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SCHOOL HISTORY 
 
 OF THE 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 
 BV 
 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART, LL. 1). 
 
 PROFESSOR OF GOVERNMENT 
 HARVARD UNIVERSITY 
 
 /Author of "Neu' American History"' 
 
 AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 
 
 N E W \' O R K 
 
 C I N C I N N' A T I 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
Copyright, iqi8, by 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 
 
 All rights reserved 
 
 SCHOOL HISTORY OF THE UNITED STATES 
 E.P. I 
 
 MAR 3C 1918 
 
 A494364 
 
INTRODUCTION 
 
 Why should a new School History of the United States be written? 
 Chiefly in order to put at the disposition of the upper grades a book 
 embodying a broadly national point of view and presenting adequate 
 treatment of certain topics which hitherto have been too little stressed 
 in the study of American history. 
 
 (1) The European background of our history is clearly sketched, 
 with due recognition of our inheritance of language, law, and political 
 methods from England. Due attention is also paid to other influences 
 from overseas. 
 
 (2) Great pains have been taken to treat adequately the various 
 sections of the country, which differ somewhat from one another. Hence 
 there are special chapters on the West, the far West, and the new South, 
 as well as a brief but clear account of the thirteen- English colonies and 
 of the distribution of American territory among the colonizing nations. 
 
 (3) Another important feature is the fullness of treatment of the 
 social and industrial conditions of the colonies and the later United 
 States, for which twehe of the thirty-seven chapters are set apart. 
 
 (4) Wars are treated as intense experiences of the American people; 
 the aim is not merely to give the causes and results, but also to show 
 how the problems of raising armies and carr>'ing on the struggles have 
 been solved, and what was the eff^ect on the life of the community. 
 Military and naval movements are subordinated. 
 
 (5) A special efl^ort is made to bring home to the minds of children 
 the way in which our government is carried on. The book includes not 
 only brief accounts of elections and political events, but also simple 
 descriptions of important parts of the machinery of government, such as 
 the Federal Convention, national banks, and the tariff'. 
 
 (6) As one of the main jiurposes of history is to bring boys and girls 
 to understand such political questions as they themselves are likely 
 to confront, about a third of the book is devoted to the period since 
 the Civil War; the effort has been made so to simplify the questions 
 of currency, banking, transportation, and business combinations, as 
 to make them understood by school children as a part of the problems 
 of their own national and state governments. 
 
 ALBERT BUSHNELL HART 
 3 
 
FOREWORD TO TEACHERS 
 
 This School History is intended first of all to be a textbook which 
 children will study and from which they will recite. It is illustrated 
 by pictures and maps which ought to be used as a part of their study; 
 beyond that, it contains references and topics which will make it easy 
 to extend the work somewhat outside of the textbook by additional 
 reading and essay writing. All the work of the children is intended to 
 fix in their minds the impression that history is continuous and that 
 those who came before us were living human beings like ourselves. 
 
 Recitations. — The text is written in simple language so as to be 
 easily understood by pupils in the grades. Some subjects, as for ex- 
 ample the Federal Convention, banks, slavery, specie and paper cur- 
 rency, conservation, etc., involve ideas which maybe novel to the chil- 
 dren, but which every American school child can and should acquire. 
 
 The questions at the ends of chapters referring to parts of the num- 
 bered sections are about twelve hundred in number, and cover the whole 
 text. Most of them, however, cannot be answered by a mere repetition 
 of the text, and children should be encouraged to make all statements 
 in their own words. 
 
 Pictures and Maps. — The illustrative material has been chosen with 
 great care so as to make the text clearer. Children should be encour- 
 aged to search the pictures for details, and to use the picture references 
 at the ends of chapters to find other illustrations on the same subjects. 
 The maps also will be found directly helpful to the pupil. The teacher 
 ought to bring out geographical details in the recitations and use the 
 black board for further information. Properly taught, political geog- 
 raphy is a great aid to history. The chapter references will lead to 
 the use of additional maps. 
 
 Topics. — Where the conditions allow, the work of the children 
 wjll be enlivened if they can do something constructive. Carefully 
 selected references are therefore made to standard histories, especially 
 the briefer ones, and also to easily available sets of sources; for nothing 
 .gives such vitality to a child's knowledge as some use of things actually 
 
 4 
 
FOREWORD TO TEACHERS 5 
 
 written b>- people of past times. Ihe cssaj- subjects offer a good op- 
 portunity to connect the work in English with that in history; and the 
 chapter references will lead to good materials for the knowledge neces- 
 sary to the essay writer. Children should also be encouraged to read 
 stories which have an historical background, and the references provide 
 for that pleasure. 
 
 Scope of the Book. — In the Introduction attention is called to the 
 social and economic trend of the volume; the spirit of modern times 
 calls for knowledge of and constant use of this significant side of his- 
 tory. In the nature of things it is not so easy to study conditions and 
 inventions and methods of business as to take uj) the personal, narra- 
 tive part of history; but social life, the opening up of the frontier, the 
 growth of mechanical devices, and the improvement of business are 
 among the things that count most in the development of our nation. It 
 is just as important for children to learn how their forefathers worked 
 and lived as to learn about their wars and their government. 
 
 Brief List of Desk Books. — Every teacher ought to have at hand 
 a few historical aids, some of which should be at all times available for 
 the use of the pupils. A list of the most important books referred to 
 in the chapter references will be found in the Appendix. Here is a 
 carefully selected list of about twenty works out of which the teacher 
 should choose at least one from each of the four groups for personal 
 and desk use: 
 
 1. Methods and Materials. American Historical Association, Committee 
 
 of Seven, The Study of History in Schools. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1899.) 
 Bourne, H. E., The Teaching of History and Civics in the Elementary and 
 
 Secondary School. (N. Y., Longmans, 1902.) 
 Channing, E., Hart, A. B., and Turner, F. J., Guide to the Study and Read- 
 ing of American History. (Boston, Ginn, 1912.) 
 History Teachers' Magazine (monthly). (Philadelphia, McKinley, 1909.) 
 New England History Teachers' Association, A History Syllabus for 
 Secondary Schools, Part IV. (Boston, Heath, 1904.) — Historical 
 Sources in Schools. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1902.) 
 
 2. Collection of Sources. Caldwell, H. W., ed., Survey of American 
 
 History. (Chicago, Ainsworth, 1900.) 
 Caldwell, H. W., and Persinger, C. E., eds.. Source History of the United 
 
 States. (Chicago, Ainsworth, 1909.) 
 Hart, A. B., ed., American History told by Contemporaries. (4 vols., 
 
 N. v., Macmillan, 1897-1901.) — American Patriots and Statesmen. 
 
 (5 vols., N. Y., Collier's, 1916.) — Source Book of American History. 
 
 (N. Y., Macmillan, 1900.) — Source Readers in American History. 
 
 (4 vols., N. Y., Macmillan, 1902-1903.) 
 
6 FOREWORD TO TEACHERS 
 
 Hart, A. B., and Channing, Edward, eds., American History Leaflets. (36 
 
 nos., N. Y., Simmons, 1892-1910.) 
 Hill, Mabel, ed., Liberty Documents, with Contemporary Exposition and 
 
 Critical Comments. (N. Y., Longmans, 1901.) 
 MacDonald, Wm., ed., Documentary Source Book of American History. 
 
 (N. Y., Macmillan, 1908.) 
 
 3. Single Volumes and Brief Series of Histories. Bassett, J. S., Short 
 
 History of the United States. (N. Y., Macmillan, 1913.) 
 Epochs of American History. (3 vols, by Thwaites, R. G. ; Hart, A. B.; 
 
 Wilson, Woodrow. N. Y., Longmans. Rev. eds. about 1914.) 
 Home University Library of Modern Knowledge. (5 vols, by Andrews, 
 
 CM.; Smith, T.C.; MacDonald, William; Paxson, F. L.; Haworth, 
 
 T. L. N. Y., Holt, 1911-1914.) 
 The Riverside History of the United States. (4 vols, by Becker, C. L.; 
 
 Johnson, A.; Dodd, W. E.; Paxson, F. L. Boston, Houghton Mifflin, 
 
 1916.) 
 A Short History of the American People. (2 vols, by Greene, E. B.; Fish, 
 
 C. R. N. Y., American Book Company, 1913.) 
 Sparks, E. E., The United States of America. (2 vols., N. Y., Putnams, 
 
 1904.) 
 
 4. Maps. Shepherd, William R., Historical Atlas. (N. Y., Holt, 191 1, 
 
 new ed.) 
 
TABLE OF CONTENTS 
 
 Chapter Page 
 
 i. forerunfners of american history (12oo-15so) ii 
 
 II. Discovery and Discoverers (1000-1604) 23 
 
 III. First English Settlements (1607-1660) 43 
 
 IV. Riv.'VLS AND New Colonies (1604-1689) 59 
 
 V. Colonial Life (16S9-1750) 75 
 
 VI. War and the West (1689-1763) 92 
 
 VII. Colonial Labor and Colonial Business (1689-1763) 107 
 
 VIII. Why There W,\s a Revolution (1763-1774) 120 
 
 ^^_IX. The Revolutionary W.\r (1775-1783) 131 
 
 X. Independence and the Union (1775-1781) 144 
 
 XI. The Old Roof .\nd the New Roof (1781-1789) 155 
 
 XII. How People Lived a Century Ago (i 790-1820) 168 
 
 XIII. The Federalists in Power (1789-1801) 178 
 
 XIV. Expansion and Neutral Trade (1801-1812) 190 
 
 XV'. War with Gre.\t Britain (1809-1815) 204 
 
 XVI. Going West (1790-1830) 215 
 
 ,i.JCVII. How the N.\tion Came Together (1815-1829) 229 
 
 XVIII. The American People (1829-1860) 245 
 
 XIX. New P.\rties and Politics (1829-1841) 258 
 
 XX. New Business Methods (1829-1860) 269 
 
 XXI. Westward Expansion (1840-1850) 285 
 
 XXII. Young America (1829-1861) 300 
 
 XXIII. Sectional Feeling (1850-1860) 312 
 
 XK IV. First Period of the Crtl War (1860-1863) 329 
 
 XXV. The People During the Cutl W.-vr (1861-1865) 342 
 
 XXVI. Conclusion of the Civil War (1863-1865) 357 
 
 XXVII. Reconstruction (1865-1869) 369 
 
 XXVIII. The West ant) the Pacific Slope (1870-1885) 380 
 
 XXIX. Politics and Parties (1869-1885) 394 
 
 XXX. The New South (1869-1885) 407 
 
 XXXI. Business and Labor (1869-1890) 417 
 
 XXXII. Democratic .\dministrations (1885-1897) 431 
 
 XXXIII. The Sp.^vnish War and its Results (1897-1907) 446 
 
 XXXIV. Big Business (1890-1916) 459 
 
 XXXV. The People's Life (1900-1916) 469 
 
 XXXVI. New Problems for Americans to Solve (1 890-1916) 479 
 
 XXXVTI. Political Development (1905-1917) 492 
 
 APPENDICES 
 
 A. Declaration of Independence i 
 
 B. Constitution of the United States v 
 
 C. Table of the States xix 
 
 D. Table of the Presidents xx 
 
 E. List of Important Books xxi 
 
HAW 
 -/ 
 
 i)i 
 
 158" Lotif;. 
 
TERRITORIAL 
 DEVEL0P3IENT 
 
 OF TIIK 
 
 UNITED STATES 
 1783 to 1916 
 
 =^^¥-rfS*^^^'12^ 
 
 
REFERENCE MAPS 
 
 Pages 
 
 Territorial Development of the United States, 1783-1916 8,9 
 
 Physical Map of the United States, with Location of Impor- 
 tant Indian Tribes 30 
 
 National Settlement in North America, 1750 94 
 
 Colonial Trade and Commerce, 1689-1775 113 
 
 Revolutionary War 132, 
 
 United States in 1802 182. 
 
 Opening of the West, 1815-1830 224 
 
 United States in 1830 244 
 
 Principal Transportation Lines in the United States, 1850 280 
 Acquisitions of Territory, i 845-1 853, and Campaigns of the 
 
 War with Mexico 290 
 
 LTnited States in 1861 328 
 
 Eastern United States. Emancipation, 1863-1865 374 
 
 The Far West and the Pacific Coast, 1890 432 
 
 United States and its Possessions 444, 445 
 
 United States (Showing Admission of States and Principal 
 
 Agricultural, Mining, and Manufacturing Regions) . . 480, 481 
 
SCHOOL HISTORY 
 OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 CHAPTER I 
 
 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY (1200-1550) 
 
 1. What is the United States? — I'ljon an\- globe that 
 shows the world there will be seen a continent marked " North 
 America." Across it, 
 
 extending from the 
 Atlantic Ocean to the 
 Pacific, lies a broad ex- 
 panse labeled " United 
 States," which is di- 
 vided into forty-eight 
 parts called " states." 
 That is our home, three 
 thousand miles west of 
 the coast of Europe and 
 five thousand miles east 
 of the islands off the 
 coast of Asia. 
 
 Hundreds of volumes 
 have been written 
 about the United 
 States, telling of its 
 harbors, its rivers, and 
 its lakes, and describ- 
 ing such natural won- 
 ders as Niagara Falls with its plunge of one hundred and 
 sixty feet of bright green water; the marvelous Yosemite 
 
 II 
 
 Nevada Falls (about 600 feet high) in Yosemite 
 National Park, California 
 
12 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 Vallc") ; the Grand Canyon of the Colorado, scooped out of soHd 
 rock, in places six thousand feet deep; and Glacier National 
 Park on the northern border. Still, however interesting this 
 land iTia>' be, a description of it would belong to geography and 
 not to history; for history is an account of the origin and 
 growth of the people who live upon a land. 
 
 2. The American People. — The phrase "the United 
 States " is sometimes loosely applied to the people who live 
 within the country, as for instance: " the United States has 
 a federal government." We mean by that phrase that the 
 people of the United States live under a federal government. 
 Both at home and abroad, the people of this land are usually 
 known as "Americans," though the native Indians are also 
 Americans and there are other North and South Americans 
 who do not live within our boundaries and rather resent it that 
 we should think of ourselves as especially " The Americans." 
 
 This School History of the United States aims to tell how 
 there came to be an American people and what they have done; 
 for the land is important only because it is inhabited by wide- 
 awake, industrious, and thoughtful men, women, and children. 
 It would take a million books to tell the whole story of the 
 beginnings and growth of the United States, for scores of 
 millions of people have come to this land or have been born 
 here, have lived and died here, have worked and suffered 
 here, in order to make the nation. In one small book we can 
 select only a few people, events, and governments, such as 
 stand out most clearly. We can learn much about the history 
 of our country from the lives of the great leaders who made 
 discoveries, founded colonies, built up the states, and helped 
 to make the American nation. We must also learn what 
 was thought and what was done by the plain common people 
 who did the hard work, fought the battles, and elected the 
 statesmen to office. We must try to see them at work, 
 hunting for furs or fishing or farming, weaving cloth, build- 
 ing ships, opening mines, starting factories, running railroads, 
 digging canals, or manning ships of war. We must learn what 
 sort of governors, presidents, legislatures, congresses, and 
 courts the American people have had; how they have framed 
 
AMERICAN PEOPLE AND THEIR LAND 
 
 13 
 
 a system of " governmcuL by the people." All these things are 
 parts of our history which young Americans ought to know. 
 
 3. The United States a Part of the Greater World. — The 
 physical United States, the land and water which make up 
 the face of the country, cannot be cut off by the hand of man 
 from the rest of the North American continent. That conti- 
 nent cannot be set apart from the rest of the western hemi- 
 sphere; and that hemisphere is not far away from the eastern 
 hemisphere. They are all parts of the same world. So with 
 the people of the United States. They are not a race by 
 themselves, but are made up of descendants of all the races 
 of Europe and of many of the races of Asia and Africa. No 
 one can write a history of the United States without taking 
 into account the other parts of the earth where the ancestors 
 of the present Americans lived. 
 
 We must remember that e\er\' American, except those of 
 the native Indian race, is an immigrant or the descendant of 
 an immigrant. Nearly all the immigrants to North and South 
 America down to 1820 came from those parts of Europe which 
 lie on the Baltic Sea, 
 the Atlantic Ocean, 
 and the Mediterranean 
 Sea, or from Africa. 
 Therefore, the first step 
 in the study of our own 
 history is to find out 
 what kind of nations 
 and people discovered 
 and occupied America. 
 
 4. European Coun- 
 tries and Commerce 
 (1200-1500). — -Out of 
 
 the territory which a thousand \ears before had been occu- 
 pied by the mighty Roman Empire, a group of European 
 countries slowly grew up — England, Germany, France, Spain, 
 Portugal, Italy, and the Greek Empire of which Constanti- 
 nople w£is the capital. These were all commercial nations; 
 and the boldest and bravest of the people engaged in business 
 
 Only the boldest manners would venture into un- 
 known seas believed to abound in fabled mon- 
 sters. (From a picture published in 1555) 
 
14 
 
 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 and made money with which they could build strong walls 
 and hire soldiers to defend them. Cities such as Venice and 
 Genoa were rich enough to fit out powerful navies and to 
 
 Early traders' routes between Europe and Asia. Showing also Portuguese discoveries 
 along the west coast of Africa to 1487 
 
 raise armies of foot soldiers. Their pack horses and wagons 
 and boats carried goods along the streams and across the 
 mountains to every part of Europe. Their ships sailed to 
 Constantinople and the Black Sea, to Egypt, to England, to 
 the " Low Countries," now Belgium and Holland, on the 
 southern coast of the North Sea. They fought with land 
 robbers and with sea pirates; they fought with enemies of 
 
COMMERCE WITH ASIA 1 5 
 
 their country; they fought with each other; and notwith- 
 standing the losses of those wars they grew richer and more 
 populous. 
 
 For thousands of years Europe was constantly receiving 
 goods from eastern Asia, a part of the world which was almost 
 as hard to reach as the north pole is now. It seems strange that 
 people should have bought and sold diamonds and peacocks, 
 sugar and spices, pearls and silks, carpets and drugs, without 
 ever seeing the lands from which the>' came or the people who 
 produced them. For ages caravans had been passing to and 
 fro, overland from northwestern India to the Caspian Sea 
 and the eastern Mediterranean. For ages Arab traders had 
 carried goods from India up the Red Sea to Egypt. Never- 
 theless almost the only European who was e\'er moved to go 
 into those distant lands was Marco Polo, a Venetian, who 
 about 1275 made his way overland to China, heard tales about 
 Japan, and after many years got back home to tell his story in 
 a famous book of travels. 
 
 This ignorance about Asia was unfortunate, because China 
 and India knew man>' things that would have been useful to 
 Europeans. The Chinese Empire was older than, and as great 
 as, the ancient Roman Empire. The Chinese, ages before this 
 time, had invented the mariner's compass, gunpowder, the 
 art of printing, the use of paper mone>', the making of fine 
 porcelain, and other arts not known in Europe. Yet most of 
 Asia was an unknown land to Europeans. 
 
 5. The Renaissance and the Protestant Reformation f 1300- 
 1550). — About tile year 1300 all western Europe began to 
 pass through a sort of awakening which is commonly called 
 the "Renaissance"; that is, the rebirth. Many travelers 
 visited Rome, which though partly in ruins gave them an 
 idea of the wealth and power that the Roman Empire had 
 once possessed. Artists studied the buildings and sculpture, 
 literary men read and translated the ancient writers, and people 
 felt a new desire to learn something about the past and to 
 know w^hat the world was realh- like. Several Popes were 
 leaders in the Renaissance. 
 
 New arts were discovered or brought from distant lands. 
 
I 6 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 A German named Gutenberg invented for himself the art 
 of printing with movable types. Sailors began to use the 
 magnetic compass and felt freer to venture out of sight of 
 land. Learned men began to study chemistry, which was 
 then called alchemy. This new spirit led to a new idea of the 
 education of children so that they might be taught to think 
 more for themselves. 
 
 The interest in new things spread to voyages of exploration. 
 At that time nearly everybody in Europe believed that the 
 world was a sort of irregular flat pancake with frozen rivers 
 and burning deserts all around the rim. The best sailors of 
 that time were the Italians. Whenever they came home they 
 made a chart of the lands that they had discovered, for the 
 benefit of other sailors. The method of "sailing on the wind" 
 had been discovered not long before this time and made it 
 safer to go on long voyages in unknown seas, for it was possible 
 to get back home against head winds. To find one's place at 
 sea was very important, and rude instruments, such as the 
 " astrolabe," were invented, by which the na\igator could 
 tell how far he was north or south of the equator, though he 
 could not be sure of his easting or westing. 
 
 One of the results of the Renaissance was that men began 
 to differ about religion. There was 'the Armenian Christian 
 Church in Asia Minor and the Greek Christian Church in the 
 Greek Empire and Russia. The Roman Catholic Church was 
 the only church in central and western Europe. In 151 7 
 some German priests, monks, and laymen, headed by Martin 
 Luther, set out to reform the church, and after a few years 
 broke away from it. This movement took the name of the 
 Protestant Reformation. It spread into other countries — 
 Hungary, Austria, Switzerland, France, the Scandina^Man 
 countries, and England — and western Europe was thus di- 
 \ided between two religious faiths. 
 
 6. European Business Methods (1200-1500). — Under the 
 influence of the Renaissance, which led people to enjoy more 
 luxuries, the trade of Europe increased. The Venetians and 
 the Genoese had most of the trade with the Greek Empire 
 and handled most of the wares that came from the interior 
 
EUROPEAN BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 17 
 
 of Asia. From Genoa and Venice there were roads by land 
 into northern Europe; and the Spaniards, French, and 
 EngUsh were eager and successful traders. The Germans 
 also were excellent seamen and controlled nearly all the trade 
 in the Baltic Sea. The richest district in Europe was the so- 
 called Low Countries, in which were the cities of Antwerp, 
 Ghent, and Bruges with their great manufactures of fine cloths. 
 Merchants had to seek large profits, for they ran many 
 risks. Vessels were not strongly built, and many were wrecked 
 for lack of lighthouses and charts of the dangerous rocks and 
 shoals. Pirates cruised everywhere, especially in the Medi- 
 terranean Sea. When war broke out, and often before it 
 broke out, vessels from one country would be seized by vessels 
 of war on the other side, or by other armed merchant ships. 
 Sailors especially dreaded the row-galleys, propelled by slaves 
 so that they could move against wind and tide, and could thus 
 
 A row-galley of the i6th century. The lilies on the banners show that it is French. 
 Notice that the craft also carries sails 
 
 capture a vessel that was becalmed. Nothing in all the 
 history of mankind has been more cruel and pitiless than the 
 treatment of the galley slaves, who were chained to their 
 oars and forced to work by the lash. Shakespeare's Merchant 
 of Venice is a lively picture of how business was conducted at 
 that time, how money was borrowed, and how a merchant 
 could be ruined by wrecks and pirates. 
 
1 8 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 Interior of the Grammar School in Stratford-on-Avon where Shakespeare 
 went to school 
 
 7. European Ideas that Affected America. — The reason 
 for telling this brief story of European conditions is to make 
 us understand what kind of people crossed the ocean and 
 founded new communities in the New World. For the first 
 colonists did not think of themselves as Americans at all. 
 They were simply Spaniards or Frenchmen or Englishmen, 
 who chose to live across the sea, and who continued to live as 
 nearly as they could in the same way as at home. 
 
 Among the ideas which the colonists all brought with them 
 was the European notion that some people were kings, some 
 lords, and some just common people. They felt that who- 
 ever was king must be obeyed, no matter what his character 
 was; and that a man or family with a noble name was more 
 important than ordinary people. 
 
 Another European idea was that the Christians ought to 
 con^ ert the heathen. The Catholics had for ages sent mission- 
 aries among the pagans in Europe, Asia, and Africa. They 
 continued that good work in the New World, and were fol- 
 lowed in it by the Protestants. In European cities were 
 schools and universities, and similar schools and colleges were 
 set up in America. 
 
EUROPEAN IDEAS I 9 
 
 The methods of European trade were used in the New 
 World, and the rival merchants of different countries fought 
 with and plundered each other, much as they did at home. 
 
 We Americans ought to be especially thankful for certain 
 European ideas about human freedom. Both Catholics and 
 Protestants thought it wrong to hold Christians in slavery, 
 and hence nearly all the Europeans who settled in America 
 were treated as free persons. On the other hand, most 
 Europeans thought it right to make slaves of pagans and 
 therefore saw no objection to enslaving the Indians in 
 America. 
 
 A privilege highly prized in Europe was a written document 
 commonly called a " charter," by which a king granted lands 
 or rights which later kings had not the power to take away. 
 Some such charters were granted to the whole nation, par- 
 ticularly the famous " Magna Charta," or " Great Charter," 
 extorted from King John of England in 12 15. In it he prom- 
 ised that " No freeman shall be taken or imprisoned — unless 
 by the lawful judgment of his peers, or by the law of the land." 
 The English colonists never forgot that they were " freemen," 
 and could not be deprived of their liberty so long as they 
 obeyed the laws. 
 
 Another form of charter was a grant from a king to an in- 
 dividual or an association or " compan>-," which gave the 
 right to plant colonies and to govern the settlers. Such 
 charters were the beginnings of the English colonies of Vir- 
 ginia and Massachusetts. 
 
 8. Summary. — The foregoing chapter is a brief account 
 of the people and the countries from which the people of the 
 United States have sprung. 
 
 The words " United States " mean the land in which we 
 live, and also the American people who live here. This history 
 tells how they came to this continent, what they have done, 
 and what sort of country they have built up. 
 
 The people of western and southern Europe, from which 
 America was colonized, were strong, prosperous, and ff)nd of 
 trade. They received goods from Asia, though the\' ne\'er 
 went there. About the year 1300 there arose among them 
 
20 FORERUNNERS OF AMERICAN HISTORY 
 
 what we call the Renaissance, a period in which people began 
 to write new books, make new inventions, think out new 
 forms of religion and government, and explore new countries. 
 The Renaissance was followed by the Protestant Reforma- 
 tion, which divided western Europe into two religious 
 groups. 
 
 One of the results of the Renaissance was a greater interest 
 in strange countries, and many voyages were made in spite of 
 the dangers of shipwreck and pirates. From these countries, 
 after the discovery of America, came thousands of immigrants 
 who looked upon themselves not as Americans but as Eng- 
 lishmen, Frenchmen, or Spaniards that had chosen to live 
 across the ocean from their home country. They brought 
 with them their home ideas about kings and nobles, about 
 the church and education, about trade, freedom, and the privi- 
 lege of doing business or founding colonies under a written 
 charter which could not be taken away from them. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Cheyney, European Back^^round, 25, 35, 55. — Shepherd, Hist. 
 Atlas, 81, 87, 99. 
 
 Histories. Atkinson, Europ. Beginnings of Am. Hist., ch. xx. — 
 Becker, Beginnings, 1-17. — Brooks, Story of Marco Polo. — Fiske, 
 Discovery of Am., I. ch. iii; New England, ch. i. — Moore, Industrial 
 Hist., ch. i. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, I. ch. ii. — Sparks, 
 Expansion of Am. People, ch. i. — Zimmern, Hansa Towns. 
 
 Sources. Cheyney, Readings in Engl. Hist., ch. xii. — Ogg, Source 
 Book of MedicBval Hist., chs. xxvi, xxvii. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 30, 
 32. — Robinson, Readings in Europ. Hist., I. §§ 161-168 (Medieval 
 Hfe, Hansa, etc.), 218-230 (Renaissance), II. §§ 231-249 (Reformation). 
 — Whitcomb, Source Books of Renaissance. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Charles, Chronicles of the Schonberg-Cotta 
 Family (Reformation). — Irving, The Alhambra. — Pyle, Men of Iron 
 (Chivalry in England). — Scott, The Talisman (Crusades). — Yonge, 
 The Armourer's Prentices (Henry VIII). 
 
 Pictures. Mentor, serial nos. 60, 83, 113, 116. — Traill and Mann, Social 
 England (new illustr. ed., pt. ii). — Wright, Hist, of All Nations, IX, X. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ i) I. What is meant by the words "United States"? 2 (For an 
 essay). Describe one of the following: (a) Niagara Falls; (b) Grand 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 21 
 
 Canyon of the Colorado; (c) Yosemite Valley; (d) Glacier National 
 Park. 3. What is the " history " of a country? 
 
 (§ 2) 4. Who are " The Americans "? 5. Why is it hard to write the 
 history of the United States? 6. What things should be treated in a 
 history of the United States? 
 
 (§3) 7- is the United States geographically separated from the rest 
 of the world? 8. Are the people of the United States a separate race? 
 9. Who are the immigrants? 
 
 (§ 4) 10. What vvere the principal European countries when colonization 
 bsgan? II. How did the Europeans carry on trade? 12. What products 
 came from Asia? 13 (For an essay). Account of Marco Polo's travels. 
 14. What did the Chinese do for civilization? 
 
 (§ 5) ^5- What was the " Renaissance"? 16. What were some of the 
 early inventions? 17. How did the early peoples navigate the seas? 
 18. What was the Reformation? 
 
 (§ 6) 19. How were goods distributed through Europe? 20. What were 
 the richest parts of Europe? 21 (For an essay). Account of pirate 
 life. 22. What were galley slaves? 
 
 (§ 7) 23. Mention some European ideas brought by the early colonists. 
 24. What was a king? 25. What was slavery? 26. What was a charter? 
 27. What was a trading company? 28. What was a colony? 
 
Columbus diiCuvered land in Ameiica, October 12, 143^ 
 
CHAPTER II 
 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS (10001604) 
 
 9. Discoveries West and East (985 1487J. — ^When Europe- 
 ans knew so little of neighbors who could be reached b>- a 
 land journe\- eastward, it is not strange that they had no 
 knowledge of wild people who were living in an unknown land 
 at the distance of several weeks' journe>' to the westward 
 across an untra\eled sea. 
 
 Yet in one part of the known world there was a tradi- 
 tion of such a land and people. The Scandinavians, often 
 called Norsemen, were the boldest people in Europe, splendid 
 sailors and great fighters. Some of them occupied Iceland. 
 In the year 985 a party of Icelanders reached Greenland and 
 little colonies were planted there. In the year 1000 an Icelander 
 named Leif Ericson. " the Lucky," sailed beyond Greenland 
 to a coast farther south which is now supposed to have been 
 Labrador or the islands of the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Accord- 
 ing to certain " sagas," or traditions handed down by word 
 of mouth, the Norsemen found " self-sown wheat," " vines," 
 and " grapes," which perhaps were only wineberries. Some 
 natives, whom they called " skraelings, swarthy men and ill- 
 looking," came in skin canoes to meet them; " even the hair 
 of their heads was ugly." After a few voyages the Norsemen 
 ceased going to America and the story of their voyages seems 
 not to have been known outside of Iceland. 
 
 In fact, most Europeans were not interested in western 
 voyages. They wanted to find a road eastward b>' sea. 
 Their object was to a\oid the Ottoman Turks, from central 
 Asia, who about the year 1300 broke into the Greek Empire, 
 occupied Asia Minor, finally captured Constantinople (1453), 
 and pushed up through the Balkan region into Ihmgar\. 
 
 H.\RT S SCH. HIST. — 2 -.> 
 
24 
 
 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 They were a rude people who could not keep order on the 
 land routes into Asia. Somewhat later they captured Egypt 
 also and cut off the Red Sea route to India. Hence the 
 European merchants wanted to find a direct passage by sea; 
 and the Portuguese, beginning about 1420, sent ships down 
 the west coast of Africa, hoping to sail around that con- 
 
 Routes of early voyages to America 
 
COLUMBUS DISCOVERS AMERICA 25 
 
 tinent (map, page 14). Finally, in 1487, Bartholomew Diaz 
 discovered the Cape of Good Hope and the open sea to the 
 eastward, and it was expected that the Portuguese would 
 shortly reach the coast of Asia by water. But such a route 
 to India would be roundabout and more than 10,000 miles 
 long. 
 
 10. Columbus Discovers America (1492). — If the world 
 was really fiat like a pancake, the Portuguese had followed 
 around the edge and there was no other sea route to the 
 Orient; but suppose the world was a globe — then anybody 
 could get to China and India by sailing directly westward. 
 The idea that the world is round was a very old one, but 
 had been rather lost sight of, till it was taken up by a Gen- 
 oese sailor named Christopher Columbus. He was born in 
 Genoa, probably in 1451, the son of a wool worker. He sailed 
 in some of the African voyages, and visited Iceland. He 
 turned his mind to this question of westward sailing and asked 
 advice of an Italian astronomer, Toscanelli, who assured him 
 that the world is round, sent him a map, and guessed that 
 (he distance from Portugal westward to the continent of 
 Asia was only about 6000 miles. It is really about 12,000 
 miles. Columbus figured out that Japan must be 4000 miles 
 away. 
 
 Columbus was a poor man and little known, and he tried 
 in vain to interest the king of Portugal and the king of 
 England and the king of France.. With great difficulty he 
 got the attention of Queen Isabella of Spain and her hus- 
 band, King Ferdinand. They fitted him out with ninety 
 men and three little vessels. Setting sail from Palos in 1492 
 he stopped for a time at the Canary Islands, and then pushed 
 out into unknown seas. After a thirty-three days' voyage on 
 a landless sea, during which he sailed about 3200 miles, he 
 landed October 12, 1492, on a little island, which the Indians 
 called Guanahani, in the Bahama group north of Cuba. He 
 carried on shore the royal flag of Spain and took possession 
 of the new land for Spain. 
 
 Columbus did not in the least realize the greatness of 
 his discovery. The natives were ready to worship these 
 
26 
 
 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 strange beings who wore armor that seemed to them iron 
 skins, and who could shoot thunder out of iron tubes. Co- 
 lumbus thought these people were 
 Asiatics, and expected to find the 
 rich cities of Japan or China before 
 long. 
 
 In a few days he came to the 
 coast of Cuba and then to another 
 large island which he called His- 
 paniola, now Haiti. Leaving here 
 a few men, who made the first Span- 
 ish colony in America, he reached 
 home in safety. Throughout Spain 
 the people were excited by his story, 
 by the savages he had brought back 
 with him, and by a few specimens of 
 gold. Nobody seemed to doubt that 
 Columbus had pro\ed the world to be 
 round by sailing westward to Asia. 
 
 11. The Demarcation Line (1493- 
 1498). — Ferdinand and Isabella at 
 once began to fit Columbus out for another voyage. The 
 Portuguese complained that the Spaniards were trying to 
 compete with their sea route by getting to India first. To 
 prevent disputes between the two nations, Pope Alexander VI 
 (in 1493) issued a " bull " — that is, a written decree or order — 
 that a " demarcation line " should be drawn north and south 
 through the middle of the Atlantic; he decided that the 
 Portuguese were to have all of the new discoveries to the east 
 of the line and the Spaniards all to the west. The two coun- 
 tries next year agreed to this principle, but moved this line to 
 the position shown on page 24. Therefore, when a Portuguese 
 fleet under Vasco da Gama sailed around the Cape of Good 
 Hope and landed in India in 1498, the Spaniards did not 
 object. 
 
 This settlement left out of account the fact that if one party 
 sailed east and the other west, sooner or later the\- must meet 
 somewhere In Asia. Finallv that matter was arranged b>' 
 
 An Italian knight in the beautiful 
 armor of the 15th century 
 
SPANISH ANT) PORTUGUESE 27 
 
 drawing the iniagiiiary " (k-iiiarcation line" riglit around the 
 world. 
 
 No other European country ever felt bound by this divi- 
 sion of the world, and in course of time England, France, 
 Holland, Sweden, and Russia all claimed a right to discover 
 and settle islands and continents anywhere in America or 
 Asia. 
 
 12. Later Voyages of Columbus (1493-1504). — In the 
 eleven years from 1493 to 1504 Columbus made three 
 voyages to America, discovered 
 many islands in the West Indies, 
 coasted part of South America, 
 including the mouth of the Ori- 
 noco River, and skirted the Isth- 
 mus of Panama. His colony of 
 Hispaniola did not flourish and 
 he fell into disgrace. Fourteen 
 years after his first discovery he 
 died a broken man. 
 
 Though a great discoverer and 
 a fearless sailor, Columbus was 
 a hard master. He sailed west- 
 ward in the hope of making his 
 fortune by finding some ci\i- 
 lized people who could be plun- 
 dered. His colony was unruh', 
 and he did not scruple to make 
 slaves of the natixes. His great 
 
 merits were his wonderful pluck, Columbus Monument, erected in New 
 .... Ill 1 York on the four hundredth anniver- 
 
 hlS belief that he could do what sary of the discovery of America 
 
 had never been done before, and 
 
 his ability to make his unwilling sailors continue the first 
 
 voyage till it was successful. 
 
 13. Discoveries by Rival Nations (1497-1524). — Mean- 
 while the Portuguese were spreading far eastward, where they 
 conquered a magnificent empire in India, Ceylon, the Spice 
 Islands, and China. In 1500 one of their captains, Cabral, 
 on a voyage to India, sailed so far west that he struck the 
 
 JtriX^ 
 
28 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 coast of Brazil. It was found that the demarcation line 
 passed to the westward of this part of South America; hence 
 some Portuguese settled there, and their descendants are the 
 Brazilians of to-day. 
 
 Within about fifteen years after the discovery by Columbus 
 it was known that the newly-found lands were not part of 
 China or Japan or India; and the question arose, what name 
 should be given to them. A Venetian sailor, Americus Vespu- 
 cius, had sailed in behalf of Spain and then of Portugal along 
 the continent of South America, which was clearly no part 
 of Asia. Hence in 1507 one Hylacomylus (" Forest-Lake- 
 Miller "), an obscure geographer in Germany, suggested that 
 the part of the world thus discovered be called "Amerige; 
 that is, the land of Americus, or America." The name thus 
 first applied to South America eventually came to be used for 
 both the new continents. 
 
 The king of England was roused by the reports of Colum- 
 bus and in 1497 he gave authority to John Cabot, an Italian, 
 to sail west across the ocean. Cabot found land — probably 
 the island of Cape Breton — and thus eventually gave the 
 English a claim to a share in America. He also reported that 
 codfish were plentiful in those seas; and fishermen at once 
 began to come out from western Europe to the banks of 
 Newfoundland. 
 
 A second rival to Spain was France, which began to show 
 an interest in 1524, when the king sent out Verrazano, another 
 Italian. He coasted North America from the present Georgia 
 to Nova Scotia, putting in on the way at what is now 
 New York harbor. This voyage became the basis of later 
 French claims to territory in North America. 
 
 14. First Voyage Around the World (1519-1522). — One 
 reason why Spain paid little attention to the voyages of other 
 nations was that there was still hope of finding open water 
 through which Asia might be reached. Several Spanish ships 
 coasted along the Gulf of Mexico and also the mainland as far 
 north as the Gulf of St. Lawrence, but found no strait leading 
 west. In 1513 Balboa crossed the Isthmus of Panama, or 
 Darien as it was then called, and reported that the distance be- 
 
i:x(;msii. i riac ii, axd si-wisii 29 
 
 tween the ("lull ot Mexico and llic l\icil'ic ()((an or Sdutli 
 Sea, as he called it — was oiil\- a few miles. 
 
 The next step of the Spaniards was to sent! (jul Magellan, 
 a Portuguese sea captain, to seek a passage farther south (map, 
 pages 36, 37). In 1519 he set sail with fi\e small vessels and 
 touched at the harbor of Rio de Janeiro, where he first tasted 
 l)ineaj)ples, sugar cane, and sweet potatoes. He then entered 
 the mouth of the Plata River. Proceeding down the coast, he 
 discovered a passage which wound westward among snow-clad 
 mountains, and which is now called the Strait of Magellan. 
 
 It took great courage to push into these unknown waters 
 and to reach the Pacific Ocean. Magellan sailed northwest- 
 ward, the first white vo\'ager in the Pacific (Jcean, until he 
 reached land at the Ladrone Islands. Then he came upon 
 a large group of islands which were afterwards called the 
 Philippines, for King Philip of Spain. Magellan was killed 
 by the natives there, but one of his \essels kept on around the 
 Cape of Good Hope, and after three yeeirs' absence returned 
 to Spain loaded with \aluable spices. In the end Spain hekl 
 the Philip])ine Islands, though stricth' the\' were in the region 
 intended lor Portugal b\ the demarcation agreement. 
 
 15. The Interior of North America. — About thirty >cars 
 after the first disc(^\-er\- of America the Spaniards began to 
 plant colonies on the continent of Xorth America. I'p to 
 that time the\' knew nothing of the interior except what the\' 
 could gather from the Indians, whose languages they did not 
 understand. It interests us to know what sort of land the\- 
 disco\ered, for they explored parts of the region that is now 
 the United States. 
 
 The Spaniards knew that there were splendid harbors all 
 along the Atlantic coast, and ri\-ers which must come down 
 from higher countr\- inland. The}- did not realize that there 
 was a spine of mountains which we now call the Appalachians, 
 behind which there was a magnificent s\'stem of ri\ers and 
 lakes; or that far to the west rose the majestic mountain 
 chains which later came to be called the Rock\' Mountains 
 and the Sierra Xevada. The\' did not guess that in the in- 
 terior were great deposits of iron, copper, lead, zinc, gold. 
 
' /^ c^'^ /• .7 '■'"'^4i^_^L 
 
 6 
 
 5 
 o 
 
 ■^' 
 
 !- 
 
 1 
 
 c8 
 
 CO 
 
 n 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 30 
 
INTERIOR OF NORTH AMERICA 3 1 
 
 silver, salt, sulphur, and mercury; stone and marble for 
 building; clay for brick and pottery; coal for fuel; oil and 
 natural gas for fuel and light. 
 
 When they came to explore the interior, they found it 
 covered with endless woods, which in the far Northwest and 
 Southwest stretched beyond the Mississippi. These thick 
 woods were due to the abundant rainfall which has made the 
 
 Mountain of the Holy Cross, in Colorado, 14,000 feet high. One of the high peaks of 
 the Rocky Mountains 
 
 eastern United States so rich ; for rain causes good crops. The 
 climate of the region is, we now know, very favorable to 
 farming. The snow of the northern winters helps some crops, 
 especially wheat, and makes abundant grass and ha>- for ani- 
 mals. In the South it is warm enough for cotton and for 
 such fruits as the orange and lemon. America is the native 
 land of the potato, Indian corn, and tobacco; and in one or 
 another part of the country the farmers can raise wheat, rye, 
 oats, barley, buckwheat, rice, and other grains; apples, 
 peaches, cherries, strawberries, and many other fruits; sweet 
 potatoes, squashes, beets, and other vegetables; grass, alfalfa, 
 and other forage crops for horses and cattle; flax for linseed oil, 
 hemp for cloth and cordage, cotton for clothing; even olives, 
 dates, and sugar cane. The woods furnish timber for houses, 
 
32 
 
 D1SC0\ER\' \Sl) DISCOVERERS 
 
 ships, bridges, fences, and other uses. In the early days 
 many animals roamed through the forests and over the prairies. 
 Of these the most valuable for their skins or furs were the bear, 
 
 the fox, the beaver, 
 the deer, and the 
 buffalo. 
 
 16. The Native In- 
 dians. — Down to the 
 coming of the Euro- 
 peans the only people 
 in America were the 
 natives whom we call 
 Indians. Their skins 
 . were brown or copper- 
 colored, but they were 
 , often called "red men" 
 '■because many of them 
 covered their faces with 
 red paint. Nobody 
 • knows when or how 
 : their ancestors reached 
 America. Some of 
 them must ha\e lived 
 here thousands of years 
 ago, when the mastodons were still roaming the plains, for 
 tablets have been found in Iowa, scratched with rude pictures 
 of those beasts. In Mexico and Peru there are ruins of stone 
 buildings wonderfully carved, dating back nobody knows 
 how far; and some of these buildings are very like certain 
 temples and palaces in southern Asia. Still, if any wanderers 
 came from other continents, the tradition of them was lost 
 ages ago. 
 
 The native Indians were divided into many nations or 
 tribes, large and small, which were like great families. The 
 land that they tilled and their hunting grounds belonged to 
 the whole tribe, and not to the members. The various tribes 
 spoke man\- different languages, none of them like any tongue 
 known in the Old World. 
 
 A beaver family. In the early days tKe''beaver skin 
 was the standard by which the settlers valued 
 guns, clothing, and other furs. Beaver fur was 
 an important export of this country 
 
NATI\ E INDIANS 33 
 
 In the region that is now called the United States, most of 
 the Indians were savages. They had no domestic animals 
 except dogs; but horses and cattle were brought over later 
 from Europe. Some of the tribes wandered from place to 
 place and lived chicrt>- b\- hunting and fishing. Others, such 
 as the Chcrokees and the Navahos, were settled in villages 
 and raised corn and vegetables for food. The Pueblo Indians, 
 in the southwestern part of the countr\', built curious houses 
 of sun-dried clay, like vast, rude apartment houses; each 
 house stood by itself, and was the home of a whole village. 
 
 Large mounds of various shapes, such as animals, temples, 
 and forts, were found widely scattered o\'er the western coun- 
 try, and it is supposed that they were built by ancestors of 
 the present Indians. In many parts of the country can still 
 be traced " Indian trails," which were paths tramped down 
 into the soil by bands of men following one another in single 
 file, year after year. 
 
 The tribes had chiefs or headmen, whom they hardly felt 
 obliged to obey. Not even in the m.ore civilized regions of 
 Mexico and Peru was there what we should call a regular 
 government, with laws, taxes, and protection for life and 
 propert}'. The Indians made few inventions, and had no 
 religion except heathen rites. Most of them were fierce and 
 cruel, and little wars between the tribes were going on much 
 of the time. They proved to be dangerous enemies to the 
 whites. 
 
 17. Spanish Colonies on the Continent (1521-1533"). — Soon 
 after the dealh oi ("olumbus the Spaniards learned that there 
 was a populous country to the westward which was called 
 Mexico; so Hernando Cortes, with about 500 Spanish soldiers, 
 marched into the land, found a quantity of gold, killed 
 thousands of natives, robbed them of their treasures, and 
 set up a permanent colony called New Spain or Mexico 
 (1521). Twelve years later Francisco Pizarro broke up the 
 similar nation of the Incas, an Indian tribe in South America, 
 seized an immense quantity of gold, and founded the Spanish 
 colony of Peru. 
 
 These and other colonies were settled bv " conquistadores "; 
 
34 
 
 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 that is, Spanish leaders to whom the land was parceled 
 out. For a long time they held the inhabitants practically 
 as slaves. A few gold mines were found ; and both in Mexico 
 and in Peru immensely valuable silver mines were discovered, 
 
 and worked by the 
 forced labor of the In- 
 dians. Most of the 
 silver was sent to 
 Spain, which for a 
 time seemed the rich- 
 est country in the 
 world. This easy way 
 of getting money 
 taught the Spaniards 
 to depend too much 
 on' the colonies and 
 too little on their own 
 efforts, and Spain soon 
 began to decline. 
 
 18. Spanish Inland 
 Discoveries (1513- 
 1605). — As early as 
 15 1 3 Ponce de Leon 
 landed on a coast which 
 he named Florida. 
 Soon after the con- 
 quests of Mexico and 
 Peru, the Spaniards 
 tried to open up the territory north and northwest of the 
 Gulf of Mexico. They had already discovered the Missis- 
 sippi River, and in 1539 Hernando De Soto with about 
 600 men started from Tampa Bay, Florida, hoping to find 
 another country like Mexico. For two years he wandered 
 through what is now Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi, and 
 all the way he had to fight with wild tribes. Then he came 
 out on the banks of the Mississippi, which he found to be 
 " half a league over, very deep and very rapid, being always 
 full of trees and timber; the water very thick and muddy." 
 
 Carvings on an Aztec Temple near Cuernavaca, 
 Mexico. The keeper is a descendant of the orig- 
 inal builders 
 
INLAND DISCOVERIES 
 
 35 
 
 De Soto died and was buried in the river; but the 300 men 
 who were left, after great hardships, at last reached Mexico. 
 
 A region farther west was reached by Coronado, who in 
 1540 started northward from Mexico in search of seven rich 
 cities which had been reported to be located somewhere near 
 the Rio Grande. He reached the seven cities to find that they 
 
 The Spanish explorations in North America. The shaded area shows the extent 
 of the country explored by them 
 
 were only poor pueblo villages occupied by the Zufii and other 
 tribes in what is now New Mexico. Coronado set out in 
 further search of a region called Quivira and marched as far 
 as what is now eastern Kansas, without finding anything re- 
 markable except herds of buffalo which he called " crook- 
 backed oxen." After two years of vain wandering, he marched 
 back to the city of Mexico, " very sad and very weary, com- 
 pletely worn out and shamefaced." 
 
 Some years later (1565) the Spaniards founded St. Augustine 
 
36 
 
 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 The routes of 
 
 in Florida, now the oldest 
 town within the United 
 States. In 1605 a Spanish 
 settlement was made at 
 Santa Fc, New Mexico, and 
 then others near by. After 
 being uprooted once by In- 
 dians, these settlements re- 
 vived and have continued 
 to this day. 
 
 19. Exploration of the 
 Pacific Coast (1521-1776). 
 — After the Spaniards con- 
 quered Mexico and Peru, 
 they kept up a trade 
 route across the Isthmus of 
 Panama and another across 
 the broader Isthmus of Tehuan tepee; and they built vessels 
 on the Pacific coast. Cortes began to explore the coast 
 northward, but it was some years before the Spaniards 
 learned that the Gulf of California was shut off from the open 
 sea by the peninsula of Lower California. In 1542 the 
 Spaniard Cabrillo probably went as far north as San Diego 
 and Santa Barbara, and his pilot Ferillo discovered and 
 named Cape Mendocino, the most western projection of 
 California. 
 
 Other Spaniards sailed on northward, but somehow they 
 all missed the three most striking points on the coast. Not 
 one seems to have entered San Francisco Bay, or the mouth 
 of the Columbia River, or the Strait of Juan de Fuca. 
 Indeed, it was two hundred years more before it was proved 
 that Siberia and Alaska do not make a continuous land. It 
 was longer than that (1776) before the Spaniards planted a 
 colony on the spacious harbor of San Francisco. 
 
 20. French and English in America (1534-1580). — ^ While 
 the Spaniards and the Portuguese were planting colonies, two 
 other nations made attempts to take a share of the New World. 
 Captain Jacques Cartier made voyages for France to the gulf 
 
FRENCH AND ENGLISH IN AMERICA 
 
 37 
 
 Drake and MagsUin around the world 
 
 and river of St. Lawrence (1534-37); and thirty years later 
 a party of the French Protestants, who were commonly called 
 Huguenots, tried to plant a colony in what is now South Caro- 
 lina, and then in Florida. The Spaniards destroyed the colony 
 (1565); and the French ceased to settle in this pleasant 
 region and to dispute the Spanish claims. 
 
 The English and the Spaniards were friendly at this time, 
 and until Elizabeth became queen of England (1558). She 
 was a strong Protestant, and England became the most active 
 Protestant country in Europe. From that time suspicion and 
 hatred arose between the two countries. 
 
 Their hostility was increased by the " English sea dogs," 
 who were as good sailors as the Spaniards, and daring fighters. 
 Partly on their own account, and partly with the good will 
 of Queen Elizabeth, they began to trade with the Spanish 
 colonies in America, then attacked them, and then tried to 
 plant colonies of their own in America. 
 
 The most noted of the sea dogs was Francis Drake, who, in 
 1577, in a time of peace and without leave from his own 
 government, went on a cruise to the Pacific. He sailed through 
 the Strait of Magellan and then ran northward, capturing 
 
38 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 ships and plundering wherever he could. None but Spanish 
 ships had ever before been seen in those waters. Drake 
 wintered at a spot not far north of San Francisco, still called 
 Drake's Bay. Then he bore off westward and got safely 
 home in 1580, thus making the second voyage around the 
 world. Queen Elizabeth pretended to be very angry, but he 
 gave her a part of his spoils of jewels, and she came on board 
 his ship and then and there made him " Sir Francis Drake." 
 He and other Englishmen again attacked Spanish towns and 
 cities along various parts of the American coast. 
 
 21. The Raleigh Colonies (1578-1587). — The two men 
 who tried hardest to build up English colonies in America 
 were the half brothers, Sir Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Walter 
 Raleigh. Gilbert vainly attempted to found a colony in 
 Newfoundland under the first colonial charter ever granted to 
 an Englishman (1578). Sir Walter Raleigh was not only a 
 brave man and a good sailor, but a courtier who won the 
 favor of the queen by laying his rich cloak on a muddy spot 
 so that she might pass over dry-shod. His idea was to plant 
 colonies which could live on the Indian trade, and at the 
 same time be on hand to attack the Spanish colonies and 
 fleets. 
 
 Three different times between 1585 and 1587 he sent out 
 settlers to Roanoke Island (map, page 49), on a part of the 
 American coast, which Queen Elizabeth named Virginia after 
 herself, as the Virgin Queen. All these colonies failed for lack 
 of food or from disease or from attacks by Indians; and the 
 Spaniards continued to claim all the coast along which their 
 exploring vessels had ever sailed. 
 
 22. The Invincible Armada (1588). — The Spaniards, who 
 were the proudest people and the best. soldiers and shipbuild- 
 ers in all Europe, resolved to give the English sea dogs enough 
 of fighting. Therefore they prepared a fleet which they called 
 the " Invincible Armada," consisting of 137 vessels and carry- 
 ing 27,000 men, and in 1588 they set sail for the conquest 
 of England. 
 
 They thought it would be an easy task; but the English 
 swarmed out of their ports with a large fleet of handy vessels, 
 
THE ENGLISH AND THE SPANIARDS 39 
 
 fought the Spaniards all the way up the English Channel, 
 scared them with fire ships, and drove them into the sea to 
 the east of England. While the Spaniards were trying to sail 
 back around the north of Scotland, their fleet was scattered 
 by a great tempest. Less than half the ships ever got back to 
 Spain. 
 
 The result was that the English found out the weakness of 
 Spain. Therefore they could no longer be held back from 
 taking a share of the land and the riches of America. After 
 a few years the Spaniards and the English made peace again, 
 but the English would not agree to keep out of the unoccupied 
 lands in America claimed by the Spaniards. Thus the way 
 was cleared for planting permanent English colonies. 
 
 23. Summary. — This chapter describes how the New 
 World was discovered, and the exploration of the coasts and 
 the inland country down to the end of the war between Eng- 
 land and Spain (1604). 
 
 The Scandinavians, commonly called Norsemen, reached 
 the northeast coast of America about the year 1000 but soon 
 lost sight of it. Europeans began to think about sailing west 
 when the Turks choked up the old routes to Asia by land and 
 sea. Columbus was the first man to act on the belief that the 
 world is a globe, by starting to sail west to Asia; in 1492 he 
 discovered the West Indies and afterwards the coast of Central 
 and South America. 
 
 By a demarcation line, first suggested by the Pope, the 
 Portuguese agreed to keep out of the " West Indies " if the 
 Spaniards would keep out of the " East Indies." England 
 and France did not recognize this division of the newly re- 
 vealed parts of the world, and so discovered parts of the 
 coast of North America on their own account. Magellan, 
 for the Spaniards, rounded South America and discovered the 
 Philippine Islands, and one of his ships went on around the 
 world. 
 
 The Spaniards made a few inland explorations and began 
 to discover some of the rich land of the interior; for the present 
 area of the United States is one of the richest parts of the 
 world for farming, fishing, and mining. The Spaniards met 
 
40 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 the Indians, some of whom had large towns and were partly 
 civilized, but most of whom lived as savages in wild tribes. 
 The Spaniards conquered Mexico and Peru, and discovered 
 the Mississippi and the great plains west of it. They also 
 coasted up the west side of the continent but failed to find 
 the great harbors and valleys of the Pacific coast. 
 
 The English sea dogs harassed and plundered the Spaniards 
 both in the West Indies and on the Pacific coast, and one of 
 them, Raleigh, tried to plant colonies in what was then called 
 V^irginia. The French also explored the mouth of the St. 
 Lawrence River and vainly tried to plant colonies farther south. 
 The Spaniards and the English finally went to war, and the 
 Invincible Armada of the Spaniards was defeated in 1588. 
 This disaster weakened the Spaniards so that they could not 
 prevent the English from colonizing America. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, I. — Bourne, Spain m Am. — Brigham 
 and McFarlane, Essentials of Geography, Second Bk. — Shepherd, Hist. 
 Atlas, 105-112, 184, 186, 190. 
 
 Histories. Atkinson, Europ. Beginnings, chs. xix, xxi, xxii, xxvi- 
 xxviii. — Becker, Beginnings, 17-55. — Channing, Un. States, I. chs. 
 i-iii, V. — Cheyney, Europ. Background, chs. iii, iv. — • Eggleston, Our 
 First Century, 1-14. — Fiske, Discovery, I. chs. iv-vi, II; Old Virginia, 
 I. ch. i. — Higginson, Am. Explorers, chs. i-ix. — Southworth, Builders 
 of Our Country, I. chs. i, iii, vii, xv. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. i, 3, 9, 13. — Caldwell and Per- 
 singer, Source Hist., 4-20. — Hart, Contemporaries, I. §§ 16-36, 44- 
 48; Source Book, §§ 1-4, 9. — James, Readings in Am. Hist., §§ 1-7. — 
 Old South Leaflets, nos. 17, 20, 29, 39, 71, 87-90, 102, 115-119, 122. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Cooper, Mercedes of Castile (Columbus). 
 — Coryell, Diego Pinzon (Columbus). — Eastman, Indian Boyhood. — ■ 
 Lane and Hill, Am. Hist, in Literature, ch. i. — Liljencrantz, Randvar 
 the Songsmith (Vinland). — Linderman, Indian Why Stories. — Munroe, 
 White Conquerors of Mexico (Cortes). — Simms, Vasconcelos (De Soto). 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, I. — - Mentor, serial nos. 13, 22. — U. S. 
 Bureau of Ethnology, Reports. — Winsor, America, I-IV. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§9) I- Who were the Norsemen? 2. How did Leif Ericson discover 
 America? 3. Why did the Turkish conquests lead to discoveries of new 
 lands? 
 
42 DISCOVERY AND DISCOVERERS 
 
 (§10)4. Who was Christopher Columbus? 5. How did Columbus 
 discover America? 6. What did Columbus think he had discovered? 
 7. How much did Columbus discover on his first voyage? 
 
 (§ 11) 8. Why were the Portuguese alarmed? 9. What was the "de- 
 marcation line "? 
 
 (§ 12) 10. What additional voyages did Columbus make? 11. What 
 kind of man was Columbus? 
 
 (§ 13) 12. How was Brazil settled? 13. How did the continent come to 
 be called America? 14. What did Cabot discover? 15. What did Ver- 
 razano discover? 
 
 (§ 14) 16. How and when was the Pacific Ocean discovered? 17. De- 
 scribe Magellan's voyage. 18. How did the Philippines become Spanish? 
 
 (§15) 19 (For an essay). What did the Spanish explorers find in the 
 interior of North America? 20. What are the principal mineral products 
 of the interior? 21. What are the principal agricultural products of the 
 interior? 22. Why is the eastern United States such a good farming 
 section? 
 
 (§ 16) 23. How did the Indians come to America? 24. What were the 
 Indian tribes? 25. How did the Indians live? 26. What were Indian 
 mounds and trails? 27. What kind of government did the Indians have? 
 
 (§ 17) 28 (For an essay). Conquest of: (a) Mexico, (^) Peru. 29. What 
 made Spain rich? 
 
 (§ 18) 30. What did De Soto discover? 31. What did Coronado dis- 
 cover? 32. What were the earliest Spanish towns in Florida and New 
 Mexico? 
 
 (§ 19) 33- What did Cabrillo discover on the Pacific? 34. Why did the 
 Spaniards fail to push their discoveries on the Pacific? 
 
 (§ 20) 35. What early attempts did the French make to colonize 
 America? 36. How did hostilities arise between the English and . the 
 Spanish? 37 (For an essay). Drake's cruise around the world. 
 
 (§ 21) 38. What were the Gilbert and Raleigh colonies? 39. Why did 
 the Raleigh colonies fail? 
 
 (§ 22) 40. Why did the Spaniards send out the Invincible Armada? 
 41 (For an essay). Defeat of the Armada. 
 
CHAPTER III 
 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS (1607-1660) 
 
 24. Immigrants to the New World (1492-1700J. — During 
 the first hundred years after the discovery of America, all the 
 Europeans who actually colonized America were Catholic 
 Spaniards and Portuguese. They l)elonged to the Latin race; 
 that is, they were in part descended from the ancient Romans, 
 and spoke languages deriv'ed from the Latin tongue. In the 
 next hundred years (1600 to 1700) came another group, made 
 up of English, Dutch, Swedish, and German colonists, nearly 
 all Protestants. They sprang from the Teutonic races of 
 northern Europe, who were descended in great part from the 
 ancient Germans and their relatives, the Scandinavians. 
 
 What led these various people to leave their old and settled 
 lands for the New World? Among the reasons were the 
 following: (i) Farmers and workmen were poor and strug- 
 gling, and hoped for a better living for themselves and their 
 children in a new country. (2) Business men were attracted 
 by the good chances in the fur trade and fisheries. (3) Spec- 
 ulators fancied that rich mines of gold and silver would be 
 found. (4) Some men who had means and influence at home 
 liked the idea of becoming social and political leaders in a new 
 colon >■. (5) A few came over to get awa>- from what they 
 thought was interference with their religious faith; among 
 them were Catholics, English Puritans, and German Protes- 
 tants. (6) Many thousands of convicts and negro slaves 
 were taken across the ocean against their will. 
 
 25. Crossing the Sea. — Emigration from Europe was a 
 serious thing. The ships were all small, and the whole space 
 for passengers was below the decks. On some ships the sailors 
 spread sand over the bottom of the hold ; there the passengers 
 built a fire and grouped around it as though they were on 
 land. All the travelers, even the richest, were subject to 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 3 43 
 
44 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 long and miserable voyages — three weeks to two or three 
 months on the sea. Provisions were scanty and often bad. 
 One passenger says, " There was no rest night or day — it was 
 a Babel. I have never in my life heard of such a disorderly 
 ship. It was confusion without end.". If a disease broke 
 out, such as the dangerous " ship fever," it might run through 
 the whole company. 
 
 Once arrived in the New World, the first colonists had to 
 build their own houses and clear the land by cutting down 
 the trees. At first they did not know how to hunt for game or 
 to raise Indian corn; and several of the early English colonies 
 
 had a " starving time " and would 
 have died out, had not food been 
 brought to them from England. 
 The Indians could give little help, 
 for often they had not enough for 
 themselves. 
 
 So little was known of the country 
 back of the coast that the early 
 settlers missed the best land, and 
 settled in low and marshy ground, 
 The anopheles mosquito, which becausc it was Convenient to the 
 
 spreads malaria, stands on its tt .. i i . r r 
 
 jjga^ sea. Hence they caught fevers; for 
 
 it was not till our time that people 
 learned that malarial fever is caused by the bite of a. mos- 
 quito which is bred in stagnant water. What with disease, 
 famine, and Indian attacks, more than three fourths of the 
 English who landed within the first twenty years died not 
 long after their arrival. 
 
