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I 
 
WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 IN 
 
 TEIsTNESBEE 
 
 By J. B. KiLLEBREW, 
 
 Commissioner of Agriculture, Statistics and Mines. 
 
 NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE: 
 
 PRINTED BY "THE AMERICAN" PRINTING COMPANY. 
 
 1877. 
 
WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 IX 
 
 TENNESSEE 
 
 A :. 
 
 .W 
 
 .,-J 
 
 By J. B. KiLLEBREW, 
 
 Commissioner of Agriculture, Statistics and Mines. 
 
 NASHVILLE, TENNESSEE : 
 
 PRINTED BY "tHE AMERICAN" PRINTING COMPANY. 
 
 1877. 
 

To His Excellency, Gov. Jas. D. Porter: 
 
 No branch of agriculture is receiving so much attention 
 at present in the State of Tennessee as that of Wheat 
 Culture. The production of this important cereal has been 
 steadily increasing for several years. In 1870 the crop 
 barely reached 6,000,000 bushels, while that of the present 
 year will probably reach 11,000,000. 
 
 There is a growing sentiment among the farmers that the 
 wheat crop, when well managed, is one of the most profita- 
 ble grown in the State, and the tendencv among them is to 
 extend its cultivation, and at the same time to increase the 
 yield per acre. New varieties of seed are being intro- 
 duced, and many interesting experiments are being made 
 by the most intelligent farmers. There is manifested on 
 every hand a laudable ambition to improve the quality and 
 increase the yield. To aid in this work of agricultural 
 progress, the following pages have been prepared. It is 
 believed that, with proper efforts among the farmers, Ten* 
 nessee may yet become the peer of any State in the Unioa 
 in the production of wheat. 
 
I am greatly indebted to Dr. ^Ym. M. Clarke, of Wil- 
 liamson county, for valuable assistance in the preparation 
 of this work ; also, to many farmers throughout the State 
 for important suggestions. 
 
 I have the honor to be 
 
 Your obedient servant, 
 
 J. B, IvILLEBREW. 
 
WHEAT CULTURE IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 CHAPTER I. 
 
 HISTORY — LIMITS OF CULTIV'^ATIOX; — EFFECTS OF A FAIL- 
 URE OF THE CROP TPOX SOCIETY TEMPERATURE :0F 
 
 RIPENING — ELEMENTS OF SUCCESS IN WHEAT CUL- 
 TURE. 
 
 Longfellow, in his poem of '' Hiawatha," introduces a 
 beautiful and rofnantic myth in regard to the origin of 
 maize. Many traditions among the Indians furnished him 
 with a foundation for this story. These children of the 
 forest recognized in maize the staff of life — the man's real 
 friend. No time so joyous among them as the corn-dance 
 at the maturity of tliis cereal; and in view of the fact that 
 it was so essential to tlieir very existence, they had good 
 cause to dance and make merry. It is true, many other 
 plants were cultivated among them, but none so vital. It 
 M'as their sine qua non^ their ultima thide, of agriculture' 
 Honors and sacrifices were given to the Great Manitou for 
 this noble gift to his forest children. Thus may we as well 
 record the origin of wheat in some poetic Georgic as the 
 great, inestimable gift of the gods to man, or accept the 
 mythological account of Ceres having taught to Triptolemus 
 of Eleusis its cultivation and use. It figures often in the 
 Holy Scriptures, and is placed at the head of all vegetation. 
 
6-"" "WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 Man is often compared to wheat; and this parable is made 
 because man being the first of creative beings in excellence^, 
 so, when he is brought into comparison with individuals of 
 the vegetable kingdom, none is found so well suited as 
 wheat. Moses frequently refers to it in his first recorded 
 account of mankind, and it is there selected as the best of 
 offerings to Deity. In Leviticus ii. it is called meat-offer- 
 ing, and in fact throughout the whole Bible it is spoken of 
 as the best and purest of food. By its means Joseph was 
 enabled to safely pass a nation through seven years of 
 famine. 
 
 Chinese history declares it was introduced into China by 
 the Emperor Shin-hung, 2700 B.C. 
 
 In existence, it is older than the creation of man. When 
 Adani walked forth a created being, no doubt fields of wavy 
 grain sown by Deity awaited his use. Its habitat is almost 
 co-extensive with that of man. It differs so much in its 
 requirements from all other plants, in time of cultiva- 
 vation, that seasons, temperature, and altitude seem subor- 
 dinate to its convenience. It is found on the bleak shores 
 of Alaska, and on the equatorial terraces of the Andes; on 
 the broad steppes of Eussia, and in the fragrant valleys of 
 Cathay. Everywhere that man has moved, or emigrated, it 
 stands as his best friend. When the Egyptian monarch, in 
 ancient days, built his pyramids as mausoleums, he did not 
 deem it inappropriate to lay by his side grains of this blessed 
 cereal. It blesses alike the tables of the ric-h and the poor. 
 It constitutes the feathery rolls of majesty, and the heavy 
 brown l^read of the serf. As the poet designates woman as 
 the " last best gift of God to man," so may we claim that 
 wheat was the first greatest boon of an all-wise, beneficent 
 Being to his creatures — one that could cheer, but not ine- 
 briate ; sustain, but not destroy. 
 
 There are, however, important limitations to its successfull 
 growth, even in temperate climates, and these are determined 
 by an examination of the peculiar distribution of heat and 
 
In TEJ?-NESSfifc. 7 
 
 humidity, or amount of rain, throughout the year. Its 
 sensitiveness to extremes of this sort renders its culture 
 irregular in success. 
 
 The limits of the successful cultivation of wheat is not 
 determined so much by the cold of winter as by the tempera- 
 ture of summer, 57.2°, being the minimum mean temperature 
 of summer heat in which it will mature. The Southern limits 
 vary betv/een 20° and 25° N. and S. latitude, though a suf- 
 ficient elevation would, of course, reduce the heat as to 
 bring it to any point even on the Equator. The adaptation 
 of the cereal to so great a diversity of situations gives it a 
 value beyond all other products of the field. It furnishes 
 all the elements of nutrition in a most eminent degree. 
 
 The absolute temperature limits of the growth of wheat 
 belong to the summer months, or to those in which it ripens; 
 and for these months they may be very precisely defined. 
 The points of both extremes are not far apart, and, if abso- 
 lute mean temperatures as recorded for the year could be 
 employed, the district embraced would be narrow, indeed. 
 
 Before referring to actual districts of its growth, it may 
 be well to give the apparent temperature limits of the 
 ripening season. We all remember the great outcry made 
 in England in 1853, about the retardation of the ripening 
 of Avheat in consequence of the low temperature. The tem- 
 perature of July and August was 2° less than usual, or 
 about 57°, and as a result a falling oif of from one-third to 
 one-half of the crop took place. The disastrous effects of a 
 wheat failure in Europe are well known. It has been said 
 that a failure of the wheat crop in France is always followed 
 by a revolution and by bread-riots in England. In Eng- 
 land, a temperature of 57° is not sufficient to mature the 
 grain, on account of the excessive humidity of that climate. 
 
 This combination of moisture and low temperature does 
 not exist in any district in the United States where wheat is 
 grown. On the contrary, the United States give good 
 results as to ripening in high temperatures. At the extreme 
 
b WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 South May is the ripening month, with a mean temperature 
 of 60° to 70°. In Virginia May and June, with the ther- 
 mometer at from 63° to 72°, and in Tennessee, 20th May 
 to 10th June, and the heat at from 65° to 80°. In Illinois, 
 June, at 60° to 70°, and in New York, July, at 64° to 69°. 
 From these comparisons it will be seen that the temperature 
 for the last growth of the wheat falls rather under 70°. As 
 Ave go into warmer climates, the period of ripeiiing recedes 
 until it occurs even in April, as in Egypt. 
 
 Thus it may be observed that the mean diiference, or 
 range, in the thermometer is only about 15°, so that, were 
 we to take the thermometer as a guide, it would appear that 
 wheat culture would only range between these means. But 
 practical experiment has shown that, in fact, its limits are 
 far beyond^ and this diiference is explained by the combina- 
 tion of hciit and moisture. A dry climate will mature 
 wheat at a much lower temperature than a moist one at the 
 same degree of heat. Per co)dra, a moist climate requires 
 a higher degree to bring it to maturity. In this manner, 
 though the heat of midsummer may reach to a mean of 95°, 
 yet elevations will reduce this mean to a point of successful 
 cultivation. In England and Northern Europe the entire 
 year is embraced in the growth of wheat, and so the tem- 
 perature of every month must be taken into account. In 
 South Euro])e there are two months in the year, and in the 
 United States, or rather the southern part, there are three 
 months not required in the cultivation of the wheat crop, 
 while in the northern part of the Union August is not in- 
 cluded in the time demanded for wheat culture. A large 
 portion of wheat is grown only during the warm months, 
 such as spring wheat. 
 
 It will be necessary to notice the eifect of the winter 
 months more particularly, as the winter varieties will grow 
 up to the limits of the S2)riug varieties, and even the differ- 
 ence is more in varieties than oth.erwise, as either kind can 
 be changed by cultivation into the other. In a list of high 
 
IX TENNESSEE. ' 9 
 
 tomjieratiire hereafter given, it is not to be understood that 
 \vlieat will not grow or mature beyond this or the low teni- 
 l>erature, but that it w'ill not, above or below these points, be 
 a paying or remunerative crop. Some kinds are grown, as 
 before stated, in every point settled by man. 
 
 By a slight examination, however, it will be seen that 
 temperature does not alone decide the success, as the dry 
 plains of Western Texas, or the broad valleys of Southern 
 California, produce wheat equal to the best Illinois lands. 
 The u])lands of Georgia and South Carolina will also pro- 
 duce better wheat than the coast lands of the same tempera- 
 ture. This is owing to the difference in the humidity of the 
 climate. 
 
 Another element of success that must be noted is the 
 amount o^ snow-fall in regions of country that have a temper- 
 ature so low that all wheat vegetation would be destroyed. 
 AVhen the snow is melted by the genial warmth of spring, 
 the wheal plant that has been protected springs up and 
 grows with a marvelous rapidity. Alternations of heat and 
 cold are very prejudicial to the safety of wheat, as it greatly 
 tends to Avinter killing. The growth of wheat in winter 
 renders it more sensitive to the influence of succeeding cold, 
 and tends to destroy it. So that the line just below the 
 region of continual snow is the point most likely to suffer 
 with winter killing. 
 
 In the region where wheat is protected by snow, we select 
 the leading points: Rochester, for New York ; Gettysburg, 
 foi- Pennsylvania; Cleveland, for Ohio and Michigan; and 
 Milwaukee, for Illinois and Wisconsin. These are favor- 
 able States, and August is not necessary for the growth of 
 ulieat at any of these points. The points where the greatest 
 damage is done by alternations of heat and cold without the 
 protecting inffuences of snow, are Cincinnati, New Har- 
 mony, and St. Louis. These places receive a vast amount 
 of rain from the influences of the rivers and valleys along 
 which thev lie. This humidity is combined with a higher 
 
10 W'HEA,T CULTURE- 
 
 temperature also, so that it retards very much the suocossful 
 issue of a crop. A large amount of rain and a warm cli- 
 mate are not favorable for its cultivation. 
 
 But with all observations and all theories in respect to 
 wheat culture, there are modifications unseen and unknown 
 that render futile all calculation. Only practical experience 
 can always determine its best habifat. Soil, climate, tem- 
 perature, with all its changes and variations, from altitude, 
 depression, etc., etc., will make all places of seeming dia- 
 metrical oppositeness equally suitable for its culture. 
 
 The following table of temperatures for the best wheat- 
 growing districts of the world has been compil'od, fvo'.n 
 which it will be seen that Tennessee has a temperature mid- 
 way between the extreme limits of the leading wheat-g; ow- 
 ina: countries of the world : 
 
 I 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 u 
 
 Year. 
 
 oc d X -3 
 
 •# CO X -.; t- 
 05 c' r-* r: X 
 
 C-. ci -*<■ -■ c c ;o 
 o -o w .- to -.o 1= 
 
 t- c to 
 
 O uO O 
 
 t-i X to OJ r-J o X UO X 00 
 
 O 05 lO 00 X = .- O CO 01 
 '^^-Tl-'^^-^-^CO-t'iO 
 
 1 
 Winter.., 
 
 -f -M CO O 
 
 M S c5 cS 
 
 0-1 CO t- lO ■.= 
 CO CO -:* X 05 
 
 UO -# t- r-l to i-J t-l 
 
 ^' r-^ ic oi (?J 01 3 
 
 ^ -:i< -* 'J" -* -* •:(< 
 
 Tin r-^ Tti 
 o: CO CO 
 
 CO o c; oi tc CI = 00 X o 
 to ct rt t :' ._; .0 to* to r-- x 
 
 COCOCOO^OO — r^ wo 
 
 Aiitiimn. 
 
 00 r-; «o -i 
 
 00_ 35 CI ^_ -o 
 
 T* -o o: X ^_ t- ^ 
 
 '■i ^ -li 
 
 ■-0 ir: o 
 
 to 1-; I-. 00 oi 05 to O! r- X 
 X o:' r- -« ci ot o: — c' CO 
 
 -r u:-* tJ. ^ 00 ^ CO lO t- 
 
 Summer. 
 
 :c c cc CO 
 
 tc b to i to 
 
 LO -_ I-I to t-< X ^ 
 t£ c^ X ti ^ - t^ 00 
 
 CO O 01 
 
 62 4 
 
 61.0 
 61.0 
 GO 5 
 04.5 
 03 9 
 6.5.0 
 02.4 
 05 3 
 78.3 
 
 Spring. 
 
 n' X :r c? 
 
 t-_ .: Ol C5 01 
 
 ^ CO 'f CO CO 
 
 UO tH r-l O — X -♦' 
 
 0^ t-o 
 
 ■;' '^' ■-=' 
 
 T|( OQ^ 10 to -* - X M r-; "* 
 
 Dece'ber. 
 
 ~i n oi o< 
 
 iC 00_ = CO to_ 
 
 oi S J^ ?i 
 
 Ol C-_ -J* » !M = -1< 
 
 'T -t1^ ^ -^ -^ ^ -CI 
 
 iM 
 
 t. * o r-i' r-.' ^ to' r-' t^ CO c* 
 
 Nov'ber. 
 
 o CO » L-; 
 
 C^' X i." X 
 
 ^ C5 CO 05 
 
 C 'O^CO t-;f-- 
 
 e-1 CO t-_ t-; CO I-- -; 
 
 -* ^ ^ 
 
 XOtCXCO^r^tOX-ll 
 
 i 
 
 1 October. 
 
 ir: ^ o lO 
 
 00 -*■ uo' co' oo' 
 
 T^ .^ Tjl ^ -^ 
 
 t-_ 01 -)<_ O -*< C0_ -i< 
 
 S to to uO o 2 to 
 
 lO L.0 o 
 
 OC C: C t- Ci <\ C 1-^^ r? GO 
 
 Sept'ber. 
 
 t- i^ r- t- t^ 1— I 
 
 ■o lO i-o o ■-•; Ti. U-: I 
 
 August. 
 
 ' :0 -Oi :_ to 
 
 -r— X t~-r-i> ototototo — tototox 
 
 July. 
 
 i- t^ -^ O -O to O -.D 
 
 t^ r- t-- X b- c- £■- CO to o -^ w o — to ;;; I 
 
 f>l C CO t:^^ ^ ■* r: ?? 'C -M 
 
 r-' c ci t- 0-^ !^^ ^t r-i cm' O 
 
 u: iO O O 'O ;0 to to C: t- 
 
 
 c 
 
 ~ 
 
 ^ 
 
 „ 
 
 CO X tH 
 
 >.o r- 
 
 c: 
 
 - 
 
 ~ 
 
 Ol 
 
 o 
 
 ^ 
 
 00 
 
 00 to CO 
 
 ■— 
 
 .-, 
 
 r-4 Ol 
 
 ,- 
 
 ^ 
 
 CO 
 
 uo 
 
 „ 
 
 01 
 
 May. 
 
 Ct 
 
 2 
 
 .c 
 
 s 
 
 C Ol -* 
 
 -tl< ^ 
 
 S 
 
 t- 
 
 [!^ 
 
 t;; 
 
 X 
 
 = 
 
 '- 
 
 cc i~ to 
 to to to 
 
 t— 
 
 g 
 
 o 3 
 
 s 
 
 ■s 
 
 s 
 
 5 
 
 g 
 
 '^ 
 
 April. 
 
 r^ O .* I^ 
 
 -* CO .* CO 00 lo to t:; to o to to 
 
 -*-*-f-i*-*Tj<Tt<0C-*tO 
 
 March. 
 
 30.2 
 39.3 
 30.4 
 34.8 
 
 30.4 
 24.3 
 
 28.7 
 V5.7 
 25.7 
 
 lO to c: CO :•: oi to 
 
 '1*1 uO .-* 
 
 42.9 
 43.2 
 35.2 
 31.4 
 
 38.1 
 
 27.4 
 20.7 
 31.7 
 02.1 
 
 February 
 
 20.5 
 30.8 
 30.1 
 29.4 
 
 22.5 
 12.8 
 15.7 
 17.0 
 13.7 
 
 0-. Ot Ol to - X r-. 
 
 .^i ^ lO tX Wi -t c: 
 
 t- 01 —_ 
 ■O — Tfi 
 .-0 ^ CO 
 
 :o-fxottocW'-'O0X 
 r-^ rt' — ' to' ■■- -o i-^ x" to' t>l 
 
 CO ."^0 CO C^ CO r-i i-l (NO 
 
 Jauiiary. 
 
 20.9 
 2S.4 
 
 27.2 
 
 21.4 
 
 0.8 
 
 U.5 
 
 17.4 
 
 8.6 
 
 40.4 
 44.0 
 42.5 
 42.0 
 41.7 
 41.0 
 47.(1 
 
 = ^ 0-1 
 
 oo"-* CO* 
 
 CO CO 00 
 
 33.4 
 30.0 
 27.4 
 ■-4.4 
 27.7 
 
 12.3 
 
 24.0 
 57.3 
 
 Iz; . 
 
 
 
 :a! 
 
 i 5! § -S ^• 
 • > -- s 
 
 ! 3 g = ffi 3 c 
 
 ; cj 02 s « S f^ 
 
 sM3 
 
 ■sS SiS C3-3-S 
 
 ^3 S? jt sS =^ p -• 
 
 J- a N M.g g ^ 
 
 T, a a a ~ s 3 
 
 c Pi. ts o 0) >: rs 
 
 »-_ r.-T (~i ^ AO ^ c_i 
 
 d .a c3 
 
 HfiWnSHWW^ 
 
12 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 It is known that Tennessee has an isothermal line 
 along the northern shores of the Mediterranean and south 
 of the Bhick Sea; in fact, near the birth-place of this great- 
 est of all the cereals of the world. 
 
 Scientific men have made researches into the animal, veg- 
 etable, and mineral kingdoms, by various means, principally 
 the microscope, and by means of these observations and 
 chemical analyses have been able to classify these different 
 substances into various genera — species, orders or families, 
 and classes. In order to do this intelligently, they embraced 
 every known or fancied resemblance in one order; for in- 
 stance, the cat family embraces many animals that are simi- 
 lar in conformation, having stiff hairs on the upper lip, 
 with toes divided, armed with claws, and sucli as crouch to 
 spring on their prey. The lion, tiger, panther, leopard — 
 these are as mucli a feline as the cat itself. So in the veg- 
 etable kingdom we find the division into orders, genera, 
 classes, and s{)ecies, founded upon differences in their char- 
 acters. There are two grand divisions of the vegetable 
 kingdom — those having flowers, Fhceaogamous, and those 
 without flowers, the Crypfogainous. Upon the flowers 
 a basis is made for dividing the flowering plants into genera 
 and species. It will be readily seen that the similarity be- 
 tween turnips, radishes, cabbages, mustard, and many more 
 have united them under the common name of Crucifera, the 
 petals having a fancied resemblance to a cross. The pea, 
 bean, lupine, etc.^ not only have similar flowers, but the 
 fruit is incased in a pod, or legume, and so this order is 
 called leguminous, from a Latin word meaning to collect. 
 Thus have all vegetables been classed by Linnaeus, the great 
 naturalist. Vegetation is further divided into exogens and 
 endogens, or those whose stem increase or grow from layers 
 of wood deposited between the bark and the heart, and 
 thofcc which do not. In the first clas.-j are ash, oak, hick- 
 ory, etc.; in the latter corn, oats, rye, wheat, etc. 
 
 The fruit makes the next division, those having solid 
 
IN TENNESSEE. IS^ 
 
 seeds heing mor.ocofylcdon, tliose having seeds composed of 
 two parts fastened together, such as peas, beans, etc., being 
 dicotijeldon. 
 
 This same method of classification extends through all 
 the various kingdoms, animal, vegetable, and mineral. For 
 instance, the lime family is called calcareous, because lime is 
 the distinguishing or predominating element. This com- 
 prises limestone, marble, alabaster, plaster of Paris, sea- 
 shells, marl, etc. The Aluminte are topaz, ruby, emerald, 
 alum, etc., because alumina predominates. And flint, or 
 silex, gives the name of Silicife to sand, onyx, agate, quartz, 
 jasper, and many other gems. Within a few years the 
 theory of evolution, advanced many years ago, has received 
 many adherents, and a great deal has been written to prove 
 this doctrine. According to this theory there is a regular 
 progression from the lowest forms of the mineral kingdom, 
 through the long scries of vegetation, to the highest form 
 of animal life. 
 
14 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER II. 
 
 BOTANICAL DESCEII^ION — HYBRIDIZATION — INTERESTING 
 EXPERIMENTS. 
 
 The botanical name for wheat is Triticum Vidgare. Syn- 
 onyms — Triticum Hyhernum, T. ^-Estivum — A-S-hweate, 
 white, in distinction from rye and other dark colored grains. 
 
 Triticum Sex. Sus. Triandria Digynia — Nat. Order, 
 GraminaccK. Gen. Cn. Calyx, two valved, transverse, soli- 
 tary, many-flowered, on a flexuose toothed receptacle. 
 {Rees.) 
 
 The common winter wheat has a fibrous root, and one or 
 more erect, round, smooth-jointed stems, which rise from 
 three to five feet higli and are furnished with linear, pointed, 
 entire, flat, many-ribbcJ, rough, somewhat glaucous leaves, 
 and jagged, bcai'ded, stipules. The flowers are in a solitary, 
 terminal, dense, smooth spike, two or three inches long. 
 The calyx is four-fiowercd, tumid, even, imbricated, abrupt, 
 with a short compressed point. In the upper part of the 
 spike it is more elongated ; and in this situation the corolla 
 is more or less awned. The grain is imbricated in four 
 rows. 
 
 Triticiim, wheat belongs to the subtribe of the grasses, 
 hordeinea, from barley, which is in structure closely related 
 to wheat, and rye also belongs to the same division. Be- 
 sides the grain producing sj)ecies, all of which are annuals, 
 there are several with perennial roots, which by some 
 botanists have been placed in a distinct species agropermSy 
 the most important of which is the troublesome triticum 
 rcpens ((!0uch grass), (wild onion), of which more hereafter. 
 Like other cereals the origin of wheat is deeply involved in 
 speculation. It is found growing wild in various mountain 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 15 
 
 countries, in some places where from the accounts of trav- 
 elers it could not have spread from cultivation. De Candolle 
 believed it sprung from the Hiraalays of Asia, though 
 the pioneer miners of California make notice of seeing it 
 among the western crags of the Rocky mountains and 
 Nevada Sierras. The latter dissemination, however, may 
 have taken place from the numerous missions established by 
 the Catholics in that country. 
 
 About 1855 M. Fabre asserted that he had proved wheat 
 was wc/ihps ovafa (a common grass of Southern Europe) de- 
 veloped by cultivation. He asserted tliat by successive 
 sowings he had produced forms of cegilops which passed for 
 specimens of wheat, and by continuing this sowing 
 he had produced wheat. Tliese experiments are not, how- 
 ever, worthy of credit, for it is now knov/n these grasses 
 have been either accidentally or for a purpose hybridized 
 with wheat, and thus he only developed the fact of the dis- 
 [)osition of this grain, as of all others, to return under 
 favorable circumstances to its original state. But Nature's 
 laws had been transgressed, and here the new, much valued 
 species, expired. Nature will perpetuate a movgrd but 
 never a mule. 
 
 In the vegetable kingdom the results of such experiments 
 are precisely analogous. The individual plants that par- 
 ticipated in the crossing may be distinctly traced in the 
 hybrid. Affiliated plants thus crossed produce fruits that 
 will fecundate, whilst the violation thus produced will not 
 bear fruit, or at least if fruit is borne, the seed will not germi- 
 nate. Flowers possess a strong attraction for pollen from 
 flowers of its own species, and hence if it is desired to pro- 
 duce a hybrid, it is necessary to use a large quantity of 
 pollen, but there will be no result unless they are of the 
 same genera or species. The earliest record we have of 
 hybridization is in the writings of Cameranus, in 1694. 
 Linna3us w^'ote of hybrids in 1751, and Kolreuter, eight 
 years later, succeeded in producing hybrids by artificial 
 
16 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 fecundation. Since this time, numberless experiments have 
 been successfully made in that respect. In order to succeed 
 in doing this, it is only necessary to bring the pollen which 
 is contained in the anthers of one flower in contact with the 
 stigma of the pistils of the flower to be impregnated. To 
 succeed in effecting this, it will be necessary to select 
 flowers of the same maturity, as those of diiferent ages will 
 not do. The stamens are the male organs, and the pistils 
 the female organs of reproduction and the pollen is an ex- 
 ceedingly fine dust contained in the anthers of the stamen. 
 The stamens of the plant to be hybridized must be removed 
 early in the morning while wet with dew, and then about 
 noon the stamen of the male plant must be shaken over the 
 stigma of the pistils of the female plant. The stigma of 
 the pistils resembles a sponge, and has a powerful ab- 
 sorbent property, so that it will grasp the powder and con- 
 vey it by a delicate tube to the fruit or seed. 
 
 Hybridization is an exceedingly delicate operation and 
 can only be successfully performed by a skillful hand. It 
 often happens in gardens that through the agency of bees, 
 bugs and insects, accidental hybrids are produced. It is so 
 Avell known that gardeners keep apart all affiliating vegeta- 
 bles, even when they are ignorant of the cause of their 
 mixing. This is most especially the case with cabbage 
 tribes, melons, cucumbers, etc. It is more difficult to pro- 
 duce hybridization of cereals than any other vegetable, but 
 not impracticable. The difficulty arises from the manipula- 
 tion necessary in removing the unexpanded anthers, and 
 then applying the pollen of another plant. 
 
 Mr. Maund, of London, obtained a prize in 1851 for pro- 
 ducin^r hvbrids from the annexed varieties of wheat : 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 17 
 
 Male. 
 
 "Old Lammas 
 Pearl White 
 Clustered Eed 
 Old Lammas 
 Boston Ked 
 White Cove 
 
 (beard) 
 Dark Cove 
 
 Female. 
 
 Donna Maria 
 Oxford Eed 
 Satin White 
 King's White 
 Donna Maria 
 Northumberland 
 
 (smoQth) 
 Pearl 
 
 Result 
 Larger than either. 
 
 K a ii 
 
 Course, rough, short. . 
 Very large long ear. 
 Large ear, strong 'straw. 
 Beardless, ear downey. 
 
 Small deformed ear. 
 
 His experience was that a strong male and a "weak female 
 produced a better result than a strong female and a weak 
 male. 
 
 In 1848 Mr. Raynbird, of Loverstoke, obtained a pre- 
 mium from the Highland Society, Scotland, for successful 
 experiments of this kind. He began his experiments in 
 1846 with the Hopetown, a long eared and long straw white 
 wheat, and Piper's Thickset, a course v/heat with thick 
 clustered ears, a stiff straw and very prolific, but liable to 
 mildew. The hybrids thus obtained were intermediate be- 
 tween the two parents, the ears shorter than the Hopetown, 
 and longer than the Thickset. 
 
 We would commend the example of the.se enterprising 
 gentlemen to some of our farmers, and also the public spirit 
 of the English societies in offering premiums to the suc- 
 cessful experimenter. It is beyond question within the 
 power of any one thus to originate new varieties having the 
 good points of various kinds. Nor should one entering on 
 these experiments be discouraged at a failure, for it often 
 happens the result will not be satisfactory. But the simple 
 fact that hybrids from accidental fecundation have furnished 
 some of the most prolific and hardiest varieties, should be 
 an encouragement to prosecute such inquiries. When it is 
 considered that during one year in the United States alone 
 'the vast sum of $200,000,000 is spent for flour, any one can 
 readily see the immense advantage the introduction of a 
 new variety that would increase the yield one or twobusli<els 
 per acre, would be to the producer. Our agricultural soeie- 
 2 
 
ia[ WHEAT CULTtJEE 
 
 tres; should encourage this by offering a suitable medal to 
 any ohq who is able to bring before the public a good seed 
 suitable to e«r soil and climate. We have a vast number 
 of specimens of greatly differing qualities both of grain and 
 straWy and nothing would be easier under such a stimulus 
 than to derive from these differing kinds such as would be 
 suitable for all the different soils and elevations. 
 
IN TENI^ESSfiE. J9 
 
 CHAPTER UI. 
 
 AXCIENT HABITAT — INTEODUCTION INTO OTHEE COUN- 
 TRIES — NEW VARIETIES — IMPORTANCE OF SELECTING 
 SEEDS, AND THE BEST METHOD OF DOING SO, 
 
 It is a well ascertained fact that those vegetables thrive 
 best in the soils to which they are indigenous. According 
 to a rule adopted by the celebrated Baron Humboldt, to de- 
 termine the native country of any species, when that fact is 
 in doubt, it is fair to presume it belongs to that country in 
 which the greatest number of known species exists as indi- 
 genous to the soil. This rule would place Persia as the 
 place of its nativit}\ According to Diodorus, Isis and Osiris 
 discovered wheat, barley and other vegetation, growing 
 wild in the valley of the Jordan and carried them into 
 Egypt, into the country of the Nile, and taught its inhabi- 
 tants their uses and cultivation, and the natives considered 
 this act of such immense benefit to mankind they deified 
 and worshiped these agriculturists ever afterwards. Strabo 
 declares that wheat was found growing spontaneously 
 in Persia, and also on the banks of the Indus. Other 
 writers attribute its nativity to India instead of Persia. But 
 be that as it may, it will readily occur to the reader, judg-. 
 ing from the reasons laid down by Humboldt and others, 
 that, considering the many species of Triticum spread over 
 both Persia and Northern India,' these countries may fairly* 
 claim the parentage of this plant. Now the locality of 
 these valleys will lie between the parallels of 30° and 40° 
 North Latitude, and Avithin these same parallels the whole 
 of Tennessee is situated, and though we are the antipodeg.. 
 
20 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 of those countries, the same sun that governs their climate 
 and meteorology gives us the same life-giving principle. 
 
 Many plants are produced and flourish spontaneously in 
 certain places on the earth's surface, yet such is the adapta- 
 bility of most plants that through the interference of man 
 they are caj)able of being transferred to various points and 
 of growing successfully as in their birth-place. Wheat is 
 a signal example of this character of cereals though not 
 confined to that species. In Asia wheat was only known 
 by a few well defined species, yet by culture it has improved 
 and increased until now largely over two hundred kinds 
 are known and grown. At first botanists divided it into 
 ^'hard ^cheats/' '^soft toheats," and '' Polish toheats/' but soil, 
 cultivation and climate have developed it into the many 
 beautiful varieties now shown at every county fair. 
 
 The hard wheats are the products of the warm countries, 
 such as Egypt, Sicily and South Italy. The soft wheats 
 flourish in the colder, damper climates, such as Sweden, 
 Denmark and North Russia. The Polish wheats are those 
 grown in the country from which its name is derived, 
 and are hard or flint wheats. The hard wheats abound 
 in o-luten or flesh-forming principle, and white wheat in 
 starch or fat-producing principles. 
 
 The hard wheats will not, according to our Southern 
 method of milling, make as white flour because a large 
 amount of silica and alumina exists in the hull or bran, and 
 this being incorporated in the flour gives it a yellow hue. 
 For this reason the country south of us has been heretofore 
 debarred from cultivating the varieties of wheat best suited 
 to its climate. But a new milling process, of which more 
 hereafter, is fast being adopted by which the wheat is de- 
 prived of its hull before grinding, and then the flint wheats 
 will make as white flour and far more nutritious bread 
 than any others. The white varieties of wheat are tender 
 and liable to gprout from damp weather, and are far more 
 subject to tiie depredations of the weevil. Besides, they 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 21 
 
 require a much longer time to be dried before grinding or 
 packing for transportation. Tlie hard wheats alone furnish 
 flour suitable for manufacturing into maccaroni. 
 
 Some soils are remarkable for the j)roduction of. good 
 seed, while other soils will cause a constant degeneration, so 
 that a frequent resort to new seeds is required. This is so 
 well known in England that the produce of a certain parish 
 in Cambridgeshire is sold for seed at a larger price than 
 can be obtained for it for milling purposes. It will be to 
 the interest of farmers to take advantage of this hint and 
 always buy their seed from some one who uniformly makes 
 good crops. It has been ascertained that all kinds of seed 
 wheats of the same variety contain the same relative pro- 
 portion of gluten and starch. For bread making the excess 
 of gluten would be no objection, but to create a perfect 
 vegetation a due proportion of these constituents is neces- 
 sary and is essential to perfect maturity. So that, if this 
 fact can be ascertained, it will at once be known there is an 
 excess of nitrogeuous or animal manure in the soil or of 
 vegetable humus. In either case the remedy is easily 
 applied by the addition of the deficiency. 
 
 By selecting seed from ears that show a superiority to 
 the surrounding field, and sowing it carefully, we may be 
 able to perpetuate a new species made by a fortuitous im- 
 pregnation or some peculiarity of the soil. 
 
 Many instances of this kind occur, and it is beyond 
 belief the amount of wealth given to a single county by 
 a careful attention to this simple hint. In many of the 
 Basin counties an average of 25,000 acres are' annually 
 sown. Before the introduction of the Boughton, Tappahan- 
 nock, Fultz and other good varieties of wheat, fifteen to 
 twenty bushels were considered an extraordinary yield. 
 Since then from twenty-five to thirty-five are not uncom- 
 mon on properly cultivated land. It it true the pride of 
 havirsg a superior variety will stimulate to a carefu! prepa 
 uU)u cf land and a prcper attenticn to. tM s-sltuie. Vh 
 
29 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 is one of the legitimate results of good seed. Attention to 
 thi» will increase the production for each county from 
 20,000 to 100,000 bushels annually. We have many re- 
 corded instances of the very valuable results from selecting 
 good, large, plump grains for seed. In some instances the 
 drop has been quadrupled in quantity and quality by the 
 use of choicest seed selected in the manner stated. 
 
 *^ Mr. J. B. Armstrong, of Wicomico county, Maryland, 
 from one ounce of Fultz wheat, sown in drills, obtained 84 
 ounces of wheat. From one omice of Clawsou he obtained 
 76 ounces. The moles destroyed some of the latter or it 
 would have been as good as the former. Mr. L. M. Wilson, 
 of the same county, obtained two bushels of Clawson from 
 1-^ pints of seed. This variety is a hard white flint, and 
 has a very strong straw." — American Miller. 
 
 In selecting imported wheat for seed cafe must be exer- 
 cised as to the place whence it originated. Wheat grown in 
 England, M'liich has a moist, cool climate, would not suit 
 the warm, dry soil of Tennessee, but possibly if grown a 
 year or two in Canada or Northern New York, it might be 
 a valuable addition to our granary. Wheat sown year after 
 year in moist soils will degenerate very rapidly. It be- 
 hoves farmers to pay more attention to the causes of the 
 deterioration of wheat. It may be that each variety is 
 adapted to a' specific climate where it grows perfectly, and 
 where it will not degenerate if supplied with a sufficiency 
 of proper nourishment. Causes are ever at work to modify 
 the germ and it requires constant and unremitting care to 
 counteract these causes. Should wheat not yield as well as 
 the land would seem to justify, new seed should be selected 
 that is grown on a soil of different character and, if from a 
 slightly different climate, all the better. The product will 
 be improved both in quality and quantity. 
 
 It is generally conceded that wheat grown on a sandy 
 soil will succeed well on a heavy clay soil, or on the black 
 soil derived from limestone. Seed from a damp soil will be 
 
IX TENNESSEE. |E3 
 
 late in maturing and is liable to rust. It would be la g-ood 
 change for the black and mulatto lands of Middle and East 
 Tennessee to be supplied with good varieties grown in the 
 sandy lands of West Tennessee. The selection of new 
 varieties either by choosing from superior kinds the spon- 
 taneous growth of nature, or by judiciously crossing varie- 
 ties, each possessing qualities that are desirable and worthy 
 of being perpetuated, offers a fine field either for botanical 
 experiments or for the exercise of that philanthropy whicli 
 impels one to the service of mankind. The extraordinary 
 success of improvements in our garden vegetables, tlie 
 production of innumerable new varieties of various escu- 
 lents gives matter of surprise that the attention of the 
 farming world has not been heretofore more particularly 
 directed to an equal amount of experiments on the cereals, 
 such as oats, wheat, barley and rye and the grasses gener- 
 ally. What has been effected — can be done again, Wlien 
 a person by any sort of process is able to make 50 or BO 
 or 70 bushels per acre, others by pursuing as near as pos- 
 sible the same process can do the same, or at least approxi- 
 mate it. 
 
 Seed properly selected should never have been through 
 a thresher. It will not only mix but will convey many 
 noxious seeds, such as "cheat," "cockle," "couch grass," etc. 
 These seeds will lie dormant in the ground for years ftnd 
 then coming within the germinating power of the sun spring 
 up to annoy the farmer. As an evidence of the facility of 
 threshers to sow seeds, the attention of every one has been 
 drawn to the large amount of these troublesome weeds 
 growing on the places where threshers have been set. 
 
 Any man who will establish in his garden an experi- 
 mental plot, can select the best heads of the most prolific 
 wheat, sowing the next year the best heads alone, and still 
 selecting from this the best heads, using the balance for 
 field use, and in this manner keeping always one year 
 ahead. This will make good seed. A practice that has re- 
 
24' WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 suited in, a largely increased production has prevailed irt 
 some sections, and merits special mention. 
 
 Select a few bundles and strike them over the head of a 
 barrel lightly. The heaviest, best matured grains will fall 
 Qut, leaving those not fully ripe in the bundle. A few 
 rijiinutes will suffice to secure seed in this manner that will 
 improve ^ the ordinary yield very largely. This proves 
 the. necessity of seed wheat being allowed to get fully ripe, 
 before, cutting^ 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 25 
 
 CHAPTEH lY. 
 
 HiSTOEiCAL Allusions — Plants Allied to and In- 
 festing Wheat, ^-Egilops, Couch Geass, Cockle. 
 
 Mention has been made heretotore of the probable habitat 
 of wheat ; but it is by no means a conceded point. Colum- 
 bus never had his place of birth claimed by more cities 
 than countries are claimed for the origin of wheat. We 
 have good reason for believing much of this ambiguity 
 results from two causes. In the first place, wheat either 
 existed before the creation of man, or was so nearly his 
 coeval in antiquity that it is prehistoric. We have the 
 example of the fossils under our hills to prove that with 
 each era in the creation the formation of any particular 
 being was preceded by the creation of some special food 
 suited to that creature. Diatoms and Algse, the mosses of 
 the sea, preceded infusoria ; these served as food for the 
 Radiata, which in turn sustain the more highly developed 
 denizens of the sea. AVhen the ocean had been sufficiently 
 stocked for the formation of carnivora, the sharks made 
 their appearance. In like manner it was repeated on the 
 land. Vegetation, suited to the many different animals, 
 began to fleck the earth, and it is a reasonable supposition 
 that, inasmuch as man was not able to digest the grasses of 
 the field as do cattle, other more readily digestible food 
 should be supplied to him in a form more suited to his 
 limited powers of assimilation. 
 
 In this manner, when man made his appearance upon 
 the scene of crctior, he found not only the flocks ?nd 
 herds ready lor nis consumption, but an abundraice o 
 cereals, and it was only necessary for him to find their uses. 
 
26 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 This was effected by the gradual discovery of the properties 
 of the various growths ol the earth. No doubt many fell 
 victims to their experiments, as in the present age; but 
 mankind reaped the benefit of their success, until all that is 
 esculent has been added to the repertory of agi'iculture. 
 As a matter of necessity, these discoveries long preceded the 
 art of recording them ; hence, the origin of the old world 
 cereals is left mainly to conjecture. In a paper addressed 
 by Sir Joseph Banks to the Historical Society in 1805, he 
 speaks of having received some seeds from a lady, among 
 them a package labeled " Hill Wheat," the grains being 
 about as large as the seeds of our ordinary grasses, but 
 which, when looked at through a magnifying lens, were 
 found to resemble the grains of wheat exactly. He sowed 
 these seeds in his garden, and was greatly surprised to find 
 the produce to be spring wheat of ordinary size. He made 
 every inquiry possible to ascertain the history of these seeds, 
 but could only elicit the fact that they came from India ; but 
 whether they were the result of cultivation, or the sponta- 
 neous production of nature, he could not discover. The 
 explorations and discoveries of modern scientists are con- 
 ducted with much more systematic care than formerly, and 
 the results being constantly given to the world, excites a 
 spirit of inquiry in others, and thus many important facts 
 are annually added to the store of knowledge. Everyone has 
 heard or read of the numerous specimens of wheat being 
 found in the pyramids and the sarcophagi of the Eastern 
 potentates, and these deposits of the world's food have lain 
 here many thousands of years. It has often, also, been 
 found among the lacustrian habitations of the aboriginal 
 inhabitants of Germany and Switzerland, side by side with 
 the many implements of the Stone Age. We may gather 
 from this that it early found its way both east and west from 
 its native home in Asia. When Cortez made his conquest 
 of Mexico, a negro servant of the great conqueror discovered 
 in his rations of rice a few grains of wheat, which he care- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 27 
 
 fully planted, and continued to plant for several successive 
 years, and hence came the supply of Mexico and its neigh- 
 boring States. Whether these few grains were brought by 
 Cortez from Spain, or were collected rom the natives, does 
 not appear in the history, but it is to be presumed the rice 
 was brought from their colonies. 
 
 Sicily has also laid claim to its parentage, from the fact 
 that Ceres was a native of that island, and she is credited 
 with having brought it thence to Greece and its provinces. 
 It may have been cultivated in Persia or Egypt, and some 
 of the seeds being scattered along the roadsides by the cara- 
 vans that traversed the hills and deserts, germinated and 
 continued to grow in these places, not accessible to culti- 
 vation ; and though it does not under such circumstances 
 lose its proper characteristics as wheat, yet it may be readily 
 comprehended by similar instances that it would become 
 small and weak. Our large pippins, weighing a pound or 
 more, together with the many hundreds of delicious apples, 
 are all developed from the unpromising and bitter crab. A 
 very small poisonous root in Chili gave us the starchy 
 potato, that has so often come between the poor of Europe 
 and starvation. The juicy, sweet, highly prized parsnip 
 springs frona a root that, from its resemblance and similar 
 smell, has killed its thousands, being highly deleterious to 
 human life. The luscious peach, more delicate in its flavor 
 than all tropical fruits, more generally cultivated than even 
 the apple, originates from the worthless bitter almond. If 
 science can make such an improvement in these luxuries, 
 how much more may we expect from the care that would 
 naturally be bestowed on such a necessity. And yet, with 
 all the wonderful advancement made in the character of 
 these and other cereals, we have reason to believe, left to 
 themselves, they would, after a lapse of sufficient time, 
 revert to their original state. Everyone has seen a garden 
 in its bloom and beauty, filled with the most delightful 
 species of roses. Roses red, roses yellow, and pink, and 
 
28 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 white, with all the intermediate tints, full of petals, running 
 over with loveliness and perfume. Yet ■ ii'\sc same roses, 
 deprived of the hoe and spade to battle with legions of 
 weeds, seeking the destruction of these favorites of man, 
 would soon, by these vandals, be choked to death, or they 
 would lose their delicate petals, and others would take their 
 place, the stems would arm themselves in their own defense, 
 with long, sharp thorns; in fact, they would lose all but 
 their delightful oder, which they would still offer up as an 
 incense to their Maker. It is by no means a conceded 
 point that no species can be entirely changed by cultivation 
 on the contrary, a numerous and intelligent class of botan- 
 ists claim to be able to effect a permanent departure from 
 one species into another, so that, instead of there being one 
 or more species, there will be one or more varieties of one 
 species. Prof. Henslow's experiments would tend to show 
 this doctrine to be so, but the species selected by Prof. 
 Henslow were so nearly allied that it was not a positive fact 
 that one was only a hybrid of the other. If, however, such 
 a result should be effected, it might be that, through the 
 agency of man, and under proper climatic influences, wheat 
 itself may have been developed from some wild native 
 grass, so different now from wheat, that their relationship 
 should never be recognized. 
 
 ^GILOS OVATA. 
 
 Many botanists have long contended wheat is the off- 
 spring of the grass known as ^gilops Ovata. It grows 
 spontaneously in Sicily, and though a coarse grass, growing 
 only about eight or ten inches high, though much smaller, 
 is precisely similar in appearance to wheat. There are sev- 
 eral species of this grass. The rough -spiked ^gilops 
 grows in the Levant, and is perennial. There are other 
 species'of jEyilops called Cretan, long-spiked, oval-spiked, 
 cyndrical-spiked, etc., to be fauud respectively in Candia, 
 Italy, Hungary, and Southern Europe.- In gome places the 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 29 
 
 seeds are roasted, and used for human food. All these 
 seeds are precisely like wheat, except that they are very 
 diminutive. It had often been asserted by various persons 
 that wheat was Aegilops, altered by cultivation : but from 
 the fact that the latter was only a bitter, miserable grass, 
 ten or twelve inches in height, no botanist of respectability 
 could be induced to make such an assertion. In fact, they 
 declared their dissimilarity to be so great that they belonged 
 to different genera. Beauvois, in 1812, in a dissertation, 
 said there was no diiference, except artificially, between 
 the two. 
 
 A Frenchman, by name Fabre, Vv^ho was a gardner, a 
 careful, punctual man, without any education, undertook to 
 discover the diiference for his own satisfaction. So, in 
 1838, he gathered the seeds of the JEegilops Ocata, and 
 and sowed them in his garden. There was but little 
 change, except as to height, it being two and a-half feet 
 high. There were but one or two grains to the head, and 
 these unlike either wheat or JEgilo-ps. He saved them 
 carefully, however, and continued to plant from year to 
 year, preserving specimens of each growth until 1845, when 
 the plant was adjudged by all to be true wheat. The last 
 change that occurred was from a pithy to a hollow stem. 
 This experiment was conducted with great care, in enclosed 
 places, carefully excluding all grasses, or anything likely to 
 hybridize with it. It was known of many, and his pro- 
 ceedings were closely watched by the neighbors. He was 
 an uneducated man, and had no pride or desire to establish 
 any particular theory on the subject; and so, when an 
 article appeared in the proceedings of the Royal Agricultu- 
 ral Society, it had a powerful effect in shaking the theory 
 of botanists in the immutability of genera. However, wlien 
 it is known that the culture of wheat largely predominated 
 in that department, and often in the rays of sunshine large 
 clouds of pollen are seen rising from the wheat fields and 
 floating lazily with the wind, it is readily understood how 
 
30 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 the plants become not only hybridized after cultivation, but 
 that the process had been going on for some time before. 
 The truth or falsity of this theory may be questioned or 
 not, but the consequence of it, if true, would be very im- 
 portant to the culturist in more ways than one. It would 
 explain in a most sensible manner the disposition of wheat 
 to degenerate, and to become diseased after cultivation in 
 one section of country for a long time, and it would suggest 
 the remedy. 
 
 It hardly seems possible that all botanisls of so many 
 years should have made such an evident error in their classi- 
 fication, and that it should have been left to a simple gar- 
 dener to discover this error, and expunge from the botany 
 either Tritioum or jEgilops. 
 
 Lieutenant Mayo, of the United States Navy, spent some 
 time visiting the plains of Troy, while his vessel was 
 cruising in the Archipelago. He gathered a few grains of 
 what he supposed to be wild wheat growing there, and 
 gave them to Dr. Wilson Waters, who has planted them 
 for several years. He now (1831, American Farmer) has 
 about a bushel of wheat that is larger than that derived 
 from wheat grown in this country, but not so large as that 
 derived from Chili. The stalk is nearly solid, has a large 
 base, and is more tapering than ordinary wheat; has a 
 head with long beard, fully six inches long, and it averages 
 about forty grains to the head. It is thought it may be 
 valuable from its heavy stalk, protecting it from the depre- 
 dations of the fly, and from lodging. 
 
 COUCH GEASS {Triticum Repens). 
 
 This is a most troublesome grass, introduced from Europe, 
 infesting many wheat fields and meadows, and is known by 
 a different name in almost every locality. It is called 
 witch-grass, twitch, quitch, quack, quake, squitch, dog-grass, 
 chandler-grass, and wheat-grass. The plant is two feet 
 
IN TENJTESSEE, 31 
 
 high, having rough leaves, somewhat hairy, and trailing at 
 the lower joints, is perennial, and propagates itself both by 
 its seeds and jointed stems and roots. Although it is a 
 grass, its leaves are too coarse for fodder, and it performs 
 the office of a vile weed, being an insidious creeper, multi- 
 plying and ramifying itself in all directions. Its scraggy 
 roots go deep into the ground, and take firm hold. Each 
 joint can produce a new plant, which in turn, if not de- 
 stroyed, will produce others without number. 
 
 The only way to destroy this pest is to gather, dig, and 
 burn. If land is well plowed, and turned often during dry, 
 hot weather, it can be got rid of. But to dig or plow it 
 up in wet weather, will only assist its projoagation. Its 
 roots strike so deeply that it is almost impossible for it to 
 be broken. In the early autumn its roots strike horizon- 
 tally and obliquely in all directions, and continue to run 
 until the cold weather interferes w^ith its growth. 
 
 The roots are suculent and quite nutritious, and are by 
 some people dug, cleaned, and fed to horses and cattle, while 
 in the poverty-stricken counti'ies of Northern Europe the 
 peasants dig the roots, dry them thoroughly, and grind them 
 into meal that they may have cheap bread, and be enabled 
 to sell their wheat to the rich. Hogs will plough up the 
 ground with great zest in search of its rich joints. Its 
 ashes contain about 10 per cent, of lime, 5 per cent, of pot- 
 ash, 20 of bone, and balance silicates. This explains why 
 clay is so congenial to its growth. Where land is foul with 
 it, it is known, that turnips do well. It belongs to the 
 family of Triticum. It is susceptible of hybridization. It 
 may be seen in the corners of the fences of most of our 
 grain fields, and though it has not troubled us to the same 
 extent it has our Northern States, yet it is well the farmer 
 should keep an eye on it lest it should take hold. Its seeds 
 once mixed with wheat would soon give it such a set as 
 would give employment for years to the thriftless farmer, 
 who lets it steal upon him. 
 
32 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 COCKLE {Lychnis Githacjo). 
 
 This weed belongs to the Pink family (Caryophyllacce)) 
 and derives its first name from Luchnos, a Greek word, 
 meaning light, from the flaming color of its flowers in 
 some species, and its heavy fur of cotton on the leaves. The 
 ancients made wicks of the Midlein Lychnis for use in their 
 lamps. Its second name, Githago, is from Gith, which 
 means Guinea pepper, from the size and color of its seeds. 
 
 Every farmer in the country is well acquainted with this 
 pest, and it is one that, with but little attention, can be 
 effectually destroyed. It is an annual, and to be propa- 
 gated must be sown each year. This preservation is secured 
 with great certainty by the farmer, for when once harvested, 
 and it ripens with wheat, it, being of same size with wheat, 
 passes through the seive, and, being heavier, it resists the 
 efforts of any fan to separate it. Thus the farmer perpetu- 
 ates it himself, and being so black, if in quantity, it gives 
 a bluish tinge to the flour. It proves that great maxim of 
 farmers not to put off until to-morrow what should be done 
 to-day ; for when the cockle is once safely shocked with the 
 wheat it is secure, it will do the balance of its hiding, and 
 come up with its companion, the wheat, the next year. But 
 if the farmer would, while the cockle is showing its baiuti- 
 ful, purplish flowers all over the field, spare a few hours 
 with his boys, he could soon go over the wheat, and by 
 pulling it up, effectually destroy it, root and branch. There 
 is no difficulty in detecting it. It raises its own flag of 
 defiance, and it would be fun for the boys to pull it up. 
 Much more difficult to destroy, and far more troublesome to 
 the farmer, is the chess or cheat. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. S3 
 
 CHAPTER V. 
 
 CHESS OE CHEAT (bROMUS SECALINUS)-— BROME tjfJlJESS — 
 DESCRIPTION OF — ERRORS REGARDING. 
 
 This plant belongs to the order Graminece or grasses, anil 
 to the tnhe festueeoi or fescue grass. There are many varie- 
 ties of this grass, but the one above is sufficient for t)ur 
 present purpose. Willard introduced it into this country 
 under the impression it was a good forage grass. But it 
 was soon discarded as being worthless, and not only worth- 
 less, but injurious. The characteristics of this genus •ei'fi: 
 Spikelets with 5 to many flowers pauicled ; glumes ^2»t 
 quite equal, shorter than the flowers, mostly keeled) the 
 lower with 1 to 5, the upper with 3 to 9 nerves ; the flt)'\\ners 
 lanceolate, compressed ; the palea? herbaceous, the low£r 
 keeled with 5 to 9 nerves, awned or bristle pointed from 
 below the tip; the upper palea finally adherent to thegr^in, 
 straws three, styles attached below the apex of the ovar3^ 
 The grasses of this genus are coarse, with large spik^lBts, 
 generally somewhat drooping when ripe. 
 
 From the facts the grains of this grass are smaller tlian 
 wheat, it is very difficult to separate it, and thus it seriously 
 injures the sale and quality of wheat. As before f-e- 
 marked, it was brought to this country by Willard under 
 the impression it was a good addition to our list of feed 
 grasses, and the seed were sold at an enormous price, ■and 
 so eagerly was it sought after that it very sopn bfeeame 
 disseminated all over the country. Its worthless character 
 was soon ascertained and its cultivation abandoned, but 4iot 
 until it had stocked nearly every grain field in the Ujiian. 
 Its seeds have several thicknesses of husk, and beiiig V^ry 
 small and of lov\^ vitality, it will remain dormant in'':'the 
 soil for years until brought within the vivifying iufluencesiif 
 
34 WHEAT CTJLTUEE 
 
 the sun. In this respect it resembles clover seed, that will 
 produce a stand of clover after undergoing wonderful 
 chances for destruction. A gentleman once fed clover hay 
 to his horses during the autumn and winter and in February 
 he dixg the manure up and placed it in a frame to make a 
 hot bed. It there performed its office for the season, but 
 lay until the following February, when it became necessary 
 to remove the beds, and the old manure was scattered in 
 the garden. He looked upon the whole pile as being a 
 corpiis mwtuuSy but to his surprise the entire garden came 
 np thickly with clover, and continued for a year to send up 
 fresh plants with every stirring. 
 
 Esq. Carothers, in Williamson county, sowed a piece of 
 new ground in the corner of his woods lot with turnips in 
 1861. The turnips, after laying through the winter, made 
 seed, but the occupation of the county by the Federal sol- 
 diers destroyed the fences, and the turnip patch stood ex- 
 posed to stock during the war. In 1871 the patch or cor- 
 ner was again broken up, this time included in the corn 
 field, and after laying awhile it gave a full and heavy 
 gro\Hh o-f turnips. Now if clover can withstand the diges- 
 tive apparatus of a horse, the heating of a hot bed and come 
 up, and if turnips can lay in the ground ten years and then 
 vegetate, why, one need not be astonished at the powers of 
 self-preservation of the chess. 
 
 Mr. Thos. Hamlet, of Davidson county, bought a lot of 
 wheat with a few grains of chess in it. He sowed it and 
 with it of course the chess seed. He continued to sow the 
 same quality of wheat for several years, gradually increas- 
 ing the quantity of chess until his crop was almost totally 
 chess instead of wheat. Now, although he had deliberately 
 contributed to effect this result, his farm was spoken of far 
 and near gis an instance in which a variety of wheat had 
 been converted into cheat. It became so grevious an evil 
 ho had to abandon for a few years the cultivation of wheat, 
 and during the interval the cheat continued to grow as any 
 
IN TENNESEEE. 35 
 
 any other grass would. But finally it departed and he was 
 able to resume wheat culture. 
 
 It IS a well known fact that this is treading on tender 
 ground, when it is sought to convert this time honored 
 theory of the conversion or degeneration of wheat into 
 cheat, but the duty of a truthful and faithful officer compels 
 him to apply the surgeon's knife to all errors, in hopes, if 
 the true theory is once established, we may by a united 
 effort not only eradicate the error, but the vile pest also. 
 Every one is liable to jump at conclusions from hasty ob- 
 servations, and where once the inference is made and ac- 
 cepted, it is a difficult rnatter to correct it. 
 
 The most common opinion is that wheat that has been 
 pastured early, or over which a wagon has been driven, is 
 more subject to this change. The fact is cited that if a gap 
 occurs in the fence through which stock mostly pass, the 
 path made by them has the most cheat in it. They explain 
 it in the following manner : Wheat that is covered deeply 
 sprouts and sends up its plumule to the air and its roots 
 spread from the grain around. The depth of the seed and 
 roots is so great that the plumule sends out another set of 
 rootlets near the surface soil. In treadino; on the around 
 around grains that have taken on this process of double 
 roots, the stem of the wheat becomes severed between the 
 grain and the surface roots, and it then degenerates into 
 cheat. This is an assumption not warranted by the facts. 
 It is only forming a theory of explanation for an assumed 
 fact when there is in reality nothing of the kind. 
 
 In the first place, cheat is a hardier plant than wheat, 
 and a continual battle is going on between the two for ex- 
 istence, none the less deadly because it is silent. The wheat 
 being a cultivated plant requires more protection or assist- 
 ance to maintain its life. The amount of 'injury it receives 
 from the depredations o ijtock tends to weaken its hold on 
 life, while the cheat takes advantage of its weak condition 
 and thrusts up itsi noisome head and makes good its hold on 
 
36 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 the field. If the field is trod through the entire winter, it 
 thus gives the cheat more and better opportunities, of which 
 it never fails to avail itself. If one part of a field could 
 transmute its wheat into chess, the whole could just as 
 easily, and there remains yet to be a record of a whole field 
 undergoing this degeneration. Besides, chess makes its 
 appearance in all wheat fields where the wheat, from any 
 cause whatever, has become weak and feeble in its growth, 
 on the j^rinciple above stated. It is asserted by some that 
 the chaff of chess does not contain any seed; but this asser- 
 tion is not borne out by the facts, and is never asserted by 
 any one who has submitted the reproductive organs and 
 flowers of chess to microscopic observation, for in this re- 
 spect it is just as perfect as any other plant, and the thick 
 chaff seems to protect its abbuminous body for years. Not 
 only so, but under favorable circumstances, during mild 
 winters, the plant deprived of its head before maturity of its 
 seed, will remain green and vegetate again in the spring. 
 This is especaally the case in meadows, where the roots are 
 protected by a swathe of hay. Meadows in this manner 
 have been effectually ruined by chess. And yet no wheat 
 had been sown here to give it birth, it having been de- 
 posited by the droppings of stock. If the treading of cattle 
 could change wheat into chess, why could not the same 
 cause change other plants ? We never hear of clover de- 
 generating into timothy, or timothy into herdsgrass, or 
 herdsgrass into orchard. Yet these are all grasses and as 
 liable to degenerate into one another as wheat or cheat into 
 each other. Nor do pumpkins go into melons, or cucum- 
 bers into gqustelj. Each and every plant has its distinctive 
 character and maintains it through all time, only modified 
 by changes o£ location, climate or soil. Cheat requires 
 a large amount of moisture to reach through its thick husk 
 and cause ite seed to germinate; hence moist places are 
 favorable to ita growth, and its rankness is such that it 
 overshadowg aa^d chokes out the wheat, therefore a farmer 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 37 
 
 passing in the early spring a place of this kind and seeing an 
 abundance of wheat growing, and afterwards in harvest see- 
 ing nothing here but cheat, will easily persuade himself the 
 wheat has changed to cheat. 
 
