PRIVATE ENDOWMENT AND 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION 
 
 A REPORT ON THE USE OF THE 
 HANDLEY FUND 
 
 WINCHESTER, VA. 
 
 THIRD EDITION 
 
 GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 
 
 61 Broadway New York City 
 1919 
 
Lft 381 
 .W7 G4 
 1919b 
 Copy 1 
 
 PRIVATE ENDOWMENT AND PUBLIC 
 EDUCATION 
 
THE PUBLICATIONS OF THE 
 GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 
 
 REPORTS: 
 
 THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD: AN ACCOUNT OF ITS ACTIVE 
 
 ITIES, I902-I914. CLOTH, 240 PAGES, WITH 33 FULL-PAGE 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS AND 3 I MAPS. 
 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, 
 
 I9I4-I915. CLOTH AND PAPER, 82 PAGES, WITH 8 MAPS. 
 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, 
 
 I915-I916. CLOTH AND PAPER 86 PAGES, WITH ID MAPS. 
 REPORT OF THE SECRETARY OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, 
 
 I916-I9I7. CLOTH AND PAPER, 92 PAGES, WITH 3 FULL-PAGE 
 
 ILLUSTRATIONS AND I5 MAPS. 
 
 ANNUAL REPORT OF THE GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD, 1917-1918. 
 
 STUDIES: 
 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION IN MARYLAND, BY ABRAHAM FLEXNER AND 
 FRANK P. BACHMAN. 2ND EDITION. I76 PAGES, AND APPEN- 
 DIX WITH 25 FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS AND 34 CUTS. 
 THE JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL, BY THOMAS H. BRIGGS.* 
 COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY FINANCE, BY TREVOR ARNETT.* 
 
 OCCASIONAL PAPERS: 
 
 1. THE COUNTRY SCHOOL OF TO-MORROW, BY FREDERICK T. 
 
 GATES. PAPER, I5 PAGES. 
 
 2. CHANGES NEEDED IN AMERICAN SECONDARY EDUCATION, 
 
 BY CHARLES W. ELIOT. PAPER, 29 PAGES. 
 
 3. A MODERN SCHOOL, BY ABRAHAM FLEXNER. PAPER, 23 
 
 PAGES. 
 
 4. THE FUNCTION AND NEEDS OF SCHOOLS OF EDUCATION IN 
 
 UNIVERSITIES AND COLLEGES, BY EDWIN A. ALDERMAN. 
 PAPER, 29 PAGES, WITH APPENDIX. 
 J. LATIN AND THE A. B. DEGREE, BY CHARLES W. ELIOT. 
 PAPER, 21 PAGES, WITH APPENDIX. 
 
 6. THE WORTH OF ANCIENT LITERATURE TO THE MODERN 
 
 WORLD, BY VISCOUNT BRYCE. PAPER, 20 PAGES. 
 
 7. THE POSITIVE CASE FOR LATIN, BY PAUL SHOREY.* 
 • In Preparation. 
 
 The REPORTS issued by the Board are official accounts of its ac- 
 tivities and expenditures. The STUDIES represent work in the field 
 of educational investigation and research which the Board has made 
 possible by appropriations defraying all or part of the expense involved. 
 The OCCASIONAL PAPERS are essays on matters of current edu- 
 cational discussion, presenting topics of immediate interest from vari- 
 ous points of view. In issuing the STUDIES and OCCASIONAL 
 PAPERS, the Board acts simply as publisher, assuming no responsibil- 
 ity for the opinions of the authors. 
 
 The publlcalions of the Board may be obtained on request 
 
PRIVATE ENDOWMENT AND 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION 
 
 A REPORT ON THE USE OF THE 
 HANDLEY FUND 
 
 WITH AN INTRODUCTION BY 
 
 R. GRAY WILLIAMS 
 
 President of the Handley Board oj Trustees 
 
 THIRD EDITION 
 
 GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD 
 
 61 Broadway New York City 
 1919 
 

 COPYRIGHT, iqi8, & IQIQ 
 BY 
 
 General Education Board 
 
 Gift 
 
 ^^V i f9l9 
 
<> 
 
 THE HANDLEY TRUSTEES 
 
 ^ 
 
 (1896- 
 
 -1919) 
 
 ^ 
 
 ^ 
 
 * Albert Baker 
 
 G. W. Kurtz 
 
 t A. M. Baker 
 
 *W. S. Love, M. D. 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 Shirley Carter 
 
 M. M. Lynch, 
 
 ^ 
 
 ♦Holmes Conrad, 
 
 Vice President 
 
 ^ 
 
 President 
 
 W. P. McGuiRE, M. D. 
 
 
 T. J. Cooper 
 
 John W. Rice, 
 
 
 H. D. Fuller 
 
 Secretary 
 
 
 * C. M. GiBBENS 
 
 John I. Sloat 
 
 
 * S. H. Hansbrough 
 
 R. Gray Williams, 
 
 
 t T. W. Harrison 
 
 President 
 
 
 • Deceased. 
 
 
 
 f Resigned. 
 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 PAGE 
 
 Introduction by R. Gray Williams .... vii 
 
 I. Winchester: Its People and Industries 3 
 
 II. The Schools of Winchester .... 20 
 
 III. Needs of the Winchester Schools . . 36 
 
 IV. Use of the Handle y Fund 52 
 
 V. Appendix 63 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 BY 
 
 R. Gray Williams 
 President of the Handley Board of Trustees 
 
 THIS little volume embodies a study of the educa- 
 tional situation and possibilities of the town of 
 Winchester, Virginia. It is believed that the 
 study is of more than local interest, since it raises in a 
 practical way the question of establishing cooperation 
 between public authorities and private endowment in 
 the promotion of public education. If the proposed 
 experiment can be successfully carried out at Winchester, 
 a new and important field will be opened to private 
 benefaction in this country. 
 
 The Handley Fund, amounting to nearly two million 
 dollars, was bequeathed to the town of Winchester by a 
 sturdy Irishman who at his death was a citizen of Penn- 
 sylvania, and who had in the course of his hfe spent barely 
 a week in the city which he so splendidly assisted. John 
 Handley was born in Ireland in 1835 and came to America 
 in his nineteenth year. The son of a carpenter, he him- 
 self followed this trade in Washington, D. C, during the 
 fifties and until his removal to Scranton, Pa., in 1861. 
 
 During the latter part of his residence at Washington 
 
vui INTRODUCTION 
 
 he had contrived to study law, upon the practice of which 
 he entered soon after going to Scranton. In personal 
 aspect and appearance Judge Handley presented a strik- 
 ing figure, as one gathers from a description of him at 
 this time by Hon, Henry W. Palmer, sometime member 
 of the United States Congress from Wilkes-Barre, Pa., 
 and the friend, attorney, and, later, one of the executors 
 of Judge Handley: 
 
 "In the year of 1861, a man appeared in Scranton 
 whose history was a romance. He was about six feet, 
 four inches tall, and very stately. He always dressed in 
 a black frock coat, wore a high collar, and had his hair 
 long. He was looked upon as a rebel spy, and at one 
 time was in danger of being lynched, but he had courage 
 and declared that he was no spy, but a loyal man. He 
 soon became counsel for the Draft Commissioners, The 
 firm of Harding and Palmer tried most of Handley's law 
 suits for several years until he was elected judge in the 
 year 1875. He served ten years and was President Judge 
 of Lackawanna, after the county was divided. He ac- 
 cumulated a large fortune and died February 15, 1895." 
 
 The fortune, of which Mr. Palmer speaks, was largely 
 the result of sagacious investment in anthracite coal 
 lands and in real estate in the very heart of the city of 
 Scranton. 
 
 One is naturally curious as to the reason which led 
 Judge Handley to dedicate his fortune to the city of Win- 
 chester. To some extent his generosity may be explained 
 by his intense admiration for Stonewall Jackson and 
 Robert E. Lee, life size portraits of whom hung over the 
 
INTRODUCTION ix 
 
 entrance to his dwelling apartment; Winchester was 
 closely associated with Jackson, for there he lived during 
 the first winter of the war, and in the Shenandoah Valley, 
 where Winchester lies, Jackson first established his great- 
 ness as a military commander. 
 
 But Judge Handley had also somewhat closer personal 
 connections with Winchester, first, through his friend, 
 Mr. James Jifkins, an Englishman, who, at one time a 
 resident of Pennsylvania, subsequently removed to 
 Frederick County, Virginia, where he purchased a farm 
 close to Winchester. Through Mr. Jifkins Judge Hand- 
 ley came to know the late Major Holmes Conrad, Solici- 
 tor-General of the United States under President Cleve- 
 land and chief prosecutor in the postal fraud cases 
 under President Roosevelt. Judge Handley was capti- 
 vated by Major Conrad's personal attractiveness, wide 
 reading, and rare conversational powers. Subsequently, 
 through his friends, Mr. Jifkins and Major Conrad, 
 Judge Handley became the friend of Major Robert 
 W. Hunter, a man of unusual charm. Nevertheless 
 his visits to Winchester were brief and infrequent. His 
 practical interest in the community first took the form 
 of an endeavor to develop the town by means of an im- 
 provement company, which, however, failed to prosper. 
 The collapse of the improvement company did not, how- 
 ever, alienate Judge Handley's interest or affection. On 
 his death in Scranton, February 15, 1895, his body was 
 brought to Winchester for burial. The last item of his 
 will contained the following words : 
 
X INTRODUCTION 
 
 "All the rest and residue of my estate I give, devise 
 and bequeath to the City of Winchester, to be accumu- 
 lated by said city for the period of twenty years. The 
 income arising from said residue estate to be expended 
 and laid out in said city by the erection of school houses 
 for the education of the poor." 
 
 The courts so interpreted the bequest as to permit the 
 Handley Board of Trustees to apply the fund to the 
 maintenance as well as the building of schools.* 
 
 Judge Handley's will further prescribed that his estate 
 should accumulate under the management of his execu- 
 tors for a period of twenty years before it was turned over 
 to the city of Winchester. When this period had elapsed, 
 the Handley Library was built, and some idea of its 
 importance to the community can be derived from the 
 fact that more than 50,000 persons passed through its 
 doors during the year 1918. In connection with the 
 library a public free lecture course is maintained. Every 
 year prominent professional speakers appear. The lec- 
 ture course is designed to supplement the library in stimu- 
 lating the use of books and in broadening the intelligent 
 interests of the community. 
 
 . *"The clause in the residuary bequest, 'to be expended and laid out in 
 said city by the erection of school houses for the education of the poor' 
 is hereby ascertained, construed and held to mean, and shall be so ap- 
 plied, as though it did in express terms provide that the fund be expended 
 and laid out in the purchase of the necessary land, the erection and equip- 
 ment of school houses and in the maintenance and conduct of the school 
 so provided for." (See Records of the Circuit Court of Frederick County 
 Virginia, Board of Handley Trustees vs. Winchester Memorial Hospital 
 etal.) 
 
INTRODUCTION xi 
 
 More difficult was the solution of the problems con- 
 nected with the educational side of Judge Handley's be- 
 quest. By act of the Virginia Legislature a Board of nine 
 citizens of Winchester was created, to be elected by the 
 Common Council of the town, and the Council was also 
 to retain the power of approving the plan ultimately 
 suggested for the organization of schools under Judge 
 Handley's will. As the first step in dealing with its 
 responsibility in this field, the Handley Board invited the 
 General Education Board of New York to make an 
 educational and occupational study of Winchester and 
 to suggest a plan of educational development. 
 
 It gives me pleasure as President of the Board to say 
 that this work was so sympathetically and competently 
 done that the general plan suggested by the officers of the 
 General Education Board received the unanimous en- 
 dorsement of the Handley Board, the School Board, and 
 the Common Council. The gratitude of these bodies 
 and of the citizens of Winchester is due to the General 
 Education Board, its officers and staff, for the service 
 which they have rendered in working out the plan of co- 
 operation between private endowment as represented 
 by the Handley Fund and public education as represented 
 by the School Board of the city. I venture to conclude 
 this brief statement with an excerpt from my annual 
 report expressing the vision and the hope of the Handley 
 Board : 
 
 "It is a happy future that awaits the children of this 
 community. In the great institution that will here be a 
 
xii INTRODUCTION 
 
 monument to the wise generosity of Judge Handley the 
 bodies of children will be made clean and strong, the 
 hands of children will be made quick and skilled and the 
 minds of children will be made full and vigorous. 
 
 "The great imposing buildings will be significant of 
 the spirit of enlightenment that will dwell in these schools 
 and radiate its broadening and liberating influence into 
 every corner of the community. 
 
