.V > . 8 • • * /-\ O^ . 1 • ^.- '^_ . .*.^«^'. \/ .^^, -e,^^^^ ,.^', \/ ♦ V '*^, o^ 'bV" '^0^ >^ o o « o ^ . V 'oK •Ao^ V.'=>'^ .^^-^ 0^ ♦L*^'* ^?^ A REVIEW OF American History CHARLES ELLSWORTH MARTZ CSSic A REVIEW OF '37 AMERICAN HISTORY BY CHARLES ELLSWORTH MARTZ Professor of History in the West Chester {Pa. State Normal School 1922 Published by T. V. ROBERTS West Chester, Pa. COPYRIGHT 1922 BY C, E. MARTZ fRANSFERRED FROta C0PYIW9KT 9FFICF mi ;: 1928 Horace F. Temple. Printer West Chester, Pa. JUL 15 1922 a- ^ /-vT) fie ly le le Le e- le it n CHAP r7 ■A 4J /'Hilt ^/Ty Im A Review of American History THE STUDY OF AMERICAN HISTORY History owes its place in a school curriculum chiefly to the fact that its study helps us to understand people, individually and in groups. History presents accounts of groups of people reacting to various stimuli. If we can be sure that we have the correct result attached to any stimulus we have a valuable instance to bring to bear whenever like forces are again pre- sented. To this general goal of history we must add, in the case of the history of one's own country, the deeper insight into present conditions which a study of these conditions in the making will give. From either of these viewpoints the first century and a half after the discovery of America must be thought of as European History. Events in America are largely a fringe on a world history and an understanding of American events demands this point of view. Only very gradually do circumstances that are distinctly American begin to dominate the stage. Our first study must be of the Europe of 1492. And right there we may begin to see the working of what is probably the chief thread in the warp of American History, namely, the moving of a dissatisfied group of people out of an old environment and their subsequent development and adaptation to a new environment where land is plentiful. Let us keep hold of this thread as we follow our story, seeing the forces which made the people dis- contented with the old, the means by which they found the new homes, the forces in those new homes which made of them Americans, and the perennial conflicts of those in the new country with those who have remained in the old, from the time of Bacon's Rebellion, the Revolution, of Thomas H. Benton, down to the free-silver advocates and more recently the farm bloc. America has emerged from this conflict of the new with the old. CHART OF THE COLONIAL PERIOD /6 OO /e^9 JO/iza6eff, Jamej^ / C^ar-^j-7 07 Va. /9 ^ C7 J4 '^Ci'y^rr3ar>e.O^*7^. I&bo 1700 ir ^^y^za^OyV <«v CS-^a 6.7' yrp ^s 09 "7 /^o^j-a/7 ^X<. J'Z /o EEEE 20 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 1773 — The Boston Tea Party. The king sought to aid the £ast India Company by sending tlie tea very cheaply to America. The presence of a small tax, however, made the colonists reject the tea and tlie affiair in Boston followed. 1774 — This act of defiance resulted in the passage of the FIVE INTOLERABLE ACTS. (1) The Boston Port bill, closing the port of Boston; (2) The Massachusetts Act, which took away the charter of Massachusetts and gave it a military government; (3) The Quartering Act, for the billeting of troops on the people; (4-) An act for the sending of certain offenders to England for trial; and (5) The Quebec Act, ex- tending the territories controlled by Quebec, a province which was both absolutely governed and Catholic. The opposition to these measures did not come by any means from a united American people. It is estimated that the population of the colonies at this time was 2,500,000. These were distributed as follows: 1,500,000 neutrals, who cared nothing for the quarrel. 250,000 Tories, or those who sided with the king. 750,000 Patriots or Revolutionists. The result of the Intolerable Acts was that, in 1774, there met the FIRST CONTINENTAL CONGRESS, which is called the First Party Convention, because it was a meeting representing only the patriot party. This Congress made pro- tests and again stated their case to the king. In 1775, the SECOND CONTINENTAL CONGRESS met. By this time actual hostilities began and this Congress, although it had no real authority, took charge of the war and appointed Washington commander-in-chief. In 1775, there was very little sentiment in favor of inde- pendence, but in the next year opinion in the Patriot Party turned, and in 1776, the DECLARATION OF INDEPEND- ENCE, was signed. This recited the grievances of the colonies and stated that they were free and independent. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTOEY 21 The Continental Congress, which was the only governing body, had no real authorit}', its powers being all assumed. In order to get the states to delegate definite powers. Congress passed the ARTICLES OF FEDERATION in 1777. The structure of the government thus established should be learned. THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE ARTICLES OF CON- FEDERATION: 1. No executive was provided. Had to depend upon state governors to enforce laws of Congress. 2. No courts provided. State courts only. 3. There was a CONGRESS. One House: 2 to 7 members from each state not accord- ing to population. Powers: To conduct foreign relations. Raise and control an army. Raise money by (1) borrowing, (2) levying quotas, (3) making it. Powers denied to Congress: To tax the people and collect the tax. To regulate commerce of any kind. The defects of this government are obvious to us. Provision was made that these Articles were to go into effect when all 13 of the colonies had ratified them. Ratifica- tion was difficult. The greatest stumbling block was the fact that several of the states (Virginia, Massachusetts, Connecticut, chiefly) had conflicting land claims in the region north of the Ohio and east of tlie Mississippi. This tract is called the NORTHWEST TERRITORY. The matter was finally settled when the states all gave up their Western lands to the new central government. This cession had very important results, among which were: 1. It made possible the ratification of the Articles of Con- federation. 22 A R&VIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 2. It gave an impulse to union by the common owner- ship of land. 3. It made necessary an act to govern this land, the NORTHWEST ORDINANCE. 1787— The NORTHWEST ORDINANCE was passed to govern the Northwest Territory. It provided that the govern- ment should go through three stages; 1. It was to be governed by a governor and some judges appointed by Congress; they to select laws from those in force in other states. 2. When the population reached 5000, the voters were to elect an assembly to make laws, subject to the veto of the governor. A delegate was to sit in Congress. 3. When the population reached 60,000, Congress might admit as a state on an equality with the original states. This was the beginning of our colonial system, which is an original American institution. Our colonies, which have been admitted as States, now outnximbered threefold the original mother country. 1783 — The Treaty of Paris closed the Revolution. Some of its terms were : England agreed: 1. To give up all land east of the Mississippi. 2. To pay for slaves taken in the United States. The United States agreed: 1. To see that Loyalists were not mistreated. 2. To see that the collection of debts to Englishmen should not be obstructed. Neither side lived up to the terms of this treaty and the whole question was opened later at tlie time of Jay's Treaty in Washington's administration. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 23 THE CRITICAL PERIOD, With the independence of the states granted, a period fol- lowed which was very serious for the following reasons: 1. Foreign commerce was at a standstill. 2. Interstate commerce was small because of state rivalry. 3. The currency was depreciated. 4. The resulting stoppage of industry brought practical anarchy. 5. The government was unable to remedy the situation. A number of remedies to this situation were suggested, among which were : 1. An amendment giving Congress the right to regulate commerce. The required unanimous ratification could not be gotten. 2. The Mount Vernon Conference. Did little but call the next Convention. 3. 1786. THE ANNAPOLIS TRADE CONVEN- TION. Only five states represented. Did nothing but arrange for a new convention the following year. 4. 1787. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION in Philadelphia. THE CONSTITUTIONAL CONVENTION, The 1787 convention contained most of the great men of the country. Washington was chairman. They met to revise the Articles of Confederation, but it soon became evident that a new constitution was needed. The Virginia delegates drafted a plan which they proposed. This is called the VIRGINIA PLAN or the RANDOLPH PLAN or the BIG STATE PLAN. It provided for three departments to the govern- ment, the legislative bodies to be based upon population. This latter provision would be distasteful to the small states, and they, through Patterson, of New Jersey, introduced a plan providing for equal representation for all the states. 24 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY This plan was called the NEW JERSEY PLAN or the PAT- TERSON PLAN or the SMALL STATE PLAN. After a great struggle the two sides agreed to compromise, and it was decided to have the lower liouse based upon popu- lation and the upper house with equal representation. This is the First Great Compromise. The second compromise was as to whether slaves should be counted in the population. It was finally decided to count five slaves as three. The third Compromise was on the control of the slave trade. It was decided that Congress could not interfere with this trade for twenty years. After a few months of strenuous sessions, the convention adopted the constitution and provided that it was to go into effect when nine of the states had ratified it. The struggle for ratification was bitter. The people had fought the Revolution to get away from a strong central government and they were not anxious to get into another one of their own making. New York was a crucial state and it was swung over by Alexander Hamilton almost single-handed. Hamilton, Madison and Jay wrote a series of papers, the FEDERALIST papers, explaining the new government, which had a great influence. Finally the required nine states were secured and the constitution went into effect with the inauguration of AVashington in 1789. THE GOVERNMENT UNDER THE CONSTITUTION, 1. Executive. President. At least 35 years old. Native born. Term four yeqrs. Elected by Presidential electors chosen by states. (Look up.) Powers: Enforce the laws of Congress. Carry on foreign relations. Command army and navy. Veto or approve laws of Congress. Make treaties and appointments. (Senate.) A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY 25 2. Legislative: House of Representatives. Age 25. Term two years. Elected by voters. Sole Powers: 1. Impeachment. 2. Initiate money bills. 3. Elect President if electors do not. Senate. Age 30. Term 6 years. Elected by legislatures. Sole Powers: 1. Try impeachment cases. 