 Again, the nature of this husk is to protect it, and hence 
 it will lie in the crop of birds and in the stomach of horses 
 and cattle utterly unchanged until evacuated. Birds pass- 
 ing over wdieat fields drop them as well as animals, and 
 thus it is common to see cheat growing especially around 
 stumps or dead trees in newly cleared fields. 
 
 It is an unquestioned fact that all allied species of plants 
 and animals will hybridize and produce offspring partaking 
 of the characters of both parents, and this is exemplified in 
 the case of tlie horse and the ass, both being allied— species 
 of the genus equine. But who ever saw a hybrid from 
 chess and wheat ? That it has every facility for hybridizing 
 will not admit of a doubt, growing promiscuously with 
 each other, flowering at the same time, and being each en- 
 veloped in a cloud of pollen. Yet it never mixes. The 
 distinctive features of each has always and ever will be 
 preserved, as are the characteristics of all the animals and 
 plants created in the earth for man's use or adornment. If 
 farmers would cease to yield to this fatalism of belief, and 
 instead of blindly accepting the inevitable, as they think, 
 set themselves to work, in a few years, by sovv^ing habitu- 
 ally clean wheat seed, the genus Bromus, or chess, would 
 disappear from our grain fields altogether. 
 
 Another aroument which I have failed to notice in its 
 proper place : Some will tell you that treading does pro- 
 duce cheat, for it is always found thickest around a thresh- 
 ing machine, and the treading of men and horses produced 
 it. If any one will look into the joints and cogs and seams 
 of the thresher, the secret of its propagation will be at once 
 detected. The seeds of the cheat lie there hidden in suffi- 
 cient numbers, and only the shaking of the machine is 
 necessary to put the seed on the ground. 
 
38 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER VI. 
 
 DEGENERATION OR DETERIORATION OF WHEAT — IMPROVE- 
 MENT OF WHEAT. 
 
 Although it may seem that wheat to a certain extent de- 
 generates, it really does not actually occur ; the genus re- 
 mains the same unaltered and unalterable, but the species 
 undergoes certain changes from influence of climate, soil, 
 altitude and cultivation. A frequent and subtle cause of 
 apparent change may be found in a simple circumstance. 
 A man procures a fine variety of wheat, and being much 
 pleased with it, he sows it from year to year. However, he 
 begins after a year or two to notice a change ; it becomes 
 deteriorated, and after a sufficient length of time his wheat, 
 so much admired at the outset, becomes another species en- 
 tirely, and yet he would declare that he had carefully pre- 
 served his seed. This is easily explained. The threshers 
 are carried from field to field, cleaning wheat crops of 
 various kinds, but never cleaning out themselves, so that in 
 the cracks and crannies many a grain becomes transported 
 to a neighbor's bin, of whicli he is entirely ignorant. 
 
 There are many varieties of wheat that, though coarse 
 and inferior, have much more vitality than the finer kinds. 
 This vigorous coarse wheat once introduced with a superior 
 wheat will make its own way, and though the change began 
 with only a few grains, it soon shows to the farmer his 
 favorite wheat is fast losing its beauty; the miller gives him 
 a smaller price for it, and he tirades against the degeneracy 
 of wheat, and says no kind will remain good. Xow whose 
 fault it is may be readily seen, and only the careful farmer 
 who uses the necessary precautions^ may expect to jjerpetu- 
 
IX TENNESSEE. ^9 
 
 ate a good variety. It is not the less true tliat wheat does 
 undergo changes from a change of soil and other contin- 
 gencies. It is known that red wheat, by high culture and 
 good land becomes less red, and this improvement can 
 ]3rogress until it settles into a white wheat. A case of this 
 kind came under my observation a few years ago, A gen- 
 tleman who had paid much attention to the selection of his 
 seed, let a farmer in a neighboring county have some seed of 
 Mediterranean. They both continued to sow the same 
 wheat for a few years and then meeting at a mill, it was 
 found on comparison, the wheat of one had become darker 
 and that of the other lighter, making such a mailced dis- 
 tinction between the two, it did not appear they coiild be 
 from the same seed. 
 
 Although there may be no positive evidence that bearded 
 wheat ever changes into smooth heads, yet many believe in 
 this very variety it is the case, as the wheat has every 
 mark of Mediterranean except its beard. A variety of 
 wheat is cultivated in France that loses its beard the mo- 
 ment it becomes ripe. It is a long head, has very long 
 awns or beards, and an exceedingly thick husk or chaff, and 
 is white and heavy. It does not withstand the cold very 
 well, or it would make a valuable addition to the farmer of 
 Tennessee, for it yields on moderately good soil from 80 to 
 45 bushels per acre. The straw is long, heavy and of re- 
 markable whiteness. It is cultivated near Brionde. 
 
 It is astonishing what effect climate and soil have on the 
 production of the same variety. Tennessee embraces as 
 many essentially different characters of soil and climates as 
 any State in the Union. Altitude also has its influence not 
 only on wheat but other productions. Every one is familiar 
 ■with the difference that exists in the same variety of apples 
 on the low lands of Middle Tennessee and the same apple 
 on the Cumberland table land. A higher degree of lattitude 
 is more congenial to the growth and maturity of apples 
 than Middle Tennessee, and although on the table lands of 
 
40- WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 the Cimibei'land you are in the same latitude precisely, yet 
 in effect you are further north, as altitude compensates for 
 latitude. In like manner peaches succeed far better south 
 of us in. a sandy soil. West Tennessee, though in the same 
 latitude, being lower in altitude than Middle Tennessee, 
 ami having a very porous, sandy soil, succeeds far better in 
 producing peaches than Middle Tennessee. The causes that 
 will affect one vegetable will affect all. Suppose this or 
 ajDty other wheat was sent from France to Canada, Tenn- 
 essee,, Florida and California. The products of these sev- 
 eral places would be unlike. And if the same wheat were 
 cultivated for fifteen or twenty years, there would be four va- 
 rieties of wheat, all differing from one another, and still all 
 differing from the original. ' The Canada would probably 
 ripen about the first of August, the Tennessee 
 about the first of June, and the California and Florida 
 about tlie first of May, And more than this. If the va- 
 rieties acclimated in these several places be brought to 
 Tennessee, that from Canada will ripen a few days earlier 
 than the Tennessee variety, and that from Florida a few 
 days later, because the Canada wheat being used to a colder 
 climate is stimulated by our warm sun to a quicker growth, 
 while the colder climate here retards the Florida wheat 
 that ba& been basking under a sub-tropical heat. 
 
 Thus it so often happens that wheat, imported from a 
 country so essentially different in soil, climate, and other 
 material qualities from our own, fails to come up to our ex- 
 pectations. We bring here a beautiful wheat from England, 
 a cold, moist climate, and sow it in our warm, dry soil, and 
 it proves a perfect failure. On the other hand we bring it 
 from the parched, hot climate of Egypt or Syria which, com- 
 pared with that of ours, is cold and moist, and we have an- 
 other failure. It is not the variety of wheat that creates 
 such a marked difference, but it is the different environ- 
 ments. Hence its quality is owing to local conditions, and 
 not to the better quality of the wheat. Therefore there is 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 41 
 
 little to be gained by this change. Success can be attained 
 far easier in propagating different varieties here, than by 
 importations. The principal difference between red and 
 white wheats consists in the amount of gluten and silex in 
 the skin or bran. Gluten is found to be two or three times 
 as thick in some varieties as in others. It is thickest in 
 the coarse, heavy, red wheat, medium in amber, and least in 
 white wheat. There is much more silex in the red than 
 in the white wheat; but climate, soil and cul- 
 ture, modify the amount of gluten and silex as well as 
 all other characteristics] of the plant, and in this way new 
 varieties are formed. So lono- as the conditions under 
 which these varieties are formed continues, the wheat re- 
 mains the same, but a change in that regard would cause 
 them to revert to their original state. Other causes than 
 climate, soil or culture sometimes operate to get up a new 
 variety. 
 
 A farmer sows one variety of wheat a number of years 
 without any change or degeneration. At last he finds a 
 single head or a bunch different in every respect from the 
 balance. He secures it, and from its produce for several 
 years he starts a new variety. He cannot account for its 
 presence, for had it been set there by a commingling made 
 by a thresher, he would have found others of the same sort. 
 Hybridizing would be an impossibility without another 
 kind to hybridize from. Pollen blown by the wind would 
 possibly have changed more than one stem, and the variety 
 would still in part "be like the parent. One set of theorists, 
 account for it by attributing it to the droppings of migrat- 
 ing birds. This is hardly to be admitted, from the fad 
 that when a grain of seed passes through the active diges- 
 tive apparatus of a bird, there is not much probability of it 
 being able to germinate. Yet it is possible, and it is an 
 admitted fact that seed brought from the north to the sout i 
 any considerable distance will greatly improve in size an ! 
 vigor, surpassing that already acclimated. In this manne 
 
42 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 the celebrated Fultz wheat originated. A blacksmith named 
 Fultz, ^passing from his shop to his house, cut across fields. 
 He noticed a bunch of heads in a neighbor's field, present- 
 ing a marked variety, dififering from that around it. It 
 was so much more thrifty looking that he marked it, and on 
 ijiaturity he secured it. Sowing it in his garden, carefully 
 preserving it from year to year, until he had enough to 
 make a respectable field of wheat. It did not disappoint 
 his expectations, and it was eagerly sought by the commu- 
 nity. Its popularity very soon ceased to be local, and some 
 of it being secured by the Department of Agriculture, was 
 distributed all over the United States. We all know the 
 success it has achieved, and its popularity is now only in the 
 beginning. 
 
 Every eifort to improve the varieties of wheat does not 
 meet v.'ith the same degree of success, but the discovery of 
 this is so beneficial that others should be incited to the 
 same laudable efforts. But we will discuss this under the 
 head of varieties of wheat, to which we devote a chapter. 
 We come now to the subject of the nomenclature of wheat. 
 
IX TEISNESSEE. 43 
 
 CHxiPTER yil. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT — DIFFERENT VARIETIES GROWN 
 IN THE STATES, W^ITH THEIR DISTINCTIVE CHARACTER- 
 ISTICS. 
 
 I sent out to every county of the State, during the sum- 
 mer of 1877, questions soliciting information in relation to 
 the wheat crop. Many correspondents have replied with a 
 fullness of detail which, added to my own personal obser- 
 vations, gives me ample means of forming a correct esti- 
 mate as to the condition of wheat culture in the State. It 
 would s6em a simple matter to the uninitiated to properly 
 classify the different varieties grown in the State, but when 
 it is reflected that every variety has a local name for each 
 neighborhood, unless the correspondents will describe the 
 named varieties, it is utterly out of our power to be at all 
 times accurate in our nomenclature. For instance, while 
 we have from different parts of the State some thirty-five 
 or more varieties mentioned by our correspondents, we are 
 able, by our personal knowledge, to resolve them into six 
 or eighty while several with which we are not acquainted 
 may, under the guise of a local name, resolve itself into one 
 or others of our old friends. With this explaination we 
 shall first enumerate the standard and known varieties, 
 which are acknowledged to be such, botanically, and then 
 to adopt the local cognomens of these standards. In this 
 manner only can we become thoroughly understood when 
 we speak of any kind as one of a well-known variety in 
 East Tennessee, which, in West Tennessee, would be called 
 by an entirely different name, and hence lead to the confusion 
 of a supposed new sort. In this manner much money is 
 spent and time lost in securing a variety from a distan,ce 
 
44 WHEAT CULTUEvE 
 
 that is already generally cultivated in the neighborhood. 
 A farmer visits a distant county from his own, with all the 
 elements of the soil different, and being pleased with a 
 growth of wheat, he takes it home, and succeeding well, it 
 is sought by his neighbors, and they, to distinguish it from 
 others', call it by the introducer's name. 
 
 This system of naming is carried to so great an extent that 
 the commonest kinds of wheat have a name for every section 
 of country. We propose to try to remedy this by giving 
 generic names to the leading varieties, and then giving the 
 sub-varieties a number attached to the local name, and in 
 this manner one name can be substituted for all synonyms. 
 In tlius establishing a nomenclature for Tennessee, we will 
 also give the names most commonly used in other States to 
 prevent confusion, and also to prevent fraud in sending to 
 other States to purchase through advertisements. We 
 know, in doing this, we are undertaking a very difficult and 
 laborious task, and we doubt our ability to make rt satisfac- 
 tory ; yet the matter has not been attempted in the State, 
 and we hesitatingly try, hoping our effort will be properly 
 construed. We well know the very difficulty we are trying 
 to remedy will subject us to much criticism. It will prob- 
 ably be seen that a species of wheat is here classed differ- 
 ently from what it is known in some localities. In some 
 sections of the State a variety is known by half a dozen 
 names, each differing from the one by which it is known 
 elsewhere. Under these circumstances it will readily be 
 seen the necessity for a revised classification. The impor- 
 tance of assisting the farmer in the selection of his seed- 
 wheat \vill alone justify the undertaking. If one should 
 visit the grounds of any of our leading nurseries, he 
 will find the gardener careful in labeling all the many vari- 
 eties of apples, peaches, pears, grapes, berries, etc., even 
 their particular llavors and colors are mentioned, and this is 
 carried to such minutia that one can seiect from the cata- 
 logue just such fruit as he desires. Yet we find that great 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 45 
 
 staff of mankind, more universally cultivated -than any other 
 cereal, "the only produce of laud which necessarily and 
 always affords some rent to the landlord, actually, as it were, 
 without a name. It may be stated as an adage, in select- 
 ing seed-wheat, " Take care of the pecks, and the bushels 
 will take care of themselves." 
 
 I have already given the botanic description of the genus 
 Trilicum, which we deem all that is necessary to say on that 
 subject, although there are seven species of this genus. 
 Flint, in his excellent treatise on grasses, gives his classifi- 
 cation of wheat also, but as a grass. We propose to treat 
 this in a comraon-s^nse manner, avoiding as much as possi- 
 ble all scientific technicalities, so as to enable every one, the 
 practical as well as the amateur farmer, to comprehend the 
 meaning. What the farmer mostly wishes to know is the 
 appearance of each variety, and its ciipacity of making good 
 bread. 
 
 With these explanatory remarks, we will proceed with 
 our classification, after making one explanation in regard to 
 winter and spring wheat. They are essentially the same, 
 and it will be unnecessary to divide them into a separate 
 class. Spring wheat is made such by sowing winter wheat 
 in February, or early in March. Of course a failure would 
 be made the first year, the heads being for the most part 
 barren, but there will be found here and there a few plump 
 grains. These sowed the next year will make a rather 
 better show than before; and thus it will continue to im- 
 prove, and in a very few years a fair spring variety will be 
 produced. Spring wheat is converted into winter in pre- 
 cisely the same manner. .It is sown in the autumn, and a 
 small portion possibly survives the winter cold, but that 
 will assist in gradually converting the variety into a winter 
 wheat. In Tennessee, spring wheats are almost unknown, 
 only one county in the State considering it of sufficient 
 importance to report. As a rule, they do not suit our soil 
 or climate, and the winter varieties are so far superior, both 
 
46 WHEAT CULTUBE 
 
 in yield and quality, that there is no inducement to produce 
 them. Besides, even where most grown, they only serve as 
 a substitute when the other is winter-killed. Then, at the 
 usual time of sowing spring wheat, our farmers are busily 
 engaged in preparing their ground for the summer crop. 
 On the other hand, the winter wheat is put in at a compar- 
 atively leisure time. For all these reasons it does not pay 
 to produce it, therefore it will occupy a small place in our 
 list of val^uable wheats. 
 
 FAMILY NUMBER 1. 
 
 WINTER W^HEATS. 
 
 FAMILY NUMBER 2. 
 
 SPRING WHEATS. 
 
 Number 1 — Winter Wheats* 
 
 Class 1 — White wheats, smooth heads. 
 Class 2 — White Avheats, bearded heads. 
 Class 3 — Amber wheats, smooth heads. 
 Class 4 — Amber wheats, bearded heads. 
 Class 5 — Red wheats, smooth heads. 
 Class 6 — Red wheats, bearded heads. 
 
 Family 2 — Sjmnff Wheats, all Bearded., 
 
 Class 1 — -White spring wheats. 
 Class 2 — ^ Amber spring wheats. 
 Class 3 — Red spring wheats. 
 
 The sub-varieties should be given a number and a rtam^, 
 which number should be first added to the local nanieg 
 given to each, for which one common nam^ should be sub- 
 stituted* 
 
 ARRANGEMENT^ 
 
 1. The name, ot names, of the wheat, and the particular 
 soil or climate fof which it may be suited, the propei* period 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 47 
 
 of sowing It, whether it be liable to injury from drought, 
 moisture, or frost in Its earlier or later growth, and its lia- 
 bility to disease. 
 
 2. Its period of flowering and ripening. 
 
 3. The height and nature of its straw, whether it be 
 white or dark-colored, brittle or tough, if liable to lodge or 
 fall in wet weather, its uses, etc. 
 
 4. Nature of the ear, whether compact or scattering on 
 the head, its length. This, of course, is greatly modified 
 by some soils, but it will be interesting to know such vari- 
 ations and the produce per acre. And right here I wish to 
 state that our statements of produce Is not founded upon 
 what it may yield in Indifferent soil, but in the best, and 
 w'lth the best culture. , 
 
 5. Color of the grain, this also varying with change of 
 soil, whether coarse or thin-skinned^ whether round or oval, 
 large or small^ whether liable to shatter or not. 
 
 6. Nature of flour and bran, with their relative qualities. 
 
 7. Whether the dough rises well or not. 
 
 FAMILY 1. 
 
 CLASS 1, — WHITE WHEAT, 8MAL.L CHAFF. 
 
 1. Delhi. — A valuable white wheat. Introduced from 
 Canada several, years ago, and gaining in popular favor. It 
 requires to be sown early, so as to allow it to ripen early, as 
 it Is rather late, and as such liable to be attacked by rust. 
 On mulatto or gravelly loam it will do much better than 
 on alluvial soil, as it Is less liable to rust. It has done well 
 here, and on rather thin land made thirty bushels per acre. 
 In Canada, Its general yield is forty bushels per acre. It 
 makes a line, white flour, and dry, good bread. It has an 
 ear from three-and-a-half to four Inches in length, small 
 grain, thin skinned ; a bushel weighed sixty-six pound. If 
 over-ripe it shatters, the husk not being very thick. 
 
 2. Tajp'pahannoch. — This wheat has been sown largely of 
 
48 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 late, and is probably the most popular wlieat of the State, 
 It originated in Pennsylvania, and was popular there many 
 years before it was distributed. The Agricultural Bureau 
 has the honor of having drawn it from its obscurity, and 
 given it a more general cultivation than it could have re- 
 ceived in the usual way in a generation. Bags containing a 
 pint were sent all over the Union, and careful husbandmen 
 found this supply amply sufficient to start the whole coun- 
 try in its use. It has an ear about three inches long, full, 
 round grain, thin skin, rather large, quite hardy, tillers well, 
 ripens about the 10th of June, straw light-colored, about 
 four feet high, and stands up well. The millers place a 
 high estimate on it, and the flour from it is most excellent 
 and dry. Eighteen pounds of flour has made twenty-four 
 pounds of bread. The soil best suited for it is black loam, 
 though it does well on any rioh moist soil. It has, in the 
 State, produced 30 to 40 bushels, and on clover land, will 
 almost always do well. 
 
 3. Bougliton or Boivden. — About ten years ago a Mr. 
 Boughton, of Virginia, raised this wheat and gave it a great 
 popularity. Where he derived his seed is unknown to the 
 writer, but in other States, west, it is called Oregon wheat. 
 It is almost, if not identical with the preceding; in fact, 
 many farmers and millers claim it as identical. On exam- 
 ination of two samples presented the similarity was great, 
 but it appeared the Boughton was rather shorter and rounder 
 than the Tappahannock. However, the description of one 
 will answer for the other. There is no practical difference. 
 The Boughton was introduced into Middle Tennessee from 
 Virginia and Kentucky simultaneously, and at once achieved 
 great popularity. This was in 1866-7. From 30 to 40 
 bushels^ were occasionally made per acre. It has main- 
 tained its high character. Within the recollection of 
 the writer, there has been but one failure of this crop, 
 and that was not general, but followed the course of a 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 49 
 
 drought. It is but little liable to rust, as it ripens quite 
 early in June. The remarks about Tappahannock will ap- 
 ply so completely to this variety the reader is referred to 
 the description of the former. 
 
 4. Early White May. — This has a white chaff, the heads 
 somewhat heavier than white flint. This is a good variety, 
 and from the beautiful and large proportion of extra 
 flour to the quantity of grain, the White May is unequaled. 
 It was at one time grown quite extensively, but from some 
 cause, has given place to others. It ripens quite early, and 
 so escapes rust and fly, but is liable to be winter-killed. It 
 yields on good ground, 20 to 25 bushels per acre. It is 
 low, three to three and a half feet high, and has a small 
 grain. It weighs from 60 to 67 pounds per bushel. 
 
 5. White. — There was, about 25 or 30 years ago, a wheat 
 known as white wheat, grown all over the State, and from 
 the beauty of its berries was very much sought for as seed. 
 Since then it has almost disappeared, though still cultivated 
 in some counties. It was very tall, has light straw, long 
 heads, and yiel-ded well when the season suited it. Its ex- 
 treme lateness, however, rendered it liable to rust, and it 
 was Ijadly attacked, as a rule, with smut, though the dis- 
 covery of the efficacy of blue-stone will render this objec- 
 tion nugatory. It yields from 18 to 35 bushels per acre. 
 It is excelled by no wheat as a flour-maker. 
 
 6. White Smooth Head Mediterranean. — A flint wheat, 
 once known in Middle Tennessee as the Gad Frierson, and 
 very popular. It is .supposed to be a hybrid of the Med- 
 iterranean and White wheats, and partakes of the character 
 of both parents. It is not really white wheat, but rather 
 belongs to the class of Amber wheats. It ripens with the 
 Mediterranean, and yields 20 to 25 bushels per acre. It 
 has so greatly deteriorated that it has almost ''run out" 
 
 7. Blue Stem or Purple Straw. — The straw is tall \mt 
 
 4 
 
50 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 stands well; the grain is short but plump, with a very 
 thin skin ; chaff white, and the straw near the head blue, 
 hence the name Blue Stem. The flour is of the very best 
 quality, and the wheat always commands a good price. It 
 was carried to Pennsylvania from Virginia, many years 
 ago, became acclimated there, and was carried thence South, 
 and therefore has since been called Poinsylvania Blue Stem. 
 It is late, however, and like all late wheats, subject to rust. 
 At one time it was extremely popular, and in some localities 
 maintains its popularity. It is called by many names in 
 various localities. North of the Ohio it is yet a very pop- 
 ular wheat, and probably more raised than any other white 
 wheat. It ripens with the Mediterranean. It is the same 
 as ttie "Flint," "New York Flint," "Durst" and "Genes- 
 see," according to locality. 
 
 8. Shaker. — A variety of the Little May, twenty years 
 ago cultivated to a great extent. No doubt it is the Little 
 May modified by soil and culture. It made on good ground 
 a fine yield. It is little sown now. 
 
 9. White Amber is mentioned by one of our correspond- 
 ents. From its name we suppose it is one of the Amber 
 wheats, grown on soil that induces a paleness in the color 
 of the grain. Some soils have the quality of converting 
 Amber, or even Red wheats into white. It is highly prob- 
 able this is the Smooth-head Mediterranean, or some of that 
 class of Flint wheats. 
 
 10. Genessee Flint — A.11 remarks about No. 7, or Blue 
 Stem, apply to this. This name is also applied to a white 
 bearded variety, and to a red bearded. The name, however,, 
 properly belongs to the Smooth -head Blue Stem. 
 
 11. Clanson or Clawson. — This is a new variety origi- 
 nated by Stephen Clawson, and stands at this time without 
 a rival on the wheat farms of the Lake Shore. A great 
 discussion took place last year in the Comitry Gentleman^ 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 51 
 
 as to the relative value of Clawson and Deihl. The advo- 
 cates of the Clawsou claimed it would yield at least ten 
 bushels per acre more than the Deihl, and substantiated 
 their assertions by facts and figures. Northern wheat, as a 
 rule, is much improved by bringing South, and it appears 
 this variety would well repay any enterprising farmer who 
 would make the experiment. It has never been cultivated 
 to any extent in Tennessee, but deserves a trial. It is said 
 to thrive well on alluvial lands, and readily yields from 40 
 to 50 bushels per acre. A small quantity sent by mail 
 could be used to make a start, and by the time one would 
 have enough to sow a respectable field, it would become ac- 
 climated. It is related to the Mediterranean and is a white 
 flint. 
 
 12. A species of wheat called the JRainbow wheat, is thus 
 described by Mr. Winstead, who raises it : " The Rainbow 
 wheat was brought into this country from Southern Russia. 
 I got a small quantity of it, and have been raising it for 
 four years. The stalk is strong, and the wheat grows very 
 tall on poor land, and has never been known to have smut or 
 rust since its advent into this country. It is a beautiful white 
 wheat, very plump berry, and will weigh 66 pounds to the 
 measured bushel. I regard it as the best wheat grown in 
 the State." 
 
 13. Australian White Wheat. — For the same reasons 
 stated above, it is proper to include in this list the beautiful 
 "Australian White Wheat." This wheat secured the pre- 
 mium at Philadelphia last year, over more than one thou- 
 sand competitors, and stands preeminent as a prolific vari- 
 ety. The grain is rather small, white, thin-skinned, but 
 the heads are very long and it tillers luxuriantly. Captain 
 Thomas F. Perkins, of Franklin, Williamson county, gave 
 a dollar for a thimble full, and John B. McEwen, Esq., got 
 three or four grains of it. Thomas F. Perkins, Sr., sowed 
 the balance in his garden, and unfortunately the mules 
 
52 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 breaking into the garden destroyed a large quantity of it. 
 Yet he was able to secure, and now has half a bushel. 
 John B. McEwen got from one grain over fifty stalks, and 
 gathered one pint of seed. It is fair to presume, from one 
 or the other of these sources, we may expect in a few years 
 to be abl6 to tell whether it will suit our climate. The 
 probability is that it will suit our thirsty, gravelly hills, it 
 being the general character of the Australian lands. This 
 ends the Smooth-head class, and we now come to the second 
 cla-is, or 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 53 
 
 CHAPTER YIII. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION OF WHEAT CONTINUED — CLASS 2. — WHITE 
 WHEATS, BEAEDE1> HEADS. 
 
 No. 1. Quaker, very similar to the Mediterranean, equal- 
 ly as hardy and very proliftc. Like all white wheats it is 
 more subject to rust and other diseases than the red. It is 
 only raised in a few counties in the State. 
 
 2. White Mediterranean.. — This, it is highly probable, is 
 nothing more than an ordinary Mediterranean, that is con- 
 verted into a white by change of location. It is a flinty 
 wheat, and ripens with the red variety. It is not superior 
 to the red in any respect, and owing to the thickness of its 
 skin, it does not make a good flour by any mills now in use 
 in the South, but stands weathering in shock well. 
 
 3. White Quaker. — Sam^ as Quaker described under head 
 of No. 1. 
 
 In addition to these may be mentioned the ''Old White 
 Flint," "Rock," ''New York," "Kentucky White," and 
 various others, but they do not belong to the list of Tennes- 
 see wheats, and we attempt in this work to give a list of 
 such wheats as are grown in Tennessee, or likely to be 
 grown. This rule, however, will not prevent us from call- 
 ing the attention of farmers to an extra and promising va- 
 riety, when the occasion seems to justify it, as in the case 
 of the Clawson and Australian, although these wheats may 
 not be cultivated in Tennessee. 
 
 CLASS 3. — AMBER SMOOTH HEAD. 
 
 No. 1. — Amber. — This is more a generic than a special 
 term, yet there is a variety generally known by this name, 
 and is quite popular, both with the farmer and the miller. 
 
54 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 It is only within a few years that the Amber has been re- 
 cognized, formerly it being classed light red or yellow. 
 This is a medium wheat as to time of ripening, but a very 
 sure producer. The grains are round, plump and full. The 
 straw is not disposed to lodge, and yields at best from 20 to 
 35 bushels per acre. It is a sure crop almost any year, and 
 commands the highest price in the market, not yielding in 
 value even to the jBner whites. A more attractive-lookins: 
 wheat might be raised, but as a general thing no better 
 wheat is grown, and the farmer cannot do better than to 
 give it a place every year on his fields. 
 
 2. "Yelloio Lammas," /' Old Lamme.''^ — This wheat is 
 one of the oldest wheats in the State. Forty years ago it 
 was raised quite extensively in Middle Tennessee, but not 
 from any defect of its own, it gave place to others. It 
 has to a small extent been restored to cultivation here, but 
 it is not of a sufficiently remunerative kind to take its old 
 place. It originally came from England, and is there one 
 of the standard wheats now. 
 
 3. ''Golden Straw;' ''Whir//' " Golden Chaff/' ''Shot."— 
 An old variety that was universally cultivated thirty and 
 forty years ago, but has long since grown into disfavor. It 
 became very subject to disease, especially rust. It is late in 
 ripening. The sti'aw is tall and heads long, grain good and 
 makes fine flour. It is still cultivated in a few localities, 
 old farmers being loth to give up an old friend. But there 
 are so many new and better varieties, it would seem to be 
 the policy of the farmer to go to the better. 
 
 CLASS 4. — AMBER-BEARDED HEADS. 
 
 This class in Tennessee is almost wanting. There are a 
 few varieties cultivated in other States, but except as a mat- 
 ter of curiosity it is seldom raised here. The disposition 
 of all bearded wheats to sprout in the shock, from the great 
 amount of moisture held by the awns or beards, makes it 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 55 
 
 ■certainly to the farmers' interest to secure the smooth head, 
 ■especially as the bearded is so disagreeable to handle. 
 
 No. 1. Pennsylvania. — There are several wheats by this 
 name, both smoof:h and bearded. Having described one of 
 that name under the head of ^'Blue Stem," it will be proper 
 to place the other here. It is a bearded variety, yellow 
 grains and heads short. It is early, and a medium pro- 
 ducer. 
 
 No. 2. Yellow Bearded. — This is quite extensively culti- 
 vated in the Northern States, to a very limited extent here, 
 and yields quite handsomely. It is very much like the 
 Mediterranean, and ripens about the same time. Makes, 
 however, more and better flour. It is singularly exempt 
 from insects and diseases. 
 
 No. 3. Wheatland Yellow. — Chaff a pale yellow, short 
 beards, heads very large, and the grains very large. The 
 usual objection to bearded wheat would not hold in this 
 variety, as the beards are very short, almost no beards a 
 all. It is a hardy wheat, yields well, and the flour from it 
 is good. 
 
 CLA.SS 5. — RED SMOOTH-HEAD. 
 
 No. 1. Walher. — This variety, nearly amber, is very ex- 
 tensively raised in East Tennessee, and to some extent 
 through the State. It is a medium wheat, but quite early, 
 hence escaping to a great extent the great dread of wheat- 
 growers, rust. There seems to be some discrepancy among 
 my correspondents with regard to this wheat, some classing 
 it as an amber. But the large majority calling it a red. It 
 may be supposed there are two varieties called Walker. It 
 yields a fair quantity, and is suited to rich land. 
 
 No, 2. Fultz. — This is a new variety, unless, as Mr. All- 
 man says, it is nothing but the Walker. But the history of 
 this wheat is too new, and too well authenticated to be dis- 
 puted, and then it may be supposed that while all varieties 
 of wheat descend from the same parents, it is not unreason- 
 
56 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 able to find two kinds so nearly resembling each other as not 
 to be easily separated. In a previous page, the manner of 
 the discovery and the dissemination of this variety Vi'as re- 
 lated. It has proved to be all that was represented so far. 
 Still it requires several years before it can gain complete 
 confidence. Hitherto it has not come into the liands of the 
 miller to any great extent, all being reserved for seed, but 
 it is their province now to pass on it. It gave complete sat- 
 isfaction to the farmer until 1877, when it was seriously af- 
 fected by rust. It grows well on thin soils, and the yield is 
 generally large. Many planters have secured this year from 
 25 to 40 bushels per acre. With Boughton, Amber and 
 Fultz, it seems nothing is left the farmer to desire in the 
 way of seeds. Still it will be years before all can be con- 
 vinced of this fact. 
 
 3. Red May. — This is a most excellent variety, but varies 
 very much in yield. On the alluvial bottoms it will give 
 20 to 25 bushels, while on rich up lands 10 to 12 bushels 
 per acre is considered a good yield. It has a short head;, 
 short straw, small berry. One prime quality is that by the 
 4th of June in the midland counties it can be harvested. 
 Some years, in dry weather, it will come in the middle of 
 May. It is not much liable to any of the diseases to which 
 wheat is heir. It is a very certain crop, though not the 
 heaviest. It does not tiller well, and hence must be sown 
 thicker than the usual kinds. One and a half bushels are 
 are not too much on average land. It is better not to sow 
 it on poor land, as it will not do well. It originated in 
 Virginia. It was a favorite among tlie Shakers for many 
 years, and is one of the wheats to which their name was at- 
 tached. 
 
 4. Little Red May. — A variety of No. 3, only it was 
 brought into Tennessee by Joseph Jacobs from Missouri, no 
 doubt having been taken there from Kentucky or Virginicr. 
 It had, however, improved by its visit, and is a very pro- 
 lific, and in some sections a very popular variety. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 57 
 
 5. Red Chaff, — This is one of the oldest and was one of 
 the most substantial varieties we had. The straw is long 
 and stands up well ; chaif slightly brown. It makes a 
 beautiful flour, very white. The great objection to it is its 
 lateness in ripening, and consequently its liability to rust 
 and other diseases. It is by many thought to be the same 
 with ''Golden Chaff" and no doubt it is, though it differs 
 in some respects, from difference in locality. It has been 
 superseded by more desirable varieties. 
 
 CLASS 6 — EED BEAEDED HEADS. 
 
 No. 1. Tucker, mentioned by one of our correspondents, 
 but the name certainly being local, we are not able to define 
 its character or history. 
 
 2. Andrews' Bed is a medium high straw, good grain, 
 early to ripen, and yields well. It is said to have been 
 originated by a Mr. Andrews, of Williamson county, and 
 has a good local character. We are inclined to think it is 
 the same called in East Tennessee, Quaker. At least it re- 
 sembles it very much. It is such a common thing for 
 wheat to receive the name of its introducer that it is a diffi- 
 cult matter always clearly to define the several characters 
 claimed for it. 
 
 3. " 3Iediterranean Cuba.'' — We are at no loss however 
 in placing this correctly, as it has been cultivated a great 
 many years, and has during all that time maintained its 
 reputation as one of the surest and best wheats we have. 
 It is a flint, has a large, long, heavy grain, very thick skin, 
 and makes a yellowish flour that is rather yellow, but the 
 dough rises exceedingly well. The mills South are not 
 prepared properly to make first-class flour of the Mediter- 
 ranean or flint wheat, but will no doubt soon prepare them- 
 selves, if a sufiicient inducement is held out to them by the 
 cultivation of spring wheats, which are all bearded flints- 
 In fact this variety has in some localities been converted into 
 a spring wheat by cultivation. The new process of grind- 
 
58 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 ing is by granulation, the husk being first stripped from 
 the grain, and the kernel then cracked and afterwards 
 pounded into the rounded granulated flour. By this pro- 
 cess more and better flour can be made of the flint wheats 
 than of winter wheats. While the Mediterranean is ground 
 as other wheats so much of the husks containing 
 a large quantity of gluten and silica goes into the flour that 
 they give it a yellow hue, and so it cannot be passed as 
 more than middling. There is no doubt that by change of 
 locality and cultivation the dark red of its grain is lost, and 
 it has changed into the white Mediterranean. A gentleman 
 in Williamson county whose land is creek bottom — a black 
 alluvium — had been cultivating this variety several years, 
 and it was almost amber in color. He sold some seed to a 
 gentleman in Rutherford county, and the latter sowed it for 
 a succession of years on cedar land, a mulatto soil. They 
 met at a mill with the same wheat after several years sow- 
 ings, and the mulatto land wheat had regained its natural 
 dark red color, and could not have been recognized as hav- 
 ing sprung from the other. 
 
 This wheat has no significance whatever in its name. In 
 fact it is of Danish or Norwegian origin, from whence it 
 was introduced into Holland, and from the latter kingdom 
 into the United States under the name of German wheat. 
 In a short time it was known as the "German fly proof 
 wheat," and then by the singular and indefinite cognomen 
 of " Fly proof wheat," and lastly it is now universally 
 known as the Mediterranean. The following from one of 
 the old volumes of the "American Agriculturist," furnishes 
 the history of its introduction in the United States: " Sev- 
 eral years ago, about 1819, an American gentleman who was 
 traveling in Holland, was asked why, with our fine climate 
 and soil, we so often failed in having good wheat crops. 
 He replied it was doubtless in a great measure attributable 
 to an insect which it was supposed was introduced into into 
 the United States in the wheat sent from Holland during 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 59 
 
 the Revolutionary war for the subsistence of the British 
 arnay, which was known in this country as the Hessian fly. 
 The Hessians admitted that some kinds of wheat in that 
 country were liable to injury by insects, but that there was 
 a species in very general use that resisted their attacks. 
 The American gentleman was presented with some of this 
 wheat, which he brought into this country and sowed on 
 his farm in Delaware. It was subsequently introduced 
 into Virginia by James H.Taliaferro, Esq., and its ability to 
 resist the attacks of the fly successfully tested. 
 
 "A gentleman who was supplied by us with a part of the 
 lot received from Virginia, informs us that there has been 
 great improvement in the appearance of the grain since its 
 introduction on his farm." — American Agriculturist. 
 
 One quality which tliis variety possesses in an eminent 
 degree, is its capacity for resisting jxAsturing. Many 
 farmers sow it for the purpose of wintering stock as a sub- 
 stitute for rye, and taking off the stock about the 1st of 
 April, make a good crop of wheat. It is from the want of 
 proper machinery for grinding that it is has lost ground as 
 a wheat, but it can confidently be predicted it will yet re- 
 cover its wonted popularity, and be as extensively raised as 
 in former years. 
 
 4. TreadwelL — We have not been able to trace the culti- 
 vation of this wheat out of Middle Tennessee. It is not 
 properly speaking a bearded or a smooth head. In fact it 
 is both. A Mr. Treadwell found two kinds of wheat 
 growing together, most probably mixed by a thresher, and 
 the grains being exactly alike and ripening at the same 
 time, and yielding very handsomely, he started the variety, 
 gave it his name, and hence the Treadwell. It is medium 
 as to time of ripening, has a good stiff straw, and is very 
 prolific. 
 
60 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 CHAPTER IX. 
 
 CLASSIFICATION AND DESCRIPTION OF WHEATS CONTINUED. 
 
 Family 2 — Spring Wheats. — So far as Tennessee is con- 
 cerned, Spring wheats may be considered a nullity. In the 
 whole State, but one county, Marion, reports the cultivation 
 of any. As before stated the mills of the country are not 
 prepared to grind spring or flint wheats, and besides, they 
 have been tried and found not to succeed well. They are 
 well suited to the inhospitable climate of Canada and North- 
 ern United States, but here the winter wheat is rarely killed 
 out, and the growth of our vegetation is so rapid in the 
 spring, that it all goes to straw. It is only a dernier resort 
 that will justify anyone to venture on its cultivation. There 
 isj in the Central Basin, one men, a renter, who sows it 
 simply because he changes his home very often, and cannot 
 sow the winter varieties. He says he has made as much as 
 10 bushels per acre. Still, as we set out to give all we know 
 about wheat, we will enumerate all that have been tried. 
 But the simple enumeration is all, for one word covers them 
 all, with the single exception mentioned, of Marion county, 
 and this word is failure. Our correspondent from Jasper 
 gives the names of three or four wheats with which we have 
 no acquaintance, and we suppose them to be spring wheats, 
 at least we shall give them in the list, and if we are in 
 error, this explanation will give the reason. 
 
 CLASS 1. 
 No. 1. Spring Bearded. 
 
 " 2. Harris, \ ^r ■ , 
 
 u -^ r\ ^ f Marion county. 
 
 " 3. Orleans, J *' 
 
 " 4. China. 
 
 " 5. Tea. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 61 
 
 No. 6. Canada Club. 
 
 " 7. Italian. 
 
 " 8. Stock. 
 
 " 9. Talavera, without beard. 
 
 " 10. Eed bearded. 
 
 " 11. Spring Club, extra fine. 
 It is often the case that a late sown crop, say put in from 
 1st to to 25th December, shows no signs of coming up until 
 spring, and then it will make a good crop, better often than 
 the early sown wheat. This is in effect spring wheat. But 
 we know how seldom this late sowing will prove profitable. 
 But, then, all kinds occasionally fail, however careful we 
 may be in the selection of seed in the time of sowing, and 
 in the preparation of the land, and there is no explanation 
 for it, except that it was not a good year for wheat. The 
 Northern farmers can make spring wheat of any winter 
 wheat, by allowing it to slightly germinate in the fall, and 
 then allow it to freeze and remain frozen until spring, and 
 then sow. It is on this principle our late sown wheats 
 sometimes succeed. 
 
 The cooler the weather in which wheat ripens, the heavier 
 the grain, and it might be that if wheat was sown as late as 
 millet is, .we might get, after a while, some seed that would 
 ripen in September. If millet is sown early, the straw is 
 yellow, scant and spindling. If, however, it is sown in the 
 latter part of June to the middle of July, it will be deep 
 green, rank, coarse and luxuriant. Why should not wheat 
 do the same way, sown say in May ? We know that oats 
 will do it. Wheat is being experimented on in this man- 
 ner in some of the Northern States. It is possible that 
 should it be so rank, it would, as usual, suffer with rust, 
 but it could be treated according to the German method, 
 with lime and cow urine. The latter is made into a paste 
 with lime, and the seed wheat is rolled in it until it is thor- 
 oughly saturated, and then sown. This has never, in our 
 knowledge, been tried, but it is frequently done in the Ger- 
 
62 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 man States. It would at least be a fine stimulant to its 
 growth. 
 
 This completes the list of Tennessee wheat, with the ex- 
 ception of those unkno\vn to the writer, but mentioned by 
 some of our correspondents, and if they are favorites we 
 would be pleased to hear from some one on the subject. 
 Such are "Tubman," "Moore" and "Phelps." 
 
 These are enough, and as good a variety to select from 
 as the list of any other State. Tennessee, from the favora- 
 ble latitude, arid the great diversity of her soils, presents as 
 many favorable advantages to the wheat-grower as any 
 other State in the Cniuu, and the only reason why she has 
 uot made more wheat, is because our people have got in the 
 habit of cultivating large crops of corn, cotton and tobacco. 
 It is an exceedingly difficult matter to shake off the shackles 
 of habit. But the continued impoverishment of our lands, 
 the uncertain character of our labor and its cost, will grad- 
 ually bring us to our senses. It is no easy matter 'to break 
 up old customs and practises, and revolutions are not the 
 offspring of a day. It has to be a gradual process. The 
 people must be convinced it is to their interest, as it cer- 
 tainly is. Mills will gradually accumulate, and instead of 
 sending our wheat to the North to be converted into flour, 
 and then returned and sold to us, it will be ground at home. 
 It is a suicidal policy not to build mills, grind our wheat, 
 and then, after supplying our own wants, export the surplus 
 flour. 
 
 To select good seed and to improve the varieties, it is 
 best to gather a few good heads that combine the greatest 
 number of desirable qualities, as regards grain, flour, length 
 and shape of ear, quality and stiffness of stnxw, hardihood 
 and liability to disease, cultivating from these alone. 
 
 The average in England per acre is 30 bushels. In ^he 
 United States about 12, while in Tennessee, from our re- 
 ports, we are obliged to put up with eight. In England 50 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 03 
 
 bushels per acre are as common as 25 bushels here. Cli- 
 mate may have something to do with this great difference 
 in yield, but cultivation more. The idea of exhausting 
 soils by cultivation there, is scouted as absurd ; the soil on 
 fiirms constantly under cultivation, increasing constantly in 
 fertility. 
 
 When the farmer deems it necessary to change his seed, 
 it will be a good idea to import it from the North. The 
 reason of this, as before stated, is obvious; the North being 
 colder, requires a longer time to mature the wheat than it 
 does here, consequently w^heat brought here will mature 
 earlier than there. In like manner, it being warmer in the 
 South, wheat matures earlier, and when brought here docs 
 not succeed well, being after one or at most two trials aban- 
 doned. For this reason many of the wheats distributed by 
 the Agricultural Bureau do not succeed well, only in par- 
 ticular localities. It is highly probable that if wheat could 
 be imported here from Turkey or from the northern shores 
 of the Mediterranean, it would succeed at once, as the 
 latitude is near the same, and the Isothermal line is precise- 
 ly the same with Tennessee, and not only these localities 
 agree with our State, but Japan and the southern slope of 
 the Himalaya Mountains, the birth-place of man and nearly 
 all vegetation necessary to man's sustenance. If Tennessee 
 occupies geographically and geodetically such a favorable 
 situation as a wheat-producing State, why has she not al- 
 ready taken her proper stand as a producer? The causes of 
 this have been stated, and also the influences that are at work, 
 silently but surely, to propel her into her natural birthright. 
 
 It is very extraordinary that some varieties have a pre- 
 disposition to sprout, or alter their appearance. In confirm 
 mation of this, and also to show the great importance of 
 carefully selecting pure seed and how it pays, we beg leave 
 to present the following account of an experiment from the 
 M^ork of Prof. LeCouteur, a celebrated English writer and 
 farmer : 
 
64 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 "But it had escaped him to consider it in its properties with relation to 
 the food of man. This practical view the author took of it, and deter- 
 mined to attempt to discover which were the most farinaceous and 
 most productive varieties, by comparing their characters and produce 
 one with another. The usual mode with the generality of farmers is to 
 procure any seed that any neighbor enjoying the reputation of being a 
 good farmer may have to sell. A more intelligent class procure their 
 seed from a distance, and require that it be fine, perhaps even pure; they 
 also have thought of changing or renewing their ?eed occasionally. 
 A still more intelligent number have procured the best seed they 
 could obtain of those sorts which observation and experience have 
 led them to know as being best suited to their soil and climate ; having 
 further observed that mixtures in their crops prevented their ripening at 
 the same moment, and having endeavored to remedy this defect, by mak- 
 ing selections of seed, by hand, cf those varieties which appeared to them 
 similar, and thus have greatly improved their crops in produce and qual- 
 ity. A few farmers have proceeded a step farther, and from having ob- 
 served a stray ear of apparently unusual prolific habits, have judiciously 
 set it apart, and have raised a stalk from it. Hence the Hedge wheat, 
 Hunter's, Hickling's, and twenty more that might be named; but it is con- 
 tended that it is not sufficient merely to have grov- n them pure for a short 
 time; it is necessary to keep them permanently. So, if after a compara- 
 tive examination as to their relative production, grain and meal, they shall 
 prove to be the best, or otherwise to discard them for more valuable vari- 
 eties. This was the chief consideration which led me to make compara- 
 tive experiments in order to obtain the best seed. Hence, as a first step to- 
 wards improvement. Professor LaGasca, having shown me four ears of 
 those he considered the best and most productive, I sorted as many as I 
 could collect, of precisely the same varieties, judging from their external 
 appearance. Such was my anxiety to attempt to raise a pure crop, that 
 in the month of November I rubbed the grains from each ear of all the four 
 sorts I had selected, throwing aside the damaged or ill-looking, and reser- 
 ving only the plump and healthy." 
 
 "The first selection was apparently one of the Dantzic sort, white and 
 smooth-eared. In the process of rubbing I was surprised to find that, 
 though most of the grains were white, they differed greatly as lo form, 
 some being round, some oval and peaked, some plump, but very small, 
 some more elongated, some with the skin or bran much thicker than others. 
 There were also many liver- colored, yellow and dark grains among the 
 white. 
 
 The second sort was from a square, compact variety of wheat, the berry 
 plump, round, of a cofTee-like form, very thin-skinned and white. Th^re 
 was a pale red inferior kind among it, much thicker skinned, but without 
 any perceptible inferior external appearance in the ear. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 65 
 
 The third was a downy or hairy variety, one of the "Velantes" of the 
 and "Triticum Coeleri" of Prof. LaGasca, a velvety or hoary sort, which ig 
 supposed to be very permanen duration, as relates to keeping pure. 
 
 I found, however, that there were a few red grains, some yellow and some 
 liver-colored sorts among this, in small proportions, it is true, but being of 
 prolific habit, subsequent experience has taught that they would soon have 
 destroyed the purity of the crop, if cultivated without constant at ention. 
 
 The fourth selection was from a variety of red ear, with yellow grains, 
 more peaked than the "Golden Drop". These were all plump and well 
 grown, but though of productive habits, afford less flour and more bran 
 than the white wheat varieties. I discovered a red variety among it bear- 
 ing white grains, which I suspect to be very prolific and hardy. I gave a 
 sample of this to Sir John Sinclair, who greatly encouraged me to prose- 
 cute my researches, as being of the highest importance. 
 
 There were also red ears bearing 'liver-colored grains, but these were 
 chiefly lean and ill-grown. I generally, but not invariably, found that the 
 grain of white wheat was the plumpest, or possessing the greatest specific 
 graviiy, or largest quantity of flour. 
 
 The aspect of the grain in that dry season led me to think that white 
 kinds of wheat will succeed best on dry soils and warm climates, and that 
 red and yellow, or the darker colored, for wet seasons or moist soils. The 
 care I took in making these selections, and the great number of sorts I 
 found of all shades and colors, forming su')- varieties, as they are named by 
 Prof. LaGasca, confirmed my conviction that the only chance of having 
 pure sorts was to raise them from single grains, or at least from single ears. 
 It is but fair to add that even the pains I took in making those first selec- 
 tions amply rewarded my labors, as the products of my crops were in- 
 creased from an average of 23 or 25 bushels an acre, to 34 bushels. And 
 since I have raided wheat from single ears carefully selected sorts, I have 
 increased my crops to 40 and 50 bushels per acre. Hence I have no doubts- 
 that with extreme care in obtaining the best and most suitable sorts, that 
 land in high tilth with fine cultivation, may be made to produce &) or 70 
 bushels per acre." 
 
 One more species of wheat will close our chapters. Nor 
 can it be properly called wheat, as it is used for stock. It is 
 the ^'Cauaile" or "Indian wheat." I give an account from 
 the "Country Gentleman." "This gi^ain was introduced 
 into the United States from Canada about twenty-three 
 years ago, I think ; since when it has been constantly culti- 
 vated by some of our farmers, and now nearly all our farm- 
 ers raise it, although a lew, after trying it a year or two, 
 discontinued it, some because they thought it would over- 
 
66 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 run their whole farm, and some because the "women" could 
 not use it, neither of which I consider valid objections. It 
 will live in the ground over winter, so that it may be sown 
 at any time, from the harvesting of one crop to the gather- 
 ing of the next, but we usually sow it after all the other 
 crops are in, and harvest it before it is so ripe that it will 
 shell off from the straw, it being necessary to cut it while the 
 dew is on. Our farmers often keep the same piece of land 
 in it for several years in succession, and it seems to do as 
 well so. If the soil is too rich, it "runs to straw" too 
 much. The average crop is from 45 to 50 bushels per acre, 
 about the same as oats, although it often produces from 75 
 to 110 bushels per acre on our soil. The average weight is 
 48 lbs per bushel, and IQ to 18 lbs. superfine flour per 
 bushel. The "Canaile" I think worth more per pound than 
 oats as feed for stock ; it is quite bitter, and seems to act as 
 a tonic and sharpens the appetite very much. I think this 
 grain worth fully one quarter more than oats for horses, 
 possessing to a good degree the property of corn that makes 
 fat, and that of oats that produces muscle." 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 67 
 
 CHAPTER X. 
 
 DESCRIPTION OF THE INTERIOR STRUCTURE OF TBE 
 WHEAT GRAIN — ANALYSIS OF THE WHEAT GRATf^ — 
 THEORY OP FERTILIZING. 
 
 We deem it proper here to give a few instances of the 
 analysis of wheat and wheat-straw, so that the farmer will 
 be able to see for himself, the elements necessary for s«c- 
 
 FlG. 1 — MAGNIFIED SECTION OF A WHEAT GRAIN. 
 
68 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 cessful growth of wheat. The subject of analysing wheat 
 has, next to that of discovering the philosopher's stone, by 
 which all things could be transmuted into gold, perhaps, 
 engaged the attention of chemists beyond any other. That 
 it can be .easily done, is attested by the analyses that appear 
 in almost every number of an agricultural journal. There 
 are two great principles in grains of wheat, the '"meal" and 
 the "bran," which are subdivided according to their chem- 
 ical constituents. Starch and gluten form the valuable con- 
 stituents, and as the relative quantities of these vary, so does 
 the value of the wheat. If you will cut across a wheat 
 grain you have a view of the constituents of wheat. Sup- 
 pose we make a section of a grain of Wheat vertically and 
 magnify it as in our cut, fig. 1, we shall then have a correct 
 view of the mahc-up of a grain. We observe at the upper 
 end the beard, which consists of very fine hair tubes. 
 These vary in color from a dirty white to a brown. These 
 capillary tubes are possibly intended to place the interior of 
 the grain, during its developments, in communication with 
 the atmosphere, and hence the nature of the beard is such 
 that, when the grain is taken from the ear, and freely ex- 
 posed to the air, the beard soon becomes thickly coated with 
 minute particles of dust and dirt. If this dust is not re- 
 moved from the grain, the quality of the product will be 
 impaired considerably, and an inferior appearance will be 
 given to the flour. Referring again to fig. 1, it will be 
 noticed that at the lower end of the grain there is situated 
 the germ or embryo. The inner part of the germ will be 
 readily distinguished from the other portions of the grain 
 being a hard, yellow, gristly, oily substance, of disagreeable 
 flavor. This portion cannot be easily stripped off the grain 
 while the latter is in a dry condition, and like the teard, 
 being harder than the kernel, it grinds under the stones 
 into very small particles, which not only give a dull, dark 
 shade to the flour, but are also very injurious to the quality 
 of the latter, being indigestible. By a somewhat closer ex- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 69 
 
 araination of the body of the grain we shall discover a num- 
 ber of hulls and skins, enveloping the kernel. 
 
 The first of these, or outer hull, " epidermis" marked 1, 
 in fig. 1, appears rough, wrinkled and colorless, while it 
 shows no cells, and being partially disengaged, can be easily 
 stripped off. The second hull, " epicarpmm,'" marked 2, 
 although smoother, is similar in its character to the "ejnder- 
 mis," and like the latter, envelopes the grain loosely, so that 
 it, too, can be readily removed. The third hull, "'sarcocar- 
 piuin," marked 3, is also smooth, but shows cells of a yel- 
 loAV color ; while the fourth hull, '' endoGarpium," marked 4, 
 is of a similar nature to the " sarcocarpium." The third 
 and fourth hulls adhere to the grain more closely than the 
 first and second, and their separation is not so easily effect- 
 ed. The combined weight of these sluggish hulls men- 
 tioned, is about three per cent, of the entire weight of the 
 grain, and they possess no nutritive value whatever. The 
 four hulls we have enumerated form the bran proper, and 
 they are followed by the 5th skin, or testa, which is more or 
 less of an orange-yellow color in the different kinds of 
 wheat, and which has a cellular structure, as shown. The 
 testa adheres to the kernal very closely, and it is succeeded 
 by another very thin and colorless skin indicated in our 
 figure. This skin being also very closely united to that 
 which follows, so that the two can only be separated with 
 diflSculty. 
 
 The most important, however, of all the skins is the last, 
 marked 6, in the figure, the embryo membrane. This em- 
 bryo membrane is quite colorless, has a cellular texture, 
 and contains a very high percentage of phosphoric acid and 
 gluten. It extends from the embryo or germ, to the other 
 end of the grain, and forms an envelope which is imper- 
 meable by water. Thus, if a grain of wheat be immersed 
 in water, the five outer invelopes will be penetrated in a few 
 hours, while the embryo membrane will resist further per- 
 meation, and the kernel may be found dry and brittle after 
 
70^ WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 several hours' immersion. Even if the outer hulls or skins 
 be removed, the embryo membrane still retains its power of 
 resisting the entrance of water or moisture. The only point 
 at which the water can gain access to the kernel, and then 
 only after long immersion, being at the embryo, where the 
 embryo membrane does not protect it, as shown in figure 1. 
 In the event, however, of the embryo membrane being 
 damaged, partly removed, or even scratched, the water will 
 gain immediate access to the kernel, and the latter will be 
 penetrated instantly. 
 
 According to Mege Mouries, the embryo membrane plays 
 a most important part in the process of germination and 
 alimentation, for it belongs to that class of organic sub- 
 stances possessing a kind of life, and it is thus capable of 
 such action and conversion in the bodies with which it is 
 brought in contact, as is necessary for the development 
 of the plant. The farinaceous matter of the kernel, 
 which comes into immediate contact with the embryo 
 membrane, is soniewhat hard and brittle, and although 
 not perfectly white, it is most nutritious, and would make 
 bread of the highest quality if it could be separated from the 
 bran : being, however, as we have said, hard and brittle, it 
 breaks up under the stones with the husks, and thus not 
 only gives a dark appearance to the flour, but reduces its 
 <piality by causing it to be largely intermingled v/ith bran, 
 besides the quantities of dust and dirt which are mingled 
 with all grain. 
 
 Further, the close connection with the farinaceous 
 layer, with the envelopes, is the reason that it 
 forms part of the bran to a considerable extent. That part 
 of the farinaceous matter beneath this, is neither so 
 hard nor so nutritious, but it yields a white flour, 
 as it is not so largely mixed with particles of the 
 bran. The interior or centre of the grain is softer thai> 
 the parts around it, and it is the least nutritious, yet it yields 
 the finest and purest quality of flour for the reason stated. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 71 
 
 which will explain itself in a different grinding system 
 to that practiced in this country. If it were possible to 
 effect a complete separation of the farinaceous matter from 
 the envelopes which surround them, it would be found that 
 they amounted to 90 or 92 per cent, of the entire weight of 
 the grain, the other matters, or bran, forming 8 to 10 per 
 cent, of that weight; in ordinary practice, however, the 
 bran amounts from 20 to 25 per cent, while the flour is 
 about from 75 to 80 per cent., and is, moreover, of a much 
 lower quality than it would be if a perfect separation could 
 be effected. Hence, it follows that ordinary bran contains 
 at least 10 per cent, of the most nutritious farinaceous 
 matter, a fact which is due, in a great measure, to the bran 
 being largely mixed Avith the layer of farinaceous matter? 
 which cannot be separated from it by ordinary methods. 
 The gluten is present in a higher proportion in the bran 
 than in fine floar, and from this, it might appear that 
 wheat having thick hulls, or affording a high percentage 
 of bran, woukl possess a high nutritive value as food for 
 man, as its muscle-forming power is determined principally 
 by the amount of gluten which it contains. 
 