 "Not alone the children, but all of us will learn to come 
 in contact with these schools as the central, civic d>Tiamo 
 of community action. Public lectures in the school 
 auditorium will keep us in touch with the best that is 
 being thought and done in the world. The practical 
 instruction in sanitation, in cooking, in making the home 
 attractive, in the rules and practices of right and health- 
 ful living will bear rich fruit in a wider material comfort 
 and intelligent living throughout our community. 
 
 "And the teachers in these schools, under the leader- 
 ship of a trained and progressive superintendent, will in 
 themselves form a body of educated men and women 
 valuable to the civic broadening and betterment of Win- 
 chester. Selected alone for their trained fitness to do 
 well the work assigned them these teachers should stimu- 
 late the tone and temper of this entire section. 
 
 " It is obvious that Winchester will be a good place in 
 which to live and to educate children. The report of 
 the General Education Board on the development of 
 Winchester schools will have a wide circulation. The 
 singular size and scope of the schools here will arrest 
 
INTRODUCTION xiii 
 
 attention by the very fact of their location in a town so 
 small. 
 
 "When this dream comes true our gratitude to Judge 
 Handley must be emphasized. The carpenter who 
 worked at his trade in the day and studied at night will 
 have become, through the wise use of his money, the 
 builder of better men and women in this town. In front 
 of the great building that will rise on the Equity we should 
 place a statue in heroic size of Judge Handley and every 
 child who goes to these schools should be taught gratitude 
 to our great benefactor. 
 
 "The greatest service that can be rendered a democ- 
 racy is to train its citizens to understand its duties and 
 use aright its opportunities. This service Judge Handley 
 has rendered here in conspicuous fashion. His money 
 must remain a sacred trust for the good of children born 
 and unborn and must be kept free from the pollution of 
 political or personal selfishness." 
 
PRIVATE ENDOWMENT AND PUBLIC 
 EDUCATION 
 
PRIVATE ENDOWMENT AND 
 PUBLIC EDUCATION 
 
 I. WINCHESTER: ITS PEOPLE AND 
 INDUSTRIES 
 
 WINCHESTER is located at the northern apex 
 of Virginia, in the heart of the Shenandoah 
 Valley. At this point the valley is about 
 thirty miles wide and stretches northward into West 
 Virginia and southward beyond Lexington, Virginia. The 
 region is distinguished for natural beauty, for the fertility 
 of the soil, and for its equable climate. As might be 
 expected, it is given over to general agriculture, with 
 apple growing and the industries incidental to apple 
 growing of increasing importance. 
 
 There is little in the immed'ate locality of Winchester 
 to suggest any marked development of productive in- 
 dustries and factories. There are no known mineral 
 deposits, or natural advantages such as water power. 
 The textile industry has indeed taken root, but this 
 is due rather to the enterprise of individuals than to nat- 
 ural advantages. Nor are conditions altogether favor- 
 able to the easy development of outside trade connec- 
 tions. The Great North Mountains block the direct 
 
4 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 way to the west, although a railroad has lately been pro- 
 jected through them to tap the lumber and mineral re- 
 sources of West Virginia. The Blue Ridge Mountains 
 bar the way to the east. Winchester is thus without 
 direct east and west railway connections. Its railroads 
 are branch lines. Within the valley itself, Winchester 
 commands only the trade of the neighboring counties, as 
 it comes into competition with Martinsburg, West Vir- 
 ginia, twenty-two miles to the north, and with Harrison- 
 burg, Virginia, sixty miles to the south. 
 
 Winchester is thus located in a region of unusual agri- 
 cultural promise. While in recent years textile mills 
 have been prosperously established, the possibilities at 
 Winchester naturally connect themselves with agricul- 
 ture, and more especially with the orcharding of apples, 
 and with such occupations and activities as spring natur- 
 ally from apple orcharding. The Winchester apple dis- 
 trict is one of the most important in the United States. 
 The town ships more apples than any other single point 
 in the state, and, it is claimed, has larger special facilities 
 for the cold storage of apples than any other place in the 
 country. Vinegar plants and barrel factories have al- 
 ready sprung up and will doubtless grow rapidly in the 
 near future. The population of Winchester is thus 
 largely engaged in occupations directly or indirectly 
 connected with agriculture and in such businesses, 
 trades, and professions as are required to sustain the life 
 of a rural community and rural town. 
 
 The total population, according to a complete census 
 
o 
 
 t^ 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 5 
 
 taken by us in November, 191 7, is 6,469 — an increase of 
 605 over the federal census of 19 10. Of the present 
 population, 5,561, or 86 per cent., are white, and 908, or 
 14 per cent., are colored.^ 
 
 The white population is singularly American in char- 
 acter and unusual in its racial homogeneity. For ex- 
 ample, 2,265, or 41 per cent., were born in Winchester; 
 1,370, or 25 per cent., in Frederick County; 884, or 16 
 per cent., in other parts of Virginia; 970, or 17 per cent., 
 elsewhere in the United States; only 72, or i per cent., 
 are foreign born. With 99 per cent, of its white population 
 American and 82 per cent, of it Virginian, Winchester 
 enjoys an unusual degree of social solidarity, its people 
 having similar standards of living and conduct. 
 
 The negro population is equally homogeneous, for 405, 
 or 45 per cent., were born in Winchester; 112, or 12 
 per cent., in Frederick County; 266, or 29 per cent., in 
 other parts of Virginia; 124, or 14 per cent., elsewhere 
 in the United States; only i was born outside of the 
 United States. 
 
 Winchester, like most rural cities, grows slowly. It 
 will continue to grow slowly, unless there is an unex- 
 pected development of such industries as attract labor, 
 and this is probable only to a limited extent. Such 
 growth as there has been in recent years has been con- 
 fined entirely to the white portion of the population. 
 For instance, the whites have increased from 3,773 in 
 1890 to 5,561 in 191 7. On the other hand, the negro 
 
 ^See Appendix, Table I, page 65, 
 
6 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 population is stcadil}' decreasing, having dropped from 
 1,423 in 1890 to 90S in 1917.^ 
 
 The distribution of tlie population of Winchester has 
 an important bearing upon questions that will be dis- 
 cussed in the course of this report. Winchester occupies 
 a territory rectangular in form, about two miles long 
 and about one mile wide. Loudoun Street, running 
 north and south, and Water Street, running east and 
 west, divide this rectangle into four parts, formerly 
 known as Wards I, II, III, and IV.^ (Fig. i.) 
 
 
 
 Fig 
 
 . I 
 
 
 
 
 Wards of \ 
 
 Vinchester 
 
 
 r^ 
 
 Ward II 
 
 
 
 Ward IV 
 
 
 Ward I 
 
 
 
 Ward m 
 
 N 
 
 The white population is scattered rather evenly among 
 these wards, although the largest number of whites 
 (1,733) live in Ward III, and the smallest number 
 (1,108) in Ward IV.^ The colored population is not so 
 
 'See Appendix, Table II, page 66. 
 
 *The town is now legally divided into two wards, separated by Water 
 Street. We follow the former division for purposes of coiivcnIc;u\,'. 
 'See AppendLx, Table III, page 66. 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 7 
 
 evenly distributed. Wards I and II have 233 and 256 
 negroes, respectively, and Ward IV only 18, whereas 
 Ward III is dearly the colored center, having 401 ne- 
 groes, which is nearly a fifth of the total nopulation of 
 the ward, and 44 per cent, of the entire colored popula- 
 tion of the city. 
 
 As might be expected, the relation between Win- 
 chester and the surrounding country is close. Parents 
 who live a mile or two out of town have for years sent 
 their children to the Winchester schools and in all prob- 
 ability will continue to do so. Therefore, in planning for 
 the future, the population of the immediately surround- 
 ing country should be taken into account. Accordingly, 
 a census was taken for a mile out along the roads leading 
 into the city. These outlying districts have a total pop- 
 ulation of 703 — 661 whites and 42 negroes.^ Of those 
 of school age, that is, children between six and eighteen 
 years of age, there are 149 white children between six and 
 fourteen and 43 between fifteen and eighteen. Among 
 the colored children of corresponding ages, there are 
 7 and 5 respectively. 
 
 To ascertain the occupations in which the people of 
 Winchester are engaged, a complete occupational census 
 was made in November, 1917.^ 
 
 Winchester can scarcely be said to have a leisure class, 
 
 ^See Appendix, Table IV, page 67. 
 
 *See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. The data in this 
 table follow the general classifications given in the Index to Occupations 
 of the United States Bureau of the Census. 
 
8 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 at any rate, among the men. There are to be sure, 86 
 white men and 1 1 colored who report no occupation and 
 who are listed as "at home." These include, however, 
 mostly the very old, the unfortunate, and the sick. In 
 fact, 90 per cent, of the white men, or 1,481 out of a total 
 of 1,636, are at work, and this is exclusive of 12 at school 
 and 57 in the army. Similarly, out of a total male col- 
 ored population of 260, 245, or 94 per cent., are in bread- 
 winning occupations; there are, besides, 4 in the army.^ 
 
 There may be a small leisure class among the white 
 women, as only 19 per cent., or 387 out of a total of 
 2,064, are engaged outside the home. On the other 
 hand, 43 per cent, of the colored women are wage earn- 
 ers.- It does not follow, however, that women are at 
 leisure simply because they are reported as at home 
 rather than in business. The great majority of the 
 women — both white and colored — whether listed as at 
 home or at work, are doubtless homemakers, with home- 
 making as much their occupation as if they were engaged 
 in industry, trade, or service. 
 
 The 2,260 active workers of Winchester engage in a 
 great variety of pursuits. This is not surprising. The 
 number of different occupations and professions re- 
 ported in a census does not depend altogether on the size 
 of the city. A certain variety is necessary to sustain 
 any city irrespective of its size. For example, a town, 
 whether of ten thousand or fifty thousand, requires 
 
 'See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 *See Appenduc, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
f4 
 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 9 
 
 ministers, doctors, lawyers, tradespeople who deal in food 
 and clothing, skilled workers such as blacksmiths, tailors, 
 milliners, carpenters, painters, and a certain amount of 
 unskilled labor. Hence, the first difference between 
 cities is not in the number of occupations represented, 
 but in the number of persons engaged in each of these 
 and in the number and extent of specialized industries, 
 such as woolen mills, knitting mills, by-product plants, etc. 
 
 The men of Winchester are engaged chiefly in agricul- 
 ture, trade, and manufacture. In respect to the number 
 of persons engaged, agriculture outranks any single 
 manufacturing or trade occupation. One hundred and 
 four of the men of Winchester are so occupied. The 
 predominance of agriculture is still more marked if 
 the industries necessarily connected with it (e. g., the 
 making of barrels) or springing out of it (e. g., the 
 making of vinegar) are taken into account.^ Especially 
 important from the educational point of view is the fact 
 that agriculture is a scientific occupation, the principles 
 of which, with their application, can be taught. 
 
 Manufacturing includes : 
 
 1. Skilled workers in the several hand trades, for ex- 
 ample, blacksmiths, masons, carpenters, painters, plumb- 
 ers, tailors, tinsmiths, and a few factory specialists, such 
 as dyers. 
 
 2. Semi-skilled workers in the textile industries as 
 well as in other industries, for example, sewing machine 
 operators, mill feeders, and glove finishers ; and 
 
 'See Appendix, Tabley, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
lo THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 3. General or common laborers. 
 
 The skilled workers are scattered among as many as 
 twenty different hand trades, so that, while they total 
 332,^ the number in any one is in all except a few instances 
 very small. Cabinetmakers and carpenters are the most 
 numerous, 73 in all, while there are as few as 3 in a trade 
 like stonecutting.^ 
 
 From the educational point of view, two things are 
 peculiar to the hand trades. In the first place, they in- 
 volve a minimum of general knowledge and general train- 
 ing, and a maximum of experience and skill acquired 
 thereby. In the second place, each separate hand trade 
 calls for its own particular kind of experience and peculiar 
 kind of skill, mostly acquired through practice. A pro- 
 ficient mason cannot as such turn his hand to house 
 painting, nor is practice in house painting a preparation 
 for masonry. 
 
 It is also well to note in this connection that only ;^6 out 
 of the 332 skilled workers are under twenty-five years of 
 age.^ The opening at Winchester for young men in the 
 skilled trades is therefore very limited. Probably not 
 more than 7 or 8 in any one age group between nineteen 
 and twenty-four find employment in them. Nor is 
 there any reason to believe that the number who can 
 profitably pursue such employment in Winchester will 
 greatly increase. 
 
 ^See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 *See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 •See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
.PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES ii 
 
 The two" textile and the other industries employ i68 
 semi-skilled workers.^ These semi-skilled workers are 
 variously engaged. For instance, in the textile indus- 
 tries there are washers, carders, drawers, nappers, spin- 
 ners, and weavers. In the other industries, there are 
 knitters, glove finishers, sewing machine operators, 
 evaporators, and so on. With these semi-skilled indus- 
 trial workers may well be grouped most, if not all, of the 
 128 whites employed in transportation,^ for transporta- 
 tion includes railroad employes, expressmen, chauffeurs, 
 draymen, liverymen, etc. Semi-skilled work is thus a 
 broad term, covering many kinds of employment. Yet 
 in few or no instances does such work require prolonged 
 apprenticeship, or special educational preparation. 
 