 26. The English Puritans (1603-1620). — Among the 
 early English settlers were many Protestants who inclined to 
 strict doctrines. They thought that the Reformation in the 
 English Church (§5) had not gone far enough; and they held 
 meetings, wrote books, and preached sermons in favor of 
 what they declared to be a purer kind of religion — hence they 
 were called " Puritans." Part of the Puritans, who claimed 
 the right of every congregation to choose its own minister, 
 were called " Independents " or " Separatists." 
 
ENGLISH PURITANS AND TRADERS 45 
 
 When Queen Elizabeth died (1603), a Scotchman, James I, 
 came to the throne of England. He looked upon the Puritans 
 as enemies who were trying to take away part of his royal 
 power. When a delegation of them came to ask him for re- 
 forms in the church, his answer was, " I shall make them con- 
 form themselves [that is, accept the established church], or 
 I will harry them out of the land or else do worse." And the 
 king ordered many of the Puritans to be arrested and im- 
 prisoned. Therefore, when they heard of plans for planting 
 colonies in the New World, some of the Puritans were eager 
 to go as emigrants, so as to be free from the control of the 
 king and to worshi;) in what the}- considered the real Christian 
 manner. 
 
 27. English Trading Companies (1606-1607). — The main 
 reason for planting English colonies in America was the belief 
 that America was a rich and fruitful land where profits could 
 be meide. Large sums had first to be spent in fitting out a 
 colony, and a new method was now tried for bringing the 
 necessary means together. This was the joint stock trading 
 company, in which investors could buy shares; if the com- 
 pany failed they could lose only what they had put into it, 
 and not their whole fortunes. 
 
 In 1606 a number of English gentlemen of wealth joined 
 in securing from King James a charter which would give 
 the right to form two companies to plant colonies in North 
 America. One of these, the London Company, was to send 
 out colonists to the southern part of the coast, and the other, 
 the Plymouth Company, was to settle farther north. The 
 attempt of the Plymouth Company to make a settlement on 
 what is now the coast of Maine was a failure. The London 
 Company, however, in 1607 sent an expedition in three ships 
 which anchored a little way up the James River (map. page 
 49). There the 104 colonists landed and built a town, which 
 they named Jamestown for their king. 
 
 This was a bold step, for the Spanish government had 
 warned the English that Virginia was their territory and that 
 they would stamp out the little colony. But the English 
 insisted that John Cabot had " discovered these northern 
 
46 FIRST ExNGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 parts " (§ 13); and they paid no attention to Spanish claims 
 upon coasts where Spain had no colonies and showed no in- 
 tention of settling. 
 
 28. Virginia, the First Southern Colony (1607-1618). — The 
 James River colony, which from the first was called Virginia, 
 was for a time all but a failure. The Indians in the neighbor- 
 hood offered little trade, and soon became hostile. The 
 English searched for gold mines and found none. The few 
 farmers did not understand the soil of Virginia; and the 
 weavers, tanners, wine makers, and silk workers whom the 
 company sent out found no suitable material on which to 
 work. 
 
 Though the owners of the Virginia colony in England were 
 losing money, they held together, and in 1609 secured a new 
 charter giving them a definite stretch of the coast, 400 miles 
 long, and thence back into the wilderness " up into the Land 
 throughout from Sea to Sea, West and Northwest." The 
 company supposed that the Pacific Ocean was only a few 
 hundred miles back, about where Lake Erie lies. 
 
 The man who appears as the biggest and best in the little 
 colony was Captain John Smith, who had been a sailor, 
 soldier, explorer, and map maker. He was almost the only 
 settler who had the curiosity to explore the interior. He 
 explored once too often, for he was caught by a band of Indian 
 braves and delivered over to the powerful chief Wahunsona- 
 cock, commonly called Powhatan. Some years later in 
 England, Smith published a statement that the Indians were 
 on the point of knocking out his brains when Pocahontas, 
 the little daughter of the chief, rushed forward and saved 
 him from the club. The English afterwards captured Poca- 
 hontas, and thus compelled her father to keep peace with 
 them. Then she married one of the colonists, John Rolfe. 
 
 About ten years after the founding of the colony, the 
 Virginians realized that they had the best of land for raising 
 tobacco. Some of Sir Walter Raleigh's men (§21) had 
 brought back the weed from America, and (so says tradition) 
 Raleigh taught Queen Elizabeth to smoke. King James 
 hated tobacco and wrote a violent book against it, but his 
 
VIRGINIA COLONY 
 
 47 
 
 In April, 1614, Pocahontas was married to John Rolfe 
 
 subjects were eager to bu\- the fragrant plant at three shil- 
 Hngs (al)out 75 cents in our money) a pound. From that time 
 on, tobacco was the main crop and the principal source of 
 wealth for Virginia and for the neighboring lands. 
 
 29. Later Virginia (1619-1660). — For a time the Virginia 
 colonists were looked upon as existing only to make money 
 for their company; but in 1619 they were allowed to hold an 
 " assembly " of twenty-two members elected by their neigh- 
 bors. This was the first American legislature. It sat several 
 days and passed laws against idleness, gambling, drunkenness, 
 fine clothes. Sabbath breaking, and other oflfenses. The 
 Virginians never gave up this precious privilege of elect- 
 ing an assembly, and as fast as new colonies were planted 
 they insisted on the same right to take part in gov^erning 
 themselves. 
 
 The London Company fell under the displeasure of the king, 
 and in 1624 the charter was taken away. Of the 14,000 
 immigrants who had gone out. only 1200 were then left alive. 
 
48 
 
 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Thereafter Virginia was called a " royal colony " or " prov- 
 ince," and had to accept a governor appointed by the king. 
 Tobacco made it prosperous, but gradually a good part of 
 the rich land fell into the hands of a small class of wealthy 
 planters. In the year when the first assembly met, the Vir- 
 
 Africans were brought to Virginia by the shipload to be sold as slaves 
 
 ginians bought the first African slaves imported into the area 
 of the present United States; and in the course of time the 
 slave owners became the leading class in the colony. 
 
 30. Plymouth Colony (i 620-1 660). — Some of those ex- 
 treme Puritans who were called Separatists had been try- 
 ing to carry on a little church in the village of Scrooby, near 
 the east coast of England. They were so disturbed by the 
 authorities of the state church that they crossed over to 
 Holland and lived for a time in the Protestant city of Leyden. 
 Still they longed to have their children brought up in the 
 
PLYMOUTH COLONY 
 
 49 
 
 Swedish 1633-55 
 
 Dutch 1655-64 
 
 Present state boundaries 
 
 SCALE or MILES 
 
 flOANOKE I, 
 
 E-r 
 
 Settlements and settled areas, i66o 
 
 English fashion, and 
 therefore they formed 
 a plan to settle across 
 the ocean. Friends in 
 London loaned them 
 money, and they char- 
 tered the ship May- 
 flower, and in 1620 
 steered for America. 
 
 "The Pilgrim 
 Fathers" is the name 
 long since given to the men of this first shipload and others 
 that followed. They meant to settle somewhere south of the 
 Hudson River, but when they sighted land near the point of 
 Cape Cod they decided to stay on the New England coast. 
 As they had no charter or permission to settle there, they drew 
 up a document, later called the " Mayflower Compact," by 
 
50 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 which it was agreed " to combine ourselves together into a 
 civil body politic . . . and by virtue hereof, to enact . . . 
 such just and equal laws ... as shall be thought most meet 
 and convenient for the general good." This is the first consti- 
 tution ever made by Americans. December 21, 1620, they 
 landed near a large bowlder, now famous as "Plymouth 
 Rock"; and along the sheltered harbor they built a little 
 town which they called Plymouth. 
 
 At the end of the winter only about half the number were 
 left alive, but they would not give up. A few more emigrants 
 from England joined them, and their success in trading for 
 beaver skins and in catching fish carried them through starva- 
 tion, sickness, and the danger from Indians. The most inter- 
 esting man in the colony was Captain Myles Standish, whose 
 small body was full of courage. He was the commander 
 against hostile Indians, and a true-hearted Pilgrim Father. 
 
 Wherever the Spaniards went they obeyed laws made for 
 them in their home country, and took orders from governors 
 appointed from Spain. On the other hand, the Plymouth 
 people, like their brethren in Virginia, knew how to govern 
 themselves. For a long time all their laws were made by 
 the grown men assembled in a mass meeting. Later the little 
 colony was divided into sections called " towns," each of which 
 had its own town meeting: and they all sent delegates to a 
 little assembly \'cry much like that in Virginia. 
 
 31. Massachusetts Colony (1629-1640). — In 1629 a body 
 of Puritan gentlemen in England got from King Charles I a 
 charter issued to " the Governor and Company of the Massa- 
 chusetts Bay in New England." They were to possess the 
 sea front between a line three miles north of the Merrimack 
 River and a line three miles south of the Charles River, 
 and thence westward to the " South Sea" ; that is, to the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 One of the leaders in this company was a gentleman named 
 John Winthrop, who in 1630 led overseas a colony of a thousand 
 people. They built villages at Boston, Cambridge, and other 
 places near Massachusetts Bay, and took in Salem and some 
 other little settlements already planted. They brought with 
 
MASSACHUSETTS COLONY 
 
 51 
 
 them live stock, seeds, tools, and many hired servants, and 
 began at once to break ground for farms. Nearly every place 
 that they settled prospered. 
 
 John Winthrop was for some years the governor of the little 
 community, but he 
 and his supporters 
 were obliged to let 
 the people share in 
 their own govern- 
 ment. The "great 
 emigration," as 
 this movement was 
 called, went on for 
 ten years. A large 
 part of the farmers 
 became "free- 
 men," or stock- 
 holders of the com- 
 pany, and met 
 every year in what 
 was called the 
 " General Court." 
 When that meeting 
 became clumsy, they set up an electi\e assembh' to make 
 laws, which from that day to this has been called the General 
 Court of Massachusetts. 
 
 32. Growth of Massachusetts (1640-1660). — In a short 
 time the settlers were raising their own food. Some of them 
 became fishermen and found a market for their catch down 
 in the West Indies, bringing back sugar, tropical fruits, and 
 hard silver dollars that had come from Mexico. New Eng- 
 land contained the best of timber for building ships. The 
 colonists discovered iron ore, and began to make pig iron in 
 little charcoal furnaces. They traded with the Indians for 
 furs. They were even troubled with the high cost of living, 
 and voted that nobody should make a profit of more than 
 one third on goods brought from England. 
 
 Though most of the people of the great emigration were 
 
 House in Salem, built about 1662. This is the place made 
 famous by Hawthorne in The House of the Seven Gables 
 
52 
 
 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 members of the Church of England, they soon gave up the 
 Prayer Book of that church and became Separatists. Then 
 an efifort was made to separate from the Separatists. Rever- 
 end Roger Williams of Salem was so outspoken that the gov- 
 ernment of the colony drove him out. In 1637 Mrs. Anne 
 Hutchinson, a friend of Roger Williams, was brought before 
 the General Court on the charge that she was not sound in her 
 religious doctrines. Her real offense was that she held meet- 
 ings for women in which they criticized the ministers. She 
 
 showed herself quite the 
 equal of any of her judges, 
 especially in her knowledge 
 of the Bible and in her 
 ability to argue; but her 
 enemies had the votes, and 
 they banished her from the 
 colony. 
 
 33. Maryland (1632- 
 1660). — If Puritans could 
 find a place in America 
 where they could live and 
 worship God in their own 
 way, why should not Eng- 
 lish Catholics have the 
 same privilege? In 1632 
 King Charles I granted to 
 a wealthy Catholic, Cecil 
 Calvert (commonly called 
 Lord Baltimore), a new 
 kind of colonial charter. Baltimore was made " Lord Pro- 
 prietary," with the right to appoint a governor and to make 
 laws with the consent of the settlers. The grant of land 
 was to extend from the Potomac River northward to the 40th 
 degree of north latitude. The next year about two hundred 
 people, nearly all Catholics, sailed for Baltimore's territory, 
 which he called Maryland, in honor of Henrietta Maria, then 
 queen of England. 
 
 The most notable thing about Maryland was its Toleration 
 
 Cecil Calvert, the second Lord Baltimore. This 
 portrait shows the rich dress of an EngUsh 
 Cavalier (§ 41) 
 
MARYLAND AND NEW ENGLAND 53 
 
 Act, by which all believers in Christianity were allowed to 
 worship privately or publicly in their own way. This was one 
 of the first laws in the history of the world which, admitted that 
 a man might have a right to believe and practice one religion, 
 when his rulers had declared another to be the right religion. 
 Maryland began to grow tobacco, and attracted so many 
 settlers that the Protestants were soon more numerous than 
 the Catholics. Most of the time during a century and a half 
 the Baltimore family remained proprietors, appointed the 
 governors, and helped to make the laws. 
 
 34. Connecticut and New Haven (1636-1660). — While 
 Maryland was being settled, a group of colonies was estab- 
 lished in New England, none of which had any charter or 
 grant from the English government. The first of these was 
 Connecticut, founded by Rev. Thomas Hooker. He had 
 brought over a company of about fifty families from England 
 to Cambridge, Massachusetts, but they were not content 
 there, and in 1636 he led his company westward to the Con- 
 necticut River. There they founded Hartford and other 
 villages in the neighborhood. Since they had no charter 
 they established a little gov'ernment for themselves, and in 
 1639 called an assembly that drew up a brief document known 
 as " The Fundamental Orders," vvhich was somewhat like one 
 of our modern state constitutions. 
 
 In 1638 a group of families under Rev. John Davenport 
 settled at New Haven, and several villages grew up near 
 Long Island Sound, with New Haven as the center. They 
 formed a colonial assembly, and gathered themselves together 
 in the self-made colony of New Haven. The two settle- 
 ments found the Dutch trying to establish themselves on the 
 Connecticut. 
 
 As the Connecticut settlers were at odds with the Indians, 
 a band of soldiers and Indian allies attacked the winter camp 
 of the Pequot tribe and killed nearly all the men, women, and 
 children (1637). This was the white man's way of teaching 
 the Indians the beauty of peace! 
 
 35. Rhode Island, Maine, and New Hampshire (1630- 
 i66o). — A third self-planted New England colons- was Rhode 
 
54 
 
 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Island. The founder was Rev. Roger Williams (§32), who in 
 1836 brought a few people together at Providence. Williams 
 believed strongly that no state had a right to tell anybody to 
 worship in any particular way. Hence in his little colony he 
 welcomed men of various beliefs, including Baptists and 
 Quakers. Jews were admitted later. 
 
 Williams declared that he was not interested in " the chil- 
 dren's toys of land, meadow, government, etc.," but cared 
 
 much for " a great 
 number of weak 
 and distressed 
 souls rtying hither 
 from old and New 
 England." Natur- 
 alh' the Puritan 
 neighbors did not 
 like the Rhode 
 Islanders. Yet 
 none of the early 
 colonists were so 
 successful as 
 Williams in getting 
 the good will of 
 the Indians, for he 
 was a man who kept his word with them. For a time Rhode 
 Island was made up of four or five little independent settle- 
 ments, but at last they united in one assembly, which elected a 
 governor. 
 
 Many efforts were made to place colonies on the strip of 
 coast called Maine (about 1630), but the land grants were 
 tangled up and no settlement succeeded. Part of it was occu- 
 pied by Plymouth, and later it was annexed to Massachusetts. 
 New Hampshire was settled at first in separate little towns, 
 beginning in 1630, which slowly united into one government 
 for common purposes; but the colony had no charter, and for 
 a long time its people joined in the Massachusetts government. 
 36. The Two Sections. — The Englishmen who settled 
 the southern colonies and those who settled the New Eng- 
 
 Old blockhouse in North Edgecomb, Maine. The projecting 
 upper story and the narrow windows were for purposes of 
 defense 
 
THE TWO SECTIONS 
 
 55 
 
 land colonies came from about the same class in England. 
 Most of them were farmers, farm servants, shopkeepers, and 
 some were ne'er-do-wells. Nevertheless the two sections had 
 
 different ways of at- 
 
 tending to their local 
 concerns. The south- 
 ern colonists settled 
 mostly on plantations; 
 that is, on scattered 
 farms each with an 
 owner's house and 
 quarters for white ser- 
 vants and negro slaves. 
 Throughout New Eng- 
 land the people settled 
 in villages, partly for 
 safety, and partly so 
 that they could all be 
 near the village church. 
 
 The southerners had 
 " parishes " which in- 
 cluded all the settlers 
 who went to one 
 churcli. The people 
 of the parish held ves- 
 try meetings for some 
 local matters; but 
 most of the local affairs 
 were settled by boards 
 called County Courts 
 or Courts of Quarter 
 Sessions, appointed by 
 the governor from 
 among the richest and 
 most public-spirited planters. These boards laid taxes, built 
 roads and bridges, and held the elections. 
 
 In New England the people could easily gather in a " town 
 meeting," which was a mass meeting of all the voters (§ 30). 
 
 Captain Morgan came to this country in 1636, built a 
 fortified blockhouse on the Connecticut River, and 
 was a prominent fighter in the early Indian wars 
 
56 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Since most of the land-owning farmers were voters, the system 
 gave them " local self-government"; that is, the opportunity 
 to carry on their own affairs. 
 
 The only political union of colonies was the so-called New 
 England Confederation, formed by Plymouth, Massachusetts, 
 Connecticut, and New Haven in 1643. They drew up a doc- 
 ument called " Articles of Confederation," some of the phrases 
 of which can be found in our present national Constitution. 
 Their main purpose was to present a strong front against the 
 Dutch, who were trying to keep up a trading post on the 
 Connecticut River. After New Netherland was annexed by 
 the English (1664), the need of the Confederation grew less 
 and it eventually died out. 
 
 37. Summary. — This chapter deals with the planting of 
 English colonies in two groups, one in New England and the 
 other in the South, during the first half of the seventeenth 
 century. 
 
 Immigration was a tedious process, for the voyages were 
 full of hardship and the first colonists suffered from famine 
 and disease. 
 
 English Puritans and Catholics desired to be free from 
 the pressure of the established English Church, and men 
 of means desired to make a profit. The two motives 
 combined in bringing about the planting of the following 
 colonies: 
 
 (i) Virginia was founded in 1607 by the London Company. 
 After heavy losses, the raising of tobacco became the main 
 industry. In 1619 the Virginians formed the first colonial 
 assembly, or legislature, and they bought the first negro slaves 
 imported into our country. 
 
 (2) Plymouth was founded by extreme Puritans in 1620. 
 After barely living through the first winter, they established 
 themselves and set up a little colonial government of their 
 own. 
 
 (3) Massachusetts (1630), founded by a strong body of 
 moderate Puritans, was successful from the start in ship- 
 building, trading, and farming. 
 
 (4) Maryland was founded in 1632 by Catholics, who were 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 57 
 
 soon outnumbered by Protestants. This was the first pro- 
 prietary colony and was governed by the Baltimore family. 
 The principal industry was the raising of tobacco. 
 
 (5) Connecticut was founded without any company or 
 proprietor or grant behind it, the first of the self-planted col- 
 onies (1636). It lived by agriculture and trading with the 
 Indians. 
 
 (6) New Haven (1638) was a similar self-planted colony 
 without any charter. 
 
 (7) Rhode Island (1636) was planted by Rev. Roger Wil- 
 liams and others who were too radical to suit the people of 
 Massachusetts. Other little towns joined, and the people 
 lived by farming, fishing, and trading. 
 
 (8) New Hampshire (1630) was a farming settlement with- 
 out a charter. 
 
 (9) Maine (1630) was a scattered group of villages and farms 
 without a colonial government. 
 
 The northern colonies were settled in villages called towns ; 
 the southern, in plantations o^ separate farms. Four of the 
 New England colonies united in a little federal union called 
 the New England Confederation, which is the first suggestion 
 of anything like our present federal government. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, II. — Epoch Maps, no. 2. — Shepherd, 
 Hist. Atlas, 185, 189, 190, 193. 
 
 Histories. Channing, Un. States, I. chs. vi-xv, ,\viii. — Eggleston, 
 Our First Century, 14-100. — Fiske, Old Virginia, I. chs. ii-ix; New 
 Engl., 50-178. — Higginson, Am. Explorers, chs. x, xi, xiv, xv. — South- 
 worth, Builders of Our Country, I. chs. viii-xi, xix. — Tyler, England in 
 Am., 30-49, 62-72, 82-146. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 7, 16, 25, 27, 29, 31, 36. — Caldwell 
 and Persinger, Source Hist., 20-28, 36-71. — Hart, Contemporaries, I. 
 §§49-75, 90-120, 127-131; Source Book, §§5-21; Source Readers, I. 
 §§10-65 passim. — Hill, Liberty Docs., chs. i-vi. — MacDonald, Doc. 
 Source Book, nos. 1-14; Select Charters, nos. 1-22. — Old South Leaflets, 
 nos. 7, 8, 48-55, 66, 67, 77, 100, 120, 121, 142-178 passim. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Coffin, Old Times in tlie Cols. — Cooke, 
 Stories of the Old Dominion. — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, chs. 
 iv, vi, vii. — Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pt. i. chs. i-ii, v-xi. — Leslie, 
 
58 FIRST ENGLISH SETTLEMENTS 
 
 Saxby (Pilgrims and E'uritans). — Longfellow, Myles Standish. — Otis, 
 Richard of Jamestown; Mary of Plymouth; Ruth of Boston; Calvert of 
 Maryland. — Tappan, Letters from Colonial Children, chs. i, ii, v-xii. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, II. — Wilson, Am. People, I. — Winsor, 
 America, III, I\'. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 24) I. What was the first group of American colonists? 2. What 
 was the second group? 3. Why did Europeans want to colonize America? 
 
 (§ 25) 4. How did people cross the ocean? 5. Why did so many of 
 the early colonists perish? 
 
 (§ 26) 6. Who were the Puritans? 7. Why did the Puritans wish to 
 leave England? 8 (For an essay). Persecution of the Puritans. 
 
 (§ 27) 9. What were the trading companies? 10. Name two of the 
 English colonization companies. 
 
 (§ 28) II (For an essay). Describe the colony of Virginia. 12. Why 
 did the colony of Virginia go through hard times? 13. What did Vir- 
 ginia secure by the charter of 1609? 14. What did John Smith do for 
 the colony of Virginia? 15 (For an essay). Describe the life of Indians 
 in Virginia. 16. How did tobacco come into use? 
 
 (§ 29) 17. What was the first American legislature? 18. How did 
 Virginia become a royal colony? 19. How did the first negro slaves 
 come into the English colonies? 
 
 (§ 30) 20. Why did English Puritans settle in Holland? 21. How did 
 the Pilgrim Fathers come to Plymouth? 22. What was the Mayflower 
 Compact? 23 (For an essay). Life and adventures of Captain Myles 
 Standish. 24. How did towns spring up in Plymouth? 
 
 (§ 31) 25. What was the Massachusetts Bay Company? 26. How was 
 the Massachusetts Colony planted? 27. How was Massachusetts gov- 
 erned? 
 
 (§ 32) 28. How did the people of Massachusetts make a living? 29. 
 Why were Roger Williams and Mrs. Hutchinson banished? 
 
 (§ 33) 30. How was Maryland settled? 31. What was the Toleration 
 Act? 
 
 (§ 34) 32- How was Connecticut settled? 33. How was New Haven 
 settled? 34 (For an essay). Events of the Pequot War. 
 
 (§ 35) 35- How was Rhode Island settled? 36 (For an essay). An 
 account of Roger Williams. 37. How was Maine settled? 38. How was 
 New Hampshire settled? 
 
 (§ 36) 39- What was the difference between the New England and 
 the southern methods of settlement? 40. What was the town meeting? 
 41, What was the New England Confederation? 
 
CHAPTER IV 
 
 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES (1604^1689) 
 
 38. French Settlements in America (1604-1660). — ^ While 
 the EngUsh colonies were growing up, three other European 
 nations — France, Holland, and Sweden — planted settlements 
 near by. The French strongly desired the profitable fur trade 
 of the St. Lawrence, and also wished to Christianize the 
 heathen Indians. Their missionaries went out among the 
 wild tribes and endured hardship, poverty, and death; some 
 of them were made martyrs by the Indians whom they came 
 to save. The 
 French were also 
 interested in the 
 fisheries on the 
 s h a 1 1 o w" s or 
 " banks " south- 
 cast of New- 
 foundland ; but 
 their first perma- 
 nent settlement 
 was Port Royal 
 on the Bay of 
 Fundy (1604). 
 They named the 
 adjacent country 
 
 Location of the " Five Nations " of Iroquois, enlarged by the 
 adoption of the Tuscaroras in 1715 to the "Six Nations." 
 They counted about 2500 warriors 
 
 Acadia. 
 
 A more vigorous colon\- was planted b>- Samuel dc Cham- 
 plain at Quebec in 1608, and there has been a town of Quebec 
 ever since, on that spot. Champlain was a captain in the 
 French navy, and one of the boldest of explorers. He sought 
 the friendship of the Indians who controlled the routes from 
 the Great Lakes. When a party of their warriors asked him 
 to help them against the fierce and hostile Iroquois, commonly 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 4 59 
 
6o 
 
 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 called the "Five Nations," living to the southward, he and 
 two other Frenchmen agreed to go along with them. They 
 paddled nearly the whole length of a sheet of water since known 
 as Lake Champlain, till they met a party of four hundred of 
 the Iroquois. With their harquebuses (a sort of awkward 
 gun), the Frenchmen drove the enemy off in great confusion. 
 This victory drew upon the French the rage of the Iroquois, 
 who for nearly a hundred years raided the French settlements, 
 killing and burning. They made it unsafe to travel upon 
 Lake Ontario or Lake Erie, and therefore Champlain and his 
 successors followed up the Ottawa River and crossed over the 
 
 The explorations and routes 
 of French explorers in 
 North America 
 
 height of land to Lake 
 Huron. Many farm- 
 ers settled along the 
 St. Lawrence, and a 
 town was speedily 
 built at Montreal 
 which became the 
 
 center of the colony of New France. Thence missionaries and 
 fur traders set out for the interior, and planted missions and 
 trading posts on the Great Lakes as far west as Lake Michigan 
 and Lake Superior. 
 
THE FRENCH IN THE WEST 6 1 
 
 39. Exploration of the Mississippi by the French (1660- 
 1684). — From the Indians the French heard tales of a great 
 river to the westward which they thought might be the Col- 
 orado. An adventurous young man named La Salle conceived 
 the idea of finding that river. He ventured upon Lake Erie, 
 which till then had hardly been visited by white men, and ex- 
 plored the country south of the lake. While he went back 
 to the St. Lawrence to get together men and means to reach 
 the great river, a missionary, Father Marquette, and a trader 
 named Joliet together went up the Fox River, crossed to the 
 Wisconsin Ri\er, and so down to the Mississippi River, which 
 they followed for a long distance (1673) in the hope of reach- 
 ing the sea. 
 
 La Salle was backed by the king of France, who gave him 
 authority to discover and explore new lands for the king. 
 With him went a missionary, Father Hennepin, who followed 
 the river up to the Falls of St. Anthony, now the site of Min- 
 neapolis. After many hardships and delays. La Salle and his 
 company went from Lake Michigan up the Chicago River, 
 crossed a short portage, and paddled their canoes down the 
 Illinois River to its mouth, and then on down the Mississippi 
 until they reached the salt water of the delta (1682). Thus 
 the region that we now call the West was opened to Euro- 
 peans. 
 
 La Salle reported that along the banks lay " the most beauti- 
 ful country in the world," and he talks of " cotton, cochineal, 
 nuts, entire forests of mulberry trees, salt, slate, coal, vines, 
 apple trees." According to the usual practice of claiming 
 territory in America, the king of France considered himself 
 entitled by La Salle's discoveries to the immense area drained 
 by all the streams that flow into the Mississippi River 
 and its branches. 
 
 La Salle named the region Louisiana for his royal master, 
 who was so pleased that he fitted out a fleet with which the 
 explorer expected to reach the mouth of the Mississippi River 
 by sea (1684). La Salle missed the stream, landed at Mata- 
 gorda Bay in what is now Texas, and after months of misery 
 for the whole party, was killed by one of his own men. No 
 
62 
 
 RR'ALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 Frenchman planted permanent colonies anywhere in Louisi- 
 ana till fifteen years later; but the French, who w^ere the first 
 to explore the Mississippi, laid claim to the whole of its mag- 
 nificent basin 
 
 40. The Dutch and the Swedes in America (1609-1660). — 
 The early French and English colonies were far apart and 
 separated by wide stretches of woods and mountains. A 
 third group of European colonists took up land between the 
 two groups of English colonies — the southern and the New 
 England. These were the Dutch, whose home country of 
 " the Netherlands " was usually called Holland by the Eng- 
 lish. These prosperous, seafaring people had been ruled by 
 the king of Spain, but they revolted and set up a federal 
 government of their own in 1579; and they continued to 
 fight the Spaniards at intervals for nearly seventy years. 
 They were rich traders and manufacturers, and were so strong 
 at sea that they attacked and captured a good part of the 
 Portuguese possessions in southern Asia. That is how modern 
 Holland comes to own Java, Sumatra, and other Asiatic 
 islands. 
 
 Replica of Henry Hudson // - 1 . This hip w i,. sent to the Unj is t. - 
 by Holland in 1909 
 
 At the same time they turned their attention westward and 
 in 1609 sent out Henry Hudson, an Englishman, to search 
 
Dl TCH AND SWEDES IN AMERICA 
 
 6,^> 
 
 for a new water route to India. In his ship, the Half Moon, 
 he came into the bay now called New York harbor, and 
 sailed up the stream afterwards called Hudson River for its 
 discoverer. Five years later (1614) a little post was founded 
 on the rocky island of Manhattan, and was called New 
 Amsterdam (map. page 49). This was the beginning of the 
 city of New York. In 1621 the Dutch chartered a West India 
 ('ompan\', which began to plant trading posts on the Connect- 
 
 
 11 ^ 
 
 
 
 1 \ 
 
 I^^^^B • ^'' ' ^^^^^^^^^^H& 
 
 %M^..^^ 
 
 jj^ as 
 
 ^«^C^a£L.J» 
 
 ^ 1 
 
 
 ^"^^r . 
 
 
 ^•- 
 
 ' ' « aS!^] 
 
 h^ bK iHEU^^^^I 
 
 ' if^-mF^i^BH W^^^^^^^B 
 
 A sclloni for 1 I 
 
 Aui-terdam 
 
 icut, Hudson, and Delaware rivers; and the\' called the whole 
 region " New Netherland." New Amsterdam was well placed, 
 for the Hudson led up into the country of the Iroquois, whose 
 friendship the traders cultivated. The Dutch built a post at 
 Fort Orange (now Albany), and others in the Mohawk Valley. 
 Along with the traders came Dutch farmers, and the West 
 India Company granted tracts of land to large owners called 
 " patroons," who leased farms to immigrants. 
 
 The Dutch were not so fortunate on the Connecticut, where 
 English settlers came and crowded them out (§ 34). On 
 the Delaware Rixer also their claim was disputed by Sweden, 
 which in 1638 sent out a colony and built a little post called 
 Fort Christina (now Wilmington, Delaware). The Swedes 
 
64 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 tried to send over enough settlers to hold the country, but 
 were unable to resist the Dutch. After the Dutch annexed 
 the little settlement (1655), there was an end of the Swedish 
 colony of New Sweden. 
 
 The Dutchmen were good traders but poor colonizers. 
 Some of the inhabitants complained that the public school in 
 New Amsterdam was irregular and ill taught; that there was 
 no orphan asylum ; that the governor, Stuyvesant, famous for 
 his wooden leg, " was like a peacock, with great state and 
 pomp." When one of the burghers threatened to complain 
 to the Dutch government in Holland, Stuyvesant said, " I 
 will make him a foot shorter, and send the pieces to Holland, 
 and let him appeal in that way." 
 
 41. The English Revolution and Commonwealth (1640- 
 1663). — Why did England allow the Dutch and the Swedes 
 to plant colonies that pressed against Connecticut on the 
 one side and Maryland on the other? Simply because of 
 troubles at home which took all the energies of England. 
 The English Parliament, or national legislature, included the 
 elected House of Commons, in which the Puritans became 
 strong. King James I (§ 26) and his son, Charles I, tried to 
 govern England without the aid of Parliament. In 1642 the 
 Royalist defenders of the king (who were often called " Cava- 
 liers ") and the Puritans (who were called " Roundheads ") 
 began to fight each other in a civil war. The Royalists had 
 the best of it for a time, but a Puritan officer named Oliver 
 Cromwell organized a Roundhead cavalry known as the " Iron- 
 sides " and defeated the Royalists. King Charles was im- 
 prisoned, tried, and executed. 
 
 Then a Commonwealth (which is what we call a republic) 
 was set up, with Cromwell at the head. A little later he be- 
 came " Lord Protector," and almost king. Cromwell was a 
 great ruler. One of his exploits was to send out a fleet which 
 captured the island of Jamaica from the Spaniards; this was 
 the first loss of a Spanish colony. A few English Cavaliers 
 found their way to Virginia and Maryland during the struggle. 
 
 Soon after Cromwell died, the Commonwealth collapsed, 
 and Charles II, the son of the late king, was called to the 
 
COMMONWEALTH AND DUTCH TRADE 
 
 65 
 
 throne. This arrangement, commonly called the "Restora- 
 tion," was accepted by all the colonies in America, and they 
 took orders from the new government on the same terms as 
 before the English civil war. The people of Connecticut 
 made friends with the new king, and in 1662 received from him 
 a charter for a new colony of Connecticut, which included 
 both the Connecticut and the New Haven colonies. The next 
 year Rhode Island also received a charter which was so liberal 
 that the little colony became almost a republic. 
 
 42. Conquest of New York (1664). — During the Common- 
 wealth, Holland and England fell to quarreling. The English 
 
 One of the earliest views of New Amsterdam. From a sketch made by a 
 Dutch oflBcer in 1635 
 
 had established an East India Company which competed with 
 the Dutch for the Asiatic trade. The Dutch merchant ships 
 in Europe also carried goods which the English would have 
 liked to handle. The result was a contest of two kinds: 
 (i) The rival countries fought three fierce naval wars (1652- 
 1674). (2) The English passed a series of laws called the 
 Navigation Acts, or Acts of Trade (beginning in 1651), which 
 were intended to prevent any but English ships from trading 
 with the English colonies. 
 
66 
 
 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 The English also disliked the feeble but troublesome Dutch 
 colonies on the Hudson and Delaware rivers; and in 1664 they 
 sent out a fleet which appeared before the town of New Am- 
 sterdam and demanded its surrender, on the ground that this 
 was English soil and the Dutch had no right to be there. 
 There was nothing to do but to surrender, and with the town 
 
 went all the rest of the 
 Dutch settlements. 
 Thus the English 
 came at last to pos- 
 sess the whole stretch 
 of coast from Maine 
 to \'irginia. 
 
 43. New York and 
 New Jersey (1664- 
 1702). — The next 
 step was to organize 
 this splendid country. 
 King Charles II had 
 granted to his brother 
 James, Duke of York, 
 a charter making him 
 the proprietor of all 
 the territory between 
 the Connecticut 
 River and the Dela- 
 ware. James set off the tract between the Delaware River 
 and the Hudson and gave it (1664) to two of his friends, 
 Berkeley and Carteret, who founded the two colonies of 
 West New Jersey and East New Jersey. James did not 
 attempt to take away the territory of the colony of Con- 
 necticut, but set up a new colony, New York, which in- 
 cluded the valley of the Hudson and Long Island; and the 
 little town of New Amsterdam was renamed New York. In 
 1686 Dongan, who was then go\ernor of the colony, granted 
 a city charter to the town, which had long had a mayor, 
 and it thus became the first regularly organized American 
 city. 
 
 New Jersey, Delaware, and eastern Pennsylvania 
 
THE MIDDLE COLONIES 67 
 
 Most of the Dutch and Swedes in all this territory stayed 
 under the English system, and new settlers came out from 
 England. The Jerseys received a mixed population: Scotch 
 Presbyterians, Quakers, Church of England people, and 
 Puritans from New England. The two settlements were 
 linalK- united (1702) into the one colony of Xew Jersey. 
 
 When King Charles II died, the Duke of York became 
 King James II (1685). New York was then transformed, like 
 X'irginia (§ 29), into a " province " or royal colony with a 
 governor appointed from England; like \'irginia it had a 
 colonial assembly, which made local laws. 
 
 44. Pennsylvania and Delaware (1681-1689). — The rich 
 and beautiful country west of the Dekiware River was not 
 granted to the Duke of York and therefore remained within 
 ihe power of King Charles 11. In 1681 Charles granted it to 
 Ills personal friend, William Penn, son of a wealthy admiral 
 and at the same time a member of the religious sect of Quakers. 
 The new province was to extend three degrees (about 200 miles) 
 along the Delaware River and thence about 300 miles west- 
 ward. It was called Pennsylvania, which means " Penn's 
 woodland." 
 
 Penn was a man of wealth and planted his colony on a larger 
 scale than any of the earlier settlements. Never up to this 
 time had such a stream of people crossed the Atlantic as now 
 came to the new colony. Penn welcomed Englishmen, Welsh- 
 men, and Presbyterian Scotch-Irishmen, who always liked the 
 adventure and variety of frontier life. He had a place for 
 Quakers, for Jews, for Baptists, and other then unpopular 
 sects. He advertised his lands in Germany and brought 
 over the first group of German colonists that ever came to 
 .\merica. 
 
 Penn at once laid out along the Delaware a city with 
 broad streets, crossing at right angles, which he named Phila- 
 delphia for an ancient city of Asia Minor, the name meaning 
 " brotherly love." The proprietor and other colonists built 
 handsome houses, market places, and wharves, and the town 
 soon became one of the most important places in North 
 America. Settlers began at once to push back west from 
 
68 
 
 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 William Penn. From a portrait in 
 carved ivory 
 
 the river and founded Germantown and other places. Penn, 
 from the first, got along well with the Indians, because he 
 
 always kept his promises to 
 them. The "Great Treaty" 
 which he made with them lasted 
 for many years. 
 
 The Penn family were pro- 
 prietors of the colony, just as 
 the Baltimores were in Mary- 
 land (§ 33), and Penn had the 
 right to decide how the people 
 should be governed. He freely 
 allowed the settlers to draw 
 up a kind of constitution for 
 themselves called the " Great 
 Charter." From this period 
 to the Revolution the people 
 had the habit of quarreling with 
 the governors, who were from 
 time to time appointed by the proprietor and who could 
 veto the bills passed by the assembly. 
 
 On Delaware Bay south of Philadelphia, the Penns had a 
 separate grant of a tract which was long a part of Pennsyl- 
 vania, but which was finally set ofif as the separate colony of 
 Delaware. 
 
 45. The Carolinas (1663- 1689). — Before seizing New York 
 the English had begun to extend their southern colonies into 
 a region where there were no settlers of other nations, but 
 where Spain still claimed to own the territory (§ 18). In 
 1663 the king granted a tract, which had once been the 
 southern part of Virginia, to eight proprietors, and gave them 
 the right to start a colony called Carolina. They tried to 
 set up a system of land-holding lords called " landgraves " 
 and " caciques," under a kind of constitution which they called 
 the " Grand Model." The people did not like this form of 
 government and it never worked; instead, the settlers de- 
 manded and received popular assemblies like those of the 
 other colonies. 
 
THE CAROLINAS 
 
 69 
 
 8«%0^ 
 
 Carolina occupied a broad and valuable tract running back 
 from the seacoast, nominally to the " South Sea," but actu- 
 ally only to the mountains. The early settlements were 
 nearly all made on the seacoast, especially at several points 
 on Albemarle 
 Sound and at 
 Charleston, which 
 was situated on a 
 splendid harbor. 
 The settlers raised 
 tobacco, and down 
 near the seacoast 
 they planted rice. 
 From the great 
 pine forests they 
 made pitch, tar, 
 and turpentine, 
 commonly called 
 " naval stores " 
 because they were 
 used with other 
 
 materials for the building of the ships of the time. Later 
 the colony was subdivided into North Carolina and South 
 Carolina, each of which had about the same boundaries as 
 the present states which bear those names. 
 
 The people of Virginia, having lost their charter years be- 
 fore (§ 29), could not prevent the planting of Carolina within 
 what once had been their territory. Virginia was harassed by 
 Indian wars and in 1676 a short rebellion broke out. Some 
 of the planters under Nathaniel Bacon rose against the tyran- 
 nical governor and burned the public buildings at the little 
 capital of Jamestown. When their leader died, " Bacon's 
 Rebellion " came to an end. 
 
 46. Troubles in New England (1660-1691). — All the col- 
 onies were exposed to Indian wars, and Virginia twice came 
 near being swept out of existence. New England's turn came 
 in 1675 when King Philip, the sagamore or chief of the Po- 
 kanoket tribe, attacked the Massachusetts towns. Twelve 
 
 Carolina, as enlarged by the king in 1665 
 
70 RI\ALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 settlements were destroyed by the Indians before King Philip 
 was pursued into a swamp and shot. 
 
 In 1685 the new king, James II, formed a plan of binding all 
 the New England colonies into one, and sent over Sir Edmund 
 Andros to bring it about. The charter of Massachusetts 
 had already been taken away (1684), and Sir Edmund Andros 
 forced the people of Connecticut and Rhode Island into giv- 
 ing up theirs. Before his plan could be carried out, the people 
 in England rose against their king, as they had done in 1642. 
 When the news arrived (1689) that James II had been driven 
 from his throne, Andros was imprisoned in Boston and then 
 sent home in disgrace. The result was that Rhode Island and 
 Connecticut got back their charters ; Massachusetts was allowed 
 to take in Plymouth and Maine under a new charter (1691); 
 and New Hampshire was reorganized as a separate colony. 
 
 47. Persecution of the Quakers (1660-1689). — The sect 
 or church of the Quakers has been mentioned in connection 
 with Pennsylvania, where they were numerous and highly 
 respected. In England, however, and in some of the other 
 colonies they were looked upon with dislike and even horror. 
 Their offense was that George Fox, who founded the sect in 
 Cromwell's time, and all the Quakers who followed him, thought 
 that the usual forms and ceremonies of church services inter- 
 fered with the true worship of God. Hence the Quakers had 
 no ministers and used no preaching or formal prayers, but held 
 that any man or woman might speak in their meetings " as 
 the spirit moves you." This was disliked by the Puritans, 
 who also objected to women being allowed to speak in a public 
 religious gathering. 
 
 In private life the Quakers were the best of people, with 
 customs of their own. They used no oaths and would not 
 take oaths even as witnesses before a court. They used very 
 plain speech, calling each other " Friend " instead of " Mr." 
 or " Mrs.," and saying " thee is " and " thee does " instead 
 of " you are " and " you do." They wore simple clothes and 
 would not adopt new fashions. At first most of the Quakers 
 were poor, but they were a thrifty and God-fearing folk, and 
 many rich and powerful men joined them. They were wel- 
 
THE QUAKERS 7 I 
 
 corned in Rhode Island, and many settled in Maryland, but 
 they were especially prosperous in Pennsylvania. 
 
 As a Quaker always made it a point to tell the people of 
 other churches that they were proud and formal in their 
 worship, the sect brought down upon themselves the wrath 
 of several colonies. About 1660 four Quakers were put to 
 death in Boston, because they would speak in public contrary 
 to the Puritan laws, and sometimes interrupted religious serv- 
 ices. One of them was a woman, Mar\' Dyer. 
 
 This was nothing but the persecution of a harmless sect 
 because they disagreed with the religion of the state. To be 
 sure, it was at that time the practice of all European nations 
 to imprison, whip, or burn men and women who ventured to 
 set up a new form of worship contrary to the established 
 forms of the official state churches. But such intolerance is 
 hardly excusable in the Massachusetts Puritans, who claimed 
 for themselves the liberty to try to establish a higher form of 
 Christianity. Moreover, they might have seen that no harm 
 came to the colonies of Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and 
 Maryland because Catholics, Quakers, and Baptists were 
 allowed to hold their own services. 
 
 48. Progress Toward the West (1607-1689). — In 1689, 
 after eighty-two years of colonization, the English were firmly 
 settled in North America. Their total population was about 
 200,000, more than half of whom lived in the two largest 
 colonies, Virginia and Massachusetts. 
 
 As yet few of the settlers were farther than ten or twenty 
 miles from tidewater, and little was known of the mountain 
 region to the west. In fact, only the three following explora- 
 tions seem to have attracted attention: (i) Edward Bland in 
 1650 crossed the mountains west of the headwaters of the 
 .Appomattox, but he did not go beyond the Shenandoah Ri\er. 
 (2) A little later an Englishman named Batts and a German 
 Swiss named Lederer forced their way through the mountain 
 forests until they reached the headwaters of the New Ri\er, 
 which flows into a branch of the Ohio. (3) In 1673 Colonel 
 .\i>raham Wood sent some traders to the far Southwest among 
 the Cherokees. 
 
72 RIVALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 The Spanish neighbors in Florida, who still claimed the 
 coast as far north as the Savannah River, were not more enter- 
 prising; but the French had sent traders and missionaries 
 through the Great Lakes and to the Mississippi (§ 39). One 
 reason why the English were so shut in was that the Iroquois 
 Indians would allow neither French nor English to pass 
 through their territory. 
 
 49. Summary. — This chapter is devoted to the French, 
 Dutch, and Swedish colonies from their beginnings to 1689, 
 including the discovery of the West. It includes also the Eng- 
 lish colonies founded after 1660. 
 
 During the first half century of English colonization, the 
 French were settling alongside the English in Acadia (now 
 Nova Scotia) and Canada. They early came into contact 
 with the warlike Iroquois, who compelled them to pass around 
 them northward in order to reach the Great Lakes. From 
 the Lakes the French pushed into the far West. Four 
 different explorers, Marquette, Joliet, Hennepin, and La 
 Salle, reached the Mississippi River. La Salle followed it 
 to its mouth and named the country Louisiana. His dis- 
 coveries were the beginning of our present middle-western 
 states. 
 
 The Dutch planted a colony on the Hudson River, with 
 other settlements on the Connecticut and Delaware. Their 
 principal profit came from the fur trade with the Indians, 
 especially the Iroquois. The Swedes also planted a colony 
 on the Delaware (1638), which was absorbed by the Dutch 
 
 (i655)._ 
 
 English immigration was stopped about 1640 by the break- 
 ing out of civil war in England, which resulted in the execution 
 of the king and the setting up of a sort of republican govern- 
 ment called the Commonwealth, with Cromwell at its head. 
 After Cromwell's death, Charles II became king. The Dutch 
 colony of New Netherland was taken by an English fleet 
 (1664) and renamed New York. New Amsterdam became 
 New York, the first organized city in English North America. 
 In addition to New York the following English colonies were 
 founded after 1660: 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 73 
 
 (i) New Jersey (1664), for a time subdivided into two small 
 colonies, and inhabited by Quakers, New Englanders, and 
 others. 
 
 (2) Pennsylvania (1681), the most successful of all the 
 colonies, granted by Charles II to William Penn, the cele- 
 brated Quaker. 
 
 (3) Delaware, a little colony, for a long time treated as 
 part of Pennsylvania. 
 
 (4) Carolina (1663), a planting region, producing also naval 
 stores. This colony was later divided into North Carolina 
 and South Carolina. 
 
 New England suffered from Indian wars, and was disturbed 
 by a persecution of the Quakers. Meantime, explorers were 
 pushing out to the western mountains and a few of them 
 reached streams flowing into the Ohio. 
 
 Philadelphia, about 1718, showing the growth of the city in thirty-six years 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Andrews, Col. Self -Government. — Avery, Un. States, II, III. 
 — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 190, 192, 193. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. Stales, 72-97, 111-115. — Channing, Un. 
 States, I. chs. iii, xvi, xvii, II. chs. i-vii. — Eggleston, Our First Century, 
 chs. x-xvi. — Hasbrouck, Boys' Parkman, chs. i-vi. — Higginson, Am. 
 Explorers, chs. xii, xiii. — Thwaites, France in Am., chs. i-iv. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 16. — Caldwell and Persingcr, Source 
 Hist., 28-33, 75~97- — Hart, Contemporaries, I. §§37-43. 76-81, 112- 
 126, 132-136, 150-168; Source Book, §§6, 16, 22-26, 36. — James, 
 Readings, §§ 15, 16, 20-22. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 15- 
 23; Select Charters, nos. 23-42. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 46, 69, 88, 
 91, 94-96, 155, 168, 171, 172. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Bennett, Barnaby Lee (N. Y. and Md.). — 
 Brooks, In Leisler's Times. — Catherwood, Heroes of the Middle 
 West. — Cooper, Wept of the Wish- Ton- Wish (King Philip). — Ellis, 
 
74 RI\ ALS AND NEW COLONIES 
 
 Last Emperor of the Old Dominion (Bacon's Rebellion). — Gordy, Am. 
 Leaders and Heroes, chs. v, viii, ix. — Kennedy, Rob of the Bowl (Md.). 
 — Otis, Peter of New Amsterdam; Stephen of Philadelphia. — Simms, 
 Cassigue of Ktawah (Carolina). — Smith, Young Puritan Series (King 
 Philip's War). — Stockton, Stories of New Jersey, 24-31, 51-68. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, II. — Wilson, Am. People, I. — Winsor, 
 America, III. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 38) I. What led the French to colonize in the New World? 2 (For 
 an essay). Champlain's travels and ad\'entures. 3 (For an essay). The 
 Iroquois. 4. How was New France settled? 
 
 (§ 39) 5 (For ^n essay). Adventures of La Salle. 6. What Euro- 
 peans discovered the Mississippi River? 7. How was Louisiana founded? 
 8. Early canoe voyages on the Mississippi River. 
 
 (§ 40) 9. How did the country of Holland arise? 10. Why did the 
 Dutch settle on the Hudson River? 11 (For an essay). Early accounts 
 and pictures of New Amsterdam. 12. How was New Sweden founded? 
 13. What sort of government did the Dutch have in New Netherland? 
 
 (§ 41) 14. Who were the Royalists and the Koundheads? 15. How 
 was a republic set up in England? 16 (For an essay). An account of 
 Oliver Cromwell. 17. How did the Restoration affect the American col- 
 onies? 
 
 (§ 42) 18. How did New Amsterdam become New York? 19. Win' 
 did the Dutch and English quarrel? 
 
 (§ 43) 20. How were the New Jersey colonies founded? 21. How did 
 New York become a city? 22. What kind of people came to New York 
 and New Jersey? 
 
 (§ 44) 23 (For an essay). Life and e.xperiences of William Penn. 
 24. How was Pennsylvania founded? 25. How was Philadelphia founded? 
 26. What was the "Great Charter"? 27. How was Delaware founded? 
 
 (§ 45) 28. How were the Carolinas founded? 29. What was the 
 "Grand Model"? 30. How did the Carolina people make a living? 
 31 (For an essay) . Bacon's Rebellion. 
 
 (§ 46) 32 (For an essay). Incidents of King Philip's War. 33. Why 
 was Andros so unpopular? 
 
 (§ 47) 34- Who were the Quakers? 35. Why were they so much dis- 
 liked? 36. Why were the New Englanders so intolerant of Quakers? 
 37 (For an essay) . Witchcraft trials. 
 
 (§ 48) 38. What English expeditions crossed the mountains westward? 
 39. W'hat neighbors had the English on the north and the south? 
 
CHAPTER V 
 
 COLONIAL LIFE (1689 1750) 
 
 50. The Settlers. — As we have seen in ihe previous 
 chapters, it was ahnost two centuries after the discovery by 
 Columbus before the eastern coast of North America was 
 taken up by English colonies. During the process the Eng- 
 lish settlers went through many hard fights with the Spaniards, 
 with the French, with the Dutch, with wild beasts, and with 
 wild men and pirates, before they felt safe. 
 
 After 1689 these colonies grew so fast that in 1750 they 
 contained about 1,200,000 inhabitants. Land was plentiful 
 and cheap ; and there were work 
 and food for all the members of 
 the large families. Few immi- 
 grants from Europe came to 
 New England after 1640 (§41), 
 but thousands flocked into the 
 other colonies. 
 
 The largest element among 
 these newcomers was always 
 the English, including the 
 Scotch and the Welsh. A fe-w 
 French Protestants, common!}' 
 called Huguenots, and some 
 Catholic Scotch Highlanders 
 sought the southern colonies. 
 Great numbers of Scotch- Irish 
 went to Pennsylvania, and soon 
 
 made up a fourth of the population. By natural preference 
 they sought the frontiers; some drifted later along the valleys 
 southward into the mountains of Virginia and the Carolinas, 
 where many of their descendants still li\'e. 
 
 hart's sen. HIST. — 5 75 
 
 German immigrants in their native 
 costume 
 
76 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 The only considerable number of immigrants who did not 
 speak English when they arrived were the Germans. Many 
 German-speaking Protestants, whose worship was restricted 
 at home, took refuge in Pennsylvania, and a few in New York. 
 Among them were Mennonites from central Germany, and 
 Moravians from Austria. Many Germans went to the Vir- 
 ginia mountains. 
 
 Besides these willing immigrants, the colonies received 
 thousands of negro slaves from the West Indies or direct from 
 Africa. All the colonies shared in this system of forced labor, 
 but the negroes were so well suited for the work in the 
 southern tobacco fields that about nine tenths of them were 
 taken to the South. 
 
 51. The Indians, — The different colonizing races followed 
 different methods in dealing with the Indians. The Spaniards 
 were cruel to them but often married Indian women; and they 
 planted missions among the wild tribes, with splendid stone 
 churches and convents, around which the Indians lived almost 
 like slaves. The French knew how to attach the Indians to 
 themselves. Many young Frenchmen, the so-called " cou- 
 reurs de bois," ("wood-rangers") put on paint and feathers 
 and lived among them; many others married squaws and 
 raised families of " half-breeds," as the children were called. 
 
 The English never made the Indians their fellow citizens 
 or intimate friends, but kind-hearted colonists tried to Chris- 
 tianize them by planting missions among them. On the other 
 hand the English always admitted that the Indians preserved 
 a " right of occupancy " in their lands. Whether they lived 
 within the grants to a chartered company, or in proprietors' 
 colonies, or in " royal provinces," the Indians could not be de- 
 prived of their hunting grounds except by their own consent, 
 usually set forth in a solemn written treaty. 
 
 A few Indians accepted the white man's religion; but most 
 of them were wild tribes, living beyond the frontier, and no 
 better off because of the coming of their white neighbors. 
 Indeed, the settlers brought to the Indians such dread diseases 
 as smallpox, which swept off thousands. The Indians taught 
 their white neighbors several useful things, such as how to 
 
INDIANS 77 
 
 make small shells into wampum, which was used by the 
 Indians as a kind of money; how to grow Indian corn; how 
 to boil down maple sugar; how to combine corn and beans 
 into a dish called succotash ; how to build canoes out of solid 
 trees or birch bark; how to find their way in the woods. 
 
 From the whites the Indians bought such goods as iron 
 kettles, hatchets, beads, and ornaments; " matchcoats " 
 (that is, blankets) ; guns, powder, and shot, sometimes used 
 to kill the men who sold them. They prized especially the 
 " fire water," as they called the alcoholic liquid which would 
 burn if poured on a fire, and which changed the Indian who 
 drank it into a fool or a demon. 
 
 52. Indian Warfare. — Another thing that the white man 
 learned was to be forever on the watch for the savages. The 
 Indians looked upon every man, woman, and child who be- 
 longed to a hostile tribe as a personal enemy; therefore, if an 
 Indian were injured by a white colonist, his friends felt them- 
 selves entitled to kill at sight any inhabitant of that colony. 
 Their warfare was fierce and terrible. Indians would not 
 spend days in besieging a fort; their method was to burst 
 into a house or village, shooting right and left, and taking as 
 captives the people still living. Then they would hurry home 
 again with their party, tomahawking on the way the unhappy 
 captives who could not keep up. They scalped dead enemies 
 and sometimes live ones, and saved some of the prisoners for 
 awful scenes of torture. 
 
 The colonists, whether English, Spanish, French, or Dutch, 
 had little right to complain of such barbarity, for they often 
 surprised Indian villages and killed Indian women and chil- 
 dren in cold blood, and sometimes offered rewards for the 
 scalps of Indians. It was an age of blood and cruelty. 
 
 53. Home Life. — Since most of the colonists lived on 
 separate farms or in small villages, the larger part of the lives 
 of young people was spent on their own places. It was easy 
 to make a home, for the early settlements were in the woods, 
 and two or three men working for a week could build a log 
 house. When the cracks between the logs were properly 
 filled with moss and clay, such a house would be comfortable 
 
78 
 
 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 for yciirs. Some of the colonists were carpenters who built 
 good freime houses, a few of which are still standing. Some of 
 the Dutch and German farmhouses in the middle colonies 
 were built of brick. In the mild climate of the South most of 
 the early houses were simple log or frame structures, except 
 that a few well-to-do families built handsome mansions; for 
 example, the Byrd house near Richmond, Virginia. 
 
 Inside ordinary houses the prin- 
 cipal feature was the great chimney, 
 with a fireplace, sometimes made 
 large enough to take six-foot logs. 
 There the cooking for the family 
 was done, and at night there was 
 often no other light than that of 
 the burning logs. The big room 
 upon which the fireplace opened 
 was kitchen and living room and 
 best parlor and bedroom all in one, 
 and contained the simplest furni- 
 ture. The colonists made " punch- 
 eons " by splitting trunks of trees 
 in two; and they made sea'ts and 
 tables by setting these puncheons 
 flat side up and fitting them with 
 legs. An iron pot was the principal 
 cooking utensil. Well-to-do people 
 brought beautiful pieces of furni- 
 ture from England or had them 
 made in the neighborhood. A few 
 rich merchants, like William Walton of New York and Robert 
 Morris of Philadelphia, owmed mansions stocked with beauti- 
 ful china, silverware, pictures, and Turkey carpets. 
 
 Rich and poor alike were very subject to illness. Little 
 children died off in great numbers, and their elders also suf- 
 fered from many diseases, especially from the dangerous " jail 
 fever," or " ship fever," which we call typhus; from rheuma- 
 tism and consumption; from malaria in many forms, includ- 
 ing the dreaded " breakbone fever." Doctors were few and 
 
 Dress of Nabby Bishop of Medford 
 Worn by a descendant 
 
HOME AND SOCIAL LIFE 
 
 79 
 
 gave strong and nauseous drugs, including pounded toads 
 and liquid mercury. Smallpox was one of the worst scourges, 
 and its ravages were not much lessened by the treatment 
 called " inoculation," which consisted in deliberately taking 
 smallpox in such a way as to make it a light case. 
 
 54. Social Life. — In colonial times, as now, people liked 
 to get together and have a good time; but there were prac- 
 tically no theaters, no excursions, and little music except 
 that in the churches and the unskilled scraping of a few 
 fiddlers. 
 
 In New England 
 the principal recre- 
 ation was going to 
 church, for that 
 was the one place 
 where all the 
 [3 e o p 1 e , men, 
 women, and chil- 
 dren, came together 
 and had a little 
 opportunity to 
 gossip after the 
 sermon. The Puri- 
 tans frowned on 
 cards and dancing; 
 
 ne\:ertheless their children had plenty of fun and jollity. 
 Young people romped and dressed in queer costumes, and 
 slipped out of bed to eat pie and oysters at midnight. 
 Southerners would ride many miles on horseback or in 
 coaches to visit friends and dine and play games and dance. 
 Lucinda Lee, a lively Virginia maid, relates how she made 
 one of her friends " play on the forti-pianer," by which she 
 meant the piano. In the middle colonies the Quakers and 
 many of the Dutch and (German sects were strict, but other 
 people enjoyed parties and suppers, and plent>' of amuse- 
 ments. Cooper, the novelist, describes a feast where each 
 guest had at his elbow a whole circle of pic made up of six 
 pieces cut from as many dififerent kinds of pie. 
 
 Harpsichord ( early form of the piano) and Washington's 
 flute, now in Mt. Vernon 
 
8o 
 
 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 Everywhere young people got together on the farms, for 
 quilting bees or corn-husking parties, or weddings. Funerals 
 were held in state, throngs of friends sometimes walking miles 
 to the graveyard, or " burying ground," as it was called. 
 Horse racing was a favorite amusement in the South, and 
 there was hard drinking and gambling in every colony. Lot- 
 teries were a favorite kind of gambling, and they were allowed 
 
 for all sorts of purposes, 
 including the raising 
 of funds for a college 
 building or a parson- 
 age. 
 
 55. Colonial Church- 
 es. — The church serv- 
 ices were the only 
 schools for thousands 
 of poor and ignorant 
 families. The Church 
 of England, now com- 
 monly called the Epis- 
 copal Church, spread 
 even to New England. 
 It was " established " 
 in Maryland, Virginia, 
 the Carolinas, and part 
 of New York; that is, 
 the churches were 
 built and maintained 
 and the ministers were 
 paid out of general 
 taxation. The Episco- 
 palians were fond of 
 building churches, and a good example of their art is the 
 church at Goose Creek, South Carolina — one of their oldest 
 buildings — which is still in use. 
 
 The Independent, or (as it came to call itself) the Congre- 
 gational Church, was strong in New England and also in east- 
 ern Long Island, in New Jersey, and in parts of North Carolina. 
 
 [lI Uc'.n.it Pub. Co. 
 Old North Church, Boston, built in 1723. Paul 
 Revere's alarm lights were hung in the tower of 
 this church on the night of his famous ride. The 
 high square-back pews and the slaves' gallery, 
 above the organ at the right, are interesting fea- 
 tures of this church 
 
A country school in the Forties 
 
82 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 Each congregation chose its own minister and looked after 
 itself. In New Hampshire, Connecticut, and Massachusetts 
 the Congregational Church was established and everybody 
 had to pay taxes for its support. 
 
 The leading church in the middle colonies was the Presby- 
 terian, in which assemblies of ministers and laymen decided 
 on the church doctrines and policy. The Dutch Reformed 
 Church of New York was much like it. 
 
 The Baptist Church appeared first in Rhode Island, then in 
 the middle colonies, and later in the South, especially on the 
 frontier. The Baptists, like the Congregationalists, left each 
 local church free to make its own decisions and to appoint its 
 own minister. 
 
 The Methodist Church, commonly called the Wesleyan 
 Church in England, was founded about 1740 by John and 
 Charles Wesley, clergymen of the Church of England. They 
 were distressed by what they considered the deadness of that 
 church, and started a movement of reform. Since it was not 
 accepted by the church, they set up a new organization. 
 Both the brothers visited America, and John Wesley stayed 
 for some time in Georgia (§ 65). Their church, like that of the 
 Baptists, was especially fitted for work on the frontier, and 
 these two religious bodies had a great influence in the West. 
 
 The Quakers, like the Congregationalists, had no central 
 authority, but formed state " meetings," in which they ex- 
 changed views. They were strong in Rhode Island, Penn- 
 sylvania, and New Jersey. 
 
