m & rn'WTY "•i'd'r'Mt* 'i friMd ., •; ^ t.'\y\iVv:,vf:xv' i ^m m m m !i4;-v : % m im ^m NATURE AND REASON HARMONIZED IN THE PRACTICE OF HUSBANDRY BY THE LATE JOHN LORAIN. WITH ^JV ALPBdBETICAL IJ^DEX. PHILADELPHIA : H. C. CAREY & I. LEA CHESNUT STREET 1825„ Eastern Distiict of Pennsylvania, to wit .- •*»*»*» BE IT REMEMBERED, that on the twenty-fourth day of Janu- JSeal.J arj', in the forty-7iinth year of the Independence of the United «»»«*«J States of America, A. D. 1825, Martha Lorain, of the said District, hath deposited in this office the title of a Book, the right whereof she claims as Proprietor, in the words following, to wit : " Nature and Reason harmonized in the Practice of Husbandry. By the " late John Lorain. With an alphabetical Index." In confoi-mity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entitled, " An Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned." And also to an Act, entitled, " an Act supplementary to an Act, entitled, ' an Act for the encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such copies, during the times therein mentioned,' and extending the benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical and other prints." D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the Eastern District of Pennsvlvanin. CONTENTS. BOOK I. ON MANURES AND VEGETATION. Chapter i.— Of the action of Lime in its caustic state. Also, that of the Carbonate of Lime, Marl, and powdered Limestone, considered. Page 1 Cbap. II.— The theory of the AlkaUes, and various Saline Substances, con- sidered ; also, that of Gypsum, as established by long and very extensive practical observation 12 Cbap. hi. — Gypsum, the Alkalies and various Saline Substances, together with other matters found in the structure of Plants, are highly important in the Economy of Vegetation. Still, stimulating Manures should be cautiously and prudently used ; especially as eveiy Soil is fertile, if a sufficiency of Animal and Vegetable Matters exists in it. The Economy of Nature in the management of our Forests, Glades and Prairies, des- cribed. The quantity of Animal Matter considerably increased by the introduction of innumerable Animalcula. Also, the extensive useful- ness of the Plants which are considered useless and injurious by too many Farmers, and the provision made by Nature to spread tliem over exhausted Soils, &c. and to accumulate Animal Matter by the introduc tion of them. -..----...-23 Chap. iv. — Gravitation does not, as has been asserted by some, " dispose the parts of Plants to take a uniform direction ;" nor do they " owe their perpendicular direction to Gravity." Neither is the Sap raised by " the agency of Heat, capillaiy Attraction," nor the " Contractions and Expansions of the Silver Grain of the Wood :" but by the living or vital principle in Plants, acting in a temperature which favours the pro- cess 34 Chap. v. — It is shown that Men and other Animals are quite as much, or probably more, affected and injured, by changes in temperature, than Plants are. Also, that the suspension or lanfruid action of the living principle in Trees, during the winter, furnishes no just cause for ques- tioning their Vitality or Anunation. The sleep or folding up of the IV CONTENTS. Leaves of Plants at night, (as usually described,) appears to be a inls taken theory ; as it would seem, that the Leaves of Plants fold or curl up through the heat of the day, more generally than they do through the night. The Animation and Sensibility of Plants considered. It is also shown that the small size of the Pores in the Roots and Radical Vibres of Plants, is a wise provision of nature. .... 50 Chap. vi. — The Heart-wood of a Tree proved to be alive, and increasing annually in size. It is also shown, that the Poi'es in the Wood appear to be well constructed to admit a lateral circulation from the Alburnum to the Pith. Linnaeus's and Dr. Hales's theories of the Pith considered. The changes in Timber explained. ...--- 61 Chap. vii. — It is shown that any one of the Earths when enriched with Animal and Vegetable Matter, will produce luxuriant Vegetation, but that no mixture of them will produce the same effect without the aid of these Substances. The practice of Paring and Burning the Soil is con- sidered. How Substances originating in Animal and Vegetable Matter may recede or depart so far from their original form, as to retain but little if any nutriment for Plants. The theory of the usefulness of car- bonaceous Matter as Manure, has been carried quite too far. - 78 Chap. tiii. — It has been wisely ordered that Man and Animals in general should loathe and reject decaying Animal and Vegetable Substances, and that plants should live on putrescent Matter in all the various forms it has been destined to assume. How these Matters are spread and in- timately blended by Nature over all Soils. Farm yard Manure loses one-half, when decomposed previously to using it Laboriously formed Compounds considered. It is shown that Nature is not deficient in the processes of Fermentation and Decomposition. The use of stimulating Manures considered. Fresh Dung highly incorporated with Litter, is effectually decomposed after it has been ploughed under the Soil, and keeps either Clay or sandy Soils moister during a dry time than decom- posed dung. Top dressing with prutrescent Manures, a very wasteful practice : still the best mode of doing it explained. The loss in Manure arising from improper Practices considered. A description of the best mode of constructing Cattle Yards Also of preserving Dung from waste. A description of a common Receptacle calculated to save the Manures arising in and about a Farmer's House. 99 Chap. ix. — Manures not in generaUise pointed otit. Vegetable Substances should not be reduced to Ashes when Mamu'e is the only object, and the Substances can be applied without being burned. The best mode of applying Lmie when Substances to be decomposed are ploughed vmder the Soil. Sir Humphrey Davy's tlieory of the Indecom])Osable I'roperty of Woody Fibre considered; also, what he and Mr. Young say of Tanners' waste Bark. The eff'ects of Water on Vegetation. Prac tical Observation seems to determine, that with proper management the Soil may be gn-eatly enriched, by the Depositions from the Atmosphere. On the Interesting Economy of the Kidney Bean, &c. How Gypsum acts when Seeds have been rolled in it previously to their being sown. llS GONTENTS. V BOOK II. ON CULTIVATION. Chap. x. — Remai-ks on putting in small Grain on Stubble Grounds. A degree of merit is justly due to a naked Fallow executed in the usual way. The disadvantages arising from that Practice considered. The usual mode of Cultivating Fallow Crops contrasted with the practice recommended by the Author. Observations on the value of Grass Lays, and the proper Cultivation of them. The Red Clover Plant is destroy- ed by frequent Mowing and close Pasturing. Fermentation, properly directed, is the main spring of Vegetation. 