of lesson. In a school, as in a family,
the government belongs to the man,-the wo-
man is the helper. It is clear that in the
burgher schools, where the course of education
is much fuller, the woman's share must be con-
siderably larger; thus we see in this class of
schools, 289 mistresses for 342 girls' schools.
But, associated with these 289 mistresses, are
589 masters. It is therefore still a man who
is always at the head of the entire school, and
who has the charge of the most important les-
sons. I regard this practice as the sole means
of having girls' schools. But I must remark that
in Prussia, and throughout Germany, most of
the schoolmasters marry early and are fathers
of families.
I have only to add some details on the con-
dition of the establishments for training able
masters for the elementary and burgher or
middle schools; I mean the primary normal
schools, called in Prussia, seminaries for school-
masters (Schullehrer-Seminarien*).
There are two sorts of establishments of this
*This is a much more accurate and significant name than
the French normal, i. e. pattern, schools, which these are not.—
TRANSL.
SUPPLEMENT.
323
kind; 1. the small normal schools, which are
in great number and very useful, and which are
nearly what our model schools are, or ought to
be; 2. the great primary normal schools,
where the course of study extends over two or
three years, and each of which contains from
40 to 100 pupils. I shall confine myself here
to the latter. In 1831, there were 33 in full
activity, that is to say, more than there are re-
gencies in Prussia, and a Prussian regency is
not so large as a French department. Table V.
exhibits the sum total of the cost of each of
these great establishments, with the share of
that cost borne by the regency, and that borne
by the state. This latter share alone is about
331,500 francs (13,2607.), a fact to which I
particularly wish to call attention, as giving an
idea of the importance of these establishments.
They now furnish almost all the masters of the
public schools, elementary and intermediate, in
the kingdom. I must add that the share of the
expense of the elementary and middle schools
borne by the government, is, according to a
Table annexed to Table V. (Vide Table VI.),
about 863,000 francs (34,5201.), which gives in
all 1,194,200 francs (47,7807.); a considerable
sum for a country containing less than thirteen
millions of people, and under a system of
national education in which the parishes, re-
gencies and provinces are compelled by law to
bear all the expenses relative to primary in-
struction, to which the state contributes only as
matter of bounty and favour. It should be re-
marked, too, that here are no establishments to
Y 2
324
SUPPLEMENT.
found, but only to keep up and improve those
already founded and organized*.
Lastly, if we wish to compare the leading
results of these statistical documents with those
of the documents of 1819 and 1825, we shall
find that,
1st, In 1819 the number of schools
was, in all,
20,085
In 1825
21,623
In 1831
22,612
2nd, In 1819 the number of school-
masters and -mistresses was
21,895
In 1825
22.965
In 1831
27,749
In 1825 the number of children un-
der fourteen years of age was. 4,487,461
That of children from seven to four-
teen
1,923,200
That of children attending school. 1,664,218
In 1831 the total number of chil-
dren under fourteen was. . 4,767,072
Out of which, the number between.
seven and fourteen was
Out of which, the number of chil--
2,043,030
dren attending school was 2,021,421
This comparative statement abundantly
proves that primary instruction is in a most
satisfactory state in Prussia. The organization
* See a very interesting paper on Prussian Normal Schools in
the Journal of Education (No. XI.), containing a statistical ac-
count of the number and extent of the seminaries for teachers of
the lower schools in the Prussian dominions.
SUPPLEMENT.
325
to which this remarkable success is to be attri-
buted may be seen in detail elsewhere*. I shall
here confine myself to recapitulating and no-
ticing the following points.
1. A law which constrains parents, guard-
iaus, and master-manufacturers or artizans, to
show, under penalties more or less severe, that
the children under their care receive the benefit
of instruction, either public or private ;-on the
principle that the giving of the degree of instruc-
tion necessary to the knowledge and the practice
of our duties is itself the highest duty, and an
obligation to society quite as strict as that of
military service for the common defence. In my
judgement, such a law is not only justifiable, but
absolutely indispensable; and I know not a sin--
gle example of a country in which such a law is
wanting and in which the education of the peo-
ple is in a flourishing or satisfactory state. Until
the time when the progress of public morality,
the sincere love of the people, and a true under-
standing of what liberty means, shall dictate to
our Chambers such a law (which I confess would
now be premature and at variance with our
prejudices of all kinds), the government ought
to neglect none of the means, direct or indirect,
at its disposal for stirring up or encouraging
the desire for instruction, and for attaining those
ends by administrative, which it may be as yet
inexpedient to attempt by legislative, measures.
Among the safest means, I should suggest, 1st,
the fixing of a determinate age for going to
* Report &c., p. 22. to p. 133.
326
SUPPLEMENT.
school, and for leaving it; 2nd, the institution
of lists of attendance, effectually checked by the
competent authorities.
•
2. The imposing of an obligation on the
clergy to admit to the communion table no
young persons who could not prove that they
had passed, or were passing, the requisite time
at school;-an obligation at once civil and ec-
clesiastical, which interests the church in the
school, and binds the school to the church by
those strict ties which every statesman and
every true philosopher ought to labour to
strengthen. Hence instruction comes to be
regarded, both by parents and by children, as
the foundation of true piety; while the autho-
rity of religion ministers to the service of
knowledge.
3. The institution of public schools, as the
fulfilment of a public duty. From the time
that the state makes the attendance of children
at school a legal, and the church makes it a
religious, duty, the state would be in contra-
diction with itself if it did not provide for the
execution of the law it has itself enacted, by
requiring the establishment of a public school
in every parish. There is no stability, no per-
manent future, for the instruction of the people
but in schools maintained at the public charge,
and under the care of the public authorities.
Private speculation, which ought never to be
thwarted, ought, on the other hand, never to
be regarded as anything more than an accident,
and consequently a supernumerary aid. The
state ought no more to rely on individuals for
SUPPLEMENT.
327
the execution of its own duties in the matter of
education, than in any other matter of public
and general interest.
4. The division of the charge of the schools
among, 1st, the parents, who, if they can, are
obliged to pay something; 2nd, the parish,
which is bound to assess itself to a school-rate
3rd, the department, or the province, which
have funds for the succour of necessitous
parishes; and 4th, the government, which
assists in the last resort; so that the charge,
thus divided, lights on everybody and oppresses
nobody.
5. The proportional participation of the
householders and the parish, of the department
and the province, of the church and the state,
in the superintendence and management of the
schools, a participation which interests every
individual who has any influence in society in
the education of the people.
Such are the most general causes of the
prosperity of primary instruction in Prussia,-—
a prosperity incontestibly proved by the official
documents I have just communicated.
May causes so simple and so prolific be
speedily naturalized in our beloved country, and
bring forth the same fruits!
VICTOR COUSIN.
April 25th, 1833.
Note.-As Tables I. and II. are exactly the same
as those which occur in the body of the Report
(pp. 31, 32), they are omitted here.-TRANSL.
TABLE III. General census of the children attending the
primary public schools, at the end of the year 1831.