 The Germans founded several Protestant churches, among 
 them the Lutheran, the Dunkard, and the Mennonite, a Ger- 
 man sect much resembling the Quakers in prim dress and 
 horror of outward show. The German Moravians built great 
 community houses in Bethlehem and Ephrata, Pennsylvania, 
 and elsewhere. 
 
 The Catholic Church in this period included the descendants 
 of the Maryland Catholics, and a few Frenchmen, Spaniards, 
 and Irishmen in other colonies. 
 
 56. Colonial Ministers. — Most of the colonists enjoyed 
 church services, discussions about religious doctrines, and 
 
COLONIAL CHURCHES AND .XUNISTERS 
 
 83 
 
 long sermons. A young minister, who forgot to turn 
 the hourglass before he began, once preached two hours, 
 and the congregation seemed to " like it well." The 
 New England ministers were leaders in the life of their 
 colonies. 
 
 One of the greatest among them was Cotton Mather of 
 Boston, who is a fair examp:)le of the Puritans at their best. 
 When he entered college at twelve years of age he had read 
 Caesar, Ovid, Vergil, and many other 
 authors; he could speak Latin, had read 
 much Greek, and had begun Hebrew. 
 When nineteen years old, he preached 
 his first sermon. He soon after became 
 the minister of one of the principal Boston 
 churches, and remained there through- 
 out his life. He was married three times 
 and had fifteen children, of whom only 
 two outlived him. 
 
 Besides preaching thousands of ser- 
 mons, Mather read in his librarv of three ^ two-hour puipit glass. 
 
 ' From the Salem Museum 
 
 tiiousand volumes, and wrote many books, 
 
 including the Magnalia. This is a kind of history, but is full 
 of poems, stories, and all sorts of material. Mather was also 
 one of the few scientific men of his time, and was the friend 
 and correspondent of many learned men in England and in 
 (iermany. He was a man of public spirit, and interested in 
 schools. Therefore he wrote to Elihu Yale, a wealthy mer- 
 chant in London, suggesting that he give money to a little 
 college that had been started in Connecticut. Yale did so, 
 and the college was named for him. 
 
 In the middle colonies, especially along the frontier, many 
 uneducated men became ministers. In the South there was 
 difficulty in getting good ministers, though an English so- 
 ciety, usually called the " V^enerable Society," sent oxer min- 
 isters and libraries, and tried to raise the standard. As 
 lawyers at this time were few and much disliked, and as the 
 doctors had little education, the ministers were in many places 
 the only trained men. 
 
84 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 57. Witchcraft. — During the period of colonization the 
 world was full of a belief in unseen evil spirits. Many of the 
 immigrants thought the Indians were devils, and the belief 
 was widespread that ghosts sometimes appeared and talked 
 with living persons. People held the harmful belief that 
 human beings who so desired could become acquainted with 
 evil spirits, and with their aid could harm other persons, whom 
 perhaps they had never seen. Such beings were called witches. 
 
 Throughout Christian Europe at this time men and women 
 were arrested on the charge of witchcraft; and hundreds of 
 thousands of supposed witches, most of them women, were 
 fearfully tortured and executed by burning, in order to make 
 them confess to crimes that nobody could possibly commit. 
 Some of the few brave men who had the courage to feach 
 that there could be no such things as witches were themselves 
 executed as witches. This awful delusion prevailed in Eng- 
 land and extended to the English colonies, so that a supposed 
 witch was once executed in Maryland. 
 
 In 1692 the insane belief in witchcraft took strong hold of 
 Massachusetts. Some children in Salem invented a set of 
 stories that an Indian slave and other women were witches; 
 and witnesses would fall down in the court, shrieking and de- 
 claring that prisoners there present were pricking them with 
 pins. The so-called witches were accused of making compacts 
 with the devil, who in turn gave them power to injure others. 
 In vain did they cry, " I am innocent "; nineteen were hanged 
 at Salem. This fate was merciful in comparison with the 
 tortures usual in such cases in Europe. 
 
 After a few months the people of Massachusetts slowly came 
 to their senses and were almost the first people in Christendom 
 to acknowledge that there could be no such thing as witches. 
 Gradually the same ideas crept into the minds of Europeans; 
 and belief in witchcraft is nowadays left to savages and bar- 
 barous people. 
 
 58. Colonial Children. — Many immigrants in America 
 hoped to improve the chances of their children. In the time 
 of Raleigh's unsuccessful colony (§21) the settlers noted the 
 birth of a little girl, and because this child was the first Chris- 
 
COLONIAL CHILDREN 
 
 85 
 
 tian born in Virginia, she was named Virginia Dare. In tiie 
 ship Mayfloiver were little children, one of whom was named 
 Peregrine (that is. Pilgrim) White. One of the colonial 
 founders thought that " children of twelve or fourteen years 
 of age, or under, may be kept from idleness in making a thou- 
 sand kinds of trifling things which will be good merchandise 
 for that country." 
 
 The Dutch in New Amsterdam brought over childrt>n from 
 the poorhouses of Holland and " bound them out"; that is, 
 assigned them to families that agreed to take care of them for 
 a term of years and meanwhile had the benefit of their work. 
 The Puritans were commonly thought to be severe with their 
 children, but many of them showed great lo\e and tenderness. 
 Cotton Mather said that he tried 
 " to form in his children a temper 
 of benignity." He would set them 
 to doing services and kindnesses 
 for one another and for other chil- 
 dren, and he would let them see that 
 he was not satisfied " excepting 
 they had a sweetness of temper 
 shining in them." 
 
 Children could be naughty in 
 those days; and the grown-ups did 
 not always show much wisdom in 
 correcting them. The great 
 preacher Whitefield tells us that on 
 board ship he found a little boy 
 under five years of age who would 
 not say his prayers; so he plumped 
 the child down on his knees, ga\e 
 liim several whacks, and then the 
 little boy said his prayers nicel>'. 
 gave the lad some figs for a reward. 
 
 Most children had a happy outdoor life, wore simple cloth- 
 ing, and were accustomed to pay deep respect to their fathers 
 and mothers. Well-bred little girls curtsied to older people. 
 Sometimes the children had to join in defending their homes 
 
 Dress of a colonial boy, about 1750. 
 Children were dressed much like 
 their elders 
 
 WluTeui)on the minister 
 
86 
 
 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 from Indians and other enemies. John Fontaine, a Virginian, 
 tells us how with four servants and five of his young sons he 
 for hours fought off the crew of a French privateer. 
 
 Well-to-do families fitted out their children in handsome 
 style. Thus John Livingston of New York, when he was sent 
 
 on a journey, was furnished 
 with " eleven new shirts, 
 four pairs of lace sleeves, 
 eight plain cravats, four cra- 
 vats with lace, four striped 
 waistcoats with black but- 
 tons, two hats, six pairs of 
 breeches, silk and thread 
 to mend his clothes." 
 
 59. Colonial Schools. — 
 Many of the colonists had 
 been taught in English, 
 Dutch, or German schools, 
 and some were graduates 
 of English universities. 
 Therefore early steps were 
 taken to give the boys 
 simple schooling. Virginia 
 was the first colony to try 
 to set up a free school, but 
 in colonial times fees were 
 paid, even in the so-called 
 " public schools," for those 
 pupils whose parents could 
 afford it. 
 
 Nowhere outside of New England was money regularly 
 raised by taxation to educate the children. In 1647 the Gen- 
 eral Court of Massachusetts required that every town of fifty 
 families should keep up a school, and every town of a hundred 
 families should keep up a " grammar school " ; that is, a school 
 where Latin was taught. Not every town obeyed the law, 
 and not every boy went to school; and there was no require- 
 ment that girls be taught. 
 
 An early form of primer. This was called a 
 " hornbook " because a thin sheet of horn 
 over the paper served to protect the printing 
 
COLONIAL SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES 
 
 Both private and public schools were housed in rough little 
 buildings poorly heated and lighted. Schoolmasters were 
 often cruel, for it was then the custom throughout the world 
 to make children learn by beating them. Textbooks were 
 crude and badly printed, and the children learned little but 
 what was later called "the three R's," "Reading, 'Riting, 
 and 'Rithmetic." 
 
 Little girls could go to the so-called " dame schools," paying 
 small fees, and older girls could go to the few ill-kept boarding 
 schools. Yet somehow the liveliest people of the times were 
 these same colonial girls, who were taught by their fathers and 
 mothers, and elder brothers and sisters. A daughter of Cotton 
 Mather learned 
 Hebrew. Anne 
 Bradstreet of Mas- 
 sachusetts com- 
 posed poems. 
 Eliza Lucas of 
 South Carolina 
 wrote a clever ac- 
 count of home life 
 during the Re\o- 
 lution. Hannah 
 Adams published 
 one of the first 
 school histories of 
 the United States. 
 Bright girls would 
 learn with or with- 
 out a good chance. 
 
 60. Colonial Col- 
 leges. — Between 
 1 636 and 1 70 1 three 
 little colleges were 
 founded. Harvard 
 
 in Massachusetts, William and Mary in Virginia, and Yale 
 in Connecticut. In the next se\enty years se\en more were 
 set up, including Kings (now Columbia) in the city of New 
 
 unto liim r and they brought liim forth, 
 an<l set him without the city. 
 
 ;AmiI »I..Ii' lir Illij^Crcl, III 
 of I... 
 
 inio I noil lluy l< 
 
 hil hnitJ, oikI upon >liv lini»l 
 
 ttn, the t^rd Im-iii. ini-rciriil 
 
 (III Inin r.,rlli, nn.f ."il liini nilliMit lb" . ilr 
 
 Facsimile of a page from a Bible printed especially for 
 children 
 
88 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 York, the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, and 
 Princeton in New Jersey. These colleges all took boys at 
 thirteen to sixteen years of age, and gave them a four years' 
 course of study that was not so good as that of a modern 
 high school. Most of them were founded in order to educate 
 ministers, and the boys all had to study Latin, Greek, and, 
 in some places, Hebrew. 
 
 According to their own account many of the students 
 were idle and mischievous. One of them writes, " Do not 
 despise old times too much, for remember that 2 or 3 cen- 
 turies from the time of seeing this, you will be counted as 
 old times' folks as much as you count us to be so now . . . 
 and very likely you are more given to vice than we arc." 
 President Stiles of Yale wrote in his diary, " An hundred and 
 fifty or 180 Young Gentlemen Students is a bundle of Wild 
 Fire not easily controlled & governed — and at best the Dia- 
 dem of a President is a Crown of Thorns." 
 
 The president and tutors watched over and held court on 
 such riotous fellows as three students who were once ex- 
 pelled " for their disorder and injurious carriage in killing 
 and having stolen ropes, in hanging goodman Sells' dog upon 
 the sign-post in the night." Yet there must have been plenty 
 of good in colonial colleges, to judge by their students. 
 Thomas Jefferson was a graduate of William and Mary, James 
 Madison of Princeton, Nathan Heile of Yale, and John Adams 
 of Harvard. George Washington was a self-educated man, 
 but in his later life was chancellor — that is, president — of 
 William and Mary College. 
 
 61. Colonial Reading Matter. — In all the colonies print- 
 ing presses were set up, and several newspapers were founded. 
 Benjamin Franklin was the best-known printer and editor. 
 The commonest book was the Bible, in which thousands of 
 children learned their letters from the big capitals at the 
 heads of the chapters. There were no Sunday schools in 
 those days, but most children went to church. Religious 
 homes held daily famih' worship with reading of Scripture 
 and prayer; sometimes the children " read around," each a 
 verse in succession. 
 
COLONIAL READING MATTER 
 
 89 
 
 The book best known after the Bible was the New England 
 Primer, first issued about 1690. The little volume contains a 
 few lists of words, spelling lessons, the Lord's Prayer, the Ten 
 Commandments, an account of Mr. John Ro^ejers, a Protestant 
 who had been burned 
 at the stake in Eng- 
 land, and the Shorter 
 Catechism, which is a 
 statement of Puritan 
 doctrine. The quaint- 
 est thing in the book is 
 the alphabet illustrated 
 with poor woodcuts. 
 
 62. Summary. — 
 This chapter is an ac- 
 count of the people in 
 the colonies, both the 
 immigrants and the 
 Indians, and of the so- 
 ci.il life of the English 
 colonists, including the 
 children. 
 
 The English colonies 
 grew rapidly, though 
 they had to fight their 
 way against the In- 
 dians and against other European races. Besides the English, 
 numbers of Germans and Scotch-Irish came to the middle 
 and southern colonies, and many negroes were imported from 
 Africa. The Indians were not included in the English civil- 
 ized communities, but they traded freely with the whites, and 
 often made savage war upon them. 
 
 Most of the colonists lived at first in log houses. Rich 
 and poor sufTered much from disease. In all sections there was 
 lively social life with parties and visits, and outside New Eng- 
 land there were horse racing and other amusements. The 
 colonists were great churchgoers and organized churches in a 
 great numi)cr of denominations, especially the Episcopalian, 
 
 Young T I M O T H V 
 Learnt fin to fly. 
 
 V A s T H I for Pride, 
 Was fel afide. 
 
 Whales in the Sea, 
 GOD's Voice obey. 
 
 X E a X E s did die. 
 And fo muft I. 
 
 While youth do chear 
 Death may be near. 
 
 Z .'4 c c .1 E tF s be 
 Did clijTibthe Tree 
 Our Lord to fee. 
 
 A page of the alphabet from the New England Primer 
 
90 COLONIAL LIFE 
 
 Congregational, Presbyterian, Baptist, Methodist, Quaker, 
 Catholic, and German Protestant. The ministers, especially 
 the Puritans, were strong men and leaders in their commu- 
 nities. Religion did not prevent the colonists from being over- 
 come by the dreadful delusion that there were witches; but 
 the colonies were the first part of the Christian world to throw 
 off the horrid belief. 
 
 Colonial children were numerous and, on the whole, happy. 
 Their schools were few and poor, and were intended only for 
 boys, though many girls learned to read. Little colleges grew 
 up in which boys received further education, and in which the 
 ministers of the older churches were trained. The girls in 
 many families somehow became educated. Colonial literature 
 was not important, except the religious books and the New 
 England Primer; but the colleges and the educated families 
 trained the great writers and speakers of the Revolution that 
 was to come. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Histories. Andrews, Col. Period, ch. iii. — Becker, Beginnings, ch. v. 
 
 — Charming, Un. States, \. ch. xix, IL chs. viii, xiv-xvi. — Eggleston, 
 Our First Century, chs. xx, xxi, xxiii, xxiv; Life in i8th Century, chs. i- 
 xxi passim. — Fiske, Dutch and Quaker Cols., IL 258-293, 317-356. — 
 Jenks, When Am. won Liberty, chs. vi-viii. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. 
 People, chs. iii-v. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 107-122. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, \. §§ 82-89, I37~I49. 169-172, IL §§ 16-18, 80-81, 90- 
 loi; Source Book, §§ 11-52 passim; Source Readers, I. §§ 19-44, 66-83, 
 II. §§ i-ii. — James, Readings, §§ 17-19, 25, 26. — Old South Leaflets, 
 nos. 21, 22, 93, 143, 159, 161, 177, 184, 185. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Barr, Black Shilling (Witchcraft). — Earle, 
 Child Life in Col. Days; Col! Dames and Goodwives ; Home Life in Col. 
 Days; Sabbath in Puritan New Engl.; Two Centuries of Costume. — 
 Franklin, Autobiography. — -Johnston, Audrey (Va.). — Lane and ' Hill, 
 Am. Hist, in Literature, chs. iii-vi. — Lodge, Short Hist, of Engl. Cols. 
 
 — Meyers, Young Patroon. — Paulding, Dutchman' s Fireside. — Price, 
 Lads and Lassies of Other Days, 11-19, 39-84. — Robinson, Little Puri- 
 tan's First Christmas. — Stockton, Stories of New Jersey, 69-92. — Wen- 
 dell, Cotton Mather. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, III, V. ch. i. — Earle's books (cited 
 above). — Men/or, serial nos. 62, 77, 99. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. 
 People. — Wilson, Am. People, I, II. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 9I 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 50) I. Did the English colonists have an easy time? 2. What 
 attracted immigrants from Europe? 3. What European races were rep- 
 resented in the English colonies? 4. Why were negro slaves brought 
 into the colonies? 
 
 (§ 51) 5. How were the Indians treated by the Spaniards, the French, 
 and the English? 6. What rights did the English admit for the Indians? 
 7. What did the whites learn from the Indians? 8. What did the In- 
 dians learn from the whites? 
 
 (§ 52) 9- Why did Indian wars break out? 10. How tlid the whites 
 make war on Indians? Ii (For an essay). An Indian raid. 
 
 (§ 53) 12. In what sort of houses did the colonists live? 13. What 
 sort of furniture and utensils did the colonists have? 14. W'hat were 
 the most common diseases among the colonists? 
 
 (§ 54) 15- What did the colonists do for amusement? 16 (For an essay). 
 A colonial party. 
 
 (§ 55) 17- What were the principal churches in the English colonies? 
 18. What was the work of the Methodists in America? 
 
 (§ 56) 19. What sort of ministers were found in the colonies? 20 
 (For an essay). Education and private life of Cotton Mather. 21. 
 Ministers in the South. 
 
 (§ 57) 22. What was the belief in witchcraft? 23 (For an essay). 
 Incidents of the Salem witchcraft trials. 
 
 (§ 58) 24. Who were the first children born in the colonies of Virginia 
 and Plymouth? 25 (For an essay). Child life in the colonies. 26. How 
 were the children of wealthy families dressed? 
 
 (§ 59) 27. What were public schools in the colonies? 28. Were there 
 any free public schools in the colonies? 29. How were children taught 
 in the colonies? 30. How were girls educated? 31 (For an essay). A 
 day in a colonial school. 
 
 (§ 60) 32. What were the colonial colleges? 33 (For an essay). Ac- 
 count of college life in the colonies. 
 
 (§ 61) 34. What did the colonists read? 35. What was the New 
 England Primer? 
 
 'Ooomim amictmlAi mcL lo Lmwm^aL (DJtcem — , 
 
 Model lesson in a writing book of 1753, The CompUat Penman, 
 
CHAPTER \T 
 WAR AND THE WEST (1689-1763) 
 
 63. Why was there War? — The period beginning about 
 1689 is a turning point in English and American history, for 
 the mother country entered on a new kind of government: 
 (i) The English people through their Parliament took con- 
 trol and selected William and Mary as their king and queen. 
 (2) England and Scotland had been sister kingdoms under 
 the same king; in 1707 they were united into the single king- 
 dom of Great Britain with one Parliament. Ireland remained 
 till 1800 a separate kingdom under the same king as Great 
 Britain, but with its own Parliament. 
 
 France was looked upon as the natural enemy of England, 
 and between 1689 and 1763 the two countries fought each 
 other in four European wars. During that time England 
 became the strongest naval power in the world. The French 
 were trying to enlarge their colonies in America and India, 
 and also to absorb Spain and the Spanish possessions; and 
 therefore all the American colonies were drawn into these wars. 
 
 64. Colonists and Mother Country. — The English colonists 
 looked upon themselves as Englishmen, bound to defend their 
 country. They also claimed all the rights of Englishmen as 
 set forth in the Magna Charta (§ 7), such as trial by jury, vot- 
 ing on their own taxes, and freedom from cruel punishments. 
 They were very loyal to the royal family and looked upon 
 whoever might be king or queen of England as a sort of saint. 
 Therefore, whenever a war broke out in Europe, the English 
 colonists helped to fit out fleets against their French and 
 Spanish neighbors. They also captured the merchant ships 
 of their enemies with privateers; that is, armed private ships 
 furnished with " letters of marque " from the government, 
 authorizing them to make such captures. 
 
 92 
 
GEORGIA AND LOUISIANA 93 
 
 King William set up in England a new board called the 
 " Board of Trade " to look after the colonies. The board ex- 
 amined the laws passed by the colonial assemblies and if it saw 
 fit caused them to be vetoed in England. This plan was weak, 
 and for many years little thought was given to the colonies 
 by the home government; hence they had the chance to grow 
 up in their own way. 
 
 65. Colony of Georgia (1732-1750). — Between South 
 Carolina and Spanish Florida there was a vacant tract of 
 land. In 1732 the new colony of Georgia (named for King 
 George II) was founded there by James Oglethorpe, a wealthy 
 and public-spirited Englishman, who wanted to give more 
 opportunity to those of his countrymen who were in debt or 
 could not make a living in England. For the first time in the 
 history of the colonies, the settlers were forbidden to buy rum 
 or to hold slaves. As all immigrants were allowed to practice 
 their own religion, some Jews, Swiss, Protestant Scotchmen, 
 and Germans were attracted there. 
 
 The charter granted the land from the Savannah River south 
 to the Altamaha River (map, page 69), which was only about 
 a hundred miles from the Spanish town of St. Augustine (§ 18). 
 This meant that the English might have to fight for their 
 colony. The land was good and settlers poured in; and after 
 a few years the laws against liquor and slave holding were 
 given up. 
 
 66. French Colony of Louisiana (1699-1740). — While 
 Frenchmen and Englishmen were fighting each other in Europe 
 and India and America, a new source of conflict arose in the 
 interior of North America. France in 1699 began to occupy 
 the magnificent valley which La Salle had explored (§ 39), by 
 sending a French colonizing expedition under Iberville. He 
 landed first at Dauphin Island south of the bay of Mobile, 
 then on the mainland at Biloxi, then at old Mobile near the 
 present city of Mobile. Part of the expedition entered the 
 Mississippi River, where they found an English ship which 
 seemed disposed to dispute their rights. They sent it to the 
 right-about, and the bend of the river where this incident hap- 
 pened is still called " English Turn." 
 
FRENCH AND ENCiLlSH WARS 95 
 
 This little colony took the name of Louisiana. Like the 
 early English settlers, the French settled on marshy land, and 
 many of the people died from poor food or malaria. In 17 12 
 a banker named Crozat got from the king of France the sole 
 right to trade in Louisiana, which was then declared to include 
 all the territory from Mexico to Carolina and the whole valley 
 of the Mississippi and its branches; but in 171 7 he surren- 
 dered his grant. In the following year (171 8) the French 
 built a little town on a slight elevation on the eastern bank 
 of the great river, and called it New Orleans; the place soon 
 became the capital and center of the colony. 
 
 Other little settlements, such as Natchez, were made on the 
 Mississippi River and the streams flowing into it, but the 
 colony grew very slowly. The French reached the Mississippi 
 country also from Canada. Along the route they founded 
 Detroit (1701) and the towns of Vincennes, Cahokia, and Kas- 
 kaskia, near the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. They also tried 
 to hold the friendship of the Indians by planting trading posts 
 far north of Mobile. 
 
 67. Three Intercolonial Wars (1689-1748). — During 
 " King William's War " (1689-1697) the French and their 
 Indian allies made a series of terrible raids upon the English 
 frontier. Hundreds of prisoners were carried back to the 
 Indian villages or to Canada. On their side, the English 
 colonists raided the French colony of Acadia and for a time 
 held Port Royal on the Bay of Fundy (§ 38). 
 
 In 1699 great offense was given to Spain by the attempt of 
 a Scotch company under Patterson to take possession of the 
 Isthmus of Panama, which was called " this door of the sea, 
 this key of the unixerse." TweKe hundred Scotchmen 
 reached the Isthmus, but the English government would not 
 back up the plan and thus lost the opportunity to plant a 
 colony at this important point. 
 
 " Queen Anne's War " began in Europe in 1701 and at once 
 spread to America. One of its famous incidents was the Indian 
 raid on the frontier town of Deerfield in the Connecticut \'al- 
 ley (1704). The people did not expect an enemy in the midst 
 of winter snows, and their strong stockade was taken by sur- 
 
 bart's sch. hist. —6 
 
96 
 
 WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 prise. The door of Parson Williams's house is still preserved 
 as it was left by the Indians, after they had hacked a hole 
 through so that they might fire into the house. The Caro- 
 linas were also attacked by Spaniards and were in great 
 danger. 
 
 The French were beaten in Europe and were obliged to make 
 peace (1713). This was the first step* in the destruction of 
 
 their empire in America; for 
 they yielded to England their 
 claims to Hudson Bay and to 
 Newfoundland, and they gave 
 up Acadia, which the English 
 renamed Nova Scotia. 
 
 During " King George's 
 War" (1739-1748) England, 
 and Spain again came to 
 blows because English ships 
 would not stop trading with 
 Spanish colonies. The French 
 joined the war and received 
 a terrible blow; for a fieet of 
 English vessels carrying New 
 England men captured their 
 strong fortification of Louis- 
 burg on the island of Cape 
 Breton (1745). Peace was 
 made in 1748 and Louisburg 
 was returned; but England and France were still at odds over 
 the ownership of the West. 
 
 68. The English West (1700-1748). — Except in the ex- 
 treme North and South, the English colonies were shut off 
 from the French by the rugged ranges of the Appalachian 
 Mountains. To the early English colonists " the West " 
 meant only the strip a few miles back from the coast. Then 
 they settled a frontier belt in such regions as the Berkshire Hills 
 in New England, and the " Piedmont " hill country of Virginia. 
 By 1740 several currents of settlers were moving into the 
 interior. Dutch, German, and English farmers, in spite of 
 
 Door of Parson Williams's house, showing 
 marks of the tomahawk. F*reserved in 
 the Deerfield Museum 
 
RIVALRY IN THE WEST 97 
 
 the dangers from the Indians, took up the rich land in the 
 Mohawk Valley. Ciermans moved west in Pennsylvania, and 
 settled York, Lancaster, and other towns (map, page 105). 
 Scotch-Irish and Germans made their way into the valley of 
 the Shenandoah, commonly called " the valley of Virginia." 
 There, more than a hundred years later, was born, out of the 
 Scotch-Irish stock, Woodrow Wilson, who became President 
 of the United States in 1913. Other Scotch-Irish settlers took 
 up land in the broken country of the western Carolinas, where 
 President Andrew Jackson was born. 
 
 The colonial governors helped along the western movement, 
 for they wanted to dispose of the lands belonging to the colo- 
 nies, and to plant settlements to keep the Indians in check. The 
 Iroquois — now "Six Nations" — still lay like a wall across the 
 frontiers of New York; therefore one of the principal men in 
 the countryside, Sir William Johnson of Johnson Hall, in 
 central New York, made it the labor of his life to gain their 
 good will, and he kept them in good temper for many years. 
 
 The country farther west, beyond the Appalachians, was as 
 hard to reach as Alaska is now. The only Englishmen who 
 then traveled through those immense forests were the traders, 
 who led their pack horses from Virginia, the Carolinas, and 
 Georgia to the villages of the Cherokees and Creeks of the 
 Southwest, and to the Shawnees and Miamis of the Northwest. 
 
 69. Rivalry on the Ohio (1748-1754). — The time was 
 approaching when the English would begin to push for posses- 
 sion of the interior. In 1749 a French officer named Celoron 
 de Bienville was ordered to go down the Ohio River, and at 
 various places to bury lead plates inscribed with the arms of 
 France, as a proof that this was French territory. In defiance 
 of this claim some Virginia gentlemen formed what they called 
 the Ohio Company, and invited settlers to take up land near 
 the Ohio River. 
 
 The French then built a chain of forts from Lake Ontario to 
 the Ohio Valley; and the governor of Virginia sent out (1753) 
 a gallant young Virginian, named George Washington, to warn 
 the French to withdraw from the Ohio country. This young 
 man, tall, strong, and spirited, belonged to a well-known 
 
98 WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 family. He had been a surveyor on the frontier and had the 
 friendship of Lord Fairfax, a great landowner in Virginia. 
 Since the French refused to withdraw, Washington was sent 
 out again in 1754, in command of an armed party, to defend 
 an English post on the Ohio River. He was too late. On his 
 way to the Ohio he met a small French force, and attacked and 
 defeated it. He then hastily threw up an intrenchment which 
 he called Fort Necessity; but a larger French force soon came 
 up and captured it. These little battles on the eastern edge 
 of the Ohio basin were the beginning of another war. 
 
 70. French and Indian War (1754-1758). — This struggle, 
 called in America the French and Indian War, and in Europe 
 the Seven Years' War, raged in America, on the continent of 
 Europe, in far-off India, and at sea, where hundreds of mer- 
 chant ships were captured on both sides. The two most 
 notable events in the early war were the Albany Congress and 
 Braddock's expedition. 
 
 Just as the war was breaking out, seven of the colonies sent 
 delegates to Albany in 1754 to induce the Indians to fight on 
 their side. One of the members was Benjamin Franklin of 
 Pennsylvania, who proposed a kind of colonial union, which is 
 the germ of the later Union of the United States. 
 
 Braddock's expedition was sent out in 1755 against a small 
 force of French troops which was building Fort Duquesne at 
 " the forks of the Ohio," the site of the present Pittsburgh. 
 Braddock was a brave officer and a good commander, but did 
 not understand how to fight savage foes in a wooded country. 
 His soldiers built a narrow road, which came to be called Brad- 
 dock's Road, and parts of which can still be traced. The most 
 capable man in his army was Colonel George Washington, who 
 two years before had been over the route. 
 
 The little column arrived almost in sight of Fort Duquesne, 
 when it was attacked by the French with Indian allies, and 
 totally defeated. Washington wrote to his mother, " I luckily 
 escaped without a wound though I had four bullets through 
 my coat, and two horses shot under me." It was three 
 years before the English were able to return and take the 
 fort. 
 
FREXCIl ASD INDlAiN WAR 
 
 99 
 
 One of the painful incidents oi this war was the carrying 
 away of the French population of Acadia, which had remained 
 after the English took possession forty \ears before (§ 67). 
 Fearing that the people would turn against them, the English 
 brought these farmers and their families together, destroyed 
 (heir villages, and carried the inhabitants off down the coast. 
 
 General Braddock was accompr.nied by Colonel Washington on the expedition 
 against Fort Duquesne 
 
 Some went as far as New Orleans, and their descendants still 
 live in that neighborhood. 
 
 71. Capture of the West by the English (1758-1763). — 
 During the first four \ears of the European war the English 
 army had the worst of it in battle after battle; but the French 
 navy was almost dri\en from the sea, so that France could 
 not send aid to Canada. William Pitt now arose as the great 
 
lOO WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 minister and leader of England. Under him the English took 
 heart again; the colonists captured the western French posts, 
 including Fort Duquesne, and an English fleet and army took 
 Louisburg (§ 67). Crown Point on Lake Champlain was also 
 taken (i759)- 
 
 Finally, on the lower St. Lawrence River, General James 
 Wolfe captured Quebec in one of the most dashing movements 
 of the war (1759). He led his men up a steep cliff to the 
 Heights of Abraham; there the French under Montcalm were 
 defeated, and Quebec surrendered. Meanwhile the British 
 forces attacked and captured the French possessions in India, 
 and the rich Spanish cities of Manila in the Philippine Islands 
 and Havana in Cuba. There was nothing for the French and 
 Spanish to do but yield. 
 
 The French had already ceded to Spain (1762) the whole of 
 Louisiana west of the Mississippi, and the Island of Orleans on 
 which New Orleans stands, east of the river. By the Treaty 
 of Paris (1763) France transferred to England: (i) the eastern 
 part of Louisiana (except New Orleans) from the Mississippi 
 River to the mountain ridges of the Appalachians; (2) the St. 
 Lawrence country, including lands and islands near the Great 
 Lakes and the St. Lawrence River and Gulf. The English 
 gave up Cuba and Manila, but in exchange took Florida from 
 Spain, and thus secured, for a time, the whole eastern half of 
 the continent of North America. In this way France, after 
 two hundred years of effort, lost every square foot of territory 
 on the continent; and the cession of Florida to England was 
 the first step toward the break-up of the Spanish land empire 
 in America. Many officers and soldiers of the American 
 armies gained an experience in warfare which was to be useful 
 to them in the later Revolution. 
 
 72. New Western Frontier (1763-1766). — The English 
 colonists, after fighting so long and so hard, expected that the 
 western country would be turned over to them for settlement. 
 But a royal order appeared, establishing the so-called " Procla- 
 mation Line" (1763); it reserved for the Indians "the land 
 and territories lying to the westward of the sources of the 
 rivers which fall into the sea [that is, the Atlantic Ocean] 
 
WESTERN FRONTIER 
 
 IQI 
 
 from the west and northwest." In addition three new British 
 colonies were created: (i) Quebec, which included the valley 
 of the St. Lawrence River; (2) East Florida; (3) West 
 Florida on the Gulf coast. Georgia was extended southward 
 to the St. Marys River, which was. the north boundary of 
 East Florida (map, page 105). 
 
 The Proclamation Line ignored the fact that the original 
 charters of Virginia, the Carolinas, and Georgia promised to 
 those colonies strips of terri- 
 tory as far west as the Pacific 
 Ocean; and similar charters of 
 Massachusetts and Connecti- 
 cut were still in force. How- 
 ever, New York and Pennsyl- 
 vania paid no attention to the 
 claims of the two New England 
 
 The northwestern Indians, defeated by the 
 English Colonel Bouquet, were, forced to 
 give up their white captives. From a 
 painting by Benjamin West 
 
 colonies, which cut right across 
 them. 
 
 In spite of the Proclamation 
 Line, settlers at once began to 
 find their way into the trian- 
 gular area lying between the 
 Allegheny and Monongahela 
 rivers. The northwestern In- 
 dians disliked the change of 
 masters from the French to the 
 English, and rose under Pontiac 
 (1763). It took three years of fighting to bring the In- 
 dians to acknowledge King George of England as their 
 sovereign. 
 
 73. Opening of the West (1758-1774). — As soon as the 
 French were driven out, immigrants from V^irginia and 
 Pennsylvania, most of them Scotch-Irish or German, crossed 
 the mountains and built around Fort Pitt a village (1758), 
 which grew into the town of Pittsburgh. Virginia also granted 
 lands as far as the Ohio River; and several attempts were 
 made to set up new western colonies south of the Ohio, such as 
 Transylvania and W'estsylvania, without the consent of the 
 
I02 
 
 WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 home govern ineiit. Nevertheless, till after 1 775 there were few- 
 English-speaking inhabitants of the Ohio country. 
 
 Boonesboro, Kentucky, built under the leadership of Daniel Boone. The high stockade 
 and the heavy gate are typical of early frontier settlements 
 
 Farther south a similar movement began under the famous 
 explorer, Daniel Boone. He lived in western North Caro- 
 lina, and in 1769 he began to explore the country on the 
 headwaters of the Tennessee. Thence he followed through 
 Cumberland Gap, by a route which for many years was called 
 " Boone's Trace," into the rich country of central Kentucky. 
 Boone was a fearless pioneer, who thought nothing of spending 
 weeks alone in the woods, among savage enemies. The Indians 
 once captured him, and he would probably have been burned 
 at the stake had he not made a daring escape. 
 
 The first settlement west of the divide was high up in the 
 mountains on the headwaters of the Watauga River. Three 
 pioneers, William Beane, John Sevier, and James Robertson, 
 were leading spirits in the little colony there, under an agree- 
 ment which they called the " Watauga Association." 
 
 Most of the settlers had nothing but what was called a 
 "tomahawk right" to their land; that is, they cut their initials 
 into a tree, and thereafter claimed the land in the neighbor- 
 hood. One of the early settlers says that in those days the 
 table furniture " consisted of a few pewter dishes, plates, and 
 spoons; of wooden bowls, trenchers,^ and noggins^; of gourds 
 and hardshell squashes." 
 
 ' Plates. - Small cups. 
 
Daniel Boone had many thiilling escapes from the Indiana 
 
T04 WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 74. Summary. — This chapter is an account of the rivalry 
 and the wars between the Spaniards and Frenchmen on the 
 one side, and the English on the other, especially for the owner- 
 ship of colonies. It briefly describes four intercolonial wars, 
 and particularly the opening of the West to the English. 
 
 The English, French, and Spanish colonies all took part in a 
 series of four intercolonial wars at intervals from 1689 to 1763. 
 In all of these wars English colonists looked upon themselves 
 as Englishrrten in America. The last of the English colonies, 
 Georgia, w'as planted in 1732 against the protests of Spain. 
 
 A struggle between England and France for territory in North 
 America began when the French settled the colony of Louisiana 
 (1699) and connected it with Canada by small forts. The net 
 result of the second war, for England, was that the French 
 gave up their claims to Hudson Bay, Newfoundland, and Nova 
 Scotia (17 13). About 1750 the English began to push across 
 the mountains and claim the Ohio Valley. George Washing- 
 ton was sent out to protest against the French occupation, and 
 took part in the first skirmishes of the French and Indian War 
 (i 754) . Braddock's fatal campaign was made the following year. 
 
 Partly by this pushing westward and partly by Wolfe's 
 capture of Quebec in 1759, the English conquered the French 
 possessions on the St. Lawrence and the Lakes and also took 
 that part of Louisiana which lay east of the Mississippi River. 
 By the Proclamation Line the English government tried to 
 keep the colonies from extending westward, but Daniel Boone 
 and others crossed the mountains and began to make western 
 settlements. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, III, IV. — Greene, Provincial Am. — 
 Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 190. — Thwaites, France in Am. 
 
 Histories. Eggleston, Life in i8th Century, chs. iii, v-vii, ix. — Fisher, 
 Col. Era, chs. xii-xx. — Hasbrouck, Boys' Parkman, chs. vii-x. — Sloane, 
 French War and Rev., chs. v-ix. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, 
 I. chs. xxi, xxiv, II. chs. iii, xi. — Thwaites, Colonies, §§26, 111-117, 
 120-127, ISO- 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 100-107, 125-148, 
 154-163. — Hart, Contemporaries, II. pt. v; Patriots and Statesmen, I. 
 149-250; Source Book, §§ 27, 37-40; Source Readers, II. §§ 32-44. — 
 James, Readings, §§ 23, 24. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 9, 41, 73, 163, 187. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 
 
 105 
 
 itUonC 
 
 British colonies in 1770 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Cooper, Last of the Mohicatis (Indians). — 
 Craddock, Old Fort Loudon (Tenn.). — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, 
 chs. X, xi, xvlii. — Hawthorne, Grandfather's Chair, pt. ii, chs. vii-ix. — 
 Longfellow, Evangeline. — Otis, Hannah of Kentucky. — Oxley, Fife and 
 Drum at Louisbourg (1745). — Sea well, Virginia Cavalier (Washington, 
 Braddock). — Smith, Old Deerfield Series (French wars). — Tappan, 
 Letters from Col. Children, chs. xxi-xxiii. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by 
 Am. Poets, I. 98, 103, 1 10-125, 132, 145. — Washington, Journal. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States. — Mentor, serial no. 35. — Wilson, Am. 
 People, II. — Winsor, America, V. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 63) I. How and when were England and Scotland united? 2. Why 
 did France and England go to war? 
 
 (§ 64) 3. How did the English colonists look on the mother country? 
 4. Why did the colonists join in the wars? 5. What was the Board of 
 Trade? 
 
Io6 WAR AND THE WEST 
 
 (§65) 6. How and when was Georgia founded? 7. How did it prosper? 
 
 (§ 66) 8. How and when was Louisiana founded? 9. How far did it 
 extend? 10. What towns were founded by the French in the Mississippi 
 Valley? 
 
 (§67) II. Account of King William's War. 12. What was the Patter- 
 son expedition? 13 (For an essay). An account of the Indian raid on 
 Deerfield. 14. How and when did the French begin to yield territory 
 to the English? 15. What was the result of King George's War? 
 
 (§68) 16. What did "the West" mean to the early colonists? 17. 
 What was the first western movement in the middle and southern colonies? 
 18. How did the Six Nations affect the western movement? 19. How 
 did Englishmen reach the western interior? 
 
 (§ 69) 20 (For an essay). Account of Bienville's voyage down the 
 Ohio River. 21 (For an essay). Account of George Washington's 
 trip to the frontier. 22. Why and where did war break out with the 
 French in 1754? 
 
 (§ 70) 23. Account of the Albany Congress. 24. Why was Brad- 
 dock's army sent into the West? 25 (For an essay). Account of 
 Braddock's defeat. 26 (For an essay). Was it reasonable to remove 
 the Acadians? 
 
 (§71) 27. How did the English fare in the first part of the French and 
 Indian War? 28. What conquests did the English take from the French? 
 29. How was North America divided by the treaty of 1763? 
 
 (§ 72) 30. What was the Proclamation Line? 31. What new British 
 colonies were created? 32. What far western claims had the coast 
 colonies? 33. How did the Indians receive their British masters? 
 
 (§ 73) 34- How was Pittsburgh founded? 35. What efforts were 
 made to organize new colonies in the West? 36 (For an essay). Ac- 
 counts of Daniel Boone's explorations and adventures. 37. What was 
 the Watauga Association? 38. How did the early westerners live? 
 
;|fO>(VW*'t'* 
 
 CHAPTER VII 
 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS (1689 1763) 
 
 75. Three Groups of Colonies. — During the intercolonial 
 wars the existence of three sections in the English colonies was 
 brought out sharply. 
 
 (i) The four New England colonies — New Hampshire, 
 Massachusetts (includ- 
 ing Maine and Plym- 
 outh), Connecticut, 
 and Rhode Island — 
 were much alike. All 
 were settled by the 
 English, mostly strict 
 Puritans; all had the 
 same system of towns, 
 each with a common 
 church and a town 
 meeting. All were 
 farming communities, 
 but in addition all had 
 two other pursuits. 
 First, they built ships 
 from the timber grow- 
 ing near the coast, and 
 used them in part for 
 fisheries, and in part 
 for trading. Second, a 
 class of keen business 
 men bought up furs, 
 potash, timber, fish, and rum, and shipped them to Europe or 
 to the West Indies. From the profits of the' trade they built 
 handsome houses, stores and warehouses, and more ships. 
 
 107 
 
 The old Ladd house in Portsmouth, N. H. An 
 excellent type of colonial three-story dwelling 
 
I08 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS 
 
 (2) The four middle colonies — New York, New Jersey, 
 Pennsylvaniei, and Delaware — had a mixed population, in- 
 cluding (Germans, Scotch-Irish, and some other European 
 races. Their main occupation was farming, together with 
 lumbering and the raising of cattle, but they all had seaports 
 and shipping. Pennsylvania soon became the richest of the 
 English colonies in North America, and Philadelphia was the 
 largest and most prosperous port. New York was held back 
 because it was so long cut off from connection with the back 
 country by the Iroquois Indians. 
 
 (3) The five colonies in the southern group — Maryland, 
 Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia — had 
 a social and business life of their own. Many independent 
 white farmers worked their land, just as in Pennsylvania and 
 Connecticut; but much of the land was held in large estates 
 and worked by slaves. Most of these estates had a front on 
 tidewater, and the interior roads were poor. Although the 
 South had several seaport towns such as Baltimore, Norfolk, 
 and Savannah, and one city — Charleston — the southerners 
 did not build or sail their own ships, and had practically no 
 industries except farming and the making of naval stores 
 (§ 45). Much grain was exported from Virginia and Maryland, 
 tobacco from most of the colonies, and rice and indigo from 
 South Carolina. With the proceeds the people bought lux- 
 uries, slaves, and part of their food. 
 
 76. A Southern Gentleman. — An interesting southerner of 
 that time was William Byrd, founder of the towns of Rich- 
 mond and Petersburg, and said to be the richest planter in 
 Virginia. Byrd kept buying land till he had 180,000 acres, 
 and slaves till he owned hundreds. He was fond of books, 
 brought together a library of 3500 volumes, and wrote an 
 interesting book called The History of the Dividing Line. 
 
 This is an account of his service in running the boundary 
 line between Virginia and North Carolina in 1729. Through 
 thick woods and over mountains he pushed his way, finding 
 a few frontiersmen, runaway slaves, and Indians in places 
 where, as he says, the wet ground " was made a fitter Lodging 
 for Tadpoles than Men." He visited the Indians at Notto- 
 
MASTERS AND SERVANTS I09 
 
 way Town and was " entertained with Sundry War-Dances 
 Wherein they endeavour'd to look as formidable as possible." 
 He shot deer and wild turkeys, trapped beavers and otters, 
 and throughout made light of all the hardships of the way. 
 
 Byrd owned a good house, silver plate, and handsome fur- 
 niture. Like other planters he shipped tobacco direct to 
 England, and in return he ordered clothing and luxuries for 
 himself and his family. 
 
 77. White Servants. — It is hard now to realize the physical 
 toil required in starting the colonies. The Atlantic slope was 
 almost entirely covered with trees, some of them, like the 
 Waverly oaks near Boston, nearly a thousand years old. The 
 settlers cleared the land by girdling, and thus killing, the trees, 
 so that the sun could strike in. When the ground was turned 
 up and seed was sown among the tree trunks, the rich soil bore 
 a large crop. As the trees decayed and their branches fell, they 
 were gathered into piles and burned, and in the course of years 
 the stumps were destroyed. In the northern colonies millions 
 of tons of bowlders and smaller stones had to be thrown off the 
 fields. Another great labor was the building and repairing of 
 roads, which included laying causeways across swamps, cutting 
 into steep hills, and removing trees and stumps. 
 
 Land was easy to get, and one man or one family might own 
 thousands of acres. Hired servants were brought over to 
 work these large estates, but as soon as they could buy land 
 they set up for themselves. To meet the need of labor great 
 numbers of " indented," or "indentured," servants were im- 
 ported. These were men and women legally bound to work 
 during a term of years for a particular master; they could be 
 whipped if they offended, and brought back if they ran away. 
 Many of them were " redemptioners " ; that is, men and 
 women brought over by sea captains on speculation, and 
 kept as prisoners on board ship, until some one would pay the 
 passage money; in return for this favor they had to serve him 
 from one to seven years. George Washington once tried to 
 import a shipload of German redemptioners. 
 
 An unusual example of the redemptioner is John Harrower, 
 who in 1774 was in London, and so poor that he says, " Being 
 
no COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONL\L BUSINESS 
 
 reduced to the last shilling I had, I was obliged to go to Vir- 
 ginia for four years as a schoolmaster, for bed, board, washing, 
 and five pounds during the whole time." After his landing at 
 Fredericksburg, Virginia, a gentleman paid his passage, and 
 took him home as a servant, and he became the trusted friend 
 of the family. 
 
 Another kind of servants consisted of English convicts and 
 prisoners of war. Hundreds of Scotchmen who had fought 
 against the English government were sent out to be sold in the 
 colonies as slaves for life; Indians taken in battle, Dutchmen 
 on the Delaware, even Quakers were sold in this way. Some 
 of the convicts were entirely innocent and worthy people, some 
 of them were the lowest of mankind. 
 
 78. The Slave Trade. — Englishmen boasted of their natu- 
 ral freedom from the absolute will of any other man, even 
 the king. Though the indentured servants were often treated 
 with cruelty and were little better than slaves, their children 
 were always free. Nevertheless the English colonists, as 
 soon as they landed, began to make slaves of the Indians, on 
 the ground that they were heathen and had no rights. But 
 Indian slavery was a failure, because few of the Indians knew 
 how to work, and they and their children rapidly died off. 
 
 The system of negro slavery began in Virginia (§ 29), and 
 soon spread throughout the colonies. The people of New Eng- 
 land and the middle colonies used comparatively few slaves, 
 but they bought and carried and sold them for others. The 
 negro tribes on the west coast of Africa raided their neighbors 
 with fearful cruelties to furnish the supply; and the Christians 
 of Spain, Portugal, France, and England packed the captives 
 into ships and carried them to America by the so-called 
 " Middle Passage," from Africa across the mid-Atlantic. The 
 profits were high, and the few colonies that tried to limit the 
 trade were overruled by the English government. 
 
 Slavery and the slave trade were always mistakes. They 
 led every colony to deny the rights of man to a part of its 
 population; and they brought into America a strange and then 
 savage race which otherwise would never have come. The 
 history of the northern colonies shows that slavery was not 
 
SLAVE TRADE AND SLAVERY III 
 
 necessary to open up a new country; free labor would have 
 been better; and all sections would have been happier and 
 wealthier without slaves. 
 
 79. Colonial Slavery. — One excuse for slavery was that 
 the negroes were brought over in order to make them Chris- 
 tians; but when Christianized the negro was still a slave, and 
 every child of a slave woman was born a slave. On the other 
 hand, slaves might be set free, and then their children would 
 be free. Such free negroes might hold property like other 
 people; and in all the colonies except two, free negroes could 
 at one time or another vote if they had the amount of property 
 required of a white voter. 
 
 Slaves and indentured servants would often run away, and 
 the newspapers of the times abound in advertisements such as 
 the following: " A young servant man named William Haines, 
 small stature, ruddy complexion, big nose, big blue eyes, pock 
 broken, has no hair, branded on the brawn of his thumb." 
 Or the following: " To be sold, a likely negro i:)oy, this country 
 born, and a good plain gold watch." 
 
 Some of the colonists saw at the time that slavery was a bad 
 thing for the negroes, and worse for the whites. In 1688 the 
 German town Quakers passed a vote against it, on the ground 
 that, " Now though they are black, we cannot conceive there 
 is more liberty to have them slaves, as [than] it is to have other 
 white ones. There is a saying, that we should do to all men 
 like as we will be done ourselves." Several Quakers, espe- 
 cially John Woolman, went up and down the colonies urging 
 people to give up their slaves. John Adams and Benjamin 
 F'ranklin were both very proud of never having owned slaves; 
 and just before the Revolution an antisla\ery society was 
 founded in Pennsylvania. 
 
 80. Colonial System of Trade. — All the colonizing nations 
 in this period depended on the " Colonial System," the idea 
 of which was that each colony was planted, not so much for 
 the benefit of the people who lived there, as for the profit of 
 the merchants of the mother country. 
 
 Spain pushed this very far; no one was allowed to settle in 
 Spanish colonies or even to visit them, without permission from 
 
112 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS 
 
 the home government. Spanish vessels, when allowed to trade 
 with America, had to come and go in a fleet which was called 
 " the plate fleet " because it brought home sib-^r, which was 
 often called plate. Spanish colonies had to send all their sur- 
 plus products to Spain through Spanish merchants. They 
 could not trade freely from one colony to another. 
 
 The Colonial System of the English was more liberal. The 
 so-called Navigation Acts or Acts of Trade (§ 42) made 
 provision as follows: (i) All the colonial exports had to be 
 carried in " English " vessels; but vessels owned in the 
 colonies were considered English. (2) " Enumerated goods," 
 which included most of the exports and imports of the colo- 
 nies, had to pass through English ports and pay a profit to 
 English merchants. (3) The colonists were not allowed to 
 make rolled iron, or to make hats or woolen goods that would 
 compete with English importations. (4) On the other hand, 
 the British government paid bounties for the production of 
 such things as silk and naval stores; and the colonists had a 
 good market in England for many of their surplus products. 
 
 Whenever the colonists felt hampered by the Navigation 
 Acts they simply disobeyed them. Smuggling was common, 
 and some Bostonians were guilty of locking a revenue officer 
 in the cabin of the ship Liberty (1768) till several casks of 
 Madeira wine could be smuggled off. In 1733 the British 
 government passed what was called the " Molasses Act," 
 which was intended to force the continental colonists to buy 
 their sugar of the British West India colonies; but somehow 
 French and Spanish sugar was brought in just the same. 
 
 81. Internal Business. — In all the colonies the principal 
 occupation was raising crops and animals. The settlers, from 
 Virginia to New Hampshire, cultivated wheat and other grain; 
 Indian corn grew everywhere; tobacco was raised in many 
 colonies, and rice and indigo in the far South. In most parts 
 of the country horses, sheep, cattle, and hogs abounded. All 
 along the coast, oysters, clams, and fish were abundant. There 
 was plenty of wild game, such as deer, turkeys, ducks, and 
 geese. The colonists did not lack food, and had a surplus to 
 export. 
 
114 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS 
 
 The fisheries on the New England coast were especially 
 valuable. Besides taking the inshore catch of mackerel, New 
 England vessels fished offshore on the banks of Newfoundland 
 (§ 38), and brought home great quantities of codfish — jok- 
 ingly called " Cape Cod turkey." Codfish were salted and 
 packed to meet a large demand in the West Indies and else- 
 where. 
 
 Several kinds of merchants bought and sold among the 
 people: 
 
 (i) The traders with the Indians carried stocks of beads, 
 blankets, calico, iron kettles, rum, tomahawks, gunpowder, 
 and muskets, which they exchanged for furs and deerskins 
 and buffalo robes. 
 
 (2) In the villages and at the crossroads could be found 
 small stores for local business. The storekeeper would take 
 grain, pork, beef, or butter and eggs, at agreed rates. In 
 return he sold salt meats and fish, flour, dry goods, needles 
 and pins, tools, cloth, tobacco, molasses, rum, and a hun- 
 dred other things. 
 
 (3) The big merchants of the larger places gathered prod- 
 ucts through the country traders or direct from the pro- 
 ducers, and made up shipments to send to other colonies and 
 to England. 
 
 82. Manufactures and Currency. — Practically no facto- 
 ries existed in the colonies. Some pig and bar iron was made 
 on the coast, and most of it went to England. Out of the rod 
 and finished iron which came back the blacksmiths fashioned 
 horseshoes and wrought-iron nails, such as can still be found 
 in old houses. Saddles and harnesses, wagons, doors, and 
 windows were all made by local workmen. There were no 
 cloth factories and no cloth-making machines. Most of the 
 people wore homespun; that is, wool which was carded, spun 
 into yarn by the old-fashioned spinning wheels, and then 
 woven on a hand loom. Many farmers made, on their own 
 farms, almost everything that they used or wore; and in the 
 South the skilled slaves made tools, built houses, and wove cloth. 
 
 The colonists very much needed a good currency; that 
 is, money which passes from hand to hand, and which would 
 
MANUFACTURES AND FOREIGN TRADE II5 
 
 be the same all over the country. The gold and silver in 
 circulation came mostly from foreign countries — Spanish gold 
 doubloons, Portuguese moidores, English guineas, and small 
 silver from all over the western world. The coin best known 
 was the Mexican dollar, often called a " piece of eight." 
 There were no banks or bank bills, but the coionial govern- 
 ments often issued paper moiiey. This was not always re- 
 deemed in coin, and frequently people would not take it at its 
 face value. Therefore, the English government, about the 
 time of the French and Indian War, forbade any further issues. 
 Because of the lack of money, much of the business was carried 
 on by barter, so many oxhides or bushels of wheat being 
 given for so many pounds of tobacco or so many gallons of 
 molasses. 
 
 83. Foreign Trade. — The trade from the continental 
 colonies was about equally divided between the West Indies 
 and England, and there were several triangular trades. For 
 instance, vessels took rum and other trade goods from New 
 England to Africa; with these goods they bought slaves, whom 
 they carried to the West Indies; there they traded the slaves 
 for hard cash and molasses; then they took the molasses 
 home to make more rum. 
 
 The trade to England was chierty in furs, fish, and lumber. 
 The best and tallest trees in the forest were reserved to make 
 masts for the ships of the English navy. The burning of the 
 trees to clear the land left quantities of valuable ashes, 
 and the lye or potash obtained from them was a regular 
 article of trade. From the South came the naval stores for 
 which there was a brisk demand from over sea. 
 
 In exchange the merchants bought dress goods for men 
 and women, such as oznabrig, which was a German linen; 
 paduasoy, which was Italian silk; and velvets and brocades 
 for the gentry. They imported locks and other hardware, 
 powder, shot, and guns, farm tools, carriages, wine from 
 Madeira and Spain, crockery for the poor, and fine china for 
 the rich. 
 
 Anybody who could secure a cargo might sail across the 
 seas and sell it according to his best judgment. Much of the 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 7 
 
Il6 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS 
 
 trade to the West Indies was of this kind, but part of the busi- 
 ness was done by the wealthy firms, such as the Morrises in 
 Philadelphia and the Hancocks in Boston, who bought all 
 sorts of produce and even ships, which they sold abroad. Such 
 firms acted as bankers, and would collect money for their 
 customers abroad. 
 
 84. Travel and Transportation. — Most of the roads in 
 the colonies were crooked, rough, and swampy. Few of the 
 streams were bridged, so that one of the incidents of travel 
 was to ford or swim a river, or to cross it in a boat. In the back 
 country, especially in the mountains, the only roads were 
 horse trails, so that all goods had to be packed on horses, and 
 travelers had either to ride horseback or go afoot. 
 
 A lively lady, Madam Knight, has left an account of a hard 
 horseback trip which she made from Boston to I^ew Haven in 
 1704. The only way to secure a guide was to go along with 
 the carrier of the mail. She had to stay at rude houses and 
 inns, where the people annoyed her with questions and re- 
 marks such as, " Who are you? " — " Where are you going? " 
 — "I never see a woman on the road so dreadful late in all 
 the days of my versall life!" She crossed a broad river in a 
 little canoe, her horse swimming behind her; and she arrived 
 fresh and cheerful. 
 
 The easiest way to travel from one colony to another was 
 by sea; and there was plenty of opportunity to take passage in 
 small vessels, such as sloops, schooners, and brigs. Travelers 
 bound across the sea preferred the larger merchant ships; the 
 well-to-do paid for cabins and took meals with the captain. 
 
 85. Pirates and Privateers. — One of the drawbacks to 
 ocean travel was the great danger from pirates. The West 
 Indies for nearly a century were infested with robbers, com- 
 monly called filibusters or buccaneers, who made up fleets of 
 vessels strong enough to take fortified cities. One of the 
 leaders, the Englishman Sir Henry Morgan, captured and 
 sacked old Panama, near the site of the southern entrance to 
 the present Panama Canal. Many of the wretched inhabi- 
 tants were put to torture to make them reveal where they had 
 hidden their money. 
 
PIRATES AND PRIVATEERS 
 
 117 
 
 Pirdtes long ranged boldly up and down the Atlantic coast. 
 The notorious pirate Teach was captured by two sloops sent 
 out by the governor of Virginia, and the victorious vessels 
 came home with the pirate's head stuck on a bowsprit. All 
 the spoils of the pirates came out of the profits of honest 
 traders, and they would destroy a dozen vessels and murder 
 a hundred people, in order to steal a few score pieces of gold. 
 
 Whenever there was war, vessels were subject to capture 
 by the ships of war and the privateers of the other side (§64). 
 These, unlike the pirates, did 
 not kill the passengers or crews 
 after they stopped resisting, but 
 sent the vessels and cargoes into 
 ports and sold them for the ben- 
 efit of the .captors. On the 
 other hand, 
 the English 
 colonists also 
 took out 
 letters of 
 marque au- 
 t h o r i z i n g 
 them to cap- 
 ture the mer- 
 chantmen of 
 enemies, and 
 seized hun- 
 d r e d s of 
 French and 
 Spanish ships 
 exchange. 
 
 86. Summary. — This chapter adds to the account of social 
 life in Chapter V, a description of the way in which the colonists 
 carried on their business affairs. This includes free and slave 
 labor, foreign trade, and the dilificulties and restrictions upon 
 that trade. 
 
 The English colonies were grouped into three sections which 
 were somewhat unlike in climate, people, and productions. 
 
 The pirate Stede Bonnet, a terror to shipping from Maine to the Gulf, 
 was captured by Colonel Rhett in 1718, after a five-hour fight off 
 the coast of South Carolina 
 
 SO that, after all, privateering was a kind of 
 
Il8 COLONIAL LABOR AND COLONIAL BUSINESS 
 
 New England, besides its farming, carried on fishing, lum- 
 bering, shipbuilding, and trading; the middle colonies had 
 about the same industries, except the fishing, and enjoyed a 
 large foreign trade; the southern colonies lived almost entirely 
 from their crops and naval stores. The South was especially 
 proud of its handsome estates and the agreeable life of the 
 planters. 
 
 In all the colonies there was a class of white servants bound 
 to serve for a term of years or for life, and large numbers of 
 negroes were brought over every year from Africa by the cruel 
 slave trader. Slavery was contrary to free democratic govern- 
 ment, and some people, especially the Quakers, objected to it. 
 
 The colonial trade of all nations was limited by navigation 
 laws, intended to give a good part of the profits of the oversea 
 trade to home merchants. The English Acts of Trade were 
 rather easy, and when they were strict the colonial merchants 
 simply disobeyed them. 
 
 Settlers had plenty of food and were well supplied by trad- 
 ers of various kinds. The fisheries, especially for cod, were 
 very valuable. The colonists made some pig iron and manu- 
 factured most of their farm and household implements, and 
 spun and wove their own woolen homespun. They used 
 foreign gold and silver and some paper money. They traded 
 with England and the West Indies, and rich merchants im- 
 ported silks, linens, and other luxuries. 
 
 Transportation by land was difficult because of the bad 
 roads and long distances; sea travel was easier, though subject 
 to the dangers of shipwreck, of pirates, and, in time of war, of 
 privateers. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Wall Maps, no. 7. 
 
 Histories. Bogart, Economic Hist. (2d ed.), chs. iii-vi. — Channing, 
 Un. States, H. chs. ix, xiii, xvii. — Coman, Industrial Hist. (Rev. ed.), 
 ch. iii. — Earle, Stage-Coach and Tavern Days. — Eggleston, Our First 
 Century, chs. xviii, xix, xxii, xxv. — Fiske, Old Virginia, ch. xvi. — Moore, 
 Industrial Hist., 21-26, 37-54, 61-87, 107-199, 439-447. — Weeden, 
 Econ. and Social Hist, of New Engl. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 139-141, 148-154. — 
 Hart, Contemporaries, H. §§ 85-89, 102-108; Source Book, §§ 33-35, 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS II9 
 
 43, 46, 48; Source Readers, I. §§ 13-18, 50-54, II. §§ 12-36. — Mac- 
 Donald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 15, 19, 22, 25, 28. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Burnaljy, Travels. — Caruthers, Knights of 
 the Horseshoe. — FIsIkt, Trtie Benjamin Franklin. — Franklin, Autobi- 
 ography. — Harland, His Great Self (Byrd). — Harrower, Diary (Re- 
 (lemptioner, in Am. Hist. Rev., VI). — Stockton, Buccaneers and Pirates; 
 Kate Bonnet. — Stuart, Carried Off (Pirates). — Woolman, Journal. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Uti. States, III. — Bogart, Economic Hist. — Coman, 
 Industrial Hist. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 75) I- Name the principal British colonies in North America. 2. 
 Name the colonies and describe the business and industries of New Eng- 
 land. 3. Name the middle colonies and describe their business and 
 industries. 4. Name the southern colonics and describe their business 
 and industries. 
 
 (§ 7^') 5- How did rich southern planters such as Byrd live? 
 
 (§ 77) 6. How was the land prepared for tillage? 7. What were the 
 white servants and how were they treated? 8. Who were the redemp- 
 t loners? 9 (For an essay). Life of white servants. 
 
 (§78) 10. Why did Indian slavery break down? 11. How was the 
 slave trade carried on? 12. Was slavery a good thing? 
 
 (§ 79) 13- How were free negroes treated? 14 (For an essay). Ac- 
 counts of runaway slaves in colonial times. 15. Who first agitated 
 against slavery in the colonies? 
 
 (§ 80) 16. What was the Colonial System? 17. What were the prin- 
 cipal provisions of the Acts of Trade? 18. What was the Molasses Act? 
 
 (§ 81) 19. What were the principal colonial products? 20. How was 
 the colonial internal trade carried on? 
 