129 Chap. xi. — Fall Ploughing for a Crop of Maize considered. The injurious effects of turning up the Sod and Manure in the Cultivation of a Fallow Crop explained. Also by turning it up for the small Grain following that Crop. Plants are greatly injured by cutting their Roots in the usual mode of Cultivation. The advantages derived from a superficial Cultivation of a Fallow Crop considered. The Nuti'iment arising from Weeds should be as carefully applied and preserved as that from our favourite Plants. Maize is the best Fallow Crop if the Cultivator has the destruction of Weeds especially in view. Potatoes may be justly ranked among the worst of Crops to effect this purpose. - - 134 Chap. xii. — A proper and an improper Cultivation contrasted. The Speargrasses let in Weeds. Red Clover smothers them. Small Grain, sown in the Spring, favours the destruction of Weeds, more than Grain sown in the Fall Observations on the lenient properties of Plants. The Grasses are far cheaper and more enriching than the cultivated Crops generally grown and turned under for Manure. The application of fresh Dung advocated. It does not, as we have been told, "Burst the vessels of most valuable Plants." Neither does it " produce in Grain Crops, Smut, Blight, and Mildew ;" nor do " myriads of Mice and Moles infest Potato Crops," in consequence of the application of " Strawy Muck" as Manure for this Plant. - - 145 Chap. xiii. — The practice of Ploughing from and to Plants considered, and its injurious effects explained. The expanding force of Fermenta- tion cannot be powerful where a sufficiency of Animal or Vegetable Matter does not obtain. Of the marked Fertility arising from Ploughing in Buckwheat, or turning up a Clover Lay from a Wlieat Crop. The depth of Ploughing should be in proportion to the Animal and Vegeta- ble Matter contained in the Soil. 153 Chap. xiv. — Very luxuriant Crops too seldom determine good manage- ment. The error of too close Planting exposed. Ridges produce ar- tificial Drought. The evils arising from old Grass Grounds pointed out. Many and highly important advantages are to be obtained by sowing Grass Seed separately. The Plough, in the hands of an inconsiderate Cultivator, speedily exhausts the Soil. When this Instrument is proper- ly used, it gi'eatly hastens the improvement of it. Convertible Hus- VI CONTENTS. bandry is the most profitable practice, where Population and Capital prevail. A more extensive attention to Grass and rearing Live Stock suits our Back-woods Settlements best. ..... 161 Chap, xv-— Fallow Crops should be grown on Grass Lays. The Spear- grasses are best for this purpose. A Red Clover Lay is best for small Grain. The texture of any Soil is most advantageously altered, by the Roots and Tops of the Grasses, properly applied and ordered. The judicious application of this Vegetation, will often supersede the neces- sity of Ridging and under Draining. How Ridges should be formed and Cultivated in retentive Soils. The injury done by hilling, ridging, and moulding up Plants is explained, as are also the advantages derived from a level and very superficial Cultivation. It is shown that altering the present general practice of Husbandry, so that every Fallow Crop may be superficially cultivated, can be readily done. Obsei-vations on preparing the Soil for small Grain, when it ought not, or cannot, be conveniently done by a Fallow Crop. ...... 170 Chap. xvi. — Observations on what some say of the earthy Texture of the Soils, and the Manures to be applied to them. Also, on the different Circumstances, Capital, and Situation of Farmers. A concise description of the best course of Crops. Remarks on the width of Ridges in reten- tive Soils. A description of the Cultivation of a Crop of Wheat grown on a springy Soil, with observations on the result. Under draining Soils which are merely retentive of Moisture, is a useless, injurious, and very expensive Practice. Proper Water Furrowing for small Grain explun- ed ; also, observations on the ruinous and too general neglect of this Practice. - 190 Chap. xtii. — The exhausting properties of Maize compared with those of Turnips and Potatoes. The five original Corns commonly used for Field Planting described ; also the mixed varieties formed by them. Observa- tions on the Canadian and other Corns still smaller : also on the Red, Blue and Purple Corns. The advantages to be derived from mixed va- rieties of Maize explained ; also the best way to effect this purpose. Improvement in Plants is more readily effected than the same is done in Animals. Climate alters mixed varieties of Corn greatly, and very gene- rally without its being observed by the Cultivator. Those who live in inhospitable Climates, should select their Seed from Climates which are most like those in which they reside. The advantages to be derived from early Sowing and Planting in cold backward Climates. Local causes alter Climates so much, that neither latitude, nor height, nor the influence of surrounding Seas can determine the proper time for Sowing or Planting. No reliance can be placed on the Indian rule for Sowing and Planting. Observations on tlie Frosts which sometimes take place in high latitudes in August ; also, on the means to be taken to avoid any very serious injury from them. Maize is well calculated to withstand drought, and to contend with an impoverished Soil. It gathers much of the nutriment by which its Fruit is perfected from the atmosphere. Remarks on the Diseases to which the Corn Plant is subject. Obser- vations on the untimely Frosts, &c. which happened in 1816. - 201 CONTENTS. VIJ Chip, xviii. — Remarks on the economy of the Potato. Also on growing it on thin set Woodlands. Directions how to grow this Plant, so as to obtain a succession of new Potatoes throughout the Winter. It will live and perfect its Fruit on but little nourishment. Some varieties are vastly more productive than others. To obtain the best, the Seed should be sown and cultivated. Observations on the mode of cutting the Sets and Cultivating the Plant. Also on scooping out the Eyes, planting, and cultivating them. The largest Potatoes should be selected for Seed. By planting small ones tlie best variety is degenerated. The Crop is injured by misplacing the Vines and Leaves in the cultivation of it. 230 Chap. xix. — On Hand Hoeing ; also drilling Turnips. The Seed is gene- rally sown too late. On sowing it, so as greatly to lessen the risk of injury from the Fly. Observations on the Ruta Baga, or Swedish Turnip. 241 Chap. XX.— On the Carrot, Parsnip and Beet. Also, on manghng the Beet, the Grape Vine and other Plants. On sowing Maize broad cast, for Solhng. 246 Chap, xxx.— On the arrangement, and superficial cultivation of a Crop of Maize. In what cases Lime may be profitably used for this Crop ; also, how it should be managed, and applied. The benefit arising from rolling the Seed in Gypsum ; also, from covering them with a Compost formed with light loose Soil and Dung. How Seed is to be gathered and pre- served. On the ma«agement to be pursued, when heavy Rain, &c. forms a hard crust, which the Plants cannot penetrate. When, and how, the Grsun and Fodder of this Crop should be gathered and cured. - 250 Chap, xxix — How, and in what cases, mixed Crops, formed with Maize and low growing Plants are profitable. On the cultivation of a mixed Crop of Maize, and the Kidney Bunch Bean. Beans bear transplanting better than Corn They, and every other Plant, grow most luxuriantly in % rich Soil. They are a very lenient, also, a very profitable Crop, if properly cultivated. The very close shade formed by their Foliage, pul- verises the Soil more effectually, than is done by a naked Fallow well prepared ; they of consequence prepare the Soil well for small Grain. Observations for sowing Buckwheat among forn. Also, on planting Pompions and Beans, with long running Vines among it. Where the Potato sells well for table use, it will be found the most profitable Plant, to form a mixed Crop with Maize. ...... 