 On the face of the figures^ it appears that there are 
 only 252 general or common laborers. The actual num- 
 ber is considerably higher. Certainly the 29 negroes in 
 transportation might be included, for they perform the 
 roughest kind of service — handle freight, express, and 
 luggage, clean streets, and repair roads. Nor can the 36 
 men who failed to specify any particular occupation be 
 high up in the scale of labor. Finally, the 61 whites and 
 63 negroes in domestic and personal service are mostly 
 caretakers, janitors, cleaners, waiters, and porters. If 
 these several groups are combined the number of com- 
 mon laborers becomes considerable — a total of 441, a 
 
 'See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 *See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 'See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
12 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 larger number than is found in any other single field. Of 
 these, 202 are colored, which is 82 per cent, of all negro 
 workers.^ In fact, common labor is practically the only 
 kind of labor open at Winchester to negroes, the skilled 
 and semi-skilled trades being almost exclusively in the 
 hands of whites. 
 
 After manufacturing, trade is next in importance. 
 Trade includes banking, wholesale establishments, and 
 every possible kind of retail store — drygoods stores, gro- 
 cery stores, shoe stores, notion stores, meat shops, fruit 
 stands, etc. Moreover, the term covers not only proprie- 
 tors and managers, but salespeople, drivers, and delivery- 
 men as well, including, in fact, everyone directly engaged, 
 except bookkeepers, clerical workers, and stenographers. 
 
 The tradespeople alone number 357." Yet the variety 
 of wholesale establishments, stores and shops is so great 
 that, as with the skilled hand trades, the number in any 
 single line is exceedingly small. An important distinc- 
 tion must, however, be made. While no single skill or 
 group of skills is common to the hand trades, there is a 
 considerable body of knowledge and technique common 
 to all kinds of business. A part, at least, of this com- 
 mon knowledge and common technique can be made a 
 matter of school training. What is true of business in 
 general is even more true of such aids to business as 
 bookkeeping, stenography, and typewriting, in which 68 
 men are employed. 
 
 'See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 *See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 13 
 
 Of the occupations of women, homemaking unquestion- 
 ably ranks above all others. In the first place, of the 
 2,405 women in Winchester nineteen years of age and 
 older, 1,857, or 77 per cent., are at home.^ There may 
 well be among these, as stated before, a leisure class, but 
 homemaking certainly consumes the time, energies, and 
 thought of the great majority of these women. In the 
 second place, of the 534 women who are engaged outside 
 of the home, 44 per cent, are in domestic or personal 
 service, that is, in work connected with the home. 
 
 In fact, some form of homemaking appears to be almost 
 the only field open to colored women. Of the 147 colored 
 women workers, i is in agriculture, 2 are dressmakers, 3 
 are in professional service either as teachers or nurses, and 
 141, or 96 per cent., are in domestic or personal service.^ 
 
 White women have greater industrial opportunities, 
 yet domestic and personal service enlists the largest 
 proportion even of these. Of the 387 white women work- 
 ers, 95, or 25 per cent., are in domestic and personal ser- 
 vice ; industry — chiefly the two textile mills — employs 82 ; 
 61 are in professional service, the majority being teachers; 
 35 are saleswomen; and 50 are bookkeepers, clerks, or 
 stenographers. Finally, 9 are reported as engaged in 
 transportation, but these may well be grouped with those 
 in clerical occupations, as they serve mostly in a clerical 
 capacity.' 
 
 'See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 ^See Appendix. Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 *See Appendix, Table V, between pages 68 and 69. 
 
14 
 
 •THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 OCCUPATIONS AT WINCHESTER 
 (Of All Persons Nineteen Years of Age and Older) 
 
 Occupations 
 
 Agriculture 
 
 Skilled Workers: 
 
 Masons 
 
 Carpenters 
 
 Dressmakers 
 
 Foremen 
 
 Mechanics 
 
 Painters and Paper- 
 hangers 
 
 Miscellaneous' 
 
 Semi-skilled Workers: 
 
 Textile Industries. . . . 
 
 Other Industries 
 
 Common Laborers 
 
 Trade: 
 
 Bankers 
 
 Retail Dealers 
 
 Salesmen and Sales- 
 
 women 
 
 Miscellaneous. . . . 
 
 Public Service. ..... 
 
 Professional Service: 
 
 Clergymen 
 
 Doctors 
 
 Lawj'ers 
 
 Miscellaneous- . . . . 
 Domestic Service . . . 
 Clerical Occupations: 
 
 Bookkeepers 
 
 Clerks 
 
 Stenographers. . . . 
 
 Miscellaneous. . . . 
 
 At Home 
 
 .\t School 
 
 In Army 
 
 Total. 
 
 Men 
 
 WHITE NEGRO 
 
 91 
 
 18 
 73 
 
 40 
 32 
 
 27 
 135 
 
 135 
 160 
 239 
 
 33 
 140 
 
 100 
 70 
 36 
 
 13 
 12 
 11 
 49 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 1 
 
 3 
 
 86 
 12 
 57 
 
 1.636 
 
 13 
 2 
 
 1 
 202 
 
 1 
 11 
 
 Women 
 
 WHITE NEGRO 
 
 40 
 
 13 
 
 65 
 
 17 
 
 35 
 1 
 
 61 
 95 
 
 13 
 12 
 34 
 
 1,664 
 13 
 
 260 2.064 
 
 3 
 
 141 
 
 193 
 1 
 
 341 
 
 Total 
 
 105 
 
 20 
 73 
 
 42 
 42 
 32 
 
 27 
 151 
 
 200 
 178 
 441 
 
 33 
 145 
 
 139 
 
 77 
 36 
 
 16 
 
 12 
 
 11 
 
 117 
 
 236 
 
 31 
 57 
 35 
 4 
 1,954 
 26 
 61 
 
 4,301 
 
 'This item represents seventeen different skilled trades. 
 'The women in this group are chiefly teachers and nurses. 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 15 
 
 If the several kinds of workers at Winchester are now 
 regrouped along the lines suggested above, a better idea 
 is obtained of what they are actually doing. This re- 
 grouping, showing how these workers are engaged, is ex- 
 hibited in tabular form on the preceding page. 
 
 We now have in hand the two local factors that must be 
 taken into account in deciding the kind of public schools 
 to be provided at Winchester. The first of these is the 
 population — the human material with which the schools 
 have to do. The second is the occupations — what the 
 output or the graduates of the schools find to do. 
 
 Public schools — and all schools, for that matter — are 
 confronted with two problems, viz. : (a) How to prepare 
 young people to live full personal, family, and community 
 lives; and (b) how to prepare them to make an honest 
 and honorable living for themselves and those dependent 
 upon them. In answer to the first question, most 
 thoughtful persons are in accord. The schools pre- 
 pare the young to lead full lives when they give to all 
 the children of the community, white and colored, the 
 best possible general education — an education general in 
 the sense that it equips them to meet the obligations of 
 personal, family, and community life. 
 
 In answer to the second question, much depends on 
 the natural interest and ability of the child, on his prob- 
 able vocational destination, and on his occupational op- 
 portunities. For Winchester the answer is reasonably 
 clear. A general education, such as proposed above, is 
 the best possible preparation for doing well and effec- 
 
i6 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 lively what most of the workers of Winchester will find 
 to do, whether they remain in Winchester or, in individual 
 instances, seek another field. 
 
 This is certainly true of the skilled workers and of the 
 semi-skilled and common laborers, who, together, com- 
 prise more than half of all those engaged at Winchester 
 in active pursuits. Of course, it is possible to establish a 
 trade school for the training of skilled workmen in each 
 of the many skilled trades; but there is practically no 
 market at Winchester for the output of such a school. 
 All the skilled trades together, as we have seen, do not 
 give employment to more than 8 or 9 new workmen 
 annually. To train boys for trades in which they cannot 
 possibly find employment would be expensive and un- 
 wise. 
 
 Specialized industrial training for semi-skilled and com- 
 mon laborers is likewise out of the question. These 
 workers are engaged in an infinite variety of tasks. Even 
 if the school offered specific industrial training for 
 every kind of labor they find to do, it would be a profit- 
 less service. As has been pointed out, little or none of 
 the work which semi-skilled and common laborers do 
 requires either prolonged preparation or prolonged ap- 
 prenticeship. ^Most industries are prepared to give such 
 special training as is required, and they can do this more 
 effectively and more economically than the school. 
 
 While Winchester does not need and could not really 
 use a technical school, unquestionably proper provi- 
 sion should be made in its public schools for such indus- 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 17 
 
 trial work as has general educational significance. In 
 addition, there should be provided at least two or three 
 different kinds of industrial instruction which will have 
 vocational as well as general value. 
 
 The first and most obvious kind of practical instruction 
 of a general character for the schools of both the white 
 and the colored is work in household arts. The house- 
 hold arts include sewing, cooking, dressmaking, milli- 
 nery, home sanitation, home decoration, etc. Such in- 
 struction would serve all the women of Winchester who 
 have no occupation other than homemaking. At the 
 same time it would directly prepare women to enter 
 skilled trades, such as dressmaking and millinery, and it 
 would provide the best possible practical preparation for 
 those who go into domestic service — i.e., 44 per cent, of 
 all women workers. 
 
 Similarly, there should be provided for all boys ample 
 manual and shop opportunities, including at least wood- 
 work, sheet metal, forge, and machine shop practice. 
 None of these shops need be elaborate, nor would the in- 
 struction aim to prepare boys simply to become car- 
 penters, tinners, or machinists. Such instruction would 
 be helpful to any boy who afterwards decided to enter one 
 of the hand trades or to become a skilled worker, and at 
 the same time would furnish all boys with experience in 
 hand work and in work with typical modern machinery. 
 
 The statistics above presented also suggest the need 
 of practical instruction in business in the schools for the 
 whites. Approximately a fifth of all white workers are 
 
i8 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 engaged in trade and in clerical occupations. It is true 
 that, while many different kinds of business are repre- 
 sented at Winchester, relatively few persons are engaged 
 in any one kind, so that it would be impossible to give 
 direct preparation for entrance upon a particular kind of 
 business. There is, however, as pointed out before, a 
 common body of knowledge and technique underlying 
 all business and clerical occupations. Hence, a business 
 course of broad scope would unqijestionably serve a 
 useful and practical purpose. 
 
 The statistics indicate, further, that agriculture is 
 needed in the schools of both races. Agriculture, it will 
 be remembered, engages more of the men of Winchester 
 than any other single pursuit and is, to a greater extent 
 than any other activity, the foundation of its prosperity, 
 present and prospective. Young people coming up 
 from the country to the Winchester schools will, in some 
 instances, at least, want to prepare for life in the open. 
 Therefore, whatever the schools do to prepare young 
 people for farming, and whatever they do toward advanc- 
 ing the science and practice of agriculture, especially ii 
 the hne of pomology, will contribute not only to the prac- 
 tical equipment of those wanting such instruction, but 
 also to the prosperity and basic development of the city. 
 
 Finally, the close relationship between Winchester and 
 its immediate environment might well be considered in 
 making educational plans. The rural sections find in- 
 creasing difficulty in securing well prepared and efficient 
 teachers. Winchester itself now has 64 women in pro- 
 
PEOPLE AND INDUSTRIES 19 
 
 fessional service, mostly teachers; in fact, teaching is one 
 of the principal occupations of its white women. The 
 number of women who in the future choose teaching 
 as an occupation will doubtless increase rather than 
 decrease. With the need of the rural sections for well 
 trained teachers, on the one hand, and the desirability 
 of Winchester's having an appropriate outlet for its 
 women workers, on the other hand, it would seem the 
 part of wisdom for the public schools of Winchester to 
 provide training for rural teachers as a graduate course 
 beyond the high school. 
 
 How much of this suggested program are the schools of 
 Winchester now carrying out? It is the object of the 
 next chapter to ascertain, by inquiring into their re- 
 sources, equipment, and programs. 
 
II. THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 
 
 THE plant of the Winchester public schools for 
 white children consisted, at the time of this 
 study, of nineteen rooms — fourteen in the John 
 Kerr building, and five in the Wall property, a rented 
 residence. The colored children occupied the Old School 
 Baptist Church, more commonly known as the "Old 
 Stone Church," which supplied three rooms — two in the 
 main structure and one in the frame lean-to extension. 
 There is a seven year elementary course for both white 
 and colored children, and a four year high school course 
 for white children. During the school year 1916-17, 
 the schools had a total enrollment of 1,1 11. Of these, 
 929 were white children — 787 in the elementary and 142 
 in the high school. The colored schools enrolled 182 
 pupils. These children were instructed by twenty 
 white and three colored teachers, at a total current ex- 
 pense for all purposes of $16,601.71. Of this amount, 
 the City Council appropriated, or there was raised by 
 local taxation, $11,500; the remainder came from the 
 state and from tuition fees of children living in outside 
 districts. The total current cost per pupil on the basis 
 of the total enrollment (1,1 11) was, accordingly, $14.94, 
 and $20.73 on the basis of average daily attendance (801). 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 21 
 
 The position occupied by the Winchester public 
 schools in public esteem, what they now are, and what 
 their needs are can be appreciated best in the light of a 
 brief historical survey. 
 
 The public schools of Winchester first opened their 
 doors for the reception of pupils in February, 1871. Two 
 private schools, one for boys and one for girls, each hav- 
 ing two rooms, were taken over and made into public 
 schools. The Board of District Trustees also rented 
 three additional rooms, inaugurating the white schools 
 with seven teachers. Two rooms and two teachers were 
 provided for colored children. There are no records 
 of the attendance at this first session. But 285 white 
 and 117 colored children were enrolled during the school 
 year 187 1-2, a total of 402, with an average daily atten- 
 dance of 259. 
 
 The increase to the present enrollment (1,1 11) is due 
 to two factors: (a) the growth in the school population, 
 that is, of children between six and eighteen years of 
 age; and (b) the increased proportion of the school popu- 
 lation attending the public schools. For example, 
 the white school population — children between six and 
 eighteen years of age — has increased from 632 in 187 1 to 
 1,007 i^ iQi?' ^ growth of 59 per cent.^ At the same 
 time, the white school enrollment rose from 285 in 187 1-2 
 to 929 in 1916-17, an increase of 226 per cent. The 
 increase in average daily attendance is even more strik- 
 ing, amounting to 258 per cent., a growth from 197 in 
 
 ^See Appendix, Table VI, page 68. 
 
22 THE IIANDLEY FUND 
 
 1 87 1-2 to 705 in 191 6-1 7. In a word, the white school 
 enrolhnent and average daily attendance have increased 
 approximately four times more rapidly than the white 
 school population, with the result that the proportion 
 of children between six and eighteen years of age who 
 attend school has increased from approximately 45 per 
 cent, in 187 1-2 to approximately 92 per cent, in 1916-17. 
 
 Perhaps the school census has not always been equally 
 complete; perhaps the number of children under six 
 years of age and of pupils nineteen years of age and 
 older who attend school now is larger than formerly; 
 perhaps the number of children enrolled from out- 
 side rural districts has increased in recent years,^ thus 
 accounting in part for the larger proportion of the school 
 population in the public schools. In any case, it is 
 certain that the pubHc schools are reaching a larger 
 and larger proportion of both the white and colored 
 school population. In other words, the idea of public 
 education at public expense has won a victory at Win- 
 chester, and the public schools are becoming more and 
 more the schools of all the people. 
 
 This growth in public confidence has been accompa- 
 nied by a somewhat larger service on the part of the 
 schools, as is indicated by the expansion of the high 
 school program, particularly in recent years. 
 
 The establishment of public schools marked no radical 
 break between what the private schools of the city at- 
 tempted and what the public schools undertook to do. 
 
 'There were s8 such white children enrolled November, 191 7. 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 23 
 
 In fact, the courses of study — both the elementary and 
 the secondary — of the two private schools taken over 
 by the Board of District Trustees became by common 
 consent the courses of the public schools. Accordingly, 
 the elementary public school course at the beginning 
 covered seven years. Since 187 1, its length has been 
 twice changed, being extended in 1885 to eight years and 
 in 1908 reduced to seven years, its present length. 
 
 The first elementary program included the conven- 
 tional and formal studies of the day — reading, spelling, 
 grammar and composition, handwriting, arithmetic, 
 geography, and history. For approximately forty years, 
 or until 1908, no changes were made in the program, 
 though there was during this period doubtless some 
 change in the subject matter actually taught in branches 
 like reading, arithmetic, and geography, as new text- 
 books came into use. 
 
 The years since 1908 have witnessed only slight modi- 
 fications. The state course of study for elementary 
 schools,^ now followed by the Winchester schools, pro- 
 vides, in addition to the fundamental studies mentioned 
 above, music and drawing for all grades, for the iirst 
 four grades constructive work besides, and for the three 
 upper grades physiology and industrial work. In con- 
 sequence, there is now in the lower grades of the Win- 
 chester schools enough music, drawing, and constructive 
 work to give color to the instruction. In the fifth, sixth, 
 and seventh grades physiology receives attention, while 
 ^State Course of Study for Elementary Schools, 1915. 
 
24 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 music and drawing are incidental; but there is no indus- 
 trial work, such as manual training for boys, and no 
 cooking or sewing for girls. In a word, despite the 
 changes the last half century has wrought in our indus- 
 trial, political, and social life, and despite our changed 
 ideas of the educational needs of children, the elemen- 
 tary program of the Winchester public schools has been 
 but slightly modified; it is still decidedly bookish. 
 
 On the other hand, the high school program has been 
 much improved. As suggested above, the public schools 
 not only adopted the elementary but also the secondary 
 program of the two private schools taken over by the 
 Board of District Trustees. This first public high 
 school course was narrow in its opportunities and dis- 
 tinguished by the prominence of the traditional high 
 school studies, such as Latin and mathematics. It cov- 
 ered three years, as follows: 
 
 First year: English grammar and analysis 
 
 Elementary algebra 
 
 Latin grammar and exercises 
 
 Natural philosophy 
 
 Ancient history 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Higher arithmetic 
 Second year: Rhetoric and composition 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Elementary geometry 
 
 Latin grammar and exercises 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 25 
 
 Latin reader 
 Physiology 
 
 History of the Middle Age» 
 Third year: History of English literature 
 Algebra 
 
 Geometry and trigonometry 
 Arnold's Prose Composition 
 Cccsar 
 Chemistry 
 Modern history 
 
 In 1885, the high school course was reduced from three 
 to two years. This change was, however, not significant. 
 In the first place, part of the high school work eliminated 
 was put in the eighth grade, the course of the elementary 
 schools being extended to eight years at this time. In 
 the second place, the new high school course was really an 
 improvement over the old, since it recognized certain 
 modern tendencies. For example, the amount of re- 
 quired mathematics was reduced, and physical geography 
 and physiology introduced. Drawing was also added 
 for girls. The new course was as follows : 
 
 Male High School 
 
 JUNIOR 
 
 SENIOR 
 
 I. Physical geography 
 
 I , Natural philosophy 
 
 2. English grammar 
 
 2. English grammar and 
 
 and composition 
 
 composition 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Physiology 
 
26 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 I. 
 
 2. 
 
 Algebra 
 
 3. Algebra 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 4. Geometry 
 
 Bookkeeping 
 
 Latin 
 
 Latin 
 
 
 Female High School 
 
 JUNIOR 
 
 SENIOR 
 
 Reading 
 
 I. Reading 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Spelling 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Arithmetic 
 
 Physical geography 
 
 2. Natural philosophy 
 
 English grammar 
 
 3. English grammar 
 
 Physiology 
 
 4. Algebra 
 
 Algebra 
 
 Drawing 
 
 Drawing 
 
 
 A distinction existed from the beginning between the 
 high school for boys and the high school for girls. The 
 difference, however, consisted at first chiefly in the fact 
 that the boys and girls recited in separate classes. Later 
 there was a tendency to provide more liberally for boys 
 than for girls. This tendency, evident in 1885, became 
 pronounced in 1902, when the high school program 
 for boys was considerably extended, without correspond- 
 ing improvement for girls. A single course served the 
 girls, departing only slightly from the course of 1885. 
 In contrast, three separate programs were instituted 
 for boys: a classical course, containing Latin; an Eng- 
 lish course; and a business course, which included, in 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 27 
 
 addition to bookkeeping and commercial law, both 
 stenography and typewriting. 
 
 However, six years later, the high school course was 
 extended to three years, the distinction between the "male 
 high school" and the ''female high school" dropped, 
 and equal opportunities were provided for boys and girls; 
 two years later, 19 10, the course was lengthened to four 
 years. The State Board of Education now classifies 
 the Winchester high schools as first grade. Four differ- 
 ent, though closely related, programs are provided, all 
 conforming to the minimum state requirements^ and open 
 alike to boys and girls. These may be characterized as 
 the classical course, the modern language course, the 
 general course, and the business course. The graduates 
 of all save the last enter without difficulty the principal 
 colleges and universities of the South. Nevertheless, 
 despite these improvements, the Winchester high school 
 compares unfavorably with the "better high schools of 
 the country; the programs are still too bookish, lacking 
 particularly provisions for physical education, science, 
 and practical work such as manual and shop instruction 
 for boys and household arts for girls. 
 
 Nothing beyond the elementary grades has been pro- 
 vided for colored children. The colored elementary 
 schools follow in the wake of the white schools, doing 
 work of much the same kind. 
 
 The extension of the school program, particularly of 
 the high school, along with the growth in enrollment, led 
 
 ^State Course of Study for High Schools, 1915-16. 
 
28 THE IL\NDLEY FUND 
 
 to an enlargement of facilities. On the one hand, the num- 
 ber of teachers employed has risen from 8 in 187 1-2 to 
 23 in 1916-17.^ There has, however, been only a slight 
 decrease during all these years in the number of pupils a 
 teacher is expected to teach. The average per teacher in 
 the seventies, eighties, and nineties ran well over 50; 
 and at present the average number of pupils per teacher 
 in the white elementary schools is 48;- in the colored 
 schools it is still higher and in both it is altogether too 
 high for satisfactory results. 
 
 To accommodate the very large classes, particularly 
 in the first two grades, it has of late years become the 
 practice to divide the class, one section coming to school 
 in the forenoon and the other section coming in the 
 afternoon. This device reduces the number of pupils 
 under the teacher at any one time, but the children get 
 only a half instead of a whole day's schooling. 
 
 If the number of pupils a teacher is expected to teach 
 has not materially decreased, teachers are, at any rate, 
 better paid than formerly. For example, the average 
 salary has risen from $373, in 1871-2, to $514, in 1916-17, 
 with a decided advance since 1910-11.^ Still, Win- 
 chester pays exceedingly low salaries — low even when 
 compared with those paid by other Virginia cities of ap- 
 proximately the same size."^ For of the seven cities of 
 
 'See Appendix, Table VIT, page 69. 
 ^See Appendix, Table VIII, page 70. 
 'oee Appendix, Table IX, page 71. 
 *See AppendLx, Table X, page 71. 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER sg 
 
 Virginia having a school population of between one 
 and two thousand — and this includes Winchester — 
 only two pay less than Winchester and four pay more; 
 Fredericksburg, for example, pays on the average $80 
 more. 
 
 In the school as well as in the business world, there is 
 a close relation between salaries and quality of service. 
 Receiving lower salaries than is customary, it is not sur- 
 prising that the teachers of Winchester, taken as a body, 
 are not well prepared either academically or profession- 
 ally. Teachers in an elementary school should possess 
 at least a high school education followed by two years 
 of normal school training, and high school teachers — 
 certainly of the usual branches — should be college grad- 
 uates. Measured by these standards, not more than 
 six of the twenty white teachers of Winchester can be 
 said to be adequately prepared for their work. 
 
 Close and adequate supervision might partly over- 
 come this handicap, but the Winchester schools are not 
 closely supervised. The supervision of the division 
 superintendent, who has many other duties, has been 
 merely nominal. The principal of the Winchester 
 schools has always been a teaching principal, having 
 not only to look after the routine of the school, but also 
 to teach an entire class or a number of different classes 
 for a period or two daily. Not until 1886 was he given 
 any free time at all for supervision, and even at present 
 he has only about half of his day for the management 
 of the schools and for supervision, with the result that 
 
30 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 he Is able to do very little toward helping weak or inex- 
 perienced teachers. 
 
 With the increase of pupils and teachers, more space 
 and more equipment have had to be provided. The pub- 
 lic schools for both races at first occupied rented quarters. 
 In 1875, the Board of School Trustees requested $7,000 
 from the City Council to build at public expense a school 
 for white children. The request was refused. From the 
 standpoint of public sentiment, it is probably unfor- 
 tunate that at this time the will of John Kerr left the 
 residue of his estate to be used "for the education of the 
 poor white children of the city." 
 
 It was decided to use this legacy to secure a perma- 
 nent home for the white schools. The legacy, amounting 
 finally to about $10,000, did not become available until 
 1882 and thereafter. To tliis sum the City Council 
 added in all something over $6,000, and the whole 
 amount was used to erect the John Kerr public school, 
 the corner stone being laid in 1883, and the building 
 first occupied in 1884. The building was a good ex- 
 ample of the school architecture of the day, providing 
 eight classrooms and a basement. 
 