2. Ratify treaties. 3. Ratify appointments. 3. Judiciary: Supreme Court and other courts. Judges of Supreme Court appointed by President for life. Tries cases dealing with Constitution or U. S. laws, or in which the U. S. is a party or between two states, etc. Congress is given a list of DELEGATED POWERS, among which are the power to tax and the power to regulate commerce — both interstate and foreign. This list of powers has been interpreted very liberally to make the Constitution fit modern conditions. AMENDMENTS. The ratification of some of the states was secured by a promise that there would be passed immediately a series of amendments safeguarding the rights of the people. Therefore there were passed the first ten amendments, which were called the AMERICAN BILL OF RIGHTS, providing for such things as free speech, religious freedom, right of jury trials, etc. The other amendments will be taken up at the proper place. 26 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY THE NEW NATION GEORGE WASHINGTON— J789-J797, The first electoral college chose George Washington unani- mously. His task was to organize the new government. To aid him in administration several departments were organized. To manage foreign affairs came the State Department, with Thomas Jcffcrsan as Secretary of State; Alexander Hamilton was made Secretary of the Treasury ; General Knox was Secre- tary of War; Edmund Randolph was Attorney General. These officers were not appointed as a CABINET. The SENATE was intended to be an advisory body to the President. This plan proved impossible, and Washington took to the practice of asking advice from the heads of the departments and the Cabinet as at present formed grew up outside of the Consti- tution. THE TREASURY— (Hamilton) Hamilton found the country practically bankrupt, with no credit, no income and a depreciated currency. His recom- mendations to Congress were passed by that body as follows: 1. FUNDING THE DEBT. This was the issuance of new bonds to all creditors of the government, thus recognizing all debts at par. The effect of this was to materiallj' raise the credit of the government. 2. ASSUMPTION OF STATE DEBTS. The states had contracted debts during the Revolution, paying for armies, etc. This was really a national duty and Hamilton wanted Congress to fund these state debts with its own. The states, notably Vir- ginia, which had paid most of their debts, objected, but Vir- ginia was bought over by the agreement that the new capital should be put on the Potomac. 3. IMPORT AND EXCISE TAXES. Although they would bring in little revenue, Hamilton had Congress pass acts A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY 27 putting taxes on imports and on some goods made in this country, notably liquors. The farmers of western Pennsyl- vania refused to paj'^ the whiskey tax, thus putting the new government to the first test. Would it insist upon its authority? Washington called upon the troops and put down this WHISKEY REBELLION, thus establishing a sound pre- cedent. 4. A UNITED STATE BANK. To carry on the finan- cial work of the government Hamilton wanted a bank chartered in which the United States should hold part of the stock, the bank to transact all government business. This met ojDposition from a great party led by Jefferson, who claimed that Con- gress had no power under the Constitution to charter a bank. They insisted upon STRICT CONSTRUCTION and they formed a party which took the name REPUBLICAN. Ham- ilton said that the Constitution must be subject to LOOSE CONSTRUCTION, giving much power to the central govern- ment, and his party took the name FEDERALIST. Much debate followed upon the "necessary and proper" clause. The Federalist part}'^ had the most of the moneyed or creditor class, while the Republican party had the masses of non-moneyed or debtor classes. Congress chartered the bank. FOREIGN AFFAIRS ENGLAND. Neither side had lived up to the Treaty of 1783. Morover the United States needed a commercial treaty with Britain to secure some trade with British colonies. John Jay, who had been the first Chief-Justice of the Supreme Court, was sent to England, and he negotiated JAY'S TREATY I/P^. This treaty repeated the terms of tlie Treaty of 1783, but such was the lack of respect toward the United States as a nation that no commercial privileges could be gained. The treaty was very unsatisfactory to the people of this country, but it is now thought that Jay did as much as could have been done at the time. SPAIN. A treaty was secured with Spain granting to us the right to use tlie mouth of the Mississippi River. 28 A REVIEW OP AMERICAN' HISTORY FRANCE. In 1789 the French Revolution had occurred and the Revolutionary party had gone to war with England. They claimed that in accordance with our treaty of alliance of 1778, we were bound to aid them. We were in no condition for war and Washington issued his PROCLAMATION OF NEUTRALITY, claiming that the treaty held only in case of a defensive war. The French then sent over Citizen Genet, to try to secure the aid, and he shared the general European idea that we had no government which was to be respected. Genet landed at Charlestown, S. C, and on his way north acted as if the United States were already in the war. He arranged for captured prizes to be brought here, for admiralty courts of France, for troops, etc., and met some popular approval. Fin- ally, however, he became bolder and there was a reaction against him, and, at the request of Washington, he was re- called. JOHN ADAMS— J797-J80J— Federalist. France, angered at this rebuff, and at our making a treaty with England, began to attack our shipping and, finally, Talley- rand refused to receive our minister. We sent three envoys to obtain redress, and they were met by three Frenchmen, known as X, Y and Z, who finally announced a demand for a $250,000 tribute. A cry for war arose in America, and a short naval war followed, which was ended when Napoleon came into power in France. The Republican Party had taken sides with France in this quarrel, and the Federalist party in power, against France and with England. The Federalists, in fear of the mass of French sympathizers passed the ALIEN AND SEDITION ACTS, enabling the President to remove from the country objection- able aliens and punishing any persons criticising the govern- ment. These acts were branded as unconstitutional by the Repub- licans, and formal protest was made by the VIRGINIA AND A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 29 KENTUCKY RESOLUTIONS, in which, under the leadership of Jefferson and Madison, these two states held that a state need not obey a law of Congress if the state thought it uncon- stitutional. This is one of the first cases of the theory of states' rights and nullification. This quarrel solidified the Republican party to such an extent that they were able to win the election in l8oo by a good majority. Jefferson called this election the REVOLUTION OF 1800, since he claimed that the capitalistic class had been ousted from the government and the people returned to control. According to the constitutional method of electing the President, the electors wrote two names on each ballot. The party organization of the Republicans was so perfect that all their electors wrote the same two names, JEFFERSON and BURR, with the unexpected result that there was a TIE. This had to be settled by the House, and they finally elected Jeffer- son. With the great change in parties, the Federalists made a last attempt to retain some control when John Adams spent the last few days in office making thousands of appointments to government oflices, the MIDNIGHT APPOINTMENTS. Many of these were turned out by Jefferson, but he could not change the most important of these, that of JOHN MAR- SHALL as Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. THOMAS JEFFERSON— J80J-J809— Republican, One of the fundamental principles of the Republican party was economy in government expenditures, and, under Albert Gallatin, Secretary of the Treasury, the debt was gradu- ally reduced. Another great doctrine of the party was Strict Construction, but this was soon neutralized by the Louisiana Purchase. 30 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY J803— LOUISIANA PURCHASE. By a secret treaty with Spain, Napoleon, who was in power in France, had gotten Louisiana. We began negotiations to get a little strip at the mouth of the river, but when Napoleon became discouraged in his attempt at an empire, and needed money, he offered to sell the whole tract for $15,000,000. Jef- ferson concluded the purchase in 1803. There being nothing in the Constitution about the purchase of new territory, this was counter to Jefferson's political faith. "Strict construction never meant the same after the Louisiana Purchase." After buying Louisiana, explorers were sent out to ex- amine it; among whom the most notable were Lcii'is and Clark, who got as far as Oregon, and Pike, who went into the South- west. THE NAPOLEONIC WARS. With Jefferson's inauguration we come to the period of the wars of Napoleon, which were to last until 181.5. To hinder the enemy, each side, England and France, passed edicts known as ORDERS IN COUNCIL or DECREES, which were Paper Blockades of the enemy coasts. Our ships going either to England or France were taken as prizes, a practice which we claimed was against international law, and a violation of neutral rights. Protests did no good, and in 1807 Congress passed the EMBARGO Act, prohibiting ships to leave our ports for Europe, in the hope that want of our products would make the nations give in. This did not happen and our ship- ping interests demanded that it be repealed. In 1809, the NON-INTERCOURSE ACT was passed, shutting off trade with only the warring nations. This was also unsuccessful, and in 1810 was passed MACON'S BILL, which was a shame- ful bid for rights. We agreed that if either nation would re- move the objectionable acts, we would agree not to trade with the other. France made the agreement, but did not abide by it. There we leave the quarrel until the next administration. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 31 JAMES MADISON— J809-J5J7— Republican With this administration a new man, Henry Clay, appears in Washington, to be a leading actor for the next forty years. He saw in the actions of Europe a cause for war, and became the leader of the "War Hawks," finally getting Congress to declare war upon England in 1812. It must be remembered that Congress was divided, the Republicans siding with France against England, and the Federalists, who were strong in New England, with England against France. The war was very unpopular in New England and was called Mr. Madison's War. On land the war was rather unsuccessful and the Federalists became more and more discontented. In addition to a refusal to support the government, the opposition became more active with the calling of the HARTFORD CONVENTION in 1815. This convention passed measures looking toward constitutional amendments to make another war to which they objected im- possible, and to take the control of the Presidency from Vir- ginia. The delegates arrived in Washington at the same time as the news of the victory at New Orleans, and in the state of mind of the nation after a victory, the movement had little effect other than to practically KILL THE FEDERALIST PARTY. It never again put up a candidate. The causes of the war may be stated: 1. Illegal blockading. 