 In 1658 an ordinance of Louis XIV, of France, prohib- 
 ited, under heavy penalties, the grinding of bran a second 
 time. Moreover, until quite recently, it was very generally 
 supposed that Lread made of the whole meal was more 
 wholesome than that made of the flour ; but Moleschott has 
 shown in his pWsiology that mixing the bran with the 
 flour is a mistake, as, although bran is richer in nutritive 
 matters, yet that a man cannot digest the thick cells of the 
 hulls unless he possesses unusually strong digestive powers, 
 and leads an activ'^e life. On the other hand, moreover, the 
 mucus membrane of the digestive organs become greatly 
 irritated by the bran, and thus undesirable results attend an 
 abundant supply )f substances which, although nutritious, 
 are digested with lifficulty. 
 
 We have caused these constituencies to be engraved in 
 
72 
 
 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 a more highly magnified manner, so as to show the parts 
 plainly, and also to exhibit in a more marked degree the 
 importance of the new method of "decorticating'^ the grain 
 
 before grinding. 
 
 Fig. 2 — section of wheat grain highly magnified. 
 
 e, cellular tissue of albumen e 
 and starch me a . 
 
 /, grains of starch 
 
 Figure 2 gives a part of a section of a ^rain of wheat. 
 In this the different hulls are plainly visible, c being the 
 embryo membrane that is albumen, it bein^ waterproof, and 
 the protector of the gluten and starch cells^ d is the gluten 
 cells, and e/ are the starch cells, with her^ and there a few 
 gluten cells sticking to them. It will be observed that the 
 cells of starch are hexagonal, and contain inany ovoid glob- 
 ules of starch each. In the new milling process these cells 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 73 
 
 are simply broken and the globules crumbled out retaining 
 their shape. 
 
 From the wheat grain we obtain from chemical analysis : 
 
 
 Wheat. 
 
 Flour. 
 
 Bran. 
 
 Water 
 
 14.83 
 
 19.64/ 
 0.95^ 
 
 45.99 
 1.52 
 1.20 
 0.87 
 
 12.34 
 
 13.04 
 
 73.20 
 4.20 
 5.6 
 2.1 
 
 
 Gluten 
 
 
 Albunien 
 
 20.0 
 
 Starch 
 
 Gum 
 
 Sugar 
 
 28.8 
 
 Gil 
 
 5.5 
 
 Vegftable Fibrfi 
 
 45.7 
 
 
 
 These substances may be still further resolved until we 
 arrive at the approximate organic elements which enters 
 into their composition. 
 
 
 Gliiten . 
 
 Albumeu 
 
 Starch. 
 
 Gum. 
 
 42.68 
 6.38 
 
 50.94 
 
 Sugar 
 
 Veg'ble 
 Fibre. 
 
 Carbon 
 
 53.27 
 
 .74 
 
 7.11 
 
 15.66 
 
 23.62 
 
 42.80 
 
 6.35 
 
 50.85 
 
 23.50 
 
 36.1 
 
 7.0 
 
 56.9 
 
 53.23 
 
 Hydrogen 
 
 7.17 
 15.94 
 
 7.01 
 
 Nitrogen 
 
 
 Oxygen ) 
 
 16.41 
 
 Sulphur >• 
 
 Phospboras ) 
 
 23.35 
 
 The oil for the greater part consists of carbon. The glu- 
 ten and starch is found to vary very considerably in differ- 
 ent kinds of wheat, as well as in wheat grown in different 
 climates. If 100 pounds of wheat are burned, one or two 
 pounds of ashes are left, which give the following analysis ; 
 
 Potash 29.97 per cent. 
 
 Soda 3.90 
 
 Magnesia 12.30 
 
 Lime 3.40 
 
 Phosphoric acid 46.00 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 0.33 " 
 
 Silica 3.35 
 
 Per Oxide of Iron 0.79 " 
 
 Chloride of Sodium, or salt 0.09 " 
 
 From this it will be seen that wheat is richest in phos- 
 phoric acid, magnesia and potash. Wheat, as I before 
 
74 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 stated, is valuable in proportion to the amount of gluten it 
 contains. In some varieties it is more tough and fibrous 
 than in others. A very simple method to determine this is 
 to make a paste of a small quantity in your hand, pull it 
 out and its toughness will determine the length of the 
 thread if forms, and the value of the flour. 
 
 Anyone may, in a small but correct manner, analyze 
 wheat flour in a very simple way. Make a stiff dough of a 
 given quantity of flour, put it in a linen bag, and let the 
 linen be thick. Then knead it in water until the fluid that 
 runs out ceases to have a milky appearance. Let the water 
 settle and you will have the starch of the flour. The glu- 
 ten remains in the bag, as water only swells it, but without 
 dissolving. Let the water stand, and a white sediment will 
 settle to the bottom. This is the starch, the principle in- 
 gredient of flour, and of all meals. Separate the water 
 from the starch and boil it, and it becomes turbid and floc- 
 culent. This is vegetable albumen. Separate this from the 
 water by filtering, and boil the water remaining until it 
 becomes a thick syrup, and then add alcohol. The alcohol 
 will take up the sugar, but not the gum. Filter the alcohol 
 and the gum remains. Evaporate the alcohol and you have 
 the sugar. Of course these are not chemically pure, as the 
 saline matters remain. Let us go back to the bag that con- 
 tains the mass. Here are the vegetable fibre and the gluten. 
 Gluten is vegetable fibrine, and corresponds to the fibrine or 
 muscle of animals. It is also seen in the clot of blood, 
 while albumen being the serum or watery part of blood. Thus 
 we have in this little grain all the elements of nutrition, 
 fibrine or muscle-food, starch and albumen, fat or heat- 
 makers, cellulose, same as starch chemically, but insoluble 
 only by digestive fluids. It is this cellulose that envelopes 
 the starch germ, etc., and is also called vegetable wool. It 
 is the pith of wood, the fibre of cotton, hemp, flax, etc. 
 
 As to the theory of ertilizing wheat, we may say that 
 the wheat plant contains, as before stated, carbon, hydro- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 75 
 
 gen, potash, soda, lime, phosphoric acid and other substan- 
 ces. These constituents are derived from the food upon 
 Avhich the plant feeds, for plants feed as well as animals. 
 They both eat and drink. Knowing the composition of a 
 given plant, we can partially determine the kind of food it 
 needs. If potash, for example, is a characteristic constitu- 
 ent, it is plain that in some way the plant must have access 
 to potash. So will lime, phosphoric acid and the others. 
 If the plant cannot fine these or any one of them in the 
 soil it will not thrive or bear fruit. The absent substance 
 or substances be supplied, and this is what is meant by fer- 
 tilizing. 
 
 In the wheat plant there is a volitile part that burns away; 
 that is to say, a part converted by burning into invisible 
 gasses, which pass into the air and disappear. These gases 
 are combined acid and watery vapor mainly, with sometimes 
 ammonia and certain compounds of sulphur and phosphor- 
 ous. The elements comprising these gasses and existing 
 originally, are carbon, oxygen; hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, 
 phosphorus. 
 
 Again, there is a fixed part remaining as ashes. In wheat 
 this part is from four to four and a half per cent, of the 
 whole. The ashes of this plant, taking the mean in round 
 numbers, of many analyses are constituted in pounds, as 
 follows : 
 
 Potash 16 pouDds 
 
 Soda 3 " 
 
 Magnesia 5 " 
 
 Lime 5 " 
 
 Oxide of iron f " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 16 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1| " 
 
 Silica , 52 " 
 
 Chlorine ^ " 
 
 Total 100 
 
 It may be presented in another form. Take a stack of 
 wheat straw, chaff and grain weighing 1,384 pounds, burn 
 
76 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 it, and there will remain only 57 J pounds of ashes, contain- 
 ing the following constituents : 
 
 Potash 9 pounds. 
 
 Soda If 
 
 Magnesia 3 " 
 
 Lime ' 3 
 
 Pliosplioric acid 9 " 
 
 Sulphuric acid 1 " 
 
 Oxide of iron § " 
 
 Silica 30" " 
 
 Chlorine J 
 
 Total 57J 
 
 By far the most important ingredients in the list are 
 potash, magnesia, lime, phosphoric acid and sulphuric 
 acid. 
 
 Generally it may be said that the volitile constituents are 
 mainly derived from the air and the fixed from the soil. 
 The former supplies an abundance of carbon food and of 
 oxygen. It also supplies some nitrogenous food, amimonia, 
 nitric acid, etc. The soil supplies, or ought to supply, 
 nearly all the other constituents of the plant. In the ag- 
 gregate, all these may be called soil food. Soil food differs 
 from air food in being made up of a greater variety of in- 
 gredients, while in weight, excluding water, it is far less. 
 The air is a constant invariable quantity, and always pre- 
 sents an abundant supply in food peculiar to it. In the 
 consideration of fertilizers, therefore, the air food may be 
 eliminated. The soil is an inconstant quantity, and is very 
 variable. It may or may not contain the ingredients neces- 
 sary to the full development of plant life. To supply these 
 is one the chief duties of a successful farmer. 
 
 The following is an analysis of a very fertile soil. In 
 the second column the quantities of most of the substances 
 are given, which are necessary to produce 30 bushels of 
 wheat. It ought to be remarked that most of the silica is 
 used in the production of straw. The soil is, from an acre 
 to the depth of one foot. 
 
IN TENNESEEE. 77 
 
 Soluble Silica 81,900 pounds —pounds 
 
 Lime 143,220 " 9 
 
 PotMsh 35,910 " 27 
 
 Soda..; 68,920 " 5 " 
 
 Ammonia with nitrogen 2,100 " 49 " 
 
 Phosphoric acid 16,310 " 27 
 
 Sulphuric acid 31,360 " 3 " 
 
 Nitric acid ? ? 
 
 This soil ought to produce very mauy successive crops of 
 wheat. Should one ingredient be absent, the wheat crop 
 would be sickly, and in all probability not pay the cost of 
 production. 
 
 Soils are most frequently deficient in potash, phosphoric 
 acid and soluble compound of nitrogen. Bones, ashes, 
 guano, animal excrement, blood, gelatine, oil of vitriol, slilt- 
 petre, and many other substances scattered over the soil 
 supply these constituent elements, and so increase the yield 
 of crops. But this yield will largely depend upon the 
 physical condition of the soil. It should be thoroughly pul- 
 verized in order that the roots of the plant may extend their 
 pasture grounds, so to speak, and fatten upon those numer- 
 ous ingredients Avhich its nature may require. A poor crop 
 may be grown upon a very fertile soil, as we witness every 
 day, and with proper tillage a good crop may be grown upon 
 a comparatively poor soil. A proper stirring of the earth, 
 and plenty of moisture, are by far the most potent fertili- 
 zers, for without these no other fertilizer will be worth 
 anything. 
 
WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 CHAPTER XI. 
 
 GERMINATION OF WHEAT — WHEAT FROM EGYPTIAN 
 TOMES — EXPERIMENTS WITH SEEDS BY THE BRITISH 
 ASSOCIATION — PROCESS OF GERMINATION AND HOW THE 
 WHEAT PLANT GROWS — TILLERING, ETC. 
 
 All seeds kept in a certain state of dryness and darkness 
 will remain sound. No change will take place apparently 
 in their condition, being an inert body. In this condi- 
 tion they are capable of being transported to any distance 
 and preserved for years, almost indefinitely under proper 
 conditions. But suppose we apply a certain amount of 
 light, heat, moisture and air, what takes place? ^\^ere 
 it not that this is an every day experience, out wonder 
 w^ould never cease at the miraculous change that ensues. 
 By the action of that incomprehensible, subtle principle 
 called vitality, germination begins. Bat in order to be 
 started all four of these conditions are necessary. If wheat 
 has air, moisture and light but does not have sufficient 
 warmth, no gei mi nation takes place. Nor is it necessary 
 that it should be absolutely frozen, the simple absence of all 
 warmth is sufficient. Water freezes at 32 degrees Fah., 
 and the force exerted by this action of nature is ample to 
 break water vessels, etc. This force is utilized by rock 
 masons to quarry rock, and a cannon filled with water and 
 left to freeze would be rent as would a bottle. Mercury 
 congeals at minus 40°, so that it requires 72° more of cold to 
 freeze mercury than it does water. Such a degree of cold 
 is known in this country only experimentally. It would 
 soon depopulate the whole of America, as the human sys- 
 tem could not long endure it. But as small and insignifi- 
 cant as a grain of wheat is, it is able to withstand it and yet 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 79 
 
 live. An artificial cold of minus 58°, or 90° below the freez- 
 ing point is necessary to destroy its power of germination. 
 
 But it cannot so successfully withstand the influence of 
 heat, as water raised to the temperature of 122°, 24° more 
 than our natural heat, will, in fifteen or twenty minutes, 
 kill wheat. But this is not the case with all vegetations, 
 as in the hot springs of various countries, some higher than 
 boiling water, various low kinds of vegetables grow and re- 
 produce themselves But to destroy wheat, it must be 
 moist, as it will endure a heat as high as 170° if it is dry. 
 All vegetation requires a certain degree of warmth to germi- 
 nate ; generally 60° or 70° are required — always somewhere 
 between 32° and 100°. 
 
 The peculiar sensitiveness of wheat to warmth may ex- 
 plain why it is that wheat does not succeed well . in the 
 Torrid zone. If wheat has once been incited to germinate 
 and then dried, it can never start the second time. It is 
 therefore important to keep seed dry, for without moisture 
 it is safe. And not only must wheat be moist to germinate, 
 but it must be kept moist. If wheat is sown on the surface 
 it will, from the ordinary moisture derived from the air, 
 germinate, but should it turn dry,- the grain, being de- 
 prived of its moisture, will loose its vitality. In this man- 
 ner much of the wheat seed last year was destroyed, the 
 stands were bad, and hence, in thirsty soils, short crops. 
 Therefore to both germinate and continue the vitality of 
 wheat, it is necessary that it should be protected by soil 
 enough to preserve its moisture. But here comes another 
 fact essential to its success, and this fact it will be well 
 enought to bear in mind. Not only are warmth and moisture 
 necessary to the germination of wheat, but air and light are 
 equally necessary to its developement. Many eminent 
 botanists believe that darkness is essential to the process of 
 germination, but almost every one has seen grains of wheat 
 placed in a bunch of cotton in the mouth of a jar, and those 
 not buried in the cotton, stimulated by the moisture evapo- 
 
80 WHEAT CTJLTURE 
 
 rating from the jar, begin very soon to send clown the 
 rootlets to the water. In this simple manner all the pheno- 
 mena of growth are made patent to every one taking the 
 trouble to test it. Atmospheric air, therefore, is essential to 
 the sprouting of seeds. It is true that seeds will sprout in 
 water, aiid it is equally true that no water exists, unless 
 made so, free from air. Fish breathe by passing water over 
 their gills, and aquatic plants extract it in the same manner. 
 De Saussure boiled water so as to expel its air and then 
 sealed up, putting seed in it, and the seed failed to germi- 
 nate. Petri's experiment, though old, is good and' trust- 
 worthy. If wheat is sown on the surtace, birds, insects, 
 animals and the heat of the sun 'will destroy much of the 
 seed. Should the land be simply harrowed the same ob- 
 jection would hold good with at least half the seed, for the 
 harroAV would not cover any except that which falls into a 
 depression. Should the wheat be plowed in too deep, as is the 
 practice of many, it will be deprived of the other necessities 
 of vegetation, light and air. There must, therefore, be a 
 proper and just medium to secure in the best possible man- 
 ner all these pre-requisites to full growth. The proper 
 depth is seen in the table by Prof. Petri : 
 
 Seed sown 
 
 to the depth 
 
 Came above ground 
 
 No. 
 
 of plants came up. 
 
 of 
 
 1 
 
 inches 
 
 in 
 
 11 
 
 days 
 
 
 7-8 
 
 
 1 
 
 f( 
 
 (1 
 
 12 
 
 
 
 all 
 
 
 2 
 
 (1 
 
 K 
 
 18 
 
 
 
 7-8 
 
 
 3 
 
 11 
 
 II 
 
 20 
 
 
 
 6-8 
 
 
 4 
 
 11 
 
 (( 
 
 21 
 
 
 
 4-8 
 
 
 5 
 
 (1 
 
 II 
 
 22 
 
 
 
 3-8 
 
 
 6 
 
 II 
 
 11 
 
 23 
 
 
 
 1-8 
 
 
 7 
 
 II 
 
 II 
 
 25 
 
 
 3 peed out of 100, 
 
 From this table only one-sixth as many seeds germinate 
 at six inches as at three inches. A great difference of 
 opinion prevails as to the proper depth. The Germans 
 contend the deeper the better to the depth of four iuche.?. 
 About three-fourths of the seed will come up at the depth 
 of three inches, and nearly all at from one to two. The warmer 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 81 
 
 tlie soil is the sooner will it germinate. An experiment 
 was made in Sweden, a cold climate, and that sown on the 
 28th of April came up in eighteen days, that sown the 
 21st of May required eight days, while that' sown on the 
 4th of June came up in six days. 
 
 Light also has a wonderful influence on the sprouting and 
 growing seeds. In dark rainy weather, long continued, the 
 crop will begin to turn yellow and fade, while a bright sun 
 for a fcAV da^'s will restore them their rich green color. In 
 "Researches of Light" we find the following experiment: 
 "Some seeds being placed in the soil, in every respect in 
 their natural conditions, duly supplied with moisture, and a 
 uniform and proper temperature maintained, we place 
 above the soil a yellow glass, a cobalt blue glass and a glass 
 colored a deep blood red and allowed one portion to be ex- 
 posed to the ordinary Influence of the soTar rays. The re- 
 sult was that the seeds under the blue glass germinated long 
 before those exposed to the sunshine, a few seed struggle 
 into day under the red glass, while the process of germina- 
 tion is entirely checked under the yellow glass." 
 
 I have the opportunity to copy the following letter from 
 one of the most trustworthy seed merchants in the old 
 world. His manner of proving the wheat seed he sells is 
 here shown, and the trouble is so slight we would com- 
 mend it to all our farming friends before sowing their 
 ■wheat. It will save many a disappointment: 
 
 Edinburgh, Scotland, May i, 187G. 
 
 Dear Sie: I am f ivored wi li yours of 'he 5tli relative to my practi- 
 cal experience in toe effect of chemicil agc-noy of colored medife on the 
 germination of seeds and grow.h of plants. 
 
 I must first explain tha" it is our practice to test the germinating power 
 of all &eeus which come into our warerooms before sending them out for 
 sale ; and of course it is an object to diiscove r witli as little delay as possi- 
 ble the extent that the viial principle is active, as the value comes to he 
 depreciated in the ratio it is found to be dormant. For instance, if vce 
 sow one hundred seeds of any sort, and ihe wlioie germinate, the seed will 
 be the highe&t current value; but if only ninety germinate its value is 10 
 per cent, koi, or 90 per cent., if eighty, then 20 per cent, less, eic. 
 
82 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 I merely give this detail to show the practical value of this test, and the 
 influence it exerts on the fluctuation of prices. 
 
 Our usual plan formerly was to sow the seeds to be tested in a hot bed 
 or frame, and then wateh the progress and note the result. It was usually 
 from eight to fourteen days before we were able to decide on the commer- 
 cial value of the seeds under trial. 
 
 My attention was directed, however, to your excellent work "On the 
 Practical Phenomena of Nature" about five years ago, and I resolved to 
 put your theory to a practical test. I accordingly had a case made, the 
 sides of which were colored blue or indigo, which case I attached to a 
 small gHs stove used for engendering heat. In the case shelves were fixed 
 on the inside, on which were placed small pots wherein seeds to be tested 
 were sown. 
 
 The results were all that could be looked for: the seeds freely germi- 
 nated in from three to five days only, instead of from eight to fourteen days- 
 as before. 
 
 I have not carried our experiments beyond the germination of seeds, so 
 that I cannot afford practical information aa to the effect of other rays on 
 after culture of plants. 
 
 I have however made some trials with the yellow ray in preventing the 
 germination of seeds, which have been succes^^ful ; and I have always 
 found the violet ray prejudicial to the growth of the plant after germina- 
 tion. 
 
 I remain, my dear sir^very faithfully yours, 
 
 Chaeles Lawsok. 
 
 Not as a matter of practical value but merely to gratify a 
 laudable curiosity, it will be proper to give the opinion of 
 men eminent in science, as to the po.ssibility of seeds of 
 wheat, found buried with mummies in the the pyramids, 
 germinating. It was at one time confidently asserted that 
 new varieties with several heads to each btalk had been 
 started from this source, but when proof was demanded it 
 was always wanting in some important particular, a link 
 lost that could not be supplied. Martin Farqnhar Tupper^ 
 the poet and Christian gentleman, whose word cannot be 
 doubted^ claimed to have raised one stalk from seed given 
 him. Sir Gardiner AVilkerson, when in Egypt, opened a 
 tomb himself, that had lain undisturbed for 3,000 years. 
 He got some seeds of wheat and barley from an alabaster 
 sepulchral vase M'ith his own hands. Portions of this came 
 
IN TEXXESSEE. 83 
 
 into Mr. Tapper's hands, 12 grains direct. He sifted soil, 
 and placed it in pots so that it was impossible any other 
 seeds should remain in the soil. He took every precaution 
 possible, by marking the spots where the seed would come 
 up, and securing the pots against being tampered with, and 
 then, 7th March, 1840, planted the seeds. On April 27, 
 one sprout showed itself above ground, and the remaining 
 eleven rotted in the pots. On the 5th July the heads began 
 to form, it having in the meantime been transferred to the 
 garden, and though weak and feeble, showed signs of health. 
 It was somewhat different from any known varieties. The 
 Ktalk was three feet high, and the heads, two in number, 
 two and a half and three inches long. So soon as Mr. Tup- 
 per published his report he was assailed all over England as 
 having been deceived at some point, and Sir Gardiner Wil- 
 kerson being applied to by the British Association for some 
 seeds, furnished some that contained maize. This beinff a 
 new world plant, showed signs of having been deposited for 
 the deception of travelers, and the well-known character of 
 the Arabs for deceiving tourists convinced many that it wcs 
 a deception. Many scientific men of various times have at- 
 tempted to raise wheat from these mummy seeds, but no 
 perfectly authenticated case ever occurred. 
 
 M. Denon, a scientist of France, accompanied Napoleon in 
 his expedition to Egypt, and had every facility possible 
 given him to collect all kinds of remains of antiquity. He 
 paid especial attention to the Gramiuacea, and used every 
 possible precaution to ensure success. He never did get one 
 single seed to germinate, and was of the opinion, from a 
 chemical analysis made of them, that they were charred to 
 preserve them, before being encased in the tombs. 
 
 At a meeting of the British Association this subject en- 
 gaged so earnestly the attention not only of England, but of 
 its members, that an experiment was ordered to establish 
 beyond controversy the age at which seeds would grow. 
 This committee expended much time and money in making 
 
84 
 
 WHEAT CUI.TURE 
 
 a fair and thorough research, and published the result of 
 their work. It is needless to give in detail their report, 
 but it will be sufficient for our purpose to append the result 
 of tiicir labor, so far as the usual farm grains ore concerned. 
 Their experiments embraced no less than two hundred and 
 eighty-eight genera, illustrating seventy-one natural fami- 
 lies, and including nearly every species of plants cultivated 
 both for culinary use and for ornamentation. Of course, 
 these experiments consumed several years, as they continued 
 to sow until, at the lapse of eight years, only four species 
 continued to grow. We give below their report on 
 Graminacse : 
 
 Zea Maize, Indian Corn 
 
 CobleUs Corn 
 
 Phanaris Canariensis, Canary Seed 
 II (I II II 
 
 u i: « ti 
 
 Panicum Miliaceum, Millet Seed., 
 
 a II a ti 
 
 Avena Saliva, Oats 
 
 li II II 
 
 (I II II 
 
 II a a 
 
 Triticum ^stivum, "Wiicat 
 
 u (I it 
 
 It (( u 
 
 II II II 
 
 Triticum, Spring Mummy Wheat. 
 
 Stcale Cereale, Kye 
 
 Hordeum Vulgare, Barley 
 
 Yea. '9 
 
 No. Seeds 
 
 Old. 
 
 Sown. 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 2 
 
 27 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 200 
 
 9 
 
 
 o 
 
 400 
 
 3 
 
 200 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 2(J0 
 
 9 
 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 3 
 
 200 
 
 8 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 9 
 
 
 
 
 3 
 
 600 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 8 
 
 
 9 
 
 
 3 
 
 300 
 
 48 
 
 
 50 
 
 
 127 
 12 
 147 
 19 
 nil 
 178 
 100 
 237 
 37 
 nil 
 210 
 163 
 nil 
 nil 
 139 
 140 
 nil 
 4 
 167 
 nil 
 nil 
 236 
 nil 
 nil 
 
 It will be seen here that corn at three years of age 
 sprouted less than half; millet seed, less than half; oats at 
 three years, about three-fourths were good, and at eigbt less 
 than one-sixth; wheat at three years, a little over half, and 
 at eight and nine years did not germinate at all ; rye at 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 85 
 
 three years, practically none; and barley at three years, 
 from one-half to two-thirds, but at eight and upwards did 
 not germinate. It is unnecessary to say these experiments 
 are entirely to be relied npon. The seeds were carefully 
 kept in waxed cloth and in sealed jars. This exhibits in a 
 marked degree the necessity of securing for farming pur- 
 poses fresh seeds. If they lose one-half of their vitality 
 in three years, they certainly lose some in two years. So 
 the better plan is to always secure fresh seeds of the previ- 
 ons year's growth, and not later at least than two years. 
 This plan not only relates to wheat, but to corn, oats, rye, 
 barley, and millet seeds. 
 
 Let us note for a few moments the germinating process in 
 a grain of wheat. Lay down the grain on the furrowed 
 side, with the hairy end from you. We will suppose it has 
 been moistened, and has the proper amount of heat. You 
 cannot see inside, but we already know the anatomy of the 
 parts, and can therefore see what is taking place. Water 
 has penetrated through the different skins of the wheat, and 
 has -reached the embryo membrane, but cannot pass this, 
 but is led to the embryo. Here the water is decomposed, 
 and some of its oxygen unites with the carbon of the seed, 
 heat by the escape of carbonic acid gas is generated, and a 
 minute portion of the albuminoid substance — Leibig says, 
 1-oUOthpart of the grain — is converted into diastase. This 
 is a bitterish sort of yeast, and causes a fermentation to 
 take place that converts the starch and cellulose into sugar 
 and gum. This sugar and gum is the food of the young 
 plant, until it has sufficient strength to feed itself by means 
 of its roots. So, although the delicate shoots of plants 
 have no mother to gather food for them. Nature has pro- 
 vided for them all the same, and they are able through this 
 wise provision to liye and grow ; and this very storehouse 
 of plant food that is provided in all vegetation serves also 
 lor man's food. Now, let us observe what processes lake 
 place externally. The little spot, or depression, on the 
 
86 
 
 ■\VHEAT CULTURE 
 
 point and back of the grain is the germ, or rather, it is 
 just under the hull at this point. Presently a small white 
 point starts out from the nearest point, and turns down ; 
 Yir, 3 that is the main root. For 
 
 a short distance the cellulose 
 tissue of the grain follows it, 
 but it soon outruns it, and, 
 turning down, starts into the 
 ground. This root has on 
 the end a little sponge-like 
 ball, full of holes, or tubes, 
 and, as the root progresses, 
 other sponges with short 
 stems start out on its sides. 
 These sponges are suckers, 
 and through these suckers, 
 or mouths, the young plant seeks in the soil its proper sup- 
 port. Very soon after the main root has started outj we see 
 a modest little greenish point protruding just above the 
 jDoint of exit from the main root. This also pushes out a 
 little cellular tissue from the grain, but soon leaves it, and 
 as it grows it begins to expand and takes a decided green 
 color, and looks so much like a feather it is called a 
 " plumule,^' or little plume. It is seen at a, figure 3. This 
 is the embryo stalk, and although it is only a single leaf, 
 and looks smooth and shining, yet it is, through this mag- 
 nifying glass, a perfect honeycomb of holes and tubes, just 
 as the root has. This leaf is hunting in the air for food, 
 just as the roots are in the soil. Maybe it is diiferent food, 
 found by different means. Here are two more roots start- 
 ing out, one on each side of the main root. These are 
 marked/, in figure 3, and are the " true roots/^ and these at 
 at e arc sending out numerous rootlets. Very soon the 
 store of sugar in the grain will be exhausted, but then these 
 rootlets will be able to support it, for, in the soil mixed in 
 proper proportions, the tiny roots will hunt out and absorb. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 87 
 
 through their tubes and sponges, all that it requires, and 
 thence it is carried into the body in the form of sap, and 
 the leaves through its pores v. ill absorb from the atmos- 
 phere carbonic acid gas, which, uniting in the body of the 
 plant with its proper elements, potash, phosphorus, magne- 
 sia, etc., forms the substance of the plant. Now, this car- 
 bonic acid gas is one of the most deleterious elements in 
 nature to animal life, and in the proportion it is mixed 
 with the air, just so noxious and unhealthy is that air for 
 the respiration of man. But without this acid plants could 
 not live. Thus it will be seen what kills animals will sus- 
 tain plant-life. The one is a balance, or compensation, for 
 the other. Carbonic acid gas is formed in animals, and is 
 I thrown out in their respiration. So soon as it comes in 
 
 contact with leaves, however, it is re-absorbed, and stored 
 away in the form of wood, to be used by man for produc- 
 ing heat, when it is again set free to be re-absorbed by 
 plants. 
 
 There is one thing necessary to call attention to, in con- 
 nection with the appearance of the little sponges at the ex- 
 tremity of the roots. Let it be borne in mind, that nearly 
 all the nourishment taken into a plant is through these mi- 
 nute cell- bulbs, and yet they are so small as to be invisible 
 with the naked eye. It is plain that the plant food must be 
 in convenient apposition to these rootlets, or it cannot be 
 taken up. Therefore, in order to be reached, the soil must 
 be thoroughly well pulverized. It is an indisputable axiom, 
 that a well-pulverized poor soil will grow better produce 
 than a stiff, cloddy one well fertilized. There can l)e no 
 sort of doubt that certain kinds of food are as essential to 
 the health of plants as to animals, and it must be supplied 
 to them, and the rootlets, in order to take advantage of it, 
 must have the utmost freedom of action. Not only must 
 the roots feed the plant, but they must also act as a scaffolding 
 to support erect the plants against storm and wind. Pull 
 up a wheat stalk so as not to sever the roots, and we are 
 
05 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 struck with wonder at the manner in which they branch 
 ont, interweaving and thrusting themselves • around or 
 through obstacles of all kinds. A gentleman made an ex- 
 periment to ascertain whether the roots took up nourish- 
 ment along their course or at the ends of their spongioles, 
 and he did it by watering with colored water. After a few 
 days he examined, and found that only the ends or spongi- 
 oles were colored, the roots themselves having none. So 
 soon as the true roots, already mentioned, have attained suf- 
 ficient growth, the main root dies or shrivels up. This, 
 however, is the case with all cereals. 
 
 When the plumule comes out of the ground an inch or 
 two, the true leaves begin to appear, and the central bud 
 forms the stalk. Just under the soil a joint or knot is 
 formed, and another one just above it. The one just under 
 the soil gives rise to the surface roots, or crown roots, and 
 these are the chief agents in caring for and nourishing the 
 plant. If the plumule is broken off, it does not put out 
 another, the plant then has to depend on oif-shoots, and if 
 all the suckers are broken off the plant withers and dies. 
 This is on account of injury to the cell tissue. This is w^hy 
 the presence of grasshoppers is so destructive to wheat. 
 They eat out the heart of the plant. And for this reasoa 
 the presence of cattle, after certain stages, destroys or great- 
 ly injures the stand. Sheep, especially, are injurious, as 
 from the peculiar manner in which they draw out the blades, 
 the whole heart is often pulled out and the plant dies. 
 
 On the subject of "tillering," it may here be laid down 
 as a known fact that the tillers or suckers all spring from 
 the "true roots," those that come out on each side of the 
 grain after the first root has been sent into the ground. 
 Look at Fig. 3, and the roots marked F F will show the 
 ones that give out the suckers e e e, and the position will be 
 readily understood. 
 
 The importance of this fact is well understood when it is 
 reflected that the depth of grain governs the "tillering,'' 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 89 
 
 and also the coronal or surface roots. Wheat lies in the 
 ground after the two sets of roots, viz., main root G in Fig. 
 3, and F F, the true roots, have come out with but little 
 change until spring. Of course these roots send out root- 
 lets in every direction seeking food, and also throw up a 
 few blades, but the great change takes place in the early 
 spring, when the warm sun begins to stimulate its growth. 
 Then "tillers" begin to shoot up all around the main stalk, 
 and the first joint, if under the ground, throws out numer- 
 ous fibres wdiich soon become a mass of roots, that both sup- 
 port and sustain the weight of the stem. Now, if the grain 
 lies on or very near the surface, the coronal roots fail to 
 come, for the first joint of the stem is above ground, and if 
 nj the grain is buried deeply in the soil but few or no til- 
 ^ lers make their appearance. These "tillers" throw out cor- 
 onal or surface roots, and become independent stalks, cap- 
 able of sustaining themselves if separated from the parent 
 stem, so when an experiment is made they can be drawn 
 out and transplanted with ease. For this and other reasons 
 it is best the wheat should be at least two inches under the 
 surface. Spring wheat does not "tiller" to any extent. 
 
90 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER XII. 
 
 NUTRITION OF PLANTS — CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS OF 
 
 SOILS. 
 
 It has been shown that the young plant subsists on the 
 store of starch and gluten that is laid up in the parent 
 grain, but this is of course soon exhausted, and then the 
 roots have to make their own living. The plant finds itself 
 in a soil variously composed of clay, with its numerous 
 compounds, silica, alumina, soda, potash, magnesia, lime, 
 etc., and humus, or vegetable mould, decayed vegetation, 
 and possibly the prudent farmer has added to it his store of 
 manure. But if nothing but organic substances entered into 
 the composition of the plant, it would yield few or no ashes 
 on being burned. We have shown in a former chapter that 
 ashes remain, and therefore we know inorganic substances 
 aid in building up this wonderful superstructure of straws, 
 heads, chaif and wheat grains. 
 
 This brings us to a question that only the researches of 
 geologists and chemists enable us to answer. In order to 
 answer it px'operly we must first determine the elements of 
 which clay is composed. That clay alone can sustain 
 vegetable life has been fully demonstrated. 
 
 The continued decay of vegetables for unnumbered ages 
 is sufficient to deposit a layer of humus, giving the top soil 
 its dark color. How or where does clay originate ? It is, 
 as all know, the detritus of rocks rubbing together by the ac- 
 tion of water, which would necessarily produce fine particles, 
 just as dust is made on turnpikes, only here it is the friction 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 91 
 
 of travel, there it is the friction of water, the crumbling of 
 frosts, etc. 
 
 Granite, the oldest rock, is composed of quartz, feldspar, 
 and mica, and sometimes hornblende. 
 Feldspar is composed — 
 
 Silica 64.50 
 
 Alumina 19.75 
 
 Potassa 11.50 
 
 Oxide Iron 1.75 
 
 Water 0.75 
 
 Lime a trace. 
 
 Here we have several of the inorganic elements necessary 
 to the growth of vegetation. 
 
 Quartz is the most abundant of all rock substances, and en- 
 ters more largely into all vegetation than other minerals. It is 
 silica and oxygen, or silicic acid. All pure white sand and 
 flint and cr3'stal is silica. It composes for the most part 
 sandstone rock, in fact nearly all rocks are composed large- 
 ly of this base. But these silicates are all insoluble in 
 water, unless by the action of an alkali. Such as potash, 
 soda, etc, and these are nearly always found in sufficient 
 quantity in the soil to answer. Without silica, no cereal 
 could stand up ; it enters into the composition of all cereals. 
 Alumina, which is pure clay, is found everywhere, though 
 not in a pure form. Kaolin, or the clay from which china- 
 ware is made is the purest form oi it. It is formed from 
 the disintegration of feldspars, slates or shales. It is com- 
 posed of oxygen and aluminum, a shining metal, that never 
 occurs in nature. Without the presence of alumina in clay, 
 it would lose its plasticity, and could not be moulded into 
 queensware, earthenware or bricks. 
 
 Potassium, a bluish white metal, is the base of potash. 
 It has such an affinity for oxygen that, thrown upon 
 water, it w-ill burn spontaneously. In consequence of its 
 great affinity for oxygen, if brought into contact with alumi- 
 
92 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 na or silica^ it decomposes it, and renders it soluble. Salt- 
 petre is a nitrate of potassium. 
 
 Iron, also, has a great affinity for oxygen, and forms oxide 
 of iron, or iron rust. It is so generally distributed in na- 
 ture that few minerals are without some of its eombinntions. 
 
 Chalybeate waters are so called because carbonate of iron 
 is mixed with them. 
 
 Mica, another ingredient of granite, is found in a confused 
 mass in granite, limestone, and in large plates in porphyry. 
 
 The following is its composition : 
 
 Alumina 20.00 
 
 Silica 47.00 
 
 Oxide of Iron 15.50 
 
 Oxide of Manganese 1.75 
 
 Potassa 14.50 
 
 This does not diifer materially from the others except the 
 presence of manganese, and this is a rare ingredient in soils. 
 It is used in its compound forms quite exten.sively in the 
 arts, but not in agriculture. 
 
 Hornblende is very common, and occurs according to its 
 combinations in many different forms. It is called green- 
 stone, and was a favorite mineral used by the aborigines to 
 make pipes, axes, tomahawks, etc. It is asbestos, which is 
 used as a roofing material, being incombustible, and some 
 kinds of asbestos is woven into fabrics, and used by firemen 
 as a covering. The Californians, in the early days of min- 
 ing, made it into table-cloths, pants, etc., and when they 
 wished to wash them, they burnt them clean. Its com- 
 position is as follows : 
 
 Silica 42.00 
 
 Alumina 12.00 
 
 Lime 11.00 
 
 Magnesia 2.25 
 
 Oxide of Iron JU.OO 
 
 Ferruginous Manganese 0.25 
 
 Lime is the carbonate of calcium, and in this form it 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 93 
 
 enters largely in the compositition of rocks, shells, etc. 
 MarWe, limestone, chalk and oyster and mussel shells, are 
 composed of carbonate of lime. 
 
 AVheu these substances are burned, carbonic acid is ex- 
 pelled, and quick-lime is the result. This has such an affin- 
 ity for water that one ton of it will absorb 500 pounds of 
 water, and then it is slacked lime. The water then becomes 
 part and parcel of the mineral. This affinity for water is so 
 great, that by its powerful action, if water is applied, it will 
 produce a great amount of heat. If lime contains as much 
 clay as 10 or 12 per cent, it makes hydraulic cement, and 
 the more clay the better, up to 40 per cent. It is supposed 
 that lime applied to the soil hastens the assimilation of veg- 
 etable or organic matters in it. it also forms part of the 
 plants themselves thougli in a small degree. 
 
 Sulphate of lime, gypsum, plaster of Paris, alabaster, 
 diiferent names for the same substance, is of great impor- 
 tance to plants, nearly all showing its existence in their 
 ashes. 
 
 Phosphate of lime, found in all animals and vegetables, 
 is found abundantly in a state of nature. 
 
 Magnesia, an oxide of magnesium, also enters into many 
 things; sulphate of magnesia is Epsom-salts; carbonate of 
 magnesia is sold in white cakes as a medicine, and enters 
 into the ashes of many plants. 
 
 All these ingredients result from the disintegration of 
 granite, and they form the chief sources of the soil. 
 
 Granite is suj^posed to be the primitive rock, and has lost 
 its constituents during untold ages, by the slow action of 
 water and air. Upheavals also contribute their share to- 
 wards this result. The destruction of granite leaves quartz, 
 feldspar, mica, etc. These in turn are decomposed, and 
 various compounds come from them. Water, by rolling 
 and rubbing, makes a part, and this is added to, by frosts, 
 rains and the action of the most powerful acids, and yet 
 
94 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 what carbonic acid is caught in descendina; rains is sufficient 
 to decompose the silica that is in feldspar, thus freeing the 
 alumiua from its combination, and that which is released 
 goes into the soil. 
 
 In addition to these mineral earths there is sodium, the 
 base of salt, and borax and washing soda, and a great many 
 other compounds. It aids materially in the preparation of 
 many ingredients of the soil for nutrition. 
 
 Phosphoric acid is found in all rocks of primitive origin. 
 It enters more into the composition of plants than any other 
 mineral, and is a large ingredient of the cereals, it forming 
 about fifty per cent, of the ashes of buckwheat. 
 
 Sulphur, in the form of sulphuric acid, is also important 
 in agricultural chemistry, and serves as a solvent of some 
 of the mineral earths. 
 
 These are all the ponderable bodies that go to the make- 
 up of the plant, but there are others imponderable that is 
 lighter than v/ater, and gaseous in form, that contribute as 
 much as the others. In fact, M'ithout the one the others 
 would be useless. Both are essential to the growth and 
 maturity of the plant. These are carbon, oxygen, nitrogen, 
 and hydrogen. Carbon is the most generally diffused of all 
 substances in vegetation, at least one-half of all plants 
 being composed of it. It constitutes the diamond, char- 
 coal, graphite or " black lead," and forms the greater part 
 of stone coal, petroleum, naptha, etc., etc. In combination 
 ■with oxygen, it forms carbonic acid gas, and in this form, 
 being heavier than the air, it comes in contact with vegeta- 
 tion, and sinks into all depressions, and is then called 
 " choke damp," " bad air," and certainly destroys the lives 
 of those who incautiously venture into wells where it exists. 
 
 When carbon combines with hydrogen, it makes illumi- 
 nating gas. This gas not only is formed in gas works of 
 cities, but nature has a laboratory beside which that of man 
 is Lilliputian in size. AVe mean the immense SAvamps and 
 marshes that cover so much of the earth's surflice. Vast 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 95 
 
 amounts of vegetable matter are here undergoing decom- 
 position, and the gas arises therefrom in the form of bub- 
 bles; and if one should apply a lighted taper, it would 
 explode. 
 
 Oxygen is another gas, and, though invisible, it goes 
 further than all other substances toward the make-up of the 
 earth. Nothing could exist without it, and yet it is the 
 great destroyer. It is called oxygen, or " acid maker," 
 because it was at one time supposed to have caused the for-, 
 mation of acids. It enters into all vegetables, all rocks 
 and soils, composes one-fifth of the atmosphere, and eight- 
 ninths of the water on the earth. It composes more of the 
 earth than all other substances put together. 
 I We have said it is a destroyer as well as a maker. It is 
 
 the principle in the air that induces decay, but it loses its 
 jwwer without heat. It rusts iron, corrodes silver or cop- 
 per, putrifies flesh, and causes the decomposition of all 
 organic substances. Cut your finger, and it is very painful. 
 It is the irritating effects of oxygen. Put a court-plaster 
 over it, the pain ceases at on^e. That is because the oxygen 
 of the air is cut off. During a great cataclysm of 
 earlier ages, some mastodons became imbedded in the 
 ice of Siberia. We have no conception of the length 
 of time they have lain there, perhaps many thousands of 
 of years. Yet occasionally a carcass is discovered, and the 
 animal is so well preserved the flesh is eaten by the Esqui- 
 maux. This marvelous preservation of animal matter is 
 due to the inert condition of oxygen through the covering 
 of the ice, and the presence of cold, for without heat oxygen 
 is powerless. Fruit is preserved by excluding the air, and 
 so the oxygen. With iron it makes rust, but with sulphur 
 it is oil of vitrol. Hydrogen also enters sulphuric acid. 
 Without oxygen no fires could burn, and besides no animal 
 heat could exist. It enters the lungs, and finds in the sys- 
 tem carbon and other principles; combustion, silent but 
 sure, ensues throughout the system, and heat is generated. 
 
96 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 "Oxygen is the factor which returns all substances to the 
 earth, whence they are taken, and the process by which 
 materials are returned, or converted, into their original ele- 
 ments is combustion." 
 
 Nitrogen is a negative gas, and simply acts as a diluent 
 for oxygen in the air. It will not support life nor combus- 
 tion. It will not support vegetation alone, yet it is a very 
 important ingredient of all animal tissues, and enters the 
 blood in vegetable matter. It only combines with other 
 elements in the nascent state. With oxygen and hydrogen, 
 it forms ammonia, and this will be found in manures. The 
 smell is prominent in stables, and in the urine of stock. It 
 is called hartshorn. Its great use is to neutralize acids, 
 even the most powerful, and hence is of great use to the 
 agriculturist. Sometimes a field is turned over with a mass 
 of green weeds. The farmer is astonished that it does not 
 manure the ground. It is because it is sour. If ammonia 
 is spread over it, in the form of manure, marvelous effects 
 are })rod!iced. It is then benefited by the weeds. For this 
 reason manure should never be spread until the plow is 
 ready to turn it under, for ammonia being exceeding voli- 
 tile, it all evaporates, goes into the air, and leaves the 
 manure without strength. 
 
 Hydrogen is the lightest thing in nature, being sixteen 
 times lighter than air. Hence it never exists in a state 
 of nature; if any forms, it rises at once. It forms 11 
 per cent, of water, and enters into the composition of all 
 animal and vegetable substances. It is highly inflammable, 
 and is used with carbon to light cities, raise balloons, etc. 
 
 Thus we have given a brief description of nearly all the ele- 
 ments that go to the building up and perfecting of the wheat 
 plants. It is truly wonderful ho^^ plants will hunt out with 
 unerring certainty through the soil for its nutritive wants, 
 and assimilate them. It was at one time thought that 
 plants took up these ingredients accidentally, but Leibeg 
 opened up a field of chemical research, followed by others, 
 
i2s TENNESSEE, 97 
 
 tintil nearly all is known that can be. Some soils are rich 
 in one element, and deficient in another ; hence, one plant 
 will flourish on this soil, and droop on that. Although 
 iime is only detected in wheat as a trace, yet that trace is 
 absolutely necessary to the perfect maturity of ihe plant. 
 The vine will not flourish without lime, while wheat re- 
 •quires a soil rich in phosphorus or bone-dust. Tobacco and 
 celery require large tjuantities of saltpetre or potash. Tea 
 raised in Japan is not so good as tlie tea from China, because 
 ■certain salts of iron are present in the soil ; v;hile cotton raised 
 in China has the peculiar color that gives it the name of 
 Nankeen, and derives that color from salts of iron. Seeds 
 oi this Nankeen cotton sowed in the United States is noth- 
 ing more than ordinary cotton. In some experiments an 
 -excess of potash, or soda, was placed in reach of plants, 
 but the analysis proved that not one particle more was 
 taken up on this account. 
 
 It is a conceded fact that vegetation largely owes its sus- 
 tenance to inorganic bodies. The lichen derives its sole 
 nourishment from the rocks, as does the moss. It decom- 
 poses the rock, and in the course of ages this source adds no 
 inconsiderable amount to the soil. However, the air also 
 contributes largely to the sustenance of plants. De Saus- 
 ■sure raised beans and peas in damp horse-hair and sand, but 
 they soon drooped and died. 
 
 Much has been written as to the effect of humus on the 
 .growth of vegetable substances. The fact that much differ- 
 ence of 0])inion prevails, makes it probable that little is 
 known concerning it. It is vegetable mould in a state of 
 decay, such as weeds, roots, chips, etc. As humus, it adds 
 nothing to plants, but in a state of moisture it extracts 
 oxygen from the atmosphere, a-nd forms, with its carbon, 
 carbonic .acid. When we loosen the soil around plants we 
 favor the admission of air, and in this way carbonic acid is 
 formed. From humus is obtained humuc acid, which has 
 a great tendency to absorb ammonia, and holds it very 
 7 
 
S^S WHEAT CULTUEB 
 
 firmly. The best cliemists say, however, uo humic acid is^ 
 formed in the soil. The aetion of humis is, then, merely tO' 
 furnish carbonic acid^and hasten the development of the plant. 
 As it is a law in vegetable physiology that, when the food of 
 the plant is more than its organs require for its own perfect 
 development, the superfluous nutriment is employed in the 
 formation of new organs — that is, new roots and fibres, new 
 branches, leaves, etc. Hence, wheat tillers or stools most 
 isihen sown in good soiL 
 
IN TEXNESSEE. 99 
 
 CHAPTER XIII. 
 
 FAVORABLE CONDITION OF TENNESSEE FOE WHEAT SOW- 
 ING ROTATION AS AN IMPEOVER OF SOILS — KINDS OF 
 
 SOILS ADAPTED TO THE GROWTH OF WHEAT IN TEN- 
 NESSEE. 
 
 Tennessee, as a wheat growing State, is increasing her 
 reputation annually. Her wheat, in the first place, is of a 
 very superior quality, far in advance of wheats grown fur- 
 ther north. Besides, the climatic influences of Tennessee 
 are very fortunate. The latitude of Tennessee is the same 
 as Northern India, the place where wheat originated. 
 Then the isothermal line of the northern shore of the 
 Mediterranean passes through Tennessee. This Mediter- 
 ranean country has long been celebrated as a wheat growing 
 country, and has fed Europe for centuries with the surplus 
 of her crops. Thus, if Tennessee is favorably situated as to 
 latitude and heat, she is equally exempt from the chilling 
 winds of the Western States that blow continuously through 
 the winter and spring, stripping the soil from around the 
 roots, leaving them bare and exposed to the biting frosts, 
 and thus the wheat is winter-killed ; or, if it escapes this, 
 the roots being upheaved by thti frosts and left bare, are ex- 
 posed to the suns of summer, and what the frosts spare the 
 heat destroys or vitiates. As I before stated, the wheat cul- 
 ture is not profitable when the summer heat is below 57° Fah. 
 Tennessee is above that average, the mean heat during the 
 year being about 59° and over. Now, if we have a better 
 climate, more advantages of heat, it only rests to shov/ the 
 character of our soils to prove that Tennessee has more ad- 
 vantages as a wheat growing country than any other State 
 in the Union. And yet by bad culture millions of dol- 
 lars are lost in the attempt to grow wheat. 
 
100 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 One of the best agricultural writers in England says 
 "the soil prepared for wheat in England is a strong soil 
 with a large proportion of clay." The clay plays two im- 
 portant ])arts here: it not only affords inorganic nourish- 
 ment to the plants, but it has a mechanical effect in stiffening 
 the soil, thereby holding it to the roots. The absence of 
 this clay is all that prevents the prairie lands of the West 
 from being the best wheat lands in the world. But they 
 lack it and Tennessee has it. 
 
 As a matter of course the other ingredients, lime, sand 
 and humns are indispensible. The ^vheat culture in Call- 
 fornia, that was considered the granary of the United 
 States, has almost been a failure for the last two years, and 
 unless a system of irrigation is devised less expensive than 
 now known, wheat culture may be considered in many parts 
 a dead industry. Ohio, with her sandy hills, can only be 
 made profitable after incurring great expenses in hillside 
 ditches and levelings, while Indiana, Illinois, JSIissouri 
 and the Northwestern States — the prairie country — once 
 the wonder of the world, where from 50 to 60 bushels per 
 acre were common, are fast losing their popularity with 
 farmers. The prairie sod is, when first broken up, very 
 rich, but it is a friable mold, and when it once becomes pul- 
 verized it holds water. The winters come and the rains fall on 
 it, and the wheat is heaved up by the cold and much of it is 
 killed; then the March Avinds come and blow the loose dirt 
 away from tLe roots, and what is spared to the farmer by 
 winter is destroyed by the parching rays of a summer's sun. 
 For these reasons the farmers of the NorthAvest have had to 
 resort in a great measure to spring wheats, and they are so 
 uncertain that they can hardly be relied on to add to the 
 world's supply. South of parallel 30 no wheat need be ex- 
 pected. It is true some wlieat is made, but cotton, tobacco, 
 sugar and rice are the natural productions ot that country, 
 and what nature points out has to be followed. It is true 
 under the impulse of newspapers many efforts have been 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 101 
 
 put forth to divert that country from its natural channel. 
 But small returns will soon bring back the agriculture to 
 its ■ natural position. The Northern and New England 
 States can raise and do raise much wheat, but. it is late iu 
 the market, of an inferior grade compared with Tennessee 
 wheat, and it. is by much labor and great expense of manur- 
 ing that it is effected. 
 
 For these reasons and many others we have come to con- 
 sider that Tennessee occupies the point most favorable in 
 the belt often or twelve degrees of latitude and 20° of lon- 
 gitude that is considered the M'heat region of the United 
 States. From latitude 32° to 43° is considered the favored 
 locality. A portion of this lacking clay will not be suitable, 
 or if used at all will soon wear out. A large portion is al- 
 ready worn out. Some can bo reclaimed, other portion are 
 irreclaimable, having l^een worn to the rocks. Under proper 
 care the lands of Engh^nd have improved with hundreds of 
 years of cultivation, and now make an average yield of 36 
 bushels per acre. Of course this is not done without pro- 
 per care and attention. Crops are rotated, fertilizing plants 
 are cultivated, and fertilizers liberally used. All these 
 things are attended to, and the result is instead of abandon- 
 ing their lands and giving them over to briars and weeds 
 for restoration, they are constantly improved by good tillage 
 and judicious fertilizing, and although the climate is cold, 
 wet and inhospitable, they are able to surpass our more 
 highly favored and better situated fields. 
 
 How can we do this? The answer is simple. Rotation 
 with corn, clover and peas. A field clovered two years put 
 to wheat one year, corn one year and back to clover and 
 wheat, will constantly improve in its capabilities. Sheep 
 husbandry should always go with wheat. Peas, beans, tur- 
 nips and other root crops make good rotation crops for 
 wheat, and these all are fine food for sheep. It is better to 
 sell the crops in the form of meats than in any other way^ 
 ■'or then not only is a better price obtained for the produce 
 
102 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 but the droppings of the stock are secured, which is no in- 
 considerable item in the balance sheet of a fanner. 
 
 A gentleman of this State fed sheep every winter on a 
 turnip field, not patcli, by the use of hurdles or movable 
 fences, and the crops raised from the field the next year were 
 simply enormous. With the hurdles he would fence, say 
 an acre to the hundred sheep, and he would confine them 
 there until they had eaten up every turnip. They would 
 easily gnaw them out. By the time the turnips were ex- 
 hausted, the surface would be black with their droppings. 
 
 But all the soils of Tennessee are not notably good wheat- 
 producers. In the schedule of answers appended it will be 
 seen in answers to the question, " what character of soils 
 is most ^suitable for wheat/' that the majority of answers 
 prove the axiom at the beginning of this chapter, that strong 
 soil mixed with clay, is given as the result of their experi- 
 ence. The mulatto lands of the State are the best. These 
 lands are also called " red lands." They are yellow from 
 the admixture of clay and iron. In defining what portions 
 of the State succeed best, we can only state the character 
 of soil best suited, and leave the balance to the.judgment 
 and experience of the owners of the farms. 
 
 A clay sub-soil will retain moisture, so that in times of 
 deficient rains the plant does not wither and die with heat, 
 besides furnishing to the roots of the plant that burrow to 
 this sub-soil the inorganic substances essential to their 
 proper development. There is in the valley of East 
 Tennessee but little land but what produces wheat to ad- 
 vantage. The soils there possess naturally all the prerequi- 
 sites of fertility, and all that is required of the fiirmer is a 
 judicious rotation of crops, deep plowing, and proper addi- 
 tions to soils that have been exhausted by long culture. The 
 valleys of that portion of the State are naturally fertilized 
 by the constant decomposition of the rocks on the moun- 
 tains, the detritus of which is carried to the valleys with 
 the soluble humus, and keeps the soil in good condition for 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 103 
 
 wheat culture. Even on the slopes of the hills, when not 
 too steep, t1:ie soils are rich in mineral matters. There is, 
 as a general thing, a large admixture of chert or chalky 
 gravel. This keeps the grouaid porous, and silica and lime 
 enough are always extracted by the carbonic acid of the 
 rains and dews, to keep them rich, and hence remunerative 
 crops arc the result. It requires much watchfulness on 
 the part of the farmer to keep this soil from wasting and 
 running off into the valleys, but his watchful care is amply 
 repaid in the success of his efforts. The valley of East 
 Tennessee has an elevation of 1,000 feet above the sea, and 
 its area is 9,200 square miles* 
 
 Middle Tennessee is different from this in every respect. 
 Here are two great divisions of soil. Of course there is 
 mucii diversity locally ; some counties combining both divi- 
 sions, with a gradual intermediate gradation from one to 
 the other. The Basin is Silurian limestone, and has an alti- 
 tude of 700 feet above the sea, and an area of 5,450 square 
 miles. It has a great abundance of clay for sub-soil, with a 
 black or mulatto deposit above it. This black soil is the re- 
 sult of vegetable decomposition, and in proportion to its den- 
 sity is its fertility. The admixture of clay renders it more or 
 -less red soil. This mulatto soil has always been regarded 
 as the best for small grains and clover. The Rim is differ- 
 ent. The edges of the Rim show the Devonian age, and 
 its general characteristic in its shale, or as it is gen- 
 erally called slate. These slopes are steep, and are of no 
 agricultural importance, except for its timber. The pla- 
 teaus that oecur on some of the riralands, however, are very 
 extensive, and belong to the lower member of the Siliceous 
 group. The soil is leachy and filled with chert. There is 
 a great superabundance of silica but a lack of lime, and the 
 subsoil is a pale yellow sandy or gravelly clay, very 
 porous, and consequently, it will not retain moisture ; ma- 
 tiure it as you may, in a year or two it has all washed into the 
 depths of the ground. Though the surface is covered with 
 
104 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 timber and wild grasses, and thousands of cattle fatten 
 on it every year, yet' it does not produce cereals to a 
 paying extent. It is true, that it would, by a proper 
 rotation with clover, give good accounts in wheat, yet unless 
 the country was more thickly settled than now, and trans- 
 portation better, it v/ould not pay to work it. Its capacity ;, 
 however, as a tree-growing region, has been taken advantage 
 of, and it has proved itself to be the finest fruit-growing re- 
 gion in Tennessee. The altitude of these plateaus are 1,000 
 feet above the sea, so that the thermal condition is highly 
 favorable to the production of apples, grapes, pears, peaches 
 and other fruits. 
 
 But the "Rim" is not uniform in this character. There 
 are two principal kinds of soil, the upper and lower sili- 
 ceous groups. The lower group represents the kind here 
 mentioned, and is known by its plane-like surface, and is 
 called "barrens." These lands, as before said, are leachy, 
 and only suitable for oats, potatoes, fruits, etc. These pla- 
 teaus of tiiin soils are principally found in the south-western 
 parts of the rim, though here not universally. Parts of 
 Coifee, Franklin, and nearly all of Lewis, much of Hick- 
 man, Humphreys, Wayne, and all that portion of Lawrence 
 not included in the "prairies" or river basins, constitute the 
 "barrens." 
 
 The upper siliceous group has a more rolling surface, 
 with a red, tenaceous, unctious clay, with a greater or less 
 covering of humus, and underneath is a cherty subsoil that 
 gives it a sufficient porosity to furnish ample drainage. Such 
 lands are found in Montgomery, Robertson, Stewart, part 
 of Sumner, Warren, White, Putnam^ Macon, Clay, one-half 
 of Coffee and portions of Franklin. This soil is very pro- 
 ductive, and gives some of the best wheat and clover lands 
 in the State. The barrens are too leachy for wheat, quickly 
 sifting down manures that are applied. 
 