 The delay had been so prolonged that the new quar- 
 ters when opened were scarcely adequate to accommo 
 date the enrollment. An additional room had to be 
 rented the very next year. In fact, by 1888 the need of 
 more rooms became so pressing and the difficulty of 
 securing suitable rented quarters so great that the Board 
 of Education petitioned the City Council, though in 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 31 
 
 vain, for funds for ^another building. Partial relief was 
 now sought by equipping two basement rooms in the 
 John Kerr school. Though the Board of Education recog- 
 nized and officially stated that these rooms were "un- 
 safe and dangerous to the health of pupils and teachers," 
 they were in continuous use for more than a decade. 
 
 The need for more room was finally met in 1908 by a 
 six room addition to the John Kerr building; at the same 
 time a new heating plant was installed and toilets added 
 to the old building, at a total cost of about $16,000. 
 These additional facilities stemmed the tide for a year or 
 two, when it again became necessary to rent outLide 
 quarters. There were in November, 191 7, five such 
 rented rooms, all located in the Wall property, and all 
 unsuited to school purposes. 
 
 The fourteen rooms of the John Kerr school are ordi- 
 nary classrooms, and, with the exception of the lower mid- 
 dle one of the addition, which is very poorly lighted, are 
 reasonably well adapted to the needs of a conventional 
 elementary school. However, the high school occupies the 
 three upper rooms of the addition and it is only by dint of 
 using sliding doors and partitions that they are made to 
 answer at all. Moreover, if the elementary classes were 
 reduced to proper size and the classes now on half day 
 session were given a full school day, the elementary 
 school alone would require five additional rooms, to say 
 nothing of the pressing need of the high school for larger 
 and better quarters. 
 
 Of the educational equipment of the white schools 
 
32 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 there is little to say. It is of the conventional sort and 
 meets more or less adequately the requirements of a 
 bookish school. It would, however, be wholly inade- 
 quate for a school offering an extended program. For 
 example, there are no gymnasium, baths, playgrounds, 
 school gardens, auditorium, manual training and indus- 
 trial shops, household arts rooms, practically no labora- 
 tories for high school science, and no provision whatsoever 
 for nature study and general science in the elementary 
 school — all of which are to be found in our best public 
 schools. 
 
 The situation in the colored schools is much the same. 
 Like the white schools they first occupied rented quarters, 
 one class in the Old School Baptist Church and one in the 
 Bethel Church. These colored classes remained here 
 until 1876, when the Board of School Trustees secured 
 free of cost a lease for ninety-nine years of the Old 
 School Baptist Church — more generally known as the 
 "Old Stone Church." Two classrooms were fitted up 
 for something like $650. Of this sum, $400 came from 
 the sale of the Medical School site, which the School 
 Board inherited when the Medical College was aban- 
 doned. 
 
 The number of colored classes increased to three in 
 1883, but the added class occupied rented quarters. In 
 the meantime, the "Old Stone Church" fell into bad 
 repair, and by 1886 became unsafe. Something had to 
 be done. On application of the School Board the 
 county court extended the lease of the "Old Stone 
 
Forge Shop 
 
 Wood Shop 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 3^ 
 
 Church" to five hundred years. The two gables and 
 the roof were now rebuilt and a frame lean-to extension 
 added, at a total expenditure of approximately $525, 
 thus providing three classrooms, all of which are still 
 in use. That they are entirely inadequate and unsuited 
 goes without saying. 
 
 To summarize, Winchester is face to face with an 
 acute building problem. If the present demands seem 
 large, it should be remembered that during the entire 
 history of her public schools less than $23,000 of pubHc 
 money, exclusive of rent, has been expended for white 
 school buildings, and less than $800 for buildings for 
 colored schools. No other city of Virginia of equal size 
 has spent so little, Winchester having a capital invest- 
 ment in school property of only $24.98 per child of the 
 school population.^ In contrast, Fredericksburg, the 
 city nearest, has an investment of $27.72, while Bristol 
 has an investment of $117.46. 
 
 The result is that white children have been almost 
 continuously housed in rented quarters. It should, 
 however, be stated that the crowded condition of late 
 has been permitted to continue partly because it seemed 
 desirable to await the final disposition of the Handley 
 Fund. 
 
 The growth of the schools has been accompanied 
 by an increase in the total current school expense, and 
 also by an increase in the current per pupil cost. Begin- 
 ning in 187 1-2 with a total current expense of $3,912.05, 
 
 'See Appendix, Table XI, page 72. 
 
34 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 expenditures aggregated in 1916-17 $16,601.71.' But 
 not all of this money was or is raised locally. As has 
 already been stated, appropriations by the City Council 
 provide part of it, the state provides part of it, and part 
 of it comes from tuition fees and miscellaneous revenues.^ 
 
 Although money is received from these different 
 sources, it is significant that an increasing proportion 
 of the current school expense is derived from appropri- 
 ations by the City Council, that is, raised by local tax- 
 ation. Such appropriations in 187 1-2 equaled only ^S 
 per cent, of the total current expense of the schools, 
 whereas in 1916-17 they equaled 69 per cent.,^ irrefut- 
 able evidence that the people are increasingly wilHng to 
 provide proper and adequate support. Despite this 
 growth, Winchester lags far behind other Virginia 
 cities in taxpaying liberality. Land at Winchester is 
 assessed unusually low, and the tax rate is also un- 
 usually low. Both are probably lower in Winchester 
 than in any other city of Virginia.'* 
 
 As suggested above, there has been an increase in 
 the current per pupil cost.^ This has risen, on the 
 basis of total enrollment, from $9.73, in 187 1-2, to 
 $14.94, in 1916-17, and, on the basis of average daily 
 
 'See Appendix, Table XII, page 72. 
 
 *For a number of years Winchester received liberal allowances from the 
 Peabody Fund. 
 
 'See Appendix, Table XIII, page 73. 
 <See Appendix, Table XIV, page 74. 
 *See Appendix, Table XII, page 72. 
 
THE SCHOOLS OF WINCHESTER 35 
 
 attendance, from $15.10 to $20.73. Most of the rise, 
 however, has occurred within the last decade. But 
 even the present per pupil expense is extremely small — 
 even small as compared with that of other Virginia cities 
 of about the same size, at most only three spending less.^ 
 Indeed, it is so small that good modern schools cannot 
 possibly be provided at any such per pupil outlay. 
 
 This inadequate support is reflected throughout the 
 system, and accounts for the present narrow and con- 
 ventional elementary course of study, the limited high 
 school advantages, the employment of inadequately 
 prepared teachers, the lack of proper supervision, and 
 the dearth of suitable buildings and equipment. 
 
 iSee Appendix, Table XV, page 75. 
 
III. NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 
 
 IN THE light of the facts developed in the two pre- 
 ceding chapters, what arc the needs of the Win- 
 chester schools, if :iiey are to render full service to 
 the community and to the youth of the city? The ques- 
 tion can be answered most satisfactorily in the light of 
 what progressive schools which face similar conditions 
 elsewhere are seeking to accomplish. 
 
 Our best public schools realize that a narrow and 
 bookish curriculum does not provide an all-round 
 training and does not adequately equip children for 
 adult responsibilit'es. Hence, progressive schools are 
 extending and diversifying their programs, thus seeking 
 to provide for the development of the body as well as the 
 development of the mind. The formal and bookish 
 studies, like spelling, arithmetic, and grammar, arc of 
 course as important as ever; but attention is also given 
 to play, recreation, and physical training, because 
 health, bodily development, and physical vigor are 
 of growing importance both to the individual and to 
 the community. Nature study, school gardens, science, 
 music and the fine arts, manual and industrial shop work 
 for boys, and the household arts for girls provide useful 
 experience and training. Finally, special classes in the 
 
 36 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 37 
 
 lower grades and optional courses in the upper grades 
 enable the school to recognize individual differences in 
 physical endowment, mental ability, interest, and voca- 
 tional outlook. 
 
 Our best public schools also realize that the old type 
 of school organization — a teacher for each class and for 
 each classroom — is not adapted to the requirements 
 of an enriched and diversified program. Progressive 
 schools are therefore developing a new type of organiza- 
 tion, which calls for a new grouping of the different 
 school grades and for a further division of work among 
 teachers. The new type of organization gives children 
 more freedom, and provides abundant opportunity for 
 participation in group activities; at the same time it 
 fosters habits of correct thinking and proper self control. 
 It permits teachers, particularly in the upper grades, to 
 confine their attention to one or two studies, thus favor- 
 ing the development of teaching efficiency; it also permits 
 a maximum use of teachers, buildings, and educational 
 equipment — an important consideration as public edu- 
 cation becomes more costly. 
 
 In view of the best practice of progressive schools, 
 nothing short of a complete reconstruction of the public 
 schools of Winchester will answer, if they are to do effec- 
 tively the work that lies before them. It need hardly 
 be said, however, that education is a constantly develop- 
 ing art and that, therefore, even with a largely increased 
 outlay, no system of public schools can be created which 
 will suffice for all time. Furthermore, the discussions and 
 
38 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 suggestions contained in this report are not designed to 
 control local action even at present, still less in the dis- 
 tant future. They are meant rather to indicate the kind 
 of educational organization and opportunity approved 
 by the most competent contemporary thought. Doubt- 
 less, additional and different suggestions of value will be 
 made by others, and, in course of time, steps not now 
 thought of will and should be taken. 
 
 In this spirit it may be suggested, first of all, that the 
 white schools of Winchester require a change in organi- 
 zation. They are now divided into an elementary school, 
 with a seven year program for grades i to 7, and a high 
 school, with a four year course for grades 8 to 11. Pro- 
 gressive schools are now preferably organized on what is 
 known as the six- three-three plan. Besides a kinder- 
 garten of one year, they have an elementary school of 
 six years for grades i to 6, a junior high school of three 
 years for grades 7 to 9, and a senior high school of three 
 years for grades 10 to 12. Thus a year would be added 
 to the school course, bringing Winchester in line with 
 other progressive American cities. This arrangement 
 may not always be best. It has, however, undoubted 
 advantages at this time, and can be modified in the 
 future, whenever modification becomes advisable. 
 
 After organization on the six-three-three plan, the 
 next need of the Winchester schools is an extended pro- 
 gram for each of the three units. According to the 
 present practice of progressive schools, the elementary 
 school program, that is, the program for grades i to 6, 
 

 "" 1 
 
 Evf: 
 
 7] 
 
 ^ m 
 
 
 1 
 
 ■i 
 
 «" 
 
 
 en 
 
 1: « 
 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 39 
 
 would include those studies and activities which all pur- 
 sue in order to gain command of the tools of learning 
 and to acquire that general development and common 
 body of knowledge, ideals, and standards of conduct 
 essential to living in a democracy. Such a program 
 would include the so-called fundamental studies: reading, 
 spelling, composition, handwriting, arithmetic, geog- 
 raphy, and history. It would also include music, free- 
 hand and mechanical drawing, nature study, and school 
 gardening, and, for the first four grades, handwork, and 
 for the two upper grades abundant opportunity to par- 
 ticipate in a variety of household and industrial activi- 
 ties. Finally, such a program would give prominence 
 to play, recreation, and physical education, including 
 medical inspection and the foUow-up services of a school 
 nurse. 
 
 Lest the program above outlined appear altogether too 
 extended for young children, it should be remembered that 
 the Elementary State Course of Study,^ prepared by the 
 Virginia Department of Public Instruction, recommends 
 most of what is here proposed. Besides, the only part 
 of such a program all pupils take all the time is the 
 fundamental studies, with play and physical training. 
 They pursue activities Hke shop work and drawing for a 
 term or a year, and then take up others, such as nature 
 study and gardening, for a given period. The children 
 thus rotate from study to study, but this rotation is so 
 ordered that each study is pursued a prescribed length of 
 'Elementary State Course of Study, 191 5. 
 
40 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 time. This arrangement permits children to participate 
 in a variety of activities and yet at no time are they over- 
 burdened. 
 
 The junior high school, that is, grades 7, 8, and 9, 
 carries forward the program of the elementary school on 
 an advanced plane. For example, nature study gives 
 way to science of a more systematized type, freehand and 
 mechanical drawing are differentiated, and the practical 
 opportunities for boys and girls are somewhat specialized, 
 the boys entering the manual and industrial shops, 
 the girls going to regular instruction in the household 
 arts, including at least cooking and sewing. New stud- 
 ies and activities are added, in order that the jum'or high 
 school may take account of individual differences in 
 physical endowment, mental ability, and vocational 
 outlook. Accordingly, the junior high school provides 
 Latin, modern foreign languages, geometry and algebra, 
 and introductory work in bookkeeping, stenography, 
 and typewriting. Of course, no child can take all these 
 studies. It is possible, however, within limits, to select 
 for each child the program suited to his particular needs 
 and ambitions, the choice being based on the prefer- 
 ences of the child, of his parents, and the advice of the 
 school principal. To facilitate selection, the program 
 of the junior high school might be organized into three 
 different courses, each with its peculiar emphasis; for 
 example, an academic course for children intending 
 to go to college; a commercial course for those who 
 propose to enter business on the completion of the junior 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 41 
 
 or the senior high school; and, finally, an industrial 
 course for children who are looking forward to an early 
 entrance into industry. 
 