261 Chap, xxm — On the cultivation of Flax. Too little Seed is sown. It is injured in new Grounds by the shade formed by the Tree. How the Seed sown for this and other Crops may be well coated with Gypsum. 267 Chap. xxit. — On the cultivation of Hemp. 269 BOOK III. ON VARIOUS SUBJECTS. Chap, ixv.— Observations on the quantity of Wheat that should be sown to the Acre ; also, on the proper time of sowing it. How any material injury from the Hessian Fly may be generally avoided. Remarks on the generally prevailing opinion that the Wheat Plant is smothered by snow. Observations on drilling Wheat ; also, on Spring Wheat, - - 273 VIU eONTENTS. Chap. xxvr. — Remarks on the cultivation of Rye. Also, on its not being so hardy a Plant as Wheat. It is subject to much fewer diseases than Wheat. Observations on Spring Rye. 283 Chap, xxvii — On the cultivation of Barley, and the quantity of Seed that ought to be sown to the Acre. 285 Chap, xxviii On the cultivation of Oats. Barley may be more profitably cultivated than Oats on rich Soils, even for the purpose of feeding do- mesticated Animals. On harvesting Grain 286 Chap. xxix. — On stubble crop Grasses, and the management of them. On the properties of Timothy, and on making it into Hay. On the bad con- sequences arising from sowing too little Grass Seed. Observations on Grazing and Soiling ; also, on the effects produced by the salivation, oc- casioned by second and third crop Red Clover, both in Soiling and Pas- ture. Remarks on Orchard, and Oat Grasses. - - - - 289 Chap. xxx. — Observations on Green Grass. Further remarks on Grazing; also, on Orchard Grass and Red Clover. On Haymaking. - - 297 Chap. xxxi. — On soiling, or feeding Cattle in Yards or Stalls. Much injury is done by feeding second and third crop Clover to Cattle when confined in Stables or Yards. Various and highly important advantages are to be derived by feeding Cattle on Grass in Yards. Soiling cannot be profitably practised on an extensive scale, unless the Cattle be reared in the Yard, or brought in while they are very young. On Cattle hoven by eating Red Clover, &c. On giving Salt to Cattle. On Hogs and Sheep. Every Farmer should soil his working Cattle and Horses. . - - . 307 Chap, xxxii. — The merits of convertible Husbandry, united with soiling, explained and illustrated by a comparative statement of Crops. On Winter Fattening Cattle. Reason assigned wliy any given space of Gi-ass Grounds will furnish much more food for Cattle when Grass is fed to them in the Yard than if they were pastured on it. On the use of Oxen in place of Horses. 321 Chap, xxxiii. — How the Pennsylvania Back-woods Farmer clears his Grounds. On sti-ipping off the Leaves from the Trees in the spring. On the inconsiderate waste of Timber. On the system of cultivation pursued by the Pennsylvania Back-woods Farmer. How the Yankee Back-woods Farmer clears his Grounds. On the destruction introduced by his mode of burning the Soil. How this injury is best seen. On improving the poor places, which appear in Grounds recently cleared ; and how they originate. - 33 1 Chap. xxxiv.The cultivation pursued by the Pennsylvania Back-woods Farmer, contrasted by that practised by the Yankee. The Yankee mode of cleai'ing new Grounds, may be readily altered, so as to be by far the best practice that has yet been pursued ; and how this may be done. On the best method to be pursued in the cultivation of the different kinds of new Soil 340 Chap, xxxv.— On Barns, Cattle Sheds, Barracks, and Hay Savers. On the different ways by which Cattle are fed and sheltered through the winter. 353 Chap, xxxti. — Mathematical Precision, necessary to a highly improved Husbandry. 3o9 CONTENTS. IX Chap, xxxvir. — On the Hoe Harrow. A simple Gauge for dropping corn, beans, ?cc. in clusters. On the Corn Crib. On the Shovel Plough. On the Skim. 365 Chap, xxxviti. — On Hedges. 370 Chap, xxxix. — On Cats. 372 Chap. xl. — On Orchards. It is believed a better form than that in general use may be given to Fruit Trees. ....--. 375 Chap. xli. — On the Sugar tree. 393 BOOK IV. ON GENTLEMAN FARAUNG: ALSO, ON CIBCUMSCWBED FAHMING ; OR THE BEST MODE TO BE PURSUED, ■WEEX THE CAPITAt EMPLOYED IS INSUFFICIEISTT TO FARM TO THE BEST AiJVAJMTAGE. Chap. xlii. — Observations on the causes which have increased Gentleman Farming. Their expensive establishments considered. - - 403 Chap, xliii. — Remarks on the Gentleman's country establishment, and a more economical management proposed. . . . , . 410 Chap. xliv. — The delusive expectation of rural enjoyments considered. Observations on the erroneous calculations of profit arising from sending Fruit, Vegetables, &c. to Market. The value of Maize contrasted age 329. § See vol. ii. Mem. Phil. Ag^. Soc page 207. I) See vol. i, Mem. Fhil. Agr. Soc. pages 9J and 94. 15 resting documents on the use of sulphate of iron, or green vitriol, which is a salt produced from peat in Bedfordshire, have been laid before the board by Dr. Pearson ; and I have witnessed the fertiliz- ing effects of a ferruginous water used for irrigating a grass mea- dow made by the Duke of Manchester; an account of the produce of which, hns been published by the board of agriculture. I have no doubt but the peat salt and vitriolic water acted chiefly by producing gypsum." He also says, "vitriolic impregnations in soils where there is no calcareous matter, as in a soil in Lincolnshire, to which I referred in the fourth lecture, are injurious ; but it is probably in consequence of their supplying an excess of ferruginous matter to the sap."