 The lowlands or " bottoms" on the streams, however, in 
 these barrens are well suited to the growth of all the cereals. 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 105 
 
 The accumulated humus of the hills, largely mixed with 
 chert and sand renders it light, porous and exceedingly fer- 
 tile; The area of the "Rim" is 5>,300 square miles. 
 
 The Cumberland table-land rises 2,000 feet above the sea 
 level. Agriculturally, this section is only noted for its fine 
 swath of grass during the summer, for its excellent apple 
 orchards and its capacity for the production of garden vege- 
 tables. It is not a wheat-growing section, however. Fine 
 crops of corn and wheat have been grown on it by heavily 
 manuring, but the cost of production would overgo the re- 
 sults abtained. It is flat, swampy in places, and siliceous 
 or sandy. The same remarks that apply to the rim as to 
 fruit is here more potent. Some of our best nurseries are 
 located on the mountains. Its area is 5,100 square miles. 
 Its mineral wealth is inexhaustible, and the abundance of 
 coal and timber will always give this section a value inde- 
 pendent of its agriculture. It has of late become the cen- 
 tre of gravitation for capitalists from the North and from 
 Europe, and is destined soon to become in spite of its ap- 
 parent poverty, the most important section of the Slate. It 
 is well suited for potatoes, melons, peas, etc., and when 
 thousands of miners congregate there, its agricultural capa- 
 bilities will be tested to the full to feed its citizens. 
 
 Between the bottoms of the Tennessee and Mississippi 
 rivers is a sloping plateau about 85 miles wide, and com- 
 prising an area of 8,850 square miles. The soils of the 
 plateau are composed, for the most part, of a calcareo-sili- 
 ceous soil, very uniform in the degree of their fertility, 
 easy to work but tender and easy to wash. In the north- 
 ern tier of counties where there is a predominance of clay, 
 clover grows with a surprising luxuriance, and wheat makes 
 an average yield greater than in any other division of the 
 State. Henry, AYeakley, Obion, Dyer, Lauderdale, Tipton, 
 Gibson, Crocket and Carroll have soils wonderfully adapted 
 to the production of this cereal. The counties south of 
 these do not produce wheat in such quantities, but some fine 
 
106 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 yields are reported. Continued cultivation in corn 
 and cotton without rest or rotation, has greatly im- 
 paired the fertility of the farms, yet by the judi- 
 cious rotation of the crops with peas, and where not too sandy, 
 clover, treated with plaster of Paris, the soils may be re- 
 claimed and made as productive as ever. Lake county is a 
 bed of alluvium, probably the most fertile county in the 
 State, but owing to the exuberant fertility of the soil wheat 
 is apt to bed and rust. But for this, it would equal the 
 valley of the Nile in the production of wheat. But this 
 county does not belong to the plateau, and lies wholly with 
 the Mississippi bottoms. 
 
 These bottoms, with those of the Tennessee river, are of 
 surprising fertility, raising nearly all kinds of produce in 
 the most luxuriant manner. Wheat, however, as has been 
 said, lodges and rusts, there being too much rankness in its 
 stem. In some parts of the "bottoms," where from over- 
 flows, sand has been deposited, it does extremely well, yield- 
 ing large crops. As a rule, however, the bottoms are better 
 suited to the cultivation of corn and cotton. The Tennessee 
 ''bottom" has an area of 1,200 miles, and an altitude of 350 
 feet above sea level, while the Mississippi "bottom" has an 
 area of 900 miles, and an altitude of 295 feet above sea 
 level. 
 
 The mean temperature of the valley of East Tennessee 
 is 59°, of Middle Tennessee 60°, and of West Tennessee 
 61°. The average temperature is 58° and more. Mr. A. C. 
 Ford, of the Signal Service, says : The mean temperature of 
 Nashville, Tennessee, for 1873 is 59.5°; 1874, 58.7°; 1875, 
 58.5°; 1876,59.1°. The altitude of Nashville above sea 
 level 504.2 feet ; Memphis, 298.94 ; Knoxville, 993.02. 
 Tennessee has every altitude possible between 200 and 4,000 
 feet. 
 
 The isothermals of Tennessee passes through the most 
 delightful countries of Europe. Lying between latitudes 
 35° and 36° 30', and longitude 81° 37' and 90° 28' west of 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 107 
 
 Greenwich, it has every variety of climate, from the cool, 
 salubrious breezes of the mountains, to the warm, growing 
 sun -of Spain, Though its isothermal line passes through 
 the countries bordering the Mediterranean, Turkey, the 
 tea-growing districts of China, and the spicy fields of Japan, 
 there is a marked difference in the climate of Tennessee and 
 that of those countries just named. The range of the ther- 
 mometer is greater in Tennessee, and consequently, the olive, 
 fig, lemons and oranges, of those countries, cannot undergo 
 its range. But for the cultivation of the cereals, we far sur- 
 pass them. This is owing to the greater heat of our sum- 
 mers. West Tennessee having a mean summer heat of 
 about one degree more than Middle Tennessee, makes cotton 
 and tobacco the staple crops, this small amount of heat being 
 sufficient to mature the cotton crop, and ripen all its bolls. 
 East Tennessee is about 2° colder than Middle Ten- 
 nessee and the table-lands of the Cumberland and its out- 
 lying terraces are 5° to 6° colder than Nashville. On this 
 account these elevated points are becoming a great resort to 
 to the sick during the debilitating heats of summer. 
 
 The average length of the growing season in Tennessee 
 is 189 days. In the southern border it is ten or twelve days 
 longer. By this is meant the time between late and early 
 frosts. The latest frost for any autumn for twenty- two 
 years, was November 8, and this season extended 228 days, 
 the early frost occurring March 23. 
 
108 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER XIY. 
 
 SOILS OF TENNESSEE. 
 
 To any one who lives in one portion of the State, and who 
 has not left his locality, it may seem that all soils are like 
 that with which he is acquainted. Should several travelers, 
 however, leave Kentucky at eight different points, pass 
 through Tennessee and meet in Alabama, each one would 
 come to a dili'erent conclusion as to the soils of Tennessee. 
 This difference of opinion would naturally enough ensue 
 from the character of the eight divisions of the State. We 
 reproduce here what I have heretofore said of the soils of 
 Tennessee. Every variety of soil may be found within the 
 limits of the State. On the Unakas are found soils from 
 the disintegration of granite which are sandy, micaceous 
 and mellow. These granitic soils are confined exclusively ' 
 to the counties bordering the eastern end of the State. 
 Owing to the uneven surface of this portion of the State, 
 the capacity of these soils has been tested to a very small 
 extent. Yv^ild grasses grow upon the tops of the mountains 
 with great luxuriance, and aiford fine pasturage for stock 
 herders. The soil upon some of the "balds" is black and 
 prairie like. Buckwheat grows with great rankness, and 
 yields with remarkable fecundity, and in a few localities, 
 3,000 feet above the sea, good wheat has been grown. 
 
 On the Cumberland table-lands sandstone soils prevail, 
 as well as on some of the ridges of the valley of East Tenn- 
 essee. This class of soils may be divided into five kinds, 
 aiore or less distinct. These are "ChUhowee Sandstone/' 
 "Knox Sandstone/' " Clinch Ilountain Sandstone," " White 
 Oak Mountain/' ixnd"]}yesfone" and "Cumberland Iloun- 
 tain Sandstone." 
 
IX TEXXESSEE. 109 
 
 1. Onlhowee Sandstone Soil is confined to the Chilliowee 
 ridges and is very limited in extent. Some few areas are 
 found that will repay the- labors of the husbandman in the 
 cultivation of potatoes, buckwheat, and garden vegetables. 
 The Chilhowee mountains, which pass through Blount 
 county and a portion of Sevier, are sparsely settled and but a 
 small proportion of the soil has ever been cultivated. But 
 it is much used as a common pasture ground, blue 
 grass grov.'ing on some of the ridges in the 
 counties of Johnson and Carter. This soil prevails also 
 upon the nortliwcstwardly interrupted range of the Unakas. 
 It may be well to observe that the Uiiakas are a double 
 ranse of mountains, that on the southeast side being con- 
 tinuous and the range on the northwestern side being broken 
 or interrupted. 
 
 2. The Knox Sands'one soil is unimportant, being con- 
 fined to long, narrow, sharp ridges, which are often called 
 Piney or Comby Ridges. This soil is confined to the valley 
 of East Tennessee and is very little cultivated. It pro- 
 duces timber in limited qualities, but not much grass, and 
 is not so valuable for pasture ground as the preceding. 
 
 3. Clinch Mountain Sandstone soil occurs mostly on the 
 southeast side of Clinch mountain, which traverses Grain- 
 ger, Hancock and Hawkins counties ; on Powell's moun- 
 tain, which lies in Claiborne and Hancock counties ; on 
 Lone mountain, a continuation of the latter, in the counties 
 of Anderson and Union, and on some of the ridges of the 
 Bay's mountain group, which lies mostly in Hawkins 
 county. It is thin, sandy and poor, sparsely timbered, and 
 has immediately underlying it large sheets of sandstone. It 
 has a pale yellowish color, and when the depth of the soil 
 is sufficient will yield Irish potatoes and garden vegetables. 
 It may be mentioned that the north\\est side of these moun- 
 tains has a very fertile and calcareous soil, highly produc- 
 tive, the fields in many cases reaching the crests of the 
 mountains. It is curious to observe the exuberance of the 
 
110 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 vegetable growth on the one side and the poverty on the 
 other. Stately trees with leafy tops covered with vines and 
 creeperSj making an impenetrable thicket, characterizes the 
 one side in its wild state, while the other, covered with an 
 impenetrable shield of sandstone, has here and there a very 
 few scanty shrubs and starveling trees, typifying the in- 
 discribable sterility and scantiness of the soil. 
 
 4. The Mliite Oah Mountain and Dijestone soil occurs on 
 the southeast side of White Oak mountain in James and 
 Bradley counties and on the slopes of the smaller Dyestone 
 ridges. These ridges are so called from the occurrence of 
 red and stratified iron ore. The rocks underlying this 
 variety of sandstone soils are more varied in chemical com- 
 position and give more vitality and fertility to the soil, 
 which are manifested in a better growth of timber, though 
 but small areas of this variety have been brought into culti- 
 vation, owing to the ruggedness of the country in which it 
 prevails. It may be added that the aggregate extent of this 
 soil is very limited, and can be represented by mere lines on 
 the map. The White Oak mountain and the ridges men- 
 tioned are interesting mainly on account of the abundance 
 of iron ore. 
 
 5. The Cumberland llovnfain soil is the most important 
 of this group, inasmuch as it extends over an area of over 
 5,000 square miles, covering nearly the whole surface on the 
 top of the Cumberland tablelands. This soil is sandy and 
 thin, the sand being coarse and angular. Nevertheless, at 
 the foot of some of the knobs and ridges that rise above the 
 general level of the table land, there are areas of moderate 
 fertility. The valleys too, upon the top of the plateau and 
 upon the north hill sides, are much above the average fer- 
 tility. This region is almost totally destitute of lime, ex- 
 tremely porous and difficult to improve. 
 
 There are so many contradictory statements in regard to 
 the fruitfulness of the soil that it is hard to give an opinion 
 that will be concurred in by every one. There are two 
 
IN TENNESSEE. Ill 
 
 leading classes of soil on the table land, the most valuable 
 of which has a yellowish red sub-soil with a thin coating of 
 humus on the surface. This character of land can be im- 
 j) roved and rendered highly productive, but continual vigi- 
 lance and care are required to prevent the escape of the 
 elements of fertility. This may be effected by seeding to 
 clover, which should be treated to frequent and liberal 
 dressings of plaster of Paris. The soil is extremely tender 
 and constant care is required to prevent w^ashing. For the 
 production of all kinds of fruits, including grasses, root 
 crops and garden vegetables, this land is scarcely surpassed. 
 The finest Irish potatoes grown in the South are raised on 
 this table land. Apples are very prolific, and the trees are 
 thrifty and long lived. It is the orchard land of the 
 State, and millions of barrels of the very best apples may 
 be raised annually at a small cost. The dry atmosphere 
 prevents premature decay. For the growing of fruits 
 and potatoes, no land is superior to it, but for the cereals it 
 is uncertain and unproductive. Nevertheless some excellent 
 crops have been made, and the Swiss who have settled on 
 this mountain land are growing clover and the grasses wdth 
 some degree of success. The lands are cheap, the climate 
 healthy and the timber and water abundant and the high- 
 way pasturage excellent. 
 
 The second class of these soils has a light yellow whitish 
 and sometimes bluish sub-soil with little or no humus. It 
 is extremely porous, leaky, and, when wet, is often inclined 
 to be miry. In its native state it produces nothing but 
 shrubby trees and a scanty growth of hardy weeds and 
 coarse grass. Most of the surface is covered with lichens 
 and sometimes with mosses. Manure applied to these lands 
 soon disappears, leaving scarcely a trace after the second 
 season. It is a serious question to determine the best uses of 
 which these lands are capable. For grains they are useless, 
 and scarcely better for fruit and cultivated grasses. The 
 native grasses and herbs, with such of the hardy cultivated 
 
112 WHEAT CULTUHE 
 
 kinds that might be induced to grow upon thorn, v;oukl 
 aflford pasturage sufficient during the summer for sheep and 
 goats — perhaps for cattle. Besides these two leading classes 
 of soils pertaining to the table lands, there is another, more 
 limited in extent, but possessing peculiar characteristics 
 which entitle it to special consideration. 
 
 This class comprehends the glades and wet lands along 
 the streams. The soil, when wet, is of a dark blue color? 
 sometimes nearly black, but when dry it is ash colored. 
 Blue clay is generally found in connection with it as a sub- 
 stratum. These soils arc often entirely destitute of timber 
 and covered with rank coarse grass and spotted with beds 
 of fern, the tussocks of which form a close mat over the 
 surface. The absence of timber is owing to the super- 
 abundance of water with which the ground is saturated 
 throughout the greater part of the year. • These lands pre- 
 sent another problem, but we are more hopeful of them 
 than of those we last described. It is true that many efforts 
 to reclaim them have failed, but this is owing to a failure 
 to understand their peculiar character. It is not enough to 
 drain off the water: they contain large quantities of half de- 
 composed vegetable matter which imparts to them a high 
 degree of acidity, and this must be corrected by a liberal 
 use of alkali, and for this purpose either ashes or lime may 
 be used. When thus treated they are nearly equal to allu- 
 vial soils in fertility, and are especially valuable for mea- 
 dows. 
 
 On all the soils so far enumerated wheat docs not repay 
 the cost of cultivation. From three to four bushels is the 
 average yield, and the amount sown is so inconsiderable as 
 hardly to deserve notice. 
 
 In another chapter we have spoken of the porous, leachy 
 soils of the barrens, which may be called the flinty or sili- 
 ceous soils. Oats grow well on this class of soils, but wheat 
 rarely does well. Associated with this flinty soil is often- 
 times a chocolate-colored soil, which is equal iu wheat pro- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 113 
 
 ilucing to any soils in the State. Large portions of Stewart, 
 Montgomery, Robertson, Macon, Clay, Overton, Putnam, 
 White, Warren, Dickson, Humphreys, and Hickman are 
 occupied by this soil. On this character of soil, with good 
 tillage, from ten to twenty bushels of wheat may be grown. 
 
 Sandy 'Soils. — Under this head are included the vari- 
 eties of mellow upland and highland soils to be met 
 with in West Tennessee. They are based not on 
 solid rocks, but upon unconsolidated strata, mainly sandy. 
 The resulting soils are of the same character. They are 
 called sandy, or arenaceous, because this mineral feature 
 preponderates, and are generally red or yellow, from the 
 presence of a notable quantity of ferric oxide and silicate. 
 It does not follow that because a soil is sandy it is therefore 
 poor. The clay and calcareous matter that some contain 
 give them a degree of body and vitality that render them 
 for many crops highly valuable lands. The way they lie, 
 too, is an important consideration. If high, plateau-like, 
 or gently rolling and well drained, such lands are often 
 highly esteemed by the farmer, when, if steep or very hilly, 
 they are not prized, In the latter case the soils have the 
 same components, but under tillage are easily washed away, 
 and made comparatively worthless. Many of these sandy 
 soils are fine wheat producers. 
 
 The calcareo-siliccous sol occupies the eastern parts of 
 the counties of Obion, Dyer, Lauderdale, Tipton, and 
 Shelby. It presents an ashen aspect as to color and consis- 
 tence, but sometimes it is of a reddish cast, occasionally 
 black, and oftentimes mulatto in color. It contains more 
 calcareous matter than the other unconsolidated formations 
 of West Tennessee, with the single exception of the green 
 sand, or rotten limestone. It is not unusual to meet in it 
 concretions of carbonate of lime. At some points they may 
 be gathered by the bushel. The soil is similar in character 
 to the formation, calcareous, siliceous, fine-grained, ashen, 
 and sometimes slightly reddish and black earth. Its lands 
 S 
 
114 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 are among the most fertile in the State. The soil owes its 
 good qualities not to its chemical composition alone, but to 
 its finely pulverulent mechanical condition. Tobacco, cot- 
 ton, wheat, com, potatoes, oats, clover, and the grasses, grow 
 luxuriantly upon it, while the native growth, especially in 
 Obion and Dyer, is of marvelous luxuriance. 
 
 Calcareous Soils. — These rest upon the different varieties 
 of limestone found in the State, and differ mainly in having 
 a greater or less quantity of siliceous material, or clay, in 
 their composition, making them friable, or stiff, as one or 
 the other material preponderates. In durability^, extent and 
 productiveness, they surpass all other soils in the State, ex- 
 cept the alluvial. They constitute the wheat, tobacco, cot- 
 ton, and blue grass region of the State, and are found in all 
 the minor valleys of the Valley of East Tennessee, in the 
 Central Basin, and on much of the Highland Rim and in 
 the Western Valley. But few of these soils are found in 
 West Tennessee, they being confined to a small strip west 
 of Tennessee River. These soils are classified according to 
 to the prevailing limestone, and form the best farming 
 areas within the State. They cover in the aggregate one- 
 fourth of the surface of the State. 
 
 Green Sand Soil. — This soil is a kind of siliceous loam, 
 resting upon an interesting formation in West Tennessee, 
 which is, in the main, sand and clay intermixed, having as 
 characteristic ingredients a considerable amount of carbonate 
 of lime and numerous green grains (glauconite), resembling 
 in consistence particles of gunpowder, which give the mass 
 a light green color. It must be mentioned that the forma- 
 tion from Avhich this soil is derived is mixed vi^ith shells, so 
 much so that they furnish materials for burning lime. This 
 greatly influences the character of the soil, supplying it 
 with fertile ingredients, and making it friable and fertile. 
 It is well adapted to the growth of cotton and corn, and 
 some portions to the growth of wheat. The land where 
 this soil prevails is by far the most rugged portion of West 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 115 
 
 Tennessee, and many glady spots occur, especially upon the 
 Tennessee Ridge west, and its various spurs. This soil is 
 confined almost entirely to the eastern part of McNairy and 
 Henderson counties. 
 
 Shaly Soils. — Shales are common in many parts of the 
 State. The black shale underlies the lands of the " Rim," 
 .sometimes however, cropping out ; other shales are found 
 in great abundance associated with the coal strata in the 
 Cumberland Table-land, but as a top formation shale is 
 rare. In a few of the narrow valleys of East Tennessee 
 the black shale forms the basis of the soil. This soil is 
 cold, clayey, unproductive and unimportant, except for 
 grasses. In extent it is very limited, and it may be im- 
 proved by utilizing the accompanying beds of calcareous 
 nodules, some of which are nearly pure phosphates. 
 
 Alluvial Soil. — This occupies in the aggregate a larger 
 area than any other in the State; for to the nine hundred 
 square miles embraced by the great Mississippi bottoms 
 there must be added the lowlands of the Tennessee and 
 Cumberland riverSj and that of all their tributaries. 
 
 Alluvial soils prevail also in the valleys of East 
 Tennessee. The whole state is furrowed by rivers, 
 creeks, and rills, each of which has lying on its margin 
 more or less alluvial soil. Some of the highland coun- 
 ties are alternate ridges and valleys, such as Perry. The 
 alluvial soils differ greatly in character, aptitudes, and 
 productive capacity, depending in great degree upon 
 the formation of the surrounding uplands and the fre- 
 quency or infrequency of overflows. Where the waters 
 flow through or over limestone, the deposit is highly 
 calcareous. This deposit makes a good wheat soil. When 
 the streams gather their waters from sandstone-hills, or 
 gravelly ridges, the soil is not so productive, being more 
 deficient in carbonate of lime. The character of the alluvial 
 soil is determined by the region through which the stream 
 flows. On many of the streams are terraces, elevated high 
 
116 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 above the stream-beds, and not subject to overflow, which 
 have all the chrractcristic features of the low alluvial soils. 
 These fluviatile deposits are exceedingly rich in plant food, 
 and make our most generous soils. Their perfect drainage 
 and freedom from overflows make them very valuable and 
 desirable. For the growth of wheat they are especially 
 desirable. We have seen forty bushels of this cereal raised 
 per acre on this elevated alluvial soil. 
 
 The streams of the Highland E-im have their lowlands 
 hisrhly charged with flinty material. The soil is free and 
 comparatively light, being formed for the most part of the 
 silt deposited by the water, intermingled with chert and 
 fragments of shivered limestone. Upon this character of 
 soil are grown great abundance of peanuts, corn, and potatoes. 
 It never compacts, but remains friable and loose throughout 
 the growing season. Though not so j^roductive of timothy 
 as the more clayey bottoms, this rocky alluvium is more 
 highly esteemed for all the crops that require cultivation. 
 
 There are almost an endless variety and modification of 
 these classes, making warm and cold, light and heavy, low, 
 loamy, hungry, marly, Icachy, limey, sweet, sour, sandy, 
 clayey, marshy, compact, tenaceous, fine, coarse, gravelly, 
 rocky, and crawfishy ; but all may be embraced in the 
 classification above given. The productiveness of soils does 
 not depend on the amount of the constituent elements alto- 
 gether, such as lime, potash, soda, phosphoric and sulphuric 
 acids, and vegetable matter, but upon climatic influences, 
 surface exposure, subsoil, drainage, degree of pulverization 
 and culture. Drainage is especially important. Standing 
 water is destructive of our field-crops. On the other hand, 
 the soil must not be so porous as to permit the fertilizers to 
 filter to a dei)th beyond the reach of plants. For the pur- 
 pose of production, the best condition of a soil is to be 
 thoroughly pulverized and well drained of its surplus 
 water, yet with an under-clay that will catch and hold all 
 fertilizing ingredients. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 117 
 
 The usual quantity of wheat raised in the State varies 
 from 5,000,000 to 13,000,000 bushels, grown upon a surface 
 varying from 1,000,000 to 1,500,000 acres, with an average 
 of seven to nine bushels per acre. To sum up: the best 
 wheat-growing regions of the State are the Central Basin, 
 the valleys of East Tennessee, and the counties lying on 
 the northern border of Middle and West Tennessee. The 
 average in these regions is about fifteen bushels on the best 
 soils. It could be raised to twenty or twenty-five bushels 
 by intelligent labor on the farm. Though the average 
 yield of wheat is far from being what a thorough prepara- 
 tion of the land and early seeding could make it, yet the 
 excellence of the berry compensates in some degree for the 
 scantiness of the yield. The flour made from Tennessee 
 wheat commands in every market a superior price. This 
 fact and its cause is clearly stated by Henry C. Carey, the 
 distinguished political economist: 
 
 ''Even before the war a great change had commenced in 
 regard to the sources from which Northern sup2)lies of 
 cereals were to come, Tennessee and North Carolina furnish- 
 ing large supplies of wheat, greatly superior in quality to 
 that grown on Northern lands, and commanding higher 
 prices in all our markets. The daily quotations show that 
 Southern flour, raised in Tennessee, Missouri, and Virginia, 
 brings from three to five dollars per barrel more than the 
 best New York Genessee flour; that of Louisiana and 
 Texas is far superior to the former, and does not ferment so 
 easily. Southern flour makes better dough and maccaroni 
 than Western flour; it is better adapted to transportation 
 over the sea, and keeps better in the tropics. It is there- 
 fore the flour souglit after for Brazil, Central America, 
 Mexico, and the West India markets, which are at our 
 doors. A barrel of strictly Southern flour will make twenty 
 pounds more bread than Illinois flour, because, being so 
 much dryer, it takes up more water in making it." 
 
 Add to this the fact that the Tennessee harvest precedes 
 
118 WHEAT CITLTURE 
 
 that of New York and the North-western States by nearly 
 a month, and the wheat crop comes in upon a bare market, 
 and it becomes evident that so far as quality and time of 
 selling go, our statement of the superiority of Tennessee as 
 a wheat section is borne out. 
 
 For these and many other considerations mentioned in 
 the course of this article, we do not believe the farmers of 
 Tennessee, especially those living in the favored sections, 
 can do better than turn their attention particularly to rais- 
 ing wheat. The present supply of labor renders it imper- 
 ative for the adoption of a system of agriculture that will 
 render it practicable to cultivate a large breadth of land with 
 the employment of few hands. The cultivation of wheat 
 to a large extent will enable the farmer to do this, for, by 
 the introduction of machinery, and by the employment of 
 some extra hands at harvest and at threshing-time, a large 
 crop may be gathered at a comparative small cost. Let 
 farmers sow more clover and grow more wheat, as well by 
 increasing the yield as by increasing the acreage, and a 
 healthy independence will be secured. 
 
iSr TE^'NE^SEE. 119 
 
 CHAPTER Xy. 
 
 PREPARATION OF SOIL. — TIME AND MAXNEE OF SOWING. — 
 LETTERS FROM FARMERS. 
 
 The subject of this chapter is one which can be supplied 
 by every farmer in the State, and in all probability better 
 than is here given. Should any one else be called upon to 
 write this chapter, he would in the first place give his own 
 personal experience, together with observation on his neigh- 
 bors habits, and rest upon that. This shall be the rule, 
 only in addition to that we shall give such rules as 
 can be deduced from the schedule of letters at the end of 
 the work. 
 
 Let it be assumed, in the first place, that the farmer has 
 selected a good, suitable piece of land. Knowing what wheat 
 requires he has most probably selected a clover lot, meadow 
 sward, oat field, or fallow land. At the time when the 
 spontaneous growth is at its height, for instance, when the 
 weeds are between the flower and the seed, in July, or latest 
 in August, he will break up his land thoroughly with large 
 plows and good teams, ox, mule or horse. There must be 
 a watchfulness on the part of the farmer at this time, for on 
 the work done before sowing depends the success of the 
 wheat. Land badly prepared, broken up too wet, or "cut 
 and covered," will not perform its work properly. Poor 
 land well 'pulverised will make more tvheat than rich, cloddy 
 land. Remember this, and if it is necessary to hwry at 
 mowing time, loiow that to a farmer, great hurry m poor 
 speed. Turn over the growth well, be it weedsi, grass or 
 •clover. Let it rot, and then, when everything is ready to 
 .sow, the land will be found mellow, rich and well pul- 
 verised. 
 
120 WHEAT OULTUEE 
 
 It, is of no use to say, break any number of times, Iiarrow 
 or roll any number of times. There is but one question tO' 
 be fulfilled, and that is to have the ground thoroughly crum- 
 bled. It will require work, breaking up, han-owing, rolling ; 
 let it be done. When ground is well prepared, and the seed 
 selected, it will then be ready to sow. 
 
 There is such a thing as sowing too early. It looks very 
 charming to have a field of wheat looking fresh and green 
 throughout the winter. It will charm the eye and delight 
 all beholders, but when harvest arrives there will be a ter- 
 rible disappointment to find that the "sweet field arrayed in 
 living green" had been for all winter a city of refuge for all 
 insects. That, in other words, the wheat having come up 
 and formed a "boot" before frosts had killed the Hessian flies, 
 they had gladly availed themselves of the hiding place, had 
 deposited their eggs in the boot, which had safely protected 
 them through the winter, and in the spring had hatched^ 
 and then the young stalk, instead of sending forth strong,, 
 healthy tillers, each loaded with golden grain, had put forth 
 some abortion of stems, each sucked at its base by vile 
 worms, until at last its vitality was so exhausted, it fell short 
 of its destined fruitfulness. 
 
 Then, so time the sowing, as to meet this danger. Some 
 may say, "we sowed last year the 15th September, and wa& 
 not troubled with fi.y." So they did, and they may sow the 
 same time next year and escape, for the fly does not devas- 
 tate the whole country every year, but only now and then. 
 It takes the country by sections; but if the wheat is not up 
 when it comes, it will escape; if it is up, the whole crop may 
 be destroyed. A prudent general should always be provided 
 against surprises, and so should a prudent farmer. There- 
 fore, never sow until the chance for the fly is over. In 
 other words, so time the sowing as to let the wheat come up 
 after the frosts have begun to fall. 
 
 This time will range from 1st to 20th October, according^ 
 locality. In the schedule of answers, the majority of gen- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 121 
 
 tlemen say from 15th September to 15tb October. But it 
 is safe to say not before 1st of October, nor later than the 
 1st of November. However, the nearer to the 10th of Octo- 
 ber the better. By this time the fly will be destroyed, and 
 yet the wheat will have ample time to send out its roots, 
 and accumulate a head for winter. 
 
 It is unnecessary to say but few words as to the quantity 
 to sow, and the manner of doing so. Before the late war 
 drills were unknown in Tennessee. Since their introduc- 
 tion, they have gained such headway that few can do with- 
 out one, if the quantity sowed will justify them in the pur- 
 chase. Sometimes several neighbors will club together and 
 buy one, and it will suffice easily to sow 150 acres in full 
 time, or possibly two hnndred. The reasons for using a drill 
 are few and simple. It deposits the seed at precisely the 
 right depth, and all, or nearly all germinates. In stiff land 
 this should be IJ inches, in friable land 2 inches. 
 
 It places the seed evenly, and requires less seed. In 
 planting 100 acres it will save at least 40 or 50 bushels, for 
 with a drill from one-half to three-quarters of a bushel is 
 deemed amply sufficient, wdiile by the hand it is customary 
 to sow a bushel to a bushel and a half. In sowing 200 
 acres, it is claimed by the advocates of the drill that enough 
 will be saved to pay for the drill. 
 
 The Agricultural Department, in 1873, issued circulars, 
 and sent to all the States, making inquiries as to the rela- 
 tive use and benefits of drills and broadcast sowings. From 
 the answers it apjjeared that from all sources only 47 per 
 cent, of wheat was sown with drills. Many and urgent ob- 
 jections were made to the use of drills, and some good rea- 
 sons given, which shows that under some circumstances 
 wdieat drilled did not do well. The cotton States, with the 
 exception of Tennessee, did not know the use of drills at 
 all, and there were but few in Texas. As a general thing, 
 partisans of the drill method estimated the increase at 10 
 per cent., though some placed it as high as one hundred 
 
122 
 
 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 per cent. Nine-tenths cf the testimony adduced favors 
 the drill. It must be preceded by thorough culture, and 
 
 Fig. 4. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 123 
 
 where the surface is uneven, rocky or stumpy, the only plan 
 to use is the broadcasting plan. — (Agricultural Report, 
 1873.) 
 
 Fig. 4, on page 122, faithfully depicts the effects of deep 
 
 and shal low sowing. In other words, drill and broadcast : 
 X o. 1 is wheat put in deep enough under the surface to in- 
 
 If too close to the surface it will 
 
 ure it in taking root. 
 
124 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 sprout. Should it become dry afterward it will die, or should 
 early freeze ensue it would be destroyed. Then let it be as- 
 sumed, IJ to 2 inches, is the proper depth to secure 
 it against both freezes and droughts. When it is sown 
 broadcast,. some will be at a proper depth, some four inches, 
 and some on the surface. 
 
 That plowed in deeply is represented in No. 2. It is 
 a long distance for the young and delicate ''plumule" to 
 reach, and while pushing its way up, it has to receive sus- 
 tenanance entirely from the store of starch in the grain, and 
 by the time it gets to the surface its vitality is well nigh ex- 
 hausted, and it becomes a poor, sickly stem, only affording 
 those faulty grains the miller has so much trouble to get 
 clear of. 
 
 Not only is it weak and feeble in its growth, but there is 
 another danger. Observe a long stem between the true 
 roots and the surface roots it is fain to throw out in its 
 struggle for life. During the winter, should a freeze affect 
 only an inch or two inches, the frozen earth grasps the sur- 
 face roots of the tender plant, the subsoil clings to the deep- 
 seated roots, and the stem is severed. 
 
 It is then doubly injured, and barely makes a head with- 
 out grains. No. 3 gives an idea of a properly drilled 
 shoot properly stooling. 
 
 In Fig. 5, see the result of deep and shallow plowing. 
 This is no exaggerated picture, but a true and faithful rep- 
 resentation of the relative difference between deep and shal- 
 low sowing. Of course the same objections urged against 
 plowing in deep would hold against surface sowing. It is 
 true it will germinate, but between the sun and the birds, 
 mice and insects, but little is left to gladden the heart of 
 the farmer. Some land will not admit of the drill, either 
 too rocky, or too steep, or filled with stumps of trees. In 
 these cases the judgment of the farmer will indicate to him 
 the only feasible method. When forced to plow in, after 
 all the necessary preparation is made, it is best to use the 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 125 
 
 bull-tongiie or double-shovel, run east and west if possible. 
 It covers up, pulverises, and does not put it in too deep. 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 If it is intended to put the wheat in corn grounds, tvv^o 
 methods present themselves, either to plow among the 
 standing corn, or cut the corn, stack it, and break the 
 ground. As in the former case, this has to rest u])on cer- 
 tain contingencies, that can only be properly judged of in 
 eacli particular case, and by the farmer himself. In the 
 former case the farmer must content himself to use cradles 
 in his harvest.. In the latter, he can select either that or 
 the reaper. But corn-land wheat rarely ever pays. Wheat 
 as a rule should never follow corn. 
 
 A very general opinion sanctions the use of the roller or 
 the harrow in the spring. Some say it adds one-tenth to 
 the yield. When a method receives such a universal sanc- 
 tion from the public, the verdict may be safely accepted. 
 In the spring, after the frosts are out, should the ground be 
 very loose and friable, the young wheat standing tip-toe out 
 
126 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 of the soil, a heavy roller will settle it in its place and great- 
 ly benefit it. On the other hand if, from early heavy rains 
 the ground is hard-packed or baked, it will be equal to a 
 cultivation, to run the harrow over it. It will loosen the 
 surface, admit the air to the roots, so that the healthful 
 functions "of nature may be exerted. Besides, it destroys 
 the crop of young grass and weeds that are just peeping 
 up. It looks like rough handling for the wheat, but if a 
 fine-tooth harrow is used it rarely tears up any. It also 
 prepares the ground for the reception of clover or grass 
 seed, shiCuld it be necessary to sow any. 
 
 A practice which is adopted by some of our most skill- 
 ful farmers is to roll the land just before the drill. This 
 solidifies the soil ou top, but leaves it loose beneath. This 
 greatly aids the wheat in the process of germination. 
 
 Winter killing is a great drawback in the North to the 
 cultivation of wheat, but in this State it is a very rare 
 occurrence that it is totally destroyed. The reason is the 
 porosity of the soils, that permits the roots fo thrust its 
 spongioles far down in search of nourishment. 
 
 Should a field require it, it should be drained, as a matter 
 of course, as that is the most fruitful source of winter kill- 
 ing. A light coat of manure is also a good preventive, as 
 it stimulates the wheat to vigorous growth, before the severe 
 cold comes on to kill it. As to the application of manures, 
 every farmer is aware of the importance of giving the 
 ground all it needs. It is beneticial to sow guano, plaster, 
 manure from the compost heap, ashes, salt, or in fact any- 
 thing that will invigorate the wheat. 
 
 As to the use of lime, it is good for the wheat beyond 
 question, but it will surely exhaust the land if persevered 
 in without rotation. Its action on the soil is to act as a 
 solvent for the inorganic substances already composing it. 
 As a matter of course, the more that is taken out the less 
 remains. It is true, it stimulates the plant to draw from 
 the atmosphere, and if the plant is plowed in, it will enrich 
 
m TENNESSEE. 127 
 
 the soil by returning to it all it took out, besides what was 
 taken from the air. 
 
 Que error of some farmers is, that ammonia and carbonic 
 acid, extracted from the air, are passed by means of the roots 
 into the soil. By aid of the most powerful microscope, no 
 one has been able to. detect any circulation from the stem 
 toward the roots, though the reverse is easily seen. Agri- 
 cultural writers talk a great deal about manuring, but prac- 
 tice has yet to see a large field manured from the compost 
 heap,' or with any other fertilizer, except it be ashes, 
 plaster, superphosphates, guano, or salt. It is utterly im- 
 or practicable, except for a small experimental patch, 
 arid then, if too heavily put on, it vrill surely injure the 
 wheat. 
 
 The great and only fertilizers practicable for wheat 
 are clover and peas. Tons of the best manure are con- 
 tained in the clover field, all spread to hand; and 
 there is but one trouble — that is, to plow them 
 in. Unlike other manures, clover pays for itself while 
 being collected. It will fatten hogs, sheep, cattle, or 
 horses. It will furnish the best of hay for winter store, 
 and then it will sow itself so that, with ordinary atten- 
 tion as to plowing in the second crop of seed, it is easy 
 to perpetuate thS stand indefinitely. Should the ground 
 become so filled with nitrogenous substances, and become 
 deficient in silica or calcium, the wheat will not stand up 
 by reason of rust. It can still be placed to any other crop, 
 keep it so for years, and when again seeded, clover will still 
 be on hand. 
 
 Tobacco extracts, as its principal support, saltpetre from 
 the soil, and leaves the phosphorus untouched, so that it 
 precedes wheat very well; but by alternating the wheat and 
 tobacco, the soil would soon be impoverished. Witness the 
 exhausted fields of Virginia and North Carolina as a result 
 of such a ruinous system of agriculture. So with corn. 
 But rotation with clover will absolutely prevent this. 
 
128 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 A planter had two fields of twenty acres each, which he 
 alternated with corn and wheat. This was kept up for fif- 
 teen or twenty years, and resulted in both fields being com- 
 pletely and effectually worn out. AVheat takes up certain 
 principles in the soil, and so do corn and tobacco, and it 
 is very unreasonable to expect the soil to furnish liberally 
 of its riches every year, and last forever. It is like contin- 
 ually checking upon a bank deposit without ever adding to 
 the account. At last the checks will be returned dishonored. 
 The magnificent prairie lands of Illinois and Missouri, that 
 once yielded forty and fifty bushels per acre, barely yield 
 now from ten to twenty. 
 
 In regard to the culture of wheat, I have introduced 
 letters from some of the best farmers in the State, who have 
 spent a long life in the business, and know whereof they 
 speak. But before giving these, it may be well to recur to 
 the reasons given by some of our best farmers why they do 
 not use the drill. It must be confessed that there is good 
 ground for believing that the increased yield claimed by 
 the drill is due, in part at least, to the more thorough prep- 
 aration of the soil. Major C. K. Vanderford, of Ruther- 
 ford county, one of the most successful wheat-raisers in the 
 State, in a communication to the Rural 8un, dated Septem- 
 ber 17, 1877, in referring to a large yield of wheat grown 
 by Byrd Douglas, says : 
 
 ''The best and most important part of the work was in 
 the management of the soil for two or more years before 
 putting it under the plow for the wheat crop. Thorough 
 plowing at the proper time and in the best manner, and all 
 Ouiier subsequent processes, essential though they were, would 
 not have guaranteed success, but for the forethought which 
 had provided good ground upon which to sow good seed. 
 The drilling did not make the large yield, no more than 
 did the timely threshing. This drilling was only one 
 of a series of well conceived and properly conducted pro- 
 cesses. And it will be evident to any one, who will exam- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 129 
 
 iiie into the conditions of success in wheat-culture, that 
 these conditions are not one or two, but many. 
 
 " ]^otwithstanding the fact that a large proportion of the 
 winter wheat sown north of the Ohio is put in with the 
 drill, it is by no means an acknowledged fact that the use 
 of this implement is to be credited with increased product 
 per acre. Whoever intends to drill in wheat must of neces- 
 sity p«t the ground in good condition. I have before me 
 the ' warranty ' of one of the most popular grain drills in 
 use: ' To sow wheat, rye, etc., regularly and evenly, also to 
 cover well, provided always that the drill is properly used, 
 and under ordinary favorable circumstances.' On receiving 
 notice of any failure to perform well, the manufacturer or 
 his agent will go to remedy the trouble; but 'when on ex- 
 amination the difficulty is found to be in the ground, seed, 
 or manner of using the drill, the person who ordered the 
 machine shall pay the expense of this visit, and the war- 
 ranty shall cease.' Now, this is all fair enough. I quote it 
 only to call attention to the fact that the proper condition of 
 the ground is an absolute prerequisite to the use of the 
 machine. Now, avc learn from, the very highest authority 
 that tlie improvement by drilling is made to average ten per 
 cent. (Report of Commissioner of Agriculture for 1875, 
 page 42.) How much or how little of this improvement is 
 really due to the better preparation of the soil, and how 
 much or how little to the use of the drill, is problematical. 
 
 " This question of drilling versus broadcasting has been 
 recently made the subject of experiment by several of the 
 better classes of agricultural colleges, by experimental farms 
 in several States, and by a number of intelligent farmers. 
 I have watched carefully for the result. So far, the weight 
 of testimony is in favor of broadcasting— the preparation of 
 the soil being alike for both methods of seeding. 
 
 " When we put in wheat with an eight-inch drill, using 
 
 four pecks of seed per acre, there will be about nine grains 
 
 of wheat to the lineal foot of drill — fourteen to each square 
 9 
 
130 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 foot of surface; and if every seed grows the plants will 
 stand one and one-quarter inches apart in the drill. If we 
 use three pecks of seed, the plants will be not quite two 
 inches apart — in both cases much too crowded for thriftiest 
 growth. If we broadcast one bushel per acre there will be 
 fourteen plants to the square foot, but distributed more or less 
 evenly over the whole space. The few pieces of drilled wheat 
 which I have seen were full of weeds, which had opportu- 
 nity to grow in the open spaces, while upon similar soils in 
 broadcast fields near by, few or no weeds could be seen. 
 Drilling or "dibbling" wheat has long been practiced in 
 England. Hoeing and weeding wheat by hand and by 
 machinery is a necessary practice there; and it is noteworthy 
 that the grain-fields of the mother country are more and 
 more infested with weeds every year. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 131 
 
 CHAPTER XVI. 
 
 LETTERS FROM SUCCESSFUL WHEAT RAISERS AS TO CUL- 
 TURE, EXPENSE, AND MANAGEMENT OF THE CROP. 
 
 I know of n way better calculated to instruct our farm- 
 ers in successful wheat culture than by collecting and pub- 
 lishins: the detailed operations of those who have been most 
 successful in the production of wheat. For this reason I 
 addressed, or caused to be addressed letters to a consider- 
 able number of eminent wheat-raisers in the State, asking 
 for a detailed account of their experience in wheat growing. 
 Many responded, but several from whom I expected the 
 best accounts failed to respond, much to my regret, and to 
 the regret, doubtless, of my readers. 
 
 The first letter is from Jno. B. McEwen, of Williamson 
 county, who is known to be one of the most energetic and 
 successful wheat growers in the State. His letter is full and 
 to the point. 
 
 Feajjklin, Tenn., July 24, 1877. 
 J. B. Killcbreu\ Esq.: 
 
 Dear Sir : — At your request I address you a few lines upon the culture 
 of wheat, and the varieties adapted to this locality. Middle Tennessee is 
 naturally a wheat country, and when the proper attention is given no 
 section of the United S;ates can excel Middle Teanesse, either in yield or 
 quality of grain, and lam fully of the opinion that the lands of Middle Ten- 
 nessee will yield in proportion to the attention given to the crop. Such a 
 thing as manuring land for wheat is unknown. In the past, as a general 
 rnle, the lands have been too rich for wheat, and it would run too much 
 to straw. Now, as a general thing, the lands are too poor, and will not 
 make str.iw enough. We must therefore temper up the lands to make the 
 wheat crop remunerative, and according to my experience nothing an- 
 swers the purpose so well as clovering the lands. I have been told by a 
 large thresher man, that in threshing nearly 100,000 bushels this season 
 he never struck a clover sod field, which did not yield more than 20 
 bushels per acre. On the contrary, equally as good land, where the 
 wheat foUuwed covn, the yield rarely went up to ten bushels per acre. 
 Wheat alter wheal on a clover soil does as well for three successive crops as. 
 
132 WHEAT CtTLTUEE 
 
 at first. Wheat after wheat on corn-stalk land will yield better after the 
 first crop for five years, but will rarely even come up to the succession of 
 crops following clover. Wheat does Avell after tobacco, cotton and pota- 
 toes, but not so well eitlier in yield or quality as after clover. 
 
 The next thing after getting a clover sod is to break the land deep and 
 subsoil it, re-break, harrow and drill tlie seed. By this mode I have suc- 
 ceeded in mi\king a yield of from 40 to 50 bushels to the acre, an average 
 of 44 J bushels totlie acre. The time for breaking is August, when the green 
 grass and weeds can all be turned under green, the green weeds and grass 
 being equal to a general cast of light manure. .The time for seeding ia 
 from the 1st to the 20tji of October, neither sooner nor later ; if sooner 
 you encounter the fly ; if later, the fall drouth. 
 
 The same amount of labor and mnnure put upon land here, as upon 
 lands in Penni-ylvania, New York, Maryland or Virginia, would bring 
 forth a yield double to treble, and an article far superior in quality to any 
 of these States. Such a thing as clearing our lands of slumps and loose 
 stones is unknown here, but is the first consideration in the States named, 
 and should be here. Our lands are very kind here, and will make some 
 wheat if the seed are scattered over it with or without manure or plowing, 
 and at any time from the middle of September to the first of January. 
 
 I have been a wheat-raiser during the past twenty-five years, and tried 
 every variety, and tried it upon all kinds of land, and cultivated it in 
 every mode, from the best to the meanest, and the results varied according- 
 ly, and I am now satisfied that the land will produce just in proportion to 
 the labor and skill bestowed upon it. Another suggestion : always plow 
 your land when it is dry, never when wet. If you do plow the land too 
 wet, your crop will surely be a failure on your best land. 
 
 The wheat crop is sul>ject to many ills in Middle Tennessee, and the 
 greatest of them all is the rust. To avoid that is to sow wheat which will 
 ripen earliest, and sow it by the 10th of October. There are several vari- 
 eties which will ripen from the 1st to the 7th of June. These varietif^ 
 will rarely rust. Some varieties will succeed finely in some localities, 
 and be total failures in others, hence you must study your locality. 
 
 The next ill we are subject to is the grasshopper and fly which, com- 
 bined, very often blasts your prospect for a crop. To avoid these, do not 
 «ow before the lOih of October, and you will escape both, nine times out 
 of ten. 
 
 The next is smut. No man need ever have a sing e grain of smut. It 
 has been fully ascertained that bluestone is a certain remedy against smui. 
 I hav€ tried it for years, and never had a grain of smut in my crop when 
 the remedy is applied. The mode of app ing is not soaking, but it is to 
 take one pound of bluestone and thoroughly dissolve it in boiling water, 
 and when cooled down, have ten bushels ot wheat cleaned ready, and in a 
 pile. Sprinkle the bluestone water slowly over the pile and stir it thorough- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 133 
 
 ly until the two gallons of mixture is all taken up by the wheat. Tiie 
 ■wheat is then ready for sowing, not wet and sticky, and pcarrely shows that 
 it h&'i been dampened. This is my practice and that of others, and when 
 attended to, you cannot find a grain of smut, and 3'ou may be sure when 
 yon find smut, this remedy has been neglected. The application seldom 
 costs exceeding two cents per bushel, surely a small sum to insure against 
 smut. You often lieir men say they never have smut on their land, and 
 they do not trouble themselves to use the remedy against it. 
 
 Perhaps they get the experience the next year of losing half the value 
 of their crop. These ills, with that of laziness, constitute the main force 
 witli which we have to contend. Cockle, rye, chess and such things, are 
 the r&sult simply of laziness and carelessness. 
 
 Wheat culture heretofore in Middle Tennessee has been greatly neglcded. 
 Attention is now being turned towards its culture, and grant st'ides are 
 making in the right direciion, and soon it will become the staple money- 
 making crop. Transportation in the past has been the principal cause of 
 its neglect. 
 
 I had eleven varieties of wheat thisj'ear, makiug a succession to meet 
 the convenience of harvesiJng, but one half of them I would pronounce 
 worthless for this locality ? The varieties have selected for seed — are 
 the Yellow Lamas, being the earliest to ripen ; the next the Bnughton, for 
 its hardy and freedom from rust; the next, the Fultz and Walker — the 
 two latier varieties being very prolific and very hardy, and all fine wheat. 
 The others I discard. I have now said as much as needs be said upon 
 the suliject. Yours, very respectfully, 
 
 J. B. McEwEN. 
 
 The following letter from one of the most successful 
 wheat-growers in the State, will be read with interest. The 
 soil on Mr. Matlock's farm is a stiff" clay loam, resulting 
 from the disintegration of the Knox dolomite. It is deep- 
 ly stained with ferric oxide, and is capable of indefinite im- 
 provement : 
 
 October 12, 1877. 
 J. B Killebreio, Commissioner: 
 
 You ask me to give you the best time and method of preparing land for 
 wheat, also what time it ought to be sown. 
 
 I prefer a clover sod plowed early in July and turned deep and well 
 under. This should be kept harrowed so as to prevent the growth of 
 grass und weeds. Manure should be liberally scattered upon the thin 
 places. Roll well and drill in the wheat about the 10th of October. If 
 I could sow all my wheat in one day it would be the 10th of October, I 
 
134 WPIEAT CULTURE 
 
 alway? wjnt about three inches of the top soil well packed, and under 
 this I want it loose and ni'llow. Tae seed comes up betier in land so pre- 
 parpd, and if the winter should be wet, the loose soil umJerneath supplies a 
 good drainage, so that there will be but little danger of freezing out. 
 Should the weather be dry the closely compacted stratum on top will keep 
 moisiure enough to hasten the process of germination. I have raised on 
 land thus prepared 44 bushels of wheat per ac 
 
 As to the quantity of seed to use state that upon one occasion, 
 
 throu^i;h mistake, I put in seven acres with only tifrSte. of a bushel 
 
 per acre. From that piece of seven acres I got 37 bushels per acre. I 
 prefer one season wiih another, to begin with seven-eighths of a bushel to 
 the acre, and later in the sowing season one bushel, and I do not care ever 
 to have a greater quaniity, unless the n is very tbin, and it is very late 
 in the seas ^n. Thin soils require more seed than rich ones, as the stand 
 is never so good, nor does it tiller so well on liin soils. 
 
 On such soils I prefer pean to over as a crop to precede wheat. Sow 
 the peas at the ra,te of three or four I'usheis to the acre. Treat them with 
 plaster as you would clover, and before the leaves in to turn yellow 
 
 plow them well under. never found so muoii advantage after the leaves 
 begin to turn yellow and fall ofi". By the udicious and persistent use of 
 peas almost any field can be made to brin'g a fair crop of wheat and 
 
 clover. 
 
 Ee=pectfully, 
 
 H. H. MATLOCK. 
 
 Here follows a letter from Mr. Campbell : 
 
 Vine Cottage, Frankwn, Tenn., )_ 
 July 20, 1877. J 
 J. B. Killehrew. Esq.: 
 
 In answer to your note nceived to-day, I would inform you that my 
 field of nine acres and 05-100, which you allude to was plowed about the 
 15th of August last, with the Oliver chilled plow, turning under a crop of 
 red clover and rag-weed. Early in September I broke it again with sub- 
 soir plows, tearing the sod well to pieces, then harrowed twice, and v ith 
 what I call a drag, went over again, mashing clo;!s and smoothing it 
 very nicely ; then, with my neighbor Daniels' drill I put a little over 
 three pecks of Eoughton wheat to the acre. I should have preferred drill- 
 ing a half bushel to the acre, but could not regulate the drill so as to put 
 that amount on. If the drill could have been made to put a peck to the 
 acre, I would have put hat amount one way and crossed with a peck the 
 other way, which I think would have made a better yield, leaving the 
 seed more evenly distributed over the ground. When the seed was well 
 up, and before it began to branch or tiller, I sowed about eight bushels of 
 gypsum and thirty-five bushels of leached and unle ached ashes to the 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 135 
 
 field. I have threshed out thirty bushels to the acre, and have got vet to 
 thresh my gleanings, which will make the yield 32 or 33 bushels to the 
 acre. I will state to you the fact that you and my neighbors all know 
 that the crop was materially injured by storms in April and June. ' Now 
 let me foot up the cost and profit of the crop, calculating the field at 9'> 
 acres to save fractions : 
 
 Cost of plowing at $1.50 per acre $ 14 25 
 
 Cost of Rubsoiling at $1.50 per acre 14 23 
 
 Cost of harrowing once, at 25 per acre "..... 2 37 
 
 Co-it of harrowing second time 2 38 
 
 Cost of dragging once 2 27 
 
 7busheUeed wheat at$1.25 8 75 
 
 Cost of drilling at 50c per acre 4 75 
 
 8 bushels gypsum 8 00 
 
 35 bushels asLes at 72C 2 63 
 
 Sowing fertilizers 1 00 
 
 Eent of land, 10 per cent, on $50 47 50 
 
 Cost of cutting at $1 per acre 9 50 
 
 Binding and shocking by 9 men, 3 girls ad 2 boys 20 G2 
 
 JBoard of hands at 25c 5 25 
 
 7 hands in threshing IJ days at $1 10 50 
 
 45 wagons and teams 1 J days at $2 50 11 25 
 
 1 wagon and team 2 day saving straw 1 25 
 
 Eoard of 17 hands hauling, threshing and stacking straw Ij 
 
 days each 6 38 
 
 Corn and barley for 17 horses 2 00 
 
 S pints whisky 90 
 
 Total .'. $175 90 
 
 By 258 51-100 bushels wheat, deducting toll at 10 per ct.. $322 96 
 By straw 10 00 
 
 poo 
 
 2 96 
 
 Clear profit $157 06 
 
 -or about $17.50 j:ier acre. 
 
 Now for the field of eight acres, rented of Mrs. Harriet Baugh : 
 
 To rent of same at $4 per aci'e $ 32 00 
 
 Cost of one plowing at $1.50 per acre 12 00 
 
 Cost of one harrowing 2 00 
 
 ■Cost of one drilling 4 00 
 
 Cost of 10 bushels seed wheat at $1.25 12 50 
 
 Cost of 4 bijsliels gypsnm 4 00 
 
 Cost of 24 bushels a-lies 1 80 
 
 Cost of sowing do 1 00 
 
 Coet cutting 8 aerc6.„ 8 OO 
 
136 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Cost binding and shocking 3 50 
 
 Cost of board 7 hands i day 1 10 
 
 Cost hiring 7 hands .} day, threshing and straw 3 50 
 
 4 wagons and teams i day 5 00 
 
 Board of 7 hands binding and shocking 87 
 
 Board 17 hands hauling, threshing and stacking straw 2 13 
 
 Corn and barley for 17 horses J day 50 
 
 One pint whisky 37 
 
 Total $ 94 27 
 
 By 59 45-100 bushels wheat, after paying toll, 1-10, at 
 
 $1.2 f. S 74 31 
 
 By straw 2 00 
 
 $ 76 31 
 
 Net loss $ 17 96 
 
 or loss per acre $2.24.y. 
 
 So you see the more of such land we farmers cultivate the greater 
 the loss. This field was in sweet potatoes last year. If the land had been 
 given to me free of rent, I would, after getting a low price for labor, have 
 got $1.75 per acre. We must quit this system of farming, and improve 
 our land by system of grazing stock, especially sheep and cattle and a free 
 use of clover with land plaster and ashes, and using all the manure we 
 can make frou the stock. If in the above two statements I have com- 
 mitted an error, it is unintentional, and I would like for you to point it out 
 to me. I have not yet threshed out any gleanings, but will report the 
 same to you when I do. 
 
 Yours, with respect, 
 
 ^VM. R CAMPBELL. 
 
 JUDGE hurt's experience. 
 
 Judge W. J. Hurt, of Como, Heury county, Tennessee, 
 sowed Tappahaunock ou a piece of dark chocolate colored 
 land with red, porous sub-soil, whose original growth was 
 hickory, pawpaw and poplar, and has been cultivated forty 
 years in corn, cotton and tobacco without rest or clover: 
 lies high and level. Sowed from first to fifteenth of Octo- 
 ber, one bushel of seed to the acre. Sowed it broad-cast. 
 It ripened about the first week in June. Broke up in Sep- 
 tember with a one-horse Brinley plow drawn by two mules- 
 Seed harrowed and brushed in. Yield: 3,000 bushels on 
 one hundred acres. In 1874 sowed wheat on clover land 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 137 
 
 and raised forty bushels per acre. Clover sod turned under 
 in July. Did not graze nor ever does. Quality of wheat 
 is improved by letting it become thoroughly ripe before cut- 
 ting. Soaks his wheat in bluestone, one pound to eight 
 bushels^ for twenty-four hours. 
 
 Jno. H. Harrison broke up a meadow of five years' standing 
 with three horses in July. He broke first of October and sowed 
 three-fourth of a bushel Boughton wheat per acre one way 
 with drill and crossed with one-half bushel per acre the other 
 way. Drought killed out a good deal. Harrowed before sow- 
 ing. Result: 17 acres made 35 bushels per acre, 10 acres made 
 40 bushels per acre, and 4 acres made 50 per acre. Sev- 
 eral gentlemera made from 25 to 45 bushels per acre? 
 and it is a notable fact that all the large yields were from 
 clover land broke up in July or August. 
 
 A remarkable instance of the result of good farming took 
 place at State Lunatic Asylum. The land is a white oak ridge, 
 known as Nubbin Ridge, from the size of the corn grown 
 on it. When purchased by the State it was literally ex- 
 hausted — worn out. Last year it was in clover, was broken 
 up in September and Fultz wheat sowed, after being rolled 
 and harrowed. It was sown broad-cast and bull-tongued in. 
 It was rolled in the spring. The yield of the field of 28 
 acres was 981 bushels by weight, or 35 1-28 bushels per 
 acre. 
 
 Letter from Mr Sanders, of Rutherford county : 
 
 MxjRFREESBORo, Tenn., July 11,1877. 
 
 J. B. KiUebrew, Esq. — Dear Sir: I have been requested to send you a 
 statement of my wheat, manner of putting in, time of sowing, etc. My 
 land was all turned under with a tliree-horse plow in August and Septem- 
 ber, and was let lie until the 1st of October, when it was thoroughly har- 
 rowed with a three-horse harrow and then ^seeded as follows : The first 
 three pieces were Fultz, and turned out us below. The first on clover, 
 three-fourths of a bushel per acre sown October 5th, rusted badly, fell 
 down, and got 20 bushels per acre. 
 
 Second piece after oats. Seeded three-fourths of a bushel per acre 
 October 5th, rusted slightly; yield 15 bushels per acre. 
 
138 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 Third |iiece, three-fourths of a bushel per acre, after wheat ; land thin 
 no rust, yield 12^ bushels per acre. Sowed October 28. 
 
 Fourth piece after wheat, five-eighths of a bushel per acre, bright amber> 
 lard thin, October 25, yield IGJ bushels per acre. 
 
 Fifth piece afier clover, three-fourllis of a bushel per acre, bright amber, 
 sowed October 17, yield 25 1 bushels per acre. 
 