 The senior high school, that is, the program for grades 
 10, II, and 12, carries forward and intensifies the division 
 of courses begun in the junior high school, thereby 
 permitting the senior high school to take further account 
 of individual differences, needs, and ambitions. This 
 requires a further extension of studies and activities. 
 For example, the program will provide varied opportuni- 
 ties in history — United States, modern, medieval, and 
 ancient — and intensive work in most of the old-line 
 studies, such as English, Latin, modern foreign languages, 
 and mathematics. The sciences include at least zool- 
 ogy, botany, chemistry, and physics. The commercial 
 instruction begun in the junior high school is expanded. 
 The practical instruction for boys includes still more 
 specialized practice in woodwork, forge, sheet metal, 
 and machine shop, while the girls have cooking, dress- 
 making, millinery, laundry, home sanitation, home 
 decoration, etc. As previously pointed out, there is 
 particular need at Winchester of ntensive instruction 
 in agriculture, and a post graduate course for teaching 
 in the rural schools is much to be desired. 
 
 To facilitate intelligent selection from a somewhat wide 
 range of opportunities, it is the common practice to organ- 
 ize specific courses, in which part of the work is required 
 and part is left to the choice of the student. Should this 
 practice be followed at Winchester, the senior high school 
 
42 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 might oflfer (a) an academic course for all going to college 
 or higher technical schools; (b) a general course for those 
 neither going to college nor intending to enter gainful 
 pursuits; (c) a commercial course for those going di- 
 rectly into business; (d) an agricultural course for those 
 expecting to take up agriculture; and (e) a teacher train- 
 ing course for those wishing to prepare to teach in the 
 rural schools. In all these courses there is, to be sure, a 
 large common core, that is, much work that all students 
 take irrespective of the particular programs they may 
 have chosen, so that the diversity of instruction is not so 
 great, after all, as it appears to be. In any event the 
 various courses of study above mentioned are, as has 
 been already stated, to be regarded merely as suggestions 
 indicating what has now become possible in the field of 
 education. Specific decision as to precisely what should 
 be offered may well be deferred, and whatever policy is 
 adopted, adjustments must be made from time to time. 
 Should the Winchester schools be reorganized in some 
 such fashion as above suggested, their effective adminis- 
 tration and supervision will require more than a principal 
 who has only a part of his time free from teaching. A 
 superintendent' will be needed who can devote all his 
 energies to administration and supervision. His pri- 
 mary interest, however, should center in the improvement 
 
 *In order that Winchester may have a superintendent of its own, Win- 
 chester will need to be made a separate school district. The power to do 
 this is vested in the State Board of Education, as is also the power to 
 appoint the superintendent (Sec. 132, Constitution of Virginia). 
 

NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 43 
 
 of the subject matter and methods of instruction, and in 
 improving the quality of classroom teaching. This 
 service would call for supervisory talent of a high order. 
 The superintendent's academic and professional prepa- 
 ration should be broad and liberal; he should be a man of 
 progressive sympathies, with a record of previous suc- 
 cess. 
 
 Likewise, teachers of high grade will be required. 
 These will be of two kinds — regular teachers and special 
 teachers. Regular teachers teach the fundamental 
 studies, such as reading, arithmetic, and geography, in 
 both the elementary school and the junior high school, 
 and the old-line studies, such as Latin, English, mathemat- 
 ics, and history, in the senior high school. The qualifi- 
 cations of regular teachers differ somewhat according as 
 they teach in the grades, the junior high school, or the 
 senior high school. Irrespective, however, of where they 
 teach, they should all be well trained both academically 
 and professionally, and be of proved efficiency. Among 
 the special teachers will be teachers of play and physical 
 training, of music, freehand and mechanical drawing, of 
 nature study, biology, physics, chemistry, and agricul- 
 ture, of manual and industrial work for boys, of the 
 household arts for girls; and, finally, there should be 
 employed a training teacher, a school physician, and a 
 school nurse. Each of these should be a specialist in 
 his or her respective field. 
 
 Finally, proper building faciUties and educational 
 equipment wiD have to be provided. Cities having such 
 
44 THE K\NDLEY FUND 
 
 programs find that to secure the needed space for free 
 play, recreation, school gardens, experimental farm 
 (for the agricultural course), and a general athletic 
 field, an ample school site must be secured. Two dif- 
 ferent kinds of rooms are needed for instruction: regular 
 rooms for the fundamental studies of the elementary 
 and junior high schools and for the old-line studies of the 
 senior high school, and special rooms suited to the re- 
 quirements of particular act'vities. For example, the 
 physical training equipment includes gymnasium, swim- 
 ming pool, shower baths, locker and dressing rooms. 
 Rooms of special design are required for the library, the 
 fine arts, and mechanical drawing. The science equip- 
 ment comprises a nature study room, a general science 
 room, and separate laboratories for biology, chemistry, 
 physics, and agriculture. The commercial branches 
 need specially equipped rooms for typewriting, stenog- 
 raphy, and bookkeeping. Proper provision must also 
 be made for manual and practical work. 
 
 The general service portions of a modern building 
 include sanitary toilets and lockers, storage rooms, 
 rest and study rooms for the teachers, reception, 
 inspection, and ofiice rooms for the school physician 
 and school nurse, reception room and offices for the 
 principal, and, finally, a cafeteria for the school luncheon, 
 and an auditorium which varies in size according as 
 it is used for school purposes alone or serves also 
 the recreational, intellectual, and civic needs of the 
 community. 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 45 
 
 The difference between the ordinary box-like school- 
 house and a modern school plant is thus striking. The 
 difference is, however, an essential one and not an extrav- 
 agance. When the school appealed almost entirely to 
 the head, rectangular rooms on either side of a hallway, 
 furriished with fixed desks which children occupied hours 
 at a time, sufficed. When, however, the whole child is 
 put to school — his body as well as his mind — facilities 
 and equipment of an altogether different type are re- 
 quired. Nor are the building provisions suggested 
 above a mere dream; they already exist in some cities. 
 
 The reading of the preceding pages has doubtless 
 raised the question: What would such schools at Win- 
 chester cost? This depends, in the first place, on whether 
 there is a single plant for all white children, or whether 
 there are two elementary schools, the one a separate 
 plant and the other connected with the junior and senior 
 high schools. 
 
 The single plant is undoubtedly preferable on the 
 score of economy and efficiency. A moment's con- 
 sideration will make this point clear. A modern 
 elementary school must contain regular classrooms, play- 
 grounds, gymnasium, industrial arts rooms, auditorium, 
 etc. There must be provided also most of the general 
 service portions of a modern building. Therefore, 
 to have two elementary schools involves duplicating 
 most special facilities and most general service features. 
 Obviously, a single good sized playground for boys and 
 one for girls will serve all the white children of the city; 
 
46 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 a single gymnasium, a sing'e swimming pool, a single 
 auditorium are ample for all; a single central plant also 
 obviates duplication of heating plants, storage space, 
 reception room and offices for the school doctor and 
 nurse, and reception room and offices for principals. In 
 a word, to provide two small elementary schools, even 
 though one of these is in connection with the two high 
 schools, will probably increase as much as a third the 
 first cost of the special facilities and general service fea- 
 tures distinctive of a modern plant. 
 
 It also costs more to operate two small schools than a 
 single large plant. The number of furnaces to be 
 kept going, the number of head janitors or custodians, 
 and the number of principals increase with the multipli- 
 cation of buildings. Quite as serious financially is the 
 difficulty, in small schools, of making full use of the time 
 particularly of special teachers. Even in a large build- 
 ing there is some loss from this cause; nevertheless, the 
 large plant is favorable to the most efficient use of all 
 the time of all the teachers and is hence favorable to the 
 conduct of the school at a minimum cost. 
 
 The management and supervision of the schools are 
 also simplified. The possibility of division of interest on 
 the part of the superintendent is obviated. Unity of aims 
 among teachers is more easily achieved, and teachers are 
 more easily brought to work as a team. 
 
 Of scarcely less importance is the civic significance of 
 a single, imposing plant in a small community. Such a 
 plant inevitably quickens respect for the public schools 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 47 
 
 and arouses pride in them. It provides a common meet- 
 ing place for all, children and adults alike, and readily be- 
 comes the intellectual, recreational, and civic center of 
 the entire community. By thus fostering growth in 
 mutual respect and fellow feeling, a central school 
 contributes powerfully to civic unity and democratic 
 solidarity. A single school for Winchester is, there- 
 fore, economically, educationally, and socially desir- 
 able. 
 
 To accommodate the present school enrollment and 
 future increases up to 1,500 pupils will require a 42 room 
 building, exclusive of general service quarters, gym- 
 nasium, and auditorium. A modern plant of this size, 
 exclusive of grounds, would in ordinary times cost about 
 $400,000, or $250 per pupil. 
 
 The estimated size of the building rests on the follow- 
 ing considerations : To add a kindergarten and to extend 
 the elementary course a year win probably bring 100 new 
 pupils into the schools, increasing the present enrollment 
 (929) to over 1,000. The enhanced attractiveness of 
 the schools will in the near future add from Winchester 
 and the outlying districts probably another 200, making 
 a total enrollment for the immediate future in excess 
 of 1,200. To accommodate these children, scattered 
 from the kindergarten to the last year of the senior 
 high school, will require at least one kindergarten for 50 
 children, 21 classes in the elementary school (grades i 
 to 6, inclusive), 9 in the junior high school (grades 7 to 
 9, inclusive), and at least 9 sections in the senior high 
 
48 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 school.* Altogether these classes will occupy not less 
 than 40 rooms. This would leave in reserve two class- 
 rooms, the auditorium, and the gymnasium, and a con- 
 siderable leeway in the size of classes, particularly in the 
 senior high school — ample for a total school enrollment 
 up to 1,500 children. 
 
 The estimated cost of the proposed building is based on 
 the experience of other cities. For example, the newer 
 modern elementary buildings of Boston, exclusive of edu- 
 cational equipment, are costing from $209 to $258 per 
 pupil; of Cleveland, from $150 to $208 per pupil; of St. 
 Louis, from $192 to $240 per pupil;- while the Froebel 
 building at Gary, Indiana, erected in 191 1- 12, which 
 represents the type of building that Winchester needs, 
 cost, including educational equipment, $355,945.80 with 
 an additional $77,571.75 for grounds and improvements, 
 making a total of $433,517.55- 
 
 What now of the colored schools? The reasons ad- 
 vanced for the reconstruction of the white schools hold 
 good for the colored schools. But in their reorganiza- 
 tion, three pertinent factors should be kept in mind: (i) 
 the small number of colored children to be instructed; (2) 
 their special need of practical education; and (3) the 
 needs of the colored people of Winchester as a whole. 
 
 The colored population of Winchester is decreasing; 
 it now numbers only 908, and the outlying districts 
 
 'See Appendix, Table XVI, page 76. 
 
 •School Buildings and Equipment, by Leonard P. Ayres and l^Iay 
 Ayres, pp. 76, 78, and 84. 
 
o 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 49 
 
 add only 42 more. Under these circumstances, the 
 number of colored school children cannot be large. 
 There are 26 of kindergarten age, that is, five years 
 old; 149 of elementary school age, that is, between six 
 and fourteen; and 57 between fifteen and eighteen or of 
 high school age, altogether providing a school enroll- 
 ment of probably not more than 200. A kindergarten, 
 an elementary school, and a junior high school should 
 suffice. For, although there are 43 colored children of 
 senior high school age (i.e., between sixteen and eigh- 
 teen), a junior high school will doubtless accommodate 
 all who will remain in school and who are prepared for 
 work beyond the elementary grades. 
 
 In the elementary school, the program would be simi- 
 lar to that already described. It would, however, be 
 well to emphasize strongly the industrial arts for boys 
 and the household arts for girls. The junior high school 
 course should be divided about equally between prac- 
 tical academic instruction and industrial training. The 
 industrial program should provide opportunities for boys 
 in the industrial arts, with gardening and agriculture 
 stressed, and for girls in the household arts, giving prom- 
 inence to simple cooking, sewing, and dressmaking. 
 
 Finally, it is most important that the new colored 
 school be the civic, intellectual, and recreational center 
 of the entire colored population, that is, serve not only 
 the children, but the parents also, endeavoring to elevate 
 their standards of living and their sense of civic 
 and personal responsibility. The distribution of the 
 
50 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 colored population is favorable to the achievement of 
 these purposes. 
 