 (§ 82) 21. What were the principal colonial manufactures? 22. What 
 sort of currency circulated in the colonies? 
 
 (§ 83) 23. What were the principal exports? 24. What were the 
 principal imports? 25. How was foreign trade carried on? 26 (F"or an 
 essay). Accounts of colonial voyages across the ocean. 
 
 (§ 84) 27. How did people travel within the colonies? 28 (For an 
 essay). An account of a colonial journey. 
 
 (§ 85) 29. What were the dangers in ocean travel? 30 (For an 
 essay). Accounts of colonial pirates. 31. What were privateers? 
 
CHAPTER VIII 
 
 WHY THERE WAS A REVOLUTION (1763-1774) 
 
 87. The British Empire (1763). — After the end of the long 
 colonial wars the English colonists were as well off as any other 
 people in the world. They were proud of being Britons, as 
 
 The British Empire in 1775 
 
 the English, Scotch, 
 and Welsh were called ; 
 though the names 
 "England" and "Eng- 
 lish " were common 
 instead of " Great Brit- 
 ain " and. "British," 
 just as they are often 
 used now. The colonists liked to think of themselves as 
 part of the British Empire, which included Great Britain, 
 Ireland, and three groups of distant colonies, as follows: 
 
 (i) The Asiatic possessions, of which the richest was a 
 portion of India. 
 
THE BRITISH EMPIRE 121 
 
 (2) The British West Indies, which included Jamaica and 
 some of the smaller islands, and the little settlement of Belize 
 on the coast of Central America. 
 
 (3) The continental colonies of North America. In the 
 period from 1763 to 1775 this last group was divided into 
 nineteen units as follows: (a) The thirteen colonies from 
 New Hampshire to Georgia, which later became the thirteen 
 original United States. (b) The four northern colonies: 
 Hudson's Bay Company, Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and 
 Quebec, which was extended (1774) to include the region be- 
 tween the Ohio River and the Great Lakes, (c) The two little 
 southern colonies of East Florida and West Florida. 
 
 88. How the British Empire was Ruled. — Although the 
 colonies had a rapidly growing population, profitable trade, 
 low taxes, and an easy-going government, about 1763 trouble 
 arose between Great Britain and the North American colonies. 
 To understand it we must know a few details about the govern- 
 ment of the British Empire. People talked about the " Con- 
 stitution of the Empire." but there was no written document 
 like the present Constitution of the United States. The 
 British Constitution meant only the habits and customs 
 which were usual in making laws and carrying on the home 
 government and the governmeiit of the colonics. The principal 
 customs affecting the colonies were as follows: 
 
 (i) Certain general laws for all parts of the empire were 
 made by a Parliament composed of two bodies: a House of 
 Lords who inherited their titles and their right to sit in Par- 
 liament, and a House of Commons elected from England and 
 Scotland. The colonists had, therefore, no part in choosing 
 the body that would make laws for them. 
 
 (2) Each colony in America had its own government, with 
 an elected assembly, and local governments in towns or 
 counties; but the governors of nearly all the colonies were 
 appointed by the home government; and the laws passed by 
 the assemblies could be vetoed by the governors, or (if the 
 governors signed them) by the home government. 
 
 (3) The commerce of the colonies was regulated by the Acts 
 of Trade (§ So), which aimed to prevent direct trade with 
 
122 
 
 WHY THERE WAS A REVOLUTION 
 
 the neighboring Spanish and French colonies in the West 
 Indies. 
 
 (4) Most of the expenses, both of the colonies and of the 
 mother country, were met by laying taxes, which required 
 the owners of property to pay a percentage of its value every 
 year into the public treasury. The English people had long en- 
 joyed the privilege of " No taxation without representation "; 
 
 that is, taxes could be 
 laid only by Parliament 
 or by other selected 
 bodies. That method 
 was also usual in the 
 thirteen colonies, where 
 the assemblies voted the 
 colonial taxes. 
 
 (5) The colonists also 
 shared in the great "inal- 
 ienable rights" of Eng- 
 lishmen (§ 7) ; that is, 
 rights which neither king 
 nor Parliament nor colo- 
 nial governments could 
 take away. Such rights 
 the colonists claimed as 
 a part of their birthright 
 as Englishmen. As long 
 as they had them, they 
 felt well contented with 
 their government, and 
 with their place in the 
 British Empire. 
 89. Efforts of the Home Country to Govern (i 760-1767). — 
 This content was disturbed when in 1760 George III came to 
 the British throne. In one of his early speeches he said, " Born 
 and educated in this country, I glory in the name of Briton." 
 He was in many ways a good man, upright, truthful, and true 
 to his friends; but he was a poor king, for he was narrow, 
 stubborn, and determined to be stronger than Parliament. 
 
 
 % '^!}''%bPi^Ik9K 
 
 lA-M^i^^yfffllHHP^'^ 
 
 IJOSn^SBm V 
 
 
 ] 
 
 
 ^t'^^BL'' 
 
 
 
 SHRnMHBP''^^ ■■■X 
 
 Patrick Henry's fame as an eloquent speaker began 
 in 1763 when he won a suit known as the 
 " Parson's Cause " 
 
STAMP ACT CONTROVERSY 1 23 
 
 The British government soon began to put pressure on the 
 colonists by enforcing the Acts of Trade. 
 
 How could the colonists find a way of getting out from under 
 the weight of this new interest in their affairs? James Otis of 
 Massachusetts, Patrick Henry of Virginia, and others declared 
 that Americans were not bound to obey acts of Parliament or 
 orders of the king unless they kept within the Constitution. 
 But nobody was sure just what " the Constitution " meant. 
 Probably their arguments never reached the king and his 
 advisers, but they were widely read in America. 
 
 90. Stamp Act Controversy (1765-1767). — The colonists 
 might have yielded to the Acts of Trade, but a new cause of 
 trouble arose when the British government thought it was time 
 for the American colonies to pay part of the expense of the 
 army that was defending the whole empire. In 1765 a Stamp 
 Act was passed by Parliament, requiring the use of British 
 stamps on legal papers, on business documents, and on news- 
 papers in the colonies. The British did. not intend to send 
 money away from America to support the home government; 
 nevertheless the colonists at once objected. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, then in England, protested in advance, 
 and throughout the colonies the Stamp i\ct was denounced in 
 public meetings, speeches, and pamphlets. The favorite form of 
 objection was, " Taxation without representation is tyranny." 
 Since the colonists could not conveniently send men to repre- 
 sent them in London, they argued that they could never 
 rightfully be taxed for any purpose by Parliament. 
 
 From arguments the colonists soon passed to violence, to 
 riots, and to mobs. The house of Governor Hutchinson in 
 Boston was stormed and looted. Then a Stamp Act Congress 
 was called to meet in New York in 1765. The delegates, 
 representing nine of the colonies, drew up a Declaration of 
 Rights which roundly declared that it was the natural privi- 
 lege of the Americans to be free from such taxes. This un- 
 expected storm caused Parliament to repeal the Stamp Act 
 (1766), but the next year the Townshend Acts were passed, 
 laying duties on paper, tea, and some other things imported 
 into the colonies. 
 
124 
 
 WHY THERE WAS A REVOLUTION 
 
 91. Beginning of Resistance (1767-1773). — After the 
 Townshend Acts, there was no more peace in the colonies. As 
 John Dickinson of Pennsylvania wrote in his Letters from a 
 Farmer, the colonists felt that " we cannot be free, without 
 being secure in our property." The colonial assemblies began 
 to ask sister colonies to join them in protests, and merchants in 
 
 various places united 
 in " Non-Importation 
 Agreements" against 
 British goods, which 
 we should now call 
 " boycotts." 
 
 Troops were sent 
 over to keep Boston in 
 order. In 1770 a street 
 fight began when 
 some boys snowballed 
 a soldier; several people were killed, and the incident was 
 called the " Boston Massacre." The British taxes were with- 
 drawn, except the trifling one of threepence per pound on tea. 
 But the colonists were not willing to pay even that. 
 
 In December, 1773, in the so-called " Boston Tea Party," a 
 crowd of white men disguised as Indians boarded some tea 
 
BEGINNINGS OF WAR 
 
 125 
 
 ships in Boston harbor and threw the cargo overboard. Thex' 
 were acting against the law, but felt that nothing else would 
 rouse the English people to a sense of the determination of the 
 colonists not to pay taxes, no matter how small, to the home 
 government. 
 
 92. Drifting into War ( 1774-1775). — On receiving the news 
 of the Boston Tea Party, Parliament passed acts closing the 
 port of Boston, and suspending the charter of Massachusetts. 
 This brought the whole quarrel to a crisis. One man, Samuel 
 Adams of Boston, believed that 
 the only wa>' out was to break 
 loose from Great Britain. He 
 was a shrewd, hard-headed poli- 
 tician, and he organized Com- 
 mittees of Correspondence to 
 keep the various towns of 
 Massachusetts in touch with 
 each other. Virginia suggested 
 similar committees to corre- 
 spond between the colonies, 
 and then proposed a general 
 Congress. In response, toward 
 the end of 1774, representati\-es 
 from twelve colonies met in 
 Philadelphia in what is called 
 the " First Continental Con- 
 gress." By "Continental" thc\- meant the mainland colonies 
 of North America. 
 
 Like the Stamp Act Congress, this body drew up a Declara- 
 tion of Rights and an appeal to the king. The\' insisted that 
 they were willing to accept acts of Parliament for " securing 
 the commercial adv^antages of the whole empire," but no sort 
 of taxation by Parliament. Before breaking up, the Congress 
 framed what was called the " Act of Association "; this was 
 a general boycott against the importation of any goods from 
 England. Very harsh and violent means were used to carry 
 out this boycott, such as tarring and feathering some of those 
 who bought British goods. 
 
 '"Tlir^otfonijlVi rt\t,,^ ,h.- Kv...' SU.u. ,.i, T..ii.ii|e jndj 
 F-rlrlicfijic," i C<irtuon putliUied in LoniJ4>n in 1774 J 
 
 One method of carrying out the boycott 
 against English goods 
 
126 WHY THERE WAS A RE\'OLUTION 
 
 93. Apparent Reasons for Revolution (1775). — Most of 
 the Americans still wanted to remain in the British Empire, 
 but they felt that they could not bear the strain unless the 
 home government gave up every attempt to tax. This was the 
 view of many of the greatest English statesmen, especially of 
 William Pitt (§ 71), who had become Earl of Chatham, and of 
 Charles James Fox, who was the leader in an English move- 
 ment against the desire of George III " to be a king." On 
 the king's side was the prime minister, Lord North, who kept 
 together a majority to support the king in Parliament. 
 
 The colonists put forward many reasons for their discon- 
 tent, mostly based on charges that the British government was 
 tyrannical and unjust. The old argument against " taxation 
 without representation " was one of the strongest. A few 
 people were afraid that the English were going to introduce 
 the Episcopal Church into all the colonies and force them to 
 receive bishops. 
 
 At this time it was still the popular theory that George III 
 was a good king, but was misled by wicked ministers who gave 
 him bad advice. Later in the Revolution the Americans 
 came to believe that he was trying to rob them of their prop- 
 erty, and that when they resisted he ordered his soldiers to 
 take their lives. 
 
 As we look back upon the whole struggle, it is hard to see 
 where the colonists were robbed or oppressed. In all local 
 matters they had more freedom and self-government than the 
 people in England. In no other country in the world were 
 the people on the average so well-fed, well-housed, and com- 
 fortable; nowhere were taxes so low; nowhere did the people 
 exercise so much control over their own government. 
 
 94. Real Reasons for Revolution (1775). — The real reason 
 for the Revolution was that since the people were more used 
 to free government than the English at home, they looked 
 upon every effort of Parliament to tax them as an effort to 
 deprive them of part of their freedom. If plain Americans 
 could safely vote and hold ofifice, if they could select good 
 representatives to make laws for them and carry on public 
 affairs, why should the home government interfere at all? 
 
APPARENT AND REAL REASONS 1 27 
 
 Another serious cause of the Revolution was the grievances 
 of the business men. Although the Acts of Trade (§ 80) gave 
 the colonies many advantages, their purpose was to turn the 
 main profit of all the business between the colonies and the 
 home country into the hands of British merchants. Another 
 trouble was that some of the royal governors and military ofificers 
 in America looked down upon " the provincials," and that did 
 not make the colonists feel more kindly toward the English. 
 
 Down to 1775 the Americans were willing to stay in the 
 empire if they could have their own way on the questions that 
 had then arisen. All that they asked was practically the same 
 kind of self-government that Canada now enjoys as a colony 
 in the British Empire. 
 
 Some honest men, like Governor Hutchinson of Massa- 
 chusetts, thought the colonies ought not to insist on their 
 rights. Others, like Joseph Galloway of Pennsylvania, were 
 in favor of protesting, and then accepting whatever decision 
 nn'ght be made in England. Others, like John Adams and 
 George Washington, became convinced that the only thing to 
 do was to set up a government of their own, even if they had 
 to fight for it. Underneath all was the thought that the col- 
 onies could take care of themseKes. 
 
 95. Benjamin Franklin, an American Gentleman. — After 
 all, the strongest justification for the Revolution is that the 
 best and ablest men in the colonies believed that their liberty 
 was in danger. When Benjamin Franklin heartily joined in 
 the war, there must have been reason for it. Franklin was 
 the son of a Boston business man; as a boy he betook himself 
 to Philadelphia, which was to be his home for the rest of his 
 Hie. He was the only American humorous writer of his time, 
 and the only one who was read throughout the colonies. 
 
 His most famous work is Poor Richard's Almanac. Besides 
 useful information about the moon and tides and eclipses, 
 Franklin crammed his almanac with proverbs and old saws 
 and good advice, such as: " God helps them that help them- 
 selves"; "Plow deep while sluggards sleep"; "Never leave 
 that till to-morrow which you can do to-day " ; " Honesty is the 
 best policy." 
 
128 
 
 WHY THERE WAS A REVOLUTION 
 
 Franklin carried on an excellent newspaper in Philadelphia, 
 and was a general printer and publisher. He was a public- 
 spirited man and raised the great sum of £5000 for a school 
 for poor children, which later developed into the University 
 of Pennsylvania. He founded a public library. He was a 
 
 member of the city 
 government and of 
 the colonial assem- 
 bly. While he was 
 abroad he was the 
 official agent in 
 England for several 
 colonies. 
 
 Franklin was the 
 shrewdest, most 
 practical man of 
 his time, always 
 trying to improve 
 things. He was 
 a scientific man, 
 the first to prove 
 that lightning is 
 the same thing as 
 electricity made by 
 rubbing amber or 
 glass. He was the 
 essence of homely 
 wisdom and good 
 nature. At the 
 end of his life he 
 published an Auto- 
 biography, which 
 is one of the best books of the kind ever written. Franklin 
 was one of the mainstays of the American uprising. While 
 in England he did his best to persuade the British govern- 
 ment to yield; when that became hopeless, he came back to 
 America (1775), and threw himself heart and soul into the 
 Revolution. 
 
 Benjamin Franklin as he entered Philadelphia, 
 the University of Pennsylvania 
 
 Statue at 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 1 29 
 
 96. Summary. — This short chapter contains an account 
 of the discontent of the colonies and their quarrels with the 
 home country, leading up to the Stamp Act Congress of 1765 
 and the First Continental Congress of 1774. 
 
 After the French and Indian War the colonists seemed 
 happier and better off than ever before. They belonged lo 
 the great British Empire and did not mind that it somewhat 
 limited their trade and controlled their government; but they 
 claimed the right of " no taxation without representation " 
 and the inalienable rights of free Englishmen. 
 
 When the British government tried to enforce the Acts of 
 Trade, the colonists protested ; when a Stamp Act was passed, 
 laying a tax upon them, they called a Stamp Act Congress 
 (1765). The Stamp Act was withdrawn, but other taxes 
 were laid by Parliament and the colonists again objected; 
 and when all the taxes were withdrawn except one on tea, they 
 still objected, and the Boston Tea Party (1773) was an open 
 defiance of the British government. 
 
 The other colonies took alarm and joined in the First Con- 
 tinental Congress (1774), which tried to make England under- 
 stand that the colonies were determined and would stand 
 together. 
 
 The colonists declared that the home country was tyrannical 
 and that the king was led astray by bad advisers, but the real 
 reasons why they finally broke away are deeper. The two 
 main causes are dislike of the Acts of Trade, and the feeling 
 that the colonies were strong enough to govern themselves. 
 In this controversy Benjamin Franklin was a leading spirit, 
 and his belief in the Revolution has always been one of the 
 best reasons for thinking that it was necessary. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, \. — Epoch Maps, no. 5. — Howard, 
 Preliminaries of Rev. 
 
 Histories. Becker, Beginnings, 202-247. — Coman, Industrial Hist., 
 89-106. — Fisher, Struggle for Am. Indep., I. chs. i-xxiii. — Fiske, Am. 
 Rev., I.; War of Indep., 39-85. — Howard, Preliminaries of Rev. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 5, 11, 16, 21, 33. — Beard, Readings. 
 §§ 6-8. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 167-194. — Harding, 
 
I30 WHY THERE WAS A REVOLUTION 
 
 Select Orations, nos. i, 2. — Hart, Contemporaries, H. §§ 130-158. — Hill, 
 Liberty Docs., chs. xi, xii. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 29- 
 44; Select Charters, nos. 53-80. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 68, 156, 173, 179, 
 199, 200. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Barr, Strawberry Handkerchief. — Cofifin, 
 Daughters of the Rev. — Cooke, Virginia Comedians ; Colonel Fairfax. — 
 Graydon, Memoirs. — ■ Hawthorne, Grandfather^ s Chair, pt. iii, chs. ii-vii; 
 My Kinsman, Major Molyneux. — Kaler, Charming Sally. — Wallington, 
 Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, I. 125-145. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, V. — Chase, Beginnings of Am. Rev. — 
 Wilson, Am. People, II. — Winsor, America, VI; Memorial Hist, of 
 Boston, III. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 87) I. What were the British possessions in 1763? 2. What were 
 the British continental colonies in 1763? 
 
 (§ 88) 3. What was the British Constitution? 4. How were laws made 
 for the colonies? 5. What sort of governments had the colonies? 6. 
 How was the commerce of the colonies regulated? 7. What did "No 
 taxation without representation" mean? 8. What were the inalienable 
 rights of the colonists? 
 
 (§ 89) 9. What kind of king was George HI? 10. How did Otis and 
 Henry try to avoid control by the mother country? 
 
 (§90) II. What was the Stamp Act? 12. What was the objection 
 to it? 13 (For an essay). Accounts of Stamp Act riots. 14. What 
 was the Stamp Act Congress and what did it do? 
 
 (§ 91) 15- What was non-importation? 16. How did the British try 
 to keep the colonies in order? 17 (For an essay). An account of the 
 Boston Tea Party. 
 
 (§ 92) 18. How did Samuel Adams organize for the Revolution? 19. 
 Account of the First Continental Congress. 20. W^hat was the Act of 
 Association and how was it enforced? 
 
 (§ 93) 21. What were the apparent reasons for the Revolution? 22. 
 What friends had the colonists in Great Britain? 23. What did the colo- 
 nists think of King George HI? 24. What advantages had the colonies 
 under British rule? 
 
 (§ 94) 25. What were the real reasons for the Revolution? 26. What 
 kind of government by England would have satisfied the colonists? 
 27. What were the opinions of the colonists on the Revolution? 
 
 (§ 95) 28 (For an essay). Account of the life of Benjamin Franklin. 
 29 (For an essay). Some good advice taken from Poor Richard's Almanac. 
 30. What services did Franklin render to the colonies? 31. What made 
 Franklin a great man? 
 
CHAPTER IX 
 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR (1775 1783) 
 
 97. Outbreak of War (1775). — No answer was made in 
 England tcj the ai)peals of ihe Continental Congress of 1774. 
 Meanwhile the troubles in Massachusetts grew worse. The 
 towns began to drill their militia, who were called " minute- 
 men " because they were ready to march at a minute's notice. 
 The British governor, General Gage, on the night of April 18, 
 1775. sent out a force from Boston to seize military stores at 
 Concord, eighteen miles away. An alarm was spread by Paul 
 Re\'ere, who rode ahead in the darkness warning the people 
 along the route. 
 
 Early in the morning of April 19, the British reached the 
 village of Lexington, and there saw a line of militiamen drawn 
 up across their road. "Disperse, ye rebels!" cried Major 
 Pitcairn, the British commander; but the raw colonials held 
 their ground. A shot was fired, probably by the English. 
 Then came a \olley and several of the colonials fell dead. 
 War had broken out at last. The British column marched on 
 to Concord and destroyed some stores, but was again resisted 
 by the minutemen, and retreated in confusion to Boston, 
 worried arid fired upon all the way. The militia of Massa- 
 chusetts and neighboring states closed in and besieged the 
 British in Boston. 
 
 A few days later (Ma>'- 10, 1775) the Second Continental 
 Congress assembled in Philadelphia; all the thirteen colonies 
 from New Hampshire to Georgia were represented. None of 
 the other six continental colonies joined in the Revolution. 
 Unless the colonies were willing that the Massachusetts leaders 
 should be treated as traitors by England, Congress must do 
 something at once. Pennsylvania and Virginia, the largest of 
 the middle and the southern colonies, took the lead in support- 
 
 HART'S SCH. HIST. — 8 I 31 
 
;?i^1^'''^^/Xx.G",ilfordC>H. -^ 
 
 Cowpeng W J^^ gii,'^ /^ 
 
 Ij .\\Cani(lin \ "SivK^ i 
 
 N A 
 
 REVOLUTIONARY 
 WAR 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 \J&, 
 
SOLDIERS OF THE REVOLUTION 
 
 133 
 
 ing Massachusetts. The whole Congress joined in voting to 
 raise men, money, and ships. It appointed Colonel George 
 Washington to be general and head of the Continental forces, 
 and sent him to take command of the troops that were besieg- 
 ing the British in Boston. For nearly a year longer Congress 
 hoped that King George would yield, and the Americans still 
 called themselves Englishmen; but all the while the colonists 
 were capturing British posts and ships, and raising an army to 
 defend themselves against their home government. 
 
 98. Soldiers of the 
 Revolution. — It looked 
 like a desperate thing 
 for three million colo- 
 nists to attack eleven 
 million British. They 
 l)egan without a navy, 
 while the British had 
 270 ships of war. They 
 set out with raw militia 
 to fight against apower- 
 ful regular a r m \% 
 though man\' of the 
 Americans had ne\er 
 seen an enemy other 
 than a wild Indian. 
 
 The British govern- 
 ment not only raised 
 troops in England, 
 Scotland, and Ireland, 
 but sent over to Germany and hired about 30,000 Germans, 
 commonly called " Hessians." King Frederick the Great of 
 Prussia scoffed at the little German princes who were willing to 
 sell their subjects to suffer hardship and danger, for a bonus of 
 about $35 per man — and more if he were killed ! Most of the 
 American troops were organized in what was called the "state 
 lines"; that is, state militia regiments enlisted for short terms. 
 
 Washington throughout the Avar protested against depend- 
 ing upon these militiamen. Many served from the purest 
 
 Colonial soldiers, wearing Revoiutionary tmifomi 
 
134 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
 
 motives of patriotism, but others were drawn into the army by 
 money, bounties, and promises of land. Though personally 
 brave, they disliked discipline and would sometimes leave 
 when their term of service expired, even in the midst of a 
 march against the enemy. Neither the Continental Congress 
 nor the colonies which became states were willing to give 
 Washington what he needed; that is, an army of say 30,000 
 men, enlisted for several years, responsible only to Congress, 
 well-drilled, and accustomed to obey orders. The result of 
 the militia system was that about 250,000 difTerent men were 
 enlisted, each serving on the average less than one year, besides 
 about 200,000 militia serving for brief periods. 
 
 Besides the regular troops, both sides used Indians. The>- 
 were a poor dependence, because they would not settle down 
 to fight through a campaign, and always wanted to scalp and 
 burn white prisoners. Negroes were enlisted in both armies, 
 particularly in the American, and some slaves were set free, to 
 become soldiers. The British also made use of the loyalists 
 — that is, the colonists who took their side — and formed 
 some of them into regiments. In the South, the loyalists 
 gathered into irregular bands, called "Partisan Rangers." 
 
 99. War in the North (1775-1776). — Among the many 
 battles, marches, and sieges of the Revolution, only a few can 
 be mentioned in a narrative like this. On June 17, 1775, the 
 " patriots," as the friends of the Revolution began to be called, 
 built a little fortification near Bunker Hill, from which cannon 
 shot could be dropped into Boston. The British aft^r a hard 
 fight drove them ofT, but lost a thousand men, and learned 
 for the first time that American militiamen would stand 
 against large bodies of regular troops. 
 
 A few days later Washington arrived and took command of 
 the army under or near a tree on Cambridge Common — a 
 tree which is still standing. While the British were be- 
 sieged in Boston by Washington, Benedict Arnold led a little 
 army through the Maine woods into Canada. He was not 
 able to capture Quebec, and had to retreat. In the spring of 
 1776 Washington, by his grit and boldness, compelled the 
 British to take to their ships and evacuate Boston. They 
 
IN THK XOKTU AM) CKXTER 
 
 T,^5 
 
 Old links of the chain stretched across the Hudson River 
 below West Point, to prevent British ships from going 
 up the river 
 
 never got that city back, though they seized and held Newport 
 and other seaports. 
 
 100. War in the Center (1776-1778J. — During the next 
 two years most of the lighting was on the Hudson River and 
 on the Delaware. In spite of every effort by Weishington, 
 the British captured New York in 1776, and forced him to 
 retreat ahiiost to 
 
 Philadelphia. 
 
 Next year a 
 great efTort was 
 made to break the 
 American lini- in 
 two, by sending an 
 army under Gen- 
 eral B u r g o y n e 
 from Canada 
 through Lake 
 Champlain to the 
 Hudson River, 
 while General St. Leger was to attack the Mohawk Valley. 
 The British General Howe sailed with an army from New 
 York around into Chesapeake Bay, defeated the patriots at 
 the Brandywine, and captured Philadelphia. 
 
 General Philip Schuyler defended the northern frontier, till 
 Washington sent a force northward under General Gates and 
 Benedict Arnold, who was a dashing soldier. St. Leger was 
 defeated by General Herkimer at Oriskany, and Burgoyne's 
 army, reduced by hard fighting to 5000 men, surrendered at 
 Saratoga. The despised rebels had bagged a British army! 
 
 The following winter (i 777-1 778) was the crisis of the Revo- 
 lution. Washington kept a little army together at Valley 
 Forge near Philadelphia. Though they had poor huts and were 
 short of food and clothing, the men stood by their country, 
 and in the spring were ready to meet the enemy again. 
 
 101. French Alliance and Arnold's Treason (1778-1780). — 
 From the beginning the Americans expected that France 
 would aid the revolting colonies. Agents were sent over to 
 Paris to ask help; the French secretly gave them militar>- 
 
136 
 
 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
 
 supplies and money, and shut their eyes when. some gallant 
 young French officers, especially Marquis de Lafayette and 
 De Kalb, went to America as volunteers. In 1778, after 
 hearing of the capture of Burgoyne's army, the French made 
 a treaty of alliance, and sent over a fleet under Admiral 
 
 d'Estaing, and an 
 army to help the 
 Americans. Sev- 
 eral Germans also 
 came out to join 
 the army, espe- 
 cially that excel- 
 lent organizer, von 
 Steuben. 
 
 The British fitted 
 out stronger fleets 
 and transferred the 
 war to the South, 
 capturing Savan- 
 nah and Charles- 
 ton, and landing 
 an army (1780). 
 In 1780 Benedict 
 Arnold, who was 
 a fine soldier and 
 was designed for 
 high command in 
 the American 
 army, found himself deeply in debt, and tried to get out of 
 it by selling to the British the post of West Point, which he 
 commanded. The plot failed through the chance capture of 
 the British agent, Major Andre, who was hanged as a spy. 
 Arnold fled to the British and received a generalship and other 
 rewards, l)ut West Point was saved. 
 
 102. The American Navy (1775-1781). — As soon as the 
 war broke out, the states began to commission little vessels of 
 war. These were gradually replaced by what was called the 
 "Continental Navy"; that is, vessels commissioned by Con- 
 
 According to popular notion, Jfrenchmen were trog-eaters. 
 So when Mr. Nathaniel Tracy of Cambridge enter- 
 tained Admiral d'Estaing and his officers, he was much 
 surprised at the merriment among his guests when each 
 found a frog in his plate of soup 
 
The first meeting of Washington and Lafayette 
 
138 
 
 THE REV0LUT10\AR\ WAR 
 
 gress as national ships, of which there were eventually 57. 
 The little American squadrons never were big enough to fight 
 a British fleet, but they made cruises, raided the British port of 
 New Providence in the West Indies, and captured many British 
 merchant ships. The first officer placed in command of a 
 squadron was John Barry, an Irishman. 
 
 
 -X 
 
 
 w 
 
 
 ■M 
 
 
 ^k^]j^- 
 
 — _ 
 
 w Ml 
 
 fMf^^^ ']^mHhBhBS| 
 
 
 
 Battle between the Serapis and the Bon Homme Richard 
 
 The naval genius of the war was John Paul Jones, who as 
 commander of the ship Ranger landed twice on the coast of 
 the British Islands — the only invasion of Great Britain dur- 
 ing the war. After the French alliance of 1778 was formed, 
 Jones was put in command of a former French merchant ship, 
 the Bon Homme Richard, fitted it out as a ship of war, and 
 dared to attack and capture a forty-four-gun British frigate — 
 the Serapis. This was the most mortifying defeat suffered by 
 Great Britain at sea for many years. 
 
 Besides the regular ships of war, privateers (§ 85) were fitted 
 out, which sometimes attacked small British ships of war, and 
 in the course of the war captured 800 merchant ships. Part of 
 the value of these ships and cargoes was always divided among 
 the crews as " prize money." Sometimes the sailors made a 
 
ON THE SEA AND IN THE WEST 
 
 139 
 
 rich haul, as in the case of a boy fourteen years old, who re- 
 ceived 1700 silver dollars, 20 pounds of ginger and logwood, 20 
 pounds of cotton, 30 or 40 gallons of rum, and a ton of sugar. 
 The owners of privateers liked to give them fanciful names, 
 such as Charming Peggy, Black Joke, King Taming. 
 
 As in previous wars, this method of sea fighting worked both 
 ways: pri\'ateers sailed from British ports and from New York 
 in pursuit of American ships. The vessels of one patriot ship- 
 owner, Nathaniel Tracy, captured 120 ships, but he lost nearly 
 100 vessels by British captures, and was ruined. Neverthe- 
 less, the American privateers kept up their cruises after all the 
 ships of war had been driven from the seas, and their ravages 
 inclined the British to make peace. 
 
 103. War in the West (1778-1780). — Besides the main 
 battles already mentioned, the Revolution abounded in bril- 
 liant little fights and captures of vessels and forts. The Six 
 Nations of Iroquois Indians made a wrong turn by siding with 
 the British. In revenge. General Sullivan rav^aged their coun- 
 try in 1779, and al- 
 most destroyed their 
 power. 
 
 When the war 
 broke out, most of 
 the western settlers 
 went back cast; but 
 soon another move- 
 .ment of emigrants 
 westward across the 
 mountains began. 
 In 1778 one of these 
 westerners, George Rogers Clark, got a commission from the 
 go\'ernor of Virginia to raise a force against the British, with 
 which he went down the Ohio River. He marched across the 
 country' and took the former French settlements of Kaskaskia 
 and Cahokia (§ 66), not far from St. Louis. Then he enlisted 
 a number of Frenchmen, and marched eastward through a 
 flooded country and took Vincennes (now in Indiana), which 
 was the capital of the district. Clark was not able to capture 
 
 Route of Clark's expedition 
 
140 
 
 THE REVOLUTIONARY WAR 
 
 Detroit as \\v had hoped, but 
 he held the southern region 
 till the end of the war. 
 
 Still farther south, as many 
 as 10,000 people must have 
 found their way into the Ten- 
 nessee and upper Kentucky^ 
 regions, for in 1780 a thou- 
 sand men from that region 
 crossed the mountains east- 
 ward and beat a British force 
 at Kings Mountain. This 
 was the first aid given by the 
 West in the defense of the 
 common country. 
 104. War in the South and End of the War (i 780-1781). — 
 In the South the whole countryside was in confusion. Loyal-: 
 ists under Tarleton and patriots under Marion harried and 
 fought each other. In 1780 Lord Cornwallis was put in 
 command of a British army which started northward through 
 the Carolinas, expecting to wind up the w^ar by occupying all 
 the South. He was at first successful, defeating General 
 Gates at Camden. General Nathanael Greene was then put 
 in command of the American forces in the South, and Corn- 
 wallis was glad to withdraw into Virginia. A British fleet was 
 sent to bring his army away, but was blocked off the Chesa- 
 peake by a more powerful French fleet. Meanwhile a com- 
 bined American and French army, under Washington and 
 
 Battle of Kings Mountain 
 
END OF THE WAR 
 
 141 
 
 Rochambeau, marched swiftly southward, and trapped Corn- 
 walHs at Yorktown. There he was obliged to surrender with 
 his 80^0 men (1781). 
 
 105. Peace and Independence. — This practicalh' ended the 
 tijLihting and the Re\olution, tor the news of this second cap- 
 ture of a British army caused the royal majority in Parlia- 
 ment to dwindle 
 a w a \ . King 
 George was obliged 
 to write, " At last 
 the fatal day has 
 come, which the 
 misfortunes of the 
 times and the sud- 
 den change of senti- 
 ments of the House 
 of Commons have 
 drove me to." 
 
 A new British 
 ministry, which 
 was opposed to the 
 American war, at 
 once sent commis- 
 sioners to Paris, 
 where they negoti- 
 ated with the 
 American envoys, 
 
 [^British 
 
 I , ''] Spanish Poi 
 
 I: :■- :j United States 
 
 '^ NEW 
 
 :: R A N A D A 
 
 North America at the end of the Revolutionary War, 1783 
 
 Benjamin Franklin, John Adams, John Jay, and Henry Lau- 
 rens. The resulting treaty (1783) was very favorable to the 
 Americans: 
 
 (i) The United States was declared to be a free and inde- 
 pendent nation. 
 
 (2) The northern boundary was fixed at the Great Lakes, 
 and the western at the Mississippi Riv^er, so that the Amer- 
 icans received not only George Rogers Clark's conquest, but 
 the rest of the Northwest as far as Lake Superior. 
 
 (3) The region south of the Ohio, occupied by western 
 settlers, went to the United States, and everything else east of 
 
142 THE RE\ OLUTIONARV WAR 
 
 the Mississippi as far south as the parallel of 31°. The United 
 States as thus bounded was more than twice as large as the 
 thirteen colonies together had been in 1775. 
 
 106. Summary. — This chapter describes the military side 
 of the Revolutionary War: its outbreak, the troops, and the 
 campaigns by land and sea till the British stopped fighting. 
 
 The first conflict of the war was the battle of Lexington and 
 Concord, April 19, 1775. The other colonies, acting through 
 the Second Continental Congress, stood by Massachusetts and 
 raised a Continental army and navy. The British enlisted their 
 own subjects and thousands of Hessians, and had a great navy. 
 The Americans depended on a poor system of militia enlisted 
 for short terms. Both sides used Indians, and the British en- 
 listed loyalists, so that the Revolution was really a civil war. 
 
 The British evacuated Boston in 1776, but captured New 
 York and stayed there till the end of the war, and occupied 
 Philadelphia for a time. The Americans had the worst of it 
 till the capture of Burgoyne's army in 1777 at Saratoga. This 
 led to an alliance with France, which from this time helped 
 the Americans with money, soldiers, and fleets. Arnold's 
 attempt to betray West Point was a failure. The American 
 navy was small, but under John Paul Jones did glorious fight- 
 ing, and was greatly aided by the privateers and their captures 
 of British merchantmen. 
 
 In the West the Iroquois attacked the frontier, and were 
 then themselves crushed. George Rogers Clark captured the 
 British posts north of the Ohio River and held them for Vir- 
 ginia. The British transferred the war to the South, and 
 overran the Carolinas and Virginia. Washington, with the 
 aid of the French, captured the army of Cornwallis at York- 
 town (1781), and that ended the war. The opponents of the 
 war in England got control of the government and made a 
 favorable treaty at Paris, by which the boundaries of the 
 United States were broadened to reach the Mississippi. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, V, VI. — Hart, Wall Maps, no. 8. — 
 Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 195. — Van Tyne, A>^. Rev., 26, 270, 290. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS I43 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 180-184, 188-216. — Fisher, Struggle 
 for Am. Indep., I. ch. xxiv, II. ch. iii. — Fiske, Am. Rev., I, II; War of 
 Indep., 85-1S3. — Jenks, When Am. Won Liberty, 216-268. — Sloane, 
 French War and Rev., 183-239 passim. — -Smith, Wars, 61-69, 75~I29. — 
 Van Tyne, Am. Rev. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Pcrsingcr, Source Hist., 194-198, 204-214, 
 219-231. — Hart, Contemporaries, II. §§ 170-220; Patriots and Statesmen, 
 
 I. 341-383, II. 52-58, 90-152; Source Book, §§ 57-63; Source Readers, 
 
 II. §§ 52, 68-91. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 43, 47, 86, 97, 152. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Barnes, For King or Country. — Coffin, Buy. 
 of '7(5. — Cooper, Pilot. — Drake, Watch Fires of '76. — Gordy, Am. 
 Leaders and Heroes, chs. xiv-xvii. — Griffis, Pathfinders of the Rev. 
 (Sullivan). — Hawthorne, Grandfather' s Chair, pt. iii, chs. viii-x. — Rev. 
 Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. — Scollard, Ballads of Am. Bravery, 
 3-36. — Seawell, Paul Jones. — Simms, Mellichampe. — Tomlinson, Rev. 
 Series. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, I. 146-282. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, V, Vt. — Mentor, serial nos. 43, 53, 
 117. — Wilson, Am. People, II. — Winsor, America, VI. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§97) I- How did the Revolutionary War begin in New [England? 
 2 (For an essay). The battle of Lexington and Concord. 3. What was 
 the Second Continental Congress? 4. How did it organize for war? 
 
 (§ 98) 5- What were the disadvantages of the patriots? 6. How did 
 •the British raise troops for ihe war? 7. How did the Americans raise 
 troops for the war? 8. What other fighting men were there? 
 
 (§ 99) 9 (For an essay). The battle of Bunker Hill. 10 (For an 
 essay). George Washington at the siege of Boston. 11. What was the 
 result of the campaigns of 1775-76? 
 
 (§100) 12. What were the campaigns of 1777-78? 13 (For an essay). 
 The capture of Burgoyne's army. 14 (For an essay). The American 
 army at Valley Forge. 
 
 (§ loi) 15. Why did the French ally themselves with the Americans? 
 16 (For an essay). An account of Lafayette in America. 17 (For an 
 essay). Account of Major Andre and his plot with Benedict Arnold. 
 
 (§ 102) 18. How did the American navy begin? 19. What territory 
 was raided by American ships? 20 (For an essay). The naval exploits 
 of John Paul Jones. 21. How did the privateers aid in the war? 
 
 (§ 103) 22. What became of the Six Nations? 23 (For an essay). 
 An account of George Rogers Clark's invasion of the West. 24. How 
 did the westerners serve in the Revolutionary War? 
 
 (§ 104) 25. How was the war carried on in the South? 26 (For an 
 essay). Account of the siege and capture of Cornwallis at Vorktown. 
 
 (§ 105) 27. Why did King George III agree to make peace? 28. What 
 were the principal provisions of the peace treaty of 1783? 29. What were 
 the boundaries of the United States by that treaty? 
 
CHAPTER X 
 INDEPENDENCE AND THE UNION (1775-1781) 
 
 107. The People at Home. — We think of the Revolution- 
 ary War as if it were all fighting, but on the average there 
 was only one decisive battle a year. Still every colony and 
 every county, town, and village, shared in the hardships and 
 suffering. Most of the men had to be at home, for the war 
 could not go on unless food was produced, anci unless taxes 
 were paid to provide for the pay and clothing of the troops and 
 for the materials of war. Yet probably a fourth of the grown 
 white men were in the army, at one time or another. 
 
 Everybody was excited about the war. Ministers preached 
 about it; children talked about it. Ladies cared for the sick 
 and wounded, and some of them went with their husbands to 
 the w^ar. Baroness Riedesel, wife of a Hessian general, made 
 the campaign of Burgoyne's army with her children, and 
 during the battle of Saratoga they were obliged to take refuge 
 in a cellar among the wounded and dying. She was greath- 
 relieved, when, after the surrender of the army, the American 
 General Schuyler, as she says, " regaled us with smoked 
 tongues, which were excellent, with beefsteaks, potatoes, fresh 
 butter, and bread. ... I was easy after many months of 
 anxiety." Mrs. Esther Reed collected $300,000 in paper 
 money in Philadelphia, and sent it to George Washington, to 
 be given to the soldiers. The women bore their part of the 
 war; and despite their sorrow for lost relatives and friends, 
 they kept up the spirit and courage of the men. A few of 
 them even put on uniforms and fought in the ranks. 
 
 Wherever the armies marched, people living along the road 
 flocked to see the soldiers moving on horseback or on foot, the 
 wounded hobbling along or carried in wagons. Troops were 
 often "quartered"; that is, distributed among the houses of 
 
 144 
 
THE PEOPLE AND THE WAR 1 45 
 
 the towns where they were staying overnight. Here and 
 there a young officer fell in love with a daughter of the 
 household where he was quartered, and later returned to 
 marry her. 
 
 108. The Loyalists (1775-1782). -Not all the Americans 
 joined heart and soul in the Revolulion. John Adams thought 
 that at the beginning at least a third of the Americans were at 
 heart " Tories," as the loyalists were often called. However 
 right and necessary the Revolution was, thousands of good 
 people sincerely loved Great Britain and were loyal to King 
 George. Some of them believed that the British government 
 was the best thing for the colonies. 
 
 The loyalists were harshl^^ put down ev^en in colonies like 
 New York and Georgia, where at the beginning they were 
 clearly in the majority. The patriots had the advantage of 
 knowing each other through the Committees of Correspond- 
 ence; and their informal congresses and conventions passed 
 acts for arresting the loyalists and seizing their property. 
 The General Court of Massachusetts banished 310 heads of 
 families, including many of the best educated and most public- 
 spirited men in the colony. 
 
 Thousands were thrown into jail; scores were tarred and 
 feathered; some were killed outright. In Virginia a man 
 named Lynch tied up Tories and whipped them till they prom- 
 ised to become patriots, and that method came to be called 
 " Lynch law." About 30,000 persons in all were compelled 
 to leave their homes, and went to Canada, Nova Scotia, the 
 West Indies, or England. Those who remained were not 
 allowed to take part in public affairs. 
 
 109. Supporting the War. — • The Americans had little reiid>' 
 money, and the war cut oft their profitable trade with England. 
 Yet the country abounded in provisions, and clothing could be 
 made out of wool woven on hand looms. Lhifortunately the 
 roads were bad and it was hard to keep the armies supplied. 
 The colonies depended chiefly on France for muskets, pistols, 
 swords, cannons, and uniforms. 
 
 The Continental Congress and the states borrowed what 
 little mone\- they could from the people, and borrowetl more 
 
146 
 
 INDEPENDENCE AND THE UNION 
 
 from the French and Spanish governments. Both Congress 
 and the states raised most of their funds by issuing paper 
 money. Congress alone put out 250 milHon dollars in Con- 
 tinental currency. 
 
 Paper money that has gold or other valuable things behind 
 it in the vaults of a bank, like our present federal bank notes, 
 is a great convenience. But paper money will surely decline 
 
 in value till it is worth- 
 less, if there is no coin 
 with which to redeem it . 
 During the Revolution 
 the states and the Con- 
 tinental Congress made 
 it a practice to pay 
 salaries and other ac- 
 counts in paper notes. 
 The people who took 
 them used them to pay 
 dues to their creditors, 
 who would receive the 
 notes only ,at a discount. The new holders passed them on 
 at a greater discount; and in the end the notes were worth 
 nothing, so that a barber in Philadelphia papered his shop 
 with Continental money. 
 
 All classes, religions, and races took part in the war. The 
 richest northern merchants, such as John Hancock and Robert 
 Morris, and the richest southern planters, such as the Ran- 
 dolphs of Virginia and the Pinckneys of South Carolina, joined 
 in the war. New England Congregationalists, Pennsylvania 
 Presbyterians, Maryland Catholics, and Virginia Episcopa- 
 lians were all stanch patriots. Germans, Irish, Scotch-Irish, 
 French, Dutch, Negroes, and Englishmen stood side by side 
 in the ranks. 
 
 110. Change from Colonies to States (1775-1780). — While 
 the military revolution was going on, every colony was passing 
 through another kind of revolution by making a new govern- 
 ment. The governors of Connecticut and Rhode Island were 
 chosen by the voters, and they sympathized with the Revolu- 
 
 A Continental paper note 
 
FROM COLONIES TO STATES 1 47 
 
 tion. Most of the eleven royal go\ernors tried to stop the 
 movement. The patriots were too strong for them, and in the 
 end the governors had to run away from their own former 
 colonies. When the goxernors were out, the old colonial 
 governments simpl}^ collapsed. 
 
 The patriots at once set up Committees of Safety in 
 towns, counties, and colonies. They arranged for informal 
 elections to colonial congresses or conventions; and these 
 hastily chosen bodies took on themselves the right to pass 
 laws, to lay taxes, to raise solrliers, to suppress loyalists, and 
 to send delegates to the Continental Congress. 
 
 For about a year there was still hope that England would 
 yield and that the old governments could again be formed. 
 Finally the patriot congress of New Hampshire drew up 
 (January, 1776) a document describing a new form of govern- 
 ment with an elective governor. This was not a colonial 
 charter, but a brief constitution for a state. It gave up the 
 old loyalty to England. It set up a new kind of government, 
 which sprang from the people of New Hampshire. 
 
 This example was followed by all the other colonies, one 
 after another. Connecticut and Rhode Island had simply to 
 make small changes in their old popular charters. After July, 
 1776, all the former colonies called themselves " states," and 
 their legislatures or conventions framed a constitution for each 
 one. Pennsylvania held a special convention (1776), of which 
 Benjamin Franklin was president; it drew up and put in force 
 the first constitution of that st^ite. Several groups of people 
 in the far West also tried to form little states. Vermont, 
 which had been a part of New York, set up a state government 
 (1777), but was not admitted to Congress. The last state to 
 form a new government was Massachusetts (1780). In that 
 state a new way of making a constitution was invented: a 
 special convention drew up the document; it was then sub- 
 mitted to the direct vote of the people; when they approved 
 of the constitution, it went into force. Parts of it are still in 
 force. 
 
 111. Spirit of Independence (1775). — The Second Conti- 
 nental Congress at first (May, 1775) took the ground that the 
 
148 INDEPENDENCK AND THE UNION 
 
 war was intended only to call the British people to their 
 senses; and that the Americans were still loyal to the real 
 principles of the British government. Several public men, 
 however, especially Patrick Henry of Virginia and Samuel 
 Adams (§ 92), had other notions, and expected to break loose 
 from England. 
 
 During 1775 it became a custom to hold patriotic meetings 
 in various parts of the country, which passed resolutions urg- 
 ing people to stand fast against aggression by the British. 
 Among these gatherings was a committee commonly called the 
 " Mecklenburg Convention," which met at Charlotte, North 
 Carolina, in May, 1775. One set of resolutions supposed to be 
 passed by this convention was published at this time, and 
 another about forty years later. It is still uncertain how far 
 the patriots of Mecklenburg County went in urging that the 
 colonics withdraw from the British Empire; but there is no 
 doubt that they were much aroused and that their action gave 
 comfort to the friends of independence. 
 
 112. Independence Adopted (July 4, 1776). — When the 
 British in the spring of 1776 prepared a fleet and army to put 
 down the Re\'olution, it was clear that the colonies must either 
 submit or break away altogether. In June a committee was 
 appointed to draw up a declaration of independence, and the 
 task of writing the document was given to Thomas Jefferson, a 
 young delegate to Congress from Virginia. 
 
 On July 4, 1776, Jefferson's draft was adopted by Congress, 
 which was then sitting in the State House of Pennsyh'ania, 
 now called Independence Hall. The signatures, which are 
 familiar to American boys and girls, were not all added 
 till several weeks later. Nevertheless, July 4, 1776 has been 
 looked on as the birthday of the United States. John Adams 
 wrote that the Declaration would in later times be celebrated 
 
 with pomp, shows, games, sports, bells, bonfires, and illumi- 
 nations from one end of this continent to the other." 
 
 If this famous document {See Appendix) is read carefully, it 
 will be seen to include four principal political ideas: 
 
 (i) Americans are possessed of natural rights: for instance, 
 " all men are created equal . . . with certain unalienable 
 
INDEPENDENCE DECLARED 
 
 149 
 
 Rights (§88), that among these are Life, Liberty, and the 
 pursuit of Happiness." — Clearly a denial of those rights would 
 be an oppression of the colonists. 
 
 (2) Americans hold a " compact " with the king, under 
 which the people have a right to change their government 
 when they think it a bad thing for 
 them. — That is, they have a right to 
 start a revolution. 
 
 (3) The king of Great Britain has 
 forfeited his right to go\'ern on account 
 of twenty-seven different oppressive 
 acts. — That is, there are good reasons 
 for a revolution. 
 
 (4) "These 
 United Colonies 
 are, and of Right 
 ought to be. Free 
 and Independent 
 States. " — That 
 is, the colonists 
 have revolted, and 
 are no longer 
 British. 
 
 Because of its 
 ringing statement 
 of the basic prin- 
 ciples of free government, the Declaration of Independence 
 is accepted by all Americans and by many people in other 
 parts of the world as a great summary of human rights. 
 
 113. Spirit of Union (1775- 1777). — Though the Declara- 
 tion of Indeixndence was a great and noble document, that 
 part of it which declared the United States to be free and in- 
 dependent could come true onh' if the people and the govern- 
 ments of the new states should win in the Revolutionary War. 
 For that end they knew that they must all stand together. 
 They knew that there must be one army and one navy, one 
 commander in chief and one Congress. Then why not one 
 government? Realizing this need of union, a committee of 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 9 
 
 Independence Hall, Philadelphia 
 
150 INDEPENDENCE AND THE UNION 
 
 Congress, a few days after the Declaration was adopted, re- 
 ported the Articles of Confederation. This was a form of 
 government intended to govern all the people of the United 
 States in a permanent federal union. 
 
 In many ways the colonies had always been one people. 
 Nearly all of them practiced the same religion, spoke the same 
 language, and were accustomed to much the same laws, trade, 
 and customs. They had fought alongside each other in four 
 previous wars (§§ 67-71). They had acted together in the 
 Albany Congress, the Stamp Act Congress, and the First 
 Continental Congress (§§ 70, 90, 92). 
 
 They were used to a government outside their own bound- 
 aries which carried on war for them, made treaties for them, 
 and regulated their trade. Then what was to prevent their 
 setting up some sort of federal government which would do 
 the same things for them, while leaving each state free to 
 govern itself in local matters? 
 
 114. Articles of Confederation (1775-1781). — The wise 
 Benjamin Franklin had already submitted to Congress a set 
 of Articles of Confederation based in part on the old New 
 England Confederation of 1643 (§ 36). The committee used 
 Franklin's draft, and added many other things. It was soon 
 evident that however much the people desired a union, they 
 did not feel the need of a strong union. Yet a national con- 
 stitution could not be made unless the states should part with 
 some of the authority that they would otherwise enjoy. 
 
 So the debates on the Articles of Confederation dragged 
 along for many months during 1776 and 1777, while Wash- 
 ington's army was defeated at New York, and Congress was 
 driven out of Philadelphia. Not till after Burgoyne's army was 
 captured (§ 100) did Congress pluck up courage to complete the 
 form of union. In November, 1777, it finished framing the 
 Articles, and sent them out to the states. Congress could not 
 make a constitution ; it could only draw up one which should 
 go into force when ratified by the thirteen state legislatures. 
 
 Congress had delayed for months. The states delayed for 
 years; and till the legislature in everyone of the thirteen states 
 voted to put the Articles into effect, they were nothing but a 
 
ARTICLES OF CONFEDEIL\TION 151 
 
 piece of paper. The states were jealous of one another, 
 especially because seven of them claimed for themselves the 
 territory west of the mountains. The country grew tired of 
 Congress, and Congress grew tired of itself. Not till 1781 did 
 Virginia make an offer to yield her western claims, which in- 
 duced the last state, Maryland, to sign the Articles. Thus 
 was finally completed the first written constitution of that 
 nation which was called the United States of America. 
 
 Then and ever since, critics have found fault with the 
 Articles of Confederation because they made Congress too weak 
 to take care of national affairs. After all, they provided the 
 strongest and best federal government that the world had ever 
 known, and their many faults proved to the people the strong 
 need of a better government on the same lines. They proved 
 to be a school for statesmen. Thomas Jefferson, James 
 Madison, and James Monroe, all later Presidents of the United 
 States, were active members of the Congress. On the whole, 
 the country has reason to be proud of the Articles of Con- 
 federation. 
 
 115. What is a Constitution? — The state constitutions, the 
 Declaration of Independence, and the Articles of Confederation 
 are of great importance to us to-day, because they contain 
 the principles that we now apply to our present state and 
 national governments. Among these great principles are the 
 following : 
 
 (i) A written constitution is a " fundamental law " which 
 cannot be altered by an ordinary law of a legislature or Con- 
 gress. There are now forty-eight such constitutions in the 
 states of the Union, besides the federal Constitution. 
 
 (2) The old doctrine of " natural rights " or " fundamental 
 rights " or " unalienable rights " was claimed again in the 
 Declaration of Independence (§ 112), and enlarged and stated 
 in detail in the " bills of rights " which were added to the state 
 constitutions. They included such statements as the follow- 
 ing: " All men are by nature equally free and independent." 
 "All elections ought to be free." " The freedom of the press 
 is one of the great bulwarks of liberty." " A man hath a 
 right to a speedy trial by an impartial jury of twelve men." 
 
152 INDEPENDENCE AND THE UNION 
 
 (3) The Americans wanted a popular government, in which 
 there should be no king, no nobles, no privileged classes. At 
 that time nobody could vote unless he owned land or other 
 property, but the idea of political equality soon led to a widen- 
 ing of the suffrage. 
 
 116. The Higher Law. — Another idea, which has been 
 very important, was that in every state there were two kinds 
 of law, a higher and a lower. The higher law was the written 
 constitution of the state. The lower law was made up of 
 ordinary statutes passed by legislatures and county, city, or 
 local governments. Since the higher law was made in a dif- 
 ferent way from the ordinary law, and could be changed only 
 by a different and more difificult method, there could be no 
 such thing as a lower law that disagreed with the higher. 
 If a legislature passed a bill, or a governor made an appoint- 
 ment, or a court laid down a decision that was contrary to 
 the higher law of the constitution, then it was just as if the bill, 
 appointment, or decision had not been made at all. The 
 fundamental law must always come first and be higher than 
 any other. 
 
 This is not an easy matter to understand; but every school 
 child knows that the decision of a school board is higher than 
 that of the principal of a school, and that an act of the state 
 legislature is higher than a vote of the school board. And 
 people often talk about this or that act of the legislature as 
 being " unconstitutional." 
 
 Some of the new laws passed nowadays about labor, crimi- 
 nals, corporations, trusts, trolley lines, antl railroads are held 
 unconstitutional because they are considered to be overruled 
 i)y this higher law of the written constitution. 
 
 117. Summary. — This chapter describes the life of the 
 people during the Revolution and the way in which they 
 created state go\'ernments, declared their independence, and 
 made Articles of Confederation which for a time were the 
 written constitution of the nation. 
 
 The Revolution was a period of change and excitement dll 
 through the countrx-. The soldiers, and also the men, women, 
 and children of all races and religions who remained at home. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 1 53 
 
 shared in tin.' losses and surteriiigs. Loyalists, who were at 
 hrst about a third of the thijikiiig people, were silenced by 
 argument or by violence. This left the patriots in control of 
 the situation. They raised supplies for the troops, borrowed 
 what money they could, and both Congress and the states put 
 out (}uantities of paper money. Men of all races, classes, and 
 religions took part in the war. 
 
 When the royal go\ernors had to Hee, informal colonial 
 congresses were set up which made new forms of government 
 for the colonies or states (as they were called after July, 1776). 
 
 For a year after the breaking out of war, independence was 
 suggested by some local conventions, but the (juestion was 
 avoided by Congress. Then, on July 4, 1776, Congress 
 adopted the Declaration of Independence written by Thomas 
 Jefferson, which declared the former colonies to be " Free and 
 1 ndepcndent States." 
 
 At the same time another committee began to draw up 
 Articles of Confederation, which were not adopted by all the 
 states till 1 78 1. Though rather a weak form of government 
 they contain the idea of the fundamental law or the higher 
 law, which is that a constitution should be drawn up more 
 thoughtfully and more carefully than other laws, and must 
 contain the principles under which other laws can be made. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, V, VI. — -Van Tyne, Am. Rev., 68, 250, 
 278. 
 
 Histories. Charming, Un. States, III. chs. vii, xiv. — Elson, Side 
 Lights on Am. Hist., I. ch. i. — Sloane, French War and Rev., 206-218, 
 224-237, 370-388. — Van Tyne, Am. Rev., chs. iv-vi, ix, xi, xiv. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 11, 14, 20. — Beard, Readings, §§ 9- 
 13. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 198-201, 214-219. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, II. §§ 159-169, 184-190, 205-210. — Hill, Liberty Docs., 
 chs. xiii, xiv. — James, Readings, §§32-35. — Johnston, Am. Orations, 
 I. 24-38. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 45-51. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Bruce, Daniel Boone. — Ford, Janice Mere- 
 dith. — Kcnned\ , Horseshoe Robinson. — Mitchell, Hugh Wynne. — 
 Ogden, Loyal Little Redcoat. — Price, Lads and Lassies of Other Days, 
 85-175. — Thwaites, Daniel Boone. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, \,\\. — Mentor, serial no. 43. — Wilson, 
 Am. People, II. — Winsor, America, V'l. 
 
154 INDEPENDENCE AND THE UNION 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 107) I. How did people live during the Revolutionary War? 2. 
 What did women do in the war? 3 (For an essay). Account of home 
 life somewhere in America during the war. 
 
 (§ 108) 4. Who were the loyalists? 5. How were they treated? 
 
 (§ 109) 6. Where did the army get its supplies during the war? 7. 
 How did Congress and the states raise funds? 8. Why was paper money 
 disliked? 9. What kind of people took part in the war? 
 
 (§ no) 10. What became of the colonial governments when the Revo- 
 lution broke out? 11. What were the Committees of Safety and what 
 did they do? 12. What was the first state constitution? 13. How were 
 the state constitutions made? 
 
 (§ in) 14. When did the idea of independence first appear? 15. 
 What was the Mecklenburg Convention? 
 
 (§112) 16. Why did the colonists resolve on independence? 17 (For 
 an essay). Account of the writing and adoption of the Declaration of 
 Independence. 18. What are the principal statements of the Declara- 
 tion of Independence? 
 
 (§ 113) 19. Why did the people of the United States need one govern- 
 ment? 20. What made it easy to form a national government? 
 
 (§ 114) 21. Where did people get the idea of Articles of Confederation? 
 22. How were the Articles prepared? 23. How were they ratified? 
 24. What were their advantages? 
 
 (§ 115) 25. What are the three essentials of American free govern- 
 ment? 26. What is a fundamental law? 27. What are natural rights? 
 28. What is popular government? 
 
 (§ 116) 29. What is the higher law? 30. What is the difference be- 
 tween a constitution and a statute? 31. What happens if a statute is 
 not in accordance with a constitution? 
 
CHAPTER XI 
 THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF (1781-1789) 
 
 118. Peace and Happiness. — If ever the American people 
 had reason to be happy, it was at the end of the Revolutionary 
 War. They had their independence, their new-made state 
 governments, their Union, and a federal constitution the weak- 
 ness of which was not yet understood. They could carry on 
 their own trade free from the English Navigation Acts (§ 80). 
 They had a larger degree of comfort and well-being and per- 
 sonal freedom than any other people in the world. They 
 were provided with schools and newspapers and books. They 
 hiid complete religious freedom. Their country abounded in 
 good land and valuable timber and rich ores. Who could be 
 more free and happy? 
 
 119. Business Difficulties (1782-1788). — On the other 
 side of the account must be placed the losses of the war. For 
 about seven years all direct traffic with England had been cut 
 off. Hundreds of the vessels that traded with France and 
 other countries had been captured by the British. Some parts 
 of the country, especially South Carolina and Virginia, had 
 been ravaged by armies, and large amounts of property had 
 been destroyed. Thousands of slaves had run away. Ordi- 
 nary trade and work had been upset by sending so many men 
 to ser\e in the army. Thousands of men whose labor would 
 have helped to restore their country were dead or wounded, 
 and thousands of loyalists were in exile (§ 108). 
 
 While the war lasted it was hard to collect debts, even from 
 people who had means. As soon as it was over, creditors be- 
 gan to bring suits; and under the treaty of peace British 
 merchants tried to collect about ten million dollars which were 
 due them from American merchants when the war broke out. 
 The laws of debt at that time were very harsh. Even honest 
 
 155 
 
156 THE. OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 men, who expected to pay but had not the money at hand, 
 might be sent to prison and kept there indefinitely. 
 
 Nevertheless the country was really prosperous, as is shown 
 by the rapid growth of population and by the settlement of the 
 land. People went on steadily building ships, putting up 
 houses, clearing woodland, enlarging the towns, and improving 
 harbors. Insurance companies flourished, and for the first 
 time banks were founded, one each in Boston, New York, and 
 Philadelphia. The country seemed poor because immediately 
 after the war the merchants bought large quantities of British 
 goods and took a long time to pay for them. 
 
 One of the objects of Congress was to secure good trade 
 relations with both Europe and the West Indies. It was, 
 therefore, a hard blow when England announced (1783) that 
 all the trade from the United States to the British colonies 
 must be carried in British vessels. This cut off the profitable 
 traffic in their own vessels that the colonists enjoyed before 
 the Revolution. The British would not give way; their point 
 was that if the United States wanted to be independent, it 
 must expect to be treated like other nations and be shut out 
 by the Acts of Trade from carrying goods to and from the 
 remaining British colonies, especially the West Indies. 
 
 120. Debts and Taxes (1782-1788). — One thing that dis- 
 turbed the Americans was the need of taxes to pay interest 
 on their public debts. The poor workmen and struggling 
 farmers felt the burden of such taxes more than any one 
 else. To help them out, some of the states passed " Stay and 
 Tender " laws, to postpone the payment of private debts. 
 Half the" states tried to avoid taxes and make money easy by 
 floating a second issue of paper money, most of which was 
 never redeemed. 
 