 You will observe from the above that my average yield per acre was 18 
 bushels, or 26j bushels to one sown. All the above plats were treated in 
 the same way, being thoroughly harrowed, sown and harrowed in. My 
 Crop of 22 bushels of seed on 322 acres of land yielded 578 bushels of choice 
 wheat. 
 
 Respectlully, 
 
 S. K. Sanders. 
 
 A irentloman in Bedford county bought a worn-out place 
 and sowed a forty acre field in wheat and clover. The first 
 year he got 1(J0 bushels of inferior A\dieat, or four bushels 
 per acre. The next year he got by plastering his clover a 
 large lot of valuable hay, and in August he saved and sold 
 $600 worth of clover seed, and then broke it up and sowed 
 in wheat. The next year, being the third year from the 
 purchase, he saved 1,200 bushels of good wheat, and it 
 has, by alternating with clover, got to be one of the best 
 wheat farms in Bedford county. 
 
 A Mr. Daniels, came from Indiana a few years ago and 
 bought a portion of an old place that had been worn out in 
 cotton culture. He plowed it across gullies, making his 
 horses jump, and sowed in wheat and clover. This year he 
 made 30 bushels per acre on the whole place. When he 
 bought it, from five to seven bushels was the average. 
 
 There is a great diversity among farmers as to the crop 
 that precedes wheat. Unfortunately it often happens that 
 no regular system at all is observed, but he merely sows 
 certain pieces of ground because it is convenient. ' These 
 farmers help to reduce the average per acre in the county 
 or State. It is not always practicable for a farmer to sow clover, 
 in fact some land does not produce it successfully. Then peas 
 would precede it with fine eifect. A pea crop turned under 
 has been known to add five bushels per acre, and this cer- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 139 
 
 tainly will remunerate the farmer. The proper plan will be to 
 sow peas broad-cast on the ground, it being properly prepared 
 to receive them, and then in August, either pasturing with 
 hogs or witliout, plow in the vines, and treating afterwards 
 as any fallow land. Next to clover this crop is the best to 
 precede wheat. 
 
 Mr. Lovelace, of Henry county, has made some interest- 
 ing experiments in wheat growing by preceding his v/heat 
 cro]> with peas. From three pecks to a bushel of stock peas 
 were sown per acre in May, 1873, upon a i3eld almost to- 
 tally exhausted, the last crop of wheat from which, though 
 a good season, yielding only five bushels per acre. The 
 pea vines were turned under in August following, and the 
 field sown in wheat in October. The following year ten 
 bushels of wheat per acre were harvested. The field was 
 put in peas as soon as the wheat was cut, the vines turned 
 under in August and wheat sown. The yield the follovving 
 summer was fifteen bushels, showing a regular increase of 
 five bushels each year, though the land was in cultivation 
 every year. In 1873 the soil was so poor it would not 
 grow clover. In 1876 there was a magnificent stand of 
 clover on it, and the land was rich enough to bring a crop 
 of tobacco. If our farmers generally would adopt this 
 simple plan to fertilize their lands fewer complaints would 
 be heard of the unprofitableness of farming. 
 
 Rotation of crops should always be observed. A farmer 
 who will persistently cultivate in the cereals, cotton and 
 tobacco, cannot expect long to enjoy prosperity, but if he 
 will alternate with clover every two, three or even four 
 years, his land can be kept good a long time. Prof. Voelcker, 
 reporting experiments to the Royal Agricultural Society of 
 England, says : 
 
 "The heaviest crops of clover removed from the soil ap- 
 pear to render it more capable of yielding a good crop of 
 wdieat. The addition of even powerful saline manures 
 (super-phosphate of lime, mixed alkalies, etc.,) seems hardly 
 
140 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 to improve the subsequent wheat crop. Clover mowed 
 twi:^e leaves the land in a better condition, as regarding its 
 wheat producing qualities, than when mowed once only for 
 hay, and the second crop fed off the land by sheep." "Clo- 
 ver not only provides," says he, "abundance of nitrogeneous 
 food, but delivers this food in a readily available form, as 
 nitrates, more gradually and continuously, and consequently 
 with more certainty of a good result than such food 
 can be applied to the land in the shape of nitrogenous 
 spring top dressings." 
 
 The removal of the clover crop does not always benefit 
 the succeeding wheat crop. An interesting experiment was 
 made a year or two since in Maury county, one half of the 
 field being mowed and the clover hay taken off, while on 
 the other half the clover was allowed to fall down and was ■ 
 subsequently turned under. The latter half made five 
 bushels of wheat per acre more than that portion from 
 which the clover crop was taken off. Whether the clover 
 should or should not be taken off depends greatly upon the 
 time of plowing. If this be done in June or July a heavy 
 growth of clover would doubtless be an advantage to the 
 succeeding wheat crop, but if the plowing is postponed un- 
 til August the cleaner the land is the better. The decay of 
 the green crop should be perfect before the wheat is sown, 
 and to hasten this a liberal dressing of lime would not be 
 out of place. This practice accords with my own experi- 
 ence of twenty years in the raising of wheat. 
 
 Mr. Joseph Wright, on land which had been two years 
 in clover, hauled out manure in the winter, spread and 
 plowed in early in the spring, turning the soil to cover the 
 manure, and then as early as possible planted it in corn. 
 As soon as the corn was in condition he cut and shocked it, 
 plowed the land, giving it a thorough pulverization, and 
 sowed wheat by October 10th. He raised on this 
 corn land the past season 45^ bushels per acre. After the 
 fall sowing of wheat he seeded it with clover in the spring 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 141 
 
 with a small quantity of timothy seed to hold uj^ the clover. 
 His crop of corn yielded him 80 bushels per acre. 
 
 By reference to the schedule at the end of this work it will 
 be observed that a great discrepeucy exists as to the proper 
 time of cutting. When seed is required it is the general 
 belief that the wheat should be thoroughly ripe. For flour 
 the proper time is thought to be just as the wheat passes 
 out of the dough state. Millers prefer it thoroughly ripe, 
 and when we consider that seed wheat is taken out of the 
 general store, it is best to let it all get ripe alike. It has 
 never been tried, but it certainly would be but little trouble 
 for an experiment to be made in cultivating wheat seed as 
 we do millet seed. An easy plan would be to double the 
 distance of a drill, or rather stop every other tube so as to 
 double the width of the rows, then in the early spring either 
 cultivate with the same drill, or use a sub-soiler with an iron 
 bar helve so as not to cover with soil. It would be inter- 
 esting to know what w'ould be the result of a few conse- 
 cutive years of such cultivation on any given species of wheat. 
 
 We have said but little as to the pasturage of wheat but 
 refer tiie reader to the schedule of answers. It sometimes 
 may not show injury, but the cropping off the leaves 
 given by nature for its sustenance does not seem at all 
 beneficial. If very rank it may not hurt it, but it is yet 
 to be proved that it benefits it. 
 
 WHEAT CULTURE. 
 
 The following letter is written by a citizen of Bradley 
 county, who has made a great success in wheat culture : 
 
 Wheat is, perhaps, the mo.<t peculiar of all the grasses. It certainly is 
 tlie most va uable, and admits of greater improvement and is suliject to 
 more accidtnts, diseases and attacks from parasites than any other cereal. 
 To adapt its peculiarities to dili't-rent soils and climates; to feed the plant 
 wiih fojd that promotes the stalk and griin equally ; to discover the cause 
 and cure of the many diseases that prey upon it ; to prevent the attacks of in- 
 sec s and accidents that come upon it ; in fine, to manage the whole to make 
 it pay, are questions not ytt satisfactorily answered. He who has genuine 
 
142 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Avheat land does not always make a crop reraunerative, nor is he left out in 
 the catalogue of failures. There is a culture, and that culture will be dis- 
 covered sooner or later, that will obtain, and make wheat as much a sui- 
 cesss as it is now a failure. Science alone will develop the method of 
 adapting the plant to soils and climates, so that almost every season it will 
 produce a remunerative crop. So far as experience in whe.it culture 
 
 is concorned, it is quite limited. My partiul success i producing fine 
 grain is due entirely to a careful study o f wants and demands of the plant, 
 and persistent labor (carried out on the simple natural laws that govern 
 • each) in selecting and saving the seed. 
 
 Genuine wheat soil is the tirst requisite. Good seed the second. 
 Ten dcdlars per acre, no less, will just about cover the expenses of 
 preparing the land, sowing, reaping and threshing. Some farmers (?) 
 think this exorbitant. The se who think so do not make iheiravenige reach 
 ten bushels. 
 
 The siiil first. Before turning under the green growing crop of weeds or 
 clover, sow ten to thiry bushels of caustic lime per acre, or cut them low 
 and after a few days drying, scatter straw and burn ofl' clean. The lime 
 prevents the weeds from souring the soil, assists decomposition, and the 
 soil packs more rapidly. Tbe ashes promote the growth and health of 
 both phint and grain, a/id partially prevent rust. Light soils require less 
 lime and much more care in the preparaiion. In applying manures from 
 stables or cow stalls, they should never be scattered in the fresli or green 
 state. The farmer lose too much. One load of manure taken a>s the 
 base, will make from ten to fifteen ol the most excellent comjiost, and will 
 go atleast as much further in producing good cropss This compost can 
 be made up of elements found on every farm. One day each week, with 
 a team and two hands, should be spent at the compost heap. It is the 
 farmer's bank — his money is in it. At the rate of twenty loads of this 
 should be scattered upnn tlie land four or five months before the wheal is 
 sown. After plowing, immediately harrow boih ways and roll, and let 
 the land rest until sowing, at which time harrow again and roll, then drill. 
 In the short dry spell in February or March, when the dew is off, sow ealt 
 and ashes or salt and lime, harrow and roll again. This consiituies put- 
 ting in wheat tolerably well. 
 
 The seed. It should never be taken from the bin. Seeds of all kinds 
 must be selected in the field. The farmer can then select his best. Take 
 that which is lar st, best and earliest ripe. For any choice seed pick by 
 liand a bushel or two of center heads,and drill by hand on some fine spot of 
 ground and take its product for your seed the next year. Hand-pick every 
 year to relieve your crop of cockle, cheat and unhealthy grain. There is 
 more muney, and infinitely more satisfaction to the scientific farmer in 
 this method of treating his seed, than any other he can poFsibly invent. 
 Good seed sown properly in good soil, and well prepared, will make re- 
 
IN TENNESEEE. 143 
 
 munerative crops nine years out of every ten. It requires clean land to 
 prevent the ravages of the fly ; it requires early sowing to in^ure a good 
 aland ; it requires potash in some of its forms to prevent rust, even on ele- 
 vated lands ; it requires salt to slifi'eu the stalk and make the grain, and 
 it requires a well-balanced head to make a wheat crop pay. 
 
 The varieties of wheat are quite numerous. Almost every one hss its 
 drawbacks. It may be more iu the management of soil and seed thnn in 
 the variety. I have for several years experimented with as many as 38 
 different varieties, giving each three years trial. None have I found to 
 excel the Golden Straw — a beautiful, white, smooth variety, and much 
 called for by the mills. It yields more under the same treatment, makes 
 more flour, and ripens from four to ten d.iys earlier than all others. I 
 have certificates from thresher-men and millers, that its yield has rfached 
 this year as high as 67J and 68^- bushels per acre, and that it produces as 
 high as 48 pounds of flour in every 60. The weight of a struck bushel is 
 65J pounds. I have in this, given a very imperfect outline of my mode 
 of wheat culture, which may be of some benefit to farmers. 
 
 A. E. BLUNT. 
 
 Cleveland, Tennessee. ^^ 
 
 Professor Nicholson, of the East Tennessee University, 
 sends the following : 
 
 E. T. U. Knoxyille, Tenn., College of AaRrctiLTURE, \ 
 
 September 16, 1877. j 
 
 J.B. Killebrciv, Commissioner of Agriculhire, etc.: 
 
 Deak Sir — I take t"he first opportunity to comply with my promise to 
 write you concerning clover as a preparation for wheat. Observant far- 
 mers, in all parts of the world, where wheat and clover are grown, long 
 since noted the fact that a clover sod was the best natural preparation for 
 a good wheat crop. It has also been often noted that the yield of wheat 
 was better when the clover crop had been grown for seed, tJian when the 
 second crop was either turned under green or depastured by cattle. This 
 fact is an exception to the general law that crops allowed to go to seed 
 exhaust the land far more than tliey do when they are cut or removed at 
 an earlier sta^e. I do not doubt that a comparison of the histories of the 
 best wheat crops reported to you will confirm these observations. 
 
 The only attempt to explain the causes of the su] eriori;y of clover as a 
 preparatory crop for wheat, with which I am acquainted, was made by Dr. 
 Augustus Voelcker, chemist to the Koyal Agricultural Society of England^ 
 Ihe results of along series of experiments were published in the journal 
 of that Sociely for 1S68. The report of Dr. Voelcker is long and elabo- 
 rate, and would occupy probably more space than you would care to allow. 
 
144 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 I therefore venture to summarize his conclusions, leaving out the chemi- 
 al tests and experiments by which they were reached. 
 
 I assume, as proved by the elaborate, long-continued and oft-repeated 
 experiment of Dawes & Gilbert, and others, that the wheat-producing ca- 
 pacity of a soil depends upcn the amount of available nitrogenous matter 
 that it contains. 
 
 By analyzing the soil from which the heaviest crops of clover have been 
 taken, it is established : 
 
 1. That in the growth of clover a large amount of nitrogenous matter ac- 
 cumulates in the soil. 
 
 2. This accumulation is greatest in the surface soil, and is derived fiom 
 decaying leaves, dropped during the growth of the clover, and from the 
 great mass of root, containing when dry from 1-J to 2 per cent, of nitrogen. 
 
 3. There are more and larger roots and more fallen leaves when the 
 crop is allowed to go to seed than when it is cut for hay or pastured — in 
 consequence, more nitrogen accumulates in a seed crop than in a hay crop. 
 
 4. When clover is pastured the young plants are checked in growth, 
 less roots are formed, and less leaves fall th';n when the crop is allowed to 
 grow for hay, hence the smaller amount of nitrogen left in pastured sod 
 than in a mown sod, and as a consequence, the smaller yield of wheat. 
 
 5. It is highly probable that the rains wash from the air sufficient nitro- 
 gen to sati^fy the lequirements of an ordinary clover ci'op. The nitrogen 
 of the, clover crop left in the soil, is gradually converted into nitrates, 
 which is the most available form for the use of the wheat plant. 
 
 I quote the practical conclusion of the report: " Indeed, no kind of ma- 
 nure can be compared in point of efficacy for wheat, to the manuring 
 which the land gets in a really good ciop of clover. The farmer who 
 wishes to dtrive the full benefit from his clover laj', should plow it up for 
 wheat as soon as possible in the autumn, and leave it in a rough state as 
 long as it is admisaable, in order that the air may find free access into the 
 land, and the organic remains left in so unuh abundance in a good clover 
 crop be changed into plant-food ; more especially, in other words, in order 
 that the crude nitrogenous oiganic matter in the clover roots and decaying 
 leaves may have time to become transformed intoanimoniacal compounds, 
 and these in tlie couise of time into ni rates, which 1 am strongly inclined 
 to think is the form in which nitrogen is assimilated, par excellence, by 
 cereal croiis, and in which, at all events, it is more efficacious than in any 
 other state of combination wherein it may be used as a fertilizer." 
 
 "When the clo'.er lay is plowed up early, the decay of the clover is 
 sufficiently advanced by the time the young wheat jdant stands in need of 
 ready available nitrogenous food, and this being uniformly distributed 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 145 
 
 through the whole of the cultivated soil, is ready to benefit every single 
 plant." 
 
 Dr. Voelcker, you know, stands at the very head of his profession, and 
 there is no higher authority known in agricultural chemistry. 
 Very respectfully, 
 
 HUNTER NICHOLSON. 
 
 We might multiply instances of this kind for a hundred 
 pages, but we have said enough to convince every one that on 
 suitable land, with proper care, wheat raising will pay, and 
 on poor land it will prove a disappointment to any one 
 who attempts it. 
 
 10 
 
146 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER XVII. 
 
 PEAS AS A RENOVATOR OF THE SOIL AND AS A FORE- 
 RUNNER OF WHEAT. 
 
 It is well known that many green crops when turned 
 under adds greatly to the fertility of the soil. Some green 
 crops, however, seem especially adapted to prepare the soil 
 for wheat. Among them we may mention red clover and 
 peas. It is well known that wheat always grows kindly 
 and yields profusely upon a clover. lay. An ordinary clover 
 crop upon an acre will contain, after drying: 
 
 Ammonia 52.00 
 
 Phosphoric a( id 19.76 
 
 Sulphuric acid 7.50 
 
 Silica 18.65 
 
 Lime 75.00 
 
 Magnesia ; 21.00 
 
 Potash 80.69 
 
 This turned under will supjily plant food enough to grow 
 a very heavy crop of wheat. Twenty-five bushels of wheat 
 will weigh 1,500 pounds; the straw will weigh 3,000 pounds. 
 The straw and wheat will abstract the following elements, 
 supposing it to have been grown upon an acre : 
 
 Grain. Straw. Total. 
 
 Ammonia 41.71 10 18 51.89 
 
 Phosphoric acid 15.00 11.10 26.10 
 
 Sulphuric acid l.SO 5.10 6.90 
 
 Silica 1.05 143.10 144.15 
 
 Lime 135 12.00 13.85 
 
 Magnesia 4.G5 5.10 9.75 
 
 Potash 12.00 23.70 35.70 
 
 It will be observed by a comparison of the two tables 
 that there is great similarity between the composition of the 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 147 
 
 aslies of wheat and clover, that every element necessary to 
 the production of wheat is found developed profusely in the 
 clover hay, to say nothing of the clover roots, which 
 abound in the same substances. Two elements only are 
 found in greater quantity in the wheat than in the clover 
 hay, viz: silica and phosphoric acid. The first is nearly 
 always found in excess in our soil, and the apparent defi- 
 ciency of phosphoric acid is more than made up by the roots 
 of the clover. 
 
 Clover restores fertility to exhausted soils by taking 
 carbon from the atmosphere and causing elements in the 
 soils to assume organic forms, thus rendering them availa- 
 ble as plant food. The practice, however, of cutting and 
 selling the clover hay before plowing up the land for wheat 
 cannot be two strongly condemned. Clover, to do any 
 good, must cither be plowed under or fed out on the farm 
 and the manure carefully saved and returned to the land. 
 Frequent experiments have been made in the same field by 
 taking the clover hay from a part and leaving it on the re- 
 mainder. It almost always happens that the yield of wheat 
 is greatest on the portion of the field v/here the clover was 
 plowed nnder. And when it is otherwise it is due to the 
 delay in turning over the clover sufficiently early to alJow 
 it to pass through the process of fermentation and decay 
 before the sowing of the wheat. 
 
 A volume could be written on the benefits to be derived 
 from the sowing of clover. It is enough for our present 
 purpose to know that it unlocks the fertility of our soils, 
 keeps them in good physical condition and greatly increases 
 the yield of wheat. 
 
 Next to clover as a forerunner of wheat we may put peas. 
 Sown broad-east and turned under when in flower, they nave 
 been known to increase the yield of wheat from four to six 
 bushels per acre. The following letter from the Hon. H. 
 M. Polk is conclusive as to the value of this crop as a fer- 
 tilizer, and no better service could be done to the asricul- 
 
148 WHEAT CtTLTURE 
 
 ture of Tennessee than to induce our farmers to sow lariJely 
 of this crop. In addition to the raanurial value of peas, 
 they contain a large amount of flesh-forming principles. 
 Analysis shows 22.4 parts of albuminoids and 53.3 of 
 carbo-hydrates in 100. Hogs can be fattened upon them, 
 and cattle can subsist upon the hardier varieties, sown in the 
 corn fields at the last plowing, almost during the entire 
 winter. But to the letter of Mr. Polk : 
 
 BouvAE, Tenn., Aug., 1877. 
 Col. J. B. Kilkbreio: 
 
 Dear Sir — I am in receipt of yonr request, communicated througli our 
 mutual friend, Col. M. T. Polk, to write an article on "the field pea. its 
 manurial qualities, and its capacity as a permanent renovator of the 
 soil." This is intended to accompany, simply as an addendum, a 
 treaties upon " Wheat Culture in Tennessee." 
 
 The importance of the field pea as a collector and depositor of plant 
 food in the surface soil, to meet the future wants of a heavy wheat (or 
 other cereal) crop, has never been fully appreciated even by our most 
 thoughtful planters. And, although the pea cannot perform miracles, in 
 the common acceptation of the term, yet it can, on most soils, assure a 
 heavy wheat crop anmiolbj from the same ground, and at the same time 
 improve the soil. This, at least, is practicable whenever wheat is made to 
 follow oats, wheat or rye; for in this case, time sufficient is allowed, fiom 
 the removing the small grain crop in June, to that of sov/ing wheat? 
 (from the middle of October to the first of November), to intervene with 
 a renovating crop of peas. 
 
 A good lay of pea vines (grown upon the spring stubble) plowed under 
 from the first to the tenth of October, will not only restore the elements of 
 fertility abstracted from the soil by the preceding crop in the spring, but 
 will collect and deposit therein more than a sufficient amount of plant 
 food necessary for the demands of the succeeding wheat crop. It may be 
 contended this too per.sistent call for the same elements, in the same soil, 
 annually, cannot but eventually result in injury to the soil. Under our 
 ordinary tillage, (which ignores feeding the soil), this woald be true ; but 
 ■where an intervening crop of peas returns the plant food abstracted by the 
 previous crop, and in addition thereto stores away the pabulum required 
 by the succeeding crop, we cannot preceive the dangers to be ftared from 
 such a practice. The various elements necessary to a vigorous and 
 healthy growth of wheat, are, through the pea lay, in the incredibly phort 
 period of seventy-five days, lestoretl to and husbanded in the soil for a gen- 
 erous yield of the incoming crop. Not even soluble silex is overlooked in 
 this statement, as we may rely upon the small amount returned in the pea 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 149 
 
 vine, a portion also given back in the smill grain stubble plowed under 
 when the peas were sown, and super added thereto, the abundance of this 
 particular substance ever present in our siiicious soil. 
 
 I said the field pea could not perform miracles. It is not a panacea for 
 all the evils resulting from defective till ige, neither can it claim to intro- 
 •duce into a soil, defective in a particular element, that which the pea itself 
 does not i>ossess. For such an impossible requii-ement no one vegetable 
 or animal manure is competent. The intelligent iarmer must find out 
 what is wanting, and apply the particular manure calculated to remedy 
 the defect. 
 
 Husbandry also should be made to repair many of the evils resulting 
 from de^^ective tillage. Chief among these, (and far surpassing them all in 
 magnitude), is the annual leaching out the fertilizing elements tlirougli 
 tlie shallow culture so universally practiced. But I can neither discuss 
 this nor such other calamities as must result from a total neglect to return 
 one generous shovelful of manure to land from which the elements of fertil- 
 ity have been annually abstracted ; nor the fact that a rational rotation is 
 altogether ignored ; nor the unwisdom of relying on one crop alone; 
 thereby taking year after year the same elements from the same soil, un- 
 iil it is made deficient in some one or more of the many substances neces- 
 sary to healtliy and vigorous plant life. I must not turn aside to discuss 
 these evils, but shall confine my remarks to the pea in connection with 
 wheat culture, and as a renovator of our worn lands. We have shown 
 that the pea, as an intervening crop with small grain in the spring 
 and wheat in the fall, can and does restore to the land a liberal siipply*of 
 plant food for the following wheat crop. But on other parts of the farm 
 occupied by cotton, corn, tobacco, etc., (which rerjuire the better part of 
 the year to mature), peas cannot be made an annual interveningcrop. This, 
 then, brings us squarely up to the first greed 'principle in fanning — rotation 
 of crops with the purpose of feeding the soil. 
 
 In a three yeare rotation of cotton and corn with peas and oats, or other 
 crop, it is asserted by many farmers that the |ieas sown witli the corn will 
 restore to the earth in one year an ecjuivalent for the plant food abstracted 
 by the other two crops. But when the object is to feed the .soil abundantly 
 for renovation, at the same time that we expect to secure heavy yields of 
 the cereals, it is necessary to adojit at least a five years rotation, in two 
 years of which more plant food shall be put back into the soil than will be 
 abstracted by the other three (so-called) money crops. Here is the whole 
 secret of successful farming in a nutshell. 
 
 England not only rotates and feeds her soil, but imports plant food. We 
 extract and impoverish and export plant food. How does our soil of 
 eighty years culture compare with her soil, cropped about one thousand 
 years? Peas and clover, aided by what manure we can manufacture, are 
 ihe great agents to recuperate and build up our soil, that it may be able to 
 
150 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 supply in future the heavy demands of a population as dense as that of 
 the European State-'. Let us illustrate the exhausting process : 
 
 The earth is the farmer's bank. If he has $10,000 in it, represented by 
 the natural fertility of the soil, and should draw therefrom $1,000 annu- 
 all)', at the same time refusing to replenish the original capital, how long 
 will it be before the bank will dishonor his drafts? The sum is' too 
 simple to require a demonstration. The farmer appears to be, however, 
 obstinately bent on trying to convince himself that even under this sense- 
 less practice his drafts will continue to be honored forever. He is abso- 
 lutely sublime on the annual draw. It would seem that exjierience might 
 have taught him that his exhaustive practice would eventually 
 close the doors against him; that his capital must soon be all used up 
 and that want even now threatens him from a quarter wheie plenty and 
 prosperity could easily have been assured. He seems to be desirous of 
 emulating the .profound wisdom of the fellow (he must have been a 
 Southern farmer) who killed the goose for the golden eggs. Were it not 
 for the dir^astrous efiects such praatice must have upon the interests of 
 posrerity and the future wellfare of our State, we might with more 
 patience await the working out upon this line the problem in its bearing 
 upon the material prosperity of the inen of the- present generation. 
 
 If we cannot induce our neighbors to adopt a judicious system of rota- 
 tion,, let us at least urge them to avail themselves as far as posjfible of the 
 pea and clover as renovating crops. We have not the lithe of the stook 
 in our portion of the State necessary to keep our arable lands in good 
 heart by animal manure alone; nor are we prepared, under our present 
 mode of farming, (in which husbandry has but little part), to subsist that 
 amount of stock through one winter. 
 
 For the renovation of our broad acres then, we must look to green 
 crop turned under. The size of our farms forbids us to hope to accom- 
 plish this with animal manure. We have to our hand the very best of 
 agents to accompli-h this great work. The farmers in the wheat region 
 northwest of the Ohio river can avail themselves of clover only as a reno- 
 vating crop. They are denied the benefits spi-inging from the field pea. 
 Tliis is a child of the South. Its value to us is beyond estimate. Ques- 
 tions of tariff, internal improvements, contraction or expansion of the 
 currency, demonetizatioii of silver, all sink into insignificance when con- 
 trasted with the results flowing from the utilization or neglect of the field 
 pea in agriculture, as an agent bearing upon the future prosperity and 
 happiness of the people of the South. 
 
 In our latitude the pea goes hand-in-hand with clover. South of us it 
 stands alone, and is destined to have the all honor of rebuilding tlitit sec- 
 tion of the country, if its pro.^perity is evei' restored. There is no portion 
 of the world so favored with such rich vegetable substances to renov:ite its 
 arable lands as the particular latitude of our own State. And, shall we 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 151 
 
 confess it ? Ivo portion of the civilized world (except the cotton accursed 
 region south of us), where farmers have so little availed themselves of the 
 mean-? at hand to keep in good heart, and to enrich their soils. 
 
 Deterioration is the curse stealing over our soils, abroad as well as a*- 
 home. Even the deep, rich soils of Illinois, Ohio, and the other great 
 wheat-producing Stales of the northwest are maiiift- sting this lamentable 
 truth. And it is now accepted as a fact, that, in ttiis region the wheat- 
 producer is annually becoming poorer, while the stock-raiaer (and his 
 land) are yearly growing richer. True, they are deprived of the best of 
 all preparations fur a wlieat crop, the field pea, but they have clover. And 
 in ratio to the decrease in the number of acres annually given to this crop, 
 may be measured with infallible certainty, the decrease in yield of their 
 wheat crop per acKe. And what is much worse, the waning capacity of 
 their lands for the production of future heavy crojis. 
 
 We cannot, with impunity, long ignore in practice the fundamental 
 truth in agriculture, that the earth must be fed to continue to give us boun- 
 teous harvests. It cannot be too often repeated, that rotation with the 
 purpo.-e of leeding tlie land, gives plenteousne^s ; annual abstractions, 
 with no equivalent return, brings ruin. 
 
 The farmer I::is been calling inexorably for the s:ime elements of fer- 
 tility in the same soil, with the same unvarying crop, never replenisiiing 
 the soil until his famished giotmd has failed to "give up her increase," and 
 the bankrupt landowner finds, too late, that he has really been living on 
 his capital, instead of its interest, as he suppo.^ed. In .short, he has en- 
 tirely exhausted his soil. This he cannot understand. Of course the 
 fault does not lie at his door ; no, he is a hard-working man, and as 
 everybody know.'S, gets all out of tlie earth which lie is able to extract. He 
 could not, for the life of him, tell who bit Billy Patterson. Not he ! This 
 man has never even risen to the intellectual level of the astonished Dutch- 
 man, who, with elevated hands and with uncertainty, doubt and wonder 
 faintly expressed upon his stolid coujatenance, he exclaimed, " mein Gott \ 
 I drive dis wagon two ihousand mile, and he never broke dow'n before! " 
 Why a wagon that has accomplished so much, and was thereby fitting 
 itself daily to perform more and greater work, should not drive on to all 
 eternity, Wiis what our astonished Teuton could not understand. "And 
 that's what's the matter with Hannah," generally in agriculture. We are all 
 of us blind, and when we attempt to lead each othfr, we generally tumble 
 '• into the diich." I feel thitt I am never out of the slough of despond. It 
 is absolutely startling to think that agriculture, the great wealth producing 
 agent of the State — the art of arts — the mainspring of civiliza;ion, refine- 
 ment and progress, should be enginered by a reckless indifference which 
 would di.sgrace any other calling whereby men are named or known. It 
 amounts to an astonishingly stupendous evil, with results as wide-spreading 
 as our loved south-land, and as far-reaching in its desolating effecLs as the 
 nttrests of our remotest posterity. 
 
152 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Some of the great advanfages possessed by the pea as a renovater, are: 
 
 1. Its mechanical efftct upon the soils. 
 
 2. The very short time in which it perfects a heavy lay of vines for being 
 turned under. 
 
 3. (Resulting from the above fact) its capacity for being made an inter- 
 vening feeder following oats, rye, barley, with most of the root crops pre- 
 ceding a crop of wheat in the fall. 
 
 4. The great richne-s of the pea in the very manures required by wheat 
 and other cereal crops. 
 
 5. Its capncity for growing upon land too poor "to subsist clover. 
 
 6. Its capacity to put more plant-food in the earth, (and at the same 
 time produce more animal food,) than any vegetable substance known, not 
 excepting clover, (allowing two years to one crop of clover and four crops 
 of peas.) 
 
 7. The large addition made to humus upon which the tilth, as well as 
 the capacity of the soil for retaining moisture so greatly depends. 
 
 What pea is best to sow as a renovator of the soil ? They are all equally 
 rich in plant-food. For our purpose, we will distinguish between them as 
 the bunch pea and rampant runners. The best variety to select is that 
 which runs least. The common bl-'ck pea, the clay pea and the cow pea, 
 are immense runners. A heavy ay of these peas is difficult to plow un- 
 der. A heavy roller passed over it when the pea is in the green state, fol- 
 lowed by the best of our two horse plows, armed with a sharp rolling 
 coulter (kept sharp) and set deep enough to sever the vines, would no 
 doubt greatly facilitate the oneriition. This difficulty may be avoided by 
 sowing the speckle pea known as the whippoorwill ; a stilljbetter pea, per- 
 haps, is the bunch black pea. Either of these will give a heavy lay of 
 vine'i, which can be tnrned under very readily. They each further pos- 
 sess the additional value of maturing more rapidly than the rampant run- 
 ners, and are, therefore, tlie sooner ready to be turned under when sown as 
 a manuring crop between small grain removed in June, and a wheat crop 
 in antumii. 
 
 A light appliration of caustic lime to the vines before plowing under, 
 will promote decay in the covered up lay, and enable the soil to become 
 sooner "firmed" — an important point before sowing wheat upon the same 
 soil, and unless done by rain, should certainly be done by the roller, be- 
 fore, and after sowing. 
 
 The lime will fiithcr neutralize the superabudance of vegetable acid 
 produced by fermentation of the vines, and wiU (d so put a dctiirahle mineral 
 mcmwre in the soil. This last is certainly needed in our West Tennessee 
 siliceous soils. A few practical facts showing the maiurial capacity of 
 the pea, preparatory to a wheat, cotton or other crop, will have more 
 wtight with farmers than anything in the way of argument, or deduction 
 based upon known scientific facts. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 153 
 
 The average yield of wlieat upon our leached and impoverished soil in 
 Hardeman county is about six bushels per acre. This year the yield is 
 larger becau?e but little of our wheat is on land which has been run a 
 lengtli of time in cotton. The yield per acre is greater than in Middle or 
 East Tennessee, up to date of the present year, as shown by your report. 
 Now, one croj) of pea vines turned in upon our partially exhausted soils 
 brings the yield up from 6 to 10 or 12 bushels per acre. 
 
 The wheat crops in this portion of West Tennessee are often nearly doubled 
 by the additional supply of plant-food thus given. Now let two crops of 
 pea vines te returned to the soil in one year, beiore sowing wheat upon 
 the same, would it be expecting too much to look for a still further in- 
 crease upon this land of 3 or 4 bushels more, bringing the yield up to 15 
 bushels per acre ? A sufficiency of plant-food lias certainly been put into 
 the soil to justify this expeciation. And as sure as the capacity to pro- 
 duce en. ps, is measured by the quantity of plant food put into the soil 
 (contingent, to some extent, upon propitious or unpropitious seasons) just 
 so certain, and t-o proportioned, will be the return of grain gathered by 
 the husbandman from the ground. 
 
 Take one step lat tlier in manuring, and add to this double pea lay a 
 light application of cotton seed, superphosphate and salt, and there is no 
 reason to doubt that, with this adjunct, the yield would be brought up to 
 25 or 30 bushels per acre. Will not this increase of grain pay largely . 
 upon the trifling cost of these additional manures 
 
 Let me tell you of a crop of wheat near here, raised upon land in which 
 there was probably not more than one element necessary to wheat wanting, 
 in an otherwise rich soil. The wheat grew about lour and a half feet 
 liigh, stood well upon the ground, and apparently promised 30 bushels 
 per acre. No rust, and the season favorable. From this groimd 10 
 bushels only of indifferent wheat was harvested. Thisground, thought to be 
 rich, was undoubtedly dencient in phosphoric acid. A pea liy prtceeding 
 the wheat, or a small addition of superphosphate would have cured the 
 evil and given probably 30 bushels of good wheat. 
 
 The corroboration of tiie following facts illustrating the manurial effect 
 of the pea upon wheat and other crops, let me refer you to the Master of 
 the County Grange of Hardeman county, Mr. Wm. A. Caruthers, one of 
 our most intelli>jeiit farmers. The first is a widow's crop. From three 
 acres of good land enriched by plowing under a heavy pea lay 107 bushels 
 of wheat was gathered. Rate, 35f bushels per acre. 
 
 Mr. Caruthers' crops of wheat usually give liim from 15 to 20 brshels 
 upon medium land in which a pea lay has been plowed. Upon his worn 
 broom-sedge land he plows up the sedge, sows peas, and here fattens his 
 hogs, thus preparing the land for a iuture wheat crop. 
 
 Another intelligent planter of Hardeman County claims this year to 
 have measured ui3 33 bushels of wheat per acre upon land given two 
 
154 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 years to clover, and a good afterneath plowed under. Again, on 18 acres 
 of ground near the town of Bolivar, an average of twenty bushels per acre 
 was t:ikeii from the land. This crop was spotted, and good judges tliought 
 til at portions of the field, where the green crop plowed under had been 
 heaviest, yielded thirty-five bushels per acre. The ground had been two 
 years in clover. The summer the third year it was taken by rag- 
 
 weed. This was so heavy upon certain portions of the ground that the 
 plow could make no headway until a heavy log was drawn over it, attached 
 to tlie wheels of a wagon. Where the clover and weed ci'op were heaviest 
 the yield of wheat was largest. 
 
 The capacity of production being proportional to the amount of plant- 
 food put into the earth is plainly illustrated by the diflerence in the yield 
 from different acres on this e d^all treated alike in llw cultivation. 
 
 We could also refer to a very prosperous farmer near us whose success 
 in farming is probably due more to the renovating quality of the pea 
 than any superiority of udgment in tillage. Ten years ago his lands 
 were thin nnd worn. They are now fife per cent, better than when he 
 purchased thtm. H has never sown any clover, but relies entirely on 
 he pea ; and w hes-e he hns brought up the producing capacity of his 
 
 land until it now conceded he makes better crops of wheat, cotton, corn 
 &nd meat than any of his neighbors. In 1873 he sowed peas broadcast 
 upon a field of fourteen acres planted in corn. 1S7'1 this 'field was 
 
 planted in cotton. He picked from these 14 acres ten bales of cotton av- 
 eraging per ba 12J pounds of ginned cotton. 
 
 I could ranltip'y instances to prove that the only farmers in this part of 
 the State who are making any money, are those who have adopted a judi- 
 cious system rotation looking to feeding the soil. 
 
 A few facts connected with green crnps as a renovator of the soil, from 
 the h'igh-st agricultural authority, and eminently true, when considered in 
 connection with he pea, will give ample reasons why a pea lay should 
 never be divorced from its fitting connection with wheat culture. 
 
 " Peis contain a much larger proportion of alkali than wheat, and hence 
 should be resorted lo as a preparation for that crop." Again, "green 
 crop requires but a sm ell ptirtion of the inorganic substances in the earth 
 for its substance, and hence ft leaves more of tliem for the succeeding 
 crop.' 
 
 " The additional amount of vegftable matter ari'i manure which arf|pi 
 crop introduces ir.ta the soil, and the large amount, of inorganic matter 
 brought up by deeply penetrating roots from below" are strong recommen- 
 dations o clover and peas. 
 
 Again let me add : That the pea and clover excel all other green crops 
 in fertilizing elements, /hese two trefoils far excel all other vegetable 
 
 productions in capacity to seize and appropriate the valuable fertilizing 
 ga the fr^reat manure depot above us — the atmosphere. 
 
IjST texxessee. 155 
 
 "When vegi^table matter is allowed to decay in the open air, it is re- 
 solved more or less completely into carbonic acid, wliich escapes into the 
 air and is so far lost. But when buried beneath the surface, this forma- 
 tion of carbonic acid proceeds less rMjtidly, and other compounds prepar- 
 atory to the final resolution into carbonic acid and water are producod in 
 greater quantity am! linger in the soil." 
 
 We are told by Bousinsjault and other authorities, that the theoretical 
 value of diflferent vegetable substances "depend mainly upon the relative 
 proportions of nitrogen they contain." The pea and cotton seed are rich 
 in nitrogen, besides phosphoric acid, potash, and the elements of ammonia. 
 It is useless to say moi-e of the pea in connection wiih wheat culture. I 
 will only add, that the value of vegetable substances as manures de- 
 pend "not only upon the. nitrogen mainly which they contain," but " the 
 quantity and kind of inorganic matter they contain." Taking farm-yard 
 manure (composed of droppings from stock and refuse litter) as a stand- 
 ard, .Johnson arranges vegetable manures as follows : 
 
 Equal ef!"e«ts are produced by 
 
 Farm-yard manure 1,000 pounds 
 
 Potato and turnip toi)s 750 '' 
 
 Carrot tops 470 " 
 
 Clover roots (peas as good) 250 " 
 
 Inorganic manure^, 
 
 Farmyard... 1,000 " 
 
 Pea straw (English) 220 " 
 
 Wheat straw 750 to 1,700 " 
 
 Oat straw 1,400 " 
 
 Wheat chuff 470 " 
 
 Tru'y your friend, 
 
 H. M. POLK. 
 
156 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 CHAPTER XVIII. 
 
 COST OF. CULTIVATING WHEAT — OLD METHOD OF HAE- 
 
 VESTING. 
 
 It will be seen in the records of various correspondence 
 there is a ^reat difference in the estimate of cost of culture 
 and garnering an acre of wheat. This discrepancy is due 
 to several causes. In the first place, some farmers expend 
 far more work in the preparation than others. While some 
 are content to sow their wheat on the land broadcast, and 
 plow it in, others will break it up and harrow it in, and still 
 others will break up in July or August, and re-break in 
 October, rolling and harrowing it until it is thoroughly pul- 
 verized, and a few, in addition to all this, will put several dol- 
 lar's worth of manures on the field. All this involves variations 
 in their estimates of expense, and it is a legitimate difference 
 in opinion. We think the following a fair estimate of all the 
 absolutely necessary expense to raise an acre of wheat, pre- 
 suming that the land is clover or stubble. Before giving it, 
 however, another consideration that will make the estimate 
 look less formidable, is that the farmer receives all this out- 
 lay himself. If a man sets down to a calculation, and 
 becomes frightened at a huge array of figures, and cannot 
 see his profit beyond them, he will never achieve success 
 as a farmer. He must work as cheaply as possible, save 
 at every point, but not stint the land. It is a poor economy 
 that will make a man put off work essential to the success 
 of his crop, because he gets no immediate return. If jus- 
 tice is done to the soil, the soil will do justice to the farmer. 
 Here is an estimate, exclusive of manures, as no fair con- 
 sideration is made of the necessity for them, some land 
 requiring them absolutely, others, from clover, peas, etc., 
 being: in a fair condition to do without their use. One more 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 157 
 
 tiling. This estimate is made for the average limestone 
 land. Now, some lands require much more work to put it 
 in proper tilth than others. A stiff, unyielding clay, will 
 have to be gone over oftener than a light, porous, silicious 
 soil; one heavily clothed with weeds, than one closely 
 cropped of all verdure. These considerations must enter 
 into our calculations. , 
 
 Breaking land in August, per acre ,, $1 00 
 
 Ee-l>reaking land in October, per acre 1 00 
 
 Harrowing thoroughly once , 25 
 
 DrilLng (suppoesing you have none) 50 
 
 Seed, f bushel per acre 1 00 
 
 Harvesting, per acre 1 00 
 
 Threshing, toll, etc 2 50 
 
 Feeding hands, etc 76 
 
 Rent of land at grain rates 2 00 
 
 Total expenses for one acre wheat $10 00 
 
 Now, for the balance to this expense there will be, in the 
 first place, a fair price for the work in preparing the land. 
 The farmer sells at his house food for man and horse, all of 
 which goes into his own pocket. If he owns the drill, 
 reaper and thresher, there is no outlay for those expenses; 
 and, in fact, if he is a large farmer, his own hands will do 
 all the work, and if they were not at this they would have 
 to be paid. The farmer gets rent for his own land, and 
 really the only thing he is obliged to absolutely lose is the 
 seed, and the wear and tear of machines. But this estimate 
 is made for all, and the small farmer has the expense of the 
 machines to come out of his receipts, and rent of land to 
 pay. With this i^reparation, however, he is almost sure of 
 from twenty to thirty bushels of wheat, wherewith to pay 
 his expenses. Taking into consideration the number of 
 acres of land a farmer is able to cultivate, it will pay more 
 in the aggregate than corn, oats, or, unless he understands 
 it, and is prepared for its culture, tobacco. Besides, the 
 land is not losing its vitality. Wheat after wheat can be 
 raised without apparent injury to the land, pi'ovided it is 
 
158 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 occasionally manured. Horace Greeley knew a field sowed 
 in wheat consecutively sixty years, and the last crop raised 
 on it was the best. 
 
 \ One word as to machines. We all remember the day 
 when harvesting was looked forward to as a day of frolic. 
 Each farmer cultivated just enough to do him, and sow, 
 and barely that. A man who owned slaves would cut 
 it himself, but in a neighborhood "' where ail did their own 
 work," the farmers would club together and go irom house 
 to house, and with coats off and ponderous cradles on shoulder, 
 march into the field, each cradler with his partner to tie be- 
 hind him. |Besides these, was an old man with two or three 
 boys to " shock and bring water, etc." The wheat harvest was 
 generally wound up with a dance. In a few days a circular 
 space was cleaned off from grass, weeds, and loose soil, and 
 swept clean. It would be like a circus-ring, and then hauling 
 up his wheat, loosen the ties, and set the bundles on end, butt 
 down, and leaving a small space in the center. This was 
 the boy's time, and mounted on the heavy mares, with colts 
 follov/ing, he would ride as proudly into the ring as ever 
 belted knight couched lance at tournament. If there was 
 on the place a colt to break, great contention was had as to 
 who should ride him, for here was a chance to be thrown, 
 and no injury to him who fell on this yielding bank of straw. 
 Round and round they would go, only diversified by taking 
 off, tossing up the straw, to separate the wheat, throwing off 
 that which was free of grain, and putting on more. One stood 
 in the open center to toss with a pitchfork that which was not 
 \bcing well tramped, and when it was finished, and all the 
 straw cast off, a thick layer of wheat was left. This had to 
 be fanned, and the old rattletraps of that day, home-made 
 mostly, flapped, flapped away, at the rate of five bushels the 
 hour, until the job was completed. This was stored in hogs- 
 heads, or rather a hogshead, for few had more than one. 
 
 After aAvhile threshers, located in a barn or outhouse, 
 took the place of threshing-floors, just as threshing-floors 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 159 
 
 follo^ve(l the flail. It was an easy jump from stationary to 
 movable threshers, and the "ground-hog" was born. This 
 was a great improvement, for these ground-hogs could, by 
 being well driven, thresh out two hundred bushels a 
 day. This increased work was followed by improve- 
 ments in fans that could keep pace with the former, and 
 then the hapi)y thought occurred of combining the two. It 
 was hard work for horses and men, in those hot, sultry days, 
 to pull the power and turn the fan ; and when steam was 
 introduced, though it met with some opposition, it at once 
 jumped into public favor. Of course, there are still some 
 of the primitive threshers yet used, and most of the thresh- 
 ers are still driven by horses, but they are wearing out, and, 
 with few exceptions, will never be renewed. Steam is tire- 
 less, and works well in hot or cold weather, and few farmers 
 would prefer to feed fifteen or twenty horses to do what 
 fire and water will do better. 
 
 The march from cradles to reapers has been slower, but 
 none the less sure. Much of this is due to the expensive- 
 ness and frail make-up of the reapers. But the exorbitant 
 demands of harvesters lor labor has, within a few years, 
 given a great impetus to the introduction of these labor- 
 saving machines. And when, last year, we visited the field 
 of a farmer, and saw a self-binding reaper doing the work 
 of six men, and doing it better and more unerringly than any 
 human being could, we became convinced the new birth of 
 labor-saving machines had taken place. This reaper was 
 followed by two men to shock, and that was all. 
 
 There are many reapers sent out by various factors, and 
 each make has its adherents. The one a man uses is his 
 favorite, which is conclusive of the general good of them 
 all. They are all good. We cannot do without them; and 
 tlie time will soon arrive when, with a self-reaper, a farmer 
 with one or two boys can cut and shock his own wheat, and 
 thus save himself from that dreaded cleaning out of pockets 
 the harvest-time brings. 
 
160 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 But, in the meantime, the good old cradle cannot be 
 spared. Fence corners, rocky ledges, around stumps, in new 
 ground, the reaper would not go. People have to adapt 
 themselves to circumstances. During the war, in the far 
 South the people, having no cradles, or even sickles, actually 
 pulled up rhe wheat as they pull up flax. Still, reapers are 
 better. Another new invention has lately come into vogue, 
 and that is the horse-rake. When we used as children to 
 read, in the good old Book of books, the story of Ruth 
 gleaning in the fields of Boaz, we thought she was doing a 
 very poor business, and her chance of making a living for 
 herself and Naomi a very precarious one. But the inven- 
 vention and use of horse-rakes demonstrates it to be a first- 
 class paying business. Mr. Wm. P. Campbell says, in his 
 most excellent letter, that he gets two or three bushels per 
 acre. Numerous instances have occurred in which from one 
 to two bushels have been secured. Where a field is situated 
 so as to be used as a pasture, this saving is not of so much 
 moment, as hogs thrive well on it; but it often happens 
 that, from various causes, advantage cannot be taken of this, 
 and the grain is lost. The careful farmer will see to it that 
 the utmost economy is used. To be careful is not to be 
 stingy ; and he \vho will save at all the usual waste places 
 can afiord to supply himself with all the conveniences that 
 make farming not only profitable, but pleasant. Every 
 farmer should endeavor, as soon as possible, to use his own 
 drill, reaper, mower and thresher. Should his crop not be 
 large enough to justify him, he may get to use them for 
 less provident neighbors, and thus lesseia his expense. 
 
IN TENNESEEE. 161 
 
 CHAPTER XIX, 
 
 IDISEASES OF WHEAT AND THEIR REMEDIES, 
 
 Fortunately for the Tennessee farmer, the catalogue of in- 
 sects is very small compared with that of our Northern 
 brethren. It will be unneccvssary to enlarge on this subject, 
 but confine ourselves to a simple enumeration of the insects 
 injurious to wheat, except those that have invaded oar 
 State. These we shall notice moi^ carefully. 
 
 As to the diseases to which wheat is liable, we can claim 
 no exemption, having unfortunately experienced them all, 
 •either from ignorance or carelessness, and to remedy these 
 •evils as far as practicable shall be the object of this chapter. 
 
 Often a farmer sows a field of wheat in the most approved 
 manner, and the field presents a most charming aspect 
 through the season, and he has every hope of being well re- 
 munerated for his labor. This is too often only a promise to 
 the eye, to be broken to the hope, for when harvest begins 
 his prospects are all gone. Blight i,s on the field, and l(5sses 
 follow instead of gain. Unfortunately many ot the inSects 
 and diseases to which wheat is subject have hitherto defied 
 the efforts of all remedies. In this case a knowledge of the 
 character, habits and origin of these evils leads observing 
 persons to give thought to the! subject, and by close obser- 
 vation and research some one of them may be able to-difi- 
 cover methods more successful than heretofore used. Some 
 of the causes that are deleterious to wheat are, to a certain 
 extent, under the control of the farmer. Others are not, 
 but by understanding whence the evil comes, though not 
 able to overcome it, he can so arrange his plans as not to be 
 aifected by it. We all remember the time when we were 
 11 
 
162 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 powerless before the ravages of smut. We saw the whea^ 
 ■wasted and destroyed by this fungus. We saw the bread 
 looking blue with an offensive odor^ and yet we could not 
 avoid it. Now this vile disease is perfectly under the con- 
 trol of the farmer, and »nly a criminal negligence will allow 
 hini to suffer from it. So with the Hessian Fly. Before 
 its nature and habits were studied the wheat fields were 
 often devastated, and a man simply had to trust to luck, 
 Kow, since its habits have been developed, no one will suffer 
 from it unless he still trusts to luck. If study and obser- 
 vation have been sufficient to protect the farmer in these in- 
 stances^ may not a prosecution of these enquiries finally re- 
 sult in eliminating the whole lii-^t of disasters from the farm ? 
 
 There are many causs!-^ affecting deleteriously the wheat 
 crop. For convenience they may be divided into terres- 
 trial, atmospheric, agricultural and constitutional ; and we 
 ■will explain in a few words the definition of these terms: 
 
 Terrestrial causes are those that appertain to the soil, its^ 
 capacity to grow v/heat, and its changes either from addi- 
 tions by accident or intention. 
 
 Atmospheric causes are those that are the results of cli- 
 BQutic influences. For instance, one year is called a gootl 
 "wheat year, and another bad— -one year too much rain and 
 beat, another too much drought. These climatic influences, 
 as all know, greatly affect the welfare of crops of all kinds. 
 
 Agricultural causes are wholly within the control of the 
 farmer, as they include the preparation of the soil and the 
 process of cultivation, harvesting and storing: wheat. 
 
 Constitutional causes are those which, through disease or 
 insects, affect the plant. These causes of destruction or in- 
 jury are, to a limited extent,, under the control of the agri- 
 culturist, and it is to these the especial attention of every 
 one is called. 
 
 We have in the preceding pages of this report discussed the 
 terrestrial causes of injury, and noted the remedies in most 
 cases, which are deep plowing, draining where necessary. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 163 
 
 thorough tilth, such additions to tho soil as seem to be 
 required, time of sowing, selection of seed, and in fact all 
 the preparatory processes requisite on the part of the 
 farmer. These matters have only to be referred to, to see 
 the views taken, and what deficiencies of the soil are to be 
 supplied. 
 
 Atmospheric causes are so far removed from the control 
 of man that he can only, by a proper observance of previous 
 years, so mark the times and seasons as to take advantage of 
 tliem, and by regulating the times of sowing and harvesting, 
 avoid the ills as much as possible. Among the principal of 
 these causes are late or untimely spring frosts, storms, hail, 
 excessive rains, sudden changes of weather, etc. After long 
 cool rains in the spring on rich land the wheat stalks some- 
 j times become yellow, and many of them die. This is 
 
 Jaundice, and can be prevented by providing a way for 
 the super-abundant moisture to leave the ground. The 
 remedy is draining. If the land is too stiff, and holds water 
 in excess, manure plowed in, or any thing to make the soil 
 porous, will afford relief. 
 
 Blight. — This is a withered condition of the grain caused 
 by dry weather just before ripening, after a strong, vigorous 
 growth, from frequent rains. The dry weather has caused 
 the grains to mature so rapidly the starch and gluten do not 
 have time to fill the grain. This is unavoidable, and we 
 can suggest no remedy. 
 
 Lodging — When storms blow, the stalks bend before them, 
 or break at or near the roots. All that bend, relieved of 
 the rain drops, will become erect, but those that break fall 
 to the ground, weeds grow up, and rust invariably attacks 
 them, and the wheat is lost. This often results from wheat 
 being sown on moist, rich land, deficient in silica. The 
 stalks are large but watery, and easily broken. Nothing 
 but draining and thorough cultivation will obviate this. 
 It is better to avoid sowing on wet alluvial lands, un- 
 less well drained. Where a locality is liable to the 
 
164 WHEAT CULTURE. 
 
 prevalence of storms, varieties of wheat with strong short 
 straw only shonld be sown. But we have already suffi- 
 ciently dilated on this subject in the preceding pages, and 
 will at once proceed to discuss the 
 
 Agricultural Causes. — We have, in tlie whole of this re- 
 port, adverted to the various agricultural appliances neces- 
 sary to produce good wheat, also the causes of failure and 
 the remedies. We have given the composition of the soils 
 and their deficiencies, the preparation and sowing — in fact 
 all the means by which the farmer might be benefited. One 
 thing only is omitted of consequence, and this properly 
 comes under the head of agricultural causes, and that [a 
 germination of wheat in the shock. When we remember 
 that only last year the wheat crop was greatly injured 
 by continued rains, and when we reflect that this is only 
 one instance of many in the recollection of every one, this sub- 
 ject merits more than mere mention. Especially is this the 
 case when we know that the remedy is wholy within the con- 
 trol of the farmer. In order to produce germination there 
 must be heat and moisture. These two must be conjoined or 
 there will be no sprouted wheat. After sprouting, wheat is 
 nearly worthless, both tor bread and seed. Therefore, it is 
 but right and proper to provide against such a contingency. 
 In the first place, if grain is just passed the dough state when 
 cut, it will continue to fill up for a few days from the straw, 
 and, until full maturity takes place, it will not sprout. 
 That this method is preferred by many may be seen by 
 reference to the appendix. The grain should never be 
 allowed to remain on the ground exposed to the moisture 
 of the earth, the dews, and the heat of the sun. It should 
 at once be placed in such a position as to prevent the' influ- 
 ence of moisture and favor drying. If properly shocked, 
 it will remain safe from sprouting for an indefinite length 
 of time. Almost every farmer has his favorite plan for 
 shocking wheat ; the conical, the diamond, the square and 
 the hand stacks are all practiced. The conical shocks or 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 165 
 
 Dutch oven, are andoubtedly the best, aiul are easily made 
 and will protect the wheat as long as required. Theyaie 
 made by setting up four bundles, and around these four 
 more, and then around four others, filling up spaces, 
 until you have tw^elve bundles set up; then slip the bind 
 to the butt end of a large bundle and, opening it oat, spread 
 it like a tont all arouud the shock so as to hide from view 
 all the heads. Then gather the butts of the covering bun- 
 dles into a close point and bind it wdtli straw. Pull the 
 cover down on the heads well, and this shock will withstand 
 moisture and winds. It will also be veniilated sufficiently 
 to prevent moulding. 
 
 Wheat is usually threshed from the shock, the wagoners 
 hauling up as fast as it is threshed, I am by no means 
 certain that this is tlie best method. When well stacked 
 there are several advantages to be derived. One is that 
 the farmer can wait until the price suit's him, for it is a 
 matter of regret that but few farmers in our State are 
 provided with granaries, so that they are forced to sell at 
 the time of threshing or suffer a greater loss from wastage 
 on their wheat, or pay a considerable auiQunt to a wheat 
 merchant for storage. Another advantage from stacking is, 
 that the wheat goes through a sweat and will keep much 
 better, and is not so liable to the attacks of weevil. 
 