* This is saying no more than is said of lime, or any other corrosive substance, when too great a quantity is used, and no question but ferruginous matter will be equally fertilizing, where, on superficial examination, no calcareous matter is found, provided an excess of it be not applied ; although much greater quantities of it will not injure vegetation in calcareous soils, or even in grounds of a con- trary description, if a sufficiency of lime be used. The sulphate of barytes,t as well as the pyrites,^ are also very valuable manures ; and as sulphurets are powerful solvents of carbonaceous substances, it would seem that gypsum assists the decomposition of the animal and vegetable substances found in the soil. The powerfully fertilizing property of the sulphuric acid appears to be well established ; still it seems reasonable to believe, that it is its combination with lime, that causes the surprising effects which are produced by gypsum. Effects equally as astonishing have been produced by other combinations ;§ and they only cease to be equally wonderful to the chemist and man of science, in whose laboratories the causes which produce the effects are more readily seen, than in the great laboratory of nature, where it is probable, that hidden and combining causes will forever, more or less, defeat the experiments of the wisest chemists under the sun : especially when these experiments are not confined to subjects, which have been rendered familiar by long practical observation. Sir H. Davy says, " It has been said, that gypsum assists the putrefaction of animal substances, and the decomposition of manure, 1 have tried some experiments on this subject which are contradic- tory to the notion. I mixed some minced veal, with about one hundredth part of its weight of gypsum, and exposed some veal without gypsum under the same circumstances; there was no difference in the time when they began to putrefy, and the process * See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 334 and 335. t See vol. iii. Mem Phil. Agr. Soc. page 120. + See vol. i same work, page 33, appendix. § The effects produced by the compound which fonns gunpo>yder are equal- ly surprising. 16 seemeil to be most rapid in the case in which there was no gypsum present. I made other similar mixtures, employing in some cases smaller quantities of gypsum ; and 1 used pigeon's dung, in one instance, instead of flesh, and with precisely similar results. It certainly in no case increased the rapidity of putrefaction. Though it is not generally known, yet a series of experiments has been carried on, for a great length of time in this country, upon the operation of gypsum as a manure."* These experiments seem to have been predicated on what is said by Judge Peters, of the decomposition effected in dung heaps, by the use of gypsum. I do not recollect, that any other person has written on using plaster in this way. Gypsum may favour the decomposition of animal and vegetable matters, when mixed and heaped up with them ; but neither Mr. Peters's compost heaps, nor Sir Humphrey's smaller experiments were calculated to determine the action of gypsum when it is spread over or mixed with the soil, or when seeds are rolled in this substance, previously to their being sown. It is clearly seen in the experiments introduced by the president, with a view to refute what Sir Humphrey had advanced on the action of gypsum, that no certain information can be gathered from them. Judge Peters says, " Two years ago, I scoured the ditches of a watered meadow; I had a great collection of tussocks, composed of aquatic, coarse grasses, and weeds. I composited those materials, in two heaps ; one contained sixty-two two horse cart-loads after it was rolled down, the other twelve of like loads. In the first I began with a layer of tussocks ; then a layer of muck from the stables, in a fermenting state ; next a layer of leaves and wood soil, (each layer about one foot thick,") until the heap was sufficiently high. On each layer, I strewed plaster very little thicker than I should have scattered it on the ground. This was done in autumn. In the spring I began to throw it over, and mixed with it a quantity of) slaked lime. I found the heap far advanced in putrefaction; so that after being thrown over, it was, in the fall, in the best order for top dressing. There was in this heap, not above four bushels of plaster used. In the small heap, I employed no muck or dung; but formed it of alternate layers of tussocks and leaves, intermixed with wood soil. Each layer was plastered, but the labourer strewed nearly the like quantity, in the small heap with that mixed in the large one. When I came to view it in the spring, very little pi'ogress had been made in putrefaction. I was compelled to throw it over twice, during the summer. I found it in the fall, unfit for use. The plaster was unchanged in many parts of the heap : so was a considerable proportion of the leaves and tussocks. I suffered it to remain until the last spring; when I found it im- perfectly rotted, and much of the plaster unaltered. None of the * See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. pages 331 and 332, 17 plaster in the other heap was visible ; but the spot on which the small heap was spread, was universally whitened with it." " Having frequently and successfully rotted down leaves, tus- socks and wood soil, plastered lightly, I was surprised at the disap- pointment in this instance. 1 cannot account for the circumstance, otherwise than by presuming that an overcharge of plaster is a quiescent force; that is, it preserves compounds in a state of rest. A moderate quantity may be devellent; that is, it assists in des- troying a state of combination ; plaster must no doubt, be decompo- sed itself, before it acts on other substances. So must be marine salt, which is also a chemical compound. The instance I relate, reminds me of the fact, and my conclusions from it, mentioned in our first volume, p. 174. No more of the plaster will act, than the materials, necessary to co-operate with it, require. The balance re- mains in its original state of composition, inert and useless."* Here this gentleman seems to advance opposing theories: first he says, "An overplus of plaster preserves compounds in a state of rest; a moderate quantity assists in destroying a state of combi- nation." Secondly, " No more plaster will act, than the materials necessary to co-operate with it, require ; the rest remains in its ori- ginal state of composition, inert and useless." It is the " whimsical " and unfounded observations made on the action of gypsum, that have caused this substance to be considered " whimsical " in its operation. So far as my observation extends, it is no more " whimsical" than other stimulating manures. If the seasons be so dry or wet as greatly to retard fermentation, or if the soil be naturally so wet as to cause the same effect, crops commonly suffer. They, however, suffer vastly less, where animal and vegeta- ble matters obtain in quantities sufficient to furnish, even under all the disadvantages arising from either, a considerable supply of de- composed matters for the food of plants. It should be recollected that where animal and vegetable matter in an abundance obtains, evaporation is greatly retarded in a dry time ; also, that water sinks more readily through the texture even of retentive clay soils, when the earthy matter is considerably divided by decaying vegetable substances ; likewise, that fermentation is greatly promoted by the increased quantity of animal and vegetable matters thickly spread through a rich soil. In fact, plants growing on rich soils, far better resist all the various injuries to which vegetation is subjected, than those growing on soils of a contrary description ; for although it has been asserted by too many, that better crops of red clover have been excited by gypsum on poor soils, than by dung on soils of the same description, I nave inva- riably witnessed the reverse. Neither can this generally happen, if enough of dung be applied to make the soil rich, and the application of it so ordered, that fermentation and decomposition will diffuse • See vol. ill. Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc, pages 297, 298 and 299. c 18 the rich nutritive matters contained in it through the soil in proper time, and in sufficient quantities to afford an abundance of food for the plants growing on it.* But to return; if Mr. Peters, had depended on the gypsum to effect the decomposition which he wished, why did he also apply the slaked lime. And after obtaining all the assistance that is to be derived from this powerfully corrosive substance, and also, from the exciting properties of the dung taken from his stables in a fermenting state, why does he introduce this experiment to sub- stantiate the decomposition effected by gypsum when used in this way .^ When, in fact, nothing is to be gathered from either of his experiments, except that gypsum, aided by nature alone, is incapable of perfectly decomposing, in the course of eighteen months, a com- post heap, formed of the materials described by him; also, that it cannot be certainly known, from what happened in either of the heaps, whether gypsum does, or does not, favour the decomposition of animal and vegetable matters, when mixed and heaped up in bulk with them ; particularly, as it would seem, that without the powerful assistance of the lime, the exciting influence of the dung alone, would have been sufficient to accomplish the decomposition of the larger heap in twelve months; and that nature, without the aid of gypsum, might have decomposed the smaller one, as far as Mr. Peters represents it to have been done in the time mentioned by him, unless indeed, " an overcharge of plaster preserves com- pounds in a state of rest," which seems to be as contrary to prac- tical observation as it is to what this gentleman also advances, to wit : " no more of the plaster will act, than the materials necessary to co-operate with it, require." But whether he is correct in saying, " the balance remains" (undissolved, and otherwise exactly) " in its original state," no practice or observation of mine will determine. However, before Sir H. Davy had attempted to controvert the theory of the action of gypsum when used for manure, he should have recollected that this theory had been founded on long, as well as very extensive, and successful practical observation; and that his practical information must have been very limited, as this sub- stance had been used with but very partial success in England : owing either to local and unknown causes, or to an improper system of management; also, that the limited compass in which the usual practice of chemistry places experiments, is by no means calculated to determine the action of gypsum when used as manure. He tells us the veal, without gypsum, was exposed under the same circumstances, as was that, which had been mixed with this substance; but he does not say how either was exposed. It is * Stimulating manures have produced wonderful effects, especially when the seasons have favoured the operation of them It should, however, be recollected, that enough of enriching matter does not exist in a poor soil to enable even gypsum to produce effects, any thing like equal to those produced by a suffici- ency of enriching substances. 19 however probable, in his yard or garden, on plates, or some other utensils, calculated to keep the materials, so that they might be readily examined. In any case, that was likely to happen, the exposure must have been very dissimilar to that which takes place in actual practice. The materials used by him, were necessarily confined within a very contracted space, when compared with the wide scattered scope, in which practice places this substance, in contact with the materials brought into action by it : consequently, the numerous substances that are known to exist, or to be floating in the atmosphere, as well as the unknown cause that may exist there, could not have had any thing like the same tree access to the materials composing his experiment, as is obtained by actual practice ; and for aught we know to the contrary, some of these substances may, either separately or combined, act on, or in union, with the gypsum, so powerfully, as greatly to promote the action of it. There are also upon and within the soil, a great variety of sub- stances known to us, and perhaps many others, with which we are not acquainted. None of these had access to Sir Humphrey's experiment; although we do not know, but it may be utterly impossible for gypsum to act profitably, in any other way, than in conjunction with some or more of them. The earth, except when the atmosphere is more fully charged with water than it, is continually emitting great quantities of moisture, even in a dry time. No question but it conveys, in com- bination with it, more or less of the properties of the various sub- stances contained in the soil through which the moisture passes. This highly interesting part of the economy of nature seems to secure a double action of moisture; especially where the soil is shaded closely by the plants growing on it. First in the ascent of the exha- lations from the ground. Secondly in the descent of this moisture in showers, dews, fogs, &c. The first of these operations of mois- ture seems to be excluded from Sir Humphrey's experiments. As it appears to be progressing, when some of the other sources of moisture are suspended, it may be very important to the action of gypsum: especially if this substance is not dissolved in less than " 500 times its weight of water, unless the water be hot."* This gentleman should also have recollected, that when gypsum is strewed over the soil, or mixed with it, it is brought into immediate contact with animal and vegetable substances, which are generally in a progressive state of fermentation and decomposition; also, • Burnt limestone 13 very quickly slaked, if a sufficiency of water be poured on it. The same however is as effectually, but much more graduallj done by the moisture gathered from the atmosphere. May we not therefore i)resurae that gypsum is as effectually, (but more gradually) dissolved by the rains, dews, &c. as it would be, if immediately immersed in the whole quantity of water, necessary to dissolve it ; especially if it be very finely ground, or pulverised, «s this greatly increase* the surface, on which the moisture acts. 20 that these matters contain a great variety of substances, which nature had already been preparing either to nourish, or excite vegetation in every possible way that existing circumstances would permit: consequently the plaster when strewed over, or mixed with the soil, commences its operations under very favourable circum- stances, and most probably, in union with some very powerful auxiliaries. Veal is a substance that naturally becomes putrid with by far too great rapidity, to admit of forming any just conclusions of the action of gypsum on it. It is doubtful whether the pigeon's dung favoured Sir Humphrey's experiments more than did the veal, it " readily ferments,"* and being a very rich substance, sinks quickly into decay. This gentleman says, that, "after night soil, pigeon's dung comes next as to fertilizing power;" also, that, '• it is evident that this manure should be applied as new as possible."