2. Impressment of our sailors. The TREATY OF GHENT, which closed the war, was nothing but an agreement to stop fighting. England refused positively to agree that either of these practices should be discontinued. The end of the Napoleonic Wars removed the causes for them, however. It will have been seen that before the War of 1812 our political independence gained in the Revolution was of little use to us. Genet, the X, Y, Z affair, the Orders in Council and Decrees all showed our real dependence upon Europe. 32 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY After 1807 came a change. The Embargo cut us off from Europe and we began manufacturing; for a market we began to look to our own West. This development brought an entire change in policy after 1816. In quick succession we have the first PROTECTIVE TARIFF, the ARMY AND NAVY BILL, the building of the NATIONAL ROAD and the ERIE CANAL, and as we shall see later a new confidence in our foreign affairs resulting in the Florida episode in 1819 and the Monroe Doctrine of 1823. The year 1816 marks the beginning of the nation. JAMES MONROE— J 8 J 7- J 825.— Republican Since the Hartford Convention had ruined the Federalist party, Monroe was elected with but one party in the field and so he called it an ERA OF GOOD FEELING. It Avas not this in reality, as new issues soon arose. J8J9— FLORIDA, In 1783 Spain had received Florida, and was unable to police it properly. The Indians made repeated raids across our border. Andrew Jackson was sent down to drive out the Indians, and in his zeal continued into Florida, incidentally executing some British subjects. He was hurriedly recalled, but a demand was made upon Spain that she should either properly police Florida, or sell it to us, stating that if she did neither, Ave would take it. She sold it to us in 1819. J820— THE MISSOURI COMPROMISE. The great slavery question in the United States is whether SLAVERY SHOULD BE ADMITTED INTO THE NEW TERRITORY. The question only became important after the acquisition of new territory. The Louisiana Purchase began to fill with people after the war and the question came up soon, "shall it be slave or free?" The Southerners held that Con- gress could pass no law on the subject, since tlie word "terri- A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 33 tory" in Section 3, Clause 2, meant land actually owned by the government and not land merely governed. Congress looked at it from the northern standpoint and passed the ^Missouri Compromise in 1820, making Missouri a slave state, but shut- ting slavery out of all "territory" north of the line 36-30. Con- gress had a strong hold on the situation. Watch how this attitude changes in 1850, a change wliich brought the Civil War. J823— THE MONROE DOCTRINE. At the Congress of Vienna, 1815, the monarchs of Europe, to prevent a repetition of the French Revolution, made an alli- ance, agreeing that if a revolution broke out in any of their lands they would all unite to put it down and keep themselves in power. This agreement was worked both in Spain and in Italy. An unexpected case came when the Spanish colonies in South America revolted under the leadership of San Martin and Bolivar. The Alliance threatened to send forces to regain the colonies for Spain. This was distasteful to England, which had secured quite a trade with the new Latin states. The Eng- lish minister, George Canning, not wishing to act alone, sug- gested to the United States that the two nations jointly prevent the action of the alliance. Our Secretary of State, John Oiiiucy Adams, and the President were against a joint action. We were interested from the standpoint of self-protection. We were also interested because the Russians in the west were adding to their territory south of Alaska. Finall}^ we decided to pro- test alone and, in 1823, Monroe, in a message to Congress, voiced what is known as the MONROE DOCTRINE. It is a statement of our policy which says that the Americas shall not be considered as open to settlement by any European nation, and that if any European nation should get more land over here, it would be. considered by us as an iinfricndiv act. This statement had the desired effect at the time largely because we were backed by tlie Englisli fleet. The Monroe Doctrine is 34 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY now considered by the United States as a national policy. Watch through the remainder of the history for incidents involving the Monroe Doctrine, and come to your own decision as to whether we ought still to hold to it. ^824— THE ELECTION OF J 824. There being only one party in the field, tlie election be- came a struggle between favorite candidates of different sections. The candidates were Jackson, J. Q. Adams, Crawford, Clay and Calhoun. Calhoun dropped out and the other candidates finished in the order named, with no one having the required majority. As provided in the Constitution, the House had to elect from the first three. Clay, who thus was ruled out, was the Speaker of the House. His influence was used to elect Adams. The election had two important results. Adams chose Clay Secretary of State, and it was claimed that there was a corrupt deal between them. There was probably no such deal, but the suspicion killed Clay politically. The other result was the attitude of Jackson. Being convinced that he had been de- feated by a deal, he began at once to organize a new party for the next election. Tlius we have a split in the Republican party. The Adams men took the name National Republicans and afterwards WHIGS; the Jackson men were the Demo- cratic Republicans or the DEMOCRATS. The two parties lasted until after 1854. JOHN QUINCY ADAMS— J 825- J 829— Whig. This administration saw little done because of party strife. Clay, the Secretary of State, was a great influence. One of his hobbies, while in the House, was the recognition of the South American Republics. He kept his interest in them and advocated a conference of all the Latin- American states called for Panama. The conference was held, although our delegates A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 35 did not arrive in time for it. These congresses have been held at intervals ever since, the subjects discussed being now mostly of a commercial nature. Clay preached a doctrine which he called the AMERICAN SYSTEM, that the development of the United States internally was a function of the central government. This could be done by protective tariffs, by the building of roads, the latter at federal expense, and by other national improvements. This period saw the passage of two protective tariffs, 1824 and 1828, the latter called by the South, the TARIFF OF ABOMINA- TIONS. South Carolina particularly objected, since she had to buy all of her manufactures and since she was in bad condi- tion financially, due to the decline in the price of her long- staple cotton. Eed by Jolui C. Calhoun, she passed the SOUTH CAROLINA EXPOSITION, which stated that the law was unconstitutional, not being uniform, and for that reason the state did not propose to obey it. It suggested that the matter be decided by a referendum to the states, a three-fourths vote of the states in favor of the law settling it. In the meantime an attempt to enforce the law would be resisted with force. ANDREW JACKSON— J 829- J 837— Democrat. Jackson met the situation in South Carolina by preparing to use force to collect the tax, but Congress put the decision oft' by passing tlie Compromise Tariff of 1833, which reduced the tariff. Jackson went into office as a man of the common people; he began witli a very riotous and inelegant inaugural reception, and proceeded to disregard many of the precedents set for the President. He got most of his advice from a group of his un- official friends, a group known as the "Kitchen Cabinet." He turned out of office thousands of his political enemies, this prac- tice getting the name the "Spoils System." With these offices he rewarded his own follov/ers. 36 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY The sectionalism which had cropped out in the struggle over the Tariff of 1828 became more evident. The North and the South each was bidding for tlie support of the new West. One episode is famous. In a debate on Foote's Resolution on the disposal of western lands, there came a debate between Webster of the North and Haync of the South, Avhich turned upon the question of State Rights. Hayne held that the states were superior to the Federal government, while Webster held that the nation was supreme and the states subordinate. The debate had no immediate results but it points the direction in which the two sections are traveling. The great episode of Jackson's time was his fight upon the U. S. Bank. The bank was first chartered at the request of Hamilton and its charter had been once renewed, the re- newed charter expiring in 1836. Jackson was against the bank because he held that : 1. It was unfair for a small group of men to profit from the use of government money. 2. It was unsafe for a small group of men to control the government surplus, which at the time was very great. 3. The bank had been a political force against Jackson. This last was probably the important consideration. It seemed that Congress would charter the bank and so Jackson took the question into the campaign of 1832. He was elected upon a platform calling for the destruction of the bank, and he immediately decided to destroy it. The Secretary of the Treasury was ordered to withdraw the U. S. funds; he refused, and was replaced by a new man. He in turn refused and was removed. Finally Taney was appointed and he with- drew the funds. The bank, after a short struggle, went out of existence. The next question was what to do with this money. Jackson decided to distribute it among the state banks. This would distribute the profits and the control of the money. To get this money hundreds of banks, with little backing, sprang up all over the land. They are the WILDCAT BANKS. Many A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 37 banks, the PET BANKS, received more than their share of the money. This distribution brought a lot of money into the market just at the time of a great movement toward the purchase of western lands. The banks lent this money on the security of western lands; they issued millions in bank notes; the circu- lation became highly inflated. Then Jackson did two things which brought a crisis. He decided to distribute a great bal- ance in the Treasury among the states. The banks were called upon to produce much of the government deposit. At the same time he issued the SPECIE CIRCULAR, demanding that all payments to the government for lands be in gold and silver. These two demands upon the banks were more than many of them could stand and there ensued the Panic of 1837. This came in the next administration. In the meantime history was being made in Texas, which was a part of Mexico. The fine lands of Texas had attracted thousands of Americans, who had gone there encouraged by the Mexican government. In tlie period of Jackson, Mexico attached Texas to the Mexican State of Coahuila, thereby put- ting the Americans and their property under the rule of the Mexican government of that province. Protests came forth and hostilities soon started, the Texans led by Sam Houston. At the Alamo the Mexican Santa Anna massacred a garrison, but at San Jacinto, the Mexicans were defeated by Houston (1836), and Texas was recognized as an independent state. The American population of Texas immediately applied for admission to the union. It would be a slave state and its ad- mission was opposed by Northern Congressmen. It was not finally admitted until 1845. Jackson had absolute control of his party machinery and practically named the next President. He had planned to put Calhoun forward, but he discovered that Calhoun had been opposed to his part in the Florida struggle Avay back in 1818-19, and so Jackson turned to Martin VanBuren, a New York politician. 