Names of the Regencies
of Prussia.
Province of Saxony.
Number of chil-
Number of children attending
dren from 1 day the public ele-
to 14 years old.mentary schools
and middle or
burgher schools.
Number Total in Number Total in
in each the pro- in each the pro
regency. vince. regency. vince.
In every
100,000
children,
number
who en-
ter these
public
schools:
Reg. of Magdeburg
Merseburg...
Erfurt.......
193,071
107,605
55,733
213,677
116,801
54,662
99,385
51,514
51,833
506,133
275,920
54,515
Province of Westphalia.
Reg. of Münster...
125,360
60,179
49,005
Arnsberg
166,085
79,696
47,985
Minden
152,135
70,318
46,221
443,580
210,193
| 47,386
Province of Brandenburg.
Reg. of Potsdam (excl. Berlin)
246,833
122,019
49,434
Frankfurt on the Oder
246,170
114,527
46,524
Berlin (the city of)
67,709
20,341
30,042
560,712
256,387
45,814
Province of Silesia.
Reg. of Liegnitz.
259,597
129,301
49,809
Breslau
335,726
155,165
46,219
Oppeln
293,939
116,077
39,490
889,262
400,543
45,042
Province of the Rhine.
Reg. of Coblentz......
153,975
75,425
48,985
Trier
138,724
62,761
45,242
Cöln.......
137,210
53,844
39,242
Aachen
120,590
44,993
37,311
Düsseldorff......
248,495
90,584
36,453
798,994
327,607
41,002
Province of Pomerania.
Reg. of Stettin.....
160,204
73,603
45,943
Cöslin
129,896
50,535
38,904
Stralsund
52,320
15,482
29,591
342,420
139,620
40,775
Province of Prussia.
Reg. of Königsberg
275,717
115,561
41,913
Dantzig
124,859
51,315
41,098
Gumbinnen
207,595
82,849
39,909
Marienwerder
183,333
64,114
34,972
791,504
313,839
39,651
Province of Posen.
Reg. of Bromberg
142,555
32,714
22,948
Posen
291,912
64,098
21,958
434,467
96,812
22,283
Total number of children for
the whole kingdom
4,767,072
|2,021,421| 42,404*000,
Note. The number of children of age to go to school, i. e. from 7 to 14, is
generally calculated at three sevenths of the total population of children
of from one day to 14 years inclusive. This calculation gives in every
100,000..... 42,857.
330
SUPPLEMENT.
Number.
TABLE IV. Census of the primary public schools, elemen-
employed
Namies
of the
Regencies.
Schools.
ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS.