 Again the question arises: What will such a school 
 cost? In the first place, sufficient space will be needed 
 to afford playgrounds for both girls and boys, provide an 
 athletic field for the older children and for the colored 
 community as a whole, and supply a school garden. 
 
 The building should be sufficient to accommodate 
 an enrollment of 200, scattered from the kindergarten 
 through the junior high school. It should probably 
 include: 
 
 I kindergarten room 
 
 3 regular classrooms 
 
 I library room (a branch of the Handley Library) 
 
 I nature study and agriculture room 
 
 I household arts room 
 
 I industrial arts room 
 
 gymnasium, with locker rooms and shower baths, 
 for both girls and boys, and 
 
 an auditorium, with stage and dressing rooms; also, 
 besides the usual general service quarters, there should 
 be a reception room and office for the principal, and re- 
 ception room, inspection room, and offices for the school 
 doctor and school nurse. The cost of such a plant, sub- 
 stantial yet s'mple, wou'd certainly be not less than 
 $50,000. 
 
 Therefore, to reconstruct the Winchester public 
 schools and to provide all children with superior 
 educational advantages involves an immediate capital 
 
NEEDS OF THE WINCHESTER SCHOOLS 51 
 
 investment of approximately a half million dollars in 
 grounds, new buildings and educational equipment. 
 The amount of the annual current expense budget would 
 of course be greatly in excess of the city's present ex- 
 penditure, the precise amount depending on the extent 
 to which opportunities such as have been above de- 
 scribed are offered. Some conception of the amount 
 which can be profitably expended may be obtained 
 from the present expenditures of cities which are either 
 especially favored financially or have developed an 
 unusual educational interest. For instance, in 1915-16 
 the per pupil cost on average daily attendance at New- 
 ton, Mass., was $65, at Montclair, N. J., $84, at Pasa- 
 dena, Cal., $87; and there are about a score of cities of 
 the size of Winchester that are now spending annually 
 from $60 to $109 per pupil" 
 
 ^See Appendix, Table XVII, page 77. 
 
IV. USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 JUDGE HANDLEY'S gift has aroused deep in- 
 terest. Several valuable suggestions as to its 
 use, already made, are worthy of careful consid- 
 eration. There are those, for example, who feel that the 
 bequest — ^principal and accumulated income, now 
 amounting to $1,640,953.59 — should be used to establish 
 a college. This is natural, for private benefactions 
 usually go to higher institutions, rarely to public schools. 
 The establishment of a college was, however, not con- 
 templated by Judge Handley, whose will specifically 
 states: 
 
 "The income arising from the said residue estate 
 to be expended and laid out in said city by the erection 
 of school houses for the education of the poor." 
 
 Judge Handley showed great wisdom in formulating 
 the object of his bequest in such broad terms. He did 
 not hamper his beneficiaries with details; but none the 
 less, even while leaving to the future the manner of work- 
 ing it out, his fundamental purpose was most explicitly 
 stated, viz., the "education of the poor." This phrase, 
 when interpreted in present day terms, must mean pub- 
 lic education. 
 
 52 
 
USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 53 
 
 Aside from Judge Handley's plain intent, certain 
 practical considerations are, we believe, fatal to the 
 suggestion that the bequest be utilized to establish a 
 college. There are in Winchester only 525 persons 
 (white) of college age, that is, between nineteen and 
 twenty-four years old. Under the most favorable cir- 
 cumstances, hardly 100 out of this number would attend 
 the proposed college. In fact, there are now only 21 
 persons of these ages in other than the public schools, 
 and not more than 10 of these are in college. Hence, 
 a local college would directly serve only a small fraction 
 of the entire school going population. Moreover, higher 
 educational institutions are already within easy reach. 
 The State University is distant less than 150 miles, 
 Washington and Lee University is about 135 miles 
 away, and a number of women's colleges are within 
 easy reach. Again, a college, however small, cannot be 
 firmly estabHshed on a foundation of less than $2,000,000. 
 Therefore, to establish a college at Winchester with the 
 Handley gift is to run great risk of merely adding, to a 
 list already too long, one more institution that will 
 shortly be required to seek additional funds. Even so, 
 in all probability many of the youth of Winchester 
 would continue to be attracted by the larger and more 
 diversified opportunities of stronger institutions. 
 
 Others hold that a technical high school should be 
 established. Undoubtedly, there is a growing apprecia- 
 tion of both the social and individual value of industrial 
 training, and we are not unmindful of its importance. 
 
54 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 But our study of local conditions proves that Winches- 
 ter offers no adequate field to the graduates of a higher 
 technical school. To make use of knowledge and skill ac- 
 quired in such an institution, its graduates would have 
 mostly to seek employment elsewhere, so that a constant 
 drain on the human resources of the community would be 
 forced. Moreover, a technical school serves only a small 
 part of the entire school going population. Most of the 
 school going population of Winchester would derive no 
 benefit from it. Like the college, it would involve subor- 
 dination of the welfare of the many to the interests of 
 the few. However, as has been stated, we do not lose 
 sight of the importance of training that will tell in 
 practical pursuits. The programs of the schools de- 
 scribed in the preceding chapter emphasize such train- 
 ing. Industrial training of the kind that Winches- 
 ter needs can thus be otherwise adequately and efficiently 
 cared for. 
 
 It has, again, been suggested that the Handley Trus- 
 tees should take over the high school, becoming entirely 
 responsible for its financial support and educational 
 management. The Board of Education would then 
 manage the elementary schools and the community 
 would be responsible for their financial support only. 
 To this proposal there is, among others, the objection 
 already made. A relatively small group would enjoy 
 all the benefits of Judge-Handley's gift; for the high 
 school enrollment will probably never exceed 300 to 350, 
 whereas the elementary schools will easily have 1,150 
 
USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 55 
 
 to 1,200 children to care for. Moreover, the close rela- 
 tionship which should exist in a city like Winchester be- 
 tween the elementary school and the high school renders 
 any such division of control and responsibility imprac- 
 ticable. Besides, to place an elaborate high school on 
 top of an ordinary elementary school is like building an 
 elaborate house on an inadequate foundation. Finally, 
 there are constitutional and statutory objections to this 
 proposal. 
 
 It has also been suggested that the Handley Trustees 
 should establish a system of schools for all the children 
 of the community, ultimately to displace the public 
 schools and forever relieve the community of all school 
 taxes. On its face, this is a tempting proposal. Sev- 
 eral facts must, however, be considered in deciding on its 
 merits. The annual net income from Judge Handley's 
 gift, available for the maintenance of schools, will be 
 about $59,000. Compared with Winchester's present 
 expenditure for public education, this is a large sum. 
 Yet it is not large enough to do for the children all that an 
 adequate school system can do for the children of a 
 community. With it great improvements could be 
 effected; but they would in the end fall short of what 
 should be achieved under the circumstances. There is, 
 however, a more serious objection. It has been well and 
 wisely said that one of the best things about public educa- 
 tion is the doing of it by the community itself. Nothing 
 in the world is as wholesome and energizing for a com- 
 munity as the effort, sacrifice, and pride involved in solv- 
 
56 ,THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 ing its educational problems. Wholly to relieve the 
 community of such responsibility would prove nothing 
 short of a public calamity. It would affect unfavorably 
 public interest in the schools, check the present healthy 
 growth of self-sacrifice, and keep Winchester from per- 
 forming an inspiring service to the country at large. 
 Private benefactions are best employed when they stimu- 
 late pubHc interest and public participation in social 
 enterprises that the public cannot otherwise for the 
 time being undertake. Such use fosters the development 
 of sound public opinion, enlarges the field of public ac- 
 tivity, and deepens the sense of public responsibility. In 
 our judgment this principle should not be lost sight of in 
 deciding upon the use of Judge Handley's gift. 
 
 Most serious of all, the proposal under discussion is, 
 we are informed, legally impossible. The state guar- 
 antees the education of its citizens and reserves to itself 
 educational control. Accordingly, there is actually 
 imposed on each and every subdivision the obligation to 
 provide "an efficient system of free public schools" 
 for all the children of the community.' For instance, the 
 law provides that the city council of each city- shall ap- 
 point a board of education,^ and that the board of educa- 
 tion shall establish and maintain "a general system of 
 public free schools in accordance with the requirements 
 
 'Sec. I, Virginia School Laws. 
 
 ^ The school board of Winchester is an exception, being appointed ac« 
 cording to the provisions of a special law. 
 
 2 Sec. 192, Virginia School Laws. 
 
USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 57 
 
 of the Constitution and the general educational policy 
 of the Commonwealth."^ An elaborate system of 
 machinery is provided to carry these laws into effect. 
 Obviously, no exception can or should be made of Win- 
 chester. To permit Winchester to give up its public 
 schools and to free itself from the obligation of support- 
 ing them would be to abandon a cardinal principle of 
 democracy. There is excellent authority for holding that 
 the courts would interpose to prevent. 
 
 To us it seems that the wisest use the Handley 
 Trustees can make of the funds at their disposal is to 
 cooperate with the people of Winchester in establishing 
 a system of superior public schools. Such use would 
 appear to be in accord with Judge Handley's will. 
 It takes due account of the educational needs of Win- 
 chester, the size of the fund, the financial resources of 
 the city, and it conforms to the spirit and the letter 
 of the constitution and school laws of the common- 
 wealth. It may perhaps also be added that the pro- 
 posed use would not only be best for the children of 
 Winchester, but it will in all probabiHty draw to Win- 
 chester people from all over Virginia who are seeking 
 better educational advantages for their children. This 
 has been the common experience of towns in other sec- 
 tions that have developed superior public schools. 
 
 The question at once arises as to how the Board of 
 Education and the Handley Trustees can attack the 
 problem thus presented to them. Certain legal ar- 
 
 'Sec. 198, Virginia School Laws. 
 
58 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 rangcments between these two bodies must of course be 
 concluded; but, in our judgment, no legal formulations 
 will meet the situation, unless a spirit of mutual defer- 
 ence and consideration in the interest of a great public 
 purpose prevails. Cooperation between public authori- 
 ties and private beneficence in an undertaking of this 
 kind is a new thing; but only through cordial coopera- 
 tion between the Board of Education of Winchester and 
 the Handley Trustees can the problems involved be suc- 
 cessfully solved and the utmost benefit be procured from 
 Judge Handley's gift. 
 
 Both parties have responsibihties and duties that are 
 clear. The law charges the Board of Education with 
 the conduct of the pubHc schools; Judge Handley's will 
 imposes on his Trustees the duty of safeguarding the use 
 of his bequest. It is obvious that, whatever legal form 
 the relations between the two bodies may have to take, 
 both are interested in one and the same object. The 
 essential steps towards defining and reaching that object 
 ought, therefore, to be taken informally in conference 
 between representatives of the two bodies, with such 
 expert advice as they may desire, and the final agree- 
 ment should be such as to command the support of both 
 bodies and of public opinion as well. 
 
 We have mentioned the fact that the relations between 
 the Handley Board and the Board of Education must be 
 reduced to legal form. In our judgment, it is important 
 that this agreement be in general terms, first, so as not to 
 interfere with future developments; second, because no 
 
USE OF THE HANDLEY FUND 59 
 
 technical precautions can in any case take the place of 
 mutual confidence and good will. The points which an 
 agreement of this kind might perhaps well include are, in 
 our opinion: 
 
 1. A provision obligating the Handley Board of 
 Trustees to devote the income of its trust to establish- 
 ing and maintaining, in cooperation with the Board of 
 Education, a superior system of public schools at Win- 
 chester. 
 
 2. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees 
 shall provide from its accumulated income the needed 
 sites, buildings, and equipment for both white and col- 
 ored schools, the sum to be so expended, the sites to be 
 selected, the type of buildings to be erected, and the 
 equipment to be provided to be mutually agreed upon 
 by the Handley Trustees and the Board of Education. 
 The facilities thus provided shall be leased by the Hand- 
 ley Trustees to the Board of Education at a dollar a year, 
 for a term mutually agreed upon. 
 
 3. A provision that the Handley Board is obligated to 
 turn over to the Board of Education for school mainte- 
 nance no part of the income from the Handley Fund 
 unless the Common Council shall have levied or appro- 
 priated for current school purposes at least the sum 
 of $15,000. 
 
 4. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees 
 agree to appropriate from its income for current school 
 maintenance such sums as shall be called for by the in- 
 auguration of the new scheme, less sums needed (a) for 
 
6o THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 the ordinary running expenses of the Board, (b) for any 
 unusual expenses incurred in the execution of its trust, 
 and (c) for sinking fund recjuirements for the replace- 
 ment of buildings and equipment, provided also that the 
 Handley Board of Trustees may, at its discretion, deduct 
 annually from its current income the sum of $10,000 
 and add this amount to the principal of its trust as a 
 protection against capital loss and as a safeguard against 
 reduced interest rates. 
 