 The pressure was so great that riots occurred and threats of 
 revolution were made in several parts of the country. Mas- 
 sachusetts was a well-to-do and intelligent state, but in 1786 
 discontented people came together at the county seats on the 
 days when the courts were to sit, and prevented the judges from 
 hearing any suits for the collection of debts. Old General 
 Artemas Ward, when they tried to shut up his court, said, " I 
 
BUSINESS AND FINANCE 
 
 157 
 
 will sit as a judge or die as a general." Then Captain Daniel 
 Shays got together a force of armed men and tried to break up 
 the state go\'ernment. The whole country was alarmed, and 
 the rising, commonly called the " Shays Rebellion," was put 
 down with great difficulty by state troops (1787). It looked 
 as if the Union might be broken up by these men whom we 
 should now call anarchists. 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 The United States, 1776-1789, showing state claims to western lands 
 
 121. Western Claims (1775-1802). — The main reason for 
 the delay in ratifying the Articles of Confederation (§ 114) 
 was that four of the southern states — Virginia, North Caro- 
 lina, South Carolina, and Georgia — laid claim to strips of 
 territory stretching west from their former boundaries, as far 
 
158 THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 as the Mississippi. North of the Ohio River, Virginia also 
 claimed George Rogers Clark's conquest, and everything else 
 in the Northwest. This would have allowed one state to 
 occupy a third of the whole area of the Union; and it stirred 
 up New York, Massachusetts, and Connecticut to lay claim 
 to parts of the same area. 
 
 The other six states had nothing to claim in the West; and 
 therefore their delegates in Congress insisted that the western 
 lands belonged to the whole Union and should not be claimed 
 by a part of the states. Congress therefore voted (1780) that 
 any land that the states might give up should be used to pay 
 the national debt, and also that settlers who might go into the 
 western country should in the course of time form new states 
 which would be admitted to the Union. 
 
 With this understanding, the deadlock was broken, and the 
 states with western claims one after another yielded them to 
 Congress, in whole or in part. Connecticut kept control of 
 the Western Reserve, a strip 120 miles long on the south side 
 of Lake Erie, for fourteen years; during which she sold or 
 gave away the land there. Virginia kept Kentucky, besides 
 issuing grants for a block of " military bounty lands " north of 
 the Ohio. North Carolina issued grants for most of the land 
 in Tennessee before giving up control of that region. Georgia 
 likewise made large grants of western lands before she ac- 
 cepted her present boundaries. With these exceptions, the 
 western lands were turned over to the federal government, 
 and formed the earliest public lands of the United States. 
 
 122. Western Governments (1784-1788). — The Congress 
 of the Confederation, wishing to encourage the states to make 
 these cessions, and hoping to open up the country to new- 
 comers, passed three notable measures: (i) Jefferson's Ordi- 
 nance of 1784, which promised a simple kind of government 
 to the western settlers; (2) Grayson's Ordinance of 1785, which 
 provided for the surveying of the western lands in townships 
 six miles square; (3) the Northwest Ordinance of 1787, which 
 was a kind of colonial charter. It set up a new Northwest 
 Territory, which irkcluded the whole region north of the Ohio 
 River, from the state of Pennsylvania west to the Mississippi. 
 
THE WEST 
 
 159 
 
 By this Northwest Ordinance, Congress was to provide a 
 temporary government until enough people should arrive to 
 elect a territorial legislature with power to pass local laws. 
 Part of the Ordinance was a set of Articles of Compact, which 
 forbade slavery in the territory, and promised that the people 
 who might come into the territory should have liberty, freedom 
 of religion, and public education. 
 
 At the same time when this Ordinance was passed, a tract 
 of nearly a million acres of land was sold to the Ohio Com- 
 pany, which was composed 
 principalh' of Revolution- 
 ary officers from New 
 England. In 1788 the 
 first immigrants under 
 this company, headed by 
 Rufus Putnam, crossed 
 the country from eastern 
 Massachusetts to the Ohio 
 River, where they built 
 the town of Marietta. A 
 little later another com- 
 pany settled the Symmes 
 Purchase, containing the 
 town of Cincinnati. Connecticut settlers soon came into 
 the Western Reserve. At the same time, southern settlers 
 were pouring by thousands across the mountains into Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee. Thus the West was preparing to 
 claim the promised right to become a part of the union of 
 states. 
 
 123. Lessons of the Confederation (1781-1788). — Within 
 fi\e years from its organization, the Confederation seemed on 
 the point of breaking down. England kept possession of 
 Oswego, Niagara, Mackinac, and other posts or forts on the 
 American side of the boundary fixed by the treaty of 1783, 
 and would make no commercial treaty. Congress could get 
 hardly enough money together for the small expenses of the 
 national government, including the pay of a few hundred 
 soldiers. 
 
 Land purchases and reserves in Ohio, 1800 
 
l6o THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 Another cause of division among the states came through the 
 movement to emancipate the slaves. Between 1777 and 1787 
 laws were passed in the following states and territories by 
 which the slaves were to be set free immediately, or after a 
 few years: (a) the four New England states; (6) Vermont 
 (not yet admitted to the Union); (c) Pennsylvania; (d) the 
 Northwest Territory (§ 122). Not long before the Revolution 
 two surveyors, named Mason and Dixon, surveyed and marked 
 the southern boundary of Pennsylvania (map, page 66). After 
 the slaves were emancipated in the rest of the northern states, 
 that line became the division between the free and the slave- 
 holding states. The area lying south of it was later in sport 
 called " Dixie," or " Dixie's Land." 
 
 Because of troubles like the Shays Rebellion (§ 120), Wash- 
 ington thought the Union was in danger, and wrote to his 
 friends that the Articles of Confederation were a " rope of 
 sand." " If no change comes about," said he, " our downfall 
 is as plain as A B C." In vain did Congress call upon the 
 states to give it power to raise money by taxing imported 
 goods. Such an amendment to the Articles required unani- 
 mous consent, and nothing would induce all thirteen of the 
 states to agree to anything. Therefore Congress, reluctantly 
 following the suggestion made by a meeting called the "Annap- 
 olis Convention " (1786), asked the states to send delegates 
 to a constitutional convention to be held in Philadelphia in 
 1787. 
 
 124. Sessions of the Constitutional Convention (1787). — 
 To get the convention together was a hard task. Eleven state 
 legislatures soon appointed their delegates; but New Hamp- 
 shire acted slowly, and her delegates did not appear until the 
 convention was half over. Rhode Island sent nobody at all. 
 Some of the delegates did not attend; others, including two 
 of the three delegates from New York, lost their tempers and 
 went home after a few weeks. Out of the fifty-five differ- 
 ent men who actually sat in the convention, only thirty-nine 
 members, representing twelve states, were willing at the end 
 to afftx their signatures to the document drawn up by the 
 convention. 
 
THE CONSTITUTIONAL COW EN TlOX 
 
 l6l 
 
 The conxention met May 25, 1787. George Washington, 
 delegate from Virginia, was at once made president. Though 
 he said little during the sessions, his presence gave conlidence 
 
 The Constitutional Convention in session, with Washington as presiding ofiBcer 
 
 to the American people. The conxcnlion sat pri\atel\" with- 
 out spectators or reporters; for this reason some recent writers 
 have said that it was ashamed to state its principles in public, 
 in fact we know xery nearly what went on, because James 
 Madison and sexeral other members took notes which ha\e 
 since been printed. 
 
 The character of its leaders proves that the con\ention was 
 an able and upright body. Eight of the members had been 
 signers of the Declaration of Independence, including Roger 
 Sherman of Connecticut and Robert Morris of PennsyKania. 
 Benjamin Franklin was a member, though too old to make set 
 speeches. Alexander Hamilton of New York was one of the 
 most brilliant men in the convention; he would have liked a 
 
1 62 THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 more centralized national constitution than the one that was 
 adopted. The strongest force in the convention was the Vir- 
 ginia delegation, and in that delegation the most active man 
 was James Madison. He prepared beforehand a sort of sketch 
 called the "Virginia Plan," which was the groundwork of the 
 Constitution as finally adopted. 
 
 125. Compromises of the Convention (1787). — Congress 
 expected that the old Articles would be patched up; but the 
 convention began immediately to construct a new sort of con- 
 stitution. Yet how could any document be made to suit at 
 the same time small states and large states? the trading and 
 the farming communities? the slaveholders and the non- 
 slaveholders? Three times the convention was in a deadlock; 
 and every time an agreement was reached by each side's yield- 
 ing something, until a compromise was reached: 
 
 (i) The small states wanted what they had had in the Con- 
 federation, an equal vote with the large states. By the 
 Connecticut Compromise they were given an equal vote in 
 the new Senate of the United States; but all the states were 
 to send members to a new House of Representatives in propor- 
 tion to their population. 
 
 (2) The northern ship-building and ship-owning states 
 wanted the future government to have the power to make 
 laws in aid of American shipping. The planting states, which 
 were mostly southern and built very few ships, strongly ob- 
 jected; but finally they gave way on condition that the slave 
 trade should not be prohibited for twenty years. 
 
 (3) Great difficulty arose on the question of the relation of 
 the new government to slavery. Washington, Madison, and 
 other Virginians hoped that their state would soon give up the 
 system of slavery, but nobody proposed in the convention 
 that the federal government should prohibit slavery. The 
 trouble arose over the question whether slaves should be 
 counted as people. The South insisted that the slaves, al- 
 though they could not vote, ought to be counted as popula- 
 tion when the members of the House were assigned to the 
 states. Northern men objected to this but insisted that they 
 should be counted in apportioning taxes to the states. This 
 
DETAILS OF THE CONSTITUTION 1 63 
 
 dispute was settled by a compromise under whicli it was agreed 
 that both for taxes and in making up the basis for the mem- 
 bers of the lower house, slaves should be counted at the " fed- 
 eral ratio "; namely, at three fifths of their real number. 
 
 126. Origin of the Constitution. — Some people have 
 thought that the " Fathers of the Constitution," who drew it 
 up, simply used their own judgment and knowledge of previous 
 federal governments, choosing what would be best. The 
 history of previous federations was of little service, for those 
 in Europe were then dying out. What the Fathers of the 
 Constitution really did was to draw on their own personal 
 experience. Hardly anything can be found in the Constitu- 
 tion which had not already been tried in the colonies, the 
 states, or the Confederation. The members of the conven- 
 tion proposed and voted for things that they had seen work 
 well at home. 
 
 That is why the Constitution has lasted for many years. 
 It is made up of ideas that had already actually worked, put 
 together by wise men who had the sense to see that if they 
 wanted a government to live, they must give it plenty of 
 power. 
 
 127. Form of the Constitution (1787). — After the conven- 
 tion settled the difficult points, a committee was appointed to 
 write out the document. Gouverneur Morris of Pennsylvania 
 is supposed to have furnished the clear language for which it is 
 remarkable. Without going into details, the following prin- 
 ciples of the Constitution should be noticed: 
 
 (i) The new document was a fundamental law, much fuller, 
 clearer, and stronger than the Articles of Confederation. 
 It provided a much better machinery of government in its 
 Congress of two houses, its independent President, and its 
 United States courts. 
 
 (2) The Constitution at first lacked a bill of rights, but that 
 was supplied by ten amendments adopted soon after it went 
 into effect. 
 
 (3) The Constitution furnished a national popular govern- 
 ment. From the first, the members of the lower house of 
 Congress came into ofifice through the direct choice of the 
 
l64 THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 voters. The Senators were (until 1913) elected by the state 
 legislatures. The President was chosen by electors who were 
 elected either by the legislatures or by the people; but after 
 some years the latter mode of election was adopted in all the 
 states. 
 
 (4) The Constitution declared that it was the " supreme 
 law of the land"; that is, a higher law, above state laws or 
 constitutions, and also above all acts of Congress which did 
 not agree with it. 
 
 (5) The place of the states in the Union was much more 
 clearly stated than in the old Articles, and the whole frame- 
 work of the government was so arranged as to give the new 
 federal government a chance to do its work without interfer- 
 ing with the states. 
 
 128. Ratification of the Constitution (1787-1790). — The 
 members of the convention never thought that they could put 
 their work into effect themselves; they simply drew it up for 
 the states to act upon. On September 17, 1787, they sent it 
 out, wisely demanding that a special convention in each state 
 meet for the purpose of considering and ratifying the proposed 
 document. Even then the hard work of the convention came 
 near failing, because so many states were inclined to hold back. 
 Anybody could see that if the new Constitution should go 
 through, the states were bound to be less powerful than before, 
 and the Union more powerful. 
 
 The best argument in favor of a new Constitution was, that 
 it was the only thing that would make the Union strong enough 
 to be permanent. A back-country farmer member of one of 
 the conventions discussed the argument in favor of the Con- 
 stitution thus: " I don't think the worse of the Constitution, 
 because lawyers and men of learning and moneyed men are fond 
 of it. I don't suspect that they want to get into Congress and 
 abuse their power. . . . Now is the time to reap the fruit 
 of our labor, and if we don't do it now I am afraid we shall 
 never have another opportunity." 
 
 The ratification by nine states was necessary for the estab- 
 lishment of the Constitution. In eight states (Delaware, 
 Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Georgia, Connecticut, Maryland, 
 
THE CONSTITUTION RATIFIED 1 65 
 
 South Carolina, New Hampshire) this ratification was easy. 
 There was a hard struggle in the three large states of Massa- 
 chusetts, Virginia, and New York; and no union could expect 
 10 succeed from which any one of these was left out. The 
 very fear of failure carried the Constitution through. By 
 narrow majorities, in the teeth of opposition, the Constitution 
 was ratified in those three states; so that eleven of the thirteen 
 states at once came under what people called " The New Roof." 
 North Carolina and Rhode Island followed in 1789 and 1790. 
 
 While the state conventions were being held, the argument 
 was brought against the Constitution that its friends wanted 
 to set up a centralized government. They replied that on the 
 contrary they were Federalists in favor of a federal form of 
 government. Madison, Hamilton, and others joined in a 
 series of articles, called The Federalist, in a New York news- 
 paper, defending the Constitution. The opponents then took 
 the name of Anti-Federalists, as the best that they could find. 
 
 129. Summary. — The main subject of this chapter is the 
 weakness of the Confederation, and the work of the federal con- 
 \ention which was called to make the new Constitution, in 
 order to avoid the mistakes of the old one. 
 
 After the Revolutionary War, the American people seemed 
 ready for peace, happiness, and profit, but the war had caused 
 many losses and left behind it many heavy burdens of public 
 and private debt. Still, the country was doing well, even 
 though Great Britain did not grant favorable conditions of 
 trade. 
 
 Seven of the thirteen states laid claim to parts of the terri- 
 tory west of the mountains, but cessions to Congress wiped 
 out nearly all these rival claims. Then Congress, by the 
 Northwest Ordinance (1787), provided the first actual terri- 
 torial government. Emigrants from the East at once poured 
 into the Northwest Territory, as they were already pouring 
 into Kentucky and Tennessee. 
 
 The Confederation was hampered b\- the f^ict that the 
 British still held some of the northern posts, and by the fact 
 that the states were divided in sentiment over slavery. Some 
 of the states set the slaves free. Congress could not raise 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 10 
 
1 66 THE OLD ROOF AND THE NEW ROOF 
 
 money enough for national needs, and public sentiment de- 
 manded a constitutional convention. 
 
 The convention met in 1787 and was made up of the ablest 
 men in the country. They steered the assembly through its 
 difficulties by suggesting compromises that could be accepted 
 by both sides. They founded the new Constitution on their 
 experience in colonies, states, and the Confederation. They 
 made the Constitution a fundamental law, protecting the rights 
 of man, including popular government, and providing a" higher 
 law " than the acts of Congress or of the states. 
 
 To get the necessary ratification of nine states was difficult. 
 Some people thought the Constitution gave too much power 
 to a centralized government; others wanted it because it would 
 preserve the rights of the minority. It was soon ratified by 
 eleven states and thus became the Constitution of the nation. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, VI. — Hart, Epoch Maps, nos. 6, 8; Wall 
 Maps. — McLaughlin, Confed. and Constitution. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 
 196. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, chs. x, xi. — Elson, Side Lights, I. 
 ch. ii. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., chs. ii, iii. — McLaughlin, Confed. 
 and Constitution, ch. iii. — Walker, Making of the Nation, 1-63. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 8, 22, 28, 32. — Beard, Readings, 
 §§ 14-21. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 233-245, 267-283. — 
 Harding, Select Orations, nos. 6-9. — Hart, Contemporaries, III. §§37- 
 75; Patriots and Statesmen, II. 153-361; Source Book, §§64-70. — Hill, 
 Liberty Docs., chs. xv-xvii. — James, Readings, §§36-38. — Old South 
 Leaflets, nos. i, 12, 13, 15, 16, 40, 99, 127, 186, 197. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Adams, Familiar Letters. — Bellamy, Duke 
 of Slockbridge (Shays). — Bird, Nick of the Woods (Ky.). — Ford, Tru£ 
 George Washington. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, I. 291, 295. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, Vl. — Mentor, serial no. 75. — Sparks, 
 Expansion of Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, II. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 118) I. What was there to make the American people happy after 
 the Revolution? 
 
 (§ 119) 2. What property losses were caused by the Revolution? 3. 
 Why was there trouble about debts? 4. How do we know that the 
 country was prosperous? 5. How did England treat American trade to 
 British colonies? 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 1 67 
 
 (§ 120) 6. What were the "Stay and Tender" laws? 7. What did 
 people do to relieve themselves from distress? 8. What was the Shays 
 Rebellion? 
 
 (§ 121) 9. What were the western state claims? 10. What did Congress 
 promise with regard to the western lands? 1 1. How were the state claims 
 settled? 
 
 (§ 122) 12. How did Congress organize the western territories? 13. 
 What was the Northwest Ordinance? 14. How did people prepare to 
 occupy the West? 15 (For an essay). Account of the settlement by 
 the Ohio Company. 
 
 (§ 123) 16. Why did the Confederation come near breaking down? 
 17. How did the abolition of slavery begin? 18. What was Mason and 
 Dixon's line? 19. What did Washington think of the Confederation? 
 20. What was the Annapolis Convention? 
 
 (§124)21. How was the Constitutional Convention formed? 22. How 
 did it carry on its business? 23. What sort of men were members? 
 24 (For an essay). An account of life inside the convention. 
 
 (§ 125) 25. What were the three great compromises of the convention? 
 26. What was the compromise about the two houses of Congress? 27. 
 What was the compromise about shipping? 28. What was the compromise 
 about slavery? 
 
 (§ 126) 29. Where did the framers of the Constitution find their ideas? 
 
 (§ 127) 30. What are the most important principles of the Constitution? 
 
 (§ 128) 31. How was the Constitution ratified? 32. Why was it 
 ratified? 33. Who were the Federalists and the Anti-Federalists? 34 
 (For an essay). Account of the proceedings in a ratifying convention. 
 
CHAPTER XII 
 HOW PEOPLE LIVED A CENTURY AGO (1790-1820) 
 
 130. Numbers and Races. — - The first federal census, taken 
 in 1790, showed a total number reported of 3,930,000 civdlized 
 people. Of these, about a fifth (760,000) were negroes. In 
 addition about 80,000 Indians were known to live east of the 
 Mississippi. 
 
 Only about three per cent of the people lived in towns, the 
 largest of which were the seaports of Philadelphia with 42,000 
 people, New York with 33,000, Boston with 18,000, Charles- 
 ton with 16,000, and Baltimore with 14,000. All these places 
 were still hardly better than big, overgrown villages, badly 
 paved, lighted, and policed. About half the Americans lived 
 in the North and about half lived south of Mason and Dixon's 
 line (§ 123). 
 
 The only way to find what races composed the white popu- 
 lation is to examine the family names; and they show that 
 about five sixths were descended from English ancestors; one 
 twelfth were Scotch, Scotch-Irish, and Irish, most of whom 
 spoke English; about a twentieth were Germans; and about 
 a fiftieth were Dutch. The records also include a few French 
 and Spanish names and a few hundred Jewish names. Most 
 of the Scotch-Irish lived in the four states of Pennsylvania, 
 Virginia, and the two Carolinas. Pennsylvania was the only 
 state in which the non-English element was as large in propor- 
 tion as it is to-day. 
 
 The census brought out many droll family names, such 
 as Toughman, Pettyfool, Goodfellow, Fryover, Moonshine, 
 Spitznoggle, and Witchwagon. Some of the combinations of 
 names are very amusing, such as Sarah Simpers, William Sor- 
 rows, River Jordan, Jemima Crysick, History Gott, Noble 
 Gun, Sillah Jester, Joseph Came, and Chrysty Forgot. 
 
 168 
 
RACES AND CHARACTER 
 
 169 
 
 A picture from The L<Mking Glass for the Mind, a child's 
 book, published about 1780. This shows both the 
 simple and the elaborate dress of little girls 
 
 Families were usually larger than nowadays. On the aver- 
 age there were three children to every white family, as against 
 an average of one and a half to-day. Out of 560,000 
 families, perhaps 60,000 held slaves, mostly in the South; 
 this number includes 
 
 a few negro families |^-^-^a,> ^''T-^^-^ .,.,,.• ^ ii'^<?. .-'^^^IS^gu*-^ 
 that owned negroes. 
 
 131. American 
 Character. — Al- 
 though the Americans 
 had gained their in- 
 dependence in govern- 
 ment, they were still 
 under English leader- 
 ship in their trade, 
 literature, and re- 
 ligion. They liked 
 English goods and 
 English ways of doing business, and bought most of their 
 imports from Great Britain. They read English books and 
 magazines. A few writers tried to follow the English fash- 
 ions in literary style, set at that time by men like Dr. Samuel 
 Johnson of London, and many of the early newspaper men 
 were English. It was easier to follow the lead of the old 
 country in such matters than to invent new methods on 
 American soil. 
 
 Americans at that time were in favor of the equality of all 
 people, in theory; but in most of the states they recognized 
 the social superiority of certain families of wealth and social 
 prestige. Examples of such families were the Rutledges of 
 South Carolina, the Carters of Virginia, the Clintons of New 
 York, the Huntingtons of Connecticut, and the Quincys of 
 Massachusetts. Men from such families were more likely to 
 be elected to office than any others. 
 
 The plain farmers, workmen, and sailors were then often 
 called " the lower classes " ; but they were far above the ordinary 
 workmen and farmers of the time in England and Germany. 
 They lived better, and any American family that was sober 
 
170 
 
 HOW PEOPLE LIVED A CENTURY AGO 
 
 and hard-working could open up new land and in time own a 
 good farm. More of the people could read and write than in 
 England. As Benjamin Franklin put it, " Persons of moder- 
 ate fortune and capital, who having a number of children to 
 
 provide for, are desirous of 
 bringing them up in indus- 
 try, and to secure estates 
 for their posterity, have 
 opportunity for doing it 
 in America, which Europe 
 does not afford." 
 
 Such sturdy and inde- 
 pendent people were ready 
 to move from place to place, 
 and settle on the frontier. 
 Many such settlers liked the 
 rude life so well that as fast 
 as neighbors came near 
 them, they started west- 
 ward again. In the older 
 and newer regions people 
 relied on themselves and 
 governed themselves, in a 
 way little known in the Old 
 World. 
 
 132. Country Life. — Since nine tenths of all the people lived 
 on farms and plantations, country life is typical of that time. 
 (i) Country gentlemen, such as George Washington, built 
 handsome houses, and furnished them with beautiful ma- 
 hogany, with silver, with pictures and a library ; and they had 
 servants or slaves to wait on them. Thomas Jefferson, 
 also, was a gentleman farmer, who liked to invent new 
 plows and tried to improve the tillage of the land. Such 
 people visited back and forth with their friends, and held 
 races and balls; and the young folks frolicked about much as 
 young people do nowadays. 
 
 (2) The smaller landowning planters, of whom there were 
 a few in Rhode Island, the Hudson Valley, and Pennsylvania, 
 
 Emily Marshall (1807-1836). Such was the 
 fame of this Boston beauty, that the entire 
 audience arose when she entered the theater 
 and crowds gathered to admire wherever she 
 appeared 
 
LIFE AND LABOR 
 
 171 
 
 and thousands in the South, were not so much farmers as 
 overseers. Most of their Hfe was spent in hiying out work for 
 their slaves, whether men, women, or half-grown children, and 
 in seeing that they did their tasks. 
 
 (3) Quite another kind of farmer was the man who followed 
 the plow, and with his children did the hard work of the 
 farm — clearing the land, 
 burning piles of brush, 
 milking, caring for the 
 cattle, weeding and reap- 
 ing the crops, husking 
 the corn, and threshing 
 the grain. Most such 
 farmers, north and 
 south, owned their own 
 land, and few of them 
 could afford to hire farm 
 laborers. Few read 
 newspapers or books or 
 made visits to any place 
 larger than a county seat. Few saw visitors, and they never 
 dreamed of telephones or trolley cars or automobiles. The 
 chief events for man, woman, and child were Sunday services, 
 election days, and training days, when the militia was drilled. 
 
 In the North, where there were plenty of cattle, fresh and 
 salt beef was abundant. In the South game and poultry 
 formed a part of the diet; but the principal meat was bacon, 
 ham, and salt pork; for pigs ran half wild in the woods and 
 the roads, until ready to become food. 
 
 133. Labor. — A few skilled laborers, such as saddle and 
 harness makers, blacksmiths, carpenters, wheelwrights and 
 wagonwrights, masons and plasterers, were employed in local 
 work. Many skilled men were employed as shipbuilders 
 and sailors. The old-fashioned indentured servants and re- 
 demptioncrs (§ 77) had almost disappeared, and in the South 
 many of the skilled hands were negroes. 
 
 The usual way of learning a trade was by apprenticeship. 
 By this system a boy would be turned over to a master for a 
 
 Boys played marbles in much the same way that 
 boys of to-day play the game 
 
172 
 
 HOW PEOPLE LIVTD A CENTURY AGO 
 
 3 Battledore and Shuttlecock 
 
 term of about seven years. He lived usually in the house of 
 the master, who was expected to clothe him and teach him his 
 trade. Many children, both boys and girls, whose parents 
 were dead or could not support them, were " bound out." on 
 about the same conditions, to farmers or townspeople. 
 
 Slave labor was still widely used. In 1790, 40,000 slaves 
 were held in the northern states and 660,000 in the southern 
 states. In neither section at that time was slavery profitable, 
 
 for it cost about as much 
 to feed and clothe a slave 
 as could be made out of 
 his labor. 
 
 About 60,000 of the 
 negroes were free; some 
 because they had fought 
 for their country in the 
 Revolution (§ 98). When 
 free, they could acquire 
 property, and in several 
 states could vote, just as 
 in colonial times (§ 79). 
 Some southern statesmen 
 looked forward to the free- 
 ing of all the negroes. 
 Jefferson, himself a slave- 
 holder, wrote on slavery 
 in his Notes on Virginia: 
 " I tremble for my country 
 when I reflect that God 
 is just; that his justice 
 cannot sleep forever." Yet there is reason to believe that 
 the negroes were at that time better treated than later, and 
 that those who became free had a better chance of doing 
 well for themselves. 
 
 In the North, except in Pennsylvania, it was uncommon for 
 any women except negroes to work in the fields; though a 
 traveler who passed through Wethersfield, Connecticut, re- 
 lates that he saw two little girls hoeing onions, while a boy 
 
 ^. Ttuead tfic Needle- 
 
 An illustration from Youthful Sports, showing 
 little girls at play 
 
CHURCHES 173 
 
 of ten was plowing with a yoke of oxen. He adds jokingly, 
 " Onions are its staple, and habits of indolence are said to 
 obtain among the men." 
 
 134. Churches. — The life of our forefathers was not all 
 work. They were interested in religion and in the education of 
 their children. Just at the time when the people of the United 
 States were uniting in a strong political union, the members 
 of different religious bodies (§ 55) were moved to organize into 
 national churches. The result was that most of the three 
 thousand congregations scattered through the land were soon 
 gathered into five or six great organized churches, and about 
 twenty smaller ones. The largest of these bodies were the 
 following : 
 
 (i) The English, or Episcopal, Church was no longer 
 supported by public taxation anywhere. In 1783 Samuel 
 Seabury was informally elected Bishop for Connecticut, and 
 next year the choice was accepted in England. A general con- 
 vention of the church was then organized which adopted the 
 name of " The Protestant Episcopal Church in the United 
 States of America." 
 
 (2) The English, Scotch, and Irish Catholics in the United 
 States were now numerous enough to need a bishop. On the 
 request of the American priests, one of the Carroll family of 
 Maryland was designated by the Pope as Bishop of Baltimore, 
 and began his work in 1790. 
 
 (3) The Baptists continued their system of single churches, 
 each choosing its own minister, but they formed a " general 
 committee." Several other national Baptist churches came 
 forward about this time, such as the Freewill Baptists, and 
 Seventh-day Baptists. 
 
 (4) The Congregational Church kept up its stiff old system 
 of plain meetinghouses without fires, so that ministers some- 
 times preached in overcoat and mittens. They formed no 
 general organization. In several New England states taxes 
 were till many years later laid on the public at large for the 
 support of the Congregational ministers and churches. 
 
 (5) The Methodists also formed a national church. John 
 Wesley, head of the church in England, designated Thomas 
 
174 
 
 HOW PEOPLE LIVED A CENTURY AGO 
 
 Coke to be " superintendent." Coke and Francis Asbury were 
 then (1784) elected by the Methodist ministers as the first 
 bishops of their church. They organized a " national con- 
 ference " which was a sort of federal gov'ernment for their 
 whole church. 
 
 (6) The Presbyterian Church in 1789 formed a "general 
 assembly" which has since been held at intervals of about three 
 years. 
 
 (7) Several new churches were founded. The Campbellites, 
 often called Disciples, or Christians, came out from the Pres- 
 byterians and Baptists. The Universalist Church held its 
 
 first general convention in 1785. 
 Soon after 1800 the Unitarians 
 split ofif from the Congrega- 
 tionalists in New England. 
 One of the interesting churches 
 of the time was that of the 
 Shakers, or Shaking Quakers, 
 so called because they made a 
 solemn dance a part of their 
 services. They lived in com- 
 munities, the men and women 
 in separate houses, for they 
 never married; and they 
 
 An old stone schoolhouse in Raritan. N. J., adopted and brought Up homc- 
 built in hexagonal sliape. The earUest Jegg children. A feW of their 
 schools were usually made of logs ... .'ii • • ^ 
 
 Villages are still in existence. 
 The Germans in Pennsylvania and the neighboring states (§ 55) 
 were for the most part already gathered into Lutheran, Dun- 
 kard, or Mcnnonite bodies. 
 
 135. Schools. — Soon after the Revolution several great 
 changes took place in the schooling of the children: (i) The 
 common schools in New England were opened to girls, and that 
 practice spread slowly through the country. (2) The employ- 
 ment of young women as teachers of mixed classes of boys and 
 girls began about this time. (3) As the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
 and Illinois came into the Union they set up public common 
 schools on the model of those in the East. 
 
 '^•^"^BOiki, 
 
SCHOOLS AND LITERATURE 
 
 175 
 
 An early New England academy, in Leicester, Massachusetts 
 
 New York hung back from this system of public schools 
 until about 1812, Pennsylvania till 1834, and most of the 
 southern states much longer. It took time to get accustomed 
 to the idea that the education of children, both boys and girls, 
 benefited the whole people; and that every taxpayer, whether 
 he had children or not, ought to support the schools exactly 
 as he supported the roadmakers and the militia. For many 
 years tuition was charged by the public schools to those who 
 could afford to pay. 
 
 A new type of school, called the " academy," sprang up just 
 before the Revolution and spread rapidly through the country. 
 This was a combination of what we call grammar grades and 
 high school, using buildings put up by private gifts, and charg- 
 ing fees. The teachers of such schools ofterf spent a lifetime in 
 them and became a great power among the young people. 
 
 136. Literature. — -From the Revolution to 18 15 was a 
 dry time for American writing, except for endless discussions 
 of forms of government. Among the so-called poets was Joel 
 Barlow, who wrote a long rambling poem called Vision of 
 Columbus, in which he makes the explorer prophesy that there 
 will be a Panama Canal. Almost the only humorous writer was 
 JohnTrumbull, who wrote a good-natured satire called il/'F/wga/ 
 in which he pokes fun at the New England town meetings. 
 
 Americans read the great English writers, such as Milton, 
 
176 HOW PEOPLE LIVED A CENTURY AGO 
 
 Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, Dr. Samuel Johnson, and 
 Oliver Goldsmith, and the novels of Fanny Burney, which 
 came out about this time; but the English looked down upon 
 American writers. One of them wrote, " The mass of the 
 North Americans are too proud to learn and too ignorant to 
 teach, and having established themselves by acts of Congress 
 as the most enlightened people of the world, they bid fair to 
 retain their barbarism from mere regard to consistency." 
 Not till about 1820 did James Fenimore Cooper, Washington 
 Irving, and William Cullen Bryant begin the glorious period 
 of American literature. 
 
 137. Summary. — This chapter covers the same kind of 
 topics as Chapter V on Colonial Life. It is an account of 
 the people, their character, life, labor, religion, and educa- 
 tion during the thirty years after the adoption of the new 
 Constitution. 
 
 Americans a hundred years ago were the same sort of people 
 as Americans nowadays, except that they were more scattered, 
 and most of them lived in the country or in little villages. Of 
 the four million people in 1790, about one fifth were negroes. 
 Of the whites about five sixths were of English descent, but 
 there were many Germans and Scotch-Irish. 
 
 The Americans read English books and were much affected 
 by English habits. They paid special deference to certain 
 wealthy and distinguished families, but it was a magnificent 
 country for the wide-awake and industrious plain people who 
 could take care of themselves and who settled the frontier. 
 The country gentleman lived handsomely, and the slave- 
 holding planters had a stirring outdoor life. Most of the 
 white people were farmers working their own land. The 
 women did housework, but rarely worked in the fields. There 
 were skilled laborers for building and for the hand trades, and 
 boys were apprenticed to learn such trades. The negroes 
 were mostly slaves, but it was supposed that they would soon 
 be set free. 
 
 Each of the great churches, besides some small ones, tried 
 to bring together all its members throughout the nation into 
 one organization. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 1 77 
 
 The public schools were opened to girls and spread into the 
 West, and academies sprang up throughout the country. For 
 literature, the main dependence was on English writings, but 
 there were a few American poets and many political writers. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Federalist System, chs. x-xiii. — Bogart, Econ. Hist., 
 clis. x, xi. — Channing, U>t. States, II. ch. xviii. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., 
 ch. i. — MacDonald, From Jefferson to Lincoln, ch. i. — Scudder, Mett and 
 Manners in Am. — Sparics, Expansion of Am. People, ch. xv. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 246-259. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, III. §§ 10-30; Source Book, §§ 88, 89; Source Readers, 
 III. passim. — James, Readings, §§39-44, 62, 63. — Old South Leaflets, 
 nos. 65, 76, 126, 134, 136, 196, 198. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Barr, Trinity Bells (N. Y.). — Clarke, In Old 
 Quinnebasset. — Fordham, Personal Narrative. — Kellogg, Unseen Hand 
 (Western Pa.). — Kennedy, Swallow Barn (Va.). — Stowe, Minister's 
 Wooing (New Eng.). 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, V-VII. — Mentor, serial nos. 77, 99, 106, 
 109. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, III. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 130) I. How many people lived in the United States in 1790? 2. 
 What were the principal towns? 3. What races were represented? 4. 
 How many negroes and slaves were there? 
 
 (§ 131) 5- How far did Americans keep up connection with Great 
 Britain after 1790? 6. What were the distinctions of classes? 7. Why 
 was the United States a good place for plain people? 
 
 (§ 132) 8. How did people live on farms and plantations? 9 (For an 
 essay). Accoimt of a visit to Washington at Mount Vernon. 10 (For an 
 essay). Account of life on a slaveholding plantation. 11 (For an essay). 
 .Account of life on a farm. 
 
 (§ 133) 12. What kind of skilled laborers could he found? 13. What 
 was apprenticeship? 14. How were the negroes treated about 1790? 
 
 (§ 134) 15- What were the principal national churches about 1790? 16. 
 How were the Episcopal and Catholic churches organized? 17. How- 
 were the Baptist and Congregational churches organized? 18. How 
 were the Methodist and Presbyterian churches organized?" 19. Mention 
 other national churches. 20 (For an essay). The Shakers. 
 
 (§ ^?)5^ -I- What changes came about in schools after the Revolution? 
 22 (For an essay). Why is it right that a property owner who has no 
 children should pay school taxes? 23. What was the academy? 
 
 (§ 136) 24. Who were the principal .American writers after the Revolu- 
 tion? 25. What English writers were read by the colonists? 
 
CHAPTER XIII 
 THE FEDERALISTS IN POWER (1789-1801) 
 
 138. The New Government Set on Foot (1789). — When 
 
 it was announced that eleven states had ratified the Constitu- 
 tion, the next step was to put the new government into opera- 
 tion. This was done early in 1789, by the election of a 
 President, Senators, and members of the House of Repre- 
 sentatives. As everybody expected, George Washington of 
 Virginia received the vote of every elector for President. John 
 Adams, a New England man, was elected Vice President. 
 On April 6, 1789, enough members appeared in the city of 
 New York to organize the House and Senate, and Frederick 
 Muhlenberg from Pennsylvania was chosen to be the first 
 Speaker of the House. 
 
 Washington, as he passed through the country on his way 
 to the seat of government, was everywhere received with 
 triumphal arches and acclaim. On April 30, 1789, he was 
 inaugurated in the temporary capitol. Federal Hall on Wall 
 Street. Wearing a sword and a brown suit with gold buttons 
 bearing eagles, he made a brief speech. He believed in a 
 strong government, and the people all believed in him. In 
 the new Congress sat several men (including Madison) who 
 had been members of the Congress of the Confederation, and 
 several who had sat in the Constitutional Convention. They 
 meant to make the new Constitution work; and the Anti- 
 Federalists (§ 128) had the good sense and patriotism to leave 
 the government in the hands of those who believed in it. 
 
 139. The President's Cabinet (1789-1792). — The new 
 Congress and President now had to face the problem of carry- 
 ing out the general rules and principles of the Constitution in 
 detail; for when the old Confederation ceased, everything 
 had to be made over. 
 
 178 
 
ORGANIZING THE GOVERNMENT 1 79 
 
 One of the first tasks was to create aids for the President in 
 carrying out his duties of executing and applying the laws. 
 Congress decided to make three "departments": a State 
 Department in charge of foreign affairs, a Treasury Depart- 
 ment in charge of finances, and a War Department in charge 
 of military and naval affairs. An Attorney-General (not then 
 head of a department) gave legal advice to the President. 
 He and the three heads of departments, besides carrying on 
 the government business, were the special friends and advisers 
 of the President. 
 
 Washington selected four men to fill the new places, as fol- 
 lows: Secretary of State, Thomas Jefferson, author of the 
 Declaration of Independence; Secretary of the Treasury, 
 Alexander Hamilton, of New York, a brilliant lawyer who 
 had been a soldier under Washington, and a member of the 
 Constitutional Convention (§ 124); Secretary of War, Henry 
 Knox, of Massachusetts, a Revolutionary general; Attorney- 
 General, Edmund Randolph, of Virginia, a distinguished 
 lawyer. 
 
 The next step was the formation of the Cabinet, which came 
 into being when Washington invited the three secretaries and 
 the Attorney-General from time to time to sit with him and 
 talk things over. This Cabinet meeting has been continued 
 by every President since that time, while the departments 
 have increased from three to ten. 
 
 140. Manning the Ship of State. — Next after the executive 
 came the judiciary department; that is, the federal courts 
 which were to decide cases and explain the laws. The Presi- 
 dent appointed the new judges, and made John Jay of New 
 York first Chief Justice of the Supreme Court. 
 
 As Congress created new offices, numerous other federal 
 officers had to be appointed, such as postmasters, collectors 
 of customs, land surveyors, and military officers. Washing- 
 ton knew hundreds of men throughout the country, and 
 appointed many former soldiers. He also took advice from 
 the Senators and members of the House and from the heads of 
 departments, and he was bombarded with letters from ap- 
 plicants. For instance, a mother asked for an office for " My 
 
l8o THE FEDERALISTS IN POWER 
 
 second son Charles, aged twenty-one years, a youth of spirit, 
 sobriety, and honesty, writes a legible hand, a good account- 
 ant, qualified for a clerk of an ofiice — or in the military 
 line." 
 
 141. Federal Debts and Taxes (1789-1792). — Even be- 
 fore the inauguration of the President, Congress had begun to 
 pass federal laws. Those who had lent money to the states 
 or to Congress could not get their money, and so United 
 States bonds could be bought at about a quarter of their face 
 value. The first thing to do w^as to collect enough money 
 every year so that the new government could pay at least the 
 interest on its debts. Congress, therefore, hastened to frame 
 the first tarifT act in 1789. A tarilif is a law fixing the rate 
 of duties to be paid on goods imported from abroad. For 
 many years such duties were the chief source of revenue for 
 the national government. 
 
 Alexander Hamilton had been brought up among the busi- 
 ness men of the city of New York and as Secretary of the 
 Treasury had a chance to show what the government might 
 fairly do to aid and protect business. He induced Congress 
 to promise that the public debt, which with interest amounted 
 to about $50,000,000, should be paid at its full face value 
 (1789); and that action gave the people confidence that the 
 new government would keep its promises to lenders. He also 
 insisted that the outstanding state debts should be taken over 
 by the federal government. The holders of those debts also 
 were delighted with this new finance. 
 
 142. Corporations and Banks (1791). — A new business 
 method was the forming of corporations. When a man does 
 business by himself, or when several men are united in a firm, 
 the property of every person or partner can be taken for any 
 debt of the concern. If. however, a number of people obtain 
 a written charter from the state allowing them to unite in a 
 company or corporation, each one subscribes a part of the 
 necessary money' and receiv'es " shares of stock." The total 
 capital stock is fixed at a certain sum and is divided into 
 shares of perhaps $100 or $50 or $10 each. Certificates are 
 issued to each stockholder stating that he owns so many shares, 
 
FINANCE AND POLITICS l8l 
 
 and they can be sold from hand to hand. If the corporation 
 fails, the stockholders are held liable only for the amount they 
 have invested and perhaps for a small fixed sum in addition. 
 By 1 791 the state governments had chartered several corpo- 
 rations and companies to build roads and bridges, and had 
 chartered also a few banks. People who were making and 
 saving money began to invest in these corporations. 
 
 Hamilton next proposed that the federal government should 
 charter a United States Bank in the corporation form, and 
 he carried through an act creating such a bank with ten 
 million dollars of capital (1791). This was as big in pro- 
 portion to the wealth of the country as a bank of a thousand 
 millions would be to-day. 
 
 143. Two Schools of Politics. — Such action was not ac- 
 ceptable to the country farmers, who owned no ships or stock 
 in corporations, and wanted no banks. The spokesman for 
 their point of view was Thomas Jefiferson, then a well-to-do 
 slave-owning planter. He believed that governments, whether 
 state or national, ought to do as little as possible. He once 
 said that the happiest people were the Indians, because they 
 had no government to bother them. He wanted taxes to be 
 low, and thought that the main purpose of governments was 
 simply to make it possible for business men and all others to 
 take care of themselves. 
 
 Hamilton and Jefiferson also differed with regard to the share 
 of the people in their own governments. Hamilton and his 
 friends thought that the suffrage ought to be given only to 
 people who had some property; and that even those voters 
 ought to select the richest and most intelligent men of the 
 community who might act for them, and tell them how to 
 vote. 
 
 Jefiferson favored giving a part in the government to the 
 people at large. He admired the New England town meetings 
 and public schools, and wanted to set up the same sort of thing 
 in Virginia. He believed in widening the suffrage, and the 
 new western states gave the ballot to most of the adult men. 
 Hamilton was no believer in the wisdom of the people, and 
 is said once to have exclaimed, " Your people, sir, is a great 
 
PARTIES AND NEW STATES 1 83 
 
 beast! " But Jefferson wrote, " I am persuaded myself that 
 the good sense of the people will always be found to be the 
 best army. They may be led astray for a moment, but will 
 soon correct themselves . . . give them full information of 
 their affairs through the channel of the public papers." 
 
 144. The First Parties (1793). — ^ After Washington was 
 reelected President in 1792, Jefferson and Hamilton resigned 
 from their offices, and each of them headed a body of friends 
 which gradually grew into a political party. The Hamilton 
 group took up again the old name of Federalists, or Federals; 
 the Jefferson group at first called themselves Democrats, and 
 later Republicans. They meant both names to show that they 
 were a people's party. 
 
 The Federalists were strong in the shipping and commercial 
 states: New England, New York, Maryland, and South Caro- 
 lina. The Republicans were strong in Pennsylvania, in most 
 of the southern states, and in the frontier states. President 
 Washington, Vice President John Adams, and many others 
 joined the Federalist party. James Madison, George Clinton 
 of New York, Samuel Adams, and many others were Republi- 
 cans. The leading western Republican was Albert Gallatin 
 of Pennsylvania, a Swiss immigrant. He was a broad-minded 
 man, an ardent believer in popular government, and soon be- 
 came the strongest Republican member of Congress. 
 
 145. New States (1791-1796). — When North Carolina and 
 Rhode Island ratified the federal Constitution they filled 
 out the original thirteen states (§ 128). Three new states 
 were soon added as follows: 
 
 (i) Vermont had been a discontented part of New York, 
 and the people took the opportunity of the Revolution to 
 break away (§ iio). New York agreed that Vermont should 
 be a regular state, and it was the 14th to enter the Union (1791). 
 It was a farming community, with about 90,000 people, and 
 it was the first state that had no sea front. 
 
 (2) In settling the land claims of the states Kentucky was 
 left a part of Virginia (§121). It attracted thousands of 
 settlers, nearly all from Virginia and other southern states. 
 They found the " blue-grass country " fertile, and many 
 
 hart's sch. hist. I I 
 
1 84 
 
 THE FEDER.\LISTS IN POWER 
 
 planters took their slaves with them. These people expected 
 statehood, and in 1792, by the consent of Virginia, were ad- 
 mitted to the Union as the 15th state, with about 75,000 people. 
 
 (3) North Carolina was slow in giving up her western claims, 
 and just after the Revolution an informal " State of Franklin " 
 was set up in East Tennessee; but North Carolina in 1790 
 agreed that the government of the region should go to the 
 United States, and (together with the South Carolina cession) 
 it was made the " Territory South of the Ohio River." By 
 1796 so many emigrants had gone out there, that the tract 
 was admitted to the Union as the state of Tennessee (i6th 
 state), with about 70,000 people. 
 
 Congress in 1790 moved from New York to Philadelphia, 
 but it fixed the permanent national capital on the Potomac 
 River, where a District of Columbia was set ofif from the states 
 of Maryland and Virginia. (The part ceded by Virginia was 
 later given back to that state.) Here the city of Washington 
 was laid out, and public buildings were constructed. In 1800 
 
 
 The Capitol in i8oo 
 
 the federal government moved there and found the place a 
 straggling town with a few incomplete public buildings. 
 
 146. The French Revolution (i 789-1800). — The United 
 States was much stirred by the breaking out of a terrible revo- 
 lution in France (1789). After several years of struggle a 
 republic was set up, and the king and queen of France w^ere 
 executed by the guillotine (1793). The French tried to follow 
 the American plan of framing a bill of rights, and summed up 
 their republican doctrine in the three famous words, " Liberie , 
 Egalite, Fraternite,'" which mean " Freedom, Equality before 
 the Law, Brotherhood." 
 
FOREIGN AFFAIRS 1 85 
 
 War broke out between France and Great Britain; the 
 French hoped that the United States might give them aid, but 
 President Washington issued a Proclamation of NeutraHty 
 (1793) warning Americans not to take part with either side. 
 Fierce and bloody wars raged in Europe during the next eight 
 years, but the Americans, as peaceful neutrals, traded with 
 both France and England, and thus built up the most profit- 
 able shipping industry that they had ever known. 
 
 At the same time the Americans opened a rich trade with 
 Asia and sent their little vessels out to the Pacific coast for 
 furs. One of them, the Columbia of Boston, discovered the 
 mouth of a great river, which Captain Gray named the Co- 
 lumbia River for his ship (1792). Thence they sailed to China, 
 or sailed on direct voyages from American ports, and brought 
 home silk, tea, chinaware, and hundreds of thousands of hard 
 dollars. 
 
 147. The English and the French (1793J. — Meantime both 
 France and England treated the weak United States as if it 
 had no rights. Then and ever since it has been recognized 
 that vessels of a " neutral " power — that is, a nation not at 
 war — may be captured during a war between other powers 
 under any of the following circumstances: (i) If they are 
 caught with "contraband" bound to one of the fighting na- 
 tions. Contraband means arms, military stores, and other 
 things used in war. (2) If they try to enter a blockaded 
 port, outside which a force of ships is stationed to stop vessels 
 from entering. However, armed ships of both nations seized 
 many American vessels which were neither carrying contra- 
 band nor bound to a blockaded port. 
 
 The British began to " impress " British sailors; that is, to 
 seize them and compel them to serve in the royal navy, where 
 the pay was small and the treatment harsh. Another serious 
 grievance was that they also impressed British subjects whom 
 they found on board American ships, and even some native- 
 born Americans, because they talked English and looked like 
 Englishmen. 
 
 Roused to anger by this ill-treatment, in 1794 the country 
 was about to go to war with Great Britain. As a last hope 
 
1 86 
 
 THE FEDERALISTS IN POWER 
 
 Washington sent John Jay 
 over to England, and he 
 made the Jay Treaty, in 
 which the British promised 
 to give up the fortified 
 trading posts south of the 
 boundary (§123), and 
 agreed that they would no 
 longer capture American 
 vessels without reason. 
 The treaty said nothing 
 about impressments. 
 
 The French with some 
 reason declared that the 
 United States was treating 
 England better than its old 
 ally and friend, France. 
 When, in 1797, President 
 Adams sent over to France 
 three commissioners, Pinck- 
 ney, Gerry, and Marshall, 
 Mrs. John Jay ^^ y^^-^^ '.^^^^^^ ^ friendly 
 
 understanding, they were received by three go-betweens, 
 usually called "X, Y, and Z." These men told the commis- 
 sioners that they could accomplish nothing unless they would 
 bribe the heads of the French government. President Adams 
 firmly refused to pay tribute, and that led to a short naval war 
 between the United States and France (1798); but in 1799 the 
 French government passed into the hands of Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, a brilliant young general, and peace was shortly, made. 
 148. Adams and Jefferson (1796-1801). — John Adams had 
 been elected President in 1796 by a close vote over Jefferson. 
 Thereafter the Federalists and Republicans were very hostile 
 to each other. The Federalist Congress passed the " Alien and 
 Sedition Acts" (1798) to prevent the Republican newspapers 
 from attacking their party. Jefferson and Madison replied 
 in what are called the " Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions," 
 which argued that those acts were contrary to the higher law 
 
ADAiSrS AND JEFFERSOX 
 
 187 
 
 of the Constitution (§ 127), iind were therefore null and void, 
 and need not be obeyed. 
 
 Next year came the untimeh' death of Washington — he 
 was only 67 years old. Throughout the civilized world he was 
 renowned for his noble character, and for his greatness as a 
 general and a statesman. The nation mourned his loss. 
 
 When the election of 1800 came on, the Federalists were 
 quarreling among themselves. Jefferson was the Republican 
 candidate against John 
 Adams. Aaron Burr of New- 
 York, one of the first "bosses" 
 of that state, was another 
 Republican candidate, who 
 exfiected to become Vice 
 President. 
 
 The electors gave Jefferson 
 and Burr each 73 votes, while 
 Adams received 65. At that 
 time the electors did not in- 
 dicate which man they pre- 
 ferred for President and which 
 for Vice President; as there 
 was a tie between Jefferson 
 and Burr the decision had to 
 be made (early in 1801) by 
 the House of Representatives, 
 in which the Federalists had 
 a majority. They came near 
 choosing Burr, but Hamilton 
 and other wise men pointed 
 out that, bad as they thought 
 Jefferson, he was not so dangerous as Burr. Enough Federal- 
 ists were convinced to give to Jefferson the necessary votes 
 for President, and Burr became Vice President. 
 
 149. Summary. — This chapter tells how the new Con- 
 stitution was set in motion by the acts of Congress and appoint- 
 ments of men necessary to carry it out; and how the people 
 divided into two political parties. 
 
 
 Washington Muuuinent, 55s feet high, 
 erected in the capital as a memorial 
 to the first President 
 
I88 THE FEDERALISTS IN POWER 
 
 ' The new government was organized in New York, where 
 Washington was inaugurated as President. He drew the 
 heads of departments into a kind of council which was called 
 the Cabinet. He appointed the holders of the new federal 
 executive offices, and the judges. 
 
 Under the guidance of Alexander Hamilton, Congress passed 
 a series of acts intended to give the new government an in- 
 come which would enable it in the end to pay its debts. The 
 state debts were taken over. A United States Bank was 
 chartered which was intended to be helpful to business men. 
 
 All the thirteen original states came into the Union, and 
 three new ones, Vermont, Kentucky, and Tennessee, were soon 
 admitted. 
 
 The French Revolution of 1789 brought trouble to the 
 United States because the French and the British captured 
 many American vessels. Nevertheless, trade was good, 
 especially with the Orient. By the Jay Treaty (1794) differ- 
 ences were settled with England, but France was not satisfied 
 and there was a short naval war. 
 
 The Federalists and Republicans quarreled over the Alien 
 and Sedition Acts of 1798. Washington's death weakened 
 the Federalist party. In 1800 John Adams was beaten for a 
 second term as President, and Jefferson was elected. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Allen, Our Naval War with France. — Avery, Un. States, 
 VII. — Bassett, Federalist System. — Hart, Wall Maps. — Shepherd, Hist. 
 Atlas, 196, 202. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, chs. xii, xiii. — Coman, Industrial 
 Hist., 132-156. — Elson, Side Lights, I. chs. iii, iv. — Fish, Dev. of Am. 
 Nation., chs. iv-vi. — Hart, Formation of Union, §§72-92. — Johnson, 
 Union and Democ, chs. iii-vi. — Smith, Wars, 142-181. — Southworth, 
 Builders of Our Country, II. ch. ix. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 15. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source 
 Hist., 286-306. — -Hart, Contemporaries, III. §§76-105; Patriots and 
 Statesmen, II. 363-380, III. 15-85; Source Book, §§71-77. — James, 
 Readings, §§45-51. — Johnston, Am. Orations, I. 84-143. — Old South 
 Leaflets, nos. 4, 10, 38, 74, 98, 103. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, 
 nos. 55-64. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Brown, Arthur Mervyn. — Conant, Alex- 
 atider Hamilton. — Freneau, Poems, III. — Johnston, Lewis Rand. — 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 1 89 
 
 Mitchell, Red City. — Twining, Travels in Am. — Wallington, Am. Hist, 
 by Am. Poets, I. 297-313. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, VII. ^Wilson, Am. People, III, 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 138) I. How was the government organized in 1789? 2 (For an 
 essay). The inauguration of President Washington. 
 
 (§ 139) 3- What were the first executive departments of the government? 
 4. Whom did Washington make heads of the new departments? 
 
 (§140)5. How was the Supreme Court organized? 6. How did Wash- 
 ington select men for appointment? 
 
 (§ 141) 7. Why were United States bonds so low in value? 8. What 
 was the tariff of 1789? 9. What were Secretary Hamilton's plans for the 
 public debt? 10 (For an essay). Account of Alexander Hamilton. 
 
 (§ 142) II. What is a corporation? 12. What are shares of stock? 
 13. What was the United States Bank? 
 
 (§ 143) 14. What were Jefferson's ideas about government? 15. What 
 were Hamilton's ideas? 
 
 (§ 144) 16. What was the Federalist party? 17. What was the early 
 Democratic or Republican party? 18. How were the principal public 
 men divided between the two parties? 
 
 (§ 145) 19. How was the union of thirteen states completed? 20. 
 How and when was Vermont admitted to the Union? 21. How and when 
 was Kentucky admitted? 22. How and when was Tennessee admitted? 
 23. How was Washington founded as the capital? 24 (For an essay). 
 Early descriptions of the city of Washington. 
 
 (§ 146) 25. What was the French Revolution? 26. Why was the 
 United States neutral in the European war? 27. How did Americans 
 open up trade with Asia? 28 (For an essay). Account of an early 
 American voyage to Asia. 
 
 (§ 147) 29. What is meant by contraband; by blockade; by impress- 
 ment? 30. What was the Jay Treaty with Great Britain? 31. What 
 was the X, Y, Z mission? 
 
 (§ 148) 32. What were the Alien and Sedition Acts? 33. What were 
 the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions? 34 (For an essay). Account 
 of the death of Washington and public mourning. 35. How did the 
 election of 1800 come out? 36. How was the President chosen in 1801? 
 
CHAPTER XIV 
 
 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE (1801-1812) 
 
 150. President Jefferson (1801-1809). — When Thomas 
 Jefferson was inaugurated in 1801, the FederaHsts felt that the 
 end of the Repubhc was at hand, for they looked upon him as 
 an atheist, a liar, and a demagogue. He was not an atheist; 
 he liked to read the New Testament. He was a reserved man 
 and did not tell everybody all that he knew, and hence some 
 thought him false. He was a believer 
 in government by the people, which many 
 of the Federalists thought shocking, and 
 they were sure that he could not be 
 sincere. 
 
 He was keenly interested in education 
 and science, and urged his state to set 
 up public schools and a state university. 
 He was a natural reformer. As President 
 he had large ideas of making the govern- 
 ment better and more efficient. He ap- 
 pointed Albert Gallatin Secretary of the 
 Treasury with instructions to aid in cutting down the cost of 
 government; and they succeeded. 
 
 Jefiferson desired to be the President of the whole people, 
 and in his inaugural address appealed to the Federalists in 
 golden words: " Let us then, fellow citizens, unite with one 
 heart and one mind. . . . We have called by different names 
 brethren of the same principle. We are all Republicans, we 
 are all Federalists." 
 
 One of the things that Jefferson liked was what he called 
 " republican simplicity." He sent in written messages to 
 Congress instead of making speeches, as had been the habit of 
 Washington and Adams. He would have no ceremony at the 
 
 190 
 
 Silhouette of Thomas 
 Jefferson 
 
JEFFERSON AS PRESIDENT I91 
 
 White House, and shocked the minister of Great Britain by 
 opening the door himself when that great man came to call, 
 and by receiving him in dressing gown and slippers. 
 
 Jefferson was never what we should call a " good mixer." 
 He hated speechmaking and meeting crowds of people whom 
 he had never seen before. Yet no President has had more 
 influence in Congress; none has ever made warmer friends 
 among the people ; and none but Lincoln has ever done so much 
 to extend the idea that all the people ought to have a share in 
 their own government. 
 
 151. Control of the Government (1801-1809). — Jefferson's 
 party had a good majority in both branches of Congress, and 
 were able to pass a new set of laws. But John Marshall, the 
 leading Federalist in Virginia, had just become Chief Justice 
 and set out to teach Jefferson a lesson. Taking advantage 
 of a dispute over a small appointment, Marshall held that a 
 certain order given by the President was not legal; and that 
 part of an act of Congress was contrary to the higher law of 
 the Constitution (§ 127) and hence was no law. Jefferson paid 
 no attention to this decision, which seemed a kind of political 
 trick. 
 
 The President had great trouble with the federal officers. 
 Unless he would use his power to remove some of the Feder- 
 alist officeholders, there would be hardly any vacancies; for, 
 as Jefferson said, " Few die and none resign." However, he 
 refused to make a " clean sweep " of the persons whom he 
 found in office, but did change about a third of those who 
 drew good salaries. Those whom he appointed removed the 
 clerks and other subordinates within their offices. Many 
 officeholders were saved by changing their politics. Large 
 numbers of Federalists voted for Jefferson for a second term 
 in 1804; and he carried almost exery state in the Union. 
 
 152. Napoleon Bonaparte ( 1 796-1804). — Soon after Jeffer- 
 sorf became President, Xa[)ole()n Bonaparte declared himself 
 to be emperor of the French. During twenty years he was 
 the greatest man in the world. Napoleon was of an Italian 
 family living in Corsica, which was a part of France. He 
 entered the army, and during the French Revolution (§ 146) 
 
192 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE 
 
 helped to put down the mob in Paris with his cannon. To 
 get rid oi him, the government sent him with an army to Italy 
 (1796), where he won so many victories that he became the 
 foremost man in France (§ 147). As emperor, his word was 
 law in every part of the French dominions, and in the many 
 European countries and provinces that he conquered. 
 
 Napoleon had a magnificent plan to construct a new French 
 Empire with colonies all over the world; and therefore he 
 wanted Louisiana, which for about forty years had been a 
 Spanish colony (§ 71). In his direct relations with the United 
 States, Napoleon always showed himself slippery and false. 
 He had not the least idea of courtesy or of keeping promises; 
 hence the Americans often suffered in their dealings with him. 
 In 1800 he forced the king of Spain to make a treaty ceding 
 Louisiana back to France. Then he sent a fleet and army 
 to conquer Haiti, which, though formerly a French colony, had 
 broken away and was under an independent negro government. 
 
 When in 1802 Jefferson heard of the transfer of Louisiana 
 he took alarm and wrote a letter which was probably shown to 
 Napoleon, in which he said: " There is on the globe one single 
 spot, the possessor of which is our natural and habitual enemy. 
 It is New Orleans." 
 
 153. Interest of the West in Louisiana (1802-1803). — 
 The West was urgent that the United States should secure 
 New Orleans. Out of the 5,300,000 Americans in 1800, 
 500,000 were living west of the mountains. The Northwest 
 Territory was growing fast. In 1800 Connecticut gave up the 
 Western Reserve (§ 121); that area was then united with the 
 settlements on the Ohio and in the interior; and they were all 
 admitted to the Union in 1S03, as the state of Ohio (17th 
 state) with about 65,000 people. In 1803 a government post 
 was established at Fort Dearborn, the site of Chicago. 
 
 The westerners had no good roads or waterways to the east, 
 and sent their surplus products down the Mississippi; and they 
 were much annoyed by the Spanish control of the river's 
 mouth. They were still more disturbed when they learned 
 that Louisiana was about to pass to France, which was then 
 the strongest country in the world. 
 
NAPOLEON AND LOUISIANA 
 
 193 
 
 Fort Dearborn. Built in 1803, destroyed in 1812, rebuilt in 1816. From a model in the 
 Chicago Historical Museum 
 
 Jefferson was already trying to buy the triangular strip 
 known as the Island of Orleans (§ 71), which included the 
 city of New Orleans; and also to buy Spanish West Florida, 
 which extended from the Apalachicola River west to the Iber- 
 ville and the Mississippi. He now sent James Monroe as a 
 special envoy, to act 
 
 with Robert R. Liv- 
 ingston, the regular 
 minister to France, 
 in making clear to 
 Napoleon that the 
 United States must 
 have part of the sea 
 front of Louisiana. 
 