38 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY MARTIN VAN BUREN—J837-J84f— Democrat. Van Buren came into office with the Panic of 1837. This panic had two important results: 1. To do away with bank troubles the government estab- lished an INDEPENDENT TREASURY SYSTEM. 2. The selling of western lands being part of the cause of the trouble, the government began the practice of giving away the lands to actual settlers. In this period the slavery question began to have a moral turn. The work of ]ViUiam Lloyd Garrison, the editor of the LIBERATOR, showed the most radical side. His ideas were not generally accepted at first. Gradually the North began to line up in opposition to slavery. By means of the UNDER- GROUND RAILWAY, runaway slaves were aided to Canada. Anti-slavery petitions began to flood into Congress. This movement was making for a break between the two sections. At the next election, the Whigs, with WilUain Henry Har- rison as candidate, carried on a spirited campaign. Remember- ing Harrison's victory over the Indians, the Whigs used the campaign cry "Tippecanoe and Tyler, too," and won out. WILLIAM HENRY HARRISON (TYLER— J54J-J845— Whig. Harrison died soon after his inauguration and Tyler, who was really a Democrat, became President. He had trouble with the W^hig Congress and very little was accomplished. The WEBSTER-ASHBURTON TREATY settled the boundary line between Maine and Canada. We have already traced the Texas question up to the de- mand for admission to the union. This question became an issue at the election of ISJ'l; the Democrats favored admission and the Whigs, with Clay as their candidate, opposed admission. Polk, the Democratic candidate, won. Between election and inauguration Tyler decided that if annexation was inevitable A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY 39 he might as well have the credit for it, and Texas was admitted early in 1845. JAMES K. POLK— f845-J849— Democrat. MANIFEST DESTINY is an expression used to describe the feeling of national ambition which pervaded the nation during this decade. A feeling was widecast that the United States should extend to the Pacific. This would necessitate the acquisition of the land west of the Rockies. The Northern half of this was OREGON. This was claimed by the United States because of the work of Lewis and Clarke, Captain Gray and the settlement of Astor and others. England claimed it chiefly by the discovery of Drake. In 1818, it had been decided that the territory should be occupied jointly. After 1840 we find a demand that England give up her claims. INIarcus Whit- man, a missionary, had gone there in 1833, and inspired much interest in the region. The introduction of Linn's Bill shows the interest of Congress. The nation soon demanded that Eng- land give up her claims as far north as 54°-40' — "54-40 or Fight." In 1846, the matter was adjusted by dividing this territory; the boundary was fixed at the 49th parallel. The acquisition of the rest of the territory demanded by manifest destiny was hastened by a quarrel with Mexico, who owned the southern section. The causes for our troubles with Mexico may be summarized: 1. The demand for California (Manifest Destiny). 2. The desire for the adjustment of debts owed to some of our citizens by the government of Mexico. 3. A dispute over the boundary, Mexico claiming that it was the Ahicccs River, and the United States claiming that it was the Rio Grande. SlidcH was sent to Mexico with the suggestion that the debts be settled by the cession of California, but our activities along the border when our troops invaded the contested area. 40 A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY caused Mexico to refuse to treat witli our envoy. War then was precipitated, in which the United States won every battle. The treaty which closed the war provided: 1. The boundary of Texas to be the Rio Grande. 2. The United States to get all the territory between Oregon and Texas north of the Gila River. 3. The United States to pay Mexico $15,000,000, and thy money claims to be arranged for. It is stated by some that this war was unjustified, and that it was a steal by a stronger nation from a weaker. Come ti some definite decision yourself on this point. The acquisition of all this new territory brought the slavery question once more to the fore. First it was brought up when the House was to appropriate money to end the war. The WILMOT PROVISO was tacked onto the bill as an amendment. It provided that no slavery should ever exist in the land acquired from Mexico. In the debate in Congress this clause was defeated, but the struggle for it showed the alti- tude of the two sections. ZACHARY TAYLOR— J 849- J 53S— Whig. The questions at issue between the North and South, chiefly that of slavery in the Mexican cession, had to be settled. Clay once more led and, after a violent debate, secured the pass- age of the OMNIBUS BILL or the COMPROMISE OF 1850. The chief provision was that Congress decided not to dictate whether this territory should be slave or free, but left it to the localities to decide— SQUATTER SOVEREIGNTY. The im- portance of this is in the change of attitude since 1820. Then Congress took upon itself the right to shut slavery out of the territory; in 1850, Congress assumed that it had no such power, which was a violent swing toward the Southern point of view. This act applied only to the Mexican cession, but with this attitude in Congress, the South immediately began to think of having the Missouri Compromise repealed. Other A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 41 provisions of tlie bill of 1850 were a new and stricter Fugitive Slave Law, making it the duty of federal officials to aid in returning runaway slaves ; the prohibition of the slave trade in the District of Columbia; the admission of California as a free state. This latter had been made necessary by the dis- covery of gold in that region in 18J-9, resulting in a great rush of the 49'ers into the gold field. In 1850, Taylor died, and Fillmore became President. The opening of California brought up the question of a canal across Panama. England, with her policy of controlling the seas, did not relish the idea of the building of such a canal by the United States, and so we agreed to the CLAYTON- BULWER Treaty, by which it was agreed that if a canal were to be built it would be a joint project. This treaty held until it was superseded by tlie Hay-Pauncefote Treaty in 1901. FRANKLIN PIERCE— 1 853- J 857— Democrat. In this administration the question of the right of Con- gress to rule slaver}^ out of the territories once more became acute. This right, which had been taken in 1820, had ruled slavery out of the Louisiana Purchase north of 36-30. The change of front indicated by the act of 1850 reopened the question, and there was a determination to get Congress to repeal the Missouri Compromise. Stephen A. Douglas, the Senator from Illinois, from motives that are not altogether clear, introduced tlie KANSAS-NEBRASKA BILL, and se- cured its passage in ISSi. This provided that the Missouri Compromise should be repealed, and that the territory north of 36-30 should be organized into two territories, which should, when th^y were ready to enter the union, decide for them- selves whether they should be slave or free. This gave the South a complete victory, as they now had access to all the territories, and that was the kernel of the slavery dispute. This bill had two great results: 42 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 1. Since popular vote was to decide in each territory whether it was to enter as a slave state or a free state, both Northerners and Southerners flocked into Kansas, and at- to kill off the opposing voters before election. Thus the BLOODY KANSAS episode, in which John Brown first be- comes prominent. 2. The victory of the Southerners showed those opposed to the extension of slaverj?^ that their only hope of success was to get control of the government. This could be done only by the organization of a new party, as the two old parties would not take sides upon the question. Those opposed to the extension of slavery into the territories began to unite and we find the beginning of the present-day REPUBLICAN PARTY. The publication of "Uncle Tom's Cabin," by Harriet Bccchcr Ston'c, did much to fire the spirits of the Northerners, particularly of the Abolitionists. JAMES BUCHANAN— J857-J86J— Democrat. The Republican Party had not sufficient strength to win this election, although they had a candidate in the field. The need for the new party was accentuated bj'^ the DRED SCOTT DECISION in 1856. DRED SCOTT was a slave who had been taken into terri- tory made free by the Missouri Compromise. He thereupon claimed his freedom and the fight was carried to the Supreme Court, where it was decided, among other things, that Scott was not free because the Missouri Compromise was unconsti- tutional. Congress having no power to legislate slavery out of the territories. This made a complete victory for the Southern- ers, and the new Republicans became more determined to win control of the government. This constitutional point was the chief subject of the LIN- COLN-DOUGLAS DEBATES. Lincoln and Douglas were candidates for the Senate from Illinois, and they arranged a series of meetings where they should speak from the same plat- A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 43 form. Douglas was a Northern Democrat, and Lincoln, a Republicans, with leanings toward abolition. Douglas upheld "Squatter Sovereignty" as the principle of his Kansas-Nebraska Bill. At the Frccport debate, Lincoln, by a skillful question, got Douglas to say