 But slacking wheat is a difficult thing to do well, and 
 no novice should ever be put to this task. Of all grain, it 
 is the most difficult to stack well. The middle of the stack 
 must be kept well raised or else the beating rains will drive 
 into tiie stack and greatly injure the grain. Having ad- 
 ■'Verted sufficiently to these causes here ibii4 in the previous 
 part of this report, we will now briefly consider the last, 
 or 
 
 Constitutional causes, prejudicial to wheat. This head 
 includes diseases of wheat and insects affecting it. Some 
 of tliese are remediable, but unfortunately mo&t of them are 
 not, in the present state of our knowledge.^ 
 
166 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Vegetable Parasites. — If the reader will refer to the first 
 part of our work, he will see that we divide the vegetable 
 kingdom into two grand divisions. One, the Phenogams, 
 that are propagated by seeds, and the other Cryptogams, or 
 those having no visible seeds, bat are propagated by spores. 
 It is the latter class to which I now wish to call attention. 
 Had it not been for the invention of magnifying glasses, we 
 never could have known the nature of the Cryptogams, but 
 by the aid of the glass we know that this humble class of 
 vegetation has an organization, birth, life and death very 
 similar to other plants. It has its flowers, roots, branches, 
 seeds, etc., and thougli minute, are perfect in all their parts. 
 Mushroom, piiff balls, mould, mildew, rust, smut, and 
 various others of the kind are samples of Cryptogams. 
 Some of these parasites live at the expense of the plant upon 
 which they fasten, as mistletoe, mould and many of the mush- 
 rooms. The seeds of these parasites are called spores, 
 which are a mere dust, microscopic in character generally, 
 and are blown by the winds to their place of reproduction, 
 or hide themselves in the fine hairs of seeds, or in their 
 ibllicular mouths, and remain ready to germinate when 
 moisture and heat are applied. Some of these parasites 
 S'elect wheat as their place of concealment and growth, and 
 are so exceedingly injurious to the farmer that the attention 
 of scientific men has been turned to them for years, try- 
 \n<y to devise some means for their eradication. We will 
 fii'st consider 
 
 M'ddeio — 8mh^ Bpot. — Sometimes, in moist, warm days, 
 this proves very destructive to wheat, coming at the 
 time of maturity, just as everything is promising to the 
 larmer. It is the same that forms a mould on cloth ex- 
 ]>osed to heat and moisture, and forms whitish patches on 
 cloth or plants. This disease does not often appear in 
 Tennessee, being, however, common in the colder Northern 
 States. There is no remedy for it. It is a parasite that 
 forms on, or rather under, the cuticle of the leaf, and 
 
IN TENNESSEE, 167' 
 
 forms a dark colored scab oa it, and this will soon destroy 
 the leaf, or stem if located on it. It is called scab in some 
 localities, and in others spot. ■» 
 
 Caries or Blach Wheat. — This is a fungous mushroom 
 called Uredo, and is often mistaken for smut, which it 
 greatly resembles. A marke i distinction between them is 
 that while a part only of the head, or even of a grain, may 
 be affected with caries, it is not often the case with smut, the 
 latter generally involving not only the whole head, but all 
 the heads of one stool. ! he spores of this and other mush- 
 rooms of the same kind cling to the furs of a grain of wheat, 
 and go into the ground with it. It is there taken up with 
 the nourishment of the plant and passes into the body. 
 When the head forms, the spores that have increased and 
 traversed every part of the plant, now attack the grain, and 
 the juices that are brought up to feed and develop the grain 
 are absorbed by this voracious parasite, and it, growiiig with 
 nourishment, soon fills the places designed to contain the 
 berry. Tiiere is another marked difference between smut 
 and caries. While the smut emits no odor whatever, the 
 caries smells very disagreeable — like a spoiled fish. Bread 
 made with caries n it will give that smell when broken 
 open while hot. Smut can be knocked off by mills, but 
 caries, being more tenacious, is not to be got rid of that 
 way, and will stick to the wheat with any treat- 
 ment short of washing, and imparts its odor to the bread. 
 The stalk looks like a smut stalk except being deeper 
 green than others, but later on it becomes tarnished. The 
 heads are bluish, larger, and more bristly, and the sub- 
 stance blackish and greasy to the fingers. The same remedy 
 as that applied for smut is equally effective, viz: blue 
 vitriol or bluestone, (sulphate of copper). The most ap- 
 proved method is to dissolve two pounds of bluestone ia 
 two gallons of water and sprinkle this mixture on five 
 bushels of wheat until it is thoroughly wet, then dry and 
 sow, or sow without drying. This not only destroys the 
 
16*8 ^V^HEAT CULTURE 
 
 spores of the mushroom, but it also destroys all diseased 
 grains, and so lets the whole crop come up healthy; and be- 
 sides, it protects the seed from insects and birds, the blue- 
 stone, being poisonous, kills insects easily. Another 
 equally effectual way is to dampen the pile with salt water, 
 and.then sprinkle it with air-slacked lime. This also acts 
 as. a. fertilizer. 
 
 Smut, like caries, is a parasite mushroom, and destroys 
 and replaces the organs in which it is developed. Some- 
 times it attacks the leaves and stems, but generally the 
 grains. It not only infests wheat but oats, barley and corn. 
 The stalks are not easily distinguished in the field from those 
 that. are sound, except being a little paler and &f a less height. 
 Before ripe, the heads are of a grayish color, and as they 
 ripen they become a dingy black. When broken, smut is a 
 black powder and without smell. The sporules are very 
 small and are produced within the plant, being carried there 
 from the grain by means of the sap. Sometimes a large pro- 
 portion of the field is smut, as much as two-thirds sometimes 
 being involved. It attacks wheat in wet or dry weather 
 alike, and on all kinds of soil. When a field has been affect- 
 etl with smut one year, it is very apt to be affected the next, 
 as the sporules are scattered from the affected grain and re- 
 main in the soil growing, and pass thence into the next crop, 
 even wLere the wheat ha^ been treated with bluestone. The 
 spores are not injurious to man when taken in as food, nor is 
 the straw injurious to cattle. The same treatment that is used 
 lor caries is good for smut, namely: bluestone, salt and 
 lime. By reference to the description of caries the reader 
 will get all the necessary information on the subject. 
 
 Itu.st, like the others, belongs to the family of mush- 
 room, and is developed on the stems, leaves and heads of 
 the Graminacese. The x^pores of this parasite are carried by 
 the winds and deposited on the different parts, where they 
 soon take root and split ^the skin, and the sap exuding 
 sreapves as nutriment to the excrescence. They are also taken 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 169 
 
 from the soil with the nutrient juices and carried into the 
 plant, and wherever they stop they cause the skin to burst, 
 and the fungus appears. By referring to tlie plate, fig. 6, two 
 
 Fig. 6. 
 
 sections of the stalk will be been seen in which the rust has 
 burst open the skin and shows itself on the surface. Fig. 3 
 shows the rust plants as they appear under the microscope, 
 and Fig. 4 shows them still more magnified. Here they 
 have every appearance of the mushroom. As a matter of 
 course, when numerous, they extract all the nutrient juices 
 for their own support, and the grain shrivels up and is 
 worthless. When rust attacks only the leaves, little harm 
 is done, but when it is scattered over the leaves and stalks, 
 and the weather becomee warm and moist, it grows rap- 
 idly and quickly destroys the crop. After the rust begins, a 
 complete arrest of the filling out of the grain takes place. 
 If the grains are in the dough state when it begins, it is 
 better then to cut the wheat; if the grains are in the miJk 
 state it will not be worth cutting. It rarely attacks wheat 
 that ripens early, hence it is better to sow early varieties, 
 so it will mature before the hot days aid in the develop- 
 ment of the disease. 
 
170 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Here, as in 11 the mushroom diseases, well drained and 
 well cultivated fields, early sowing and early cutting, are 
 the only remedies except for smut, for which we have blue- 
 stone. Still, that too, is to a great extent, avoided by this 
 plan of thorough cultivation, making vigorous stalks that 
 are able to withstand the ravages of these parasites. Some 
 suggest sowing salt and lime on the ground, and these being 
 powerful stimulants to the growth, no doubt act to advan- 
 tage. A distinguished German agriculturist states that 
 about six hours before sowing his wheat, he prepared a steep 
 of three measures of powdered quick-lime and ten meas- 
 ures of cow urine, and poured two quarts of this on a peck 
 of wheat, stirring the wheat until every grain was white 
 with the preparation. By this he escaped rust entirely, 
 although in neighboring fields a great part was affected with 
 the disease. He has followed the practice for many years 
 with complete success. It is probable this stimulating mix- 
 ture made the growth of the plant so vigorous it escaped by 
 its own inherent strength. A top dressing of stable manure, 
 followed by harrowing, will have the same effect. The 
 Hebrews considered this disease a special dispensation of 
 Providence for the sins of the people. The Romans sacri- 
 ficed a red bitch to the goddess Rubrigo to stay the hand of 
 the destroyer. If this would effect any good result, would 
 it not be a good idea to sacrifice a few of all colors ? 
 
 Cutting wheat while affected with rust seems to destroy 
 the parasite, and what juices remain in the straw go to fill 
 out the grain. Good wheat has been saved in this manner 
 that would have been worthless if left in the field to get 
 ripe. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 171 
 
 CHAPTER XX. 
 
 INSECTS INJURIOUS TO WHEAT. 
 
 We will give ouly a passing notice of those insects that 
 have never troubled farmers in Tennessee. The list is a 
 fearful one, but fortunately tiiey, as a rule, are confined to 
 cold, damp climates. By consulting the appendix, it will 
 be seen that but few have committed depredations here, 
 neither the Hessian fly, weevil, joint-worn, grasshopper, nor 
 "fleas," as mentioned by one gentleman. Of these, far the 
 most formidable and general is the Hessian fly — (Cecidomyia 
 iJesfructor.) _ fly was not known Am rica previous 
 
 to the Revolution, and got its name from the Hessian sol- 
 diers, who were supposed to have introduced it. It traveled 
 at the rate of twenty miles a year, until the whole United 
 States became infested with it. It does not aiFect the whole 
 country at once, but seems to ravage one section for a few 
 years, and then disappears, and may not return for several 
 years. It is smaller than the mosquito, which it greatly 
 resembles. The female deposits its eggs on the blade of 
 the young wheat before frost, where they appear like minute 
 reddish spots, one - fiftieth of an inch in diameter. The 
 eggs hatch in a week, if the weather is warm, and produce 
 small, \vhite maggots, ,Viiii:n pass down eaf until they 
 
 reach the joint, where they remain until the pupa, or coc- 
 coon, is formed. These maggots suck the juices of the 
 plant, which withers, though there may be several tillers 
 from the same stool that make vigorous stalks. In the 
 spring the young "fly" issues from the pupa, and again 
 deposits eggs on the wheat, and the young maggots of the 
 spring crop fasten on the upper joints, and again the work 
 of destruction begins. The injuries of the fly are noticed 
 
172 WHEAT CULTURE. 
 
 by the withered or broken straws to be seen all over the 
 field, and this destruction is sometimes so complete the har- 
 vest is worthless. The joints where the maggot rests be- 
 come swollen, and dispose the stem to break with the slightest 
 w'ind. It does not penetrate the stalk, but rests in the boot 
 of the leaf and stalk, or sheath. Various insects prey upon 
 these maggots, and thus save immense quantities of wheat. 
 
 Tiiese insects are so numerous that, it is said, not more 
 than one-tenth of the Hessian-fly eggs ever hatch. The 
 Platygaster family and Ceraphon Destructor arc the names 
 of these silent friends of the farmer. No remedy has yet 
 been discovered for the " fly." Late sowing, so the wheat 
 will not rise out of the ground until after the frosts have 
 destroyed the fly, is the most effective way of arresting its 
 ravages. Thorough tilth, producing vigorous plants, also 
 conduces to the protection of the grain. Selection of wheat 
 that has a strong silicious straw, will protect it from being 
 penetrated to the sap. The Mediterranean was at one time 
 considered fly proof. A fertile soil, rich in all the elements 
 necessary to mature the wheat early, is spoken of; also, 
 soaking the wheat in stimulating substances, and rolling in 
 guano, plaster, lime and ashes^ have all been recommended. 
 Grazing wath sheep is said to destroy the eggs, but they 
 hatch so quickly, it would be a difficult matter for them all 
 to be destroyed before being reached by the animals. It 
 can hardly ever be wholly destroyed, as the laws of equi- 
 librium between animal and vegetable life are such they 
 cannot be set aside, and all we can hope is to keep the fly 
 within limits. It has been said the "fly," by stimulating 
 the farmers to a better system of farming, has been an actual 
 advantage to the country. 
 
 Tlie Joint-worm. — This is a worm that infests the joints 
 of wheat, and in some sections proves more destructive to 
 wheat than all other insects, including the Hessian fly, with 
 which it is often confounded. The insect is very much like 
 the fly, but lays its eggs in the spring on the leaves. These 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 173 
 
 eggs hatch and drop into the sheath, and instead of remaining 
 here, as do the maggot of the Hessian fly, they penetrate the 
 joint, causing a swelling. The worm interferes with the 
 passage of the sap, besides devouring all it needs, and then 
 the stalk becomes brittle, and is easily blown down. It re- 
 mains in the straw during the autumn and winter, and going 
 into the ground the next spring, undergoes the usual changes, 
 and becomes again a fly, to renew its depredations. Wheat 
 straw affected with it should always be burned at the 
 thresher, as this is the only way even to mitigate the evih 
 
 Weevil (Cakindre Granaria). — After .wheat has been 
 passed through all tlie perils of harvest, and escaped all the 
 ravages of insects, diseases and storms, the farmer, having 
 stored it in the bins, feels that at last he is rewarded for his 
 toils, and his troubles are over. But sometimes when he 
 visits his treasure he finds a funky smell, and notices a 
 minute white dust all over his wheat. Pressing a grain, he 
 finds it will easily crush in his fingers; in fact the wheat 
 grain is a mere shell, partly filled with dust. The result of 
 his labor is gone, and the enemy he had watched and fought 
 so persistently has found an entrance to his domains. A 
 small black beetle has lain in wait during all the cold months, 
 being a lover of warm weather, and as soon as the wheat 
 is stored, it comes out in myriads, and the female bites a 
 minute hole in a grain, and deposits therein an egg. These 
 insects penetrate the heap in all directions, going to the 
 bottom of it; and when it is reflected that each female will 
 lay thousands of eggs one may imagine their destructive- 
 ness. These eggs soon hatch, and young maggots begin to 
 boi-e into and eat the starch. They continue to do this un- 
 til grown, and by this time the grain is about exhausted, 
 and then the worms go into the pupa state, and in six or 
 seven weeks become weevils or beetles, which eat their way 
 out of the grain, and go into some cranny for the winter. 
 
 The best method of getting clear of them is to store in 
 some other place for a year or two, or fumigate the with bin 
 
174 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 burning sulphur. Some farmers sprinkle air-slaked lime 
 on the wheat, and yet others sprinkle it Avith salt. Both 
 these remedies are effectual, but the sulphur will be suffi- 
 cient. There are many other parasites that trouble the 
 wheat farmers of other States, but this closes the list men- 
 tioned herCj and we will onlv call attention to a few others, 
 that the community may be on the watch for them. 
 
 Chinch Bugs.-— 'The terror of all the Northern States. 
 They destroyed nearly all the wheat in North Carolina from 
 1783 to 1809, and have troubled the State occasionally since 
 They are small beetles, black, with white wings, and make 
 their aj)pcarance about the time of the ripening of wheat. 
 They very soon destroy the crop, and then pass into any ad- 
 jacent fields, and attack corn, oats, barley, or rye. They 
 travel like grasshoppers, going from farm to farm in the 
 course of their destruction. Dry weather favors them, while 
 wet weather destroys them. 
 
 Midge {Chorodomus) is an insect allied to the Hes.sian fly, 
 and in the Northern States is very destructive. They" resemble 
 common gnats, and hide during the day in the wheat fodder, 
 but at night issue forth in clouds, and cover the heads 
 about flowering i\xn?. Tliey deposit their eggs in the husks, 
 or glumes, of the head, and here they hatch. When the 
 grain forms, or begins to form, the larvse of the insect that 
 have hatched out feed on the grain until it is destroyed. 
 AVhen only one or two larvse are in a glume, or husk, the 
 grain to some extent is developed, but if nine or ten are on 
 it, all the juices, intended for the development of the grain, 
 go to the worms. When grown, these larva? double them- 
 selves up, and, like mites in cheese, spring to the earth, 
 where they lodge until the next spring, when they go 
 through the stage of pupa, the chrysalis, and lastly the fly, 
 ready for a repetition of their ravages. In Maine alone, in 
 one year, they caused the loss of one million dollar's worth 
 of wheat. Let us hope this pest will not reach us soon. 
 
 Tlie \Vire-v:orm, a product of the common Jack- snapper, 
 
IK TENNESSEE, 175 
 
 a coiiinion bug, drives into the roots of wheat, and remains, 
 greatly to its injury. 
 
 This ends the list of animal parasites we have to con- 
 tend with, except the grasshopper that has proved so 
 terrible to the farmers of the North-west. It has been on 
 us only to a very limited extent, being free on account of 
 our geograpliical position. It will hardly ever prove for- 
 midable. 
 
 In regard to these evils, the watchfulness of the 
 farmer should be unceasing. We may take any measures 
 we please, but failure will mark them all, unless we use the 
 most sensible methods of culture. Whatever will conduce to 
 make a large paying crop of wheat, will tend to protect it 
 from the depredations of both vegetable and animal para- 
 sites. So the interest of the farmer is here advanced in a 
 double way. No great outlay for remedies is required that 
 will be a total loss to the farmer, but everything to be ap- 
 plied adds just that much to the value of the crop. It is in 
 this way it was justly said the farmers of Long Island, 
 when the Hessian ily first made its appearance, from being 
 very slovenly farmers, reaping a very scanty return for poor 
 work, in their efforts to overcome the fly, became in time 
 the most intelligent and successful farmers of New York. 
 In the appendix it will be seen much is said in regard to 
 the disposition of straw. Some let it rot where threshed ; 
 some S])read it on galled places ; some rick or stack it for 
 stock, and others l)urn it to destroy insects. Taken alone, 
 wheat straw is very nearly \torthless a manure, while, 
 
 with manure, it will assist as an absorbent in making very 
 rich compost heaps. It is also a fair feed to allow cattle to 
 go to at will. Scattered on the ground, it amounts to sim- 
 ply, or nearly, nothing. Besides, it is an harbor for the 
 concealment of all manner of insects, and will form a nucleus 
 the next year for their depredations. A highly intelligent 
 farmer of Middle Tennessee stacks carefully all the straw 
 and chaff, the separators used for threshing throwing them 
 
176 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 out together, and during the winter he makes large "racks/' 
 by crossing rails on a pole on the poor places on his farm. 
 He fills one after another of these racks with the straw, and 
 turns all his loose stock — cattle, sheep, mules, or horses — ■ 
 into the enclosure, and continues to fill the rack, and let 
 them eat until, from the droppings of the stock, and the 
 treading into the ground of loose straw, the soil is rich with 
 manures. He then removes the rack to some other spot, 
 and takes it through the same process. As soon after its 
 removal as the ground will admit, he breaks up the land, 
 turning under all the accumulations, and then sows it, as 
 soon as the proper times arrives, with oats, clover and orch- 
 ard-grass. This gives it a turf, and the vivifying influences 
 of the clover gives it a new soil. In this manner he has re- 
 stored all the worn places on his farm, and they no more 
 remain as eye-sores. This is, beyond question, far better 
 than either burning or scattering ; besides, it it the best way 
 to stop gullies. 
 
rnri i ii i rit 
 
 APPENDIX. 
 
 12 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 Schedule of Questions Sent Out and Anstoers Beoeived. 
 
 Sames of correspondents. 
 
 POST OFFICE. 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 10. 
 11. 
 
 12. 
 13. 
 14. 
 35. 
 36. 
 17. 
 18. 
 19. 
 20. 
 21. 
 22. 
 23. 
 24. 
 25. 
 26. 
 27. 
 28. 
 29. 
 00. 
 
 J. H. Light I 
 
 Will. WiJIiaiiis Edgefield Davidson. 
 
 Robt.P. Rhea Blountville Sullivan. 
 
 J as. H. Pailon... Trezevant .jCarroIl. 
 
 J. S. Lindsay Jacksboro |CampbelI, 
 
 P. A. MitcheJ] Jasper Marion. 
 
 M. J. Rannott Stray,' berry PI aius Jefferson. 
 
 G. O. Gate Ooltowah Jame?. 
 
 H. H. Matlock 'Riceville JMcMinn. 
 
 Geo. T. Allmaii Cornei-sviile jMarshall. 
 
 F. M. Wood all jNaslivi lie iDavidson. 
 
 E. F. Sharp ITen Mile JMeigs. 
 
 D. P. Williams Brownsville Haywood. 
 
 Wm. Johnson 'Clarksburg Carroll. 
 
 Henry B. Clay iNew Canton 'Hawkins. 
 
 -Joseph Matthews 'Athens >.... McMinn. 
 
 L. F. Leeper 'Witt's Foundry 'Hamblen. 
 
 W. P. Smallwood IParis iHenry. 
 
 H. C. Whittaker 'New Market ...'jeifer.son. 
 
 J. J. Pope Stephens Chapel iBiedsoe. 
 
 Cockrill & Hicks jNaphviile 'Davidson. 
 
 J. A. Tin-ley 'Cog Hill jMcMinn. 
 
 PL H. Lovelace.... ,Coiuo ..,, „. Henry. 
 
 J. A. Campbell IMurfreesboro Rutherford. 
 
 P. H. Cook jJasper 'Marion. 
 
 Ham Herd New O'nlon,. ............... JHawkins. 
 
 W. M. aark Franklin .. 
 
 Unsigned I 
 
 J.C. Murphy ISevierville 
 
 W. F. Anderson ....,.,.,.,, 
 
 Williamson. 
 
 Sevier, 
 
180 
 
 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 NAMES OF COKKESPONDENTS. 
 
 31. A. J. Hallibi! rton 
 
 32. S.E.Taylor 
 
 33. John Alley 
 
 U. "W. E. itucker 
 
 35. Elijah Dougherty 
 
 36. James Liimun 
 
 37. Wm. F. Jarratt... 
 
 38. W. C.Peak.. 
 
 39. S.E.Saunders 
 
 40. Daniel Haynes.... 
 
 41. James M. Stewart 
 
 42. Erby Boyd 
 
 43. H.Skagga 
 
 44. A. E.N. Blunt 
 
 45. H. C. Anderson... 
 
 46. J.iSatLyle.... , 
 
 47. David McCrosky.. 
 
 48. Joshua Uoode 
 
 POST OEEICE. 
 
 Murf reesboro 
 
 Brownsville 
 
 Walnut Valley 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Baker's Gap 
 
 Chattanooga 
 
 Pinkhoook Landing 
 
 Haynes' P. O 
 
 Dnnlap 
 
 Benton 
 
 Maynardville 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Carolina P. O 
 
 Dandi'idge 
 
 Cleveland 
 
 Huntsville 
 
 COUNTIES. 
 
 Rutherford. 
 
 Haywood. 
 
 Sequatchie. 
 
 Bradley. 
 
 Johnson. 
 
 Hamilton. 
 
 Meigs county. 
 
 Union. 
 
 Sequatchie. 
 
 Polk. 
 
 Union. 
 
 Bradley county. 
 
 Haywood count;; 
 
 Jefferson. 
 
 Bradley. 
 
 Scott. ' 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 181 
 
 QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS. 
 
 Please give me the princixial varieties grown in your 
 •county ? 
 
 1. White and Walker. 
 
 2. Boughton, Fultz, Deihl and Mediterranean. 
 
 3. Mediterranean, Boughton, White, Blue-stem and others. 
 
 4. Eed-ehaif, Little Eed, May and Purple-straw. 
 
 5. Tappahannock, Bearded Quaker, Fultz and Walker. 
 
 6. Boughton, Fultz, Walker, Spring-bearded and Harris. 
 
 7. Tappahannock, BoEghton and Fultz. 
 
 8. Boughton, Golden-straw and White. 
 
 9. Boughton and White. 
 
 10. Tappahannock — miscalled Boughton-Fultz, and a docen other va- 
 
 rieties with local names. 
 
 11. Fultz, Boughton, Amber and May. 
 
 12. Boughton and White, 
 
 13. Early May, Red-chaff and Tappahannock. 
 
 14. Eed-chaff, Mediterrannean and White. 
 
 15. Lancaster, Eed Quaker, Boughton and FultE. 
 
 16. Boughton, Purple-straw and White, are all that are successfiiL 
 
 17. White, Quaker, Walker, Fultz, Boughton, Tubman, etc. 
 
 18. Tappahannock and Eed May. 
 
 19. Boughton, Fultz and Lancaster. 
 
 20. White, Walker and Italian. 
 
 21. Amber, Fultz, Boughton. 
 
 22. Walker, Boughton and Fultr. 
 
 23. Tappahanock, Eed-chaff' and May. 
 
 24. Fultz, Walker, Boughton, Genessee and Mediterranean. 
 
 25. Boughton, Walker, Harris, Mediterranean or Cuba, Orleans and 
 
 Fultz. 
 28. Mediterrannean, known here as Penn, and Eed-chaff. 
 2 7. Boughton, May and Ambez*. 
 
182 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 28. Red May, Tappahannock, Red-chafi", White Bovers. 
 
 29. Tappahannnock, Fultz and Walker. 
 
 30. Boughton, Walker and Blue-atem. 
 
 31. Red May, Red-chafF and Tappahannock. 
 
 32. Red M-iy, and Red or Golden-chafF. 
 
 33. Moore or Mere White, Walker and Orleans. 
 
 34. Boughton, Pennsylvania, White Orlean?, Quaker and Walker» 
 
 35. Boughton, Walker, Lancaster, Bearded-white and Fultz. 
 
 36. Boughton and White principally. 
 
 37. Red May, Red Chaft", White Boughton, Tappahannock . 
 
 38. Boughton and Fultz. 
 
 39 Walker, Red Fultz, Purple-straw and Mediterranean. 
 
 40. White or Blue-stem, Walker and Fultz. 
 
 41. Walker, Mediterranean, Orlean.^ and Fultz. 
 
 42. Fultz, Red Boughton and White. 
 
 43. Walker, Boughton, Blue-straw, Red. 
 
 44. Boughton, Golden-straw, Fultz and Walker. 
 
 45. Red May, Tappahannock and Red-chafT. 
 
 46. Boughton, Fultz, Tappahannock, Capron and Walker. 
 
 47. Boughton, Fullz, Walker, Orleans, Golden-straw, (limited), Wheat 
 
 limited. 
 
 48. Very little in the county. 
 
 Which variety is best suited to your soil and climate. 
 
 1. White is preferred. 
 
 2. Fulz and Boughton, and I am pleased v/Ith Jennings. 
 
 3. Mediterranean. 
 
 4. Red-chaff, Red May or Purple-straw. 
 
 5. Tappahannock and Quaker. 
 
 6. W^iilker is least liable to disease, but all other varieties do well, when 
 
 free from disease. 
 
 7. White wheat generally, or Fultz. 
 
 8. This question is hard to answer correctly — Boughton is most sown. 
 
 9. The above variety. 
 
 10. The Tappahannock commands most ; Fultz yields most bushels — each 
 
 have enemies who claim theirs best. 
 
 11. Fultz. 
 
 12. The above. 
 
 13. Early May. 
 
 14. Red. 
 
 15. Lancaster, Red and Fultz. 
 
 16. The above varieties. 
 
 17. Quaker, White, Boughton, Walker and Fulta; all do well. 
 
 18. Tapahannock. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 183 
 
 19. Fultz. 
 
 20. Walker and Italian. 
 
 21. Amber and Fultz. 
 
 22. Walker stands freeze best, but Bougliton gives best quality and j ield, 
 
 23. Tappahannock. 
 24. 
 
 25. Walker and Cuba ; all named sometimes do well. 
 
 26. Mediterranean. 
 
 27. Fultz, Amber and Boughton. 
 
 28. Ked May and Tappahannock. 
 
 29. Tappahannock. 
 
 30. Boughton or Walker. 
 
 31. I cannot say positively. May wheat has been longest in use and freest 
 
 from disease. 
 
 32. I have succeeded best with Eed-chaff. 
 
 33. Moore ; don't know its generic name. 
 
 34. Boughton and Pennsylvania White. 
 
 35. All varieties named do well, but Fultz preferred by most iaimers. 
 
 36. So far as my experience goes Boughton is best. 
 
 37. White Boughton. 
 
 38. Those who have tried both prefer Fultz. 
 
 39. Purple-stem and Mediterranean. 
 
 40. White or Blue-stem — same wheat. 
 
 41. Walker, Orleans and White. 
 
 42. Both well adapted to climate and soil ; Boughton and White. 
 
 43. Bed. 
 
 44. Golden-straw. 
 
 45. Red May, earliest, see.ms best, but Tappahannock yields most. 
 
 46. Tappahannock and Fultz. 
 
 47. Boughton and Golden-straw for strong lands ; Walker and Fultz for 
 
 thin. 
 
 48. White. 
 
 Varieties preferred by millers? 
 
 1. White ; other varieties are not used as much as white. 
 
 2. Boughton and Fultz. 
 
 3. Boughton, 
 
 4. Bed May Wheat. 
 
 5. Tappanannock and Fultz. 
 
 6. Boughton and Walker. 
 
 7. White, as they pay most for it. 
 
 8. Boughton. 
 
 9. Same varieties. 
 
 10. Any first-class white wheat. 
 
184 WHEAT CULTIFEE 
 
 11. Fultz. 
 
 12. Bough ton and white. 
 
 13. May. 
 
 14. Ked makes finer than Mediterraneaix 
 
 15. Boughton. 
 
 16. The same. 
 
 17. White and Boughton. 
 
 18. Tappahannock. 
 
 19. Bouyhton. 
 
 20. White. * 
 
 21. Amber. 
 
 22. Walker and Boughton, perhaps the latter. 
 
 23. Eed-chaif makes largest yield. 
 
 24. Walker. 
 
 25. Boughton, Walker and Spring Wheat. 
 
 26. White varieties. 
 
 27. Amber. 
 
 28. White by 10 per cent, in bushel. 
 
 29. Tappahannock. 
 
 30. Boughton and white. 
 
 31. Eed-chaff preferred by some, cannot say which is generally. 
 
 32. Ked-chatr. 
 
 33. White. 
 
 34. Last two above-named. 
 
 35. No flour manufactured but for home use, not much difference 
 
 varieties. 
 
 36. It is most preferable by millers. 
 
 37. Bed May or Ked-chafT. 
 
 38. Divided. 
 
 39. W^alker and Red. 
 
 40. White or Blue-stem. 
 
 41. White. 
 
 42. Boughton and White. 
 43. 
 
 44. Same, it makes more and better flour. 
 
 45. Some prefer White, others Red. 
 
 46. Walker or Amber. 
 
 47. Boughton and Golden-straw. 
 
 48. White. 
 
 Is there any Spring Wheat grown, and to what extent ? 
 
 1. Very little, if any. 
 
 2. None. 
 
 3. None. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 185 
 
 4. No. 
 
 5. None. 
 
 6. None. 
 
 7. None. 
 
 8. None. 
 
 9. None. 
 
 10. None. 
 
 11. None. 
 
 12. None. 
 
 13. None. 
 
 14. None. 
 
 15. None. 
 
 16. None. 
 
 17. None. 
 
 18. None. 
 
 19. None. 
 
 20. None. 
 
 21. None. 
 
 22. Very little, not satisfactory. 
 
 23. None. 
 
 24. None. 
 
 25. Half the crops of the county are Spring Wheat. 
 
 26. None. 
 
 27. None raised, tried and failed, 
 
 28. Small amount, and inferior. 
 
 29. None. 
 
 30. None. 
 
 31. Failures. 
 
 32. None, tried and failed. 
 
 33. None. 
 
 34. None, to my knowledge. 
 
 35. None worth noticing. Don't do well. 
 
 36. No Spring Wheat raised here. 
 
 37. None. 
 
 38. None, that I know of. 
 
 39. None. 
 
 40. None at all. 
 
 41. None. 
 
 42. None. 
 
 43. "Very little. 
 
 44. None. 
 
 45. None. 
 
 46. Very little. 
 
 47. None. 
 
 48. Very little. 
 
186 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 What kind of soil is best adapted to the growth of wheat ? 
 
 1. Our district is usually gray limestone, rather red and black soil. 
 
 2. Rich land the most, poor land the best grain. 
 
 3. Gravelly and slate. High. 
 
 4. High thin land. 
 
 5. Limestone, stiff sub-soil, rich loam. 
 
 6. Clay loam. 
 
 7. Mulatto. 
 
 S. Our high mulatto. 
 
 9. Gravelly loam with stiff clay sub-soil. 
 
 10. Rolling and gravelly land. 
 
 11. Upland land. 
 
 12. Our mulatto land is said to be best. 
 
 13. 
 
 14. Land with clay foundation and fresh land, 
 
 15. Upland with clay sub-soil and river bottom. 
 
 16. High rich ridge land. 
 
 17. Strong sugar tree and beech land lying fair to the sun. 
 
 18. Clay. 
 
 19. Limestone clay. ' 
 
 20. Limestone soil and mulatto soil. 
 
 21. Clay. 
 
 22. Red mulatto. 
 
 23. Clay sub-soil. 
 
 24. 
 
 25. Lime and river loam. 
 
 26. Limestone clay. 
 
 27. Gravelly loam. 
 
 28. Dry, rich land containing the most lime, 
 
 29. Limestone mulatto. 
 
 30. Red mulatto. 
 
 31. A dry alluvial soil. Bottoms would do well if drained. 
 
 32. I succeed well on rich loam, well drained. 
 
 33. Loose gvavelly upland. 
 
 .34. Limestane first, black gravelly ridge land second, slate third. 
 
 35. All lands lying fair to the sun where the soil is good. 
 
 36. In my experience river bottom and alluvial mixed with sand. 
 
 37. High loam. 
 
 38. Red mulatto and black gravelly land. 
 
 39. Medium upland. 
 
 40. Blackhaw, heavy soil land hard to manage. 
 
 41. Strong limestone. 
 
 42. Red clay pan. 
 
 43. Limestone or valley clay. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 187 
 
 44. Land underlaid by deep red sub-soil. 
 
 45. Clay soil with black pebbles mixed has made most for me. Pipe clay 
 is good. 
 
 46. Gravelly upland. 
 
 47. Gray gravel, strong soil for quantity. Fertilizers improve. 
 
 48. Limestone. 
 
 After what crop does wheat make the largest yield ? 
 
 1. Clover. 
 
 2. Depends a great deal on the season ; am unable to tell. 
 
 3. Red clover. 
 
 4. Tobacco, clover, oats. 
 
 5. Ked clover. 
 
 6. Clover. 
 
 7. Clover and perhaps lobacco. 
 
 8. Clover and peas. 
 
 9. Clover. 
 
 10. Some say cotton. I prefer clover, though all depends on thorough 
 
 preparation. 
 
 11. Clover first, then potatoes, and then late millet. 
 
 12. Clover. 
 
 13. Clover. 
 
 14. Clover and tobacco. 
 
 15. Clover. 
 
 16. Clover plastered the previous spring. 
 
 17. Tobacco and clover. 
 
 18. Clover and peas. 
 
 19. After oats that have followed corn. 
 
 20. Clover ; my experience is after corn. 
 
 21. C'over. 
 
 22. Clovtr and peas turned under in July or August. 
 
 23. Tobacco. 
 
 24. Clover. 
 
 25. Clover beyond a doubt. 
 
 26. Clover. 
 
 27. Clover, clover, clover. 
 
 28. Peas, tobacco and cotton. 
 
 29. Corn upon which cow peas are raised and turned under, clover and 
 
 turned under. 
 
 30. After clover. 
 
 31. Cotton decidedly. 
 
 32. Clover decidedly. 
 
 33. Clover. 
 
 34. Clover and timothy, peas and tobacco. 
 
 35. Clover. 
 
188 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 86. Clover turned over ; gras3 and stubble better than corn. 
 37. Clover always. 
 36. Clover. 
 
 39. Clover. 
 
 40. Clover. 
 
 41. Clover. 
 
 42. Clover. 
 
 43. 
 
 44. Clover and cow peas. 
 
 45. Clover fallow. 
 
 46. Stable manure or red clover. 
 
 47. Stock peas after oats. 
 
 48. Clover. 
 
 Wliat is the relative yield of wheat on clover, fallow, corn, 
 or tobacco land ? 
 
 1. From 8 to 20 bushels. 
 
 2. Am disappointed in sowing wheat after clover. 
 
 3. About 8 to 9 bushels. 
 
 4. Clover or tobacco, 20; corn or fallow land 12 bushels per acre, 
 
 5. Clover 15, fallow 12, corn 8, cannot answer as to tobacco. 
 
 6. Twenty per cent, in favor of clover land. 
 
 7. Clover 15, fallow 10, corn 8, tobacco, don't know. 
 
 8. Wheat after clover, from 20 to 35 bushels; fallow, 10 to 15; from 
 
 corn, from 6 to 8 ; no tobacco cultivated. 
 
 9. Clover over corn from 50 to 200 per cent. ; no fallow or tobacco. 
 
 10. Twenty bushels per acre in well prepared clover land; no tobacco 
 
 raised only in small patches. 
 •11. Don't know. 
 
 12. Clover will double corn land ; we raise no tobacco. 
 
 13. Clover best, cotton next, corn, etc. 
 
 14. Clover, about 10 bushels ; tobacco same ; corn, about 6 bushels per 
 
 acre. 
 
 15. Little or no fallowing; proportion — 3 clover, 2 tobacco, 1^ corn land. 
 
 16. Clover about double any other. 
 
 17. Clover, 8 to 30 bushels; corn, from 4 to 10. 
 
 18. Clover 100, corn 80, tobacco 90. 
 19. . 
 
 20. Clover land, 8 bushels; corn same; we rarely sow fallow; tobacco not 
 
 cultivated. 
 
 21. Clover 25 per cent better than corn ; no tobacco land. 
 
 22. Fifteen bushels on clover, 12 on fallow, 6 on corn, have rrot tried 
 
 tobacco. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 189 
 
 23. Clover, 12 to 15 ; corn, 8 to 10 ; tobacco, 15 to 20. 
 
 25. Clover, 10 to 12; corn, 5 to 6 ; fallow, 8. 
 
 26. Clover 1 ; corn h, unless corn follows clover, then f . 
 
 27. Twenty -five, 15, 8 and 15 bushels. 
 
 28. Can't answer satisfactorily. 
 
 29. Clover or fallow yield double corn without cow-peas; no tobacco 
 
 land. 
 
 30. Clover, 12 to 18; corn, 6 to 10 bushels per acre. 
 
 31. But little clover cultivated here ; and no tobacco until recently. 
 
 32. Eaise no tobacco ; corn land preferred to fallow. 
 
 33. Clover 15, corn 10. 
 
 34. Not prepared to answer. 
 
 35. Clover-fallow is far best, 40 per cent.; no tobacco raised of conse- 
 
 quence. 
 
 36. Clover, 18 bushels; fallow in prime condition, same; no experience 
 
 with tobacco. 
 
 37. Twelve or 15 bushels. 
 
 38. Clover, 11 to 12 ; fallow, 8 to 10 ; corn, 4 to 6. 
 
 39. Clover, 33J per cent, better. 
 
 40. Clover, 14 per acre ; corn or fallow, 8 to 10. 
 
 41. Clover, best by 25 or 50 per cent. 
 
 42. Clover, 33 highest. 
 
 43. Eight to 12 bushels. 
 
 44. [n proportion, 10, 7, 6, 5. 
 
 45. Our yield from 6 to 20 bushels, as the land is good or bad. 
 
 46. Safe to say 2 bushels to 1. 
 
 47. No test worth reporting. 
 
 48. Not much difference between clover and tobacco land. 
 
 AVhat is the best yield, and what the average per acre ? 
 
 1. About 12 to 15 bushels. 
 
 2. Twenty bushels and 10 bushels. 
 
 3. . 
 
 4. Purple-straw, 12 bushels. 
 
 5. An average of 42 bushels in a ten-acre field. 
 
 6. Thirty-five bushels ; average 6 bushels. 
 
 7. Best, 24 bushels; average in ten years, 11 bushels. 
 
 8. Thirty bushels ; average 8 bushels. 
 
 9. Forty-five bushels best yield ; 6 bushels average for county. 
 
 10. Twenty -five bushels for some years ; I hear of 30. 
 
 11. In 1876, 36 16-60 bushels ; in 1877 the average will be 12. 
 
 12. About 25 bushels ; average 6. 
 
 13. Twenty bushels; averages. 
 
190 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 14. Twenty bushels; average 6; mostly corn land sown. 
 
 15. Thirty-seven bushels in 1857 ; average below 7. 
 
 16. Best, 30 • average, 5. 
 
 17. Forty bushels, but this is not common. 
 
 18. Thirty-five bushels; average 8 bushels. 
 
 19. Forty bushels ; average of county, 5 or 6 bushels. 
 
 20. Sometimes 30 bu.«hels; average not ovei" 7. 
 
 21. Twenty bushels ; average 10 bushels. ' 
 
 22. A wide range, 2 to 30 bushels per acre ; average 10. 
 
 23. Thirty-five bushels; average 10 bushels. 
 
 24. Best, 20 bushels ; average 10 bushels. 
 
 25. Twenty, be.st in county. 
 
 26. Twenty bushels often made; average 7 bushels. 
 
 27. From 3 to 85 ; average about 8. 
 
 28. About 25 bushels ; average 7. 
 
 29. Best, 25 budieis; average 9 bushels. 
 
 30. Eighteen to 20 ; average from 7 to 1 0. 
 
 31. Clover best', cannot state average yield. 
 
 32. I have made on clover 82 bushels per acre; average in connty 8 
 
 bushels. 
 83. Avei^go per acre, 74. 
 34, Forty-one and 86 bushels on well prepared land. 
 
 85. Best, 25 to SO bushels; fivemge not more than 8. 
 
 86. Bi^st, SO bushels ; avernge 8 bushelfi. 
 
 87. Best, 25 bushels; average 12 biitdie's. 
 
 38. Best, 20 ; average 8. 
 
 39. Best 29S, Golden-clioff^ average 7(| bushels. 
 
 40. Average, 8 bushels. 
 
 41. T\venly4ive bushels.: average 7 bushels. 
 
 42. Twenty-five best; average 7 bushels. 
 
 43. T^venty : nvernge 6. 
 
 44. Best yield bj hiVftelf, per acre, &! iTiGD bushels, Golden-slraw, 
 4=?. Very best, 83 \ avei^ge 9 or 10. 
 
 4'6, Si's!, 40 bushels ; average, 6 to 7. 
 
 47. On «mall plat, 67 bughels; otherB, ZB bushels. 
 
 48. Best, 1& ibi-'20; 'average U bushels. 
 
 To wlrat diseases ,is ^vheat liafok, and wbat remedy do 
 you flp})iy ? 
 
 1. Smut J 'sot^li Ihe/grMnHn Wue'Stone. 
 
 2. Jtust, .non«. Bmnt, sulphur and copper. 
 
 8. .JDinT-iYorm,spot midriiKlj 'apply jio lemedy. 
 4. Smu!, use Wue-'stone. Euet, sow thick awd early. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 191 
 
 5. Eust, smut, spot, Hessian Fly ; no remedy for rust or spot, blue-stone 
 
 for smut. 
 
 6. Eust, stQUt, spot ; use no remedy, but blue-stone is remedy for sraut 
 
 or salt, 
 
 7. Smut, remedy blue-stone ; rust and fly, no remedy that I know. 
 
 8. Eust, on lowland spot ; I know no reaiedy for eitber. 
 
 9. Eust, spot and smut, and occasionally joint-worm ; bjueslonefor smut, 
 
 superior culture and manure for others. 
 
 10. Smut and rust, blue-stone for former, nothing for latter. 
 
 11. Eust and smut, blue-stone for smut. 
 
 12. Eust and spot, no remedy. 
 
 13. Eust and smut, blue-stone. 
 
 14. Scab, rust and Bmut, blue-stone for smut. 
 
 15. Smut, spot and scab, blue-stone for smut. 
 
 16. Smut, rust and fly, use blue-stone to prevent smut. 
 
 17. Eust and emut, blue-stone for smut. 
 
 18. Smut and rust. 
 
 19. Smut and spot, blue-stone or lime for sm-ut^ spot jio If emedy. 
 
 20. Smut, and blue-stone for it ; rust and spot. 
 2L Eust, ftnd let her rust. 
 
 22. Spot and rust, smut, "worms, etc., best remedy 5b 'lime sown on land 
 
 liberalh'. 
 
 23. Smut, blue-stone. 
 
 24. Eust end Bmut, "well matured se«d and blue-.stone 'for. latter. 
 
 25. Smut and rust. 
 
 26. Fly, rust, Spot and oose stock. 
 
 27. Eust and emut, earJy sowing and blue-stone. 
 
 28. Eust, drain your land; Smut, early sowing and :blue-^tone. 
 
 29. Smut, »-uKt and epot, blue-stone for smut. 
 80. Eust, and no remedy. 
 
 31. Smut, blue-stone. 
 
 32. Eust and smut, sow early for former, blue?ston,e ifordatter. 
 83. Eu3t, *mut hnd Kpot, sio remedy known. 
 
 34. Eust, emut, % iand iuilde\v; blue-sloneior smut. 
 85. Rust ftnd «pot, DO a-eniedy. 
 
 36. Spot and femut, only once in (ben year-s, and thai y«ar -.soaked my wheat 
 
 in blue-stone. 
 
 37. Eust and 6mlft,'bliie-stoue for Mter.'ltJjrsformer fully ripe se id. 
 88. Smut anfl rust, 4)1 ue-stone /or smut. 
 
 39. Rust, no Remedy. Smut, blue-.stLne. 
 
 40. Smut anfl fUSt -sometimes, cloyer i&nd .•grass sutj. 
 
 41. S ill t, rust and spot, felue-stone ior Saaut. 
 
 42. Eust, fimut and spot. 
 Ad. P.Uit iand Bmut. 
 
192 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 44. Early sowing for fly Sept. 10, in aishes for rust, salt and blue-stone for 
 
 smut. 
 
 45. Eust is our greatest enemy, can only succeed as we can prevent 
 
 smut. 
 
 46. Eust and smut, also fly. For fly sow as late as October. Eust is an 
 
 atmosplieric influence, chloride gas is the remedy ; for smut, sow 
 when the ground is very dry. Bine-stone is worth nothing. 
 
 47. Eust, scab, smut, salt, lime and blue-stone. 
 
 48. Eust and spot, blue-stone. 
 
 Are you troubled with insects, to what extent, and what 
 is your remedy ? 
 
 1. Grub worm, blue-stone is a preventive. 
 
 2. . 
 
 3. Yes, considerable; none. 
 
 4. Hessian fly and grasshoppers. 
 
 5. Yep, Hessian fly. Eemedy, pasture close with sheep. 
 
 6. Not to any serious extent. 
 
 7. Nothing but Hessian fly and weevil, no remedy. 
 
 8. We have never had much trouble from insects. 
 
 9. Joint worm to limited extent, no remedy tried. 
 
 10. Very little. 
 
 11. Am not. 
 
 12. None, except fly, which only injures early sowed wheat. 
 
 13. So little no remedy is applied. 
 
 14. We are troubled with them. 
 
 15. Fly, joint worm ; no remedy for latter, sow after frost for former. 
 
 16. None. 
 
 17. Early sown wheat subject to fly. 
 
 18. Doubtful. 
 
 19. Hessian fly on early wheat, not on late. • . 
 
 20. Hessian fly in fall at time?, no remedy. 
 
 21. Fleas, and pennyroyal. 
 
 22. So far not troubled. 
 
 23. Hessian fly, sow after frost. 
 
 24. Fly occasionally, on foul land especially. 
 
 25. Blue-stone for smut. 
 
 26. Fly, joint worm and weevil, no remedy. 
 
 27. Fly, sow after frost and you'll escape. 
 
 28. Fly and worm cutting top joint. 
 
 29. Fly if sowed before frost, preventive better than cure. 
 
 30. Fly, no remedy. 
 
 31. To no extent that I know of. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 193 
 
 32. No trouble. 
 
 33. No trouble noticeable. 
 
 34. Fly, only insect, an hat only in a dry ■winter. 
 
 35. Hessian fly only insect, no remedy. 
 
 36. Only once in ten years, and then it was grasshoppers. 
 
 37. No. 
 
 38. Fly, and no remedy. 
 
 39. Not much. 
 
 40. I am not. 
 
 41. Fly in fall. 
 
 42. Yes, fly, no remedy. 
 
 43. No trouble. 
 
 44. Never to any extent, 
 
 45. No insects have troubled us. 
 
 46. Fly principally, sow your wheat about the middle of October. 
 
 47. Insects not troublesome ; remedy, good soil well prepai'ed. 
 
 48. Sometimes , no other insect. 
 
 What is the most approved time of sowing? 
 
 1 . September 20 to October 20 ; I've known good wheat up to December 
 
 20 ; early sowing best. 
 
 2. Last of September aad October. 
 
 3. September 20 to October W. 
 
 4. From October 1 to 20. 
 
 5. September. 
 
 6. October 1. 
 
 7. September 20 to October 20. 
 
 8. September 15 to October 15. 
 
 9. September 15 to October 15. 
 
 10. Earlier the better; prefer sowing in September. 
 
 11. October 1 to November 15. 
 
 12. About October 15. 
 
 13. October 1 to 15. 
 
 14. October 1. 
 
 15. September 20 to October 15. 
 
 16. First ten days in October. 
 
 17. September 25 to October 15, to avoid damage from the fly. 
 
 18. October 1 to 15. 
 
 19. September 15 to October 15. 
 
 20. October and November. 
 
 21. October. 
 
 22. September 10 to October 10. 
 
 23. October 1 to November 15. 
 
 24. Early Fall. 
 
 13 
 
194 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 25. September 15. 
 
 26. September 15 to 30. 
 
 27. October 1 to 15. 
 
 28. September 15 to October 20. 
 
 29. October 10 to October 25. 
 
 30. October 1 to October 31. 
 
 31. October, but often neglecled ; result, winter killing, 
 
 32. September 15 to Octo'jer 15. 
 
 33. October 1. 
 
 34. September 5 to October 
 
 35. September 
 
 36. September 10 to October 10, never later. 
 
 37. Octitber 1. 
 
 38. October. 
 
 39. Last of September to October 15. 
 
 40. White or Blue-stem, from October 1 to 10. 
 
 41. October 1. 
 
 42. In October. 
 
 43. October, new moon. 
 
 44. Early in Se[)tember as possible, is best. 
 
 45. October 10 to 25 ; often as late as December 10 and 15. 
 
 46. October 1 to November 15. 
 
 47. About the first of October. 
 
 48. September; the full moon. 
 
 Which is the better phm of sowing — drill or broatl-:ast' 
 
 1. Drills are not used in this district. 
 
 2. Drill. 
 
 3. Drill. 
 
 4. Broad-cast; v hen the drill is used, apt to riMt. 
 
 5. Drill, it don't Ireeze so much in winter. 
 
 6. Broadcast is the only mode here. 
 
 7. Have no experience with drill. 
 
 8. By drill. 
 
 9. Drill decidedly. 
 
 10. I am satisfied by drill is preferable. 
 
 11. Drill. 
 
 12. Drill. 
 li. Drill. 
 
 14. Broadcast; have not used drill. 
 
 15. Broadcast. 
 
 16. Drill, emphatically. 
 
 17. About same if ground is prepared well.^ 
 
 18. Drill. 
 
IN TENNESSEE, 195 
 
 1^. Broadcast, and seed plowed in. 
 
 20. Broadcast ; don't use drill. 
 
 21. Drill. 
 
 22. Drill, unqualifiedly. 
 
 23. Drill. 
 
 24. Drill. 
 
 25. Broadcast. 
 
 26. Have not used the drill ; little difference. 
 
 27. Drill, if land permits. 
 
 28. Broadcast. 
 
 29. Broadcast, if as well prepared as for drilU 
 
 30. Drill, 
 
 31. Broadcast , have not used drill. 
 
 32. Drill, if possible. 
 
 33. Broadcast exclusively ; think, however, drill is the best. 
 
 34. Drill, when ground i-f in condition. 
 
 35. Broadcast; drill not practiced ; best farmers favor drill. 
 
 36. By drill the yield is a quarter more than broadcast. 
 
 37. Broadcast is preferred. 
 
 38. Drill preferred. 
 
 39. Drill. 
 
 40» D )n't know the drill, but heir it well spoken of. 
 
 41. No drill used in this county. 
 
 42. Drill preferable. 
 
 43. Broadcast. 
 
 44. Drill all the time. 
 
 45. Broadcast; many favor drill. 
 
 46. Broadcast, and harrow both ways. 
 
 47. Drill always. 
 
 48. By drill. 
 
 What amount of seed is used in sowing by either plan? 
 
 1. From 1 to 1\ bushels. 
 
 2. Drill, 3 pecks to 1 bushel ; broadcast, 1 to IJ- bu.shels. 
 
 3. One to 1.^. 
 
 4. One bu'ihel to the acre. 
 
 5. About 1 bushel per acre. 
 
 6. One bushel per acre. 
 
 7. Broadcast 1 to IJ bushel per acre. 
 
 8. From | to IJ bushels per acre. 
 
 9. Drill f bushels, broadcast 1|. 
 
 10. Drill 2 to 1, 1 burtliel broadcast. 
 
 11. Drill I to 1 bushel, broadcast 1 to Iv bu-shels per acre. 
 
 12. Bro-idcast from 1 to I| bushels, drill | to 1 bushel. 
 
 13. Three-fourth to 1 busheK 
 
296 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 14. One busbel per acre. 
 
 15. Three-fourths to 2 bushels. 
 
 16. Drill I, 5-4 to 6-4 broadcast. 
 
 17. Frora f to I, generally 1 bushel. 
 
 18. One bushel. 
 
 19. One and a half bushels. 
 
 20. One i)ushel broadcaat. 
 
 21. Drilled f, broadcast 1 bnslieh 
 
 22. Drilled f, broadcast 5-4 bushels 
 
 23. I to 1 bushel per acre. 
 
 24. Three-fourths to 5-4 bushels. 
 
 25. One bushel, 
 
 26. One bushel. 
 
 27. From | to 1 bushel. 
 
 28. Broadcast 1 bushel. 
 
 29. One to 2 bushels according to soil. 
 
 30. One bushel and a peck generally. 
 
 31. If sowed in time 1 bushel, if late more, 
 
 32. From f to 1 bushel. 
 
 33. One bushel per acre. 
 
 34. Broadcast, I4; drill 1 bushel. 
 
 35. From 1 to IJ bnshels, 
 
 36. One bushel sound seed. 
 
 37. Broadcast 1 bushel, drill f. 
 
 38. Broadcast 1 bushel, drill a little less. 
 
 39. Drill ^ to 1, broadcast 1 to IJ. 
 
 40. One to 1|^ bushels per acre. 
 
 41. One bushel per acre. 
 
 42. One bushel per acre. 
 
 43. One bu.'hel. 
 
 44. Drill I-, broadcast 1}. 
 
 45. Am not prepared to say with drill ; broadcast 4 to 1 busIieL 
 
 46. From f to 1 bushel, according to size of grain. 
 
 47. Drill I, broadcast 1 to IJ. 
 
 48. One bushel to the acre. 
 
 What is your estimate of the cost of cultivating an acre 
 by either plan? [The answers only estimate the work done 
 in seeding.] 
 
 1. From .75 to $1,25. 
 
 2. $3.00 
 
 3. About $1.00. 
 
 4. $3.00 per aci®. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 197 
 
 5. $5.50. 
 
 6. Have not tested- 
 
 7. $6.50. 
 
 8. $4.50 to 5.00. 
 
 9. From $7.00 to $12'00 — drill pomewhat cheaper. — Estimate is made on 
 
 best preparation of .«oil. 
 
 10. $4.00 for thorough cultivation by broadcast, $5.00 by drill. 
 
 11. About $3.00 per acre by either plan. 
 
 12. $3.75 by drill, broadcast .75 cents less. 
 
 13. Broadcast $3.00, drill $5.00. 
 
 14. $4.00- 
 
 15. About $6.00. 
 
 16. $3.00 per acre drill ; don't sow broadcast. 
 
 17. From $5.00 to $6.00 if well prepared, as it should be for botL 
 
 18. $5.00 with seed and saving crop. 
 
 19. $6.00. 
 
 20. $2.00, 
 
 21. $10.00. 
 
 22. $5.75. 
 
 23. $1.50. 
 
 24. $3.00. 
 
 25. $6.75. 
 
 26. $6.00 broadcast. 
 
 27. Without seed or harvesting $3.00, 
 
 28. $3.50 ready for granary. 
 
 29. Broadcast $3.00. 
 
 30. $1.50 drilled, .75 cents to $1.00 broadcast. 
 
 31. $5.00 will put it in well and save it 
 
 32. Cannot answer. 
 
 33. $6.00 in granary. 
 
 34. $2.50 broadcast, plowing, rolling and harrowing; never use a drill. 
 
 35. $4.00 inclusive of seed. 
 S6. $3.50. 
 
 37. $4.00, sowing and hauling included. 
 
 38. Don't know. 
 
 39. $7.50 with seed. 
 
 40. $3.00 per acre. 
 
 41. $5.00. 
 
 42. $2.00 per acre, 
 43. 
 
 44. $7.00. 
 
 45. $2.00 to $6.00, 
 
 46. Seventy-five cents to bushel gathered- 
 
 47. $1.00 for buU-tougning as usual— §6.00 to $7.00 if done well. 
 
 48. I haven't studied much about it 
 
198 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 What is the estimated profit of wheat culture per aere? 
 
 1. From $3 to C per acre clear profit. 
 
 2. About $3 to ^ per acre, if yield is 10 bushels and pric? $1 per bushel. 
 
 3. ;Mone. 
 
 4. When wheat is $1 per bushel the profit is $6 per acre. 
 
 5. On an average $2 per acre^ 
 G. 
 
 7. My average is $2.65. 
 
 8. Very small, from $3 to $25 ; average about $5 ; depends on prepara- 
 
 tion of land. 
 
 9. For an average of ten years, profit $10 with best farmers ; for others 
 
 $2 to-$3. 
 
 10. $12.50. 
 
 11. $10 per acre. 
 
 12. That depends on amount made per acre 
 
 13. Can't guess at it. 
 
 14. Depends on price ; one dollar per bushel is $1.50 profit. 
 
 15. Difficult to answer, on account of fluctuating price and varying yield, 
 
 16. Owing to variations in yield and price, hard to estimate. 
 
 17. From nothing ta fifteen dollars. 
 18. 
 
 19. J^o profit below an average of six bushels, and price one dollar. 
 
 20. $2.50 to $3. 
 
 21. Nothing. 
 
 22. From nothing to $10 or $15 per acre. 
 
 23. $5. 
 
 24. $5, at ten bu-ht s per acre. 
 
 25. Simply a change of land from corn. 
 
 26. Very little. 
 
 27. $12. 
 
 28. $3.50 to $22.50. 
 
 29. $4.50. 
 
 30. $5 to $7. 
 
 31. Have kept no record and am not prepared to say. 
 32. 
 
 33. About $5 per acre when raised for profit. 
 
 34. I'm not prepared to say, average is so irregular. 
 
 35. From $3 to $5 per acre. 
 
 36. Average yield 8 bushels, $8. Deduct expenses, leaves $4.40. 
 
 37. About $6. 
 
 38. About 100 per cent. 
 
 39. $5 or $6. 
 
 40. Depends on price of wheat at time of sale^ 
 
 41. Very small in this county,. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 199 
 
 42. On first-class ground, $20 per acre. 
 43. 
 
 44. $7 atfl per bushel. 
 
 45. Act'ial profit $5; advantage to land immense. Wheat, grass ard 
 
 clover only hope of West Tennesfsee. 
 
 46. Very small. 
 
 47. By the latter it shonld average $10 per acre ; by the former it is 
 
 money out of pocket. 
 
 48. Sometimes very little, $8, $10, $12 to $18 and to $20 per acre. 
 
 What is the relative profit of wheat culture as comj)ared 
 with other crops? 
 
 1. Oats, corn and wheat; last mos-t profitable. 
 
 2. About same as corn, less than hay, and far less than potatoes. 
 
 3. Wheat and oats, but liltle profit. 
 
 4. Wheat most valuable crop we make. 
 
 5. Pays as well as corn and better than oats. 
 
 6. Equal with other grain crops. 
 
 7. Equal to corn, better than oats or rye, tobacco more profitable. 
 
 8. AVheat poorest crop for profit. 
 
 9. Wheat best on upland ; on bottoms corn is best. 
 
 10. Best money crop, 33,^^ per cent more than any other. 
 
 11. ISO profit in corn at present prices. 
 
 12. Wheat most profitable grain crop raised. 
 
 13. I think wheat is a small per cen over others. 
 
 14. About same as cotton and corn, profit light on all. 
 15. 
 
 16. Wheat is first on land suitable to wheat-growing. 
 
 17. Same as other crops. 
 18. 
 
 19. 
 
 20. Much less than corn. 
 
 21. Other crops pay better. 
 
 22. Better than corn or spring oats on upland, lees t'.ian cotton, tobacco or 
 
 winter oats. 
 
 23. As paying as any grown. 
 24. 
 
 25. 
 
 26. Corn more valuable if fed on farm. 
 
 27. Wheat and barley are best for field crops. 
 
 28. Wheal $3.50, corn |6, cotton $9. 
 
 29. Not as good as grass, 25 per cent, better than corn. 
 
 30. Fifty to 75 per cent better- 
 
 31. Cannot say ; raise only for home use. 
 
200 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 33. About equal when properly cullivated. 
 