Head Masters.
Number
of the

Head Mistresses.
Assistant Masters
and
Mistresses.
Boys.
1 Königsberg
2 Gumbinnen
3 Dantzig.......
4 Marienwerder..
1,010
1,427 1,465 21
1,049
125
57,735
53,214
8 72
41,462
32,000
583
607 27 22
26,219
22,996
942
966
23
41
33,387; 28,627
5 Posen...
775
768
10
20
32,185
28,703
6 Bromberg..
509 535
2
13
17,892
14,692
7 Berlin (the city of)...
117 120
45
233
7,490 5,641
8 Potsdam
1,475
1,619
67
19
56,501
54,713
9 FrankfurtontheOder 1,305
1,396
19
21
54,553
52,620
10 Stettin
1,063 1,120
11
23
34,979 32,811
11 Cöslin
937 956
5
12
22,862 21,001
12 Stralsund
389
345
53
9
7,472
6,014
13 Breslau...
1,399 1,367
23
213
72,829 71,363
14 Oppeln
830
911
4
183
59,082
56,486
22 Cöln
15 Liegnitz....
16 Magdeburg
17 Merseburg
18 Erfurt
19 Münster
20 Minden
21 Arnsberg
23 Düsseldorff
24 Coblentz
1,311 1,171
7
192
62,252 62,727
1,097 1,281
39 67
50,248
49,071
1,129 1,213
4 75
484 517
7
40
50,712 51,049
23,865 22,796
....
476
378
98 63
30,177 29,585
538
525
31
50
35,217 34,201
792
801
37
52
40.756 38,339
468 426 46
118
25
Trier
26
Aachen........
710 713 10
891 887 29 37
688 635 48 92
445
435 14 57
165
28,241 25,381
47,199
38,515 36,570
31,709 30,596
41,677
23,926 20,586
694 2,014 987,475 930,459
7,475
Total in 1831……………………. 21,789 22,211 694 2,014 |
Girls.

SUPPLEMENT.
331
tary and middle, for boys and girls, and of the masters
in them.
MIDDLE OR BURGHER SCHOOLS.