that people of the territoi-y itself could keep slavery out, although Congress could not. This appeased the people of Illinois, and Douglas was elected to the Senate, but it angered the South so that they would have none of Douglas when he came up for the Presidency in 1860. John Bi'oicii, whom we have seen in Kansas, in 1859, took it upon himself to free the slaves, and in the process he attacked the government arsenal at Harper's Ferry. He was captured and hanged for treason, but the excitement added to the ferment which made the election of 1860 one of the most violently contested in history. In 1860, the Republicans passed over Seward, the logical candidate, and nominated Abraham Lincoln, upon a platform calling for the abolition of slavery in the Territories. The Democrats nominated Stephen A. Donglas. His Freeport Doc- trine had so angered the South that they left the convention and put up a separate candidate, Brcckenridge. Some of the middle states did not wish to take a violent ground upon the subject of the day, and formed a Union Party, nominating Bell, upon a neutral platform. The South frankly threatened that if Lincoln won upon such a platform as the Republicans had adopted, they would not remain in the union. At the Eleetion of i860 the Republi- cans won, largely because of the split in the Democratic ranks, and the Southern states, led by South Carolina, immediately announced their secession. Opinion in the North was divided, many able men being in favor of allowing the South to secede. The break came when South Carolina attempted to capture the government property in her harbor and fired upon Fort Sumter. This firing upon the flag was what was needed to arouse the North and an army was recruited. The fighting continued four years, with the government finally successful. 44 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY ABRAHAM LINCOLN— J86 J- J 865— Republican. The administration of Lincoln is taken up entirely with the Civil War. The chief men of his cabinet were Sczuard, Secre- tary of State ; Stanton, Secretary of War, and Chase, Secretary of the Treasury. The military history of the war will not be considered here. Note first the foreign relations of the period. RELATIONS WITH ENGLAND, England, with her big interests in the manufacture of cotton from the South and in the sale of goods to the South, had nothing to lose and everthing to gain by the success of the Southern cause. The government of England issued a proclamation of neutrality, itself a blow at the North because it gave the rebels as we called them, the rights of belligerents. Great friction came when Mason and SlidcU, two Southern envoys, were taken from an English vessel by a United States captain, thus violating the neutral rights of English ships. After some debate the men were ordered given up to England. The most serious trouble came when an English firm fitted out some ships of war for the South. In spite of the protests of our minister to England, Adams, the English government allowed the ships to sail, and they did great damage to United States shipping. The most important of these ships was the ALABAMA. After the war a demand was made that England pay for the damage done, and the matter was settled by arbi- tration. As the war went on the people of England began to show their sympathy with the union cause and the government ceased to show active sympathy with the South. SLAVERY. When Lincoln was elected he stated that he had no inten- tion of freeing the slaves. When General Freemont issued an order in Missouri, freeing the slaves there, Lincoln counter- manded the order. However, as the war went on, it became very evident that the slaves were a great asset to the South and A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 45 Lincoln, in his capacity as Commander-in-Chief of the army of the United States, decided that they must be freed. On Janu- ary 1, 1863, he issued the EMANCIPATION PROCLAMA- TION, which stated that the slaves in all states then in revolt should be freed. It was a military measure and did not apply to the loyal states. At the close of the war, by the regular process, the Thir- teenth Amendment to the Constitution was put into force, and this freed all of the slaves in the United States. LINCOLN AND ANDREW JOHNSON— J 865- J 869— Republican. Lincoln was re-elected in 1864, but was killed soon after inauguration, and the Presidency fell upon Johnson, who had been a Democrat. The great problem now was the readmission of the seceded states which had been defeated in battle. Lin- coln had formed a very simple plan, viz., that as soon as 10 per cent, of the voters in any state swore allegiance to the union, met in a convention and ratified the Thirteenth Amend- ment freeing the slaves and elected Congressmen who would swear allegiance, the state would be admitted immediately. This plan was accepted by Johnson, and began the process of what is known as RECONSTRUCTION. When the new Congressmen came to Washington they found that the Republican Congress, under the leadership of Thaddeus Stevens in the House, and Charles Sumner, in the Senate, would not admit them. This was because: 1. They felt that it would be dangerous to the country for the recent rebels to hold the balance of power in Congress. 2. They maintained that justice required that the South- erners give to the negro rights equal to the rights of the whites. 3. Probably the biggest reason, although unexpressed, was the feeling that the coming of a large number of Demo- crats from the South, would endanger Republican domination of Congress. 46 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY These objections could be met if Congress should insist upon the disfranchisement of the whites who had been the leaders of the revolt and upon the enfranchisement of the negro. The latter would all be Republican. Congress then passed its RECONSTRUCTION ACTS embodying these ideas. Johnson, angry at the overturning of his work, vetoed the acts, and Congress passed them over his veto. The chief points of the Congressional plan were: 1. The negroes were allowed to vote. 2. The white leaders to be disfranchised. 3. The 13th, 14th and 15th amendments to be ratified. 4. Until these conditions were met the South to be gov- erned by martial law. The story here divides into two branches, the working out of the plan in the South and the Quarrel between Johnson and Congress. JOHNSON AND CONGRESS, Johnson began to veto every law sent to him by Congress, who, in turn, passed each bill over his veto. The President became abusive in his language and the breach widened. When the Congressional election of 1866 came, Johnson went on the stump with his famous "Swing Around the Circuit," making speeches which were to say the least, undignified. His efforts had no effect upon the election, and the members of Congress returned, determined to get even with Johnson — to impeach him, if possible. An excuse for this latter came with the TENURE OF OFFICE ACT. Congress passed a law that the President could not dismiss an oflicer without their consent. Johnson wanted to dismiss Sfanfoii, and believed the law unconstitu- tional. The only way to test this was to dismiss the officer and have the Supreme Court to act upon the case. Johnson dis- missed Stanton. Instead of taking it to the court. Congress started impeachment proceedings. In the trial in the Senate, A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 47 the President was acquitted by one vote. Historians now gen- erally agree that Johnson was in the right in the matter of the act. RECONSTRUCTION IN THE SOUTH, The plan prescribed by Congress was forced upon the South by the military power and soon the governments of the states were in the hands of the ignorant negro vote. This vote was dominated by Northern politicians called ''Carpet-Baggers," and by unscrupulous Southerners called "Scallazvags." The whites of the South lived in a reign of terror while the states were being carried toward bankruptcy. The problem of the South was much deeper than this political situation. Their troubles were: 1. Industrial and Economic. The four years of war upon their territory had destroyed their wealth and the producing power of the old plantations. Industrial life had to be re-estab- lished, and Congress did not touch this problem except in the matter of aiding negroes through the "Freedman's Aid Bu- reau," which developed into a machine to control the negro vote. 2. Labor. The abolition of slavery left the South with no labor class, and this had to be gradually remedied. 3. Social. The host of freed slaves used their new free- dom to emphasize their equality with the whites. 4. Political. The governmental machinery was in the hands of the negro vote. These conditions were not aided by federal action; indeed, they were accentuated. State action was impossible since the negroes controlled the government. The whites began to look to extra-legal relief, and an organization, the KU KLUX KLAN, was formed to terrorize the negroes into a respect for the whites in their social relations and to frighten them away from the voting places. The movement was pretty successful, and the whites soon regained control of the governments and 48 A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY then disfranchised most of the blacks by literacy requirements for the vote. In the meantime the industrial conditions had been improved by the introduction of new industries, looking forward to what is today known as the NEW SOUTH. By 1876 the Reconstruction of the South was virtually complete. THE UNITED STATES SINGE 1865 The history since 1865 will not be taken up chronologically, but rather by subjects. In order to make sure of the admin- istrations they should be learned as follows: ULYSSES S. GRANT Republican 1869-1877 RUTHERFORD B. HAYES Republican 1877-1881 JAMES A. GARFIELD (Arthur) Republican 1881-1885 GROVER CLEVELAND Democratic 1885-1889 BENJAMIN HARRISON Republican 1889-1893 GROVER CLEVELAND Democratic 1893-1897 WILLIAM McKINLEY Republican 1897-1901 McKINLEY and ROOSEVELT Republican 1901-1905 THEODORE ROOSEVELT Republican 1905-1909 WILLIAM H. TAFT Republican 1909-1913 WOODROW WILSON Democratic 1913-1921 WARREN G. HARDING Republican 1921- After the Civil War came a period which is characterized by a widespread discontent among all classes. Each of the im- portant subjects of discontent is here taken up ; the student should be sure to grasp the causes of the discontent and the chief attempts made to remedy the condition. 1. CORRUPTION IN THE GOVERNMENT. In the administration of Grant there came to light a mass of corruption in all walks of life. Grant had been a good military leader but he was a poor President, his appointments to office being in many cases most unfortunate. This was not YEARS 190I Seeu-rltiti A CHART OF THE LAST FIFTY YEARS S9 55 97 E'/cetion. of m96 \ ^\^'^"""' 7. ,..„.Z^tJM^J^ T ffaoseftft '>yefe/anoL P,..l4.t<. Ekitian — "* 1..... .„._.. ......... .,...»..—.-- — -.