 34. Wheat is the most profitable croj} in ray county. 
 
 35. Wheat produces more profit than other crops. 
 
 36. As a general thing corn pays better than wheat. 
 
 37. Wheat is most profitable, 
 
 38. About 50 per cent, better than any other crop. 
 
 39. Wheat at 100, other crops at 75. 
 
 40. I can make more money on grass than on any grain. 
 
 41. Lps^ than any other grain. 
 
 42. Wheat is 40 per cent, over all others. 
 
 43. About equal. 
 
 44. Profits of wheat very little, corn ditto. 
 
 45. Profits greater than other crops on lands manured. 
 
 46. Hardly as good as corn or oats, if latter is a good crop. 
 
 47. It does not jiay as well as any other crop. 
 
 48. Very good in some places in the county. 
 
 Give me your estimate of amouut of wheat raised in your 
 county and number of acres sown. 
 
 1. Cannot say — pretty large I think. 
 
 2. Have no idea. 
 
 4. I do not know. My crop is 100 acres and will make 1,200 bushels. 
 
 5. Twenty-five thousand bushels, number of acres sown 4,000. 
 
 6. Have no statistics. 
 
 7. Have no means of even guessing. 
 
 8. One hundred and fifty thousand bushels,'19,000 acres. 
 
 9. Can give no intelligent answer. 
 
 10. It is guess work— 300,000 bushels, 30,000 acres sown. 
 11. 
 
 12. Nine thousand acres and 54,000 bushels. 
 
 13. Have no means at command for determining. 
 
 14. About 200,000 bushels on 33,000 acres. 
 
 15. 
 
 IG. Cannot give an estimate. 
 
 17. Thirty-five thousand two hundred and thirty-eight bushels 5,034 acre 
 
 sown. 
 
 18. 
 
 19. (Jne hundred and twenty thousand bushels, 20,000 acres. 
 
 20. Twelve thousand six hundred bushels, 1,800 acres. 
 
 21. A?k the tax assessor. 
 
 22. Have no data to answer. 
 
 23. Eighty thousand bushels, 10,000 acres. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 201 
 
 24. Thirty-five to forty thousand bushels, 3,000 to 4,000 acres. 
 
 25. Twenty per cent, of cultivated land sown in wheat. 
 
 26. No means of answering. 
 
 27. Two hundred and fifty thousand bushels on 30,000 acres. 
 
 28. Have not estimated the county ; 8,000 bushels in this district. 
 
 29. Average crop 75,000 bushels. 
 
 30. Seven thousand acres, 56,000 bushels. 
 
 31. I can only say more than usual sown and yield over average. 
 
 32. Am not well enough posted to answer. 
 
 33. One hundred thousand bushels, 15,000 acres. 
 
 35. Can't give an estimate. 
 
 36. It is impossible to say, guess 33,000 bushels. 
 
 37. Don't know. 
 38. 
 
 39. Can't approximate. 
 
 40. One hundred and twenty thousand bushels, 14,000 acres. 
 
 41. Ten thousand bushels, 1,500 acres. 
 
 42. Twenty-thousand bushels, 3,500 acres. 
 
 43. Twenty-five thousand busheis. 
 
 44. Five thousand acres and 100,000 bushels. 
 
 45. Am not prepared to answer ; amount planted double any year previous 
 
 except 1875. 
 
 46. Have no iflea, but this county is about the best in East Tennessee. 
 
 47. Not prepared at present to do this. 
 
 48. I can't say, for I don't know what amount has been sown. 
 
 Is the acreage of wheat increasing or decreasing? 
 
 1. Average probably good this year. 
 
 2. Increasing. 
 
 3. Increasing. 
 
 4. Increasing, 
 
 5. Increasing. 
 
 6. Small increase. 
 
 7. I think increasing. 
 
 8. Not much change, if any an increase. 
 
 9. Increasing. 
 
 10. Increasing — 25 per cent more than any prior year. 
 
 11. Increasing largely. 
 
 12. Can see no increase or decrease. 
 
 13. Inci'easing I think. 
 
 14. Increasing. 
 
 15. Less this year on acccount of drought last fall. 
 
 16. Increasing. 
 
202 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 37. Increasing as a rule. 
 
 18. Increasing. 
 
 19. Decreasing. 
 
 20. Little difference, perliaps on the increase. 
 
 21. Increasing, 
 
 22. Increasing, 
 
 23. Increasing. 
 
 24. Increa?ing. 
 
 25. Increasing I think. 
 
 26. Less this year, generally much the same. 
 
 27. Increasing. 
 
 28. Increasing 20 per cent. 
 
 29. Increasing. 
 
 30. Increasing. 
 
 31. Increasing certainly. 
 
 32. Increasing. 
 
 33. Increasing slowly. 
 
 34. Increasing. 
 
 35. Increa'^ing. 
 
 36. About the same as formerly. 
 
 37. Rapidly increasing. 
 
 38. Increasing. 
 
 39. Increasing 25 per cent. 
 
 40. Decreasing. 
 
 41. Decreasing if any change. 
 
 42. Increasing. 
 
 43. Increasing. 
 
 44. Increasing as rapidly as the quantity is diminishing. 
 
 45. Very largely increasing. 
 
 46. Rather increasing. 
 
 47. Increasing. 
 
 48. I think decreasiag. 
 
 Wliat kinds of fertilizers are used for wlieat ? 
 
 1. Scarcely any ; stable manure if any. 
 
 2. Clover and stable manure. 
 
 3. None except from the stable. 
 
 4. Clover. 
 
 5. Clover and barnyard manure. 
 
 6. None. 
 
 7. Barnyard, lime and commercial manures in small quantities. 
 
 8. Very little of any kind ; stable manure in small quantities. 
 
 9. Stable manure principally; phosphate and guano slightly and did well. 
 10. Not one in a thousand u.ses any. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 203 
 
 11. I have never seen any used in this county. 
 
 12. None except a small amount of barnyard. 
 
 13. None. 
 
 14. Small quantity of stahle manure and pea vine. 
 1^. Stable manure and not enough. 
 
 16. Very little ; stable manure and guano are excellent. 
 
 17. Stable manure and ashes. 
 
 18. None but clover and peas. 
 
 19. Stable manure. 
 
 20. None, 
 
 21. None, 
 
 22. Horse and cow manure, few use guano. 
 
 23. Plaster and salt to limited extent. 
 
 24. None worthy of notice. 
 
 25. None. 
 
 26. Little stable manure and no other. 
 
 27. Ashes and plaster to a small extent only. 
 
 28. Cotton seed and lime compost. 
 
 29. Stable and barnyard. 
 
 .')0. Lime and plaster of Paris 
 
 31. Little of any sort ; many of us have heard that manure is good for 
 
 wheat. 
 
 32. None of consequence. 
 
 33. Farm manures. 
 
 34. Barnyard, ashes, etc. 
 
 35. Barnyard and ashes — no fertilizers bought. 
 
 36. None used but stable mature and clover. 
 
 37. Cotton seed, lime and ashes. 
 
 38. Barnyard. 
 
 39. Stable manure used by some, 
 
 40. No fertilizers, some niftnure from st.ck. 
 
 41. None u^ed, 
 
 42. Barnyard compost. 
 43. 
 
 44. Stable manure and compost. 
 
 45. Barnyard and cotton seed. 
 
 46. Clover and stable manure. 
 
 47. Next to none — barnyard lightly. 
 
 48. No kind. 
 
 What use is made of wheat straw, and what is its esti- 
 mated value per acre? 
 
 1. Scattered on poor land or destroyed. 
 
 2. Bedding for horses and spreading on ground. 
 
204 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 3. Fed to cattle, 
 
 4. Straw is a good manure for wheat land. 
 
 5. Fed to cattle ; value per acre .75 cents. 
 
 6. Left to rot where threshed. 
 
 7. Winter forage for mules and cattle ; value per acre $1.00. 
 
 8. Fed to cattle and thrown on farm ; value very small. 
 
 9. Fed to cattle; value $2.00. 
 
 10. Most leave it loose, some pen it for cattle. 
 
 11. Making paper and packing eggs ; value $4.00 per acre if properly 
 
 slacked. 
 
 12. Generally spread on poor spots to rot. 
 
 13. Manure, no value. 
 
 14. Scattered on ground to rot ; value .50 cents per acre. 
 
 15. Fed to cattle and bedding stock ; good land i$2.00, upland 30 cents. 
 
 16. Left to rot. 
 
 17. Cattle feed ; $1.00 per acre. 
 
 18. Nearly valueless. 
 
 19. Left to rot ; chief value cattle bedding. 
 
 20. Cattle feed ; value low, 
 
 21. Cow beds; $2.00. 
 
 22. Cut and mix with bran for horses and cattle, also bedding for stock ; 
 
 $2.00. 
 
 .23. Cattle food ; $1.00. 
 
 24. Left to rot. 
 
 25. Cattle food ; $2.00. 
 
 26. Cattle lood ; manner of feeding constitutes its value. 
 
 27. Fed to cattle — generally wasted ; worth $2.50. 
 
 28. Scattered and plowed in ; $2.00. 
 
 29. Fed to cattle in barnyard ; worth $1.00. 
 
 30. Feed to stock and cattle ; 0.75. 
 
 31. Seldom any care taken of it. 
 
 32. Manure heip. 
 
 33. Fed to cattle; value .75 cents per acre, 
 
 34. Stock feed and manure. 
 
 35. Don't value it, wasted by cattle. 
 
 36. Left to rot. 
 
 37. Fine feed for out-stock; $1.00 if stacked. 
 
 38. Cattle feed. 
 
 39. I would rutlier have it as feed than millet. 
 
 40. Fed in a wasteful way to stock ; $1.00 per acre. 
 
 41. Left on the ground for cattle, 
 
 42. Fed to cattle and mules; $1.00. 
 
 43. Stacked and fed. 
 
 44. Feed stock ; $1.00 per 2,000 IKs. at stack. 
 
 45. No profit as feed, but good for bedding for stock and to stop gullies. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 205 
 
 46. Put under carpets, make straw beds, feed to poor ccws, horses and mules. 
 
 47. Left to rot or wasted at stack. 
 
 48. Cut it up and feed it to stock ; very valueless. 
 
 What use is made of the chaff, and what is its relative 
 vahie as a feed. 
 
 1. No care is taken of it, generally thrown with the straw. 
 
 2. But little used as feed. 
 
 3. Feed for cattle and horses. 
 
 4. As a feed it is worth nothing, but it is good for manure. 
 6. Fed to cattle ; better than straw. 
 
 6. Leit to rot. 
 
 7. Same as straw ; no great value. 
 
 8. Used for feeding cattle, and better tlian straw, 
 
 9. Fed with straw ; better than straw. 
 
 10. It is very fair feed, beats straw badly. 
 
 11. Am unable to say any use is made of it ; good food for horses and cattle. 
 
 12. Same as straw. 
 
 13. No use made. 
 
 14. Left lo rot. 
 
 15. Smooth wheat chaff good for stock ; bearded not. 
 
 16. U.se as cattle food, worth half as much as bay. 
 
 17. Mix meal or bran for cows, good feed. 
 
 18. Nearly valueless. 
 
 19. One-third of clover hay. 
 
 20. Chafi' uncared for. 
 
 21. Rick it, and cattle will eat it. 
 
 22. Use like straw, worth 50 cents to $1. 
 
 23. Cattle food, better than straw. 
 
 24. Very little attention paid to it; a few pen it for cattle [o eat at pleasure- 
 
 25. Allowed to waste ; splendid for calves. 
 
 26. Bearded chaS worthless. 
 
 27. Not separated from straw. 
 
 28. Scattered for manure. 
 
 29. Fed as straw ; not much value. 
 
 30. Same as straw. 
 
 31. Goes generally with straw. 
 
 32. Goes with straw. 
 
 33. Better than straw ; no attention given it. 
 
 34. Same use as sti-aw ; better for packing eggs, etc. 
 
 35. Mixed with meal and fed to cattle, considered good. 
 
 36. Left to rot with straw ; mixed with meal makes good feed. 
 
 37. Excellent feed. 
 
 38. Feeding cattle. 
 
 . t 
 
206 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 39. I will say it is preferable for cattle to straw. 
 
 40. Fed to stock. 
 
 41. Fed to cattle ; small value. 
 
 42. Fed to milch cows ; 50 cents per acre. 
 
 43. None. 
 
 44. Better than straw for feed. 
 
 45. Fed to horses, and mixed witli bran to milch cows. 
 
 46. Mixed with hot water and fed to milch cows ; good for that use. 
 
 47. Same as str;w; don't know. 
 
 48. Chaflf is fed to stock. 
 
 "What is your estimate of the value of harrowing or roll- 
 ing wheat in the spring ? 
 
 1. Spring harrowing is good, but rolling in spring is scarcely ever done. 
 
 2. One-tenth increase. 
 
 3. It will p:iy well. 
 
 4. Is of no worih. 
 
 5. Don't know; havn't tried it. 
 
 6. Both beneficial. 
 
 7. I regard it as beneficial. 
 
 8. From 20 to 50 per cent. 
 
 9. Like harrowing, but dont approve of rolling. 
 
 10. Adds ten per cent to yield. 
 
 11. Broadcast v* heat is benefited ; drill not so much. 
 
 12. No experience. 
 
 13. No answer. 
 
 14. Increased yield one bushel per acre. 
 
 15. Have no tests though I pursue it. 
 
 16. Harrowing useful preceding clover, rolling injurious. 
 
 17. Harrowing an advantage, if wheat is not too rank ; rolling good in 
 
 light soils. 
 
 18. Beneficial. 
 
 19. Rolling, one to ten dollars per acre ; harrowing uncertain. 
 
 20. No experience. 
 
 21. Harrowing worth 2 bu.-^hels per acre. 
 
 22. Rolling varies from one-half to 3 bushels per acre. 
 
 23. Adds ten per cent, to value of wheat. 
 
 24. Advaritnge, bnt seldom done in this section. 
 
 25. Governed by crop and kind of land. 
 
 26. Increased yield from 1 to 2 bushels per acre. 
 
 27. Harrowidg and rolling always good, according to close or loose soil. 
 
 28. No experience. 
 
 29. Harn'Ming is good ; have not tried rolling. 
 
 30. Rolling valuable, harrowing injurious. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 207 
 
 31. Cannot say from experience ; both good, however. 
 
 32. Harrowing cood ; have tried it. 
 
 33. Never tried it, but think both good. 
 
 34. Pays best, hard dry winter. 
 
 35. Not practiced here. 
 
 36. SometimesoDeisl)etter, somet'me.^ the otlier ; harrowing for soft, the 
 
 other for hard land. 
 
 37. Injures if ground is in condition. 
 
 38. Ten to 15 per cent. 
 
 39. High estimate on both ; rolling best. 
 
 40. I am told it is a benefit. 
 
 41. I have no experience in either. 
 
 42. Twenty-five per cent, for rolling. 
 
 43. Owing to I 
 
 44. Improved the crop a tenth. 
 
 45. Have never tried only oh small scale. drilled and plowed vviih bull- 
 
 tongue and hoed it. Yield was enormous. 
 
 46. Prefer the hariow. 
 
 47. Ten per cent in favor of both. 
 
 48. Either way is good. 
 
 What stage of ripeuing is most favorable for harvesting? 
 
 1. Kather in green state, the flour is better. 
 
 2. Full i-ipe for seed, r.pe for flour. 
 
 3. Let it get ripe. 
 
 4. Good ripe. 
 
 5. For flour dough state, for seed fully ripe. 
 
 6. Soon as grain pisses from dough state, straw changes color. 
 
 7. I prefer to cut before it is considered ripe. 
 
 8. For all purposes except for seed just ripe, for seed very ripe. 
 
 9. Just so ripe no waste occurs by shelling. 
 
 10. Just as the grain leaves dough state. 
 
 11. When it is in a hard d(jugh state. 
 
 12. Don't see any difference from stifl dough to dead rip?. 
 
 13. When ju-t bard enough not to shatter. 
 
 14. When straw is bright yellow, before grain is fully hard. 
 
 15. Just before tlioruughly ripe. 
 
 16. Ripe, but before straw gets dry. 
 
 17. Just as wheat is getting out of the dou^h state. 
 
 IS. A liit.e under ripe ' 
 
 19. About five days before fully ripe. 
 
 20. Fully ripe. 
 
 21. Dough state. 
 
208 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 22. When straw first readies a clear yellow. 
 
 23. Jitet before heads turn or full ripe. 
 
 24. Fully ripe. 
 
 25. For good bread, soon after passing from bread to dongh. 
 
 26. Stiff dough. 
 
 27. Eipe. 
 
 28. As it goes out the dough state. 
 
 29. Eipe. Cutting green seed makes smut also sowing in wet land. 
 
 30. Well matured, grain, liard. 
 
 31. Cut early, farmers prefer ripe. 
 
 32. Eipe so it won't shatter. 
 
 33. Good ripe without rust, pretty green with it. 
 
 34. Very soon after stiff dough stage. 
 
 35. Dough stage best for flour, but should be ripe for seed. 
 
 36. Medium hard berry and nice yellow straw. 
 
 37. When the head begins to turn down. 
 
 38. A little beyond stiff dough. 
 
 39. When the grain is hard enough to cru?h between the teeth. 
 
 40. Head and straw yellow, grain a little out of the dough. 
 
 41. Stiff dough. 
 
 42. In good dough. 
 
 43. When the grain is fully malurcd. 
 
 44. In dough state. 
 
 45. Stiff' dough state. 
 
 46. Early. 
 
 47. For flour dough state, seed thoroughly ripe. 
 
 48. Cradling and Maying. 
 
 What kind of wheat yields the best flour ? 
 
 1. Whitp. 
 
 2. White and Amber. 
 
 3. Boughlon. 
 
 4. Litile Eed May wheat. 
 
 6. Tappahannock. 
 
 6; Boughton as White, and Walker as Amber varieties. 
 
 7. White, best flour. 
 
 8. Boughton or Golden-straw generally preferred, but Walker is best. 
 
 9. Boughton. 
 
 10. White flour preferred, I like a golden tinge to it. ' 
 
 11. Fuliz, as I am told. 
 
 12. White makes UK.st, don't know about best. 
 
 13. White or Tappahannock. 
 
 14. Eed-chaff. 
 
 15. Lancaster Eed. 
 
IN TEN^NESSEE. 209 
 
 16. White wheat. 
 
 17. White, Tubman and Boughton. 
 
 18. As a practical miller, let Avheat be good, that is the question. 
 
 19. Fuhz. 
 
 20. White. 
 
 21. Sound wheat. 
 
 22. White wheat richest, W.tlker whitest. 
 
 23. Tappahannock. 
 
 24. Walker. 
 
 25. Bonghlon ; depends en mill and time grinding. ' 
 
 2G. Wliite fairest, Mediterranean preferred by farmers for home use. 
 
 27. Amber. 
 
 28. Tappahannock. 
 
 29. Tappuhaunock. 
 
 30. Walker. 
 
 31. Cannot say. 
 
 32. Eed-chaff— wonld like to know its name. [Name correct; see list of 
 
 wheats, — Ed.] 
 •33. Wliite. 
 
 34. Boughton and Walker when well matured. 
 
 35. Boughton. 
 
 36. Kougnton wheat is superior to any wheat, and makes the best Hour. 
 
 37. White Boughton. 
 
 38. Millers differ. 
 
 39. Bougtiton, Walker, Red, Purple-stem and Mediterranean, 
 
 40. White or Blue-stem. 
 
 41. White. 
 
 42. Wliite. 
 
 43. Walker and Boughton. 
 
 44. Fultz and Golden-straw. 
 
 45. Amber, Ked Mmj and Wliite, a new kind. 
 
 46. Amber best qualitj'. 
 
 47. Boughton and other white wheats. 
 
 48. White. 
 
 Is it customary to pasture wheat, and to what time ? 
 
 1. It should not be pastured unless very thick, and then not later than 
 
 January 25 or first of February. 
 
 2. Some pasture until March 15; others do not, 
 o. Yes, until middle of March or first of April. 
 
 4. It is from February to March. 
 
 5. Yes, to March 1. 
 
 fi. Partially, until February 1, 
 
 7. Only when very forward, say from February to April 1. 
 
 14 
 
210 WHEAT CULTUEE 
 
 8. No ; yet it is done by our best farmers some'imes for benefit of stock, 
 
 9. To a limited extent, not so much as formerly, until March 1. 
 
 10. Yes, to Marcli 1 or 1st April. 
 
 11. Yes, to Marcli 1. 
 
 12. So ue good farmers pasture, some do not. Take off April 1. 
 
 13. No. 
 
 14. By some on early to March 1. 
 
 15. I pastiire Lancaster red to Ai>ril 10. 
 
 10. Not a general custom; sometimes when too forward ; not after April 1, 
 
 17. Often done, but doubt the custom. 
 
 18. If ground dry, yes, until April 1. 
 It). To some extent until March 10. 
 
 20. Pasture until March 1. 
 
 21. Yes, till Apr! 1. 
 
 22. 1 think it bad policy; stock eat.^s sm;ill, and leaves large and manured 
 
 spots untonched. 
 ■_'3. Not customary. 
 
 -1. Some pasture till April 1, some don't pasture. 
 "i5. By some it is ; do not approve, only to check growth in spring. 
 "JG. Yes, seme to late in March. 
 117. Some do, but the practice is waning. 
 .'28. It ia not cnsioniary, some do until March 1. 
 29. I pasture until March 1. 
 JO. Not customary. 
 
 :>1. A good many pasture wheat, some until late in March. 
 :j2. When sowed early may be paststred until April, 
 ;]3. Not v/hen raised for profit. 
 o4. Sometimes in a dry, warm fall, until freezes. 
 :>5. It is only practiced when wheat is very forward, to prevent damage 
 
 from frost. 
 o6. 1 never pa.sture under any conflideration ; I think it injures it. 
 o7. If forward and ground dry, may pasture until first of April. 
 
 38. Not customary. 
 
 39. From November 27 to March 27. 
 40. 1 do not, but some do. 
 
 41. From December 1 to March 15. 
 
 42. Yes, in dry winter, until the first of March. 
 
 43. Until March 1 to 15. 
 
 44. It is, and a !)ad, ruinous custom it i>', too. 
 
 45. Some do, generally to February and March. 
 
 46. Some do, some do not. I think pasturing predisposes tu cheat, 
 
 47. It ia, to March 1 usually. 
 
 48. Some pasture it in th; winter. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 211 
 
 Does pasturing wheat injure or benefit it? 
 
 1. I believe it is rather an injury. 
 
 2. Benefits if early, injures it if late. 
 
 3. Owing to circumstances. 
 
 4. Sheep or calves benefit it. 
 
 5. If not too close or too late it benefits. 
 
 6. If wheat is early and rank, and ground loose and dry, it is good ; if wet 
 
 not. 
 
 7. Very early is saved by it from frosts, otherwise injurious. 
 
 8. Rank or early it helps; if late it is injurious. 
 
 9. Nine times out of ten it is injurious. 
 
 10. Very early sown may be benefited ; it is a mooted question. 
 
 11. Injures it at any time. 
 
 12. In proper manner and time it is good; if not it injures. 
 
 13. Injures. 
 
 li. Early is benefited, late ia injured. 
 
 15. On good land benefits Lancaster Ked, a strong grower. 
 
 16. Variable. 
 
 17. As a rule it is not benefited, but often injured. 
 IS. If lorward beneficial, otherwise not. 
 
 19. Sheep benefit t. 
 
 20. I think ii injures it. 
 
 21. It helps the cows. 
 
 22. Can only benefit by packing earth, and rolling does it better. 
 
 23. Owing to circumstances; if too early, beneficial. 
 
 24. It is probably an advantage to pasture early wheat lightly. 
 
 25. Injures, as a general thing. 
 
 26. No, unles=! pastured until after March 1. 
 
 27. It injures beyond question. 
 
 28. I think it injbres, causing cheat, smut, and making it late. 
 
 29. If rank pasture, if not do not; don't pasture when wet. 
 
 30. Very ruinous. 
 
 3". Sowed early is probably benefited by pasturing, 
 
 32. Many old farmers think it benefited if stock is kept ofi" when ground is 
 
 wet. 
 
 33. Injures and eauses more or less cheat. 
 
 34. No benefit unles-s to keep out the fly. 
 
 35. I think it does not benefit it only to protect from, frost. 
 
 36. In my experience it damages it. 
 
 37. Il dry, no; if Avet, yes. 
 
 38. Consider it an injury. 
 
 39. I think not. 
 
 40. Consider it injurious, but there is a difference of opinion. 
 
 41. I cannot think it a benefit. 
 
212 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 42. It is an adrantnge (o cattle and horses. 
 
 43. It is a great benefit. 
 
 44. Injures wheat and land. 
 
 45. I think it benefits new land if rightly done, but old it makss too 
 
 hard. 
 
 46. I flunk jt predisposes to cheat. 
 
 47. We think it injures on close land and benefits on loose. 
 
 48. 1 don't think pasturing any way can help it much at all. 
 
 Is blue-stone a positive preventive of rust (smut) ? [This 
 question was improperly presented. The question should 
 have been does it prevent smut.] 
 
 1. It is good, but I think not a positive preventive. 
 
 2. No ; I think it prevents smut. 
 
 3. Don't know. 
 
 4. No ; it is of smut. 
 
 5. It is of smut. 
 
 6. No, but is of smut, so is salt. 
 
 7. Never heard of it except for smut. 
 
 8. Think not, but is for smut. 
 
 9. No, but is for smut. 
 
 10. Don't think so, but is of smut. Warm njoist weather produces rust— »• 
 
 don't follow hard freezes only on late sowing. 
 
 11. It is of smut. 
 
 12. Suppose you mean smut — it is if properly done. 
 
 13. Is not for rust but is for smut. 
 
 14. I think not, but is for smut. 
 
 15. Don't know if positive. 
 
 16. Don't affect rust; sure preventive of smut. 
 
 17. Wheat is not injured by smut if soaked in bluestone. 
 
 18. Yes, for smnt. 
 
 19. It is considered so though have not tried it. 
 
 20. Does for smut —not rust. 
 
 21. Yes — smut. 
 
 22. Bluestone for smut only. 
 
 23. It is for smut. 
 
 24. Not for rust but smut. 
 
 25. It is for smut, not for rust — rain produces rusf. 
 
 26. Never used it. .'' 
 
 27. Smut yes, rust no. 
 
 28. I think it is, sown in due time, otherwise not. 
 
 29. No, it is caused by hot wet weather, but is for smat/ '. 
 
 30. Not for rust but smut. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 213 
 
 31. Not r;;sl but smut. 
 
 32. It has proved so with me. 
 
 33. To a limited extent only. 
 
 34. It is for smut but not of rust. 
 
 35. It is not thoaght to be a preventive of rust. 
 
 36. Ten years since I soaked in blue?tone and had smut, haven't tried it 
 
 since and have had none. 
 
 37. It is for smut but not for rust. 
 
 38. I think not, but is for suiut. 
 
 39. Don't affect rust but prevents smut positively. 
 
 40. Don't know — never used it. 
 
 41. I think not. 
 
 42. No sir, it is not. 
 
 43. I think not. 
 
 44. No sir-re€ 
 
 45. It it positively no humbug. 
 
 46. I think not. 
 
 47. Can't tell. 
 
 48. I think hit is good. 
 
 What amount of bluestone do you use, and how long do 
 you soak It? 
 
 1. I don't think yoM can use too mucli ; one to two days' soaking. 
 
 2. Make a strong solution and soak all night. 
 
 3. None. 
 
 4. For smut, 2 lbs. for 12 bushels, soak 12 hours. 
 
 5. One pound to !i bushels, soak 15 bours. 
 
 6. One pound to 10 bushels; 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 7. One pound to 8 bushels, sprinkle until all the heap is wet. 
 
 8. One pound to 5 bushels ; 12 to 24 hours. 
 
 9. One pound to 5 or 6 bushels dissolved and sprinkled on wheat. 
 
 10. I make it strong and soak 24 hours. 
 
 11. One-fourth pound to a bushel ; 12 hours. 
 
 12. Don't know exict proportions ; 12 hours. 
 
 13. One pound to 10 bushels; 10 to 12 hours. 
 
 14. Two ounces to a bushel ; 24 hours, 
 15. 
 
 16. One pound in 5 quarts of water, sprhikle and sow. 
 
 17. Dissolve enough to make the water blueish and soak one or two hours. 
 
 18. One pound to 5 bushels; 12 hours. 
 
 19. One pound to 10 bushels ; soak 2 or 3 hours. 
 
 20. One pound to 10 bushels ; 12 hours. 
 21, 
 
 21. I smut my wheat and don't use bluestone. 
 
214 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 23. One ounce to a bushel ; 24 hours. 
 
 24. One pound to 10 bushels ; 12 hours. 
 
 25. One-fourth pound to bushel ; 12 hours. 
 26. . 
 
 27. So the; wheat is saturated with a strong solution. 
 38. One pound to bushel ; 1 2 hours. 
 
 29. Four ounces to bushel first soaking, then add two ounces to bushel and 
 
 soak again. 
 
 30. One-half ounce to bushel ; 24 to 36 hours. 
 
 31. Any amo4xnt; 12 to 14 hours. 
 
 32. Twelve hours with blue water. 
 
 33. Never tried it much. 
 
 34. Three pounds to 10 bushels. 
 
 35. Blues one is only used to prevent smut. 
 
 36. I do not use it under any consideration. 
 
 37. One pound to 5 or 6 bushels ; 24 hours. 
 
 38. One pound to 8 or 10 bushels; 36 to 48 hours. 
 
 39. Three ounces to bushels ; sprinkle the heap until wet. 
 
 40. Use none, but it is soaked a night. 
 
 41. One pound to 7 bushels ; 24 hours. 
 
 42. One pound to 10 bui^hels ; 12 hours. 
 
 43. We've quit the u?e of bluestone. 
 
 44. Two pounds to gallon of water; 10 hours. 
 
 45. One pound to 10 bushels; 6 to 12 hour^, 
 
 46. Never use it ; I rarely have rust or smut. 
 
 47. One pound to 5 bushels ; 24 hours. 
 
 48. Two ounces to the bushel. 
 
 Which is the best plan of harvesting — cradles or reap- 
 ers — and which the cheapest ? 
 
 1. My opinion is, there is not much difference. Reaper's work is the best 
 
 miethod for saving. 
 
 2. Reapers, reapei s. 
 
 3. Cradles. 
 
 4. C. a dies. 
 
 5. Reaper, if land is smootli ; not much difference in cost. 
 
 6. Reapers for large crops and lands smooth ; otherwise cradle. 
 
 7. Rtapers decidedly, they cut so clean. 
 
 8. Reapers best and cheapest. 
 
 9. On heavy or tangled grain reapers best and cheapest; on light, cradle.si. 
 
 10. R?a{)ers by far ; cuts cleaner and saves enough to pay for reaper on 
 
 a hundred acres. 
 
 11. Reapers cheaper, saves grain better. 
 
 12. Reapers. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. ' 215 
 
 13. Reapers. 
 
 14. Reapers, if prepared well, if not, cradles. 
 
 15. Reaiers save cleanest, but cradles cheaper. 
 
 16. IJKe reapers vhen you can, cradles when you have to. 
 
 17. Where land is rough, cradle; when smooth, reapers. 
 
 18. Reapers, reapers. 
 
 19. Reapers when crop is good, cradles best and cheapest for poor crop. 
 
 20. Cradles, owing to crmdition of our land. 
 
 21. Cradles cheapest, reafaers best. 
 
 22. Reapers best yfhen it can be used. Rake will save 2 bushels more 
 
 than cradles. 
 
 23. Reapers, reapers. 
 
 24. Reapers better and cheaper- 
 
 25. Reaper best and cheapest when it can be used. 
 
 26. Light wheat, cradles ; reapers in heavy wheat. 
 
 27. Reapers. 
 
 28. Use both ; cradles for poor, and reapers for rich land. 
 
 29. When labor is cheap cradles are cheapest. 
 
 030. Cradles, from the roughne^ of the country. 
 
 31. Reapers doing cleanest work, but cradles cheapest. 
 
 52. Reapers cheaper. 
 
 53. Reapers save the best but cradles nev<er break down as badly. 
 
 34. Reaping, where ground will admit, is cheapest. 
 
 35. On smooth land where the reaper can be used it is the cheapest, ott 
 
 rough and steep land the cradle is prefei'red. 
 
 36. Good crad'.ers and good sharp cradles are the cheapest. I liave a 
 
 good drop-reaper and have thrown it aside^ 
 
 37. Reapers all the time. 
 
 38. Cradles suit our country best, 
 
 39. Reapers are best and cheapest. 
 
 40. Reapers. 
 
 41. I tliink cradles best and cheapest. 
 
 42. Reapers best and cheapest. 
 
 43. We use the reaper very little. 
 
 44. Reapers, reapers. 
 
 45. R'. apers in old land, cradles in new, 
 
 46. Very liule difference. 
 
 47. Reaperis — costs about the same. 
 
 48. Cradles are cheapest for small grain. 
 
 Please give your experience in raising wheat. 
 
 1. On fallow lanil, shallow plowing I prefer, unless done very early, then 
 deep plowing. Af er this crop, plow and harrow. Will never sow 
 without a good season. I prefer to sow on the full moon, never on 
 
216 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 the light if I can ayoid it. IMy opinion is the straw will be shorter 
 and grain heavier. 
 
 2. Raising wheat is rather a matter of necessity witli me. The clear pro- 
 fit, as a rule, is but little for land, sonielimes does well for pasture. 
 Clover with wheat does well. A farmer should raise all he con- 
 sumes on the farm, if the crop pays but little for labor and rent. 
 
 3. 1 have raised 15 bushels to the acre. We will have to use fertilizers or 
 quit sowing wheat. When are you going to visit Sullivan county ? 
 We need Stirling up. 
 
 4. I prefer raising wheat to any o;her crop. According to our present 
 system of labor it pays best. I prefer sowing clover or oat land. 
 Smut is our greatest trouble, and I prevent this by the use of blue- 
 stone. 
 
 5. 1 have had the best crops when I have plowed under in August a large 
 crop of clover and weeds ; then about the middle of September har- 
 row the land ; then sow one bushel per acre. Plow with short plows, 
 running the furrows very close, but not harrow after jDlowing. 
 
 6. The foregoing answers express my experience as well as I can in this 
 
 small space. 
 
 7. I have, after 10 years' experience, learned the ground must be clean of 
 
 sprouts and briars. It is useless to sow in very poor ground without 
 fertilizers. Stable manure is best, if it has no oats, cheat er cockle. 
 Break well wilTi turning plow July or August; harrow when it is 
 not too dry; sow sound, clean seed, 1]- bushels per acre from Septem- 
 ber 20 to October 20 ; put in with long gopher plow, without har- 
 rowing after sowing. Always wanted to roll, but had no roller. 
 Would roll in February or March. 
 
 8. Wheat sown in October makes best quality and most in quantity. I 
 
 have raised as much as 30 bushels to the acre, but the general aver- 
 age is 12 to 14. This year I have 65 acres sown on clover with drill. 
 I think it will average 20. I use no fertilizer. 
 
 9. A good two'year old clover sod, on which plaster has been sown ; both 
 
 crops mown or p;istured off; then plowed early and deep, harrowed 
 and rolled until from 2J or 3 inches from the top soil is well com- 
 pacted. Then drill in i-eed from Oct. 5. to Oct. 10 gives the best 
 yield of wheat. 
 
 10. I have made close observation for over 40 years, and above opinions 
 
 have been yearly strengthened. I see clearly wlieat is to be the 
 crop of this portion of Tennessee. This, together with grasses 
 and labor-saving machinery is to be the order of the day. Fifty 
 per cent more machinery bought in 1877 than any previous year. 
 
 11. There is no crop that pays the farmer better for tlioroughly jireparing; 
 
 the land than the wheat crop. Lund half prepared will produce 
 half crops. I am satisfied I can find plenty of land in Davidsoai 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 217 
 
 county with proper preparation and cultivalion will yield 40 
 bushels of wheat per acre. 
 
 12. My experience in smut raising this year: I sowed 50 acres that 
 
 the seed was well soaked. My blncstone was about to give out so I 
 could not make the balance of my wheat (10 bushels) as strong 
 with it as I wished, but thought it would do. The last 10 bushels 
 is full of smut while there is none in the 50 acrts. 
 
 13. Little experience — raise enough for family use. 
 
 14. Wheat should be sown early, at least by the 1st October, in order that 
 
 it get fully set to the earth and the roots become matted in the 
 ground. If not sown early I would wait until the first of December, 
 so that the wheat will not freeze or spew out. ISTovember sowing is 
 worse for that than early or late. 
 
 15. But a small amount of land in this county is in condition to make 
 
 profitable crops of wheat, and we are too far from market also. My 
 best yield is 18 bushels per acre, with an average of 13 bushels per 
 acre. 
 
 16. Turn ground early as practicable, harrow when dry and r ill if cloddy. 
 
 Wheat fallow should be turned earliest. Turn clover sod in deep 
 soil 10 or 11 inches, in light soil to the clay. Use all ihe stable 
 manure you have, turning it um'er. Drill f lo |^ bushels good clear 
 seed to the acre, beginning about the 1st of October. If not pre- 
 viously manured, use 60 to 100 bushels best Peruvian guano to 
 acre — drill it in with the wheat. Top dress in the sp. ing with all 
 tlie manure you have. If the wlieat is too forward jiasture with 
 light stock when the ground is dry 'till the 1st of April. Sow one 
 quart or three pints of Timothy seed with drill in fall, then three 
 quarts of clover seed per acre in the spring. Plaster young clover 
 as soon as fairly up. Let it stand one year then wheat again. 
 
 17. Clover land not plowed or mowed, limed 50 bushels to the acre before 
 
 plowing, turned early or sub-sc>iled. Then at sowing time cross- 
 plow thoroughly and harrow. Early sowing is the best if it escapes 
 tlie fly. Wheat sown from the 25th of September to the 15th of 
 October does well and is seldom injured by insects. Soak seed- 
 wheat in solution of bluestone. Give your ground a top dressing 
 of well rotted pulverized stable manure mixed with sbiked a>hes. 
 Seven-eighths bnshel white wheat, or other kinds same sized grains 
 is plenty to sow to the acre. Saw more if larger grained. I have 
 had 40 years' experience. 
 
 18. There is nothing absolutely certain except disappointment, and it 
 
 Cdmis as regularly as seed time and harvest. 
 
 19. I make a clover sod the foundation for a wheat crop. My plan em- 
 
 braces a six years rotation as follows : 1st. Corn on clover land 
 which las been turned under in the fall. 2nd. Spring oats or mil. 
 let. 3rd. Wheat, then clover for three years. I have all the ma- 
 
218 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 nure we make on tlie oat stubble, and turn it under as soon as pos- 
 possible. In SeiJtember the wheat is plowed in and harrowed. My 
 crop for the past year has not been le^s than 22 busiiels per acre aiid 
 Luid improving. 
 
 20. I have about given you my experience in answering the above ques- 
 
 tions. 
 
 21. Take too long. 
 
 22. Wheat farming i.^ the most dtlightful part of farming, and should 
 
 f-diare a large portion of the pride of every East Tennessee farmer. 
 It yields the readiest leturn for manure, comes into market and 
 always commands ready cash at a time when our farmers have no 
 other crop to dispose of. 
 
 23. My best success was by breaking my land af!er cutting my wheat, sow 
 
 in stock peas, pasture them off', break and sow to wheat again. By 
 this method I greatly increase the yield, improve my land and get 
 two crops per year. 
 
 24. I have been pressed for time to devote to this very important branch 
 
 of industry, constquently the delay. Ever ready to do all I can. 
 
 25. I have raided five crops in the county and only cue paid out, which 
 
 was sown on clover ; ail other crops were sown after corn or oats. I 
 think if we would sow more clover and use more fertilizers and 
 lime we would do better raising wheat, and keep our lands in better 
 state of cultivation for all other crops. There is no question but 
 what wheat will pay tolerably well in this county after clover. 
 
 26. I make wheat crop one ih the rotation of crops to follow clover. I use 
 
 my fall manure on this crop and have, for some years, been able to 
 average some 15 bushels to the acre on this land. We have no 
 doubt the drill would be advantageous if fertilizers were used with it. 
 
 27. My experit-nee is limited and not worth detailing. 
 
 28. My experience is limited. I have sown wheat for thirty years — most 
 
 of the time in small amounts. One settled fact in my mind is that 
 late sawing produces smut in spite of soaking in bluestone. 
 
 29. For clover or fal'ow land I turn as early as possible in July and Au- 
 
 gust — never in September if I can avoid it — and harrow in if a 
 heavy litter, if not, plow in closely with bull-tongues. Turn corn 
 land if convenient, if not, plow with bull-tongues both ways and 
 leave in that condition. Prefer manuring before plowing, or light 
 top-drtssing when well rolled— this should be done when dry or 
 frozen. Never sow wheal when the laud is wet, if I do I look for 
 smut. I prefer sowing in dust. 
 
 30. When wheat is sown early it will stand the winter mu' h better, and 
 
 wheat raising in this country is to a great extent dependent upon 
 
 the winter. If the ground is put in proper condition and has a 
 
 dry May we will make very good wheat, particularly aftjr or on 
 clover land. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 219 
 
 31. Although I have raised wheat for many years, it has been a sort of 
 
 routine business, sowing mainly for home use and always on cotton 
 ■ land. It is true, some years the yield has been quite small, but I 
 am fully convinced that the farmers of this county should raise 
 wheat for home and non-prdducers of towns and villnges. 
 
 32. T have been raising wheat ever since I have been farming. When I 
 
 could get the wheat in the ground in good time, say by 15th of 
 October, I have made at least a respectable crop. Last year I 
 made almost a failure by planting late and in the mud. 
 
 33. It is a pretty hard way to get to heaven. Causes more anxiety than 
 
 other crops on account of bad weather, diseases, etc. After clover 
 or corn eaten down l)y hogs — can be made interesting and profitable. 
 Without proper culture better let it alone. 
 
 3-4. My experience is limited, but find the early varieties to mitnre and 
 the better state of cultivation the ground is in tiie less the wheat is 
 liable to disease and the greater the yield and profit. Please send 
 me a little ol the earliest variety of stili" strand that I may experi- 
 ment on it. 
 
 35. I liave no great experience in raising wheat, though I raise some every 
 year, but I'm satisfied that 20 bushels per acre is attainable with 
 proper cultivation on our wheat lands, but the farming is carried 
 on in such a bad manner that it does not yield more than half it 
 ought to. We are lacking scientific knowledge, industry and 
 ent.^rprise. 
 
 30. In ten years my average has been 18 bushels per acre. I mosty sow 
 on clover land, or, when I have an extra heavy crop of grass, turn 
 it under. Two years in clover, turn under, last crop is equal to a 
 good coat of stable manure. I turn ten inches deep if surface is 
 not rough, and harrow fine with a 40 steel tooth harrow, then put 
 in my Avbeat, harrow fine not later than the 1st of October. Plow 
 deep, sow good seed, not too late, on good soil and I will insure 
 you a good crop. 
 
 P. S. — I have wheat this year which will make 33J bushels per 
 acre. It was grown on two river bottoms. An immensly heavy 
 crop of grass Avas turned under which made the heavy wheat. It 
 was two years in clover but that was all dead. 
 
 37. Fallow land as early and deep as possible with two-horse steel plow, 
 
 sow and harrow in. Best yield after clover; does finely after peas 
 and well after weed land if plowed early and w^ell ; splendid af(er 
 cotton and good after corn. Sow from 1st of October to 1st of No- 
 vember; always plow deep and well. 
 
 38. My experience is that careless preparation is one great cause of the 
 
 failures of a remunerative yield. I don't think on high dry land^ 
 the wheat is so subject to disease. I think along our river bottoms 
 wheat is more subject to rust than anywhere else. 
 
220 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 39. Land should be deeply broken in the month of September and 1st of 
 
 October, tlien harrow well ; sow and harrow in, which plan has at- 
 tained better results that any I have ever adopted. 
 
 40. I don't consider much profit in it — I am for graizlng. In this country 
 
 if a man expects to make a living or money on wheat it will mosi 
 breaJt him up. There is about one out of fifty will make money 
 out of wheat. "We grass our lands and raise stock. 
 
 41. No answer. 
 
 42. I have been raising wheat twenty years and have made a success every 
 
 year, not having made a failure, and from my experience I find 
 that proper cultivation in good time with Becessary lertilizing will 
 ensure a crop. 
 
 43. Harvest when thoroughly rijie, then sow on light of the moon after 
 
 extracting all the dwarf grains by scum or seive. Then roll in lime 
 or ashes — is before bluestone in my own experience. I have had 
 no smut since I tried, the above. 
 
 44. For some years I have experimented with 38 different varieties of 
 
 wheat. The most successfully raised and best of the white smooth 
 is the Golden-straw, which ripens earlier and makes more flour 
 and better grain than any othei*. I enclose some papers relating to 
 my wheat, etc. I send also by this mail a sample of Golden-straw 
 just as it came from the fan. 
 
 45. Not much since the war, but I have been a close observer and noticed 
 
 all the pros and cons in wheat raising, as I had determined to 
 absindon cotton for rest. To raise cotton year after year with no 
 wheat, clover or grass, is like killing the goose that layed the 
 golden egg. Nothing but ruin and devastation awaits the farmers 
 if they continue this suicidal practice. Our lands are being 
 washed away and forever ruined. The business of farming has 
 become most disagreeable, harassing and unproiitable of all others. 
 
 46. I have been in the v>'heat raising and milling business for some 
 
 years. Clover and stable manure, with the ground turned in July 
 and August is the thing for wheat. Change your seed every year. 
 Secure jour seed from different soil and different climate. Put it 
 in when the ground is perfectly dry if possible. Let it ripen mod- 
 erately well before cutting. Let it sun well before haulling in or 
 you will be troubled with weavil. 
 
 47. Willi thorough cultivation and judicious fertilizing we can and do 
 
 make it profitable, but when we adopt the "slip shod" style usually 
 practiced, it never pays. For level lands we don't get the best re- 
 sults from sab-soiling, but steep hill-side lands do much better for 
 sub-soiling directly for the crop. Any lands are better for wheat 
 when sub-soiled once in about three years, but not directly for the 
 wheat crop. We practice soaking seed in strong brine about 24 
 
IN TENNESSEE, 221 
 
 hours and then rolling im lime— 2 quarts to the bushel. Thus 
 treated the crop is generally free from rust and smut. 
 I never raise much wheat for we have no mill in tlie country for 
 'grinding flour. You are a stranger to me and I to you. I live 
 seven miles south of Huntsville. I would like so see you out 
 here and show you the county. I got well acquainted with old 
 Capt. Chandler when he was at the tunnel working the convicts. 
 He can ttll you about me. 
 
222 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 EXFERIMEiNTS IN WHEAT CULTURE. 
 
 ExrEEIENCE OF MaJOR VANDEEFOrvD. 
 
 " Major C. F. Vanderford, of Rutherford county, one of the most suc- 
 cessful and entliu.-iastic wheat growers in the State, gives his experience 
 in growing whoa;, through the Rural Sun, under dale of August 13, 1877. 
 He SHys: 
 
 Let me give a leaf from my own experience. Lnst fall I had no clover 
 sod to turn for wheat. Eigliteen acres of very broken, run-down land, 
 ■which had been cultivated in very poor style by a tenant in 1875, and suf- 
 feied to go to weed'^ in the spring and summer of 1876, was plowed last 
 August. The work was well done, and completed by the 25Ui of that 
 month. Nothing more was done until the first week in October, Avhen the 
 land was thoroughly harrowed and cross-harrowed, leaving the surface to 
 a depth of three inches in very fine tilth. This piece was seeded by 
 broadcasting three pecks per acre, and plowing in with bulliongues, fin- 
 ishing up by tlie 20th October. In November and December, as opportu- 
 nity offered, about four acres of the poorest hill-sides were top-dre-sed 
 with stable manure, about four thousand pounds per acre. In February 
 of this year the field was harrowed and rolled. Yield of the eighteen 
 acres, 378 bushels— twenty-one bushels per acre. 
 
 Sixteen acres of good land, from which in 1874, I harvested 580 bushels 
 of Fultz wheat, had been planted to corn in 1875, and again in ]87ti. 
 The corn was g;(theied late in October, stalks chopped down, the land well 
 plowed and harrowed, and immediaiely thereafter seeded in same manner 
 as the eighteen acres above mentioned. Yield 201 bushels — twelve and 
 a half per acre. 
 
 This w;is Himply from bad management. It was not good farming to 
 •rrow two corn crops successively on the same ground; and it was worse 
 still to i)Ut wheat upon such land. If the corn had been put into shock a 
 month earlier, and the soil broken so as to lie three or four weeks before 
 Seeding, ihe result would have been s )tuewhat better. My object was to 
 get the various fields of. the farm so arranged that hereafter a proper rota- 
 tion may be practiced. I did not expect a very good crop; but the result 
 was much worse than I looked for. 
 
IN TENXESSEE. 223 
 
 In the businoFs of farming, as well as in all other undertakings, aa 
 much can be learned from failures as from success. It is of just as much 
 importance to know what ought not to be done, as to know wbat ought 
 to be done. 
 
 So far as I have heard, there will bean increased acreage of wheat sown 
 this fall ; end the probability is that nearly one and three-qunrter millions 
 of acres in tliis State will be devoted to this crop. In view of the im- 
 mensity of the interests involved, I may be pardoned for making the fol- 
 lowing suggestions — premising tiiat they are based upon actual experiences 
 in the management of the clay limestone soils of Middle Tennessee. 
 
 First, and of supreme importance: Let good, clean, well-ripened seed, 
 of the variety known to be best adapted to the soil, be obtained, if possible, 
 direct from ihe grower. If seed must be purchased from the grain-deal- 
 ers, buy only from partie^^ of established reputation. In every instance of 
 purchase from warehouses, or at second hand, let the grain be well soaked 
 in the blue-stone solution. Smut spores are found in all grain warehouses, 
 in railway cars, in second-hand sacks, etc. The cost and trouble of soak- 
 ing seed is very little, and should never be omitted unless the seed be 
 fcrown at home and known to be absolutely ^ree of smut. 
 
 Second : Let the wheat land be plowed as early as possible. If a green 
 crop of weeds, grass or clover, is to be turned under, every endeavor should 
 he made to gei this part of the work done by or before the middle of Sep- 
 tember, be>;inning with that part of the land which has the heaviest 
 growth of weeds, etc. It is a good plan to so manage that annual weeds 
 shall be turned down while in bloom, both because of the greater amount 
 of fertilizing material, and that the weed seeds may not be suffered to 
 ripen. At least six weeks ouglit to intervene between the breaking and 
 the seeding of the land. 
 
 Third : On no account put a plow into the soil when at all wet. This 
 is the most fruitiul source of disappointment and loss. 
 
 Fouith: Prepare the soil for seeding by harrowing the surface, two or 
 more times if m ce-sary, tu .secure a tine tilth. This is essential. Cross- 
 jilowing is rarely, if ever, :tdvisable, unless the breaking has been done 
 unusually early, or tlie .soil has been too mnch compacted by heavy rains. 
 
 Fiflii : Put in the seed, either with the drill or by plowing in. A good 
 crop from seed harrowed in is exceptional. If it were possible in our soils 
 to plaie every grain at a uniform depth of one and a half inches, it ought 
 to be done. 
 
 Sixth : After tlie seeding is comjdeted, go over the field, and wherever 
 there is probability of defective drainage, lay out and of)en wide water 
 iurrows, sufficiently deep and of proper fall to carry off immediately all 
 surface water. These drains should be looked af.er during winter and 
 kept open. 
 
 Seventh : Surface manuring or ! op-dressing, will always pay handsomely. 
 This may be done from seeding time until the period of jointing in the 
 
224 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 spring. Great care pliould be taken that manure applied upon the surface 
 ehitll be evenly distributed. A small quantity will go a long way, thus ap- 
 plied. I have frequently used no more than four thousand pounds per 
 acre upon laiid which had not produced ten bushels of corn, and thus se- 
 cured more fhan twenty bushels of wheat. Note— The earlier tlie appli- 
 cation, the -more satisfactory tlie result. 
 
 Eighth : Harrowing in February or Marcli, twice at interval.'* if possible, 
 and only when the soil is in proiJcr condition for working, will increase 
 the yield on ordinary land from one to five bushels per acre. For this 
 purpose, a sluped-toi th harrow, witii numerous snlall teeth and those well- 
 sharpened, will be found mo-t useful. Upon the lighter soils, the roller 
 should follow the harrow. 
 
 Ninth: All the operations of harvesting and threshing should be con- 
 ducted with the most scrupulous care. At this time it is best not to be in 
 too great a hurry. Cutting, binding and shocking should be nicely done. 
 
 All the advantages derived from previous operations are not unfreqnent- 
 ly set at nauyht by a careless and wasteful harvest. A little here and a 
 little there adds up to n a ly bushels upon a large field. Judging from 
 what I have seen of har\e ting and threshing in Middle Tennessee I ven- 
 ture an estimate ihat the loss by slovenly harvesting in this State this 
 year was not less than two millions of bushels — a year's supidy for four 
 hundred thousand geojile ! " 
 
 Impeovixg Wheat. 
 
 A California farmer has been making some experimtnts in planting 
 wheat in hil is, and cultivating as we do corn and cotton. In his last ex- 
 periment he put only one seed in a hill, and the seed 26 inches apart, so 
 that one p.iund of wheat j^^lanled an acre. On one half acre he harvested 
 40 bushels, and on the other half 30 bushels, making 70 bushels sound 
 wheat from one pound of seed. At sixty pounds to the bushel, the return 
 gives 4,200 i^ounds of this cereal from one pound, or a harvest of 4,200 
 fold. Nothing is more indefinite than the tillering of this grain, and the 
 number of seeds that may be developed in each head. We have seen fifty 
 stems from one grain in Tennessee, and have counted one hundred and 
 sixty grains in one head of wheat in Western New York. In the town of 
 Wheatland we had over 40 varieties of wheat under experiment in 1846. 
 There is a farmer in England who raises 700 acres of "Pedigree" wheat 
 in one year. Assuming that one seed will produce fifty heads in one year, 
 and each ear contains one hundred and sixty seed, the harvest would be 
 the enormous yield of 8,000 fold. We know but little about vital evolu- 
 tion, especially in regard to the cereal grasses. Pedigree plants are more 
 important than pedigree horses and sheep. — Dr. Lee, in Tlie American, 
 
in tennessee. 225 
 
 Valuable Experiments. 
 
 During the winter of 1870 I tmnKl and subsoiled two acres of land. 
 About the ]5th of May I sowed it down with (.ne bushels of cow peas to 
 the acre ; let ihe peas grow until the ground was covered with a luxuri- 
 ant growth of vines, and until tlie earlie^^t peas were fully grown, when 
 I turned it all under, where it reroained undisturbed until the middle of 
 September, when I run a two-hor^e harrow over the surface and drilled 
 three pecks of pure wheat to t!)e acre. Tt e yield was forty-one bushels, 
 and I fed four shocks off to my hugs. A yield of five bushels to the acre 
 under ordin;iry circumstances woii'd have been a fine one. I .=owed alto- 
 getlier forty acre-; which yielded 294.] liushels, but ten acres with which I 
 drilled unleached a.«lies, owing to the caustic nature of the ashes and the 
 drought was a total failure. Four.een acres of the remainder was put in 
 without manure of peas, and yieldeil five or six bushels per acre. Seven 
 acres of tlie remainder was we. 1 manured, and while I did not keep the 
 wlieat sepirate, yet I feel warranted in saying that it made over twenty 
 bushels per acre. The remainder of my crop was fresh land, put in the 
 usual way, but made a good yield. 0:ie crop in this vicinity, of about 
 thirteen acre-;, sown in stalks on land that was something near medium in 
 point oi fertiliiy, but which had been firmed on the corn and hay plan, 
 yielded IS.} bus* el^;, or about 1^ bu.^hels per acre. You have, therefore, 
 the iwo extremes of this vicinity.— [T. of Athens Post. 
 
 Largest Yield of Wheat Eeported in the United 
 
 States, 
 
 Mr. Herman Powers, in the Patent Office Keport of 1853, makes this 
 statement : 
 
 "The average crop of wheat in this portion of the State (Niagara city, 
 New York) is about 2o bu.shels per acre, although in many instances from 
 proper cultivation the yield has been more than double. My neighbor, 
 Mr. Wm. llotchkiss, who exhibited the largest yield at the World's Fair 
 in London in 1852, on a field of six acres in 1848-50, averaged 63-2 bushels 
 per acre of wheit weighing sixty-three pounds to the bushel. It attracted 
 much attention from the wheat-growers of Europe, who could scarcely be- 
 lieve so much wheat could be taken from a single acre. There was notliing 
 unusual in Mr. Iloichkis.s' cultivation. He plowed deep, taking good care 
 to pulverize soil well, and to intermix the top with the sub-soil, subduing 
 grass, etc. The seed was drilled in near the end of August (1st October 
 
 15 
 
226 WHEAT CULTUKE 
 
 here), two bushels of 'Sonle wheat.' B'lt extraordinary as this yield wap, 
 it was t^xceeded in the sauiiiier of 1853, by Mr. Thomas Powell, of this 
 county, wiio averaged on a field of seven measured acre-, within a small 
 fraction of seveiyty bushels per acre, namely 489 bushels. This latter 
 yield was so unusual I deem it proper to give the p\rticulars of the 
 method pursued in its cultivation. In the fall a heavy drt's>ing of swamp 
 muck was applied. During the winter the field was used as a yard lor 
 stock, including a flock of sheep. In May there was carted on a liberal 
 supply of barn-yard manure, which war^ immediately plowed in very 
 deep. Up to the 15ih August it wis us'd at night as a sheep-yard, when 
 the fleld was again plowed tlu-ee time-s, until the soil was perfectly pulver- 
 ized and thoroughly intermixed with the manure. Then two bushels of 
 "Soule wheat" was lightly plowed in, sown broadcasi, and the proctss was 
 completed. Th-3 ''Soiile wheit" in We.^'tern iSTuw York is the Genesste 
 White Flint." 
 
 Byed Douglas' Crop. 
 
 For rent of wheat field $190 00 
 
 Paid lor seed and soaking in Iduestun?, 44 lbs. per acre o5 00 
 
 Plowing, cross-plowing, harrowing and cross-harrowing 35 acres 
 
 clover field 70 00 
 
 Cash for new drill $75, sharpening plows $8 83 00 
 
 Cash paid extra harvest hands $70, use regular hands, renper and 
 
 4 mules $30, board of hands 128 00 
 
 Cost of hauling and stacking for thrashing 66 50 
 
 Bill for threshing wheat p-id Clees Bro 108 00 
 
 Extra hands to attend thresher 70 75 
 
 Use of regular hands while threshing wheat $8, board of hands 
 
 $27.25, making 35 25 
 
 Extra cost of stacking stiaw 15 00 
 
 Trai^sfer of wheat to market- and toll-gate 36 00 
 
 Warehouse charges for weighing, storing, etc 30 50 
 
 Warehouse commission, selling, itc 37 50 
 
 Total cost of production $ 9ll 50 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 227 
 
 CREDIT. 
 