 5. A provision that the Board of Education shall 
 adopt by-laws, rules and regulations for the conduct of 
 the schools, centering in the superintendent the respon- 
 sibility for the administration and management of the 
 schools. 
 
 6. A provision that the Handley Board of Trustees 
 may from time to time have studies made of the working 
 of the schools. 
 
 7. A provision that the Board of Education will an- 
 nually make to the Handley Board a report of the work 
 and needs of the schools, and will annually submit a 
 classified estimate of current financial needs, including a 
 later statement of the levy or appropriation made for 
 current school purposes by the Common Council. 
 
 With some such agreement approved by the Common 
 Council, the next step of importance is the choice of a 
 superintendent, to whom would fall the responsibility 
 of working out details and carrying out the general plan 
 adopted. Technically, the choice of the superintendent 
 falls within the province of the State Board of Education. 
 
USE OF THE HANDLE Y FUND 6r 
 
 Here we have another illustration of the point already 
 made — that only hearty cooperation between the various 
 responsible parties can achieve the end which all alike 
 desire. Though we have made no inquiry on this point 
 we cannot but believe that, in view of the extraordinary 
 opportunities, the State Board would willingly make a 
 separate educational district of Winchester and defer to 
 the combined wishes of the Board of Education and the 
 Handley Board of Trustees in the matter of appointing 
 a school superintendent. This ofRce would necessarily 
 carry with it a salary ample to procure the services of a 
 man competent to create and to manage a superior sys- 
 tem of public schools. The Handley Board might well 
 assume the salary of the new superintendent whenever 
 he is chosen and takes office, and provide also for his 
 necessary expenses, including those for stenographic as- 
 sistance, visiting schools in operation elsewhere, selecting 
 teachers, etc. 
 
 In our judgment, these are the really fundamental 
 steps: (a) decision on the general plan; (b) choice of a 
 high class superintendent in sympathy with the plan and 
 enjoying the confidence equally of the Board of Educa- 
 tion and the Handley Trustees. These major points 
 once arranged, there is no reason why the settlement 
 of the necessary details should not proceed smoothly. 
 The making of building plans, the drafting of new courses 
 of study, the selection of teachers — these and other mat- 
 ters can one by one be taken up under the leadership of 
 the new superintendent, who would assuredly endeavor to 
 
62 THE HANDLEY FUND 
 
 carry with him the approval of the two bodies of Trus- 
 tees and public opinion as well, even though technically 
 he is responsible on'y to the local and the State Board of 
 Education. 
 
 An agreement on some such basis as we have suggested 
 safeguards the obligations of the Handley Trustees, 
 while reserving to the community, through its Board of 
 Education, the final responsibility for the conduct of the 
 schools, as is required by the constitution and laws of the 
 state and the principles of American democracy. By 
 providing for close cooperation between two public 
 boards, and for a union of their financial strength, it 
 brings within reach of Winchester public schools of a 
 high order, which should be a lasting benefit to the 
 community and an inspiration and guide to the country 
 at large. At the same time it procures a wise and 
 effective use of a great gift in the greatest of causes — 
 public education in a democracy. 
 
V. APPENDIX 
 
APPENDIX 
 
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66 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE II 
 Growth in White and Negro Population 
 
 Year 
 
 White 
 
 Negro 
 
 Total 
 
 1890 
 1900 
 1910 
 1917 
 
 3,773 
 4,056 
 4,826 
 5,561 
 
 1,423 
 
 1,105 
 
 1,038 
 
 908 
 
 5,196 
 5,161 
 5,864 
 6,469 
 
 TABLE III 
 Population by Wards 
 
 
 Whites 
 
 Negroes 
 
 Total 
 
 Per Cent. 
 
 OF 
 
 Total 
 
 Ward I... 
 Ward II... 
 Ward III... 
 Ward IV... 
 
 1,432 
 1,288 
 1,733 
 1,108 
 
 233 
 
 256 
 
 401 
 
 18 
 
 1,665 
 1,544 
 2.134 
 1,126 
 
 26 
 
 24 
 33 
 
 17 
 
 Total 
 
 5,561 
 
 908 
 
 6,469 
 
 100 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 67 
 
 
 
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68 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE VI 
 White School Population and White School Enrollment 
 
 (school population between 7 AND 1 8 YEARS OF AGE) 
 
 
 
 
 Average 
 
 Per Cent, of 
 
 
 White 
 
 Enrollment 
 
 Daily 
 
 White School 
 
 
 School 
 
 IN 
 
 Attendance 
 
 Population 
 
 Year 
 
 Population 
 
 White 
 
 in White 
 
 Enrolled in 
 
 
 
 Schools 
 
 Schools 
 
 White Schools 
 
 1871-2 
 
 632 
 
 285 
 
 197 
 
 45 
 
 1875-6 
 
 726 
 
 264 
 
 166 
 
 36 
 
 1880-1 
 
 894 
 
 321 
 
 230 
 
 36 
 
 1885-6 
 
 915 
 
 505 
 
 363 
 
 55 
 
 1890-1 
 
 909 
 
 592 
 
 440 
 
 65 
 
 1895-6 
 
 905 
 
 593 
 
 443 
 
 66 
 
 1900-1 
 
 933 
 
 579 
 
 473 
 
 62 
 
 1905-6 
 
 900 
 
 630 
 
 503 
 
 70 
 
 1910-11 
 
 946 
 
 649 
 
 495 
 
 69 
 
 1915-16 
 
 1,007 
 
 914 
 
 727 
 
 91 
 
 1916-17 
 
 1,007* 
 
 929 
 
 705 
 
 92 
 
 •We repeat the figure of 1915-16 to keep the data more comparable, rather than employ 
 the results of our own census of November, 191 7. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 69 
 
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70 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE VIII 
 
 Size of Elementary Classes (White Schools) 
 November, 1917 
 
 f ■ Teacher 
 
 Grade 
 
 Enrollment 
 
 A 
 
 1st 
 
 63 
 
 B 
 
 1st 
 
 63 
 
 C 
 
 1st and 2d 
 
 47 
 
 D 
 
 2d 
 
 40 
 
 £ 
 
 2d 
 
 63 
 
 F 
 
 3d 
 
 47 
 
 G 
 
 3d 
 
 41 
 
 H 
 
 8d and 4th 
 
 48 
 
 I 
 
 4th 
 
 41 
 
 J 
 
 4th 
 
 45 
 
 K 
 
 5th 
 
 47 
 
 L 
 
 6th 
 
 39 
 
 M 
 
 5th and 6 th 
 
 50 
 
 N 
 
 6th 
 
 50 
 
 
 
 6th and 7th 
 
 47 
 
 P 
 
 7th 
 
 50 
 
 Average 
 
 
 48 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 71 
 
 TABLE DC 
 
 Teachers' Average Salaries 
 
 
 Total Expe>jditures 
 
 Number 
 
 
 Ye.ar 
 
 for Teachers' 
 
 of 
 
 Average Annual 
 
 
 Salaries 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Salary 
 
 1871- 2 
 
 $ 2,986.28 
 
 8 
 
 $373.29 
 
 1875- 6 
 
 3,459.98 
 
 7 
 
 494.28* 
 
 1880- 1 
 
 4,128.00 
 
 8 
 
 516.00* 
 
 1885- 6 
 
 4,336.00 
 
 12 
 
 361.33 
 
 1890- 1 
 
 5,303.75 
 
 14 
 
 378.84 
 
 1895- 6 
 
 5,354.00 
 
 14 
 
 382.43 
 
 1900- 1 
 
 5,350.00 
 
 15 
 
 356.67 
 
 1905- 6 
 
 5,857.00 
 
 14 
 
 418.36 
 
 1910-11 
 
 7,860.60 
 
 17 
 
 462.39 
 
 1915-16 
 
 11,500.84 
 
 23 
 
 500.04 
 
 1916-17 
 
 11,821.67 
 
 23 
 
 513.99 
 
 ♦Probably some error in records. 
 
 TABLE X 
 
 Average Salaries of Teachers, 1916-1917, in Virginia Cities 
 
 Having School Population Between One and Two 
 
 Thousand 
 
 City 
 
 School 
 Popula- 
 tion 
 
 Total Expendi- 
 tures FOR 
 Teachers' 
 Salaries 
 
 Number 
 
 OF 
 
 Teachers 
 
 Average 
 
 Annual 
 Salary 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Clifton Forge . . 
 Fredericksburg . 
 
 Hampton 
 
 Harrisonburg. . 
 
 Radford 
 
 Winchester. . . , 
 
 1,758 
 1.505 
 1,627 
 1,310 
 1,349 
 1,181 
 1,261 
 
 $20,864.63 
 16,520.93 
 13,051.05 
 15,838.17 
 18,065.38 
 9,635.78 
 11,821.67 
 
 38 
 37 
 22 
 29 
 35 
 23 
 23 
 
 $549.07 
 446.61 
 593.23 
 546.14 
 516.15 
 418.95 
 1613.99 
 
72 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE XI 
 
 Total Value of All School Property per Child of School Popu- 
 lation IN Cities of Virginia Having a School Population 
 Between One and Two Thousand 
 
 City 
 
 Total Value 
 
 OF All School 
 
 Property 
 
 School 
 Population 
 
 Amount of Prop- 
 erty per Child 
 OF the School 
 Population 
 
 Bristol 
 
 Clifton Forge 
 
 Fredericksburg. . . 
 
 Hampton 
 
 Harrisonburg 
 
 Radford 
 
 Winchester 
 
 $206,500.00 
 68,300.00 
 45,100.00 
 61,700.00 
 109,875.00 
 54,300.00 
 31,500.00 
 
 1,758 
 1,505 
 1,627 
 1,310 
 1,349 
 1,181 
 1,261 
 
 $117.46 
 45.38 
 27.72 
 47.10 
 81.45 
 45.98 
 24.98 
 
 TABLE XII 
 Per Pupil Current Expense, Winchester 
 
 
 Total 
 
 Total 
 
 Per 
 
 Average 
 Daily 
 
 Attend- 
 ance 
 
 Per 
 
 Year 
 
 Current 
 
 Enroll- 
 
 Pupil 
 
 Pupil 
 
 
 Expense 
 
 ment 
 
 Expense 
 
 Expense 
 
 1871-2 
 
 $ 3,912.05 
 
 402 
 
 $ 9.73 
 
 259 
 
 $15.10 
 
 1875-6 
 
 5,598.76 
 
 414 
 
 13.52 
 
 266 
 
 21.05 
 
 1880-1 
 
 4,991.41 
 
 467 
 
 10.69 
 
 301 
 
 16.58 
 
 1885-6 
 
 5,831.82 
 
 741 
 
 7.87 
 
 470 
 
 12.41 
 
 1890-1 
 
 7,228.73 
 
 759 
 
 9.52 
 
 544 
 
 13.29 
 
 1895-6 
 
 6,821.82 
 
 821 
 
 8.31 
 
 599 
 
 11.39 
 
 1900-1 
 
 6,808.48 
 
 770 
 
 8.84 
 
 611 
 
 11.14 
 
 1905-6 
 
 7,332.81 
 
 804 
 
 9.12 
 
 632 
 
 11.60 
 
 1910 11 
 
 10,334,25 
 
 836 
 
 12.36 
 
 602 
 
 17.17 
 
 1915-16 
 
 14,241.17 
 
 1,073 
 
 13.27 
 
 860 
 
 16.56 
 
 1916-17 
 
 16,601.71 
 
 1,111 
 
 14.94 
 
 801 
 
 20.73 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 73 
 
 
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74 
 
 APPENDIX 
 
 TABLE XIV^ 
 Assessment of Property and Tax Rates in Virginia Cities 
 
 Cities 
 
 Per cent. Assessed 
 
 VALtTE IS OF 
 
 Actual Value 
 
 Tax Rate 
 
 Alexandria 
 
 Buena Vista 
 
 5L8 
 59.9 
 49.2 
 70.2 
 76.5 
 62.9 
 48.8 
 56.2 
 46.7 
 47.2 
 44.9 
 
 1.50 
 
 Charlottesville 
 
 Newport News 
 
 1.67J 
 1.50 
 
 Fredericksburg 
 
 Petersburg 
 
 Roanoke 
 
 Lynchburg 
 
 Portsmouth 
 
 Staunton 
 
 Winchester 
 
 1.30 
 1.70 
 1.50 
 1.50 
 2.00 
 1.55 
 1.20 
 
 'From Annual Report of the City Maoaser of Winchester, 1910-17. 
 
APPENDIX 
 
 75 
 
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76 
 
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APPENDIX 
 
 77 
 
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