—-—■—-- •--••■ V^/son C'id.t A'lMier a3 /foesereff' Ct'rilStnria MW 76 8? _ J3/// - 7i. Crin\t 'f 75 79 78 BUI go S/\er/ntin Act 93 96 Brya,x. M'H.nleipir.fi Wilso^Hntf DUth'^'-'fi IS ffeserye n^ncl'.t'rA'Vr.fl Unci'.rvifoocL Tar,// dnildi (^ Credit Af^i'/. Qrar^oer /.a/*s Wabask. Qy Act Seiurit/li 06 Dill Ohera-t/on Km Mi ff iaio FidtraXiOn of Li-iar r,' ii^- f^mtrictf^ U/ir ^fr/tiaiY la/yafna. \ . \ ,, -. .^.,,,. ' -\.:.,.V M/m/Wi}JA 48 ther for beei forv 187( but istr; UL RU JAl GR BE GR WI Mc TH WI WC W^ by por sho chii 1. of mil to A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 49 the fundamental cause, hoM^ever, as a wave seemed to strike the nation at large. The corruption showed itself particularly in the city gov- ernments. This is the period of the TWEED RING in New York City, the Gas Ring in Philadelphia, and a like corrupt crowd in most of the other large cities. By dishonest methods, millions were stolen from the people in each of the cities. The Federal government felt the difficulty also. THE WHISKEY RING in the St. Louis Custom House stole im- mense amounts of money on liquor taxes; the Credit Mobilier, a company which will be discussed when we treat of the rail- roads, was discovered to have presented much of its stock to Congressmen and other officials who could aid it by their in- fluence. Much of this fraud was laid at the door of the poor ap- pointments of the President. By the Spoils System, which is attributed to Jackson, the offices of the government were thought of as rewards for political service. A movement is felt soon after 1870 which has for its object the abolition of the Spoils System by the appointment of officials only after com- petitive examinations — what we know today as the Civil Serv- ice Examinations. After Garfield had been shot by a disap- pointed office-seeker, the movement gained great headway, and in 1883, Congress passed the PENDLETON BILL. The Pendleton Bill provided for a commission empowered to give examinations, and made it lawful for the President to appoint to office on the basis of this examination, if he sazv fit. Note that the President was not compelled to do anything. The result was that each President had to face a struggle be- tween his promises to tlie people to appoint after examinations, and the demands of his party followers for rewards for their party work. Each president has added a feM' more offices to the Civil Service list. Harrison appointed Roosevelt to the Civil Service Commission, to which work he brought his usual energy. Now most of the offices, except the administrative ones, are secured bv examination. 50 A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY This movement applied only to appointive offices. Very- soon the de.velopment of the party machine and the BOSS brought about a state of affairs which made the voters demand more control over elective officers. A series of measures has come more recently which very greatly curbs the power of the boss. The student should get definite information about each of the following, and should see how each fits into this move- ment for a greater responsibility of elective officers: Direct Primaries, Corrupt Practice Acts, Australian Ballot, The Re- call, Initiative and Referendum, Direct Election of Senators, Woman Suffrage. 2. THE CURRENCY. During the Civil War a great mass of Greenbacks had been issued. These had depreciated until at the end of the war they were worth about 80 cents on the dollar. The period around 1870 is a period of expansion into the West, and much western land was bought and mortgaged when values were de- termined by a depreciated currency. The government decided to recall the greenbacks as soon as possible. This would reduce the amount of money in circu- lation, and would have two effects upon the western farmer. It would make them pay their debts in a more valuable and more scarce currency and it would lower the price Avhich they received for their produce. These two effects produced much distress and discontent in the Middle West. The farmers decided that the cause of the whole trouble was the lack of the proper amount of money in circulation, and that it could be remedied if more greenbacks Avere issued. This would be unacceptable to the moneyed classes of the East, and the GREENBACK ^lOVEMENT of Grant's administra- tion was a failure. The supply of money steadily fell and the distress continued. Disappointed in their demand for greenbacks the farmers soon found a new source of supply — silver. In 1873, by the so-called Crime of 1873, the silver dollar had been dropped A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 51 from circulation. Aided by the silver miners of the Rockies, the farmers now began to demand increasing the supply of money by the COINAGE OF SILVER in an unlimited amount. Congress bowed to this demand by passing the BLAND-ALLISON SILVER BILL in 1878. This provided for the coinage of from two to four millions in silver per month. The agitation did not stop, however, and the bill was re- placed by the SHERMAN SILVER Act in 1890, which pro- vided for an increase in the amount of silver to be bought, but which need not be coined in larger amounts. This was so un- wise that it had to be repealed a few years later, leaving the silver issue again up in the air. In 1896, IVilliajii Jennings Bryan, from the Middle West, appeared at the Democratic Convention, and made a speech demanding the Free and Unlimited Coinage of Silver at i6-i. This was what his section wanted most of all and he was nomi- nated on the Democratic ticket. The moneyed interests of the East saw that this would be fatal to their interests and, under the leadership of Mark Hanna, an Ohio business man, they elected the Republican nominee, McKinley. This is the last we hear of the silver issue, as the discovery of gold in the Klondike did much to remedy the shortage of coin. 3. THE RAILROADS. Grant's administration had seen the completion of the Union Pacific Railroad, the route of which should be fixed in mind. This road had been capitalized by the grants of land by the government and by the sale of bonds, which were bought by everybody throughout the West in the great enthus- iasm and the hope of great prosperity to come from the rail- road. The stockholders put little money into the project, but they reaped rich rewards from such devices as the formation ef a separate company, the CREDIT MOBILIER, with the same stockholders, to which the job of building the road was given at a great profit. Growing discontent among the people 52 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY because of these schemes was increased when the roads were built, and, instead of operating for the benefit of the farmers, they proceeded to use their great power for their own benefit, and to give very poor service at high rates. They used "dis- crimination," the favoring of one shipper at the expense of others; "pooling," by which competition was avoided and rates kept up. This state of affairs hit directly at the middle western farm- ers, who were dependent upon the railroad to move their crops. In their own organization, the GRANGE, they discussed the situation and decided that the railroads had to be regulated by state legislation. The Grangers went into politics, elected their own members to the legislatures and in most of the Western states passed what are known as the GRANGER LAWS. These laws prohibited discrimination, pooling, and required that rates be reasonable. Very soon, however, the courts decided that the wording of the Constitution gave to Congress the right to regulate inter- state commerce, and, as most of the roads affected by the Granger Laws were inter-state roads, the laws were thus rendered of no use. The fight was taken to Congress, and in 1887 was passed the INTER-STATE COMMERCE ACT, the terms of which were similar to the terms of the Granger Laws. Pooling, discrimination, unreasonable rates were all illegal; an Inter-state Commerce Commission was established with no powers other than to w^atch the roads and bring suit if they sus- pected a violation of the law. At first the commission did very little but it gradually took to itself more and more powers. Finally, in 1906, by the HEPBURN Act it was given the power to fix rates. After entering the World War, Congress passed a bill taking the railroads into the control of the government. They were operated under government ownership until March 1, 1920, when by the Esch-Cummins Act they were given back to their owners with certain guarantees of profit. A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY 53 4. LABOR CONDITIONS. No Labor Problem existed in the United States until after 1870. The discontent among the laboring classes after that date may be attributed to a number of causes: 1. Great immigration and the discharge of a million soldiers flooded the labor market. 2. The development of machinery had reduced demand for men. 3. Cheap Chinese labor was competing with American labor. 4. Trusts were forming with great control over labor and with a tendency, in the minds of the laborers, to raise prices and lower wages. 5. The further moving to western lands by the discon- tented was made impossible by the using up of all available land, "the safety valve of discontent." The discontent of the laboring men soon resulted in or- ganization to better their conditions. The first organization was that of THE KNIGHTS OF LABOR, organized by Poiudcrly. Here all sorts of labor were in one great organi- zation, and, due to their activities, thousands of strikes resulted. The most famous were about Chicago in the administrations of Cleveland. In the first, some Anarchists took advantage of the disorder to hurl a bomb into HAYMARKET SQUARE, killing many people. This affair took much sympathy from the labor organization. In Cleveland's second administration came the Pullman strike, with the sending of regular troops to keep order in defiance of the wishes of the Governor of Illinois. The Knights of Labor began to dabble in politics and soon gave way to a new organization, the AMERICAN FEDERA- TION OF LABOR, with Gompcrs at the head. In this Federa- tion the union of each trade kept its indentity. Great distress was caused by the coal strike of 1904, the strike being settled, at the instigation of President Roosevelt, by a commission. 