BOYS.
GIRLS.
Number of the
Number of the

35
86
23
18
40
13
35
13
36
13
31
24606
2,980
11
15
12
4.
1,384
15
13
1,425
3
6
1,353
3
11
2,133
7
5
2223 w
13
1,632.
...
1,003
8
675
5
547
11
1,077
1
5
130
26
44
161
3,077
54
40
48
315
4,133
49
118
3
6,236
35
51
22
13
4,569
32
82
6
4,029
25
38
18
1]
3,325
31
65 10
3,139
23
31
16
6
2,674
19
80
11
3,592
18
85
6
3,080
21 36
1,232
16
5
21
1
761
36
95
27
5,835
12
16
15
8
5,138
6
23 63
22
40
11
36
PORRA
7
319
3
7
4
190
6 2,475
19
11
12
74
16 4,244
19
58
44
·9
93
19
7,636
35
62
9
6
2,309
11
32
7
S
9
397
1
1
3
1666N
1,937
4,042
9
7,406
2,544
2
20
5
10
3
424
5
18
32
6.
550
2
4
13
6
209
1
15
30
9
774
16
13
27
8
311
1
74273
5
476
2
51
13
13
36
934
4
3
29
8
15
8
285
3
...
4
1
171
4
11
1
213
4
2
10
6
268
4811,172
360
56,899
312
538
259
471
46,598
332
SUPPLEMENT.
TABLE V. Census of the great primary normal schools in
Prussia during the year 1831, with a statement of their
expenditure.

No.
PROVINCES.
Eastern and Western Prussia.
1 Normal School of Braunsberg
3
667914 19191
Dexen...
Mühlhausen
...
Sum total of
expenditure.
Thlr. Gr.| Pf.
4,440 11 9
2,846 23
...
700
Angerburg
1,590
...
...
Karalene....
6,656
Marienburg
2,147 10
Graudenz
Jenkau
Grants from the
State.
Thlr. Gr. Pf.
4,149 10
2,250
700
...
9
...
...
8
Brandenburg.
Berlin..
2,050 16 3
5,311 18 1
1,300
5,980
2,147 10
...
...
2,050 16
3
2,000
5,430
a::
9
10
Potsdam
2,000
5,430
...
...
11
Neuzelle..
11,554
2
Pomerania.
མ-
12
Stettin
3,410
13
Cöslin
2,608
14
Bartzwitz
250
:::
...
Silesia.
15 1
16
Breslau{eath.
4,543
6
...
3,287
17
Bunzlau ....
3,800
...
18
Ober-Glogau
2,700
Posen.
19
Posen
20
Saxony.
21
72222 2
Bromberg
Halberstadt
23
24
25
Magdeburg
...
Gardeleben
Weissenfels
Erfurt
...
:::
...
...
Westphalia.
Büren
Soest
4,675
2,683 10
2,750
4,782
685
3,419
3,706
4,494
3,270
522
...
...
...
...
...
6
10 10
...
2
15
...
6,945 2
3,069
2,556
250
3,909
3,287
400
2,700
...
...
...
...
...
6
4,675
2,633 10
2,150
2,650
...
...
685
2,404 7
3,255
4,127 2
3,120
300
...
•
...
...
...
...
...
2
39
...
...
26
27
28
Petershagen
...
Rhine.
31
28283
29
Meurs
3,000
12 6
3,000
30
Düsseldorff..
787 23
9
100
2220
12
20 10
Brühl ....
6,809
5
6,599
10
32
Neuwied....
2,999
17
6
2,999
17
ai ba
6
6
33
St. Matthew, a
village nr. Trier.
2,135
500
Total
110,553
3
or L.16,583
8 88,323
L.13,260
5 6
SUPPLEMENT.
333
TABLE VI. Statement of the sums paid annually by the
public treasury for the elementary and the burgher
schools throughout Prussia.

Sums total for the
No.
PROVINCES.
year 1831.
Thlr.
Gr.
Pf.
1
East and West Prussia
52,012
6
7
2
Brandenburg
71,739
17
11
Pomerania
8,957
18
1
Silesia....
17,796
23
Posen
9,186
6
}
6
Saxony....
7
Westphalia....
Rhine
9
21,689
26
6
19,889
17
16,655
29
9
General Expenses.....
9,390
Total
230,317
22
or L.34,520
THE END.
PRINTED BY RICHARD TAYLOR,
RED LION COURT, FLEET STREET.