! In fact, unless chance should happen to direct, it will be found that the action of gypsum is a difficult question to be determined by the usual round of chemical experiment. It would seem that Sir Humphrey might have known this full well, from his not being- able to obtain from the series of experiments, which he says has been carried on for a great length of time in England, any infor- mation on this subject, which he considered more important than the experiments related above. It would appear tiiat rich substances which naturally hasten into decay, are the worst that could be selected to determine in any way, the action of gypsum. But be this as it may, certain it is, I have never observed, that the application of this substance occa- sioned any perceptible difference, either in the colour, size, or product of any plant, growing on any soil, in which there was a sufficiency of animal and vegetable matter, to produce good crops of it. The reason seems obvious ; the natural fermentation of animal and vegetable matters, where enough of them obtains, supplies sufficient nutriment to eifect this purpose; and an excess of nutri- tious matter, saying the most that can be said in favour of it, is useless. Of consequence, it is only in soils where animal and vegetable matters are scattered so thinly, as to retard fermentation and decomposition, that the wonder-working powers of gypsum are seen. Therefore it is on such soils, that i would advise Sir Hum- phrej" Davy, (or any other gentleman who wishes to become well acquainted with the action of gypsum,) to try their experiments, more especially on soils, that have been considerably exhausted by perpetual ploughing and cropping. On grounds of this description, the action of gypsum, may be as readily determined through the medium of practical observation, as that of any other manure. If only the half of one bushel of this wonder-working compound, be • See his Lectures on Agr. Chem. page 299. t Idem, same page. 21 finely pulverised, and evenly strewed over an acre of red clover, growing on a soil which is too poor to produce even a tolerable growth of this plant, the crop is generally good and sometimes luxuriant. No fact is better established than this. It has been 'the common practice in Pennsylvania with farmers, to leave strips through their clover fields, on which none of this substance is strewed. In every case, so far as my observation has extended, (when the soil was too thin to produce even tolerable crops of red clover without the aid of manure,) the plants on the strips where no gypsum had been strewed, were small, sallow, and apparently starved, while those growing beside them, on the grounds, manured with this substance, were large, healthy, and vividly green. It is also a well known fact, that if those thin soils be annually stimulated by the regular application of gypsum, and the product be removed, they soon become so much exhausted as to be incapa- ble of producing crops, that are worth mowing. It is equally known, that after this sterility takes place, gypsum strewed over the soil, (in any quantities, either large or small,) produces no more perceptible effect on vegetation, than would do the same quantity of sand, or any other earth. But if after this sterility takes place, enriching manure be applied, the future applications of gypsum will act again in the same powerful manner, as they did in the beginning; even if the manuring be nothing more than the contents of such a green crop, as the fermentation and decomposition of the vegetation found on the soil will produce. Now if gypsum furnishes food for plants, how does it happen, that no quantity of this substance, either great or small, is found capable of promoting even tolerable fertility, after the animal and vegetable matters contained in the soil, have been exhausted by this powerful promoter of vegetation ? And how does it happen, that after this sterility has been effected, that plaster acts as powerfully as it did in the beginning, so soon aS enriching manure has been applied ? I would also ask, whether it is even probable that simple calca- reous earth, and the sulphuric acid which had been locked up for ages in it, can, either separately or combined, furnish any nutritive matter for the food of plants? Likewise, if nutritive matter exists in this compound, whether it would not be exceedingly difficult to believe, that the quantity contained in only half a bushel of gypsum could do any perceptible good to so many clover plants, as are commonly grown on an acre of ground.'' It would, however, seem that Judge Peters 's practice in the use of this substance, on soils that were trench-ploughed, furnishes sufficient proof to determine that gypsum cannot act, unless it finds sufficient animal and vegetable matter in the soil to act upon. Some years ago this gentleman trench-ploughed a good deal of thin soil ; and if I understand what he has written on that subject 22 this was done with a view to make it better ; but as he seems to have abandoned the practice, it appears probable that the result ha? not been such as he had expected it to be. Be this, however, as it may, he discovered, in the course of this practice, that •' plaster does not operate till animal or vegetable putrefied substances arc restored to trenched soils." Also, that " the corn planted on them requires shovelings or dung in the hills, to give activity to the plaster."* • See vol. i. Mem. Phil. Agr. Soc. page 243. CHAPTER III. Gypsum, the alkalies and various saline substances, together with other mat- ters found in the structure of plants, are highly important in the economy of vegetation. Still, stimulating manures should be cautiously and prudently used ; especially as every sou is fertile, if a sufficiency of animal and vegeta- ble matters exists in it. The economy of nature in the management of our forests, glades and pi*airie3 described. The quantity of animal matter consi- derably increased by the introduction of innumerable animalcula. Also, the extensive usefulness of the plants which are considered useless and injurious by too many farmers, and the provision made by nature to spread them over exhausted soils, &c. and to accumulate animal matter by the introduction of them. It is said by Sir Humphrey Davy, that " water and the decom- posing animal and vegetable matter existing in the soil, constitute the true nourishment of plants."