54 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY The competition of foreign labor was met in a number of ways. Immigration laws were passed excluding all "contract labor." A movement in the west, under Doiiiis Kearney, resulted in the passage of an act excluding Chinese laborers. TRUSTS are large organizations to control the output of any product and thus control its price. To make such unfair means as they used impossible. Congress passed the SHERMAN ANTI-TRUST ACT in 1890, making illegal all combinations in restraint of trade. Under Roosevelt a "trust-busting" cru- sade was begun under the act, and the dissolution of a number of trusts ordered. To clarify the meaning of the act and to make sure that labor unions should not be considered as trusts, Wilson had the CLAYTON Act passed. Long ago the government gave its own employees the eight-hour day. In 1918, the ADAMSON BILL provided that the 8-hour day should be the basis of railroad laborers (on inter-state lines). The movement for the betterment of the position of labor and the guarantee of their right to strike is still before the country and should see settlement soon. 5. THE INDIANS. The coming of the Union Pacific, with its thousands of new settlers, had made the Indians uncomfortable. Their source of food, the herds of buffalo, had about disappeared, and their hunger sent them upon the warpath, resulting in such episodes as the defeat of Custer. President Grant decided upon a new policy, saying " it is cheaper to feed the Indians than to fight them." They were moved into reservations that were given to the tribes and then fed by government agents. Troubles came right at the beginning with the corruption of the Indian agents, who kept the money given them to feed the Indians. The Indians did not prosper in restraint, and the tribes died off, leaving the few survivors immensely wealthy With the giving out of the desirable lands of the West, the eyes of the whites turned to this Indian land and means were devised to get it back. The DAWES INDIAN BILL was A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY 55 passed, providing that if the Indians would renounce their tribal allegiance, they were to be given a tract of land to own indi- vidually. This left millions of acres for white occupation. Another interesting source of discontent was caused by the presence of the MORMON Church in Utah, a territory. The EDMUNDS ACT was passed, prohibiting polygamy in the territories. The importance of this was that it re-established the control of the United States over its territories, a control which had been denied in the Dred Scott decision. FOREIGN AFFAIRS SINGE 1860 1. During our war, France had taken advantage of our trouble to make herself master of Mexico and to put MaximiUian on the throne, supported by a French garrison. At the close of the war, our government demanded, under the Monroe Doc- trine, that the French withdraw their troops. This was finally done and MaximiUian, unsupported, was captured by Mexicans and shot. 2. Russia had been friendly to us during the Civil War. This fact, coupled with a national exuberance, led us to pur- chase ALASKA from Russia in 1867. 3. England's violation of neutrality during the war has already been noted. After the war we demanded satisfaction for damage done by the Alabama and sister ships. By the TREATY OF WASHINGTON it was agreed to leave the matter to arbitration, and the GENEVA TRIBUNAL granted to the United States an indemnity of $15,500,000. 4. The SAMOAN ISLANDS, in the Pacific, were sought by England, Germany and the United States. Taking ad- vantage of a native revolt, Germany became aggresive and hoisted her flag. England withdrew and the United States sent a fleet to settle the issue with Germany. A battle was pre- vented by a typhoon, which destroyed most of the ships. The matter was settled in 1890, when the group was divided, the 56 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY United States getting TUTUILA with the harbor of Pago- Pago, and the Germans the rest of the group. The German islands were taken by the allies in the World War. 5. The Alaskan seal fisheries caused trouble in 1892. We claimed that Bering Sea was a closed sea and subject to our rules. England and Russia objected and the arbitration report was against the United States. 6. In 1891, came the "Itata" affair, in the matter of a revolution in Chile against President Balmaceda. We over- stepped our rights when we interfered with a shipment of arms purchased by the insurgents and carried on the ship Itata. It made much hard feeling in Chile, resulting in a riot in which several United States sailors on shore leave were killed. Settle- ment was peaceably made but it left a bad taste and made our activities under the Monroe Doctrine more difficult. 7. The Hawaiian group had been peopled largely by Americans ; a revolt occurred and the native queen was de- posed in 1893; the new government controlled by Americans applied for annex^jtion by the United States. President Har- rison made a treaty, but before it was ratified Cleveland had come into office and, believing that the revolt had been caused by Americans for their own purposes, he withdrew the treaty. The matter hung fire until 1898 when, under McKinley, the group was annexed and given a territorial government. 8. CHINA was looked upon as fair prey by the Euro- pean governments, but their design to divide China up was blocked by Secretary of State John Hay, who got Europe to agree to the doctrine of the OPEN DOOR and the integrity of China, probably the first acceptance by Europe of a purely American doctrine. The Boxer Revolt, in 1900, resulted in a joint expedition to punish the Chinese fanatics who had been killing foreigners. United States forces took part. At the close China was forced to pay an indemnity to the nations involved, but the United States returned her share for use in Chinese education, mak- ing China a firm friend of this country. A REVIIOW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 57 9. JAPAN has been looked upon as a rival in Latin America and we have invoked the Monroe Doctrine partic- ularly in preventing her from getting control of land in Mexico. An unpleasant situation came when California made a law prohibiting Japanese from holding land. Japanese oc- cupation of Shantung caused unfavorable comment in this country and tension was great. Japan has now (1922) agreed to vacate Shantung. 10. The Monroe Doctrine saw its most serious test in 1895 in VENEZUELA. England claimed that the boundary line of British Guiana extended into Venezuela, and took steps to occupy the disputed land. We became interested be- cause such an aggression, if the land were not England's, would violate the Monroe Doctrine. Secretary of State Oljicy de- manded that the dispute be submitted to arbitration and Eng- land refused, feeling running very high and war threat- ening. Congress provided for commissioners to investigate the matter for our own guidance, and then England yielded and the matter was arbitrated, the report being entirely in England's favor. The important thing is the acceptance of the American riglit to intervene in such a quarrel. 11. In 1898, came the Spanish- American War. Its causes may be stated as: 1. Humanitarian. The harsh treatment of the Cubans by the Spanish excited our pity. 2. Commerical. Spanish government had been re- sponsible for great losses to our commerical in- terests. 3. Hysterical. The yellow newspapers so excited the people that there was a general demand for war. Cuba had been a subject of interest in the United States for a long time. In 1854, our ministers to Europe had issued the OSTEND MANIFESTO, stating that we would be justi- fied in acquiring Cuba, by war if necessary. 58 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY At the close of the war, the TREATY OF PARIS pro- vided that Spain should cede to us Porto Rico, the Philippine Islands and the Island of Guam ; Spain should give up Cuba. We should give Spain a sum of money. 12. The giving! up of Cuba brought a new problem. After a provisional government had been established by the United States, Cuba was finally given her independence un- der certain limitations. The PLATT AMENDxMENT pro- vided that Cuba must insert certain things into her constitu- tion giving the United States rights of guardianship. In 1906 a revolt on the island made another intervention necessary, but when quiet was restored we again retired, and Cuba is now independent. The Philippines have been governed as a dependency, the natives being granted more and more autonomy as they have had more experience in self-government. There is a move- ment among the Filipinos to demand independence. Before we finally got control we had to put down an extensive revolt under the leadership of Aguinaldo, who was finally captured. Now the islands are governed by a governor and a com- mission containing three natives, appointed in this country, A legislature of two houses, of which the commission forms the upper, makes the laws. 13. In 1903, came the acquisition of the Panama Canal Zone. President Roosevelt wanted to build a canal across the isthmus, and for this had to get the permission of Colombia. Colombia rejected the treaty made, demanding more money a demand which the United States refused. In the meantime the people of Panama became impatient and, with the en- couragement and aid of our government, arranged a revolt and declared their independence. Within forty-eight hours, Roosevelt recognized the new Panama government and a treaty was made, giving us the rights which we sought. A strip ten miles wide is virtually ceded to the United States. The canal was then built and is now in operation. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 59 The canal was also the subject of some relations with England. We have already noted the Clayton-Bulwer treaty of 1853. When we found that we wanted to build the canal alone we negotiated the HAY-PAUNCEFOTE TREATY in 1901, by which England agreed to cancel the former treaty and allow us to build the canal alone, provided that in the use of the canal we should not discriminate among nations. This latter clause was brought up when the Taft administration decided that our own vessels should go through the canal toll- free. Objection on tlie part of England caused the Wilson ad- ministration to repeal this clause and now all ships pay the same tolls. To right the wrong done to Colombia in aiding the revolt of Panama in 1903, a treaty has, after a political struggle been ratified granting Colombia $25,000,000 and certain rights. li. GERMANY'S aggressiveness led to two episodes. In 1898, when Dewey went into Manila Bay to find the Span- ish fleet he found a German fleet there, which began to inter- fere with his operations. A strong threat by Dewey, rein- forced by an English fleet, caused the Germans to back down. Another phase of the Monroe Doctrine came in 1901 when Germany undertook to collect from Venezuela some money owed by Venezuela to German nationals. A fleet was sent over, but a strong protest by Roosevelt prevented the seizure of territory and persuaded Venezuela to settle the account. This presented a new question. If the Latin-American coun- tries were to repudiate their debts, could we justly prevent Europe from taking territory as settlement, even though it violate the Monroe Doctrine. The question seems to have been settled by the case of Santo Domingo in 1905, when we assumed control of the finances of the land in order to prevent the repudiation of debts. Thus the Monroe Doctrine is tend- ing to make us a policeman to keep the smaller nations up to their obligations. 