 154. Annexation of Louisiana (1803). — Meanwhile Na- 
 poleon's army in Haiti had been almost destroyed by disease 
 and by the negro troops. War with Great Britain was at hand, 
 and he saw that the British would capture Louisiana if he 
 annexed it. Suddenly he changed his mind and directed his 
 ministers to ofifer to the Americans the whole vast territory of 
 
 New Orleans and West Florida 
 
194 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE 
 
 Louisiana. For several days Livingston and Monroe haggled 
 over the price; but April 30, 1803 was the date of a formal 
 treaty by which the whole of that enormous territory was 
 transferred to the United States. (See map, pages 8-9.) 
 
 It was a good bargain for both parties. Napoleon received 
 about $15,000,000 for a colony which he could not occupy, and 
 for which he had paid nothing. The United States secured 
 the area from which later were organized thirteen states and 
 parts of states, extending from the Gulf of Mexico to Montana. 
 To Jefferson is due the chief credit for thus doubling the area 
 of the United States. He saw the great advantages of the 
 territory, and Congress readily followed his lead and completed 
 the purchase. 
 
 155. What was Louisiana? (1803) — The next question 
 was, What is included in Louisiana? The treaty stated that 
 France ceded " the colony or province of Louisiana, with the 
 same extent that it now has in the hands of Spain, and that it 
 had when France possessed it." Therefore, the Americans 
 fell back on the definition in the old grant of 1712 to Crozat 
 (§ 66), which included in Louisiana all the country watered 
 by streams flowing into the Mississippi. The part east of 
 the river, except the little Island of Orleans, was already in- 
 cluded in the United States; the western part reached north- 
 ward and westward to the Rocky Mountains. 
 
 As to the boundaries on the Gulf there was a dispute, (i) 
 "Louisiana when France possessed it" included the Gulf 
 coast from the Mississippi to the Perdido River. (2) Louisi- 
 ana " with the same extent that it now has in the hands of 
 Spain " did not include the strip between the Iberville and 
 Perdido rivers. The Spaniards had never meant to transfer 
 this region which they called West Florida to Napoleon ; and 
 how could he turn it over to the United States? 
 
 The Americans also claimed that Louisiana extended along 
 the coast of Texas as far as the Rio Grande, because of La 
 Salle's little settlement on Matagorda Bay mOre than a cen- 
 tury earlier (§ 39). Many years later it was discovered that 
 Napoleon meant at the time to take the coast of Texas, and 
 not to take West Florida. The United States lacked the neces- 
 
LOUISIANA AND OREGON 
 
 195 
 
 sary information and was anxious to round out the purcliase, 
 and therefore in the end took West F'lorida, and gave up Texas. 
 156. Expedition to Oregon (1803-1807). — Across the 
 Rockies, beyond the l)oundaries of Louisiana, was a region 
 called Oregon, which included the great Columbia River 
 (§ 146). Jefferson was almost the only man of his time who 
 clearly saw that the United States was bound eventually to 
 stretch from ocean to ocean. As soon as he became President 
 he induced Congress to approve an expedition to the Pacific, 
 headed by his private secretary, Meriwether Lewis, and by 
 William Clark, a brother of George Rogers Clark (§ 103). 
 They had to cross a country almost as little known as the 
 Antarctic continent is to-da\-. 
 
 Western explorations, 1804-1807 
 
 The party of forty-five men, for which Congress appro- 
 priated only $2500, was provided by Jefferson with wise in- 
 structions. The men left St. Louis in 1804, and spent the 
 whole summer in working their tedious way in boats up the 
 Missouri to Fort Mandan, near the present Bismarck, North 
 Dakota. There they spent the winter, and in the spring of 
 1805 thirty-one of them set off, guided by the " Bird Woman," 
 an Indian squaw, the wife of one of the party. The>- crossed 
 the main divide of the Rocky Mountains, and followed down 
 the Columbia River to its mouth. That winter they spent 
 
Lewis and Clark meeting Mandan Indians on the Missouu 
 
FAR WEST 
 
 197 
 
 in Fort Clatsop, a little post which they built south of the 
 river, near the ocean. In 1806 they found a somewhat dif- 
 ferent route back to the Missouri and reached St. Louis again. 
 157. Further Exploration of the Far West (1806-1811). — 
 The Lewis and Clark expedition pro\ed that it was possible 
 to connect the eastern Lhiited States with the Columbia River 
 country by a difificult land route. While Lewis and Clark 
 were in Oregon, Lieuten- 
 ant Zcbulon M. Pike 
 was ordered to find the 
 sources of the Missis- 
 sippi, and he reached 
 Cass Lake — then 
 thought to be the far- 
 thest northern source of 
 the river. The next year 
 he was sent across the 
 plains on a western ex- 
 pedition. One day he 
 saw a wonderful cloud, 
 which as he came nearer 
 proved to be the moun- 
 tain now called Pikes 
 Peak, which stood al- 
 most on the western 
 boundary of (he Louis- 
 iana Purchase. 
 
 The valley of the lower 
 Mississippi was a rich country, and when Louisiana was annexed 
 there were about 70,000 people there, including 30,000 slaves. 
 Immigrants poured in from the states to the westward. In 
 1812 the state of Louisiana was admitted as the i8th in the 
 Union, with 80,000 inhabitants. Congress organized the rest 
 of the Louisiana Purchase as Missouri Territory. St. Louis 
 became the seat of a great fur trade up into the far North- 
 west. The trappers and traders explored nearh- the whole 
 valley of the Missouri and reached Salt Lake. 
 
 John Jacob Astor, a rich fur merchant of New York, under- 
 
 John Jacob Astor, the first American millionaire 
 
198 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE 
 
 took to plant a post in Oregon, and sent a party directly across 
 the mountains, and another party with a cargo of goods around 
 Cape Horn by sea. In 1811 they built a post at Astoria, on 
 the south side of the Columbia River. This post was the 
 third of the strong claims of the United States to the possession 
 of the Oregon country: (i) discovery of the riv^er (1792); 
 (2) exploration of the river valley (1805); (3) planting of a 
 trading post south of the river (181 1). 
 
 158. Burr Conspiracy (1805-1807). — The relations of the 
 United States with the Southwest were tested by Aaron 
 Burr, a shrewd but tricky politician, whom Jefferson disliked 
 for trying to take the presidency in 1801 (§ 148). Alexan- 
 der Hamilton drew on himself Burr's enmity, and was forced 
 into a duel; Burr killed him at the first shot, and was in- 
 dicted for murder (1804) but was never tried. When Burr's 
 vice presidency expired (1805) he found himself out of public 
 life. In 1806, with a force of about sixty men, he floated down 
 the Ohio and Mississippi rivers in boats. Nobody knows just 
 what Burr intended to do, — perhaps he planned to invade 
 Texas, which was then Spanish. Whatever his purpose, Jef- 
 ferson had him arrested, brought back to Virginia, and put 
 on trial for treason. The proof was not sufficient, and he was 
 acquitted by the jury; but he was a broken man and never 
 again was trusted to enter political life. 
 
 159. European Wars and Impressments (1803-1812). — 
 Jefferson was a man of peace, and he believed that wars could 
 be prevented by showing to hostile countries that it was con- 
 trary to their interests to fight. Nevertheless, when the Tri- 
 politans on the north coast of Africa captured American ships 
 and made the officers and crews slaves (1801), Jefferson had 
 to send out a fleet, which bombarded the pirate towns and 
 compelled the people to make peace. 
 
 His principles were put to a more severe test in the series of 
 great European wars. They came to be what was called " the 
 battle betw^een the elephant and the whale "; that is, be- 
 tween the great army of France and the great navy of Eng- 
 land. For many months Napoleon kept a large force at 
 Boulogne. If he could only defeat the British fleet, the 
 
EUROPEAN WARS 1 99 
 
 elephant could be ferried across the English Channel in a few 
 hours. In the famous sea fight of Trafalgar, in 1805, the 
 combined French and Spanish navy was totally defeated by 
 Lord Nelson, and England was thus saved from invasion. 
 
 The British took this opportunity to renew the odious prac- 
 tice of impressment (§ 147). There was perhaps some ground 
 for impressing British sailors who luid deserted and taken ser- 
 vice on American ships; but there was none for impressing 
 several thousand native-born Americans. In 1807 the British 
 frigate Leopard fired on the American frigate Chesapeake, just 
 outside Chesapeake Bay, and took off some British deserters, 
 and also several native-born Americans. This was as hostile 
 as if the British had sent a boat into the harbor of New 
 York and arrested men on the wharf. 
 
 160. Napoleon's Policy (1803-1812). — While the United 
 States was annexing Louisiana and exploring Oregon, Napo- 
 leon, in campaign after campaign, showed himself perhaps the 
 greatest soldier who has ever commanded an army. He beat 
 the Prussians; he beat the Austrians; he beat the Russians; 
 but he could not beat the English fleets. Then he conceived 
 the idea of ruining England by the Continental System. He 
 issued a decree that no English goods or English ships should 
 l)e allowed in any of the ports controlled by France; and that 
 meant almost the whole coast of Europe from the Adriatic Sea 
 around to the Baltic. 
 
 The British replied with furious Orders in Council, under 
 which any vessels bound to France could be seized; and 
 both sides captured American vessels right and left. Within 
 seven years 1,500 American ships were taken by England 
 and France. The whale and the elephant were therefore 
 wounding an innocent nation, which was not fighting on 
 either side. 
 
 161. Embargo (1807-1809). — To accept these violations 
 of American rights would have been cowardly; yet the coun- 
 try was in no condition for w'ar, and all efforts to make a 
 new treaty with Great Britain failed. Therefore, Jefferson 
 persuaded Congress to pass an Embargo Act; that is, an act 
 to prevent the exporting of American goods. For more than 
 
200 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE 
 
 a year no foreign or American vessel was allowed to take a 
 cargo out of the country. The hope was that the British or 
 the French, or both, would give up the wrongful capture of 
 American ships rather than be deprived of the breadstuffs and 
 other exports from America. 
 
 The embargo hit England hard, and the English merchants 
 and shipowners very nearly induced their government to give 
 up. It also hit the vessel owners of the New England and mid- 
 dle states, who protested with all their might. Furthermore, 
 it hit the middle state and southern farmers and planters who 
 had been shipping grain and tobacco to Europe. Hence, 
 when Great Britain and France would not yield, the United 
 States gave in; and, much against Jefferson's will. Congress 
 repealed the embargo (1809). 
 
 Jefferson was tired of office, and though he would have run 
 for a third term if necessary to prevent the choice of a Federal- 
 ist, he pushed forward his friend and Secretary of State, Madi- 
 son, who was in 1808 elected President. Jefferson had done 
 great things for his country. He had doubled its territory, and 
 made a lodgment on the Pacific coast; he had built up a great 
 political party. He lived seventeen years longer, admired 
 and respected, and died at his estate of Monticello, July 4, 
 1826, on the same day as John Adams, exactly fifty years after 
 the adoption of their famous Declaration of Independence. 
 
 162. Summary. — This chapter carries the country through 
 the e\ents and quarrels of Jefferson's eight years as President. 
 It deals especially with the treatment of the United States by 
 foreign countries, and with the annexation of Louisiana. 
 
 Jefferson had a hard task before him when he became Presi- 
 dent in 1 801, for the Federalists were still strong, and thought 
 him dangerous. Congress was on his side, but the Supreme 
 Court was against him. Jefferson dismissed part of the fed- 
 eral officeholders to make room for his friends. 
 
 In foreign affairs he had to contend with Napoleon Bona- 
 parte, the greatest and trickiest man of his time. When 
 news came that Louisiana was to be given by Spain back 
 to France, Jefferson took alarm. He tried to buy the east 
 bank of the lower Mississippi. Instead, Napoleon offered 
 
Jefferson entertaining bis friends at Monticello 
 
202 EXPANSION AND NEUTRAL TRADE 
 
 him the whole of Louisiana, and Livingston and Monroe closed 
 the bargain, which Jefferson carried out. The boundaries 
 were disputed, as to both West Florida and Texas. The Presi- 
 dent also sent an overland expedition to Oregon, and thus 
 prepared the way for a footing on the Pacific coast. After 
 the annexation of Louisiana, Aaron Burr attempted to stir up 
 the Southwest. 
 
 Trouble arose abroad through the great contest between 
 " the elephant and the whale " ; that is, between France as the 
 great land power, and England as the great sea power. Napo- 
 leon set in operation his Continental System. In order to 
 injure each other, the two nations captured hundreds of 
 American vessels. The British renewed their impressments, 
 even daring to take men off the decks of an American ship 
 of war. Jefferson attempted to bring England and France 
 to reason by an embargo, but it cut off the trade and profit 
 of American shipowners and producers, and had to be given 
 up in 1809. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Avery, Un. States, VII. — Channing, Jeffersonian System. — 
 Hart, Wall Maps, no. 11; Epoch Maps, nos. 7, 9. — Sanford, Am. Hist. 
 Maps, no. 13. — Shepherd, 7/j5<. Atlas, 198, 202. 
 
 Histories. Bogart, Economic Hist., ch. ix. — Channing, Jeffersonian 
 System. — Coman, Industrial Hist., 175-179. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., 
 ch. vii. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People, chs. xvi-xviii. — Walker, 
 Making of the Nation, chs. ix, x. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 308-323. — Harding, 
 Select Orations, no. 12. — Hart, Contemporaries, III. §§ 106-122; Patri- 
 ots and Statesmen, III. 87-191. — James, Readings, §§52-56. — Lewis 
 and Clark, Journals (several eds.). — Old South Leaflets, nos. 44, 104, 105, 
 128, 131, 174. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Brooks, Son of the Revolution (West, Burr). 
 
 — Bynner, Zachary Phips (Burr). — Cable, Crandissimes ; Strange True 
 Stories of Louisiana. — Churchill, The Crossing. — Gordy, Am. Leaders 
 and Heroes, ch. xix. — Hale, Philip Nolan's Friends. — Kingsley, Story of 
 Lewis and Clark. — Merwin, Thomas Jefferson. — Seawell, Decatur and 
 Somers. 
 
 Pictures. Avery, Un. States, V\\. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People. 
 
 — Wilson, Am. People, III, 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 203 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 150) I. What did Jefferson's enemies think about him? 2. What 
 were his ideas about public welfare? 3. What were his political ideas? 
 4. What was republican simplicity? 5 (For an essay). A visit to 
 Jefferson at Monticello. 
 
 (§ 151) 6. How did the Supreme Court try to control Jefferson? 7. 
 How did Jefferson arrange appointments to office? 
 
 (§ 152) 8. What made Napoleon Bonaparte a great figure? 9 (For 
 an essay). Description of the Emperor Napoleon. 10. What were the 
 relations of Napoleon with America? 
 
 (§§ 152, 153) II. Why did the United States object to the French 
 annexation of Louisiana? 
 
 (§ 153) 12. Why was the West interested in Louisiana? 13. What was 
 the "Island of Orleans"? 14. How did Jeflerson attempt to settle the 
 Louisiana trouble? 
 
 (§ 154) 15- W^hy did Napoleon give up Louisiana? 16. Why was the 
 annexation of Louisiana a good thing for the L^nited States? 17 (For an 
 essay). Early descriptions of New Orleans. 
 
 (§ 155) 18. What was meant by Louisiana? 19. What was the con- 
 troversy about W'est Florida? 20. What was the controversy about 
 Texas? 
 
 (§ 156) 21. Why was Jefferson interested in Oregon? 22. What was 
 the Lewis and Clark expedition and when did it occur? 23 (For an 
 essay). Incidents in the Lewis and Clark expedition. 
 
 (§ 157) 24. W^hat were the Pike expeditions? 25 (For an essay). 
 Accounts of Pikes Peak. 26. How was the Louisiana country organized? 
 27. What was Astor's plan for Oregon? 28. What were the claims of the 
 L^nited States to Oregon? 
 
 (§158)29 (For an essay). The Burr conspiracy. 
 
 (§ 159) 30- Why did Jefferson make war against the Tripolitans? 31 
 (For an essay). Incidents in the Tripolitan War. 32. What was the 
 "battle between the elephant and the whale" ? 33. Why did not Napo- 
 leon invade England? 34 (For an essay). Account of the Leopard's 
 attack on the Chesapeake. 
 
 (§ 160) 35. What was Napoleon's Continental System? 36. What 
 were the Orders in Council? 
 
 (§ 161) 37. What was the Embargo Act and how was it put into 
 effect? 38. Why did the United States withdraw the act? 39. What did 
 Jefferson do for his country? 
 
 h.\rt's sen. nisT. — 12 
 
CHAPTER XV 
 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN (1809-1815) 
 
 163. A Troubled Period (1809-1812). — During Madison's 
 first three years as President, he tried his best to keep out 
 of war, and made every effort to induce Great Britain and 
 France to respect the rights of neutral vessels; yet the cap- 
 tures and impressments did not cease. Congress tried several 
 peaceful methods of cutting off trade with one or the other 
 foreign country, without effect. At one time Napoleon pre- 
 tended to withdraw his decrees and thereby drew a number of 
 American ships into French ports, where they were confiscated 
 (1810). 
 
 By this time the people were so nervous that when an Indian 
 war broke out in the Northwest (181 1) it was mistakenly sup- 
 posed to be stirred up by British agents from Canada. The 
 Indian leader, Tecumseh, was beaten at the battle of Tippe- 
 canoe by William Henry Harrison, governor of Indiana 
 Territory, and there were no more serious Indian wars in that 
 part of the country. A few months later the southern Indian 
 tribes rose and were badly defeated by General Andrew Jack- 
 son of Tennessee. 
 
 A real war with England seemed likely. The Federalists, 
 who included most of the shipowners, had long clamored for 
 war against France, but war of any kind was now the last thing 
 they wanted. In spite of the captures, the profits of the car- 
 rying trade were so great that new ships were constantly built. 
 The owners, in spite of their losses, were erecting stately houses, 
 and putting money into the banks and into new ships. Part 
 of the captures were justified, for some Americans had a way 
 of furnishing their ships with false papers, intended to conceal 
 the real nature of their voyage from searchers. 
 
 204 
 
OUTBREAK OF WAR 205 
 
 164. Outbreak of War (1811-1812). — Madison still wanted 
 peace, and so did his Secretary of the Treasury, Gallatin, who 
 had paid off $40,(X30,ooo of public debt, and did not wish to 
 run up another war debt. However, they could not stand 
 out against the " War Hawks," a group of young men who 
 were to be the leaders during the next thirty years. The 
 most remarkable among them were Henry Clay of Kentucky, 
 John C. Calhoun of South Carolina (both members of the 
 House of Representatives), and Andrew Jackson, a planter 
 and Indian fighter of Tennessee. Daniel Webster of Massa- 
 chusetts, who came into public life in 1813, was opposed to 
 the war. 
 
 The War Hawks represented young voters, who had no 
 remembrance of the losses and sufferings of the Revolutionary 
 War. Clay was from the West, where people had no ships to 
 lose and no sailors to be impressed, yet he felt that the govern- 
 ment ought not to put up any longer with disregard of the 
 American flag and American rights. He felt sure that Eng- 
 land could easily be brought to terms. He proposed to con- 
 quer Canada and insist on terms of peace " at Quebec or 
 Halifax." Nothing seemed easier, for by this time there were 
 about 7,000,000 Americans, and the whole population of 
 Canada was not more than 450,000. In June, 1812, there- 
 fore, war was declared by about a two-thirds majority of 
 Congress. 
 
 165. Conditions of "War (1812). — The reasons for war as 
 stated by President Madison at that time, were as follows: 
 (i) Intrigues of the British with the western Indians. This 
 was an error. (2) Captures of vessels under the Orders in 
 Council. At the last moment the British government an- 
 nounced that these orders were withdrawn. It is doubtful 
 whether that action was sincere. (3) Systematic impress- 
 ment of American seamen. That was a good and sulificient 
 reason for war. 
 
 It was an unlucky moment to make war against England, 
 for in 1812 the Russians grew tired of the Continental System 
 (§ 160) and refused any longer to support France. Napoleon 
 therefore raised a " Grand Army " of 550,000 men and led 
 
206 
 
 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 them into the heart of Russia. However unfairly England 
 had acted toward the United States, the English were fighting 
 
 War of 1812 
 
 in 1812 for the freedom of Europe and America, against a 
 military despot who was trying to make himself absolute 
 master of Europe. 
 
 The time was unfortunate also within the United States. 
 The Federalists, after saying that " the administration could 
 not be kicked into a war," now voted and worked against war; 
 for they knew that England would have the right in war time to 
 capture any American vessels found at sea. Many of the 
 Republicans in the middle states also were opposed to the 
 war; and in the election of 1812 they made a combination 
 with the Federalists, put up DeWitt Clinton of New York as a 
 candidate, and came near defeating Madison for reelection. 
 The country was divided, and a large number of the people 
 were opposed to war with England. 
 
 166. American Defeats (1812-1814). — During the first 
 two years the fighting on land was a series of defeats for the 
 
AMERICAN DEFEATS 
 
 207 
 
 Americans. Every attempt to take Canada was a failure. 
 On the contrary, the Canadians captured Detroit and held it 
 for a time; and they forced back every expedition from the 
 United States that attempted to cross the Niagara River 
 or to push north from the Hudson. At the end of the war the 
 Americans did not hold an acre of Canadian soil. 
 
 On the other hand, the British took and held about half the 
 present state of Maine, the northern end of Lake Champlain, 
 and the distant fur-trading post of Astoria (§ 157). The 
 
 "^^^li^is 
 
 The fur-trading post and fort at Astoria in 1813 
 
 crowning disgrace was the landing of a British force of about 
 5000 men on the coast of Chesapeake Bay, and their march 
 overland as though they were going to a picnic, till they cap- 
 tured Washington (1814). Within a circle of sixty miles from 
 the capital lived not less than a hundred thousand able-bodied 
 Americans accustomed to the use of a gun; but the British 
 were allowed to burn the public buildings and to return to their 
 fleet, almost without losing a man. 
 
 What was the matter? Not lack of men, for in the course 
 of the war about 500,000 different Americans were enlisted as 
 soldiers, mostly for brief service. There was no shortness of 
 funds, though the government had to pay high for what it 
 borrowed. The trouble was that Madison and his military 
 
2o8 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 advisers were weak and incapable. The Secretary of War, 
 John Armstrong, was tlie man who was responsible for the loss 
 of Washington. To be sure, the roads were bad and it was 
 hard to send men and supplies to the front ; but somehow the 
 Canadians marched over just as bad roads, and managed to 
 reach the desired places. 
 
 Throughout the war the United States raised only 50,000 
 regular troops, and Congress would not allow the President to 
 enlist a proper number. The War Department had to depend 
 on the state militia, as the Continental Congress had done 
 during the war of the Revolution (§ 98). In both wars thou- 
 sands of brave and patriotic men were sent forward who were 
 not properly drilled, armed, or uniformed and who had no 
 skilled officers, no proper equipment, no sufficient provision 
 of surgeons and hospital stores. They lacked experience of 
 fighting in large bodies against trained soldiers, and they felt 
 little confidence in their officers. If 100,000 men had been 
 raised in the first year of the war and had been properly drilled 
 and commanded, by the second year they might easily have 
 taken Quebec and Halifax, as was expected. 
 
 167. American Victories (1812-1815). — Two successes 
 encouraged the country. Commodore Perry built a little 
 fleet of five vessels, attacked a British fleet at Put-in-Bay on 
 Lake Erie (1813), and reported his victory in a famous dis- 
 patch: "We have met the enemy and they are ours: two 
 ships, two brigs, one schooner, and one sloop." This opened 
 the way for General Harrison to invade what was then called 
 Upper Canada — now Ontario — and he beat the British at 
 the Thames River (1813); but he did not hold Canadian 
 soil. 
 
 In 1814 several pitched battles proved that the American 
 militia, if seldom successful in attack, nevertheless could hold 
 their ground and beat off assailants. A British expedition 
 on its way south on Lake Champlain was stopped at Platts- 
 burg by raw American sailors and soldiers, well commanded 
 by Captain MacDonough and General Macomb. After the 
 capture of W^ashington, an attack on Baltimore was beaten ofif, 
 and the sight of the flag still floating over Fort McHenry 
 
AMERICAN VICTORIES 
 
 209 
 
 :is 
 
 gave rise to the soul-stirring national song written by Franc 
 Scott Key: 
 
 " Oh, say, can you see, by the dawn's early light, 
 What so proudly we hailed at the twilight's last gleaming? " 
 
 The most stubborn resistance to the British and the greatest 
 victory for the Americans was the battle of New Orleans, 
 fought after peace had 
 been made, but before 
 the news was received 
 (January, 1815). Gen- 
 eral Andrew Jackson, 
 with about 4000 men, 
 few of whom had ever 
 seen a civilized enemy, 
 withstood the assault 
 of General Pakenham, 
 with 5300 crack troops, 
 experienced in Euro- 
 pean wars. • The British 
 lost 2000 and the Amer- 
 icans about 70. No 
 wonder that this glori- 
 ous defense erased from 
 the minds of the Amer- 
 icans the defeats and 
 humiliations of the 
 earlier battles! 
 
 168. Sea Fightmg 
 (1812-1814). — On the 
 sea the tables were 
 completely turned, for the little American navy, aided by 
 the privateers, humbled the British na\y and made havoc 
 among the merchant ships. The odds against the Americans 
 were frightful. Great Britain had about a thousand vessels 
 of war, including many three-decker " ships of the line," carry- 
 ing from 70 to 120 guns each. The Americans had only 
 sixteen available ships, including three frigates of 44 guns each. 
 
 General Andrew Jackson 
 
2IO WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Within a few weeks after the beginning of the war, the frigate 
 Constitution captured first the British {rigateGuerrikre, and then 
 the Java; and the frigate United States captured the Macedo- 
 nian. In the course of the war there were ten other ship duels, 
 and the Americans were victorious in eight of them. The ship 
 Essex was sent around to the Pacific, and captured British 
 whalers right and left. 
 
 The British people were thunderstruck at such victories, 
 which showed the pluck, skill, and marksmanship of the Ameri- 
 can sailors. Gradually the American navy was worn down; 
 two large ships, the Chesapeake and the President, were cap- 
 tured; and the few remaining naval vessels were blockaded 
 in home ports. Meanwhile, the British privateers swarmed 
 out, and together with the cruisers snapped up over 400 Ameri- 
 can ships, besides many small craft. 
 
 The American flag was still floating at sea on numerous 
 American privateers, which in the course of the war took nearly 
 2300 British merchantmen, besides 165 taken by the navy. 
 Our privateers were strong, they were fast, they were well- 
 armed; they boldly sailed up and down near the British coast, 
 till the shipowners were afraid to send vessels from England 
 to Ireland. One privateer from Rhode Island made six 
 cruises and took ships and cargoes worth about three million 
 dollars. There was no safety so long as the American priva- 
 teers were ranging the seas; hence the British merchants and 
 shipowners demanded peace. 
 
 169. Internal Opposition to the War (1812-1814). — Mean- 
 while the Federalists were doing their best to interfere with 
 the success of " Mr. Madison's war." A good part of the 
 hundreds of vessels captured belonged to New England 
 owners, and those that safely reached port had to pay duty on 
 their cargoes to the treasury at Washington. Many of the 
 New England ports were blockaded by British ships and the 
 ships and sailors were left idle. 
 
 Hence several state governors refused to allow their militia 
 to march when called by the United States, on the ground 
 that they were summoned, not to defend the country, but to 
 conquer Canada. Nevertheless thousands of New England 
 
PEACE 211 
 
 men volunteered and took part in the war. When the British 
 attacked Maine, then a part of Massachusetts, the federal 
 government refused to send any troops to defend it. 
 
 In 1 814 the New Englanders were so discontented that an 
 informal meeting was called to discuss what should be done 
 to relieve New England. This so-called " Hartford Conven- 
 tion " sat in secret, and was suspected of a plot for secession 
 from the Union. No such proposal came from the convention, 
 but it did demand changes in the federal Constitution which 
 would have made the federal Union no longer possible. 
 
 The whole country was tired of war, the more so because 
 heavy j^r taxes were laid ; and the public debt increased from 
 40 milnons to 120 millions. After the capture of Washington, 
 all the banks in the country stopped giving out specie to pay 
 their depositors or to redeem their notes (§ 109). That left 
 nothing but paper money in circulation. For many reasons 
 the Americans wanted peace as much as the British. 
 
 170. Peace at Last (1814). — Before the American war 
 ended, peace had come to Europe through an alliance of nearly 
 all the nations of Europe against Napoleon. The Russian 
 campaign of 1812 (§ 165) was a horrible disaster to Napoleon, 
 for probably not one fourth of the French Grand Army ever saw 
 their homes again. The allied powers, when they saw their 
 enemy weakened, drove Napoleon backward and in 1814 in- 
 vaded France and compelled him to give up his throne. Napo- 
 leon raised another army in 1815 but was again completely 
 beaten by the British and Prussians at the battle of Waterloo, 
 and was imprisoned for the rest of his life on the distant island 
 of St. Helena. 
 
 For some time American commissioners had been in Europe 
 trying to make peace; and in December, 1814, a treaty was 
 signed by them at Ghent (Belgium) which was very favorable 
 to the United States. The British agreed to restore all the 
 American territory that they held, and gave way on almost 
 every other serious question except that of impressments; but 
 when the European war ended, impressments stopped, and 
 that method of raising men was never used again by Great 
 Britain. 
 
212 
 
 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 
 ^ 
 
 
 iHI i 
 
 
 
 lfy\\ 
 
 
 
 The signing of the treaty of Ghent. The chief American commissioner was 
 John Quincy Adams; behind him stands Albert Gallatin 
 
 Almost everybody in the United States was delighted with 
 the result. The New Englanders forgot their grievances, and 
 the rest of the Union was glad enough to put an end to the 
 sacrifice of money, trade, and men. Within a few years the 
 Federalist party died out. 
 
 Tht war left in the minds of the English people the knowl- 
 edge that the Yankees — as they called the Americans — were 
 as good sailors, as good fighters, and as good men as the 
 British themselves. 
 
 The War of 1812 was in the end a good thing for the United 
 States. It showed that the country could not get on with a 
 weak government and with small men at the head of affairs. 
 It developed several brilliant soldiers such as Jackson and 
 Harrison, both of whom afterwards became Presidents of the 
 United States. Above all, it taught the people of all the 
 states that they had one flag and one country. It helped to 
 make the nation. 
 
 171. Summary. — This chapter is devoted to the War of 
 1812, paying little attention to the details of land and sea 
 fighting, but setting forth the spirit of the people, their defeats 
 and victories, and the general results of the war upon the nation. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 213 
 
 After 1809 war seemed likely, and a little Indian war broke 
 out on the northwestern frontier. Western and southern 
 leaders favored war, and expected to conquer Canada. They 
 forced a declaration of war on Great Britain by the United 
 States in 181 2, mainly on the two issues of the captures of 
 vessels and the impressment of American seamen. It came 
 just when Napoleon was trying to make himself dictator of 
 Europe; and the United States fought his enemies, who ought 
 to have been our friends. 
 
 It was expected that the war would be fought outside the 
 borders of this country; but the United States stuck to the 
 old system of enlisting militia for short terms, and the result 
 was a series of heartbreaking defeats in most of the land battles. 
 The militia showed that it was made of good stuff when 
 properly commanded, as was seen by the repulse of British 
 attacks at Plattsburg and New Orleans. 
 
 The glory of the War of 181 2 is in the lake and sea fighting. 
 The little navy and the privateers taught Englishmen that, 
 ship for ship and man for man, the United States was the 
 equal of Great Britain. The damage inflicted on the British 
 merchant ships by privateers was one of the principal argu- 
 ments for peace. Jackson's victory at New Orleans left a 
 sense of being victorious throughout. 
 
 The New Englanders and many of the people in the middle 
 states were from the beginning opposed to the war. In a con- 
 vention at Hartford in 18 14 some of the leaders demanded 
 changes in the system of government. After Napoleon was 
 defeated in Europe, the British had nothing to gain by keep- 
 ing up hostilities, and agreed to the easy terms of the Peace 
 of Ghent (1814). 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Babcock, Rise of Am. Nation., 6, 88, 136. — Hart, Wall Maps. 
 — Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, nos. 15, 16. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 200. 
 
 Histories. Babcock, Rise of Am. Nation., chs. i-xi. — Bassett, Un. 
 States, 317-338. — Johnson, Union and Democ, chs. xi, xii. — Johnson, 
 War of 1812. — Smith, Wars, 203-250. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 323-334. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, HI. 123-129; Patriots and Statesmen, HI. 192-317; 
 
214 WAR WITH GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 Source Book, §§82-87; Source Readers, III. §§76-81, 89-98. — James, 
 Readings, §§58-61. — Johnston, Am. Orations, I. 164-215. — Mac- 
 Donald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 66-70. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Altsheler, Herald of the West (Washington, 
 New Orleans). — Barnes, Loyal Traitor (Privateering). — Brady, For the 
 Freedom of the Sea (Sea fighting); Midshipmen in the Pacific. — Dunn, 
 True Indian Stories, chs. iv-ix. — Eggleston, Roxy (Tippecanoe). — 
 Hollis, Frigate Constitution. — Kaler, With Perry on Lake Erie. — Scol- 
 lard. Ballads of Am. Bravery, 40-48. — Tomlinson, Boy Soldiers of 18 1 2; 
 War of 1812. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, I, 324-382. 
 
 Pictures. Mentor, serial no. 103. — Wilson, Am. People, III. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 163) I. How did the United States try to keep the peace? 2. What 
 were the principal Indian wars of the period? 3 (For an essay). Account 
 of the battle of Tippecanoe. 4. How did the shipowners make money 
 during the European war? 
 
 (§ 164) 5. Who were the "War Hawks"? 6. How did the West feel 
 toward war? 7. What was Henry Clay's plan of war? 
 
 (§ 165) 8. What were the official reasons for the War of 1 812? 9. What 
 was the situation in Europe in 181 2? 10 (For an essay). Account of 
 Napoleon's retreat from Moscow. 11. How did the Federalists receive 
 the war? 
 
 (§ 166) 12. How did the land war go in 1812 and 1813? 13 (For an 
 essay). Account of the capture of Washington in 1814. 14. Why 
 was the war on land unfavorable to the United States? 15. How were 
 troops raised and trained? 
 
 (§ 167) 16. How did the sea war go in the War of 1812? 17 (For an 
 essay). Account of the battle of Put-in-Bay. 18 (For an essay). The 
 British defeat at Plattsburg. 19. What gave rise to the song of the Star 
 Spangled Banner? 20 (For an essay). Account of the American victory 
 at New Orleans. 
 
 (§ 168) 21. What preparation had the Americans made for war at sea? 
 22 (For an essay). Account of one of the sea victories of the Americans. 
 23. What part did the privateers take in the sea war? 
 
 (§ 169) 24. Why was New England opposed to the war? 25. What 
 was the "Hartford Convention"? 26. What was the effect of the war on 
 finances? 
 
 (§ 170) 27. How was Napoleon driven out of European affairs? 28. 
 What was the treaty of Ghent? 29. What was the effect of the War of 
 1812 on the English? 30. What was the effect on political parties? 31. 
 What was the effect on the American people? 
 
CHAPTER XVI 
 GOING WEST ( 1790 1830) 
 
 172. What was the West? — ^ From 1790 to 1830 three 
 groups or sections existed in the United States, as follows: 
 (i) the North, extending from New Hampshire to western 
 New York and Pennsylvania; (2) the South, extending 
 from Maryland to Louisiana; (3) the West, extending from 
 western Pennsylvania and New York to Missouri. On every 
 national question that arose, the opinions and desires of the 
 people of all three sections had to be taken into account. 
 
 The new West began at the summit of the Appalachian 
 Mountains. The western slope of these ranges is gradual and 
 is drained by long rivers. One source of the Allegheny River 
 is Lake Chautauqua, which is only seven miles from Lake Erie; 
 and from the headwaters of the Kanawha, south of the Ohio, 
 it is only a few rods eastward to the springs of the James River. 
 The Allegheny and the Monongahela are each about 300 miles 
 long; from their junction at Pittsburgh the Ohio runs 970 miles 
 to the Mississippi, and it is iioo miles farther down the Mis- 
 sissippi to the sea. 
 
 Almost all the basin of the Ohio with its northern and 
 southern tributaries is broken country, full of mountains, hills, 
 or rolling ground. In 1800 most of it was still covered with 
 the original forests of evergreen and hardwood. Trav'elers tell 
 of walnut and chestnut trees ten feet in diameter and running 
 up seventy feet before they branched. 
 
 The West was blessed with rivers which had depth enough 
 to carry rafts of timber, flatboats, and steamers. The Ohio 
 was the great highway to most parts of the West; for the 
 (juickest route to the interior was to sail down the Ohio, and 
 then by canoe or flatboat or steamboat to travel up such 
 streams as the Wabash or the Tennessee. Hence the southern 
 
 215 
 
2l6 GOING WEST 
 
 parts of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois were settled mostly by 
 people from Pennsylvania, Virginia, and North Carolina, who 
 came over the mountains to the Ohio River. 
 
 173. Western Indians. — North of the Ohio River the 
 whites found on the land such strong and warlike tribes as 
 the Delawares and Shawnees, Miamis and Wyandots. In 
 Ohio the Indians twice defeated United States troops, until 
 General Anthony Wayne thoroughly beat them and made 
 them agree to a division line (1795; map, page 159), east of 
 which the settlers might freely make homes. From that time 
 the only Indian war in the Northwest for many years was the 
 brief Tippecanoe campaign (§ 163). 
 
 In the Southwest the white men were in close contact with 
 strong tribes, especially the Cherokees, Choctaws, Chickasaws, 
 Seminoles, and Creeks. These tribes were fierce and war- 
 like, and determined to stay on their lands. For nearly fifty 
 years after the Revolution these Indians and the frontiersmen 
 fought each other, " war to the knife and the knife to the 
 hilt," as the saying went. Andrew Jackson and other com- 
 manders at last so weakened them that there were no more 
 dangerous Indian wars in the South. 
 
 The Indians who were left were put on " reservations " ; that 
 is, on tracts of land that were not subject to the laws of the 
 states or territories in which they lay. The remnants of the 
 fierce tribes in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi were carried 
 far across the Mississippi, to what came to be called Indian 
 Territory. The United States government appointed agents 
 to look after these and other Indians, and to keep out white 
 intruders. 
 
 174. Indian Life in the West. — Most of the western 
 pioneers wanted to get rid of the redskin neighbors who wan- 
 dered about the settlements and had no notion of taking up 
 farms and living among the whites. Missionaries were sent 
 out to some of the tribes, and they tell us that the Indians 
 thought the white man's life dull, and enjoyed their own free- 
 dom. They believed in a Great Spirit and a future life, but 
 seem to have had no idea of evil spirits until they were taught 
 by white men that there were devils. 
 
THE INDIANS 217 
 
 Their social life weis gay; they enjoyed dancing and feast- 
 ing. They lived chiefly on game and corn. The names of 
 Indian places are often musical, as Catawba and Mahoning; 
 but some of their towns and villages bore curious names, for 
 instance, " (lekelenuikpechuenk." They often grew tired of 
 a fixed place, or their enemies disturbed them, or the white 
 people crowded them so that they wandered away and built a 
 new village. 
 
 Prisoners, whether white or Indian, often had to " run the 
 gantlet," between two rows of people armed with switches, 
 clubs, and hatchets. Then they were led around and were made 
 to dance and tell their deeds in battle. Unless ransomed or 
 adopted into the tribe — which was one way of keeping up the 
 number of warriors — prisoners were usually put to death, the 
 victims never uttering a cry or groan, but singing and taunting 
 their torturers. The Indians had many good qualities, but 
 they and most of the white people could never learn to live 
 together in peace and friendship. 
 
 175. White Settlers. — In spite of all obstacles the West 
 grew wonderfully fast. In 1790 it already contained about 
 110,000 people; in 1810 there were 1,220,000 in Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, Ohio, Indiana Territory, and Louisiana; in 1830 
 there were 3,300,000, of whom about half lived south of the 
 Ohio. To-day in the same region there are over 26,000,000 
 inhabitants. 
 
 What sort of people were these settlers? Reverend Joseph 
 Doddridge in his Notes on the Settlement writes the following 
 stirring verses about the strong and capable kind of people 
 who helped to build up the new country: 
 
 "Where Allegheny's towering, pine-clad peaks, 
 Rise high in air, and sparkle in the sun. 
 At whose broad base the gushing torrent breaks, 
 And dashes through the vale with curling foam, 
 
 " My father came, while yet our world was young, 
 Son of the trackless forest, large and wild. 
 Of manners stern, of understanding strong, 
 As nature rude, but yet in feeling, mild." 
 
2l8 GOING WEST 
 
 A less desirable class of settlers was thus described by a 
 visitor in 1790: " Great numbers emigrate to the back part of 
 North and South Carolina and Georgia, for the sake of living 
 without trouble. The woods, such is the mildness of the 
 climate, produce grass to support horses and cattle, and chest- 
 nuts, acorns, and other things, for the food of hogs; so that 
 they have only a little corn to raise, which is done without 
 much labor. They call this kind of life following the range. 
 They are very ignorant, and hate all men of education; they 
 call them pen-and-ink men." 
 
 These two kinds of settlers, the energetic and the shiftless, 
 could be found in all parts of the West. Up to 1830 very few 
 foreign immigrants found their way west of the mountains, 
 but the descendants of the colonial Dutchmen, Scotch-Irish, 
 and Germans (§ 68) joined with the descendants of the English 
 in building up the new western states. 
 
 176. How they Reached the West. — To reach the new 
 settlements emigrants had to cross a broad belt of rugged hills 
 or mountains, usually in wagons drawn by oxen. Six weeks 
 was considered good time for the six-hundred-mile journey 
 from central New England to northern Ohio, for the roads 
 were swampy and full of stumps. The shallower streams 
 could be forded; and many of the settlers used the " Con- 
 estoga wagon," (page 220), which had a seamless and water- 
 tight body shaped much like a boat, so that if the ford 
 was too deep the wagon would float. Some provisions were 
 carried; others were bought on the road; and game and fish 
 caught during the journey added to the pleasure of the meals. 
 
 Women and small children were generally carried, but 
 hundreds of thousands of people walked all the way. There 
 were wagon roads across the mountains, through Bedford, 
 Pennsylvania, and through Cumberland, Maryland; and a 
 direct road into Kentucky was made in 1792. Provisions and 
 supplies could be carried on packhorses, but most settlers, 
 when they reached their new home, had nothing except the 
 clothing they stood in, and a little bedding. 
 
 Boat travel was a great relief when a big river was reached. 
 Down the Ohio floated countless rafts on which were built 
 
MODES 01" TRAVEL 
 
 219 
 
 little houses with open fires; but a favorite craft was the 
 " keel boat," twenty or thirty feet long, with a cabin. The 
 travelers found the Ohio River crooked and rapid, and the 
 danger from Indians and river pirates made a voyage ex- 
 citing. 
 
 The flatboat took the place of the modern wagon, trolley 
 car, and automobile. A French traveler who was much in- 
 terested in the flatboats of the Monongahela says: " I could 
 not conceive what these large square boxes were, which, 
 abandoned to the current, presented by turns, their ends, 
 their sides, and their corners ... I at length discovered sev- 
 eral families in these boats, which also conveyed their horses, 
 their cows, their poultry, their dismounted carriages, their 
 plows, their harness, their beds, their agricultural tools." 
 
 177. The Steamboat. — Nothing has more changed the 
 conditions of life both in the East and in the West than the wide 
 use of the steam engine. It takes the power which is stored 
 in wood, coal, or oil, and puts it into a form in which it can be 
 used for factories, mines, transportation, and farm work. 
 
 Steam engines had been used to work pumps in English mines 
 ever since about 1700. The first practical steam engine which 
 could dri\'e machinery was built about 1760 by the English- 
 man James Watt; but 
 such an engine could 
 transfer its power only 
 a few yards. 
 
 Why not put an 
 engine on a vessel 
 and make it turn a 
 paddle wheel, to mo\'e 
 the craft along? This 
 idea occurred to sev- 
 eral inventors in 
 America and abroad ; 
 but the first man to build a steamboat that would pay a 
 profit to its owners was Robert Fulton of New York. In 
 1807 he fitted an English engine to a paddle-wheel boat 
 called the Clermont, which ran on the Hudson Ri\er against 
 
 First western steamer, built in 1811 
 
Pioneer families moving west across the Appalachians in a Conestoga wagon 
 
WESTERN STEAMBOATS 
 
 221 
 
 wind and tide and current. This solved the problem, and 
 in a few years steamboats were running on many of the 
 eastern rivers. 
 
 In i8i I Nicholas Roosevelt and others of New York built 
 ihe steamer New Orleans at Pittsburgh; and after the War of 
 1812 steamers spread through all the larger western streams. 
 The westerners worked out a type of \er\- shallow boat, with 
 side wheels or stern wheels, some of which would run in two 
 feet of water, and could push far up into the back country. 
 
 Boats of a different type were built for the Great Lakes, 
 and after the Erie Canal was finished in 1825. the traveler 
 could go all the way from 
 New York to the head of 
 Lake Michigan by Hudson 
 River steamers, by horse- 
 drawn canal boats, and then 
 by lake steamers. This sys- 
 tem of travel helped to build 
 up Michigan, Wisconsin, and 
 Illinois. 
 
 178. Pioneers at Home. 
 — Once arrived, the pioneer 
 and his family usually lived 
 in a one- or two-roomed cabin 
 with a loft overhead and a 
 chimney with a big fireplace, 
 which was the center of 
 
 family life, just as it had been in early colonial days (§ 53). 
 When Abraham Lincoln as a boy moved to Indiana, he 
 lived for a time in a " half-faced camp," which was simply 
 a room without any front, with a fire of logs built just 
 outside of the opening. After their first hardships, the 
 western people, especially north of the Ohio, had a good 
 supply of food; they could raise, or trade for, wheat, barle>-, 
 corn, rye, and buckwheat. Their orchards and gardens fur- 
 nished fruit and vegetables. From the hard maples the 
 farmer made his own delicious maple sugar. Cattle were 
 kept everywhere, and that meant a supply of milk and 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 13 
 
 The early settlers built temporary shelters, 
 called " half-faced camps " 
 
222 
 
 GOING WEST 
 
 butter; every few weeks somebody would " kill," and all the 
 neighboring families got pieces of the meat. Hogs abounded, 
 and the settlers had plenty of hams, bacon, salt pork, and 
 sausages. 
 
 As soon as people became fairly well off they built frame 
 houses, especially on the Western Reserve, where the neighbors 
 joined together in "house-raising"; that is, they set up solid 
 
 frames of squared 
 oak beams fastened 
 together with 
 wooden pins. Such 
 frames, when cov- 
 ered with clap- 
 boards, made 
 houses some of 
 which are as good 
 now as they were a 
 hundred years ago. 
 Clothing cost 
 little money but 
 much labor. Many 
 farmers, north and 
 south, kept sheep, 
 and from the an- 
 nual spring shear- 
 ing the women 
 spun yarn on those 
 big wheels which 
 are now curiosities 
 
 After the harvest came the husking bee, when the farmer • 
 
 ... . . , ^ , . , in museums. 
 
 and his neighbors met for a social evening 
 
 Many of them grew 
 flax, and spun the fiber on the small spinning wheels. Then, 
 with their old-fashioned wooden hand looms, the women made 
 cloth of woolen or "linsey-woolsey"; that is, of mixed wool 
 and flax (§ 82). In the South they made clothing out of 
 homespun cotton cloth dyed with butternut juice. 
 
 To show what they could do, farmers sometimes sheared a 
 fleece of wool from the sheep's back in the morning, and by 
 
nONKKR LI IE 223 
 
 tlu' c'\eiiing it had been wiislied, carded, spun, \vo\en, dyed, 
 cut, sewed, and was being woi-n. Children needed no elabo- 
 rate clothes; many Httle ones wore nothing but a tow shirt. 
 Most children went barefoot a good part of the year, to their 
 great delight. Shoes were worn during cold weather and on 
 Sunday. 
 
 The southern mountains were settled chietiy by those who 
 were satisfied with poor land, far from towns and highways. 
 Visitors to these mountains ma\' still see just what frontier 
 life was a hundred years ago, for many mountaineers now live 
 in poor cabins, are poorly fed, and are clad in garments of 
 cloth made by their own spinning and weaving. 
 
 The settlers outside of the mountain districts had a li\elier 
 life, because new people were always coming in and gathering 
 in the little towns. Young people had their frolics and 
 dances, husking bees and kissing games. Himting was a 
 favorite amusement, for there were still deer and bear in most 
 parts of the countr\-, and prodigious pigeon roosts, where 
 thousands of birds alighted till they sometimes liroke down 
 the branches of trees with their weight. 
 
 179. Health and Disease. - The western people ought to 
 have been healthy, for they spent most of their working hours 
 out of doors and slept in rooms full of cracks and (openings, 
 which gave opportunity for plent\' of fresh air. Never- 
 theless the bane of the frontier was disease. Rheumatism 
 was a fearful e\il which disabled strong men and women. 
 Mosquitoes caused fever and ague, often called " chills " 
 or " shakes." which desci'nded upon the pioneer in many 
 \arieties. People heard that "'Peruvian bark" — that is, 
 quinine — would cure the chills, but it was hard to procui'e. 
 
 Another dread of the frontier was accident. When men 
 were crushed by falling trees or by wagons, or were injured b\' 
 bullets, they were attended by unskillful doctors with rough 
 surgery. The country doctor was the only dentist, and used 
 a tool shaped like a log hook when he pulled the aching 
 teeth. 
 
 The l)irth rate was high, and the older children in a large 
 family helped to bring up the younger ones; e\'ery strong boy 
 
WESTERN TOWNS 225 
 
 and willing girl added to the family forces. The death rate 
 also was very high, for weak people wore out under the hard- 
 ships, and doctors did not know how to fight disease. It was 
 a maxim that " you must starve a fever "; hence thousands of 
 patients died after the fever had gone and just when they 
 needed strengthening food, because their loving friends would 
 not give them enough to eat. 
 
 Smallpox was still a dreadful curse; thousands died of it, 
 and in every part of the country were many " pock-marked " 
 people who bore for life the scars of the disease. About 1796 
 Edward Jenner, an English doctor, made the wonderful dis- 
 covery that if he took a bit of the matter from a kind of sore 
 on a cow, and pushed it into a scratch of the skin, it would 
 cause a slight illness; after this the person thus "vaccinated " 
 was almost free from the danger of smallpox. Gradually the 
 practice of vaccination was spread among the people, so that 
 nowadays smallpox is a rare disease. 
 
 18U. Western Towns. — For many years the West was 
 almost entirely a farming region, but parts of the north- 
 western states were planted by New England people in just 
 such villages as those from which they came. In both the 
 North and the South little towms sprang up as posts for trade 
 with the Indians and settlers, or as county seats. These new 
 towns grew rapidly and so did the old places, such as Pitts- 
 burgh, Detroit, St. Louis, and Mobile. Cincinnati was for 
 more than half a centur>' the largest city in the Northwest. 
 Cleveland was founded in 1796 on Lake Erie at the mouth of 
 the muddy little Cuyahoga River. St. Paul, at the head of 
 navigation on the Mississippi, became a flourishing frontier 
 trading post. 
 
 Farther south sprang up such towns as Louisville at the falls 
 of the Ohio, Memphis and Natchez on the Mississippi, and 
 Shreveport on the Red River. New Orleans was the exchange 
 point between the up-river steamboats and the sea-going ships, 
 and was the largest and richest southwestern city. It was a 
 gay and lively place, in which more than half the people lived 
 in the French quarter, spoke French, and had their own stores, 
 markets, and theaters. 
 
226 GOING WEST 
 
 Many of the western cities received striking names. Some 
 were named by the French, for example, Vincennes, La Crosse, 
 and St. Louis; some bore Indian names, such as Chicago;, 
 some w^ere named for famous men such as Columbus and 
 Madison. Some of the names were fanciful, such as the origi- 
 nal name of Cincinnati, which was " Losantiville " : " L " for 
 Licking, " os " for mouth, " anti " for across, and " ville " for 
 town; that is, " The town opposite the mouth of the Licking." 
 
 Most of the western towns were poorly built, dirty, unpaved, 
 and infested with pigs and other animals, which were allowed 
 to run the streets. A traveler who visited Pittsburgh in 1789 
 says of it: " The Towne at that time was the muddiest place 
 that I ever was in; and by reason of using so much Coal, being 
 a great manufacturing place & kept in so much smoke & dust, 
 as to affect the skin of the inhabitants." 
 
 181. Western Churches. — Both in the Northwest and in 
 the Southwest most of the settlers came from church-building 
 and church-going communities in the East. Nevertheless 
 many of the frontiersmen were rough and godless. Good 
 missionary work was done by such men as the Episcopal Bishop 
 Chase of Ohio, and the Congregationalist home missionary 
 Timothy Flint. The Methodists and Baptists were great civ- 
 ilizers of the frontier, and made use of the so-called " circuit 
 riders." These were eager young ministers, who had a round 
 of little churches, and rode from one to another to preach. 
 
 A western invention that is still in use was the " camp meet- 
 ing," which was part picnic, part summer vacation, and part 
 revival meeting. A visitor says: " The notice has been circu- 
 lated two or three months. On the appointed day, coaches, 
 chaises, wagons, carts, people on horseback, and multitudes 
 traveling from a distance on foot, wagons with provisions, 
 mattresses, tents, and arrangements for the stay of a week, 
 were seen hurrying from every point toward the central spot. 
 . . . The ambitious and wealthy were there, because in this 
 region religion is all-powerful . . . Aspirants for office are 
 there, to electioneer, and gain popularity. . . . The young 
 and the beautiful are there, with mixed motives, which it were 
 best not severely to criticize." 
 
WESTERN CHURCHES 227 
 
 At the camp meetings and in the churches the gospel was 
 preached with great energy; the hearers were pointedly re- 
 minded of their sins and of the danger of everlasting punish- 
 ment. Many converts went through the " power," a sort of 
 fit into which the sinner fell, and after which he felt that 
 he was saved. Or they might be taken with the " jerks," 
 which was a nervous twitching. Reverend Peter Cartwright, 
 a Methodist leader, says that he once noticed among his con- 
 gregation " two very finely dressed fashionable ladies, attended 
 by two brothers with loaded horsewhips — while I was preach- 
 ing the congregation melted to tears — and both the young 
 ladies took the jerks and they were greatly mortified about 
 it." The horsewhips were ready for the minister, but he 
 frightened the brothers away. 
 
 182. Summary. — This chapter is devoted to the settle- 
 ment, growth, and life of the people of the West, from about 
 1790 until about the year 1830. 
 
 Of the three sections of the Union the West was the newest. 
 It was settled by people from the eastern states, with a few 
 foreign immigrants, in a rich and bountiful part of the world, 
 well watered and supplied with navigable rivers. The northern 
 Indians quickly gave way before the increasing tide of people, 
 but the southern Indians w^ere for years a danger. 
 
 Part of the emigrants to the W^est were strong and vigorous 
 people, others were shiftless. People went west at first on 
 foot, with some pack and riding horses. As soon as roads 
 were opened they used wagons, but it was a long and tedious 
 journey across the lonel\- mountains. Once over, they 
 reached the navigable western ri\'ers and lakes, which soon 
 after 181 1 were traversed by steamboats. 
 
 The western pioneers provided for most of their own wants; 
 they grew their own food and made their own clothing. They 
 enjoyed a rude plenty, but the whole region was cursed with 
 disease, especially the dreaded malaria, commonly called chills 
 and fever. Li\ely towns sprang up throughout the West. 
 A great work was done l^y the frontier churches and mission- 
 aries, who in their services and camp meetings e.xcited their 
 hearers, but after all made them better men and women. 
 
228 GOING WEST 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Wall Maps, no. lo. — Hinsdale, Old Northwest. — San- 
 ford, Am. Hist. Maps, no. ii. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, i88. 
 
 Histories. Bogart, Economic Hist., ch. xiv. — Brown, Jackson. — 
 Coman, Industrial Hist., 156-174. — Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, ch. 
 ii. — Roosevelt, Benton. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People, chs. xi- 
 xiv, xix-xxii. — Turner, Rise of New West, chs. v-viii. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 260-264. — Fordham, 
 Personal Narrative. — Hart, Contemporaries, HI. §§31-36, 137-141; 
 Patriots and Statesmen, HI. 319-363 passim; Source Book, §§ 90-93; 
 Source Readers, HI. nos. 11, 27, 34-53, 56-69. — Hill, Liberty Docs., ch. xx. 
 — James, Readiui^s, §§ 57, 64-66, 82. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Butterworth, In the Boyhood of Lincoln. — 
 Cooke, Leather Stocking and Silk. — Cooper, Pioneers. — Eggleston, 
 Circuit Rider; Hoosier Schoolmaster. — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, 
 ch. XX. — Riddle, AnsePs Cave. — Trowbridge, Start in Life. — Wallington, 
 Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, I. 289, 293, 294, 322. 
 
 Pictures. Dunbar, Hist, of Travel in Am. — Sparks, Expansion of 
 Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, HI. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§172)1. What were the sections of the Union down to 1830? 2. What 
 was the geographical situation of the West? 3. What were the western 
 forests? 4 (For an essay). Early voyages on the western rivers. 
 
 (§ 173) 5- What were the northwestern Indian tribes? 6. The south- 
 western? 7. How did the United States government treat the Indians? 
 
 (§174) 8 (For an essay). Life among the Indians. 9. What kind 
 of towns did they build? 10. How did they treat their prisoners? 
 
 (§ 175) II- How fast did the West grow? 12. What kinds of settlers 
 lived there? 13. What non-English people went to the earl^' West? 
 
 (§ 176) 14 (For an essay). Account of an early journey to the West. 
 15. What sort of roads led to the West? 16. How were the rivers trav- 
 eled? 17 (For an essay). An early boat voyage on a western river. 
 
 (§ 177) 18. When and how were steam engines invented? 19 (For an 
 essay). The first voyage of Fulton's steamboat Clermont. 20 (For an 
 essay). Account of an early steam voyage on a western river or lake. 
 
 (§ 178) 21. How did the pioneers find food? 22. How did they build 
 houses? 23. How was clothing made at the frontier? 24 (For an essay). 
 Life in the southern mountains. 25. What were the amusements of the 
 pioneers? 
 
 (§ 179) 26. What were the principal frontier diseases and remedies? 
 
 (§ 180) 27. How did towns spring up? 28. What were the principal 
 early western towns? 29. How were they built and improved? 
 
 (§ 181) 30. What churches early appeared on the frontier? 31 (For 
 an essay). Early camp meetings. 32. What were the methods of the 
 ministers? 
 
CHAPTER XVII 
 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER (1815-1829) 
 
 183. New Conditions (1815). — After 1815 Americans be- 
 gan to realize the wealth of this country. The western prai- 
 ries had been thought to be plains so barren that trees would 
 not grow on them; the settlers soon found that they were 
 covered by very rich black soil. Miners had long been pro- 
 ducing lead in western Illinois and iron in Pennsylvania; and 
 coal now began to be used on a large scale, first for heating 
 houses and for forges, and then as fuel for making steam. As 
 the population grew, there was a great demand for timber for 
 building houses, fences, steamboats, and ships. 
 
 The mines and forests furnished raw material for making 
 iron and machines; and factories sprang up for spinning and 
 weaving the wool and cotton, which were produced in great 
 quantities. To run these factories, dams were built across 
 large streams such as the Merrimack, the Hudson, and the 
 James, which furnished large water powers. 
 
 Now that larger crops were raised, more ore mined, more 
 lumber sawed, more goods manufactured, it became necessary 
 to provide means for carrying all these products to market. 
 Hence there was a period of "internal improvements"; that 
 is, of building roads and digging canals. 
 
 Shipbuilding and ship sailing continued to be the greatest 
 and most profitable lines of business. Besides the coasting 
 trade there was a lively trade with the West Indies and with 
 other Spanish and Portuguese colonies. 
 
 This was a time of profitable commerce with China and 
 southern Asia (§ 146). From such ports as Newburyport, 
 Salem, New York. Philadelphia, and Baltimore smart vessels 
 set sail for Canton. Batavia, or Calcutta. They carried out 
 fish, flour, tobacco, and ginseng, a root much esteemed in 
 China; they brought back silks, porcelains, teas, and spices. 
 
 229 
 
230 
 
 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 Youths, such as Robert Forbes, went to sea when fifteen 
 years old, came back in a few years captains of vessels, and 
 lived to write entertaining accounts of their own lives. The 
 heavy shipowners, such as the Grays and Bertrams of Salem, 
 the Forbeses of Boston, and the Lows and Graces of Brook- 
 lyn, owned small fleets and made great fortunes. Young men 
 were often sent along as supercargoes to buy and sell the 
 
 cargoes. They 
 brought magnifi- 
 cent furniture, jars, 
 and dinner sets to 
 their friends, and 
 made profits which 
 were the founda- 
 tion of their own 
 fortunes. 
 
 184. National 
 Aid to Business. — 
 In the Congress of 
 1815-1817 Presi- 
 dent Madison, with 
 Clay, Calhoun, and 
 their friends, put 
 through several 
 acts of Congress in 
 aid of business, of which the first was a new tariff (§ 141). 
 During and after the embargo of 1807 (§ 161) foreign trade 
 was so disturbed that some of the vessel owners put their 
 profits into small factories for making cotton and woolen 
 goods, iron, and other manufactures. After the war, foreign 
 goods were brought over in great quantities, and the new 
 factories declared that without a higher rate of duty on imports 
 they could not compete with foreign merchants. Accordingly, 
 in 1816 the first tariff was passed which was intended to build 
 up American manufactures. 
 
 According to modern ideas the rates were ver>' low, ranging 
 from about 15 per cent to 30 per cent; that is, a tax amount- 
 ing to a fifth or three tenths of the original cost of the imports 
 
 New England fishermen on the banks of Newfoundland 
 
NATIONAL AID TO BUSINESS 23 1 
 
 had to be peiid as duties. The new tariff was a popular act in 
 the South and the West, but was opposed in New England, 
 which still preferred to build and sail ships. 
 
 The purpose of this " protection " act was to raise the prices 
 of foreign-made goods, so that the American manufacturer 
 could get a price which would enable him to keep in business. 
 Some statesmen expected only that the tariff would keep 
 "infant industries" alive till they became established and 
 could get on without the aid of tariffs. Some were interested 
 in making sure that goods and supplies needed in case of war 
 should be produced here. Some wanted to keep out perma- 
 nently all foreign goods that could be made in the United 
 States. Henry Clay believed in an American System, by 
 which the American people should do everything for them- 
 selves. 
 
 On the other hand, the shipping interests opposed a high 
 tariff because they made their profits out of a large trade with 
 foreign countries. The farming class had to pay higher prices 
 for their goods because of the tariff, and they were made no 
 richer by the profits of the manufacturers. The middle 
 states and western farmers, however, favored a tariff because 
 of the " home market " argument; that is, they thought they 
 would get higher prices for their produce if manuf^icturing 
 cities and towns grew up, with a class of wage hands who 
 must buy their food of the farmers. 
 
 185. Second United States Bank (1816). — It will be re- 
 membered how the early corporations were formed (§ 142). 
 The system was extended by the states to many kinds of busi- 
 ness, such as mining and manufacturing companies, city gas 
 and water companies, canal companies, water power companies, 
 and fur companies. 
 