* But as he also says, " It seems probable that the manures which act in small quantities, such as gypsum, a'kalies, and various saline substances, are actually a part of the true food of plants," it is considered proper to observe, that although neither gypsum, the alkalies, nor various saline sub- stances form any part of " the true nourishment of plants," those and other substances are highly important, as they form a part of the structure of plants and animals: consequently, the decomposing animal and vegetable matter existing in the soil, furnishes these sub- stances. In this state they again become highly important to vege- tation, not only in forming the structure of succeeding generations of plants, for the greater part of these substances also assist in ex- citing vegetation, and in preparing the nutritious matters on which plants live. In fact, it would seem that these substances are the natural condiments, in the animal, as well as in the vegetable eco- nomy. Man, as well as the inferior animals, is quite as healthy and vigorous, and perhaps more so, where he does not obtain any other stimulants than those contained in the food used by him. The quantity of the different substances found in vegetation, de- pends greatly on the nature and properties of the plants; also, on the property of the soil, and other local causes existing where the plants grow. Still, all soils that have been sufficiently enriched with animal and vegetable matter, either by nature or art, furnish enough of nutriment, as weU as the necessary ingredients to form the structure of plants, and excite vegetation, &c. so that luxuriant crops are grown on them. See his Lee. on Agr. Chem. page 184. 24 Now this fact is evident, and the practice of ages determineb, that land is impoverished in proportion as the animal and vegetable matter contained in the soil is destroyed, by severe cropping, or in any other way; and that although gypsum, lime, and other stimu- lating manures, will, for a time, increase the fertility of such im- poverished soils, yet the continued application of these substances is so far from enriching the soil, that it hastens the sterility of it, unless the evil be prevented by a timely introduction of animal and vegetable matter. It certainly then behoves the farmer to use the stimulating manures cautiously and prudently, and to take every rational measure to accumulate animal and vegetable matter ; also, to be careful not to engage in any of those practices, that devote these substances either to immediate destruction, or to a more gra- dual but useless waste. If the manures which are generally called stimulating, " actually afford a part of the true food of plants," this part must be very in- considerable, as no given quantity of these manures, either sepa- rately or combined, will preserve the fertility of any soil. Long practice in our gardens also demonstrates, that a moderate and regular application of animal and vegetable manure, will not only keep up, but likewise increase the fertility of the soil, when subjected to very severe annual cropping. Our towns and villages have been built where chance directs, or convenience dictates ; still the gardens, so far as my observation extends, produce luxuriantly ; although no other means are gene- rally used, either to correct offending matter, or enrich the soil, but stable manure, unless it be to drain the grountls if they happen to be too wet. The same result has also followed the application of the same kind of manure, in every field where I have known it applied in quantity sufficient to produce the same effect- But the value of animal and vegetable matter is best seen in our lonely forests, where neither art nor ignorance has materially in- terfered, with the simple but wise economy of nature. Every where that vegetation can exist, the ground is covered with it. The largest trees the soil and climate are capable of producing, first claim our attention. These seem to be placed at proper, though not at regular distances apart. If two or more of them happen to grow up in contact, or nearly so, more room is allotted for their growth. The space between the larger trees is occupied by some smaller ones, shrubs, and annual plants. The whole gradually de- scending in size, from the largest trees to the mosses. So careful is nature to spread vegetation, wherever it can be done, that we often see a variety of plants growing on the trunks of the fallen timber, after the sap-wood has become sufficiently decayed to admit vegetation. As these trunks sink into decay, the plants sink with them, and take root in the earth. When the fallen timber on which the plants grow, happens to be of very durable wood, we sometimes see large trees standing upon 25 the trunks of large fallen timber. Their roots having passed down on each side of the trunk, through the rotten sap-wood, find their waj into the soil, and become firmly established in it. The fallen leaves of each year form a compact covering over the leaves, and much of the other vegetation that had fallen before. This prevents the growth of such grasses as would injure nature's design, as they do in our orchards. This covering is skreened during winter by the stems and branches of the plants. In the summer, when the sun and the winds would prove more injurious to the manure under it, an additional and much more effectual skreen is formed by the foliage of the plants. The fermentation and decomposition that take place within this thick body of manure, furnish nutriment for t^'e plants, and enrich the grounds ; and also minutely divide and keep the soil more open and mellow for the ready admission of their roots, than could be effected by the general mode of culti- vation pursued in fields. Here I wish the. reader to recollect, and attentively consider, that this is done without rending and wounding the roots of the plants, or forming; injurious ridges or mounds be- side or around them, or making furrows to run off the moisture necessary to their growth. When age, disease, tornadoes, or any other cause destroys the timber, and nature is suffered to repair the damage, another growth of plants quickly appears. These (ire so thickly set on the ground, that all vegetation injurious to thefm is destroyed by their shade. The most thrifty plants outtop ahd gradually destroy, by theii- shade, and the nutriment drawn from the soil, the more feeble ones. The shade formed by the upper branches of the surviving trees, destroys the supernumerary branches beneath them, until nature has gradually, pruned the trunks of the timber so effectually, that an injurious limb does not appear to a very great height. Their lofty tops overspread the tops of the smaller trees, shrubs, and other plants, which nature had calculated to giow, and flourish luxuriantly under the shade of their lofty superiors. The regular fall of the foliage, together with that of the branches, and the bodies of the trees and other plants, affords a prodigious mass of decaying vegetation. The larger animals, reptiles, &c. com- mon to the country, together with the feathered tribes find sufficient food and shelter here. Every leaf and every crevice in the barker elsewhere, is thickly peopled. Even the decayitig animal and vege- table matter, which is so disgusting to some animals, teems with ani- malcula calculated to fare sumptuously on it. The interior of the soil also affords living and decaying vegetation, on which innumerable worms and other animalcula live voluptuously. It is also probable that incalculable tribes of animalcula which are so small as to elude our sight, live plentifully on the dead carcasses, and on the scraps and crumbs left by the large ones: added to this, the quantity of animal matter is prodigiously increased, by the creation of animals of every size, whose existence either in part or altogether depends on preying on others. The existence of the smaller