 By sale ol 63,^75 lbs. No 2 St. Louis Amber at $1.46 1,556 S2 
 
 By sa'e of 1,049 Ib^.No. 2 St. L-uis wbeal at $1.46 25 42 
 
 By sale 147 Ins. do 3 17 
 
 By present value drill 50 00 
 
 By value 20 stacks str.iw 150 00 
 
 Total. $1,785 41 
 
 Net profits of 35 acres wheat $873 91 
 
 Per acre, nearly 25 00 
 
 Mr. Douglas was not less skillful in selling Ids wheat at top price than 
 in providing a crop of clover to feed bountifully his wheat plants. He is 
 a merchant as well as farmer. Shall we call the $190 rent which he 
 charges his thir;y-five acre clover deld, the value of the raw material con- 
 sumed in making his staple? Wheat is not formed from nothing, wliile 
 restiuition to the soil of the elements of crops is found to be indispensable- 
 lJnl.:ss Mr. D>ugl.)S is willing to ignore the principle of feeding the land 
 that feeds him, his statement should take account of the capitiil in the 
 things sold off the farm in the shapa of grain. If the elements of the 
 grain taken from the soil have no value, that fact should be stated and the 
 reason for it. We impoverish land more now in one year than in ten 
 years fif y years ago, by our improved implements in tillage and husband- 
 ry. Hence the necessity of restitution to the soil. One Ten nes^^ee farmer 
 writing to a Northh'rn journal, says his wheat yielded over sixty-seven 
 bushels per acre, according to the "report of a committee." Such crops 
 prove that the climaie of Tennessee is very favorable to this cereal ; for 
 tiie Clevelani farmer wlio f;ets sixty-seven bushels from an acre, has no 
 better climate ih;in thousands who harvest only one-tenth of the quantity 
 named per acre. The causes of this wide diflerence in yield shuuld be 
 universally known, and we shall pursue the discussion in the future, to 
 show why 40 lbs. of seed give one man a harvest of sixty-seven bushels, 
 ajid another man not over .six or seven busliels. — Dr. Lee, in The American. 
 
 Mark Cockrill's Crop. 
 FuLTz Wheat. 
 
 Tiie land was clover lay, and broken up in August and September with 
 a three-horse plow; harrowed immediately afterward with Share's harrow 
 rebroke in September with two horses; sowed broadcast from 1st to 10th 
 October, tlil-ee peeks to the acre ; plowed in with double shovels, and bar- 
 
228 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 rowed with a liollow-tootli linrrovv. Yield, twenty-three bushels to ihe 
 acre. 
 
 On corn-land the wheat was sown about 1st Octorer, on plats of ten 
 acres, and the double .-hovels run both ways. Yield, fourteen bushels per 
 acre. 
 
 1877. — COST OF KAISIKG WHEAT ON 28 ACRES OF CLOVER LAND. 
 
 Cost (if breaking with three horses, 28 acres, at $i 33.... $37 24 
 
 Cost of harr()win<j three days, at %2 25 per day 6 75 
 
 Eebn aking with two horses 32 76 
 
 Harrowing with broad ii arrow, covering 11 feet 2 00 
 
 Sowing, one man two days 2 00 
 
 Seed wheat, three pecks per acre, at $1 25 per bu>hel 27 25 
 
 Plowed ill with double shovels. 7 00 
 
 Harrowing after sowing 2 00 
 
 Cost of use of Kcaer, at $1 per acre, 28 00 
 
 Five binders, at $1 for 2;^ days 11 66 
 
 Three shockers, at $1 for 2^ days 7 00 
 
 Two two-horse wagons for two days, at $3.. 12 00 
 
 Two four-horse wagons (or two days, at $3 50 14 00 
 
 Twelve men for two d:tys, at $1 24 00 
 
 Toll paid tlireshers, one-tenih, 64,4 bushels, at $1 37 88 22 
 
 Hauling to market, 579.6 bushels, at 2 cents 11 '59 
 
 Kent of land, 28 acres, at $5........ 140 00 
 
 $453 47 
 Cb. 
 
 By 644 bushels, at $1 37..... $872 28 
 
 Deduct cost — raising, threshing, etc...... 453 47 
 
 $428 81 
 Fourteen tons of straw at $5 70 00 
 
 Total. , $498 81 
 
 Amount net per acre $17 81 
 
 Equivalent to. 22 81 for rent. 
 
 COST OF RAISING 05 ACRES OF WHEAT ON CORN LAND. 
 
 Seed wheat, 65 bushels, at $1 25 .'^....$ 81 25 
 
 Sowing 5^ days, at $1 5 50 
 
 Plowing in two days with double shovels. 32 50 
 
 Cost of cutting corn stalks 6 50 
 
 Use of Eeaper, fl per acre.......... 65 00 
 
 Four bindens, four d:iys, at $1 each... 16 00 
 
 Two shockers, four days, at $1 each 8 00 
 
 Hauling two days with four wagons *. 26 00 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 229 
 
 Sevpnte°n men at $1, for two days 34 00 
 
 Toll, one-tenth, 91 bushels, at $1 27 115 57 
 
 Hauling 819 bushels, at 4 cents 32 76 
 
 Rent of land, $53 50 per acre 227 80 
 
 $650 58 
 C&. 
 
 By 910 bushels wheat, at $1 27 $1,155 70 
 
 Deduct cost BfiO 58 
 
 Ket proceeds $ 505 12 
 
 Add straw, twenty tons, at $5 100 00 
 
 Tolal net proceeds $ 605 12 
 
 Amount nt t per acre 9 31 
 
 Equivalent to rent per acre. 14 31 
 
 Report of Maj. R. I. Wilson, Chairman of Far!* 
 Committee of the East Tennessee University. 
 
 Knoxvii.le, July 24, 1877. 
 I have the honor to report the wheat crop growing on C(dlege Farm 
 his season under the management of Mr. Roht. Cummin<;s, Farm S aper- 
 intendt^nt. The ground occupied consisted of fitld "B," four acres, and 
 field "A," peven acres ; total eleven acres. Field "B" had its last crop in 
 corn, manured at the rate of twenty five cart Icids to the acre. It was 
 broken up with double plows frcra 14ih to 18th September, 1876, harrowed 
 and cleared of trash, then cultivated. On the 27th October it was sown 
 with five bushels of wheat put in with a drill. It was cut June 19. Field 
 "A" had for its last crop corn on a clover lay. October 6, 1876, began 
 cnlting corn-stalks and cleaning up the field. The ground was tin n deep- 
 ly plowed, twice harrowed, and once rolled with a heavy iron r'lier. It 
 was exceedingly dry. October 26, manured with 225 bushels of lime and 
 muck or river soil, in equal parts. October 26, wheat sown at tlie rate 
 of ll- bushel per acre, cross drilled. March 5, 1877, on five acres ten liush- 
 els salt spread. June 18, crop cut. From the beginning, field "A" was a 
 little better looking and continued so. The cro.-s-dril'ing spread the seed 
 more evenly over the ground, and as a consequence the stalks were more 
 uniform in size and ripened more evenly. The five acres of .saltid wheat 
 took on a brighter color and continued so. The two fields yielded, ol tirst- 
 clasfi wiieat, 337 busliels, being an average of little over 30 bushels an acre- 
 Counting ti\e screenings and tailings, the amount was fully thirty-one 
 bashels per acre. Below I give a detailed statement of expenses of the 
 
230 "WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 crop, taken from Mr. Cu/iimings' Look. From the figures given, that 
 field "A" cost at the rate of |14.10 per acre ; field "B" at the rate of $7.75, 
 being a difference of nearly two to one. This difference is due to the 
 amount of salt and manure applied to "A" and not to "B." Field "B" 
 had received last year nearly one hundred loads of manure, vfh'ich ren- 
 dered it unnecessary to apply any this season. In this case we have 
 an illustration of the great difficulty of rigidly estimating the cost of 
 any given crop. Unquestionably '-E" was greatly benefited with the 
 manure left over from the preceding corn crop, and in strict Justice 
 should be charged with a part of the cost, but just how much it would be 
 impossible to say. The only experimental features in the crop are the 
 eross-drilling and the salting. I have tried the first with success hereto- 
 fore ; of the other I have no experience, and the testimony of others is 
 about equally divided for and ag;iinst salting. In this case it seemed to 
 be a good thing to do, but I shonld require several sea-ons' trial before 
 recommending the practice. The wlieat was sold to Mr. J. P. Beech, 
 whose skill as a miller has already rendered his brand "gilt-edged" in the 
 best markets. Kespectfully submitted, 
 
 HUNTER NICHOLSON. 
 
 Effects of Lime. 
 
 Mr. P. M. Keeves, of Johnson City, gives to the Knoxville Chronicle- 
 some interesting experiments with lime. Its effects upon the production 
 of wheat, according to his statements, are very great. Lime should 
 always be applied to soils where there is a heavy growth of vegeiable 
 matter. It hastens the decay and corrects the acidity engendered by the 
 decomposition of vegetable matter. 
 
 The chemical effects of lime are, 
 
 1st. It combines with the acids and sweetens the soil. The compounds 
 formed enter the roots and feed the plants. 
 
 2nd. It decomposes the compounds of alumina, iron and magnesia, 
 and renders them hnrmless to vegetation. 
 
 3d. It decomposes organic matter. 
 
 4th. It renders s-olable the nitrogen in the soil. 
 
 Mr. Eeeves, in the communication referred to, says: 
 
 "I have been experimenting with lime since 1869, and, from careful 
 tests, I think I can not be mistaken when I say that as small a quantity as 
 50 bushels to the acre will do so little good that no difference will be 
 noted. The smalh st amount which I have found to beot value is 140 bushels 
 per acre, and this amount is much too small. I have fieids that have re- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 231 
 
 ceiveil tl;e following grades of measure: 140, 250, 300, 350, 450 and 550 
 busliels per acie, all of which, except the last, have been te^^ted in culture, 
 and the best nsults are from t!ie larger cpiantities. 
 
 I have tried the mode of plowing under soon after iipplied, and find it 
 a serious error. With 8ueh treatment, no favorable results are appreciated 
 until after the soil is turned back and allo.ved lo remain (the lime ex- 
 posed) for at least one season. 
 
 My experience is, that the true mode consists of allowing the lime, 
 after being evenly scattered over the surface, to remain thus for at least 
 twelve months, and, if for two years, all the better. 
 
 I will leave the agricultural chemists to explain how and why such 
 favorable results follow ; only I will state tliis much: After the lime- 
 <lres ing has remained ab^^ait one year, the soil, which before looked like a 
 brick surface, shows a green moiild of a mossy character. This largely 
 incieafes the second year, when the plow may be used witd the assurance 
 of a good rr<.p. "^Vere I to make a chemical gue-s, it would be this: that 
 tlie linv'd surface attracts the gases from the atmosphere, (foraicd from 
 decaying vegetable matter) and thus forms and comliinfs with the soil (or 
 clay), the salts of a fertilizing character. A. lime dressing is valuable, if 
 thiis left exposed, fur a clay surface, where the soil has all been washed 
 oiF, but if the dressing be soon turned under and remains, no good results 
 are noticeable. 
 
 My mode of applying the lime is to haul out as soon as it is cool 
 enough ; deposit in regular heaps, and as soon as slaked scatter evenly 
 over the surface. 
 
 The land upon which I have been experimenting has been in cultiva- 
 tion from 55 t.) 60 ye.irs. About one-hair' of the area is what may be 
 called oak ;ind hickory, and the other chestnut land. At the time I cora- 
 menC' d using lime, (I refer to that receiving the dressing 350 to 450 
 bushels per acre), the best yield of wheat was not above seven bushels per 
 acre. Now, for the pasjt three yeais, the yield has been from 25 to 26 
 busheis per acre. Bvfore the lime was applied 20 to 25 bushels of corn 
 was the be>t average yield. Now the yield is from 45 to 50 bushels. Be- 
 fore lime was ajiplied, clover wo ild die out the first year after sowing, 
 now it sticks well and gives a good yield of hay and ol seeds the same as 
 to timothy. 
 
 Another feature : What we call wire grass and sheep sorrel (both 
 noisome pests) disappear after the ground is well limed. The labor of 
 prei)aring the wood and rock and burning the lime cost me not in excess 
 of He. per bushel. As will be seen, the increase yield for one year is 
 largely in excess of the expense of liming; and, after several years con- 
 tinued crops, the impiovement to tiie s ul seems of a permanent character; 
 that is, it seems to be restored to something like its condition and sireiigth 
 soon after it was first cleared. 
 
232 AVHEAT CULTURE 
 
 To apply the facts as I have le.nrneii tliem by experience, take one Mcre 
 of land not worth for cultivation more than ten do!lar.s, and put 500 
 busliels of lime on it, at a cost of S7.oO, and after two years chemical ope- 
 ration the acre is worth at least tliiny dollars. 
 
 I fully believe that there are at least 200,000 acres of land in Ea«t 
 Tennessee badly needing lime, and now not worth more tliat $2,000,000, 
 but which if ireated to the lime per acre I siigG;tst, at a cost of $1,800,000, 
 will be worth I'ul y $0,000,000, a net gain over all expenses, of $2,200,000. 
 Apply the figures to a single firm, say of one hundred acres, now 
 worn to a hard clod-iormation, 6^osso//u);^ out with red A:tto//s. As a farm, 
 this one hundred acres is dear at one thousand doll .rs. The owner feels 
 he is doing his best if he gaiher 700 busliels of wheat, or 2,500 bushels of 
 cirn from it, but let him add 50,000 bushels of lime to it, at a cost o'' $750, 
 lu iking the statiing value and cost erf improvement amount to $1,750, 
 and it is wortii to him $'.,000. Why? Because it yields him 2,500 
 bushels of wheat (1,800 bushe s more), or 5,000 bushels of corn, (2,500 
 bushels more). Farmers with worn out land should "go to liming" in- 
 t-tead of "going West." Just now burning lime pays better than any other 
 labor. " 
 
 STATISTICS OF WHEAT. ■ 
 
 Exports of Wheat. 
 
 As an exhibit of the iinportiint position the United States occupirs as a 
 grain-growing country, and her capacity to feed foreign naiions, I append 
 the statistics of the exports from 1865 to 1877, inclusive. By refer- 
 ing to thtse tables it will be seen we are not only feeding our own jjopula- 
 tion, but we are also contributing largely to the support of the teeming 
 populati'ins of Europe. Many countries, from their peculiar location as 
 climate, etc., 'U-e unable to feed their people, and they must consequently 
 draw upon other countries situated in more favorable localities, while they 
 themselves must engage in such purstiit- as will afford them tlie means of 
 purchasing these siipplii.s. Still other nations have such a dense popula- 
 tion tiie soil is not cnpal'le of feeding it, and these also must go elsewhere 
 f(.r fo d. England belongs to the latter class. Even n:.w gaunt famine, 
 Willi her aid, pestilence, is stalking over the plains of India, destroying 
 thousands of the poor natives, and the armies of two great wheat-produc- 
 ing nations, Russia and Turkey, are marshalled in hostile array, taking 
 from the country the laboring classes, thtis cutting down their own pro- 
 due's ; while we, with bur^ting birns of cereals, are awaiting tJie call to 
 erapiy them. These and other causes will make the ju-eseut crop of great 
 value to us, and the fluctuations of prices are now due to combinations of 
 purchasers, and as a consequence will be temporary. We think the agri- 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 233 
 
 culturists of America need have no fear of the ultimate remnnerative 
 price of all lier breadstiitfs, not only for the present but for the next year- 
 
 STATE!MENT quantity of wheat and FI.OUR exported from 1825 TO 
 
 JUNE 30, 1877. 
 
 BUSHELS BARRELS 
 
 OF WHKAT. of FLOUR. 
 
 Five vcar.s ending in 18o0. 
 
 18.35.. 
 
 1840., 
 
 " '• " 1845., 
 
 '■ " ' 3850., 
 
 1855., 
 
 " " " I860., 
 
 " " " 1865., 
 
 ' 1870. 
 
 For 1871. 
 1872. 
 " 187;^. 
 " 1874. 
 " 1875. 
 ' 1 876 . 
 " 1877. 
 
 125,547 
 
 614,145 
 
 1,842.841 
 
 2,946.861 
 
 10,1 841645 
 
 16,446.955 
 
 38,808,573 
 
 138,306,91)7 
 
 81,808,364 
 
 34,304,906 
 
 26,423,080 
 
 39 204. 2S5 
 
 71,039,928 
 
 53,047,179 
 
 55,073,122 
 
 40,325,611 
 
 4,651.940 
 &. 24 1,964 
 4,092,932 
 6,274.697 
 2,284,828 
 3,149 518 
 5,778,268 
 9.757,733 
 1,451,785 
 3,(i55,841 
 2,514,535 
 2,562,086 
 4,094,094 
 3,973,001 
 3,i)35 512 
 3,343,665 
 
 statement showing the value OF WHEAT AND FLOUR EXPORTED 
 FROM 1865 TO 1877 inclusive, from JUNE 30 TO JUNE 30. 
 
 WHEAT. FLOUR. 
 
 $ 19,398,028 $27,507,084 
 
 7.842,749 18,396,686 
 
 7,822,555 12,803,775 
 
 30,247,6)2 20,887,798 
 
 24,383,259 18,813,865 
 
 47,171,229 21,169,-593 
 
 45,143,424 24,09,3,184 
 
 1872 38,915,060 17.9.55,684 
 
 1873 51,452,2.54 19,381,664 
 
 1874 101,421,4.59 29,2.58,094 
 
 1875 59,607,86.3 23,712,440 
 
 1876 68,382,899 24,433,470 
 
 1877... 47,135,.562 21,663,947 
 
 STATEMENT SHOWING THE EXPORT PRICE OF WHEAT AND FLOUR. 
 
 1865. 
 1866. 
 1867., 
 1868. 
 1869., 
 1870., 
 1871., 
 
 Ten vears lo 1840. 
 Ten "ytars to 1850. 
 Ti-n yrars to 1860. 
 Ten yearvs lo 1870. 
 
 WHEAT PER 
 
 FLOrR PER 
 
 BUSHKL. 
 
 BARREL. 
 
 $1 04 
 
 $6 06 
 
 1 19 
 
 5 41 
 
 1 35 
 
 6 25 
 
 1 35 
 
 7 22 
 
234 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 STATEMENT SHOWING THE NUMBER OF BUSHELS GROWN IN THE UNITED 
 STATES FOR THE FOLLOWING YEARS. 
 
 1869 287,745,620 
 
 1870 235,684,700 
 
 ]871 ■ 230,722,400 
 
 1872 249,097,100 
 
 1873 , 281,254,700 
 
 1874 809,102,700 
 
 1875 292,136,000 
 
 1876.. ....289,356,500 
 
 1877 325,000,000 
 
 The avt'r,;ge annual prod iicl ion for the {last five years has bten about 
 284,000,000 bushels, of wliich about 65,000,000 were exported. The 
 amount kejit at home was about 219,000,000 bushels, of which about 
 33,000,000 were uped for seed. The exports from Tennessee now average 
 about 6,000,000 busliel.s per annum. 
 
 AMOUNT GROWN IN TENNESSEE ACCORDING TO THe ESTIMATE OF AGRI- 
 CULTURAL DEPARTMENT AT WASHINGTON. 
 
 Busliels. 
 
 1869 6,188,926 
 
 1870 7,357,000 
 
 1871 5,149,000 
 
 1872 10,298,000 
 
 1873 7,414,000 
 
 1874 ' 11,121,000 
 
 1875 13,130,000 
 
 1876 11,260,000 
 
 The acreage and value of the wheat crop fur this S^ale in 
 
 Acre>. Viilue. 
 
 1875 1,541,705 $13,261,000 
 
 1876 1,356,620 10,071,800 
 
 Tlie cro'i of 1877 will probably go to 11,000,000 busheLs, valued at 
 $13,200,000. 
 
 An Ebsay, Eead by John M. Meek, before the 
 East Tennessee Farriers' Convention, held at 
 Knoxville, on tpie J 0th of October, 1877. 
 
 Tojoie — The Proper Time to Sow Wheat. 
 
 In the brief time allotted for the consideration of this subject, only a 
 few of the most important' facts gained from observation and experience 
 
IN TEi!^NESSEE. 235 
 
 in the culture of this cereal may be presented in connection with what 
 has been learned from the tested results and experience of the most suc- 
 cessful wheat producers of the world. Tlie first su>jgestion, then, present- 
 ing itself for condderation, in determining the proportion to ?ow wheat, is 
 climatic influence, and the kind of wheat sown — though, inasoinch as very 
 Uttle sprins; wheat is grown in this latitude, our inquiries may be limited 
 to the proper time of sowing fall or winter wheat. With proper in;orma- 
 tion as to the probable changes of weath'-r induced l>y the recurring sea- 
 sons, we may determine, with a sufficient degree of certainty, the proper 
 time to sow; and it may be stated here, in general terms, that this time is 
 included between the 15th of September and the 25th of October; notwith- 
 standing, wheat sown previous to and succeeding these dates lias been 
 known to produce good crops. These dates are considered the extremes, 
 and a safi; mean between the;n, as in most other enterprises, is more surely 
 to yield profitable results. 
 
 It may again be stated, as a general maxim, that the proper time to sow 
 is when the iiround has been put in proper condition to receive the seed 
 To determine this requires a knowledge of the natural history of the plant^ 
 its chemical needs, and necessary environments, to insure a healtliy and 
 vigiirous growth and prolific yield. The farmer who has produced fifty 
 bushels of wheat upon an acre of Tennessee soil can better elucidate this 
 phase of the subject, than he who has produced ten bushels per acre. 
 
 The time to sow is also governed, to a gre:)t extent, by the kind of soil 
 upin which it is determined to sow wheat. If it be stiff clay loam, it de- 
 mands eaily seeding, because, in such soil, more time is required for the 
 germination of the seed, demanded by its greater resistance to atmospheric 
 influtnces. If, on the other hand, it be'a light, potous soil, such as is 
 found in the limestone formation, or the rich alluvial deposits, it will bear 
 later sowing, for the rea-on that such soils respond leadily to atmospheric 
 forces, and hasten germination. 
 
 Time should be given the 2:)lant to fortify itself against the rigorous 
 assaults of winter, by a sufficient growth of lateral roots. 
 
 Tiie tip root is easily broken by the lifting pioce-s of freezing, and if the 
 l^lant is not supplied with lateral roots, it is killed, or makes but a feeble 
 growth preceding the time when all its strength is demanded to | roduce 
 the stalk, the blade, and the full grain of wheat. The average i)roduction 
 of wheat per acre in Tennessee, which is about eight bushels, would seem 
 to indicate that there is no proptr time within our limits in whicii to sow 
 wheati On the other hand, is dated cases, in which the yield has liecn 
 made to reach as high as sixty busliels per acre, demonstrate beyond a 
 doubt that theie is a proper time. 
 
 The average farmer may not be able to reach so great a yield as this, 
 
 unles,-; the average production can be raised from its present low rate, 
 
 it ia a fact capable of <lem nstration that there is no proper time to 
 
 BOW wheal in the State of Tennessee. The farmer, to be successful, cannot 
 
236 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 give time to, the proriuction of unreni'inerative crops, and no intelligent 
 farmer will agree tliat eight bushels of wheat per acre will pay cost of pro- 
 duction, and leave sufScient margin to justify its cultivation as a source of 
 profit. 
 
 But it hns been shown that, with our advantages of soil and cliraate> 
 tliirty, fori-y, fifiy, and even sixty bushels per acre may be produced, when 
 ii surely follows that there is a proper time for sowiner, which may be de- 
 termined by a close observance of the growih, habit and food of the 
 wheat plant. In addition, it is necessary to knoAV, also, whether the soil 
 is in a condition to meet those requirements. • it is, then the natural 
 history and pliysioloj,'y of the plant will in licate the time of sowing with 
 the tiecc-sary safe-guards against its enemies. Here is opened a wide 
 field for research, and the acquisition of valuable information. It may 
 be objected by some that th's will demand too much of the farmer's time. 
 So it lias been urged since the time when Cincinnatus left the plow-han- 
 dhs to guide the Roman Itmpire; yet it has slowly dawned upon the 
 world, through the labois of such men as Leibeg, that successful and in. 
 teliigmt agriculture demands more patient research, and a higher degree 
 ot administrative ability, than any of the learned professions. The olu- 
 tion of the question, then, as to the proper time to sow wheat, resolve** 
 itself llms: The necessary ability and willingness on the part of the 
 farmer to acquire and practically apply, in the cultivation of his fieldsi 
 the knowledge that is acquired in the successful cultivation of this mighty 
 agent of civilization. 
 
 The want of this inform ition has already depleted our once fertile lands 
 of their productive strength, and barren fields, with bristling sedge scat- 
 tered over our State, are the sad monument.*? of our lamentable f lly and 
 ignorance. Chronic discourag^'raents rest like an incubus upon the pro- 
 ductive energy of our people, and many are silently gathering their house- 
 hold fiO(.ds and soeking homes elsewhere. For thuse of us who remain 
 there is left a great work. The resuscitation of our drooping energies, and 
 the re-animation of our faith that th( re is life in the land yet, is oursi 
 and the preservation of the heritage once so rich in possibilities. It is 
 ours to stiauilate the flagging zeal of t( iling masses, and attract the intro- 
 duction of new people, energy, and capital. It is left us to show to the 
 woild that God has given us the fairest domain the sun ever shown on, 
 with capabilities of wealth, such as were never dreamed of by the pioneers 
 of the Western World. We can do this by intelligent farming, by increas- 
 ed pro hiction, by increised immigration to take the places of those leav- 
 ing us, by clothing our fields in grass and clover, and covering them with 
 herds of blocdcd cattle and floikt^ ef thorough-bred sheep; and thus de- 
 monstrate that there is a " proper time to sow wheat " by an increased 
 yield of from thirty to sixty bushels per acre, and that we have discovered 
 that time to be in accordance with intelligent culture and wise rotation of 
 crops. 
 
in tennessee. 237 
 
 On the Best Mode of Preparing Straw-Chaff for 
 Feeding Purposes. 
 
 By Dr. Augustus Voelcker, F. E. S. 
 
 Mr. Samuel Jonas, of Clirisliall Grange, Saffron Waldon, Enj^land, 
 gave an interesting account of a plan of j)reiiaring straw-chaff for feeding 
 purposes, and preserving it for winter use, which he found extremely use- 
 ful in praciice. 
 
 The peculiarity of Mr. Jonas' plan consists in the use of a small quantity 
 of green rye or green tare s as a fermenting agent. 
 
 Mr. Jonas, who for many years has been a great advocate for tlie con- 
 sumption of a large por.ion of straw chaff for feeding purposes, uses a 
 twelve-horse power engine hy ilornsby, for thresliing, dressing and liag- 
 ging tiie corn ready for market, ai d cutting the straw into chaH at the same 
 time. With a ton of straw-chaff lie u-ts about one hundre I weight 'i 
 rye or tire-, cut green into chaff, and one bushel of common salt. This ia 
 dore ill sprit:g and summer; the chaff is not, used until October or the 
 winter months. 
 
 The addition of the green stuff causes the straw-chaff mixture to heat • 
 the volatile and odoriferous principles produced by the fermentation are 
 retained by the siraw-chaff, itself undergoing a kind of slow cooking pro- 
 cess, and they impregnae the whole mass with an extremely jjiea-ant 
 flavor, scarcely inferior to that which characterizes well made meadow-hay. 
 
 It appears to me interesting if not useful to compare the nutiitive pro- 
 perties of straw-chaff, prepurtd according to Mr. Jonas' plan, wiih ordi- 
 nary wheat straw, and I therefore made a careful analysis of a sample of 
 cluiff taken from the bulk at Chrishall Grange, and kindly supplied to me 
 by Mr. Jonas. 
 
 The following results were obtained in the analysis of this straw-chaff: 
 
 Moisture 7.76 
 
 O I and fatly matter 1.60 
 
 Albumin lus compounds (flesii-forming matters)* 4.19 
 
 Sugar, gum and other organic compounds soluble in water 10.16 
 
 Digrs ible fibre o5.74 
 
 "VVoody fibre (cellulose) 34.54 
 
 Insoluble mineral matter (chiefly silica) 3.20 
 
 Saline mineral matters (chiefly common salt) 2.81 
 
 100.00 
 '■■Containing nitrogen, .67. 
 
 In exphmation of the term woody fibre (cellulo.se) in the preceding 
 analysis, I would observe that it app ies to that piirtion of the si raw-chaff 
 which remains behind aft; r successively boiling the mateiial with water, 
 dilute sulphuric acid and dilute caustic potash solution, and exhausting 
 
238 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 the residunl dried substance willi alcohol and ether. There can be no 
 doubt that the difTerent alkaline and add secrelioris in the animal organ- 
 ism exercises similar, probably even more energet'c effects upon straw 
 than these successive exhaustions with various chemical agents in the 
 laboratory. IMie treatment with dilute acid and alkali, therefore, affords 
 a better ir.sight into the digestiliility of the bulk of straw than 
 the mere cxhausiion with water. Let us now compare the prcccdingk 
 analyiical re-iulta with the composilion of ordinary wheat chaff. 
 
 The following is the composition of a sample of well harvested wheat 
 straw, which was neitl'.er under nor over rij e: 
 
 Moisture 13.33 
 
 Oil and fatty matter 1.74 
 
 Albuminiius compounds (fl-rsh-forming matters i* 2.93 
 
 Sugar, gum and other organic compounds solul)le in water 4.26 
 
 Digestible fibre 19.40 
 
 "Woody fibre (cellulose) 54.13 
 
 Insoluble mineral matter (chiefly silica) 3.08 
 
 Saline soluble mineral substance 1.13 
 
 100.00 
 •■'Containing nitrogen A7. 
 
 A c impar'son of the composition of ordinary good wheat straw with 
 that (jf straw-chaff prepared by the system pur.^ued by Mr. Jonas, brings 
 out several points of interest, on which a few observations deserve lo be 
 made. 
 
 1. In the first place it may be remarked that both kinds of si raw-chaff 
 contaiii about the same proportion of oil. The oil exhausted from straw 
 by means of ether has a bright yellow color, is sweet to the taste and ren- 
 ders straw more palatable and more nutritious than it would be without 
 this c nistituent. It is appreciable in quantity, for according to the pre- 
 ceding d .ta, one ton of straw-chaff contains about thirty-nine pounds of oil. 
 
 2. It will be seen that fermented straw-chaff contains rather more than 
 four per cent, of albuminous or flesh firming compounds, wbereas ordi- 
 nary wheat straw contains in round numbers only three per cent. The 
 prepared wheat chaff, therefore, is one-fourth richer in materials whicli 
 jiroduce the substance of the lean fibre of meat, or the muscle. 
 
 3. Common wheat straw, of good quality, contains about lour and a half 
 per cent, of sugar, gum and similar soluble organic compounds. In over- 
 ripe straw the amount of these soluble matters is less. On the other hand, 
 in the sample of ermented straw-chaff analyzed by me, the per centageof 
 sugar, gum, etc, amounted to 10.16, or nearly two and a half times the 
 amount whiiii occurs in good unprepared wheat straw. The much larger 
 ])roportion of sugar and other soluble matters in tlie fermented straw, no 
 doubt, is due to the green stuff employed in its preparation ; but, at the 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 239 
 
 same time, tlie process of heating (he mixture, it is quite probable, mny 
 have had ihe effect of rendering the chaiFmore soluble in water. 
 
 Bearing in mind that the chaff prepared by Mr. Jonas contains so large 
 a proportion of siiccnient matter, it is no wonder that cattle and sheep 
 are fond of it, am! tiirive upon it in a much higher degree than upon 
 ordinaiy wheat straw. 
 
 4. A comparison of the relative propurtions of digestil)!e and of woody 
 fibre in f.ruiented wheat-cbaff, with their proportions in common wheat 
 straw, exhibits striking differences, which cannot fail to arrest the atten- 
 tion of stock-feeders. 
 
 Taking together digestible and woody fibre, we have, in the fermented 
 slraw-chaff, 70.38 per cent., and in ordinary wheat straw 73.53 per cent; 
 showing a slight dithrence in favor of the fermented ciiafi, vhich, being 
 richer in sugar and other matters soluble in water, contains about three 
 per cent, les-3 vegetaiile fibre than common wheat straw. 
 
 When the vegt table fibre of each kind of s! raw- chuff, or the material 
 insoWible in cold and boiling water, is treated with dilute acids and alka- 
 lies of the same strength, for tbe same length if time, and in all other 
 respects precisely alike, a certain proportion of Ihe vegetable fibre is ren- 
 dtreii soluble. This soluble portion figures in the preceedng analysis as 
 digestible fibre; whilst the matter insoluble after treatment with the vari- 
 ous chemical agents, is termed indigestible or woody fibre (cellulose). 
 
 Although it is not meant to convey by these term-, the idea that ani- 
 mals have tlie power of resolving crude vegetable fibre into digestible and 
 into woudy fibre, in precisely the same ratio in which we can separate 
 them in the lahoraloiy, a tolerably good opinion may be formed of the 
 relative digesiibilit}' of various foods consisting, principally of vegetable 
 fi!>re, by submiiting them to the process usually employed in the labt.ra- 
 tories lor the dett-rmination of woody fibre. 
 
 In the cases before us, it Aviil be seen that, of the total amount of vegeta- 
 ble fibre present in the fermented wheat-chaff, thirty-five and three-quar- 
 ters p.-r cent, were rendered soluble by the treatment presciibed, and 
 thirty-four and a half per cent, (in round numbers) left behind as indiges- 
 tible woody fibre, whilst ihe seventy-three and a half per cent, of vege- 
 tible fibre pres. nt in common wheiit straw chaff were resolved, by treat- 
 ment with dilute ;icid and alkaline liquid, into nineteen and a half per 
 cent, only of digestible, and into fifty-four per cent, of indigestible w^oody 
 fibre. In otlier words, the same treatment rendered soluble 50.S5 per 
 cent of the vegetable fibre of the fermented prepared chaff, and only 26.38 
 per cent, of the fibre of coinnjon wheat si raw. 
 
 These differences are very marked, and well calculated to explain, in a 
 great measure, the great superiority of the fermented chaU as a feeding 
 material over the common straw-cliaff. 
 
 The fermentation to which the straw is submitted in Mr. Jonas' plan, 
 thus has the effect of rendering the hard and dry substance wliich consti- 
 
240 WHEAT CULTUKE 
 
 tutes the bulk of straw more soluble nnd digi stible than it is in its natural 
 condition. But, as useful as is the effei't oftheslow and moist heat, develo) ed 
 in the mixUire of straw-chaff witli ureen ry.- or cut tares, which is no doubt 
 in rendering the filire of the chafF nmre digestible, this is not the only ivco- 
 mendution of Mr. Jonsis' admirable [ilasi of prcpaiing a really very nutri- 
 tive and important food for stock. 
 
 Another recommendation is, the extremely delicate flavor and the 
 palatable condition which is conferred upon the straw in the process of 
 fermentMtion. The prepared sir.iw-chaff kindly sent to me by Mr. Jonas 
 had all the agreeable smell which chaiarterizes'good green meadow-hay, 
 and a hot. inlusiun with water produced a liquid which could hardly be 
 distini:uished from hay tea. 
 
 Although fermented chafF resembles hay so much in taste and smell, it 
 need hardly be stated that the lat'er is more valuable for feeding purposes- 
 However, the difference in the nutritive properties of meadow-hay and 
 straw ch .iY m itle from rather under-ripe wheat straw prepared and fer- 
 mented in accord:uice wiili Mr. Jonas' directions is not so great as might 
 be iuja-ined by some. A little cake, ground into meal and sprinl>led 
 over the chaff, woul I go far to oblitera e the difference in the feeding 
 quality of tlie two kinds of chaff. 
 
 I would particularly recommend for that purpose a cake rich in albu- 
 minous compounds. Green German rape-cake, or decorticated cotton- 
 I cake, addrd to the straw-chaff in but small quantities, will bring up the 
 per centage of albuminous compounds to what it is in good meadow-hay. 
 Best decorticated co;ton-cake coiualns about forty per cent., green rape 
 cake about thirty-three per cent., and the finest linseed-cake from thirty to 
 to thirty-two per cent, of albuminous compounds. About 2 cwts. of 
 decoiticaied cotton-cake, ground into meal and added to one ton of 
 fermented straw-chaff, presuming it lo have always the same composition 
 as the sample analyzed by uie, I find constitutes a mixture which agrees 
 closely in composition with Lood meadow-hay. 
 
 In order to enable others to compound a mixed food from straw-chaff, 
 resembling in cnmposition good meadow-hiy, I have placed in the fol- 
 lowing table the analysis of ordinary wheat straw, of the fermenied 
 sample, and the mean results of twenty five analyses of commom meadow- 
 hav: 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 
 
 241 
 
 Moisture 
 
 ■Oil and fatty matter 
 
 Albimiiuons compoumls (fiesU-forming matters)'''... 
 Sugar, gum and other soluble organic compounds. 
 
 Digestible fibre 
 
 Indigestible .woody fibre (cellulose) , 
 
 Mineral matter (ash) 
 
 * Containing nitrogen 
 
 Compositions of 
 
 Common 
 meadow- 
 hay. 
 
 14.61 
 
 41.07 
 
 '27.16 
 6.16 
 
 Fermented 
 and prepared 
 straw-chaff. 
 
 7.76 
 1.60 
 4.19 
 1(1.16 
 Sj 74 
 34,.54 
 6.01 
 
 loO.UO 
 
 ■WTaeat- 
 
 straw 
 
 ohaff. 
 
 i:i..33 
 1.4 
 
 4'>« 
 111.40 
 54.13 
 
 4.21 
 
 100.00 
 
 1.35 
 
 Meadow-hay, it will be seen, contains ratlier more than twice as much, 
 albuminous or flesh-forming matter as the sample of straw-chaff of which 
 the analysis is here given ; hence the advisability to add to the latter 
 some oil-cake, whicli, moreover, will have the effect of raising the per 
 centage of oil. and bringing it up to about the same amount as is found in 
 meadow-hay. 
 
 Cliaff, especially if made from over-ripe straw, is not much liked by 
 sheep and cattle, on account of its insipid taste and harshness; and con- 
 ■siderable difficulty is experienced to induce stock to consume straw-chaiF 
 in as large a quantity as is desirable. To meet this difficulty, several 
 stock-feeders with wbom I am acquainted have found it useful in practice 
 to use straw-chafif with some treacle previously diluted with sufRcient 
 water to impregnate uniformly tlie chafi with the sweet liquid. The only 
 fault I have to find with this otherwise good plan of rendering chafTmore 
 palatable is, that the farmer has to pay fiom £13 to £14 per ton for the 
 treacle, and obtains in that material only about fifty-four to sixty per 
 ■cent, of sugar, the rest being water and impurities of no feeding value. 
 
 By Mr. Jonas' plan, straw-chaff ia not merely made more palatable, 
 but as it is mixed with a little green food, it undergoes a slow cookinjj 
 process, and becomes more digc-^iible and permeated by a delicate hay 
 flavor. Thus the most is made,- both of the green stuff and the straw., 
 and an excellent food is provided, at a trilling expense, greatly superior in 
 feeding properties to treacled ordinary straw-chaff, which costs moz"e 
 money. 
 
 The great simplicity of preparing and storing straw-chaff, and the inex- 
 pensiveness of jNIr. Jonas' plan, are further advantages, which all who 
 ■consume much straw for feeding purposes may secure to tliemselves. 
 
 The more one looks into this subject, the more one becomes impressed 
 witb the great praciical value of Mr. Jonas' plan of preparing a mo.-t 
 li-eful and nutiitious auxiliary food ; and it is much to be de.^ired that 
 this extremely simple, inexpensive and, in all respects, excellent plan 
 of dealing with straw for feeding purpo^^es, may be spread throughout the 
 •length and breadth of the country. 
 
 16 
 
%\2 WHEAT CVhTURE 
 
 WEST TENNESSEE AS A WHEAT PEODUCING 
 EEGION. 
 
 Since the foregoing pages were put to press, the writer 
 has paid a visit to those regions of West Tennessee, from 
 which but few reports were received. The investigations 
 show that the natural productive capacity of part of West 
 Tennessee for this cereal surpasses that of any other division 
 of the State, Lake county, which is a bed of alluvium, 
 lies between Reelfoot Lake and the Mississippi river. The 
 average production of wheat for the year 1877 was twenty 
 bushels per acre. Thirty bushels are not uncommon, and 
 one gentleman made 53 bushels per acre. 
 
 On page 106 it is stated that in Lake county, owing to 
 the exuberant fertility of the soil, wheat is apt to bed and 
 rust. This remark needs modification, and applies only to 
 the later varieties of wheat. The earlier varieties rarely 
 fell to make a heavy yield. This is true, also, of the wheat 
 gown on the rich terrace soils of Shelby, Tipton, Lauder- 
 dale, Dyer and Obion, known to geologists as Bluff Loam 
 or Loess. The average production upon these soils after 
 clover is not far from twenty bushels per acre. 
 ' The soils of the Lagrange sands occupying Fayette, Hay- 
 wood, Crockett, Gibson, Weakley and Madison, and the 
 western parts of Henry, Carroll, Hardeman and a small 
 portion of Henderson are not so prolific, but with thorough 
 preparation after clover or peas, the avei^age yield of wheat 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 243 
 
 is from 12 to 15 bushels per acre, though from 20 to 25 
 bushels are not uncommon in favored localities. 
 
 The soils between these last-mentioned counties and the 
 Tennessee river are not so productive. The surface is either 
 very flat, so as to retain water, or very rolling, sometimes 
 rugged, though many good areas very fruitful in the pro- 
 duction of cereals are met with. 
 
 As a general thing the lands of West Tennessee are much 
 fresher than those in either of the other divisions of the 
 State, and the average production of wheat per acre is not 
 far from 13 bushels. 
 
 It is curious to observe that the quantity of wheat sown 
 per acre in West Tennessee is much less than in the other 
 divisions of the State. From a half to three-quarter bush- 
 els per acre is all required on these fertile soils. It tille-rs 
 in a remarkable degree. 
 
 In Middle Tennessee the average yield is about ten 
 bushels, and in East Tennessee eight bushels. It must 
 not be inferred, however, that the really good wheat 
 lands in the two last mentioned divisions are in- 
 ferior to the best in West Tennessee. In McMinn, 
 Monroe, Louden, Knox, Jefferson, Hamblen, Greene 
 and Washington counties are found soils that are 
 capable of making from 30 to 40 bushels of wheat per acre, 
 while throughout the Central Basin, in Middle Tennessee, 
 and on that tier of counties lying on the Kentucky line, on 
 the Highland Rim, notably Robertson, Montgomery and 
 Stewart, the lands, when well preserved, grow wheat with a 
 remarkable fecundity. 
 
 The best wheat soils of West Tennessee are very tender, 
 and require a high degree of watchfulness to keep them 
 from washing. This is true of all the counties named ex- 
 cept Lake and the western parts of Dyer, Lauderdale and 
 Tipton, which are in the Mississippi bottoms. A belt ex- 
 tending two or three miles back from the river, and parallel 
 with it, and including also all of Lake, is above overflow, 
 
244 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 probably, one year with another, will make a larger average 
 of wheat and corn than any other equal quantity ot land in 
 the State.- The plant food here has been gathered from all 
 that vast region drained by the upper tributaries of the 
 Mississippi, and, with any sort of care, will last forever. 
 In no part of the State is the production of wheat extend- 
 ing more rapidly than in West Tennessee, and where it is 
 proving to be a more remunerative crop. The attention 
 paid to the preparation of the soil, its remarkable fertility, 
 its contiguity to ihe best wheat markets, all lead to the be- 
 lief that this division of the State will soon outstrip both 
 Middle and East Tennessee in the production of this im- 
 portant cereal. 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 245 
 
 INDEX. 
 
 A 
 
 Advantages for growing wheat in Tennessee 62 
 
 iEgilops ovata 28 
 
 Air- Effects of ! 78 
 
 ir and light essential for the germination of wheat 79 
 
 Agricultural causes of failure in wheat crops 162 
 
 Agricultural causts. — Remedies for 164 
 
 Alluvial soil 115 
 
 Amber — Smooth head 53 
 
 Amber — Bearded head 51 
 
 Amount of wheat raised in Tenuessee 117 
 
 Ammonia — Errors of farmers in reference to 127 
 
 Ancient habitat of wheat 19 
 
 Andrews' Red 57 
 
 Analysis of wheat and wheat straw 67, 68, 69, 70 
 
 Analysis described 74 
 
 Analysis of ashes 75 
 
 Analysisof fertile soil 76 
 
 Armstrong, J. B. — Experiments with wheat 22 
 
 Atmospheric causes of failure in wheat 162 
 
 Atmospheric cans, s — Not within our control 163 
 
 Australian white wheat 51 
 
 Average jier acre in England 62 
 
 United States 62 
 
 Tennessee 62 
 
 B 
 
 Banks— Flir Jus' — Experiments with seeds 26 
 
 Best practical fertilizers 127 
 
 Bedford county — Results of good farming 138 
 
 Blight ; 1G3, 161 
 
 Blount, A. E., letter from , 141 
 
246 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Botanical names of wheat 14 
 
 Boughton or Bowden wheat 48 
 
 Borax '. 04 
 
 Bradley county — Letter fiom 141 
 
 British Association — Experiments of 83 
 
 C 
 
 Canaile 65 
 
 Calcareo-siliceous soil 13 
 
 Calcareous soil 14 
 
 California — Wheat culture in 100 
 
 Campbell, W. B., letter from 134 
 
 Canada Club wheat 61 
 
 Carbon 94 
 
 Carbonic acid — Error respecting 127 
 
 Caries or black wheat 167 
 
 Change of climate and soil on wheat 41 
 
 Causes effecting crops 162 
 
 Chaff 205, 237 
 
 Change of seed — Advantages of 63 
 
 Chalybeate water 92 
 
 Chess or cheat 33 
 
 Vitality of 35 
 
 Errors respecting 35 
 
 Chemical analysis of wheat 73 
 
 Chinch I ug 174 
 
 Chilhowee sandstone soil 109 
 
 Clawson wheat 50 
 
 Classification of wheat 43 
 
 Classes of wheat 46 
 
 Clay — Of what composed 90 
 
 Clay soil indispensable to wheat 101 
 
 Climate and soil — Effect on wheat 39 
 
 Ciiniate — Effects on yield 63 
 
 Clinch Mountain sandstone soil 109 
 
 Coat of manure preventive of winter killing 120 
 
 Clover — How it acts on exhausted soils 147 
 
 Clover — Analysis of 116 
 
 Cold and heat— Damage from 9 
 
 Constitutional causes of bad wheat crops 165 
 
 Cockle 32 
 
 Component parts of wheat 75 
 
 Cool weather — Effects of 61 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 247 
 
 CockrIlPs, Mark, crop 227 
 
 Correspondent's names 179 
 
 Cost of cultivating wheat 156 157 
 
 I Couch grass 3t* 
 
 Crops— Rotation of '. IS^ 
 
 Culture of wheat — Limits of 7 
 
 Cumberland Table-land 165 
 
 Soils of *., HO 
 
 •I> 
 
 Daniels — Experiment of liS 
 
 Deep and shallow plowing 124 
 
 Deihl wheat 47 
 
 Denon, M. — Experiments of ^3 
 
 Depth of grain on tillering .• : ......88, 89 
 
 Depth to sow wheat &) 
 
 Difference of temperature on wheat.. 9 
 
 Difficulty of exterminating cheat K 
 
 Diseases of wheat 161 
 
 Douglas', Bjrd, crop „ 2^ 
 
 Drill— Use of... .' 139 
 
 Drilling versus broadcast 129 
 
 Drilling or dibbling in England 139 
 
 Dryness and darkness on seed > 7S 
 
 E 
 
 Early white May wheat , 48 
 
 East Tennes_sess Valley for wheat _ 102 
 
 £a^t Tennessee — Mean temperature of. 106 
 
 Effects of late sowing 61 
 
 of cold weather on ripening 61 
 
 of climate on yield 6S 
 
 ot ligh', heat and raoi>tiire on germination... 78 
 
 (if feeding sheep on land 102 
 
 Elements comiiosing volalile ^Darts of wheat 75 
 
 England, aveiage yield of wheat 62 
 
 kind of soil be.st lor wheat... 100 
 
 Exp, rieiice de ermines habitat 10 
 
 JExperiments - Interesting 14 
 
 with different varieties 23 
 
 with seeds 64, '26 
 
 on hybridization. ^..... ._. 17 
 
248 • WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Experiments at State Lunatic Asylum > 137 
 
 made in Sweden 81 
 
 by M. Denon 8<> 
 
 by British Association 8S 
 
 in regard to wheat roots 88 
 
 in wheat culture 222, 215,137, 128 
 
 drilling versus broadcast 120 
 
 valuable. •• 225 
 
 • 
 F 
 
 Feldspar — Composition of 91 
 
 Fertilizing wheat — Theory of. 74 
 
 Fertile soil — Analyses of 76 
 
 Fertilizers — Most practic.ible .' 127 
 
 Fullz wheat — Origin of 42. 
 
 yield of 227 
 
 G 
 
 Genesee wheat 50 
 
 German method of preventing rust ...'. 170, 61 
 
 Germination of wheat 85 
 
 Golden-straw, Golderi-chaflf ?.. 54 
 
 Grani'.e — Composition of. 91 
 
 Green sand soil.... • 114 
 
 H 
 
 Hamlet, Thomas — Experience with chess 34 
 
 Harris wheat - ••• 60 
 
 Harrison, Jno. H — Experience of 137 
 
 Harvesting — Old method 158 
 
 Heat and cold — Damage from 9 
 
 Heat— Effects of ■ 78 
 
 Hessian Fly 171 
 
 High temperature on wheat '9 
 
 Highland Rim..... 103 
 
 Historical allusions • 25 
 
 Horse rakes • loO 
 
 Hornblende — Composition of 92 
 
 Humus "^7 
 
 Hurt, Judge W. J. — Experience of 1H6 
 
 Hybridization of wheat ••••• 16 
 
 Hybrids — List of, by Maund , 17 
 
 Hydrogen •••• 3& 
 
IN TEJSNESSEE. 249 
 
 Improving wheat 224 
 
 Insects injurious to wheat 171 
 
 Tnterestino experiments ; 14 
 
 Iron — Aflinity for oxygen 92 
 
 Ir^othermal line of Tennessee 12, 106 
 
 Italian wheat 61 
 
 J 
 
 Jaundice in whe^t 163 
 
 Joint worm..* 172 
 
 K 
 
 Knox Fandstone soil 109 
 
 I' 
 
 Late sowing — Effects of. ' 61 
 
 Latitude most f;tvorable for wheat 100, 101 
 
 Letters from farmers 128 
 
 Light — Effects of on germination 78 
 
 Lime 92 
 
 effects of : , 126, 230 
 
 Little Eed May wheat 56 
 
 Lodging of wheat 163 
 
 Lovelace, Mr. — Experience with peas and wheat 139 
 
 M 
 
 Magnesia 93 
 
 Matlock, H. H., letter from 133 
 
 Mediterranean Cuba 57 
 
 Mean temperature of the tliree divisions 106 
 
 Mica — Composition of 92 
 
 Middle Tennessee — Mean temperature 106 
 
 soils of 103 
 
 McEwen, John B., letter from 131 
 
 Midge 174 
 
 Mildew , 166 
 
 Moisture — Effects of 78 
 
 Naming wheat 44, 46 
 
 New varieties 21 
 
250 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Nicholson, Prof. H., letter from 143 
 
 report from._. 229 
 
 Nitrogen 96 
 
 Northern States compared with Tennessee 101 
 
 Nutritiun of plants 90 
 
 Ohio and Western States f 01 wheat 100 
 
 Orleans wheat 60 
 
 Oxygen 95 
 
 P 
 
 » 
 Pasturage of wheat 141 
 
 Peas as a renovator 146 
 
 Peas preceding wheat 139, 149 
 
 Pennsylvania wheat 55 
 
 Phosphate of lime 93 
 
 Phosphoric acid 94 
 
 Plants— Nutrition of 90 
 
 Plateauof tLe Highhmd Rim 103 
 
 Plowing shallow and deep 124 
 
 Polk, Hon. H. M., letter from 148 
 
 Potassium 91 
 
 Prairie sod not durable 100 
 
 Pieparation of soil 119 
 
 Petri, Prof., experiment 80 
 
 Quality of wheat afifected by climate 40 
 
 Quaker wheat 53 
 
 Quantity of wheat raised in Tennessee 234, 117 
 
 raised in United States '233 
 
 Quartz — Composition 91 
 
 R 
 
 Rainbow wheat 51 
 
 Red smooth head 55 
 
 Red May 56 
 
 Red Chaff 57 
 
 Red bearded heads 57 
 
 Removal of clover crop 140, 143 
 
 Rolling and harrowing in spring 125 
 
 Rotation of crops 101, 139 
 
IN TENNESSEE. 251 
 
 Eust 168 
 
 German method of preventing 170, 61 
 
 Reapers 159 
 
 Rain not favorable for wlieat 10 
 
 Sandy soils 113 
 
 Sanders, S. K., letter from 137 
 
 Schedule of questions and answei's ISl 
 
 S ientific men — Researches of 12 
 
 Section of wheat gi-ain 72 
 
 Seeds germinating 80 
 
 Seeds — Selections of 24 21 
 
 S.dection of seed 62 
 
 Seleciing imported seed 22 
 
 Shaker wheat 50 
 
 Shaly soils 115 
 
 Shallow and deep plowing 124 
 
 Sicily claims parentage of wheat 27 
 
 Smut 168 
 
 Sodium 94 
 
 Soils how made 93 
 
 Suils of Tennessee 108 
 
 Soil —Preparation of 119, 126 
 
 Soil and climate on Avheat 39 
 
 Southern wheat — Superiority of 117 
 
 Sowing wheat — Time for 120, 132, 133, 234 
 
 Snow regions where wheat is protected 9 
 
 Spot and scab 156 
 
 Spring wheals 46 
 
 Spring bearded 60 
 
 Spring club 61 
 
 Stitistics of wheat 232 
 
 Stacking wheat 165 
 
 Stock wheat 61 
 
 Successful wheat growers — Letters from 131 
 
 Sulphate of lime 93 
 
 Sulphur 94 
 
 Sj'stem of naming 44 
 
 T 
 
 Talavara 61 
 
 Tappahannock wheat 49 
 
252 WHEAT CULTURE 
 
 Temperature — Table of. 11 
 
 lowest wheat can stand 79 
 
 higliest " " " 79 
 
 favorable for growih 99 
 
 Tennessee — Advantages for growing wheat 62 
 
 average per acre 62 
 
 as' a wheat growing State 99 
 
 average length ot growing season 107 
 
 production of wheat in 117, 234 
 
 soils of 108 
 
 wheat culture profitable in 10, 101, 118 
 
 Terrestrial causes 162 
 
 Testing seed wheat 81 
 
 Theory of fertilizing wheat 74 
 
 Tillering 88 
 
 Time oi ripening i 8 
 
 Time for cuiting ■ 141 
 
 Tobacco preceding wlieat 127 
 
 Tread well wheat 59 
 
 Triticuni (wlieat) botanical description 14 
 
 Tujjper — Experiments with mummy wheat 82 
 
 IJ 
 
 United States — Average yield of 62 
 
 statistics of production 234 
 
 exports of 233 
 
 value ot wheat exports 233 
 
 T 
 
 Vanderford, C. K., communication from 128 
 
 Vegetable parasites 166 
 
 Vitality of cheat 35 
 
 Voeicker's, Prof, experiments 139 
 
 experiments on chafl'. 237 
 
 Volitile parts of wlieat 75 
 
 ^^constituents 76 
 
 W 
 
 Weevil 173 
 
 West Tennessee — Mean temperature 106 
 
 wlieat culture in 242 
 
 Wheat— Time to sow 120,133, 234 
 
 time to cut 141 
 
 cost of making 135, 157 
 
IX TENNESSEE. 253 
 
 Wheat — Tradition? among Indians 5 
 
 iis great antiquity Q 
 
 largest yield of in United States 225 
 
 limi's of successlul culture..... 7 
 
 time of ripening 8 
 
 ■ diflerence of temperature for 9 
 
 botanical names of 14 
 
 ancient habitat of 19 
 
 introduction into other countries 20 
 
 ' quality afTecied by Iccal causes 40 
 
 classi.lcation of 43 
 
 pasturage of ]41 
 
 ■ cost of cultivating 156 
 
 diseases of 16 L 
 
 dijith to sow 80 
 
 improving of 224 
 
 Wheat and wheat straw 73 
 
 "Wheat cliiifi' prepared for food 237 
 
 Wheat growing r gion in Tennessee — Best 116 
 
 Wheat in corn ground 125 
 
 Wheat preceded by tobanco 127 
 
 Wheat preceded by peas 139, 149 
 
 Wheat straw 175, 237 
 
 Wheat seed— Testing of , 81 
 
 Wheat land, yellow 55 
 
 White oak mountain soil :.... 110 
 
 Winter wheats .-. 47, 49, 53, 46 
 
 Winter killing in the North 126 
 
 V^ire worm 174 
 
 Wright, Josjph, experiment of 140 
 
 Y 
 
 Yellow Lammas wheat •. 54 
 
 Yellow bearded 55 
 
ERR^Ti^. 
 
 Several forms of the jTcseiit work pasFed through the press during my 
 unavoidable absence from Nashvilk. In consequence this it is luarred 
 Ijy many tyjiogrnphical errors. The following are the principal: 
 
 Page 13, thin! line, for dicotyekhn read dicotyledon. 
 
 Page 15, third line, for Himuluys read Himalaya. 
 
 Page 26, twenty-third line, for excites read excite. 
 
 Page 28, ninth line, for oder read odor. 
 
 Page 29, twelfth line, for (jardner rea gardener. 
 
 Page 33, nineteenth line, for fads rend Jact; twenty-fourth line for were 
 ead t'cts. 
 
 Page 4-5, Feventeetith h're, for The explain read It in explained. 
 
 Page •>? eiglilh line, for (hem read it; twentieth line, for has read have. 
 
 P:!ge 40 thirty-first line, for '^ Syria which compared with" read "Syria 
 compared with which." 
 
 Vage 41 thirtienth line, for continues read continue. 
 
 I'age 42, seventh line, for ''until he had " read '' he soon had." 
 
 Page 44, last line but one, for minutia read minutice. 
 
 Page 45, las line but two, for it read them. 
 
 Page 47, twelfth line, ior statements read estimate; last line but two, for 
 Ijonnd read pounds. 
 
 I'age 50, last line but three, for Clanson read Clawson. 
 
 Pag 3, la ,c I'.^e but five, for sprout read sport. 
 
 Page 71, third lini, for mutter read matters; last line but four, for become 
 read becomes. 
 
 Page 73, second line under first table, for enters read enter ; second line 
 under second tnbie, for is read are. 
 
 Page 75, nir.lh line, for fne '" -.lu find ; in eleventh line, put the wor 
 should between substances anr* be. 
 
 Page 9G, last line but t.irec, for its read their. 
 
 Page 97, thirteenth line, for is read male; last line but one, for humu 
 rj id humic. 
 
 Page 98, second line, for humis read humic 
 
 Page 101, fifte. nth line for portion read portions, 
 
 Pags 103, twenty-eighth line, for its read their. 
 
Page 105, eleventh line, for aUained read ohtamed ; thirteenth line, for is 
 vead are. 
 
 Pa'ge 105, twentj'-eighth line, for soil read oa??is. 
 
 Page 120, t'. enty-fourih line, for was read were. 
 
 Page 121, thirty-first line, for shows read shouK 
 
 Page 124, second line, for freeze read freezes ; twenty -fifth line, for plowing 
 read plantimj. 
 
 Page 127, twelfth line, expunge the word or. 
 
 Page 215, lust line but one, for crop plow read cross^phw, 
 
 Pa<ie 217, under 17th answer for clover land not plowed read clover land not 
 pastured. 
 
 Page 219, under 34th answer read stiff siraw for stiS strand. 
 
 Several Elinor errors appear in the appendix which the reader can easily 
 correct. 
 
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