 The state banks, which were corporations chartered by 
 state legislatures, were especially useful ; and all young Ameri- 
 cans ought to understand what they did for the business 
 man. (i) They received " deposits"; that is, surplus money 
 waiting to be needed in business, or to be invested. (2) They 
 paid "checks"; that is, written orders for money lying on de- 
 posit. (3) They granted "discounts"; that is, loans to busi- 
 
232 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 ness men, usually for terms of only a few months. (4) They 
 made " exchanges" ; that is, took a man's money at one place, 
 and agreed to pay it at another place. (5) They issued 
 " bank notes"; that is, their own promises to pay, in paper 
 dollars or multiples of a dollar. These notes were paid out or 
 lent by the banks. They passed from hand to hand as money, 
 till somebody presented them at the bank to be " redeemed "; 
 that is, to be paid to the holder in gold or silver. 
 
 In 1816 there were about 250 state banks. Many were not 
 able to redeem their notes, and some were frauds, but most of 
 them were reliable and honest. For instance, it was noticed 
 that notes were in circulation from a certain country bank in 
 Rhode Island. A quantity of the notes were presented in a 
 lump at the bank, which proved to be a blacksmith's forge. 
 The blacksmith, who was the president of the corporation, 
 was equal to the emergency, dug a keg of specie out of the 
 cinders, and was able to redeem the notes and save his bank. 
 
 The first United States Bank (§ 142) expired in 181 1, and 
 President Madison and his advisers felt that there ought to be 
 another, for a bank chartered by Congress ought to be better 
 and safer than a state bank. Therefore, in 1816 a second 
 United States Bank was chartered with what was then the 
 immense capital of $35,000,000. The federal government 
 owned one fifth of the stock, and granted to the bank the right 
 to set up branches in any state. The act committed the 
 government to the two theories that banks were a good thing 
 and that Congress ought to help business. 
 
 186. Erie Canal (181 7-1825). — The increase of trade called 
 the attention of the country to the bad state of the public 
 roads. Congress was willing to grant money for this need; 
 but President Madison prevented it by a veto, because he 
 thought that roads and canals ought to be built by the states 
 and not by the Union (181 7). 
 
 The hint was taken in New York, where people had been 
 talking for years about a canal from the Hudson River to 
 Lake Erie; and they elected De Witt Clinton governor of New 
 York in order to put it through. He hoped that the federal 
 government would give assistance, but when that plan was 
 
CANALS AND ROADS 
 
 233 
 
 dropped the state began to dig the canal at its own expense. 
 Navigation from New York to Albany through the Hudson 
 River was easy ; then the canal followed the Mohawk Valley 
 and was raised by locks at intervals as far as the summit near 
 Utica, 425 feet above the sea. After crossing the Genesee 
 River at Rochester on a high viaduct it ran along on a sort of 
 terrace south of Lake Ontario, and rose to a second summit of 
 568 feet at Lockport. Thence it ran on the same level to 
 the Niagara River just below Lake Erie. 
 
 Work began in 1817, and at the end of eight years the canal 
 was open all the way through. It was 363 miles long and cost 
 about $7,000,000, which was more than paid back by the tolls 
 during the first ten years of its use. Though frozen over about 
 a third of every year, the Erie Canal furnished a cheap com- 
 munication between the Lakes with their steamers, and the 
 harbor of New York with its foreign commerce. The result 
 was that New York at once became the richest and largest 
 city in the Union. 
 
 The Cumberland Road, and the National Road 
 
 187. Cumberland Road (1811-1829). ^ The only large in- 
 ternal improN enient carried out by the United States govern- 
 ment was the Cumberland Road, which reached from the 
 upper Potomac across the Appalachian Mountains to the 
 Ohio River. These broad and rugged mountains were a great 
 obstacle to western emigrants. To avoid them a route passed 
 through the Mohawk Valley to Buffalo and then south of 
 Lake Erie; another circled southward through the valleys of 
 the Shenandoah and the upper James rivers, and by Boone's 
 old trace (§73) to the Ohio River. The Cumberland Road 
 was part of a third route to the Ohio River. 
 
234 
 
 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGE'l'HER 
 
 Secretary Gallatin (§ 144), who was a western man and un- 
 derstood the needs of the West, secured an act (1803) pro- 
 viding that part of the money received for public lands in the 
 West might be used to build roads which would reach those 
 lands and so help to sell them. Jefferson cordial y approved, 
 and in 1806 Congress began to appropriate money for that 
 purpose. In 1819 a road was finished to the Ohio River. 
 The road, which is still in use, is 150 miles long, from Cumber- 
 land on the Potomac, across the " Little Yock " (Castelman's 
 Run), "Big Yock" (Youghiogheny), and the Monongahela 
 to Wheeling on the Ohio River. It crosses four mountain 
 ridges, the highest being 2300 feet above the sea. The road 
 is well built with many stone-arched bridges, and cost about 
 $1,700,000. Till railroads were built across the mountains, it 
 was the best through route from the East to the West, and was 
 used by stage lines, freight wagons, and immense droves of 
 cattle. An extension usually called the " National Road " 
 was built from Wheeling through Ohio toward St. Louis. 
 
 A beautiful bridge on the Cumberland Road 
 
NEW STATES 235 
 
 188. Free and Slave States (1789-1820J. — After Louisiana 
 was admitted to the Union in 1812 (§ 157), there were nine 
 free states and nine slaveholding states. The population in 
 the free states and territories grew faster than in the slave- 
 holding section, and the North had more members than the 
 South in the national House of Representatives. Neverthe- 
 less, of the next four new states admitted (map, page 244), 
 two were slaveholding and two were free: 
 
 (i) Indiana was settled partly from New England and New 
 York; but the southern counties were taken up by settlers 
 from the southern states. The two groups disagreed on the 
 question of slavery, but they combined to form a free state 
 government, and were admitted to the Union in 1816 as the 
 19th state, with 75,000 inhabitants. 
 
 (2) Mississippi included some of the richest bottom land in 
 the whole country and attracted settlers from all the slave- 
 holding states. It had the special ad^'antage of frontage on 
 the river that was the great commercial route of the period. 
 Mississippi was admitted as the 20th state in 181 7 with about 
 50,000 inhabitants. 
 
 (3) Illinois drew many immigrants from the slaveholding 
 states of Virginia and Kentucky, and there were some slaves 
 in the southern part of the territory. The state abounded in 
 the richest land and had a splendid situation between Lake 
 Michigan and the Ohio and Mississippi rivers. When admitted 
 in 1818 as the 21st state, it contained about 40,000 people. 
 
 (4) Alabama for a time grew up more slowly than Missis- 
 sippi because the northern part was broken and even moun- 
 tainous, but in 1819 there were about 100,000 people in the 
 territory and it was admitted as the 22d state. It included 
 several navigable rivers and a splendid sea front on Mobile 
 Bay. 
 
 189. The Sections and Slavery (1816-1819). — By this 
 careful balancing in admitting states the Senate was equally 
 divided between northern and southern members. The South 
 could rely on nearly every southern member's voting in favor 
 of slavery, and could count also on a few northern votes. 
 The old South and the new southwestern states joined to 
 
236 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 make a larger South. In like manner the northwestern states 
 and the old North were drawn together as one North. 
 
 For a long time slavery was looked upon as a labor problem ; 
 the main question was, Does it pay? Gradually a strong feel- 
 ing arose against it on moral grounds. Many slaveholders, 
 among them Washington, Jefferson, and Madison, opposed 
 it. In the middle and southern states antislavery societies 
 were formed, and gathered every few years in a meeting 
 known as the " General Convention," which urged the 
 southern states gradually to set the slaves free. 
 
 190. Cotton Culture. — This southern movement against 
 slavery might have been successful but for the growing im- 
 portance of cotton. Tobacco was no longer very profitable; 
 it wore out the land. Rice was a small crop, grown only on 
 the seacoast of South Carolina and Georgia. Cotton could be 
 grown in the lowlands from southern Virginia to western Lou- 
 isiana, and there was a foreign demand for it at high prices. 
 
 Cotton was an American plant, but it was long neglected 
 in the United States because it took so much labor to pick 
 out the seeds. In 1794 a Connecticut schoolmaster, Eli 
 Whitney, invented a " gin," a handy machine that would do 
 the work of fifty slaves in seeding cotton. This machine 
 changed the whole industry. Thousands of acres were 
 planted, and rude slave labor proved available for cotton, be- 
 cause it required much hoeing, thinning, and picking, and 
 kept the laborer busy the whole year round. The North also 
 was a great gainer from the cotton gin, for it furnished an 
 abundant supply of. material for the cloth-making mills. 
 
 Prices ran high till 1820, usually about 20 cents a pound, 
 which gave a large profit. About half to two thirds of every 
 annual crop was sent to Europe; nearly all the rest went to 
 the northern states, for the South for many years had no 
 success at manufacturing cotton cloth. English workmen and 
 mill masters brought over machinery to the northern states; 
 and mills were built at Pawtucket and Providence in Rhode 
 Island, at Cohoes in New York, at Philadelphia, and at many 
 other places. New power looms were invented, and the mills 
 were run with steam or water power. 
 
MISSOURI COMPROMISE 
 
 237 
 
 191. Missouri Compromise (1820). — In several matters 
 Congress had to make decisions lor or against slavery. To 
 aid the slaveholders it passed a Fugitive Slave Law (1793), 
 under which runa- 
 ways to the free 
 states could be 
 captured ; and it 
 allowed slavery to 
 remain in the Dis- 
 trict of Columbia 
 (1801). On the 
 other hand, Con- 
 gress prohibited 
 slavery in all the 
 territories of the 
 Northwest (1787), 
 and forbade the 
 foreign slave trade 
 (1807). 
 
 A test of the 
 feeling of Congress 
 came in 1820, when the people of Missouri Territory asked 
 to be admitted into the Union as a slaveholding state. The 
 lower valley of the Missouri River contained some land well 
 adapted for slave labor. The terntor>^ was western in spirit, 
 but slavery had existed there for a hundred years, and in- 
 coming planters brought slaves from other states. If Mis- 
 souri became a slave state the slavery system might spread 
 northwest into the whole valley of the Missouri River. Hence 
 the majority of the House of Representatives refused to admit 
 Missouri except as a free state. 
 
 The question was tangled by the action of the people of 
 Maine, which was then a part of Massachusetts. The Maine 
 people had other interests than those of the parent state, and 
 Massachusetts consented to their forming a separate state. 
 
 If both the new states came into the Union without slavery, 
 the South would lose its equal vote in the Senate; and perhaps 
 no more slave states would be admitted to the Union. There- 
 
 Effects of the Missoixri Compromise 
 
238 HUW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 fore, the majority of the Senate refused to admit IVIaine at 
 all, unless Missouri were made a slave state. The deadlock 
 was broken by the famous "Missouri Compromise," which 
 was to the following effect: (i) Maine was admitted (1820) 
 as a free state (23d in the Union) with 300,000 people; and 
 Missouri was admitted (1821) as a slave state with 67,000 
 population (24th state in the Union). (2) Slavery was for- 
 bidden " forever" in every part of the territory ceded by 
 France north of the parallel of 36° 30', excepting the state of 
 Missouri. 
 
 192. Russian America and Latin America (1809-1822). — 
 Besides Great Britain, Spain, and the United States, a new 
 power began to assert its claim to a share of North America 
 about the time of the War of 18 12. That was Russia, which 
 many years earlier had planted little trading posts in what is 
 now Alaska, then others farther south. In 1821 she claimed 
 the whole Pacific coast' north of the parallel of 51°. 
 
 Still more important was the appearance of a group of new 
 Latin American countries, made up of former Spanish and 
 Portuguese colonies. Nominally, Spain held all the coast of 
 North and South America from Florida around to Puget 
 Sound, except Louisiana, Brazil and the little colonies of Brit- 
 ish, French, and Dutch Guiana. The regular Spanish gov- 
 ernment w^as broken up by European wars (1809), and the 
 colonies took care of themselves. After Napoleon's fall, Spain 
 was ruled weakly and harshly, and again the colonies governed 
 themselves; this time they meant to make themselves inde- 
 pendent countries. 
 
 Among the leaders of the movement the two greatest were 
 Simon Bolivar and Jose de San Martin. Bolivar broke up 
 the Spanish power in what is now Venezuela, Colombia, and 
 Ecuador. San Martin formed a force in the La Plata region, 
 made a heroic march across the mountains, and freed Chile. 
 The two united in driving the Spanish out of Peru, their last 
 stronghold in South America. After these revolutions, Mexico . 
 and Central America were the only Spanish colonies left on 
 the mainland of North or South America. When they became 
 independent in 1821, nothing was left of the once glorious 
 
Rl'SSIAN AMERICA AND LATIN AMERICA 239 
 
 Spanish empire in America except the two islands of Cuba 
 and Porto Rico. 
 
 The new Spanish Americans included four race elements, all 
 of which can still be found in Mexico and other Latin American 
 countries: (i) A few Spaniards from Spain and some others 
 of pure Spanish descent. (2) A 
 larger number of a mixed Span- 
 ish and Indian race. (3) Indians, 
 descended from the old Indian 
 tribes, who were nowhere less 
 than half of the whole popula- 
 tion. (4) A small number of 
 negroes and mixtures of negroes 
 with Indians or whites, who 
 were few. While under Spain, ' 
 
 r .-L 1 J. L J General Simon Bolivar, 1783-1830 
 
 none of these elements had ever 
 
 had a chance to govern themselves, and in the hundred years 
 
 that have since passed, few have learned that lesson. 
 
 The people of the United States welcomed the independence 
 of Spanish America because they sympathized with the new 
 republics, and because the Latin Americans had broken up 
 the Spanish colonial system of commerce (§ 80) and were eager 
 to trade with all the world. Henry Clay headed a movement 
 for recognizing them as independent countries; and in 1822 
 Congress voted to do so, and President Monroe carried out 
 the policy. Within a few years, seven new countries thus 
 became our neighbors and sister republics. The Portuguese 
 in South America set up the independent empire of Brazil, 
 which was changed to a republic in 1889. 
 
 193. Monroe Doctrine (1819-1823). — During this break-up 
 of the Spanish empire, the United States by treaty with Spain 
 purchased the two Floridas (1819), and thenceforward held 
 the whole ocean and gulf coast line from Maine to Louisiana. 
 In this treaty the United States agreed upon a boundar>' across 
 the plains and mountains from the Sabine River to the Pacific 
 Ocean, and the Spaniards gave up all claims north of 42°. 
 The Spanish colony-of Mexico included Texas and California, 
 and thus was the next-door neighbor to the United States. 
 
 Hart's sch. hist. — 14 
 
240 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 Several great European powers, united in a sort of combine 
 called the " Holy Alliance," thought it a bad lesson for their 
 own peoples that Spaniards, even in America, should be al- 
 lowed to set themselves free. Hence they were inclined to 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 !^^^5^. ^^ - , ,_ __^^^^ 
 
 ><'f':'!Pj|i«Milii 
 
 Ruins of the San Jose Mission in Texas: begun in 171 8; completed in 1771; visited 
 by Lieutenant Pike in 1807 
 
 send over a fleet and army to recover the lost American prov- 
 inces for Spain. The English wanted the new states to be 
 free to trade with them; and George Canning, the British 
 minister of foreign affairs, recognized how much the friendship 
 of the United States meant to his country. He therefore pro- 
 posed (1823) that the two countries unite in a statement that 
 they would not permit such an invasion. 
 
 On the advice of John Quincy Adams, who was Secretary of 
 State, President Monroe took a different course. In his an- 
 nual message of 1823 he included a statement which has ever 
 since been known as the Monroe Doctrine, of which the main 
 principles were as follows: (i) The new Latin American powers 
 were independent, and Spain could never reconquer them. 
 This was a fact. (2) All the territory in both the American 
 continents was taken up by civilized countries, so that there 
 was no room for any European nation to plant a new colony. 
 This was intended as a warning to Russia. (3) European 
 powers must not interfere with the Latin American states 
 
MONROE DOCTRINE 241 
 
 " for the purpose of oppressing them, or controlUng in any 
 other manner their destiny." This danger still exists. (4) 
 The "European political system " of combining to use force 
 against revolutions must not be extended to America. This 
 warning was heeded by European nations. 
 
 Monroe was trying to preserve peace in America. He 
 argued that since the United States kept out of European 
 quarrels, Europe must keep out of American concerns. The 
 doctrine did its work: the plan of sending over a fleet and an 
 army was given up; and with the exception of a French at- 
 tack on Mexico in 1862, no European power has ever tried to 
 conquer one of the American countries. 
 
 194. Era of Good Feeling (1821-1822). — The Federalist 
 party expired about 1822 and a period came called the " Era of 
 Good Feeling," because there were no rival parties. In fact, 
 it was an era of bad feeling among the friends of several men 
 who wished to be President. In 1824 there were four candi- 
 dates. As nobody had a majority of the electoral votes, 
 the House of Representatives in 1825, partly under the influ- 
 ence of Henry Clay of Kentucky, chose John Quincy Adams, 
 son of former President John Adams, over General Andrew 
 Jackson. 
 
 Jackson's friends felt that their man had not been fairly 
 treated, and did everything they could to make Adams's 
 administration a failure. Almost the only debates that are 
 now remembered were on the protective tariff" (§ 184). In 
 1824 the import duties were somewhat raised; in 1828 a high 
 tariff" act was passed that was so unpopular that it was called 
 the " Tariff of Abominations." 
 
 In the presidential election of 1828 Jackson was elected over 
 Adams, by a combination of New York and Pennsylvania, 
 nearly all the South, and every western state. He was chosen 
 as a man of the people, particularly of the western people. 
 The West at last had made its power felt in national politics. 
 
 195. Summary. — This chapter describes the business con- 
 ditions and the new means of transportation between 1815 and 
 1829; it discusses the rivalry between the North and the South, 
 and then the new American neighbors and the Monroe Doctrine. 
 
242 HOW THE NATION CAME TOGETHER 
 
 When the Unitcfl States was once free from its difficulties 
 with European countries, it began to realize its wealth of land, 
 timber, minerals, manufactures, and foreign trade, and the 
 need of better means of transportation. Congress gave the 
 manufacturers a new chance by a protective tarifT, and founded 
 a second United States Bank. New York built the Erie Canal, 
 and the federal government built che Cumberland Road. 
 
 Slavery now began to divide the Union. Free and slave 
 states were admitted in pairs, thus preserving an equal balance 
 in the Senate. The strong movement against slavery in the 
 South was checked by the increase of cotton growing, aided by 
 Whitney's cotton gin. The issue between the sections was 
 raised in a debate over the admission of Missouri as a slave 
 state. By the Missouri Compromise of 1820 it was so admitted, 
 but the rest of the Louisiana purchase was divided between 
 freedom and slavery by an east and west line on 36° 30'. 
 
 A totally new question was presented by the advance of the 
 Russians on the Pacific coast, and by the rise of new republics 
 out of the ruins of the Spanish empire in America. The 
 United States began to recognize these neighbors, and in 1823, 
 by the Monroe Doctrine, gave notice to the world that no 
 foreign powers could interfere with the new countries. 
 
 The old Federalist party died out, and the elections of 1824 
 and 1828 were fierce personal contests. Two tariffs were 
 passed, considerably raising the scale of duties. In 1828 
 Andrew Jackson was elected, the first western President. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Babcock, Rise of Am. Nation., 238, 272, 276, 286. — Hart, 
 Epoch Maps, nos. 8, 10; Monroe Doctrine, frontis. ; Wall Maps. — San- 
 ford, Am. Hist. Maps, nos. 11-19. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 199,205, 206, 
 214. — Turner, Rise of New West. 
 
 Histories. Coman, Industrial Hist., 181-206. — Dodd, Expansion 
 and Conflict, ch. i. — Elson, Side Lights, I. chs. viii-x. — Fish, Dev. of 
 Am. Nation., ch. x. — Hapgood, Webster. — Hart, Monroe Doctrine, pt. i. 
 — Johnson, Union and Democ, chs. xiii-.xix. — MacDonald, From Jef- 
 ferson to Lincoln, ch. ii; Jacksonian Democracy, ch. iii. — Southworth, 
 Builders of Otir Country, W. — Turner, Rise of New West, chs. ix-xix. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 4. — Caldwell and Persinger, Source 
 Hist., 334-352. — Hart, Contemporaries, HI. 130-136, 142-150; Pa- 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 243 
 
 triols and Slalesmeu, III. 327-383 passim, I\'. 13- 133. — James, Read- 
 ings, §§68, 69. — Johnston, Am. Oratiovs, II. 33-101. — MacDonald. 
 Doc. Source Book, nos. 71-80. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Chittenden, Am. Fur Trade. — Henty, With 
 Cochrane the Dauntless (Span. Am.). — Thayer, John Marshall. 
 
 Pictures. Wilson, Am. People, III. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 183) I. What were the principal elements of wealth on American 
 soil? 2. How were raw materials used? 3. What were internal im- 
 provements? (See also § 186.) 4. What were the principal lines of 
 foreign trade? 5. How did the vessel owners carry their goods? 
 
 (§ 184) 6. What was the tariff of 1816? 7. What was the object of a 
 protective tariff? 8. How did the sections and classes look on the tariff? 
 
 (§ 185) 9. How were corporations extended? 10. How were banks 
 useful to business? 11. What was the second United States Bank? 
 
 (§ 186) 12. How was the Erie Canal constructed? 13 (For an essay). 
 Accounts of early voyages on the Erie Canal. 
 
 (§ 187) 14. What were the principal roads to the West? 15. What 
 was Gallatin's plan for internal improvements? 16. How was the Cum- 
 berland Road constructed? 17 (For an essay). Accounts of early trips 
 on the Cumberland Road. 
 
 (§ 188) 18. How was the balance of free and slave states brought about? 
 (See also § 189.) 19. How and when was Indiana admitted to the Union? 
 20. How and when was Mississippi admitted? 21. How and when was 
 Illinois admitted? 22. How and when was Alabama admitted? 
 
 (§ 189) 23. How did opposition to slavery arise? 
 
 (§ 190) 24. What were the principal southern crops? 25. W'hat was 
 the cotton gin? 26. Why was cotton a good crop for the South? 27. 
 How were manufactures of cotton established? 
 
 (§ 191) 28. Why was there a controversy over making Missouri a sla\e 
 state? 29. W'hat was the Missouri Compromise? 
 
 (§ 192) 30. How did the Russians come into America? 31. What was 
 the Spanish American empire? 32. How was the Spanish power de- 
 stroyed? 33. What were the race elements in the Spanish American coun- 
 tries? 34. How did the United States look on the new Latin American 
 countries? 
 
 (§ 193) 35- How did the United States extend its territory southward? 
 36. How was the western boundary of Louisiana settled? 37. What was 
 the Holy Alliance? 38. How was England affected? 39. What was the 
 original Monroe Doctrine? 40. What has been its effect? 
 
 (§ 194) 41. How did John Quincy Adams become President? 42. 
 How did Andrew Jackson become President? 
 
244 
 
CHAPTER XVIII 
 
 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE (1829 1860) 
 
 196. The Three Sections (1830). — By 1830 the three 
 sections, North, South, and West (§ 172), had somewhat altered 
 and stood about as follows: 
 
 (i) The North included the six New England and four 
 middle states, with 5,500,000 inhabitants. It was much the 
 most thickly settled section, and had the greatest variety of 
 occupations, including most of the foreign trade, shipbuilding, 
 and manufactures. It 
 was well provided with 
 schools, newspapers, 
 libraries, colleges, and 
 like means of culture. 
 
 (2) The South in- 
 cluded Florida and the 
 eight states from Mary- 
 land to Louisiana, lying 
 on the ocean and gulf; 
 and also the interior 
 states of Kentuck\-, 
 Tennessee, and Mis- 
 souri, and the territory of Arkansas. Altogether the South con- 
 tained about 6,000,000 inhabitants. Villages and towns were 
 fewer than in the North, for most of the people li\ed in the open 
 country. About half the land that was tilled in the South 
 belonged to large slaveholding planters. However, a class 
 of white farmers worked their own land, especialh' in the 
 border states, lying next to the free states. The " mountain 
 whites " and the " poor whites," who in some states were 
 called " sand hillers," " red necks," or " hill billies," li\ed 
 mostly on poor land, in the old backwoods fashion, and raised 
 
 345 
 
 Wall Street magnates, about 1835, with the old watch- 
 dog of the Manhattan Company, a bank in the city 
 of New York 
 
246 
 
 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 hardly enough to feed and clothe their families. The South 
 had few manufactures, fisheries, mines, or shipyards; and as 
 the population was scattered it was hard to keep up schools, 
 roads, and other means of civilization. 
 
 (3) The West still included parts of New York and Penn- 
 sylvania, but consisted chiefly of the states of Ohio, Indiana, 
 and Illinois, to which were later added Michigan, Iowa, Wiscon- 
 sin, and Minnesota. In 1830 this West had 1,500,000 inhab- 
 itants. The states on the southwestern frontier felt themselves 
 part of the South, especially because the Mississippi River was 
 
 their outlet. The north- 
 ' ^ ' ' ' ' ' ' westerners also used that 
 
 river, but they enjoyed in 
 addition a direct route to . 
 the Atlantic Ocean through 
 the Erie Canal. Towns 
 and cities grew up rapidly 
 in the Northwest, and in 
 time its timber and coal 
 made it a manufacturing 
 section. The West adopted 
 the northern system of 
 schools and churches, and 
 shared in the northern de- 
 sire for a protective tariff 
 (§ 184). 
 
 197. Population. — The 
 rapid growth of the United 
 States is one of the wonders of the world. From 1790 to 1890 
 it doubled about every 25 years; there were about 4 millions 
 in 1790, about 8 millions in 1815, 16 millions in 1840, and 32 
 millions in 1865. Not all the sections grew equally fast. In 
 1830 the North and West had 7 millions, against 6 millions 
 in the South. This difference was due in part to a larger 
 natural increase in the North, and in part to the foreign 
 immigrants who settled there. 
 
 In 1830 only a fourteenth of the people lived in cities; and 
 of this " urban population " about five sixths was in the 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 NEGR 
 
 3.,.; 
 
 opul/ 
 
 
 
 
 4^ 
 
 Increase in population in the United States 
 from 1790 to 1870 
 
POPULATION AND IMMIGRATION 247 
 
 North. New York was the largest city, with o\er 240,000 
 people. Next came Philadelphia and Boston. The largest 
 southern cities were Baltimore (81,000), New Orleans (46,000), 
 Charleston, and St. Louis. The only sizable western city in 
 
 St. Louis about 1850 
 
 1830 was Cincinnati with 25,000. Chicago was a hamlet, 
 and Buffalo, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, and Detroit were still 
 small places. 
 
 198. Immigration. — The wage earners were increased by 
 immigration, which caused one of the greatest changes in the 
 history of the United States. Immigration from Europe never 
 entirely ceased; and when the figures were first recorded in 
 1821, it brought 10,000 a year; in 1830 the influx was about 
 23,000. The voyage from Ireland required only from three to 
 six weeks; and hard times there — especially the famine of 1846 
 — drove hundreds of thousands of the Irish people to seek 
 new homes over sea. About the same time Germans began to 
 come in large numbers, principally from northern and western 
 Germany. 
 
 In 1825 about fifty Scandinavians, called the " Sloop-folk," 
 made a direct voyage in a little vessel. Much later they were 
 followed by thousands from Norway, Sweden, and Denmark, 
 who found in Wisconsin and Minnesota a climate something 
 like that of their own countries. Englishmen and Scotchmen 
 easily made homes in America, and shared in the farm life, 
 town life, and church life of the descendants of the English 
 colonists. 
 
248 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 These immigrants were a boon to the country. They in- 
 cluded thousands of laborers who quickly found employment; 
 for there was work for everybody in clearing the forests, build- 
 ing roads and canals, putting up buildings, and manning ships 
 and factories. Many brought with them new ideas which the 
 country needed, on good roads, on public buildings, on private 
 dwellings, on amusements, on city life, on school and college 
 education, and on politics. 
 
 The Irish and part of the Germans preferred the cities, and 
 all the seaports and many of the interior cities soon contained 
 thousands of immigrants. Their influence was Httle felt in 
 the South, where cities and factories were few and where men 
 who worked with their hands feared that they would be classed 
 with the negro slave laborers. 
 
 199. Religion and Churches. — The great national church 
 organizations described in an earlier chapter (§ 134) continued; 
 but some new forms of worship were brought in by the immi- 
 grants, who were Swedish, Norwegian, and Danish Prot- 
 estants, German Lutherans, Scotch Free Presbyterians, and 
 other sects. The Catholics, whether English, French, Irish, 
 or German, at once became members of the national Catholic 
 Church. 
 
 Some of the old national churches were divided, and many 
 new local sects sprang up. The Presbyterian Church divided 
 into what were called the Old School and the New School; 
 ofT from the New School split a small antislavery body called 
 the Free Presbyterian Church. The Methodists split, because 
 of the slavery question, into the Methodist Church and the 
 Methodist Church South. 
 
 Out on the frontier, emotional religious methods were still 
 popular (§ 181). City churches grew rich, put up handsome 
 buildings, bought organs, stained-glass windows, and parson- 
 ages. Evangelists — that is, ministers or laymen who spent 
 their lives in trying to arouse people to lead a better life — went 
 through the country. Many other preachers were famed for 
 their eloquence and were leaders in reform. Among them 
 were Henry Ward Beecher of Brooklyn; Father Taylor, the 
 sailors' preacher of Boston; Charles G. Finney, the western 
 
CHURCHES AND COMMUNITIES 249 
 
 evangelist; Robert J. Breckinridge of Kentucky; and Arch- 
 bishop Hughes of New York. 
 
 The Roman Catholic Church had for centuries kept up 
 missions for the heathen (§ 38). In 1806 some students at 
 Williams College started the " Haystack Movement " for 
 Protestant missions — so named from the place of the first 
 conference. Church boards were formed, money was raised, 
 and missionaries were sent all over the world. They went to 
 Africa, to the Pacific Islands where almost the whole people 
 f)f the Hawaiian group forsook their idols, to India, to Turkey, 
 to China, and to the Indians in the West. The " home mis- 
 sionaries " worked in the struggling settlements on the frontier. 
 All sections — North, South, and West — took part in this 
 movement and hoped that within a hundred years the whole 
 world would turn to Christianity. 
 
 200. Communities and Brotherhoods. — A like spirit of 
 union and common effort was shown in societies and secret 
 orders. The Masons formed lodges before the Revolution, 
 and Washington was a member of the order. Against them 
 rose an Antimeisonic political party (1826) based on the idea 
 that the order was opposed to good and just government. 
 The Masons recovered from this attack, and other orders 
 sprang up alongside of it, such as the Independent Order of 
 Odd Fellows, the Druids, the Foresters, the Hibernians, the 
 Red Men, and the B'nai B'rith. There were also secret col- 
 lege societies, of which the Phi Beta Kappa was the first. 
 
 Another group of societies was engaged in reform work, 
 such as abolishing imprisonment for debt, securing the rights of 
 women, and especially promoting temperance. The Washing- 
 tonian societies were first in this field and their members 
 pledged themseK'cs to be moderate in using alcoholic drinks. 
 This was soon followed by a total-abstinence mo\ement, much 
 aided by the agitation of the Catholic Father Matthew and 
 by the order of Good Templars. The moxement reached the 
 state legislatures, and in 1851 the state of Maine passed the 
 " Maine Law " forbidding the sale of liquor to anybody. 
 
 Alongside the societies were individual reformers such as 
 Dorothea Dix, an angel of mercy who went from state to 
 
250 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 state, pleading with legislatures to treat the insane as sick 
 people who needed hospitals, and not as dangerous criminals 
 who must be kept in order by abuse and torture. 
 
 In many parts of the Union, " communities " were founded 
 (§ 55) ; that is, settlements of men and women who agreed to 
 live together, holding their property in common, and sharing 
 the proceeds of their labor. One of the best-known commu- 
 nities was Brook Farm near Boston, in which some of the 
 keenest-witted people of New England tried living together, 
 doing their own housework and farm work, and spending the 
 rest of their time in what they called " plain living and high 
 thinking." Nearly all these communities broke down, for the 
 inmates grew tired of living by rule and went back to their 
 own family life. 
 
 201. Morals and Crime. — Churches and reformers did not 
 save the country from crimes and punishments. Public whip- 
 ping and branding were still in use in a few southern states as 
 punishments for small offenses. In the national navy as well 
 as on merchant ships, sailors were tied up and whipped for 
 trivial acts. Prisoners were looked upon as a kind of public 
 enemy. Throughout the Union most of the prisons were abodes 
 of cruelty, except that in Pennsylvania there was a model 
 jail where each of the prisoners was put in a cell by himself. 
 
 The cities were very disorderly, for they had no regular 
 police, and desperate riots were frequent. In 1834 the Ursu- 
 line Convent near Boston was destroyed by a Protestant mob. 
 A favorite amusement of college students and of town boys was 
 to engage in " town and gown riots," which were a sort of 
 free fight. The name lynching, which was long applied only 
 to a whipping (§ 108), was now used to mean a killing. A mob 
 would seize a man whom they supposed to have committed a 
 crime and, without waiting for proof or for the action of the 
 courts, would put him to death, sometimes with dreadful tor- 
 tures. The first notable speech of young Abraham Lincoln 
 was a warning that lynchings broke down the sense of justice 
 and respect for law. 
 
 In all parts of the country weak and helpless people were ill- 
 treated. Children were severely whipped by their parents, 
 
LABOR 
 
 251 
 
 apprentices by their masters, sailors by their officers. Many 
 factory hands were overworked and underpaid. Children 
 were forced to work long hours. Convicts and the insane 
 were often fearfully abused. 
 
 202. Labor. — - The United States included many farmers, 
 sailors, shipowners, and large numbers of mechanics and fac- 
 tory hands. In New England the farmers' sons and daughters 
 came into the little mill towns, and ran the looms and other 
 mill machinery. Another large group was that of men em- 
 ployed in transportation, such as canal boatmen, teamsters, 
 
 An early labor parade by the butchers of Philadelphia 
 
 freight handlers and loaders, and roadmakers. Every year 
 new opportunities of many kinds were opened up for wage 
 earners. 
 
 Men and women had hard work in those days. Farmers 
 and their hired hands worked from sunrise to sunset, and the 
 ordinary time of workmen was from 72 to 84 hours a week. 
 Women and children often worked from 60 to 70 hours. 
 Wages were low; unskilled laborers could earn from 50 cents 
 to 75 cents a day; and carpenters and blacksmiths did well if 
 they made a dollar and a half. 
 
252 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 The factories were still small, but some kinds of work — 
 especially shoemaking — were sent out to New England farm- 
 ers, who finished up the shoes as winter work. In the South 
 and West, hand spinning and weaving were still common 
 (§ 178). Provisions were cheap, and the standard of living 
 for all classes was modest, so that workmen were better off 
 than their wages would seem to show. 
 
 In the South the negroes still carried on most of the trades, 
 such as the work of carpenters, masons, and blacksmiths. If 
 their master had no work for them on his own plantation, he 
 would hire them out to a neighbor or to an employer in 
 a town. For household tasks there was practically nobody 
 except negro slaves, and the only way to be sure of a cook or a 
 laundress was to buy her. There is even a tale that a negro 
 congregation once bought and paid for the minister that they 
 wanted. 
 
 Most of the slaves, whether men, women, or half-grown 
 children, were employed in the fields. The cost of their keep 
 was not heavy — not more than $15 to $25 a year each. 
 They ate coarse food, wore cheap clothing, and required no 
 extras except, perhaps, some presents at Christmas time. 
 But it cost a great deal of money to buy slaves. In 1830 
 they were worth' possibly an average of $350 each. When 
 working on rich new soil, such as was found in the " black 
 belt " of central Alabama or the bottoms of the Yazoo River, 
 slaves made money for their masters. But on poor land it 
 was hard for the planter to make both ends meet; two negro 
 slaves might do less work in a day than one hired white laborer 
 in the North. 
 
 203. Slave Life. — Slaves might be considered only a 
 special kind of laborers, but they were also a part of the whole 
 social system of the South. Most slaves were ignorant, though 
 kind-hearted mistresses and children would teach favorite 
 slaves to read and write. They usually had sufficient food, 
 but lived in poor and scanty quarters; a two-room house for 
 a family of eight or ten negroes was thought generous. The 
 slaves had some home life, but the members of a family might 
 be sold away from each other. 
 
SLAVERY 
 
 253 
 
 The slave had Httle reason for working hard and being 
 faithful. There was no promise of higher wages, for he had 
 no wages. A fugitive slave was once brought before a 
 judge and admitted that he had been well fed, well treated, 
 and never punished. " Then why did you run away? " asked 
 the judge. The reply was, " Well, massa, de situation am 
 vacant! " In other 
 words, he ran away 
 for the same rea- 
 sons that a white 
 man would have 
 run away; any 
 kind of freedom 
 was better to him 
 than the easiest 
 slavery. 
 
 It is not strange 
 that slaves were 
 sometimes cruelly 
 treated . I n those 
 days prisoners and 
 paupers were often 
 ill treated. The object of a master was to make his slaves work 
 and obey, whether they felt like it or not. If they refused, the 
 master or overseer had to flog them or let them be idle. Sen- 
 sible masters would not injure the value of a slave by too 
 severe punishment. 
 
 204. Abolitionists. — After 1830 the antislavery societies 
 and conventions of religious bodies in the South ceased to pro- 
 test against slavery, and the attack on it was transferred 
 to the North. " Emancipation " usually meant a slow and 
 gradual process of setting the slaves free. " Abolition " 
 meant setting them free immediately. In 1831 appeared the 
 most ardent abolitionist of the time, a young Massachusetts 
 printer named William Lloyd Garrison, who founded a news- 
 paper called the Liberator. In it he fiercely and often un- 
 reasonably attacked slaveholders, whether they were bad 
 masters or good masters. " On this subject." said Garrison, 
 
 Old slave huts at the Hermitage Plantation, Savannah, 
 Georgia 
 
254 
 
 THE AIMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 " I do not wish to think or speak or write with modera- 
 tion." 
 
 Three sectional groups of aboHtionists soon appeared: (i) 
 Garrison organized a national antislavery society, principally 
 of New England people. He was joined by John G. Whittier, 
 the poet; Charles Sumner, later a Senator; Wendell Phillips, 
 a remarkable orator; Lucretia Mott, a Quakeress; and many 
 others. Garrison went so far as to argue that the North ought 
 to secede from the Union, so as to get away from what he 
 thought was the sin of slavery. His movement was very un- 
 popular, the more so because women joined in the meetings 
 and made speeches. 
 
 (2) Some of the abolitionists in the middle states broke 
 away in 184O and formed a separate antislavery society. 
 Among them was Gerrit Smith of Peterboro, New York, a 
 wealthy man who gave large tracts of land to freed negroes. 
 This group of abolitionists kept up newspapers and meetings 
 of their own, and they stood by the Union, but thought it 
 ought to be a Union free from slavery. 
 
 1839.) 
 
 And- Slavery Almanac. 
 
 THE NATIONS ACT. MAN AUCTION AT THE CAPITAL. A FREEMAN SOLD 
 
 Part of a page in an early antislavery almanac 
 
 (3) Another group of abolitionists appeared in the West, 
 especially among settlers from New England. The Western 
 Reserve of northern Ohio sent to Congress Joshua R. Gid- 
 
ABOLITION 255 
 
 dings, who was the first out-and-out abolitionist in Congress. 
 Salmon P. Chase became an aboUtionist leader; and in the 
 northern part of Ohio and Indiana, antislavery men became 
 active in the movement. 
 
 205. Abolition in Congress. — All three groups of abo- 
 litionists were quick to see that the best place to attack slavery 
 was in Congress, and about 1836 they began to send in peti- 
 tions asking Congress to do away with slavery in the District 
 of Columbia. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina became 
 the chief defender of slavery, and he took the ground that 
 " slavery was a good, a positive good," and that for any 
 member of Congress to say it was wrong was an insult to the 
 slaveholders. 
 
 Some of the northern members took that view and united 
 with southern members to pass a series of " Gag Resolutions " 
 (1836-1844), under which no antislavery petition could be 
 read or discussed in Congress. Ex-President John Quincy 
 Adams, who had never before been an antislavery man, be- 
 came the champion of the right of the abolitionists, or any- 
 body else, to hold public meetings, send petitions, and discuss 
 slavery in Congress or outside. 
 
 206. Summary. — This chapter describes the American 
 people, their numbers, races, and social life, and the system 
 of slavery. 
 
 Of the three sections of the United States in 1830, North, 
 South, and West, the North was the most thickly settled, 
 had the greatest wealth and the greatest variety of business. 
 The national population was doubling every twenty-five 
 years, and large cities were growing up. The South included 
 the three classes of free farmers, slaveholders, and poor whites. 
 The West resembled the North. Foreign immigrants began 
 to come in by the thousands, especially Irish, Germans, and 
 Scandinavians. 
 
 Some of the old national churches divided and some new 
 ones appeared. Efforts were made by both Catholics and 
 Protestants to spread Christianity to other parts of the world. 
 Many communities, brotherhoods, and fraternal orders were 
 organized. It was a period of reform movements, especially 
 
256 THE AMERICAN PEOPLE 
 
 for temperance and the humane care of prisoners and the 
 insane. The punishment of criminals and offenders was still 
 cruel, and riots and mobs were frequent. 
 
 Opportunities for free laborers increased, but the hours were 
 long and many children were employed. The southern labor 
 in the fields and on plantations was done largely by negro 
 slaves. Most of them lived poorly and some of them fell into 
 the hands of cruel overseers or owners. 
 
 An antislavery movement arose in the North, led by active 
 abolitionists, especially William Lloyd Garrison. One or two 
 abolitionists appeared in Congress, and John C. Calhoun came 
 forward as the principal defender of slavery. An effort was 
 made by resolutions of Congress to prevent a discussion of 
 the subject in either house. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Garrison, Westward Extension. — MacDonald, Jacksotiian De- 
 mocracy. — Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, no. 14. — Smith, Parties and Slavery. 
 
 Histories. Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, 50-56, 132-146, 161-168, 
 208-229. — Hart, Slavery and Abolition. — MacDonald, From Jefferson 
 to Lincoln, ch. iv. — Smith, Parties and Slavery, chs. xix, xx. — Sparks, 
 Expansion of Am. People, chs. xxiv, xxxi-xxxiii. — Tappan, England's 
 and America's Literature, 286-363. — Turner, Rise of New West, chs. i-iv. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 358, 387-395, 435- 
 438, 450. — Harding, Select Orations, nos. 16, 17. — Hart, Contemporaries, 
 HI. 1-51-157, 169-184, IV. §§23-28; Source Book, §§94-101. — James, 
 Readings, §§ 76, 81. — Johnston, Am. Orations, H. 102-122, 219-267. — 
 Old South Leaflets, nos. 78-81, 137-141, 148, 180, 195. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Bates, Martin Brook. — Cable, Old Creole 
 Days. — Carr, Illini (Illinois). — Clemens (Mark Twain), Huckleberry 
 Finn. — Dickens, Am. Notes. — Eggleston, Graysons. — Longstreet, Geor- 
 gia. — Sedgwick, Hope Leslie. — Smedes, Southern Planter. — Tourgee, 
 Button's Inn (Mormons). 
 
 Pictures. Mentor, serial nos. 2, 77, 106, 109. — Sparks, Expansion of 
 Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, lY. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 196) I. What were the sections of the Union about 1830? 2. What 
 were the interests and occupations of the North in 1830? 3. What were 
 the conditions and occupations of the South? 4. What were the con- 
 ditions and occupations of the West? 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 257 
 
 (§ 197) 5- How latil did the population ol the United States increase? 
 6. What were the principal cities in 1830? 
 
 (§ 198) 7- How and why did immigration start up? 8. How were the 
 immigrants distributed? 9 (For an essay). An immigrant voyage. 
 
 (§199) 10. What churches were brought by the immigrants? 11. How 
 were some of the old churches divided? 12. W'hat was the influence of 
 tlu' evangelists and other ministers? 13. What was the movement for 
 home and foreign missions? 14 (For an essay). Missions to the Sand- 
 wich Islands. ^ 
 
 (§ 200) 15. How did secret orders and societies grow up? 16. What 
 was the temperance agitation and what did it bring about? 17. What 
 improvement was made in the treatment of the insane? 18. What were 
 the "communities" and how did they succeed? 19 (For an essay). Life 
 at Brook Farm. 
 
 (§ 201) 20. What were ordinary punishments for offenders and crimi- 
 nals? 21. How was order kept in the cities? 22. How were the weak and 
 ilependent often treated? 
 
 (§ 202) 23. What were the occupations, wages, and conditions of wage 
 earners? 24. How were sla\'es used outside of farm work? 25. Why was 
 slavery profitable? 
 
 (§ 203) 26. How did slaves live under usual conditions? 27 (For an 
 essay). On a cotton plantation; or a rice plantation. 
 
 (§ 204) 28. What were emancipation and abolition? 29. What was 
 the Garrison group of abolitionists? 30. What was the middle state 
 group? 31. What was the western group? 32 (For an essay). Ac- 
 counts of abolition meetings. 
 
 (§ 205) 33. How did the al)olition agitation get into Congress? 34. 
 What were the Gag Resolutions? 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — IS 
 
CHAPTER XIX 
 
 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS (1829-1841) 
 
 207. Revival of Party Spirit. — In 1829 the people in the 
 United States were divided on much the same lines as in 1793 
 (§ 144). Part of the voters expected the federal government to 
 be active in opening up the country and aiding the business 
 interests. Another part thought that business men could take 
 care of themselves, or that whatever was necessary for their 
 aid and protection could best be done by the states. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 The American " clipper ship " Th( Guide, built at Salem, Massachusetts. Sailed by 
 Capt. Horace B. Putnam. Clipper ships were much used from 1840 to 1855 
 
 The shipowners and manufacturers of the New England and 
 the middle states felt the need of federal laws favorable to their 
 business. Those who were opposed to that policy lived mostly 
 in the farming and planting regions, particularly in the South. 
 The West had so many needs of its own and such a lively spirit 
 that it inclined toward the idea of action by the national 
 government. 
 
ANDREW JACKSON 259 
 
 The older part of the country beHeved in Hamilton's idea 
 that government ought to be carried on by a class of trained 
 public men, who could decide on a public policy (§ 143). Those 
 who believed in Jefferson's doctrine of the wisdom of the 
 people at large, expected the people to find out what they 
 wanted for themselves. Many of this group feared to place 
 great power in the hands of the President and the members of 
 the House and the Senate; and they were very much afraid of 
 the influence of the new President Andrew Jackson. 
 
 208. Andrew Jackson (1767-1845). — Notwithstanding his 
 humble beginnings among the rough people of western South 
 Carolina, Jackson became a lawyer, a judge, and a well-to-do 
 planter in Tennessee. His mansion, which he called " The 
 Hermitage," still stands near Nashville. He was twice for a 
 short time a Senator of the United States, and he had large 
 experience as a commander in the Indian wars, as the defender 
 of New Orleans (§ 167), and as a general in the United States 
 army. 
 
 In person, Jackson was rather pleasing, tall, spare, well 
 dressed, and had a piercing eye. He deserved the nickname 
 of " Old Hickory," which his friends gave him because of his 
 strength and toughness. He was polite to ladies, and his 
 affection for Mrs. Jackson was such that he was ready to 
 quarrel with any one who spoke ill of her, or of any other 
 lad\-. Jackson liked to quarrel, and in the early part of his 
 life fought two duels. On the other hand he had warm 
 friends: Martin Van Buren, the political boss of the state of 
 New York, admired him and stood by him; Thomas H. 
 Benton, Senator from Missouri, with whom Jackson once had 
 a rough-and-tumble fight, became one of his strongest sup- 
 porters. 
 
 Jackson was elected President because he seemed to stand 
 for the plain people, and especially for the westerners and the 
 frontiersmen in the eastern states. He always made up his 
 mind quickly, and then stood by his decisions. He had the 
 frontier feeling that business men were too powerful in politics, 
 and that the federal government ought not to be mixed up 
 with them. The United States Bank with its capital of 
 
26o 
 
 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS 
 
 J^35.«oo,ooo seemed to some shrewd observers to be a public 
 danger; and Jackson shared in that feeling. 
 
 209. The Triumvirs. — Among other great statesmen of 
 Jackson's time perhaps the ablest was John Quincy Adams. 
 He came back into Congress after his defeat for reelection as 
 President (§ 194), but was never a party leader. The most 
 famous statesmen of this epoch were Clay, Webster, and 
 Calhoun, all of whom bitterly opposed Jackson, In recent 
 
 years they are often called 
 the "Triumvirs"; that is, 
 the three great leaders. 
 
 Henry Clay of Kentucky 
 was a westerner, and he had 
 the natural ability to make 
 friends by what we call 
 " personal magnetism." For 
 nearly forty years he was a 
 great figure in Congress, and 
 six times he was Speaker 
 of the House. Clay was 
 a strong debater and was 
 called the " Great Pacifi- 
 cator," because several times 
 during his career he drew 
 up compromises which were 
 adopted by Congress to dis- 
 pose of vexing questions. 
 Daniel Webster first came to Congress from New 
 Hampshire in 18 13; later he moved to Massachusetts, and 
 for several long periods was a Senator from that state. 
 Webster had a massive head which people used to com- 
 pare with the Great Stone Face up in the White Moun- 
 tains. He was the finest public speaker of his time, 
 having a superb voice and a choice of simple and telling 
 words that carried his meaning to every hearer. Webster 
 made many warm personal friends but somehow never 
 was popular outside of New England, perhaps because 
 he was careless and extravagant in money matters. He 
 
 Daniel Webster, 1 782-1852 
 
GREAT STATESMEN 26 1 
 
 joined with Clay in building up an anti-Jackson party, and to 
 the end of his life vainly hoped that he might be President. 
 
 John C. Calhoun was the most acute and sharp-witted of the 
 three men. He was a planter and slaveholder in South Caro- 
 lina, and therefore he was one of the most eager members of 
 Congress infavorof the bank and tariff actsof i8i6 (§§ 184, 185), 
 expecting that the South would set up factories with slave 
 labor. When it proved that the plan was hopeless, he turned 
 sharply around, opposed the tariff, and became the great 
 defender of slavery. He was at first a personal friend and 
 supporter of Jackson, but in 1830 he quarreled with the 
 President and became a strong anti-Jackson man. He could 
 not bear to walk in party harness, and during the latter part of 
 his life was a sort of independent in politics. He was always a 
 l)old and far-seeing statesman, who loved the Union but felt 
 that the Union must not come into conflict with the interests 
 of the South. 
 
 210. The Spoils System (1829-1837). — As soon as Jackson 
 became President he began to use his power of removal from 
 otifice to get rid of the Adams men whom he found in the 
 government service. All the minor officials were appointed 
 by the heads of departments and could be removed by them 
 (§151). The pay of most of these people was small, but govern- 
 ment places were supposed to be for life. 
 
 A New York politician, Marcy, about this time said in a 
 public speech that in politics " to the victor belong the spoils 
 of the enemy." He meant that whenever the political party 
 that was " out " defeated the political party that was " in," 
 the public officials ought to be dismissed, so that their places 
 might go to the friends of the victors. Many Americans had 
 come to believe in " rotation in office "; that is, that elective 
 officers and even clerks and other minor employees of the 
 states and the national government ought to serve only for a 
 short time. 
 
 Jackson did not accept this doctrine of rotation of minor 
 offices; but his friends persuaded him that the service was full 
 of dishonest and incompetent men. Martin \'an Buren, who 
 was a master of party politics, became his Secretary of State. 
 
262 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS 
 
 Whenever Jackson or his secretaries dismissed an official, they 
 appointed their own friend or a friend of their friends to the 
 vacancy. This is what is called " the introduction of the 
 spoils system into the national civil service." 
 
 The Jackson workers throughout the Union expected a 
 change; and a pilgrimage of office seekers descended upon 
 Washington. Many were editors of newspapers that had 
 favored Jackson. When the applicants were strangers to 
 him, Jackson had to take the advice of the heads of his de- 
 partments, or of a group of special friends commonly called 
 the " Kitchen Cabinet." Some of his choices were very bad, 
 particularly Swartwout, collector of the port of New York, 
 who stole more than a million dollars. Jackson dismissed 
 about a third of the men holding important offices; and 
 probably more than half the clerks, postmasters, and custom- 
 house employees went out of office in the same fashion. 
 Thenceforward for fifty years all the officers and employees of 
 the government, from heads of departments to scrub women, 
 were in danger of removal whenever a new President came in. 
 
 211. Jackson and the Bank (1829-1836). — The largest 
 business institution in the country was the United States 
 Bank (§ 185), a big, well managed concern, which paid good 
 dividends. The federal government deposited its funds in 
 the bank, which therefore always held several millions of gov- 
 ernment money. The head of the bank was Nicholas Biddle 
 of Philadelphia, the great financial magnate of that period. 
 
 Jackson, though well " accustomed to doing business with 
 banks, felt uneasy: he thought the states ought to control all 
 the banking business; he feared that the United States Bank 
 sooner or later would go into politics and try to control 
 elections. He therefore vetoed a bill to continue the bank 
 after the expiration of its charter in 1836. On this issue Clay 
 was nominated for the presidency (1832) by the opponents of 
 Jackson, who called themselves National Republicans. Jack- 
 son was easily reelected President over Clay. 
 
 Feeling that the people were behind him, the next year 
 Jackson stopped depositing public money in the bank. The 
 bank's friends fought as well as they could; but when the 
 
GREAT ISSUES 263 
 
 federal charter expired in 1836, the bank had to give up busi- 
 ness as a government concern. 
 
 212. Tariff and Nullification (1829-1832). — Another storm 
 center in politics was the tariff, which was very unpopular in 
 the South (§ 194). The planters did not make cotton goods 
 but sold their raw cotton to the manufacturers, and were 
 convinced that the tariff made them pay higher prices for what 
 they bought. A new tariff in 1832 was somewhat lower, but 
 was still protective. 
 
 South Carolina headed a movement against the tariff, and 
 John C. Calhoun worked out the " nullification doctrine," that 
 a protective tariff, not being for the " general welfare," was 
 against the Constitution; the tariff acts were contrary to the 
 higher law (§ 116) and were therefore no law at all. Calhoun 
 and his friends hoped that the President would take their side, 
 but Jackson was not the man to admit that any state could 
 ignore an act of Congress; and at a public dinner in 1830, 
 he offered the toast, " Our Federal Union: it must be 
 preserved." 
 
 In 1832 South Carolina passed a solemn Nullification Ordi- 
 nance, which declared that the tariff acts "are unauthorized 
 by the Constitution of the United States . . . and are null, 
 void, and no law, nor binding upon this state, its officers, or 
 citizens." 
 
 213. Union and State Rights (1830-1833). — ^The discus- 
 sion on this question of state rights led to a famous debate 
 between Senator Hayne of South Carolina and Daniel Web- 
 ster (1830). Hayne asserted that the Constitution was a 
 "compact" between the states of the Union; that is, an 
 agreement, like a contract made between persons. He con- 
 sidered that the federal government was not an independent 
 government at all, but simply an " agent " to carry out the 
 will of the states. 
 
 This doctrine, if pushed far enough, would include the right 
 of a state to " secede "; that is, to leave the Union altogether. 
 Neither Senator Hayne nor Calhoun went into that question; 
 all they said was that a state could "nullify" a particular 
 act of Congress, and still remain in the Union. 
 
264 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS 
 
 Webster took the opposite ground: he held that the Con- 
 stitution is " the people's Constitution, the people's govern- 
 ment, made for the people, made by the people, and answerable 
 to the people." He insisted that the Supreme Court of the 
 United States had the right to decide whether any act of 
 Congress was according to the higher law of the Constitution, 
 and argued that the Union was not an agent, but a government 
 which.no state could alter or disregard. 
 
 Jackson favored sending troops to Charleston. On the 
 suggestion of Henry Clay, a compromise tarifT was passed 
 (1833), by which the duties were slowly to be reduced to a 
 point where they would give very little protection to American 
 manufacturers. This was a victory for South Carolina, be- 
 cause the policy of protection to manufacturers was thus given 
 up for the time by the federal government. It was also a vic- 
 tory for Jackson and Webster, because they called public 
 attention to their point that the Union was superior to the 
 states. It was a happy settlement of a contest that might 
 have broken the Union in two. 
 
 214. Democratic and Whig Parties (1832-1841). — Jackson 
 was now known throughout the land to be a supporter of the 
 Union, a foe to the United States Bank, and no special friend 
 of protective tariffs. When Congress tried to spend federal 
 funds on internal improvements (§ 186), Jackson came out 
 against that policy, because he was sure that a good part 
 of the money would be spent for roads and canals of only 
 local benefit. And the states were quite able to build 
 canals for themselves, as New York and others were doing 
 (§§186,229). 
 
 When Jackson believed in anything, he expected his friends 
 in Congress to do the same. Those who accepted his princi- 
 ples on the bank, the -tariff, and internal improvements, at 
 first called "Jackson men," gradually drew together into a 
 new party, the Democratic party, founded on the idea that 
 the federal government ought not to use its power in aid of 
 private business. When Jackson's second term was expiring, 
 he put forward his friend, Van Buren, who was easily elected 
 President by that party (1836), and stood by its principles. 
 
TEXAS 
 
 265 
 
 The anti-Jackson men, of whom Clay and Webster were the 
 strongest, insisted on the three things which Jackson most 
 opposed : a national bank, a high tariff, and internal improve- 
 ments. In 1834 those who thought as these leaders did gave 
 themselves the name of Whigs, and soon became a great 
 national party. The principles of the 
 two parties were very much like those 
 of the old Federalist party and the old 
 Jeffersonian Republican party (§ 144). 
 
 Both parties spread throughout the 
 Union, and remained rivals in state 
 and national politics for the next 
 twenty-five years. Both parties set up 
 newspaper organs and national and 
 state party committees, and worked 
 to bring out the vote when elections 
 came. Both parties used the offices, 
 whether state, city, or national, to help 
 them in their campaigns. Both parties 
 adopted platforms and called upon the 
 voters to save the country from " the 
 other fellows." 
 
 215. Texas (1821-1837). — After 
 Mexico became independent in 1821 
 (§ 192), Moses Austin of Connecticut 
 secured a land grant from Mexico in the 
 district of Texas. Under the leadership 
 of his son, Stephen F. Austin, several 
 thousand Americans went down there, ^'*es of the Republic of 
 
 ^ 1 r ^ I ^1 , . Texas. The first two flags 
 
 mostly from the southern states, many „ere in use in 1836. The 
 
 of them taking slaves. The Mexican twrd flag was adopted jan- 
 
 1,1 1 If- ^^^ 25, 1839 
 
 go\ernment was both weak and unfair, 
 
 and in 1836 the Texans, following the example of the American 
 Revolution, declared themselves independent. 
 
 The Mexican President. General Santa Anna, came over 
 with a little army to subdue them; and his soldiers brutally 
 killed in cold blood a few prisoners made at the fort of the 
 Alamo (now in the city of San Antonio) and about 300 more 
 
266 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS 
 
 taken near the post of Goliad. A few weeks later the Texans, 
 under General Samuel Houston, defeated and captured Santa 
 Anna (1835), and set an example of a generous spirit by 
 granting him his life. 
 
 The Texans at once asked the United States to take them 
 into the Union, and Jackson would have been willing; but there 
 were strong objections from northerners who did not want 
 more slaveholding territory. All that was done was to 
 recognize Texas as an independent republic, with its " lone- 
 star flag " (1837). For eight years it made its own laws, and 
 negotiated treaties with other countries. 
 
 216. Commercial Panic of 1837. — From 1829 to 1837 was 
 a time of great speculation throughout the country. Since 
 anybody could buy public lands in any quantity for $1.25 an 
 acre, vast sums were spent in the purchase of lands, with the 
 hope of reselling them for higher prices. In two years 
 $40,000,000 poured into the Land Office, not a penny of which 
 was needed for government expenses. This money was depos- 
 ited in state banks, which lent a good part of it to speculators. 
 
 Something had to be done with the accumulated money, 
 and Jackson, much against his will, agreed to a Deposit Act 
 to distribute $36,000,000 among the states. When this money 
 was required from the banks in 1837, they called in part of 
 the money lent to business men. When this money could 
 not be collected, suddenly the whole country was in the midst 
 of the worst commercial panic that it has ever seen. Probably 
 four out of every five of the business men, however rich, 
 could not raise money and became bankrupt. All the banks, 
 even the soundest, " suspended specie payments"; that is, de- 
 clined to redeem their own circulating notes in specie (§ 185). 
 The importing houses stopped bringing in goods; hence the 
 import duties fell off, and the United States government could 
 not pay its bills without borrowing money. 
 
 The fields, mines, factories, buildings, ships, and steamboats 
 were not destroyed, and the main loss was in the breaking up 
 of business connections, and the lowering of the high values 
 which had been put upon property and land. In a few years 
 the country was more prosperous than ever. 
 
PANIC OF 1837 267 
 
 217. Summary. — In this chapter we see how, under the 
 powerful inlluence of Andrew Jackson and other great states- 
 men, two new political parties were founded; and we learn of 
 the decisions that were made upon the great questions of the 
 civil service, banks, tarifif, and nullification. 
 
 The old division of the people between those who favored 
 vigorous government and those who would rather rely on 
 individual effort was repeated. Jackson was set in his ways 
 and prone to hate those who opposed him ; yet he was a great 
 figure. Besides him, the great statesmen were John Quincy 
 Adams, Clay, Webster, and Calhoun. 
 
 Almost without knowing it, Jackson introduced the spoils 
 system into the federal government, by treating the ofiices 
 as rewards to the party workers. The United States Bank 
 was ojjposed by him because he thought it what we should call 
 a dangerous monopoly. Nullification was opposed because 
 the nullifiers set themselves against his authority, and because 
 Jackson was naturally in favor of a strong central go\'ernment. 
 In the nullification controversy Webster made a famous argu- 
 ment for the rights and powers of the Union. On the tarifif 
 Jackson was satisfied with the compromise of 1833, which 
 gave up the system of high protection for American industries. 
 
 The Whig and Democratic parties were formally organized, 
 the principal issues between them being the bank, the tariff, 
 and internal improvements. 
 
 Jackson was not able to bring about the annexation of 
 Texas. Speculation and the so-called Deposit Act for turning 
 the surplus over to the states, led the way to a commercial 
 panic in 1837. Business was for a time fearfully injured, but 
 after a few years the country recovered its prosperity. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Slavery and Abolition. — MacDonald, Jac^50wiaH Democ- 
 racy. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 202, 203. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 392-426, 432-435. — Elson, Side Lights, 
 I. chs. xi, xii. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., chs. xi-xv. — Garrison, West- 
 ward Extension, chs. vi, vii. — Hart, Slavery and Abolition, ch. xx. — 
 MacDonald, From Jefferson to Lincoln, 44-62, 82-88. — Wilson, Division 
 and Reunion, §§ 7, 12-51, 57, 58. 
 