animals is generally 26 very limited. Those short lived generations multiply fast, succeeding; each other in rapid progression. While they live, the remains of their food are returned to the soil in valuable manure. When they die their carcasses add greatly to the amount. We may form some idea of the quantities of this manure, by observing it thickly spread on the bare ground or pavement in yards under the trees. That of the larger insects which inhabit the tree, is readily seen. Although the manure dropped by the smaller ones, may elude superficial ob- servation, it is equally valuable in porportion to the amount. The quantity and quality of the manure furnished by animalcula,like that from other animals, must greatly depend on the quantity of food, and the quality of the substances eaten by them. But nature has so or- dered the multiplication of the different kinds of animals, that they seldom seriously infringe on the sustenance of each other. There- fore, generally', all have an abundant supply. She sometimes, however, suffers some one tribe of them to increase in such vast numbers, that the earth seems covered by them, and every green thing which is agreeable to their taste is destroyed. This may be done to convince us that numbers will readily compensate for defi- ciency of size. Be this, however, as it may, although in general the animal matter derived from any one single tribe of animalcula may be inconsiderable, still the whole combined form a mighty mass of it. When this is added to that supplied by the larger animals, it is fully adequate to all the purposes which nature had designed to be accomplished by it. It was certainly a very wise provision of nature, to cause the greater part of this matter to exist in small bodies. This has vastly in- creased the quantity, and promoted the ready and effectual applica- tion of it. If the whole or the greater part of this prodigious bulk of animal matter, had been made to exist in the larger animals, they could not have been supported; neither, could the manure furnished by them have been so intimately blended with the soil, as is the vegetable matter, which we all see has been made to exist in plants, that spread over and cover the surface of the habitable parts of the earth. Animal and vegetable matters afford a very similar food for plants. Yet the former in proportion to quantity, furnish vastly more nutriment for them, and being much sooner decomposed, the fermentation of vegetable substances is greatly accelerated, when animal matter is mixed with them. Therefore, nowithstanding earth, air, light, heat, moisture and vegetable matter are sufficient to per- fect vegetation, still the combination of animal with vegetable mat- ter, greatly facilitates the growth of plants. The fertilizing effect? of this perfect system of economy, is equally as clearly seen in our glades and prairies, as in our forests, v/here nature is suffered to pur- sue her own course. But when civilized man encroaches on either, a new order of things takes place ; the living as well as the dead vegetation found in his way is destroyed and the grounds are cultivated. By these 27 lueans, by far the greater part of the animalcula within, as well as upon the soil are destroyed. Still when the agriculturist keeps the grounds well stored with the grasses, and has a sufficiency of domes- ticated animals to eat this vegetation, and carefully saves and ju- diciously applies the manure afforded by them, nature is assisted by art, and the fertility of the soil is considerably increased. The back woods farmer, however, too generally continues plough- ing, and severe cropping, with but little attention to grass or live stock, and but too seldom returns to the soil, even the little manure that is made by his scanty stock of cattle, until the land is so much exhausted, that scarcely a sufficiency of grass is found oti his fields, to support a respectable tribe of grasshoppers alone. Far less is to be expected from animalcula manure, after the grounds have been cleared from the vegetation grown on them by nature; still much food is provided for them in the grasses, where a proper system of husbandry is practised. I'hey multiply with great rapidity both within and upon grass grounds. When the lay is cultivated they are generally destroyed, and the animal manure introduced by them, is far from being inconsiderable. Yet farmers seldom notice this very useful part of the creation, except with evident marks of abhorrence or detestation, when their persons, crops, or live stock, are annoyed by them. Although it would appear at least probable, that neither man, nor the domesticated animals in which he seems to be more immediately interested, could have existed in any thing like the same numbers, or have been supplied with an abundance of nutriment, if animalcula had not been created. The same may be said of weeds, notwithstanding slovenly farmers complain still more loudly of the injury done by them.i ITTs true, that very serious injury is sometimes done by animal- cula. It is, however, probable, that even this seeming evil is a leal advantage. It often excites the farmer to a far better system of management. Thus the turnip fly urges him to manure his grounds, and to put them in a high state of cultivation, that the plants, by quickly attaining their rough leaves, may escape the destructive depreda- tion of this insect. To avoid the ruinous injury done by the Hessian fly, farmers were compelled to sow late ; but finding that late seeding in a thin soil, subjected the wheat plants to great injury in the winter and early part of the spring ; also, that if the main shoots of the plants were destroyed by the fly, but little was to be expected from the later and weaker shoots when the soil was poor, they were obliged to manure their grounds. Now one corner of a field produces more wheat, than was obtained from the whole of it, previously to the depredations committed by this insect, ^^^e plants generally called weeds are very numerous, while ihose plants which are cultivated by us are few; notwithstanding weeds are injurious to our crops, and we are compelled to wage a 28 perpetual war against them, it is probable that some of them would be equally' :is valuable to us, as our favounte plants, if thev were as well known No question but all of tlis-m are either dirpcdv or indirectly calculated to promote the interest of man. They arc very beneficial where a bad system of farming is pursued. While the ground retains tolerable fertility they grow plentifully, and no doubt but they return to the soil much fertilizing matter, for many of them are strong and vigorous plants. They also furni-h food for the animalcula, that had been calculated to live and fai'^enon them. In this way a portion of animal matter, is likewise returned to the soil. Notwithstanding the too general mode of cultivation is calculated to destroy a great part of the animal and vegetable matter obtained in this way, still enough remains to increase the crops, and to procrastinate that debility, which is so clearly seen in worn out soils, by the growth of the weak and meager grasses and weeds, which are thinly scattere