RT
J
a
Fig.
3.
SCHOOL HOUSE FOR 40, CHILDREN, WITH THE TEACHER'S APARTMENT'S.
Fig.1.
Fig. 2.
e
f
CH
b
с
OD
B
Fig. 1. & 4. Ground floor; a entrance hall b. school-room.
C. Masters sitting room. d. bedroom Clatchen, cellar
underneath. flarder.
Fig. 2. & 5. Arrangement of floor joists Gloft
b
Pl.1.



Fig. 3 & 6. Section on the line, A. B.
SCHOOL HOUSE FOR, ONE CLASS OF 80. CHILDREN, & THE TEACHER'S APARTMENTS.

Fig.
4.
A
Fig. 5.
A
Fig.
6.
a
C
d
วน
10
5
10
20
30
4.0
50. feet.
Fig. 3
SCHOOL HOUSE FOR 2. CLASSES OF 60 CHILDREN EACH, WITH APARTMENTS FOR 2. TEACHERS.
Fig 1.
a
b
2nd class
Ø
b
1st clays.
Fig.1. Ground floor: a entrance hall cellar underneath
b.schoolroom.
A
Fig. 2.
h
V
1
f
aD
rd
d
е
B
Fig 2. First floor, clanding place d Masters sitting-room.
e, bed-room. f kitchen, g larder h servants room.
k
k
В
Fig. 3 Arrangement of the flaor joists loft 1. afsistant's sitting
room, K. chambers.
5
10
20
30
Fig.
4.
Fig. 4. Section on the line A.B.
40
50 feet
PL.II.




SCHOOL HOUSE FOR 2 CLASSES OF 100 CHILDREN EACH, WITH APARTMENTS FOR 2 TEACHER'S
Fig. 1.
Fig. 3.
Pill.

80
a
nd
2 clafs
a
] st
clafs
Fig. 1. Ground floor id.entrance hall cellar underneath.
B
b
b
..
Fig. 2.
с
·
d
B
Fig. 2. First floor landing place. C. Masters sitting room.
eafsistant's sattang-room. 1. bed-room. g. kitchen, harder.
10
20
d. bed-room.
Fig. 3. Arrangement of the floor joists, servants roam.
Fig.
4¹.
30
4.0
50 feet.
Fig. 4. Section on the line A. B.
3 rd
SCHOOL-HOUSE FOR 3 CLASSES OF 30 CHRILDREN EACH. WITH APARTMENTS FOR 3 TEACHERS
Fig. 1
Fig. 3.
PLIV.


clay's
Я
Б
Б
2nd class
а
1st clay's
B
Fig.1 Ground floor.
la entrance hall, cellar underneath.
B
Fig 3 Arrangement of the floor
Joist
b apart of the 2nd afsistant.

Fig 2
Fig

+
4.
f
d
B
1
h
k
JO,
Fig. 2. First floor, C entrance hall, d. Masters sitting room
.
e bed-room.
1 bat room 2 stream of the 1 afsistant. h bed room, 1.kitab en..
K.Jarder I servants woma
10
20
30
Tunnt
40
30 feet
Fig 4 Section on the line A. B.
b
SCHOOL HOUSE FOR 3 CLASSES OF 30, CHILDREN EACH, WITH TEACHER'S APARTMENTS
Fig 1.
Fig. 3.
A
d
I
a
2nd class
I
I
1
1
1st clafs
a
3rd
clafs
Fig 1 Ground floor.
Ba.entranechall cellar underneath, ɓ sitting roum
& bed room
(OD
[
h
2%
است
Fig. 2
A
C
m
k
1
d
d
01
B
Fig. 3n Study
4.
Fig.
30
40
Fig 4
Section on the line A. B.
feet
Fig. 2. First floor
B
landing place. d Masters sitting room, e.bedroom, f sitting room
1st afsistant, g bedroom, h sitting room 2nd afsistant, i bedroom, K.kitchen, I larder,
IT Servant's room,
نا
10
20
A
PIV.




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