15. A revolution in Mexico led to numerous raids across our borders and to a serious question as to whether we ought 60 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY not intervene and establish order by force of arms. The situ- ation presented a new phase of the Monroe Doctrine, for the three important nations of South America, Argentina, Brazil and Chile, the A. B. C. Powers, offered their services to settle the question, and their offer was accepted. This suggests that the Monroe Doctrine may be extended into an all-American Doctrine with all the nations sharing the responsibility for keeping peace. 16. The World War involved the United States when our neutral shipping was sunk by Germany. We sent an im- mense army to France. President IVilson helped to frame the TREATY OF VERSAILLES which the Senate rejected largely because it provided for a LEAGUE OF NATIONS, an international organization which is now working. 17. In 1921 met the WASHINGTON CONFERENCE which negotiated treaties for the Limitation of Naval Arma- ments, for the settlement of disputes in the Pacific and for remedying conditions in China, all of which subjects are too complicated for brief treatment. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 61 PARTY HISTORY SINGE 1870 The Republican Party, the party which had fought and won the Civil War, used its war record to stay in power until the election of Cleveland in 1884. The northern Demo- crats during the war had been called "Copperheads." The discontented elements of the population often united and we find a series of "Third Party Movements," of which the most important should be noted. 1. In 1872, the Liberal Republicans nominated Horace Grcdcy for President. This party was a protest against the economic measures of the regular party. The Democrats in a hopeless position adopted Greeley as their candidate, and this marked his downfall. Greeley was defeated by Grant, and the party died out. 2. About 1890, a second party of protest arose in the POPULIST Party. It soon went the way of the Liberal Movement. 3. In 1912, Roosevelt broke away from the Republican Party and formed the PROGRESSIVE Party, another party of protest, which lasted only the one election after being de- feated. The election of 1876 must be noted particularly. The candidates were Hayes, Republican, and Tilden, Democrat. In some of the Southern states, chiefly Louisiana, there was confusion in the voting due to the reconstruction measures, and two sets of votes were sent in. The Constitution pro- vided nothing for such a case, and it was decided to appoint a commission of seven Republicans, seven Democrats and one Independent to settle the disputed points. The odd mem- ber finally chosen was a Republican and the Commission de- cided in every case in favor of Hayes bj'^ a vote of 8 to 7. Thus Hayes became President, The election of 188-i* was carried for Cleveland by a group of discontented Republicans, who were known as MUG- 62 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY WUMPS and who refused to support Blaine, the Republican nominee. The election of 1896, Bryan and McKinley, has already been treated in the Silver discussion. McKinley was elected by the business interests of the country, under the leadership of Mark Hanna. TARIFFS SINCE J 880 In recent years the two large parties have split on the sub- ject of tariff, the Republicans demanding a high protective tariff, the Democrats a low revenue tariff. The chief tariff bills have been as follows: Cleveland (The Mills Bill) Low but did not pass Harrison McKinley Bill Higher Tariff Cleveland Wilson Bill Lower Tariff McKinley Dingley Bill Very high Taft Payne-Aldrich Bill About same Wilson Underwood Bill Much lower In the Wilson bill in Cleveland's administration was includ- ed an INCOME TAX. The Supreme Court declared this tax unconstitutional, as it was not laid in proportion to the popu- lation. An amendment to the Constitution, the 16th, was finally put into effect and now many millions are collected from the income tax. CHANGING THE FORM OF GOVERNMENT The Constitution may be changed in its working in three ways: 1. By Custom. The original way of electing the President was for the electors to use their own discretion in their choice. Very soon after 1800 it became the custom for them to vote automatically for the nominee of their parties. A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 63 2. By Judicial Decision. Chief Justice John Marshall handed down many de- cisions extending the power of the central government, among which were : Marbury vs. Madison, in which he decided that an act of Congress which the Supreme Court held to be unconstitutional need not be obeyed. The Dartmouth College Case, deciding that the Supreme Court might declare an act of a state legislature unconstitutional. McCulloch vs. Maryland, holding that Congress had the right to charter the U. S. Bank, thus uphold- ing loose construction. Gibbons vs. Ogden, excluding from state action all kinds of interstate commerce. These decisions were of the greatest value in giving a strong) central government. 3. Amendment. The first ten amendments have already been noted. The 11th excluded from the jurisdiction of U. S. courts all cases brought by a citizen against a state. The 12th amendment was to prevent a situation such as came in the election of 1800, due to voting for Presi- dent and Vice-President on the same ballot. They are now voted for separately. The 13th, 14th and 15th are the Civil War Amend- ments, the 13th giving the slaves freedom, the 14th giving the negro civil rights, the 15th giving the negro the right to vote. The 16th makes an income tax legal. The 17th provided for the election of U. S. Senators by popular vote. The 18th is the prohibition amendment. The 19th provides for woman suffrage. 64 A REVIEW OP AMERICAN HISTORY SOME LANDMARK DATES 1492. Columbus' First Voyage 1795. Jay's Treaty 1565. St. Augustine 1800. Election of Jefferson 1588. Spanish Armada 1803. Louisiana Purchase 1607. Jamestown 1807. Embargo 1619. Slaves and Assembly in Va. 1809. Non-Intercourse 1620. Plymouth 181,0. Macon's Bill 1624. Virginia made Royal 1812-15. War with England 1629. Massachusetts Bay 1815. Hartford Convention 1634. Maryland 1818. Joint Occupation of Oregon 1636. Rhode Island and Conn. 1819. Florida 1643. New England Confederation 1820. Missouri Compromise 1660. Restoration in England 1823. Monroe Doctrine First Navigation Act 1824. Election of Adams 1664. English took New Amsterdam 1828. Tariff of Abominations 1673. Marquette and Joliet 1833. Compromise Tariff 1681. LaSalle 1837. Panic Pennsylvania 1845. Texas annexed 16-^-4-89. Dominion of New England 1846. Oregon dispute settled 1689-97. King William's War 1846-48. Mexican War 1702-13. Queen Anne's War 1850. Omnibus Bill 171.3. Treaty of Utrecht 1854. Kansas-Nebraska Bill 1732. Georgia 1856. Dred Scott Decision 1744-48. King George's War 1860. Election of Lincoln 17.54. Albany Convention 1865. End of Civil War 1754-63. French and Indian War 1865-76. Reconstruction in South 1764. Sugar Act 1876. Election of Hayes 1755. Stamp Act 1878. Bland-Allison Bill 1767. Townsend Acts 1883. Pendleton Bill 1770. Boston Riot 1887. Inter-State Commerce Act 1773. Boston Tea Party 1890. Sherman Bills 1774. Five Intolerable Acts 1896. Election of McKinley 1774. First Continental Congress 1898. Spanish-American War 1775. Second Continental Congress Hawaii annexed War began 1903. Panama 1776. Declaration of Independence 1906. Hepburn Act 1777. Articles of Confederation 1912. Election of Wilson 1778. Treaty with France 1914. War in Europe 1781. Art. of Confederation ratified 1914. Trouble in Mexico 1783. Treaty closing devolution 1917. U. S. in World War 1783-89. Critical Period 1919. Treaty signed at Versailles 1786. Annapolis Convention 1920. Rejection by the Senate 1787. Constitutional Convention 1921. Washington Conference 1789. Washington President A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY 65 IMPORTANT CHARACTERS Something should be known of all the following; those marked "*" should le taken up in some detail. Henry the Navigator Coronado Cortez Columbus* Pizarro Cartier Cabot Drake Menendez DeLeon Raleigh Popham Balboa Smith Berkeley Narvaez Bradford Winthrop DeSoto Williams Hooker Stuyvesant Carteret Penn* Calvert Oglethorpe Bacon Andros Wolfe Montcalm Grenville Otis Samuel Adams Washington * Randolph Patterson Hamilton* Franklin* Jefferson* Jay Genet Talleyrand Gallatin Lewis Clarke Clay* J. Q. Adams Jackson* Marshall Perry Canning Calhoun Taney Houston Whitman Slidell Scott Wilmot Stowe Brown Douglas* Lincoln* Davis Seward Stanton Stevens Sumner Grant* Lee Tweed Tilden Bland Blaine* Pendleton Sherman Hanna Bryan Powderly Gompers Hay* Aguinaldo Roosevelt* Braddock Gage Gates Cornwallis Burgoyne Marbury Garrison Hayne Webster Burr Boone Hoover Peary Edison* 66 A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY MAP SUGGESTIONS The following should be placed upon a map; the historical importance of each should be expressed clearly in a sentence or two. St Augustine Plymouth Providence New Castle St. Mary's Quebec Concord Trenton Camden Louisiana Detroit Saratoga Rcsaca de la Palma Buena Vista Kansas Freeport Chancellorsville Vicksburg Samoa Philippines Virgin Is. Pekin Treaty of 1783 Northwest Territory U. P. Railroad Nueces River Dominion of New Eng. Shantung Roanoke Boston New Haven Philadelphia Louisburg Ft. Duquesne Lexington Valley Forge Yorktown Washington Thames River Western Reserve Palo Alto Gadsden Purchase Nebraska Utah Gettysburg Alaska Venezuela Cuba Panama San Jacinto Treaty of 1763 Mason-Dixon Line National Road Guam The Confederacy Argonne Jamestown Hartford New Amsterdam Baltimore Acadia Charlestown Princeton Cowpens Annapolis New Orleans 36-30 Lundy's Lane Vera Cruz 64-40 Harper's Ferry Fredericksburg Antietam Chicago Hawaii Porto Rico Santiago The Alamo Boundary of 1818 Mexican Cession Gila River Fonseca The "Doubtful States'' Genoa A REVIEW OF AMERICAN HISTORY BIBLIOGRAPHY GENERAL WORKS Channing, History of the United States. McMaster, History of People of the United States. Rhodes, The United States After the Compromise of 1850. SYNDICATE HISTORIES Johnson, (Editor) Chronicles of America, 50 Vols. Hart, (Editor) The American Nation, 26 Vols. Dodd, Editor) The Riverside History, 4 Vols. SPECIAL WORKS Andrews, The Colonial Period. Andrews, Colonial Self-Government. Eggleston, Beginners of a Nation. Parkman, Montcalm and Wolfe. Lecky, American Revolution. Fisher, 77ie Struggle for American Independence. Fiske, The Critical Period. Farrand, The Framing of the Constitution. Johnson, Union and Democracy. Ford, George Washington. Channing, Jeffersonian System. Schurz, Henry Clay. Moore, American Diplomacy. Bassett, Andrew Jackson. Sparks, The Expansion of the American People, Bogart, Industrial History of the United States. Johnson, S. A. Douglas. Rhodes, History of the Civil War. Charnwood, Abraham Lincoln. Paxson, Recent History of the United States. Haworth, The United States iu Our Own Time. Thayer, Theodore Roosevelt. McMaster, The United States and the World War. ^°x^. )*".i^'.% '^O^ ^ -^^0^ ° *, o <^. c'^v" .-lo^ 'n^v^ -^o^ ^ ^^ ^^. -^ ^^u.,^^ o * HECKMAN JINDERY INC. |§ ^^ DEC 88 N. MANCHESTER INDIANA 46962