268 NEW PARTIES AND POLITICS 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 24, 30. — Caldwell and Persinger, 
 Source Hist., 354-358, 361-377. — Hart, Contemporaries, III. 158-164, 
 185, 186; Patriots and Statesmen, IV. 135-341 passim. — Johnston, Am. 
 Orations, I. 233-334, IV. 202-237. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, 
 nos. 44-68, 81-95; Select Docs., nos. 44-65. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Barr, She Loved a Sailor. — - Brown, Andrew 
 Jackson. — Davis, Letters of J. Downing (Satire). — Dillon, Patience of 
 John Morland (Jackson). — Hapgood, Daniel Webster. — Kendall, Auto- 
 biography. — Munroe, With Crockett and Bowie (Texas). — Otis, Philip 
 of Texas. — Quincy, Figures of the Past. — Scollard, Ballads of Am. 
 Bravery, 48-53. 
 
 Pictures. Mentor, serial no. 127. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People. 
 — Wilson, Am. People, IV. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 207) I. What was the main division of party sentiment in 1829.'' 
 2. How did the different sections look on federal aid to business? 3. How 
 did the East look on popular government? 
 
 (§ 208) 4. What sort of man was Andrew Jackson? 5. How did he 
 look on the business questions of his time? 6 (For an essay). Account 
 of a visit to Andrew Jackson. 
 
 (§ 209) 7. Who were the principal national statesmen from 1830 to 
 1850? 8 (For an essay). Account of Henry Clay; or Daniel W'ebster; 
 or John C. Calhoun. 
 
 (§ 210) 9. How did President Jackson deal with appointments to 
 office? ID. What is meant by "the spoils system"? 11. What is ro- 
 tation in office? 12. What was the Kitchen Cabinet? 13. What efTect 
 did Jackson's appointments have on the public service? 
 
 (§211) 14. What was the relation of the government to the United 
 States Bank? 15. What did Jackson think of the bank? 
 
 (§ 212) 16. Why was the South opposed to a protective tariff? 17. 
 How did South Carolina express disapproval? 18. What was nullification? 
 
 (§213) 19. What was Hayne's theory of the Constitution? 20. What 
 was Webster's doctrine? 21. How was the nullification controversy 
 settled? 
 
 (§ 214) 22. Why did Jackson object to federal internal improvements? 
 23. How was the Jacksonian Democratic party founded? 24. How was 
 the Whig party founded? 25. What were their political methods? 
 
 (§ 215) 26. How was Texas settled by Americans? 27. How did the 
 Texans secure their independence? 28. How did the United States look 
 on the new republic of Texas? 
 
 (§ 216) 29. How did the public lands affect the business of the country? 
 30. What was the Deposit Act? 31. What was the cause of the com- 
 mercial panic of 1837? 
 
CHAPTER XX 
 NEW BUSINESS METHODS (1829-1860) 
 
 218. Land (1830-1860). — F"rom 1830 to i860 was a good 
 time for wide-awake men and women. The poor settler in the 
 backwoods might live to see his farm worth thousands of 
 dollars. The day laborer often came to be the owner of a great 
 factory. The small dealer might become a wholesaler or 
 a banker. 
 
 One of the reasons for this prosperity was the abundance of 
 good farming land. It was the policy of the federal govern- 
 ment to get rid of its lands as soon as possible. Therefore, 
 bounty lands were given to soldiers of the various wars. 
 Down to 1850 one section, or square mile, in every thirty-six 
 was turned over to each new state for the support of schools; 
 after that time each got two sections. Vast areas were given 
 to states as funds for internal improvements, especially canals; 
 this avoided the objection to Congress's voting money for the 
 purpose. 
 
 It was felt that the settlers were rather neglected by this 
 policy, and therefore a Preemption Act was passed (1841) by 
 which the first chance at the lands was reserved for them. 
 Any head of a family, widow, single man, or single woman 
 over twenty-one years of age, might once in a lifetime buy 
 160 acres of land for $200. A strong and plucky man, with 
 a few head of stock, and provisions to last during the first 
 winter, could support himself and family almost from the start. 
 This generous policy drew hundreds of thousands of natives 
 and foreign immigrants into the West. In one year (1854) 
 430,000 foreigners landed at the ports of the United States, 
 and they hastened the growth of new states like Missouri, 
 Iowa, and Minnesota. 
 
 269 
 
270 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 219. Northern Farming (1830-1860). — In every northern 
 and western state the landowning farming famiHes at this 
 period made up the most numerous class. They kept horses 
 for farm work, and cattle and hogs, which gave the families a 
 milk and meat diet; and their surplus butter and cheese found 
 a ready sale. Happy the boy or girl who could sit at a farmer's 
 table and share in its chicken, turkey, beef, and ham; its 
 potatoes, squashes, beets, and corn; its fruit, preserves, buck- 
 wheat cakes, mince pies, maple sirup, and cream gravy! 
 
 Along the northern belt from Vermont to Minnesota, wheat 
 was a valuable crop; wheat and flour were easily carried to the 
 seacoast for shipment, by canals, railroads, and the Mis- 
 sissippi River. Immense quantities of hay were put up for 
 the winter. Tobacco was a good crop in Connecticut and 
 Pennsylvania. Indian corn could be grown anywhere, but the 
 corn belt of central Illinois and Iowa proved to be especially 
 rich. The hogs, cattle, and horses enriched the land, and the 
 surplus animals could always be turned into cash. 
 
 The northern farmers were happy and wide-awake. They 
 had many churches, literary societies, Sunday schools, acad- 
 emies, books, and newspapers; they made journeys, and 
 laid by money from year to year. 
 
 220. Southern Farming. — The farming conditions of the 
 border states (§ 196) were much like those of the North; but 
 in the "cotton states" the whole system was different. 
 Many food crops could be grown there to advantage, and 
 immense quantities of corn were grown; but it was cheaper 
 to raise cotton and buy part of the food from the outside. 
 Quantities of salt meat and hog products were bought from 
 the packing houses of the northwestern states. 
 
 Cotton had large value in small bulk. Banks and cotton 
 buyers would advance money to the planter on the security 
 of the next crop that he was going to raise; and when his 
 crop was sold and his debts paid, he had little left for the 
 next year and was soon in debt again. Hence many planters 
 could not get ahead, and the big planters who made the most 
 money could buy out their poor neighbors, who migrated 
 westward or were pushed back on poor land. 
 
FARMING AND MANUFACTURING 
 
 271 
 
 221. Manufactures (1815-1860). — From the beginning of 
 the colonies, manufactured goods were made in the home 
 (§§ 82, 178), or else in small workshops, such as the blacksmith's 
 or tanner's, employing a few men. After 1830 most of the 
 goods produced in the United States were meide by bringing 
 together workmen and workwomen into buildings and groups 
 of buildings. There, aided by machines, they produced goods 
 on a large scale, intended for sale far and wide (§ 183). 
 
 This so-called " factory system " of making textiles was 
 not possible until the invention of machines, first for spinning 
 thread and then for weaving cloth. Shortly before the Revo- 
 lution, an Englishman named Hargreaves invented the "spin- 
 ning jenny," which 
 would twist a thread 
 out of flax, or wool, 
 or cotton; then Ark- 
 wright invented a 
 spinning frame, and 
 Cartwright invented 
 a power loom which 
 would weave such 
 threads into cloth. 
 These machines were 
 introduced into the 
 United States about 
 the year 1790. 
 
 Some factories ran by water power; but steam engines were 
 improved (§ 177) and could be used to advantage near cheap 
 wood or coal. Under the protective tariff" of 1816 and later 
 (§212) the American mills had an advantage; and after a 
 lower tariff" was passed in 1846, they were still able to hold 
 their own and increase. By i860 there were over 2000 cotton 
 and woolen mills, turning out a product worth nearly 200 
 million dollars every year. 
 
 The building of machines and railroads caused every branch 
 of iron manufacture to flourish. Raw iron is made in a fur- 
 nace by mixing iron ore, limestone, and a fuel, which for a 
 long time was charcoal. Air is forced in by a blower; the 
 
 Arkwright's first spinning frame. This machine made 
 a harder and stronger thread than the " jenny " 
 
272 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 t 
 intense heat causes the Hmestone to combine with the earthy 
 part of the ore and leaves Hquid iron, which is then run off into 
 bars about two and a half feet long, called " pigs." About 
 1840 it was found that anthracite (hard coal) could be used 
 instead of charcoal; and a little later the Clay Furnace in 
 western Pennsylvania was the first to use bituminous or soft 
 coal for the same purpose. The cheap fuel made pig iron 
 cheap. Nowadays coke made from soft coal is the usual fuel. 
 
 Cheap pig iron gave business to the rolling mills, which 
 melted the pig iron and worked it over in a special furnace into 
 lumps of tough wrought iron, which were then rolled into bars, 
 or wire, or railroad iron. Cheap wrought iron helped the 
 manufacture of hardware, tools, axes, nails, and the parts of 
 looms and engines. 
 
 222. Mining. — Soft coal had been mined in a small way in 
 western Pennsylvania for many years, and now the magnifi- 
 cent hard coal deposits of eastern Pennsylvania came into use. 
 Bituminous or soft coal was eventually found in almost every 
 state south of the Great Lakes. Steam engines made it pos- 
 sible to keep deep mines free from water. Little tramways 
 were built in the mines, and some of them ran a few miles to 
 a canal or a railroad. Girls never worked in the mines, but 
 many thousands of boys were employed. 
 
 In course of time rich iron mines were found near Lake 
 Superior (about i860), from which the ore could be shipped 
 down to Lake Erie. To meet the ore, coal was brought to 
 such towns as Erie and Cleveland, which grew into cities. 
 Pittsburgh shared in this prosperity. 
 
 The first gold miners in the Rocky Mountains and in Cali- 
 fornia worked " placers "; that is, the deposits of gold-bearing 
 gravel in the beds of streams. They would build a flume of tim- 
 ber to carry the water around the bed of the stream, and then 
 could dig down to the bed rock where they found gold dust and 
 nuggets. Within five years after the discovery of gold, most of 
 the placers were worked out, and miners began to follow back to 
 find the quartz veins from which the gold had been washed. 
 This required machinery and underground work. There were 
 also hydraulic mines, in which great -banks of earth contain- 
 
iMlNlNG AND LABOR 273 
 
 ing a small amount of gold were washed out by streams of 
 water under \ery high pressure. 
 
 223. Labor Unions (1830-1850). — A new class of foreign 
 wage laborers built railroads and canals, and helped to operate 
 factories and workshops. Local trades unions arose soon after 
 the Revolution, but their members were looked upon by 
 employers and courts almost as criminals. In 1827 the first 
 association of mechanics' unions was formed. In 1834 came 
 the first attempt to unite the trades unions of the cities into 
 a national organization. The labor men began to put up 
 candidates for olifice, and in some districts elected members of 
 the legislature and Congressmen. They were much interested 
 in free schools and cast their votes for those who would give 
 better opportunities to their children. They objected to child 
 labor, for four out of ten of the workers in cotton and woolen 
 mills were under seventeen years of age. 
 
 An early purpose of the unions was to secure shorter hours 
 of labor. Ten hours was fixed on as a sufficient day's work, 
 and in 1840 President Van Buren made the rule that ten hours 
 should be the working day in the government navy yards and 
 arsenals. It was many years before that schedule was ac- 
 cepted by private employers, and many more years before 
 working women and children were properh* protected. 
 
 The country was full of work. The stage lines, steamboats, 
 and railroads wanted clerks and bookkeepers; the mills and 
 factories needed foremen and skilled mechanics. Sailors and 
 fishermen numbered thousands. The domestic servants in- 
 cluded many farmers' daughters who took employment as 
 "hired girls" in the neighborhood. Intelligent young men 
 and women in the country and villages found work as school 
 teachers, though the pay was but a few dollars a week for a 
 few months in the year. 
 
 224. Inventions. — The making of machinery was aided by 
 the liberal patent laws of the United States. .-Xny person who 
 thinks out a new device for doing things in a way which no- 
 body has thought of before, can file a description of his inven- 
 tion in the Patent Ofifice at Washington. If the experts in 
 that office decide that he is the first discoxerer of this method 
 
 hart's sch. hist.— 16 
 
274 
 
 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 or machine, they grant him a patent, which gives him for 
 a term of years (now seventeen) the sole right to make and 
 sell his invention. Up to i860, 43,000 such patents had been 
 issued. 
 
 Among them were many for improvements on the steam 
 engine and for other machinery, such as the power wood 
 planer, a massive machine which could take in a rough board 
 at one end, and turn it out at the other planed, tongued and 
 grooved, and ready to lay as flooring. A very useful machine 
 was Hoe's printing press, which made rapid printing possible. 
 Till 1839 pictures of persons and things could be made only 
 
 by drawings. Then a 
 Frenchman named 
 Daguerre perfected a 
 method of taking a picture 
 by letting the sunlight fall 
 upon a copper plate, cov- 
 ered with a film of silver 
 salt; and these "daguerreo- 
 types " were very good pic- 
 tures. From this it was a 
 short cut to better meth- 
 ods of photography, by 
 which pictures were repro- 
 duced on prepared paper. 
 This proved to be a very 
 useful device. 
 
 In a country as large as the United States, it took a long 
 time to carry news. But in 1836 Samuel F. B. Morse dis- 
 covered the electric telegraph. He worked a "circuit breaker" 
 at one end of a wire, and the electric current in the wire set in 
 motion a little machine at the other end, the vibrations of 
 which could be read. Eight years later Morse sent his first 
 message to a distance. Fourteen years later still (1858) an 
 electric cable was laid by Cyrus Field under the sea from 
 America to Europe. The telegraph not only carried swiftly 
 the news of the day; it was also used by business men and 
 families. 
 
 An early daguerreotype. (The author is on 
 the left) 
 
INVENTIONS 275 
 
 225. Household Inventions. — Down to 1830 many well- 
 to-do farmers and village families made their own butter, 
 cheese, apple butter, vinegar, soap, 
 candles, crackers, yeast, maple sugar, 
 hams, bacon, and dried beef; spun, 
 dyed, and wove their own cloth; 
 wove their own carpets and rugs; 
 knit their own stockings; made 
 their own shirts; and did all the 
 washing and laundry work at home. 
 Much of this work ceased when 
 goods were cheaply produced in 
 
 factories (§221). At the same time Howes first sewing macWne 
 
 new inventions lightened the labor of the house and farm. 
 
 The most convenient of these was friction matches. Im- 
 agine li\ing when the only way to get a light was to take up a 
 live coal from a fireplace, or to strike a steel on a flint to make 
 a spark, which was caught in carefully prepared tinder. Up to 
 1840 all the cooking in the country was done over open fires, 
 in brick ovens, or in the " Dutch oven " of tin, set up against 
 the fire. The invention of iron cook stoves wonderfully re- 
 duced the labor of the housewife. The drudgery of endless 
 hand sewing was relieved when Elias Howe made his sewing 
 machine (patented 1846), with its ingenious idea of putting 
 the eye of the needle near the point instead of in the shank, 
 and locking the thread underneath the cloth. 
 
 In place of the old-fashioned tallow candles, several kinds of 
 oil lamps were introduced. In the cities, gas works were built 
 and the gas lighted the streets and was used also in houses and 
 factories. 
 
 A very useful discovery was the making of waterproof goods 
 out of a gum found in the forests of South America, and com- 
 monly called rubber. But rubber was too soft for most uses, 
 till Goodyear found (1844) that if mixed with sulphur it would 
 harden, and could be molded into useful shapes. 
 
 For centuries the world had longed for a drug which would 
 make people insensible to pain for a brief time, and several 
 scientific men, physicians, and dentists had experimented. 
 
276 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 Several men about the same time discovered that a liquid called 
 " ether " threw off a gas which could be inhaled and would 
 make a patient unconscious, so that surgical operations could 
 be performed without his knowing it. Dr. Crawford W. Long 
 of Georgia was the first to use it, but Dr. Morton of Boston 
 first made it of practical value. 
 
 226. Farm Inventions. — Till 1830 all the farm work was 
 still done by men and animals just as in colonial times (§ 53). 
 Grass was cut with a scythe, and grain with a sickle or cradle; 
 and grain was threshed with a flail. Then Cyrus McCormick 
 and others invented horse rakes and horse mowing machines 
 for hay. These lightened one of the severest labors of the field. 
 Next came the horse reaper for grain, and the threshing 
 machine driven by horse or steam power. A third important 
 farm invention was skillfully shaped plows which turned the 
 ground at just the right angle. 
 
 These various machines were about as important for the 
 North and West as the cotton gin (§ 190) was for the South. 
 With them the same number of farm workers could raise and 
 handle two or three times as much as before. Other machines 
 that proved very helpful to the farmer were cultivators, seed 
 drills, and rotary harrows, and churns that could be run by dog 
 power or water power. 
 
 Few of these machines were adapted for the South. Im- 
 proved tools and machines were not of much use on the 
 plantations because slaves could not be taught to be careful. 
 However, the cotton gins were much improved, and steam 
 power was used for pressing and baling cotton. 
 
 227. Organization of Business. — Farming, manufacturing, 
 and mining were all aided by improvements in the method of 
 doing business. Corporations (§ 142) were formed for all sorts 
 of purposes, especially to build railroads and run steamers. 
 The banks so increased that by i860 there were about 1500; 
 but the currency was poor, because many counterfeit, worth- 
 less, and doubtful bank notes were afloat. 
 
 The profits of these companies and of private business men 
 made a class of rich men. John Jacob Astor of New York and 
 Stephen Girard of Philadelphia were the first millionaires. In 
 
BUSINESS AND TRANSPORTATION 
 
 277 
 
 New York and other large cities goods were sold in quanti- 
 ties at wholesale; and many country storekeepers every year 
 took long journeys to St. Louis, or New Orleans, or New York, 
 to buy goods from the wholesalers, for at that time there were 
 no traveling salesmen. Besides the lively internal trade, 
 foreign commerce was brisk. The imports and exports of 
 goods, taken together, amounted to 300 million dollars in 1836 
 and 680 millions in i860. 
 
 228. Commerce and Transportation. — A large part of this 
 trade was carried on the American " clipper ships," which 
 were very fast and handy sailing vessels (page 258). They 
 took away cotton, breadstuffs, fish, timber, and some cotton 
 cloth; and they brought back luxuries, fine cloths, iron wares, 
 machinery, and many other things. 
 
 In 1840 the Cunard Steamship Company put on the first 
 regular line of ocean steamers (§ 177) to run from Liver- 
 
 fc^^ 
 
 ^ I'sie^,-*^ 
 
 ^^-^ ---^ 
 
 
 A fleet of New-York-to-Liverpool mail steamers, about 1855. Side-wheel steamers of this 
 period were equipped with sails 
 
 pool to Boston. Then German steamers began to run from 
 Bremen to Baltimore; and from various other European ports 
 steamers crossed to Philadelphia, New York, and southern 
 
278 
 
 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 ports. Congress voted cash aids to Americans who would 
 build competing steamship lines; the federal government at 
 
 one time paid more than a 
 million dollars a year for 
 the purpose. 
 
 After California was an- 
 nexed (1848), steamer lines 
 were put on from Atlantic 
 ports to the eastern side of 
 the isthmuses of Panama 
 and Nicaragua; and others 
 from the western side up 
 the Pacific coast to San 
 Francisco. The Pacific Mail 
 Steamship Company ran 
 regular steamers from San 
 
 Mark Twain (Samuel L. Clemens). 1835-1910 prancisCO tO China. 
 
 The river steamers of the interior had high-pressure engines 
 and weak boilers, and many of them were blown up or burned, 
 or struck snags and went down in deep water. To pilot them 
 became a profes- 
 sion, and Mark 
 Twain, the famous 
 American writer, 
 began his active 
 life as one of those 
 pilots. 
 
 In 1 85 1 the rate 
 of ordinary letter 
 postage was re- 
 duced to three 
 cents, but the post 
 office would not 
 carry parcels. A young man named Harnden had the happy 
 thought of making it a business to carry packages back and 
 forth between New York and Boston. This idea grew into 
 several regular express companies which would carry anything 
 from gold dust to live animals, at so much a pound. 
 
 The first expressman, William F. Harnden 
 
ROADS AM) CAXALS 
 
 279 
 
 229. Roads and Canals (1825-1850). - About 1830, all over 
 the North and South and in sonic parts of the West, compa- 
 nies were huildinu; so-ealled " macadam roads," or " pikes," 
 carefulK' drained and con ered with l)r()ken stone. " Plank 
 roads" were frecjuent on the frontier, and also "corduroy 
 roads" made of trunks of trees laid side by side across 
 swamps. 
 
 The federal government from 1S25 to 1840 built a continua- 
 tion of the (^miberiand Road (§ 187). called the National 
 Road, from Wheclinu. X'irginia, to Springfield, Ohio. Other 
 sections of the road were built in Indiana and Illinois; but 
 after spending $6,()0{),ooo the go\-ernment left it unfinished 
 and turne(l it over to the states through which it ran. 
 
 
 
 Coach used by Lafayette during his visit to the United States in 1824 ; now at the 
 Wayside Inn, Massachusetts 
 
 From 1825 to 1850 se\eral of the Atlantic coast states tried 
 to follow the example of New York by building canals to the 
 West. PennsyKania, Mar^'land, and X'irginia all finished 
 their canals as far as the foot of the Allegheny Mountains; and 
 Pennsylvania also built a canal from Pittsburgh to the western 
 side of the mountains, and connected the two sections by a set 
 of inclined planes provided* with tracks o\'er which the canal 
 boats could be drawn on trucks. By this route one could 
 tra\el from Pittsburgh to Philadelphia in six days — -a 
 journey now covered by fast trains in eight hours. 
 
 The western states found canal building an easier task, for 
 the di\ides were low between Lake Erie or Lake Michigan and 
 the branches of the Ohio Rixer or the Mississippi. Pennsyl- 
 
CANALS AND RAILROADS 28 1 
 
 vania finished a canal from Lake Erie to the mouth of the 
 Beaver River near Pittsburgh; Ohio built two lines from Lake 
 Erie to the Ohio River. Ohio and Indiana built a canal from 
 Toledo to the Wabash River; and Illinois finished a canal from 
 the mouth of the Chicago River to the Illinois River. 
 
 230. Railroads. — The idea of running cars fitted with 
 flanged wheels over parallel tracks goes back to the English 
 mines (§ 177). Then the English began to build railroads 
 across their country for passengers and freight. 
 
 In 1830 thirteen miles of railroad was opened between Balti- 
 more and Ellicott's Mills by the Baltimore and Ohio Company, 
 and cars were run by horses. In the same year the first 
 steam locomotives in America were used. From that time the 
 railroad system spread until in i860 there were 30,000 miles 
 actually in operation. 
 
 The first railroads were built in short stretches, so that a 
 traveler from Albany to Buffalo changed cars five or six times. 
 The early cars were like stagecoaches, but they were soon 
 displaced by cars like long boxes with seats on each side of 
 the middle aisle. This has become the standard American 
 car. 
 
 Though in several European countries at that time the 
 railroads were owned by the government, our federal govern- 
 ment chartered no railroad company and did not in any way 
 control the railroad business. It did, however, make large 
 grants of public lands for the construction of railroads in the 
 region lying between Lake Michigan and the Mississippi 
 River. Among these lines were the Illinois Central and Mobile 
 and Ohio Railroads, extending from Chicago to the Gulf, and 
 lines radiating from Chicago. The pressure on the national 
 government to make internal improvements (§214) ceased for 
 some years. 
 
 Many of the state governments gave or lent money to rail- 
 road companies, and several of them built short stretches of 
 railroad. For example, the present Michigan Central line 
 from Detroit to Kalamazoo was constructed and for several 
 years was run by the state of Michigan. Counties, cities, 
 towns, and townships also voted large sums to bring railroads 
 
282 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 near them; and more than a third of the cost of all the railroads 
 built at this time came from public funds. 
 
 By i860 lines of railroad (broken in places by broad rivers) 
 could be followed from central Maine southwest to New 
 Orleans; and from Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Balti- 
 more to most of the western cities as far as the Mississippi 
 River. One line reached the Missouri River at St. Joseph. 
 Railroads ran all the year, including the winter when canals 
 were frozen up; they bridged most of the streams, but crossed 
 ordinary highways at grade. Railroad trains were six or seven 
 times faster than canal boats and two or three times faster than 
 the swiftest mail coaches. 
 
 231. Summary. — -This chapter continues the treatment of 
 Chapter XVII in its account of the business methods of the 
 period, including farming, manufactures, mining, labor ques- 
 tions, inventions, and new forms of transportation. 
 
 From 1830 to i860 came wonderful changes in business and 
 transportation. New lands were opened up in the West; and 
 by the Preemption Act (1841) large portions were reserv^ed for 
 actual settlers. Other lands were granted for building rail- 
 roads and canals. The northern and western farmers raised 
 a variety of crops and animal products, and sold food to the 
 South and to foreign countries. The southern planter raised 
 corn for food, but his main crop was cotton. 
 
 Laborers began to organize: first the men of one trade in 
 one town, then all the trades in a town, then many trades, 
 till they had something resembling our modern federations of 
 labor unions. The federal government fixed its day of labor 
 at ten hours, but factories had much longer hours, even for 
 women and children. 
 
 Manufactures were carried on in numerous factories, large 
 and small, especially in those for making woolen and cotton 
 cloth, and iron. Mines of every sort were opened, especially 
 of hard and soft coal, iron ore, and gold in California. 
 
 Business was aided by a multitude of inventions, such as the 
 wood planer, the printing press, and the electric telegraph. 
 Other inventions, such as matches, sewing machines, oil lamps, 
 mowers, and reapers, made home and farm life easier. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 283 
 
 Business methods were improved through corporations for 
 carrying on factories, mines, and railroads, and through an 
 organized wholesale trade. Goods were carried abroad in part 
 by sailing ships and in part by steamers; steamers along the 
 coast and on the Great Lakes and rivers carried an enormous 
 traffic. Local business people generally depended on wagon 
 roads and canals, till railroads were built. The railroads, aided 
 by land grants and local subscriptions, stretched a net of con- 
 necting lines over the Union as far as the Mississippi River. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Chadwick, Causes of Civil War, 8. — ■ Hart, Wall Maps, no. 13. — 
 Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, nos. 20, 21, 23. — Smith, Parties and Slavery, 62. 
 
 Histories. Bogart, Economic Hist., chs. xiii, xv-xxi. — Brigham, 
 From Trail to Railway, chs. iv-x. — Coman, Industrial Hist., chs. vii, 
 \iii. — Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, 39-50, 184-206. — Moore, Indus- 
 trial Hist., 299-316, 361-362, 392-422, 448-468. — Smith, Parties and 
 Slavery, ch. v. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, II. ch. xxi. — 
 Sparks, Expansion of Am. People, ch. xxiii. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source History, 360, 361, 380-387, 
 438-449. — Commons, Doc. Hist, of Am. Industrial Society, II, V, 
 V'lII. — James, Readings, §§72-75, 77, 83. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 
 
 147, 157- 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Baldwin, Flush Times in Alabama and Mis- 
 sissippi. — Casson, C. H. McCormick. — Clark, Clipper-Ship Era. — 
 Clemens (Mark Twain), Life on the Mississippi. — Glasgow, The De- 
 liverance. — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, ch. xxiii. — Olmsted, Back 
 Country; Seaboard Slave States. — Pearson, Am. Railroad Builder. — 
 Trowbridge, 5. F. B. Morse. 
 
 Pictures. Bogart, Economic Hist. — Coman, Industrial Hist. — 
 Mentor, serial nos. 29, 87. — Sparks, Expansion of Am. People. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 218) I. Why was it easy for poor people to get on between 1830 and 
 i860? 2. What was the public land policy of the federal government? 
 3. What was the Preemption Act? 4. What was the condition of im- 
 migration in this period? 
 
 (§ 219) 5. How did the northern fanners live? 6. W'hat made the 
 northern farmers prosperous? 
 
 (§ 220) 7. How did the southern farmers live? 
 
 (§ 221) 8. How were manufactured goods made before 1830? 9. How 
 did the factory system grow up? 10. What were the principal early in- 
 
284 NEW BUSINESS METHODS 
 
 ventions for spinning and weaving? i i. How did cotton and woolen mills 
 grow up? 12. What improvements were made in iron manufacture? 
 
 (§ 222) 13. How was coal mined? 14. What new supplies of iron 
 ore were introduced? 15. How was gold mined? 16 (For an essay) . In 
 a coal mine. 
 
 (§ 223) 17. How did the labor unions grow up and what were their 
 aims? 18. What were the opportunities for work in the United States? 
 
 (§ 224) 19. How are patents for inventions issued? 20. What were 
 some of the early valuable inventions? 21. How was the electric tele- 
 graph invented and improved? 22 (For an essay). Morse's struggles 
 over the telegraph. 
 
 (§ 225) 23. How did families care for their own wants? 24. What 
 were some early inventions for relieving home labor? 25. What were the 
 inventions for light and waterproof? 26. How were anaesthetic drugs 
 discovered? 
 
 (§ 226) 27. What were some of the early inventions for relieving farm 
 labor? 28 (For an essay). McCormick's struggles to introduce the 
 reaper. 
 
 (§ 227) 29. Wliat improvements were introduced for doing business on 
 a large scale? 30. How did large and small merchants carry on their 
 business? 
 
 (§ 228) 31. W'hat were the American clipper ships and what did they 
 carry? 32 (For an essay). Notable clipper ships. 33. How were ocean 
 steamship lines introduced? 34. How was the river steamship business 
 carried on? 35. How was the express business begun? 36 (For an 
 essay). Harnden's early express. 
 
 (§ 229) 37. How were roads constructed? 38 (For an essay). A trip 
 on the National Road. 39. What canal routes were constructed to and 
 across the mountains? 40. What were the principal interior canals? 
 
 (§230) 41. What were the first railroads? 42 (For an essay). Ac- 
 counts of early travel by railroad. 43. What did the federal govern- 
 ment do for railroads? 44. What, part did the states take in railroad 
 building? 45. How far had the railroad lines extended by i860? 
 
CHAPTER XXI 
 WESTWARD EXPANSION (1840-1850) 
 
 232. The Whigs in Power (1840-1842). — In the presidential 
 election of 1840 the Democrats put up Van Buren again. The 
 Whigs dropped Henry Clay and nominated General William 
 Henry Harrison, who was the hero of the first rousing presiden- 
 tial campaign. Some Democrats said of Harrison that " he 
 was nothing but an old farmer, who ought to sit in his log cabin 
 and drink hard cider.". The .Whigs took up the sneer, and 
 arranged monster meetings, sometimes of 50,000 people. In 
 their processions they tugged with them log cabins on wheels 
 with old farmers drinking hard cider on the porch. The 
 Democrats were held responsible for the panic of 1837. In 
 the election, consequently, the Whigs carried their candidate 
 and also a majority in each house of the next Congress. At 
 last they had a chance to manage the national government 
 and to parcel out the federal offices. 
 
 A few weeks after Harrison's inauguration in 1841, he died, 
 and Vice President John Tyler succeeded him. Tyler was 
 really not a Whig and made up his mind not to take orders 
 from Henry Clay, who had framed a program for action in 
 Congress, including plans for a protective tariff and a bank. 
 When Tyler vetoed Clay's bill for a bank, the Cabinet (except 
 Webster) resigned and left the President without a party. He 
 spent four years in the vain effort to be a strong President 
 without friends in either part}'. Webster as Secretary of State 
 settled a long boundary dispute: he negotiated a treaty with 
 Great Britain (1842) by which a disputed triangle of territory 
 in northern Maine was di\'ided, and the United States accepted 
 the present boundary of the state. 
 
 233. The Northwest (1815-1840). — North of the Ohio 
 River the population grew rapidK-. The territory of Michi- 
 
 2^5 
 
286 
 
 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 gan was ready for statehood. In 1837 it was admitted to the 
 Union (26th state) with about 150,000 people (map, page 328). 
 The new state received the peninsula of Upper Michigan in 
 return for the loss of a strip of territory claimed by Ohio in 
 the south. 
 
 After the War of 1812 Astor did not revive his post of Astoria 
 (§ Iv57)- The great fur- trading concern in the far Northwest 
 was the Hudson's Bay Company, an English corporation which 
 controlled nearly all the trade on the 
 Pacific coast north of the Columbia 
 River. 
 
 The United States and Great Britain 
 were the only two nations that claimed 
 Oregon. That name was given to the 
 immense region be- 
 tween the Rocky 
 Mountains and the 
 Pacific, as far south 
 as the parallel of 42° 
 and as far 
 north as 
 54° 40'. The 
 two gov- 
 ernments, 
 therefore, 
 agreed(i8i8) 
 that until 
 further no- 
 tice citizens 
 
 of both countries should be free to travel and trade in Oregon. 
 Because of the hint to Russia in the Monroe Doctrine (§ 193), 
 the Russian government agreed (1824) to make no claim to 
 territory south of 54° 40', which is the present southern bound- 
 ary of Alaska. 
 
 American fur traders were now exploring almost every 
 stream and mountain pass between the Missouri River and the 
 Pacific Ocean. The business of collecting furs there was 
 carried on by large companies, which fitted out boats and 
 
 A trader bartering for furs. The sticks which the trader holds in 
 his hand were given as a kind of money in exchange for the furs 
 
FUR TRADE 
 
 287 
 
 wagon and pack trains to carry their goods to distant posts, 
 where they could trade with the Indialis. By 1840 Ameri- 
 can fur traders had crossed and recrossed the Great Basin and 
 the Sierra Nevada into California. Their trappers, mostly 
 French or French- Indian half-breeds, searched the most remote 
 valleys looking for beaver, mink, fox, and other pelts; and 
 there was an immense business in buffalo robes. 
 
 The trappers were a rough set of men. One of the heads of 
 a trading post on the upper Missouri River says that some of 
 them were quarreling one day, under the influence of drink, 
 and threw one of their fellows on the fire, from which he was 
 barely rescued alive. 
 
 234. Oregon Trail (1830-1846). — A few American vessels 
 went around Cape Horn carrying missionaries and settlers, but 
 a shorter and not very difficult way was the overland route, 
 which was discovered by the trappers. Between 1830 and 
 1835 a young Massachusetts business man named Wyeth hit 
 
 Western trails, fur-producing regions, and trading posts 
 
 on the idea of going out to Oregon overland and starting a 
 chain of trading posts there. He made known to the people 
 of the East the easy route up the Platte River, to the north- 
 
288 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 ward of Great Salt Lake, along the upper Snake River, and 
 thence across the country to the Columbia. This line of 
 travel was called the Oregon Trail. * 
 
 The heathen Indians in Oregon attracted the notice of the 
 churches of the East. In 1834 the Methodists sent the first 
 missionaries across the continent to the Indians; soon after a 
 Congregational missionary went out; and in 1840 the Catholics 
 sent Father De Smet, who was the first Catholic missionary to 
 that region from the United States. 
 
 American and other ships often touched at California, which 
 was a distant province of Mexico. Catholic missions for the 
 Indians had existed there since 1769; and the ruins of the 
 buildings are still among the most beautiful things in Cali- 
 fornia. A few Americans settled there to raise cattle and 
 catch wild horses. From 1842 to 1846 three explorations were 
 made into the far West by John C. Fremont, a young army 
 officer. He explored the wilds of the Rocky Mountains, 
 followed the Oregon Trail to Oregon, and later crossed the 
 Sierra Nevada to California. His accounts of these journeys 
 drew public attention both to Oregon and to California. 
 
 At about the same time immigrants began to use the Oregon 
 Trail. Dr. Marcus Whitman, who was one of the Congrega- 
 tional missionaries in Oregon, grew uneasy lest British settlers 
 should come west by the land route from Canada and occupy 
 the country. In 1842 he made a bold horseback journey in 
 the winter through the Rocky Mountains, partly for business 
 of his mission, partly for the purpose of arousing public senti- 
 ment concerning Oregon. He came to Washington and saw 
 President Tyler. The next summer he joined a party of im- 
 migrants to Oregon and went back to his post, where he was 
 later massacred by Indians. 
 
 These incidents some years later gave rise to the claim, 
 made by Whitman's friends, that he " saved Oregon " from 
 being turned over to the British, by stirring up Tyler and 
 Webster, who, he supposed, were about to yield it to Great 
 Britain. He was also credited with leading a thousand immi- 
 grants across the plains to Oregon. Whitman was a brave 
 man, one of many who went through hardship and danger to 
 
OREGON AND THE SOUTHWEST 289 
 
 make Oregon ours; and for that he deserves the gratitude of 
 Americans. He did not save Oregon, because Oregon was not 
 in danger of being given up. Whitman did not induce the 
 government to change its poHcy, for it had no poHcy unfavor- 
 able to Oregon. Nor was he the leader of the immigrants to 
 Oregon; they had been brought together without him and 
 would ha\e gone to Oregon if he had never lived. 
 
 235. The Southwest and Texas (1828-1844). — In the 
 Southwest a direct trade from St. Louis to Santa Fe, the 
 capital of the Mexican province of New Mexico, began about 
 1828. A portion of the road, called the Santa Fe Trail, is still 
 visible in Kansas City and farther west. 
 
 The territory of Arkansas applied for statehood and was 
 admitted in 1836 as the 25th state, with 55,000 people. 
 
 When the new Texan Republic was founded in 1836 (§215) 
 the Texan government declared that its boundary ran from 
 the mouth of the Rio Grande to its source. This would have 
 included about half of New Mexico, with the town of Santa Fe 
 and a strip of territory between the Nueces River and the Rio 
 Grande. Neither of these areas was occupied by Texans, and 
 neither had been considered part of Texiis by the Spaniards or 
 Mexicans. 
 
 The Texans w'ere still anxious to come into the Union, but 
 President Van Buren, a northern man, was against them. 
 President Tyler, on the contrary, made it one of his main 
 objects to annex Texas. A long struggle began in 1843, when 
 John Quincy Adams appealed to the North not to allow the 
 admission of a new slave state. In 1844 Tyler made Calhoun 
 (§ 209) Secretary of State for the express purpose of bringing 
 in Texas; but the North was aroused, and many state legisla- 
 tures urged their Senators to vote against any such treaty. 
 The project failed, and Tyler's scheme seemed hopeless. 
 
 236, Enlargement of the Union (1844-1846). — The presi- 
 dential election of 1844 changed i)oth the Oregon and the Texas 
 controversy. Clay was the Whig candidate, but was known 
 to be against the annexation of Texas. The Democrats 
 therefore nominated James K. Polk of Tennessee, who came 
 out for the annexation. A campaign watchword of his party 
 

 ACQUISITIONS 
 
 OF TERRITOKY 
 
 1845-1853 
 
 AND 
 
 CAMPAIGNS OF THE 
 WAR WITH MEXICO 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 
 100 2110 300 -100 .=.00 
 120° 
 
 ^«S»X\ CAMPAIGN OF «EN. SCOU 3 
 
 /j, ■ .■■■'?/av\ SCALE OF MILES 
 
 TiunvBava«T',.i-,; ,,„i„TE., ,f V /Tlascala c^j > J-' -- - . , , . 
 
 •^;:;m,:^^^^;^;v ^^'^^j;.^^ ^:r-^;:::^,^.^/co 
 
 
 G IL F OF 
 
 Castle 
 &inJiLanJ'Ulli,a 
 
 '■tKsSACRIFICIOS I. 
 
 Vera Ci uz 
 
 290 
 
NEW STATES 2QT 
 
 was " Fifty-four Forty or Fight"; that is, they claimed all the 
 northwestern territory in dispute with Great Britain. On 
 these issues Polk was elected. 
 
 In 1845, Congress, without waiting for Polk's inauguration, 
 passed a " joint resolution " (which is the same thing as an 
 act) admitting the Republic of Texas as a state of the Union. 
 Thus Tyler had the pleasure of ofifering annexation to the 
 Texans. In spite of angry protests from the North, they 
 accepted; and in December, 1845, the state entered the Union 
 as the 28th state, with 265,000 square miles and 200,000 
 people. 
 
 Three other states were admitted within a period of about 
 three years. Florida was then a backward region, but state- 
 hood had been promised when the territory was annexed in 
 1819 (§ 193) and Florida came in, in March, 1845, with 80,000 
 inhabitants, as the 27th state. Florida was balanced by the 
 free state of Iowa, almost all of whose settlers came from 
 northern states. It was admitted in 1846 as the 29th state 
 with 100,000 people. To balance Texas, Wisconsin was admit- 
 ted as a free state (the 30th) in 1848, with about 250,000 people, 
 making a total of 15 free states and 15 slave states. Wisconsin 
 included some strong antislavery and abolition settlers from 
 the East and from Ohio. Michigan, and Illinois. 
 
 It was high time to settle the dispute about Oregon. The 
 United States had long admitted that the English had some 
 just claims there; and in 1846 a treaty was signed fixing the 
 boundary on the parallel of the 49th degree, from the Rocky 
 Mountains west to the GuU of Georgia. Thence the boundary 
 followed the Straits of Juan de Fuca to the ocean. The dis- 
 puted territory was thus divided into two nearly equal parts. 
 
 237. Mexican War (1846-1848). — Why was Polk so willing 
 to accept a boundarx- south of 54° 40'? Partly because he had 
 made up his mind to take California from Mexico, either for a 
 price or by fighting. The United States had a serious griev- 
 ance against Mexico, because for many years complaints and 
 claims had arisen for injuries to Americans and their property. 
 On their side the Mexicans were furious because the United 
 States denied that Texas was still a part of Mexico. 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 17 
 
292 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 Another grievance was furnished to the Mexicans when Polk 
 ordered General Zachary Taylor to march American troops 
 south of the Texan settlements and beyond the Nueces River, 
 to the Rio Grande. This action was based on the Texan claim 
 to all the region east of the Rio Grande (§235). The Mexi- 
 cans looked upon Taylor's march as an invasion and attacked 
 him north of the river. Polk then declared that Mexico had 
 " invaded our country and shed American blood on American 
 soil," and Congress declared war. 
 
 The war lasted a year and a half. Mexico put many men 
 in the field, but lacked trained officers and soldiers. The 
 American armies were skillfully led, first by General Taylor 
 and then by General Winfield Scott. After very hard fighting, 
 especially at Monterey and Buena Vista in northern Mexico, 
 and at Puebla and Contreras near the city of Mexico, the 
 forces of the Mexican president, General Santa Anna, were 
 completely beaten. 
 
 The Mexicans made no effort to protect New Mexico, which 
 was captured without the firing of a shot, by an expedition 
 under Colonel Kearny. Part of Kearny's expedition went 
 on to California, and with the aid of a little fleet easily took 
 that whole vast country. As a result of the war, therefore. 
 President Polk annexed the three pieces of territory which he 
 coveted: (i) the strip between the Nueces and the Rio Grande; 
 (2) New Mexico, through which ran the overland route to 
 California; (3) California. 
 
 The beaten Mexicans could do nothing but accept a treaty 
 of peace (1848), by which the present southern boundary of 
 the United States was fixed, along the Rio Grande as far as 
 El Paso. Thence the line ran across to the Gila and Colorado 
 rivers, and from the Colorado to the Pacific Ocean. This part 
 of the line was changed five years later when, the United 
 States bought for ten million dollars the " Gadsden purchase " 
 south of the Gila River, which completed the present boundary 
 line between the Rio Grande and the Colorado River. 
 
 Thus from 1845 to 1853 the United States extended the 
 national territory from the old boundary at the mouth of the 
 Sabine River southward along the coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
 
MEXICAN WAR 293 
 
 to the Rio Grande; west from that river to the Pacific Ocean; 
 and from San Diego Bay northward along the Pacific to Puget 
 Sound and the Gulf of Georgia. 
 
 238. Slavery in the New Territories (1846-1848). —The 
 act admitting Texas extended the Missouri Compromise line 
 of 36° 30' (§ 191) so as to include any states that might be 
 formed north of that line in the new territory. The act further 
 promised that if the Texans so desired, as many as five states 
 might be created out of their state. Polk expected to continue 
 the line of 36° 30' between free and slave territory straight 
 west, till it struck the Pacific south of San Francisco Bay. 
 That would extend the boundary drawn between free and 
 slaveholding territory all the way from Delaware Bay to the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 The opponents of slavery in the House rallied, and in 1846 
 passed the Wilmot Proviso, to the effect that there should be 
 no slavery in any Mexiciin territory that might be secured as 
 a result of the war. The Senate did not agree, and though the 
 proviso was afterward brought up many times, it was never 
 passed. Abraham Lincoln, an antislavery Whig, used to 
 boast that he voted forty- two times for the principle of the 
 Wilmot Proviso during his two years in Congress (1847-1849). 
 Nobody knew whether the new territory was suitable for future 
 slave states. After two years of exciting debates, the only act 
 passed by Congress concerning the new lands made Oregon a 
 free territory (1848). 
 
 The struggle was carried into the presidential election of 
 1848, in which Lewis Cass of Michigan, the Democratic can- 
 didate, seemed to favor sla\'ery in the new territory. The 
 Whigs nominated General Taylor of Louisiana. The aboli- 
 tionists, already united in what they called the Lil)erty party, 
 joined with a large body of antislavery Democrats in a new 
 Free-soil party, and they nominated Martin Van Buren for 
 President. They drew ofif so many votes that would otherwise 
 have gone to Cass that he lost several states on which he had 
 counted, and Taylor was chosen President. 
 
 239. Question of California (1848-1850). ^ When the next 
 Congress met, in 1849, It was time to stop the long discussion 
 
294 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 on annexation, and to settle three serious questions: Did 
 Texas extend to the upper Rio Grande north of El Paso? 
 Was slavery to be permitted in New Mexico? Was slavery 
 to be permitted in California? 
 
 (i) The Texans were very set in their belief that their 
 western boundary was the upper Rio Grande, and they vainly 
 tried to seize Santa Fe; President Taylor opposed them. 
 
 (2) As for New Mexico, some statesmen, including Henry 
 Clay, held that no act of Congress was necessary because the 
 region had been made free by Mexico and continued free after 
 annexation. Others claimed that somehow the Constitution 
 of the United States made this a slaveholding region. 
 
 (3) In California some men digging a mill race on the Ameri- 
 can River, sixty miles above Sutter's Fort (now Sacramento), 
 in 1848, found some shining yellow grains which proved to 
 be gold. They had struck a placer (§!222). When the news 
 reached San Francisco, hundreds of men left their homes or 
 deserted from their ships to rush to the gold region. The next 
 year (1849) thousands of "Forty-niners" came from all parts 
 of the earth: Englishmen and Germans, South Americans, 
 Chinese, and people from the " States," as Californians long 
 called the rest of the Union. Large numbers came by sea; 
 others crossed overland, sufifering terrible hardships in the 
 burning deserts and the snows of the Sierra Nevada. 
 
 A few southerners brought slaves, but it was clear that the 
 gold seekers would never allow anybody to put slaves into 
 the mines, and then take all the gold that those slaves might 
 find. In 1849 the Californians held a convention which de- 
 veloped a state constitution and also laid down two principles: 
 
 (a) The state must extend from Oregon to Mexico. That 
 made impossible any 36° 30' compromise line across California. 
 
 (b) No slaves should be held in California. 
 
 240. Compromise of 1850. ^The dispute about slavery in 
 California was practically ended, for Congress was clearly 
 unable to compel the Californians to change their minds. 
 Still Congress had before it the Texas and New Mexico ques- 
 tions. Just then two more disputes arose about slavery: (4) 
 The old Fugitive Slave Law (§ 191) was not working well and 
 
Foi ty-uiiicis panning for gold in California 
 
296 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 the South wanted a new one. (5) Northern members of Con- 
 gress demanded that the slave trade be aboUshed in the 
 District of Columbia. 
 
 Henry Clay, now old but full of fire, set himself to work 
 out a compromise that should include and adjust these five 
 points. His results were presented in the " Omnibus Bill " 
 in which he was backed up by Daniel Webster. Webster took 
 the ground that no new law on slavery was needed because 
 New Mexico had not the soil and conditions which could 
 make slave labor pay; therefore in his famous " 7th of March " 
 speech he said, " I would not take pains to reaffirm an ordi- 
 nance of nature, nor to reenact the will of God." 
 
 John C. Calhoun, then a dying man, warned the North that 
 they must yield something or the Union would break up. 
 Jefferson Davis of Mississippi declared that the South w^ould 
 not accept anything less than drawing the compromise line to 
 the Pacific, even against the will of California. President 
 Taylor, though a southern slaveholder like Clay, was against 
 the compromise; but he died in 1850, and was succeeded by 
 Vice President Millard Fillmore of New York. 
 
 Congress finally passed the Clay compromise measures 
 through both houses, in separate bills, and they were signed by 
 President Fillmore: (i) Texas was not allowed to include the 
 upper Rio Grande. (2) New Mexico and Utah were organized 
 as territories into which owners might take their slaves (map, 
 page 318). The expectation was that New Mexico w^ould be- 
 come a slave state. (3) California was at once admitted 
 (1850) as a free state, the 31st state in the Union, with 92,000 
 population. (4) A new Fugitive Slave Law was passed, more 
 favorable to the South. (5) The trade in slaves between the 
 District of Columbia and other parts of the Union was for- 
 bidden. 
 
 Almost everybody except the abolitionists and extreme 
 slaveholders was pleased by this Compromise of 1850, for it 
 peacefully ended a long contest. It was called a " finality," 
 though it left the following questions unsettled: (i) It said 
 nothing about annexing any other slaveholding territory; for 
 instance, the Spanish island of Cuba. (2) It provided no slave 
 
COMPROMISE OF 1850 297 
 
 state to offset California and thus keep up the balance in the 
 Senate. (3) It could not stop the abolitionists from their 
 effort to arouse the northern people against slavery. 
 
 241. Summary, — This chapter covers the ten years from 
 1840 to 1850, particularly the enlargement of the country to 
 the southwest through the annexation of Texas, and to the 
 northwest by the settlement of Oregon; together with the 
 Mexican War, and the settlement of the questions arising from 
 the annexation of Texas, New Mexico, and California. 
 
 From 1840 to 1848 there was a seesaw of national parties, 
 first Whig, then Democrat, then Whig again. Most of the 
 questions in that time arose from the expansion of the country 
 and the annexation of territory. First trappers, then traders, 
 and then immigrants pushed along the Oregon Trail to the 
 Columbia River. In the South great efforts were made to 
 annex Texas. The turning point was the election of 1844, 
 which brought into the White House President Polk, who 
 wanted at the same time to annex Texas, New Mexico, Cali- 
 fornia, and Oregon. 
 
 As President, Polk had the opportunity to carry out most of 
 this program. He accepted the annexation of Texas which 
 had just gone through Congress. He pushed troops down into 
 the disputed belt beyond the Nueces River. He forced war 
 upon Mexico, on the plea that the Mexicans had begun it; and 
 American troops under his direction occupied New Mexico 
 and California. He came to an understanding with Great 
 Britain, by which the United States retained the most valuable 
 part of the disputed territory of Oregon. 
 
 These annexations brought up in Congress the question of 
 slavery in the new territories. The Wilmot Proviso, which 
 passed the House (1846) but not the Senate, showed that a 
 large part of the North w^as determined to have no new slave 
 states. 
 
 The discovery of gold in California (1848) settled the question 
 of slavery there, and also defeated the compromise of 36° 30' 
 across the country to the Pacific; for the Californians would 
 hear of neither plan. This left to be settled the two questions 
 of the boundary of Texas and of slavery in New Mexico; to 
 
298 WESTWARD EXPANSION 
 
 these were added the problems of fugitive slaves and the slave 
 trade in the District of Columbia. All these questions were 
 settled by the Compromise of 1850, framed by Henry Clay and 
 supported by northerners and southerners, Whigs and Dem- 
 ocrats. In spite of the objections of radical antislavery men, 
 the act was passed in 1850 and was supposed to be a finality. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Garrison, Westward Extension. — Hart, Epoch Maps, nos. 7, 8, 
 II; Wall Maps, no. 14. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 198-210. 
 
 Histories. Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, 114-132, 147-160, 168- 
 182. — Elson, Side Lights, I. ch. xiii. — ^ Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., chs. 
 xvi, xix. — Garrison, Westward Extension, chs. i-v, viii-xx. — MacDonald, 
 From Jefferson to Lincoln, 88-143. — Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
 §.§ 67-80, 83-86. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 399-415. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, HI. §§ 187-189, IV. §§ 7-22; Patriots and Statesmen, 
 V. 13-130; Source Book, §§ 103-106. — James, Readings, §§ 67, 78-80. — 
 Johnston, Am. Orations, H. 123-218. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, 
 nos. 96-107. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 45, 132. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Dana, Two Years Before the Mast (Pacific 
 coast). — Elliott, Sam Houston. — Fox, Carlota (Cal. before the con- 
 quest). — Hough, Fifty-four Forty or Fight (Oregon). — Humphreys, 
 Boy's Catlin (Indians). — Irving, Capt. Bonneville (Far West). — Laut, 
 Story of the Trapper. — McNeil, Boy ' Forty -Niners. — Otis, Antoine of 
 Oregon; Martha of California. — Thwaites, Rocky Mountain Exploration. 
 — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, II. 13-47. — Watts, Nathan 
 Burke (Mexican War). 
 
 Pictures. Dunbar, Hist, of Travel in Am. — Sparks, Expansion of 
 Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, IV. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 232) I. How was the presidential campaign of 1840 carried on? 
 2. Why did President Tyler and the Whigs fall out? 3. How was the 
 dispute on the Maine boundary settled? 
 
 (§ 233) 4. How and when was Michigan admitted to the Union? 5. 
 What was the Hudson's Bay Company? 6. What was Oregon and how 
 was it occupied by European nations? 7. How was the interior fur trade 
 carried on? 8 (For an essay). Adventures in the interior fur trade. 
 
 (§ 234) 9. What was the Oregon Trail and how was it opened? 10 
 (For an essay). Accounts of early journeys on the Oregon Trail. 11. 
 How did Christian missions begin in the far Northwest? 12. Who was 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 299 
 
 Fremont and what did he (Hscoveri' 13. Who was Dr. Whitman and 
 what did he do for the country? 
 
 (§ 235) 14 (For an essay). Accounts of journeys on the Santa Fe Trail. 
 15. How and when was Arkansas admitted to the Union? 16. How 
 much territory did the Texans claim? 17. Why was there objection to 
 the annexation of Texas? 
 
 (§ 236) 18. Who were nominated and who was elected in the presi- 
 dential campaign of 1844? 19. How was Texas admitted to the Union? 
 20. How were Florida and Wisconsin admitted? 21. How was the dis- 
 pute about Oregon settled? 22 (For an essay). Accounts of early jour- 
 neys to Oregon. 
 
 (§ 237) 23. What grievances had the United States against Mexico? 
 24 (For an essay). Accounts of Taylor's march, and first fight with the 
 Mexicans. 25. What were the principal battles of th Mexican War? 
 26 (For an essay). Accounts of the soldiers' life in the war. 27. What 
 territory did the United States gain? 28. How was the boundary with 
 Mexico settled? 
 
 (§ 238) 29. What action was taken relative to slavery in the new an- 
 nexation? 30. What was the Wilmot Proviso? 31. What was the re- 
 sult of the election of 1848? 
 
 (§ 239) 32. What serious questions were raised by the annexation of 
 New Mexico and California? 33 (For an essay). Early accounts of gold 
 digging in California. 34. How did the Californians look on slavery? 
 
 (§ 240) 35. What questions respecting slavery had to be settled by 
 Congress? (See also § 239.) 36. What was the Omnibus Bill? 37. How 
 did leading statesmen look on the Compromise of 1850? 38 (For an essay). 
 Account of Webster's 7th of March speech. 39. What were the details of 
 the Compromise of 1850? 40. Why was the compromise not a " finality"? 
 
CHAPTER XXII 
 YOUNG AMERICA (1829 1861) 
 
 242. Young Folks and Old Folks. — While the men and 
 women of the RepubUc were so busy, what were the children 
 doing? There were plenty of them, for more than half the 
 population was under twenty-one years of age. For instance, 
 the city of New York in i860 contained about 400,000 boys and 
 girls. But children were not expected then to have all the 
 delicacies, privileges, and pleasures of older people. Even in 
 wealthy families they lived simple lives, rarely left the town 
 or village where they lived, had little money to spend, and 
 were expected to give way to their elders. An old gentleman, 
 who was a child at that time, when asked whether he liked the 
 white meat of chicken, answered that he had never found out, 
 because when he was a child it never reached him, and now 
 that he was old, it never came past his children. 
 
 Intimate family life was perhaps more common then than 
 now, because the children had fewer interests outside their own 
 dwellings. Few attractions drew children from their homes, 
 and in many households in country or city only one room was 
 warmed in winter evenings, and early bedtimes were enforced. 
 It was easy for parents and children to gather together, talking 
 things over, doing light work, and reading aloud. Children 
 who were away from home were expected to write long, fre- 
 quent, and careful letters. In the large families the oldest 
 children helped to bring up the young ones, and were often a 
 kind of second father and mother to them. 
 
 People were fond of talking about the past, and often gave 
 to children historic names, such as George Washington or 
 Andrew Jackson, or Bible names. Shearjasub Bourne was a 
 name handed down from father to son in a Cape Cod family 
 for five or six generations. Then, as now, good fathers and 
 
 300 
 
HOME LIFE AND WORK 30I 
 
 mothers told their children of their own early lives and 
 struggles, and shared the events of the children's daily lives. 
 
 243. Children's Work. — In the factory and mining vil- 
 lages previous to i860, thousands of children were cruelly 
 overworked and grew up in ignorance, because there was no 
 time for them to go to school (§223). On the farms, then as 
 now, ever>' healthy boy and girl had regular tasks. They 
 began while little to go for the cows, to water the stock, to lay 
 the table, to wipe the dishes, to " rake after " the hay wagon, 
 to care for lambs and little calves, to run cultivators, and to 
 bend their backs over planting potatoes or weeding gardens. 
 They thought it no hardship, and that is the way to learn 
 practical farming. 
 
 The girls ditl housework, picked fruit, helped at butter and 
 cheese making, and joined in cutting and sewing together a 
 \ariety of pieces for patchwork quilts. Much of the churning, 
 which was rather hard work, was left to the girls. In the 
 evenings all hands might shell corn, or work the apple parers 
 and sausage grinders. 
 
 Many town boys and girls had sinular duties which cannot 
 be performed in modern crowded cities. Most comfortable 
 families kept a horse or a cow, chickens and pigs, which had to 
 be cared for by the young folks. Vegetable and fruit gardens 
 had to be weeded, grass had to be cut, errands run, fences 
 whitewashed; all this recjuired of the boys from one to four 
 hours a day of useful work for the family. Country, village, 
 and town girls almost all took part in the housework and did 
 much sewing, for no girl was thought well brought up who 
 could not use her needle handily, mend her own clothes and 
 the family stockings, and make some of her clothes. Often 
 she made shirts for her father arid brothers. The newly in- 
 vented sewing machine (§ 225) was a great help in these tasks. 
 
 Outside the family, boys could begin early to earn wages for 
 other people as errand boys; or they went into a shop to learn 
 a trade, or worked as drivers of horses, as boys do now. 
 Those who had enough schooling to write a good hand and were 
 quick at figures could find work as clerks, bookkeepers, and 
 telegraph operators, or as salesmen (then usually called 
 
302 YOUNG AMERICA 
 
 " clerks ") in stores; and a bright boy might expect to go on 
 up till he became a storekeeper or mill owner. 
 
 For the girls there were few chances of wage work except 
 " working out " in neighboring families or going into the woolen 
 and cotton mills. There were no women stenographers 
 or library assistants. But plenty of bright girls sixteen years 
 old or upwards were welcomed as school-teachers, though the 
 pay was small and the work might last only a few months in 
 the year. In the country the teacher who did not live at 
 home was expected to " board round " among the families in 
 the district. A capable girl of sixteen could manage her school 
 for some time, unless, as often happened, one of the big boys 
 insisted on marrying her. 
 
 In the South the children of white farmers and of " poor 
 white" families helped in the housework and farm work, but 
 had few cattle to care for. On the plantations slave children of 
 nine or ten were expected to begin as " quarter hands " ; that is, 
 to do one fourth of a grown man's task. 
 
 244. Children's Play. — Children at home seldom had too 
 much to do, and they found time for happy play. Nowhere 
 were children shut up in narrow streets lined with high build- 
 ings. The largest cities contained plenty of vacant lots and 
 grassy streets where children were undisturbed. There were 
 no professional games to attend. Nobody belonged to regular 
 baseball or football or rowing clubs, but boys got great fun 
 out of such ball games as " rounders." This was an early form 
 of baseball, in which the players had the fun of trying to 
 " patch out " the runner by hitting him with the ball while he 
 was running between bases. 
 
 The boys and girls, especially in the villages, were often 
 brought up like members of one big family. They went to 
 Sunday school, church, and day school together, played to- 
 gether, and were fond of big-side games in which all could 
 join, such as " pom-pom-pull-away," " prisoner's base," and 
 " barny ball," where one excited group sent the ball over the 
 top of a high building, and the other waited for it on the other 
 side. Children loved good noisy, running, yelling, squealing 
 games. 
 
Guesl6 <uiivmg at a buuLicia auuitiiou lu Culouial days 
 
304 YOUNG AMERICA 
 
 Even in cities the open country was never far off, and most 
 boys were within reach of a pond or creek or river or brook or 
 l)ay, where they could enjoy the manly sport of swimming. 
 On the seacoast, boys were brought up to handle boats, one of 
 the best exercises for the muscles and the judgment. Many 
 l)oys in city and country were used to driving and riding 
 horses; and in the South boys were brought up not only to 
 ride but to hunt and shoot and camp out in the open. 
 
 The favorite pleasures of modern young people were hardly 
 known in those days. The theater was often a rough place, 
 and the descendants of the Puritans believed that all plays 
 were immoral. Dancing was forbidden by several of the na- 
 tional churches, and frowned upon by others. Millions of 
 boys and girls grew up without ever learning to dance. Still 
 there were dancing parties and great balls in all the large 
 places. The southern negroes invented several dances, clogs 
 and double shuffles and the like, which they performed with 
 great delight. Playing cards also were widely disapproved 
 because they could be used for money games of chance; and 
 it was thought that young people who were accustomed to 
 them would be more likely to become gamblers. Several harm- 
 less card games were therefore invented, such as the game of 
 " Familiar Quotations." 
 
 245. Holidays and Amusements. — The old-fashioned 
 schools and colleges held six days a week, but the habit grew 
 up of taking out first a Saturday half holiday and then the 
 whole day. The colleges were in session most of the summer, 
 but had a winter vacation of six weeks or more so that the 
 students could go out and teach school. The town schools 
 were in session about six or eight months during the year; but 
 the rural " district " schools were closed more than half the 
 year, for children could not be spared from the farm work. 
 
 Regular holidays were few. The Fourth of July was the 
 only day celebrated throughout the country; the old Puritans 
 thought it wrong to celebrate Christmas, and in New England 
 the schools were held on that day; but if the boys could get 
 into the schoolhouse early, and " bar the teacher out," they 
 earned the holiday. The German immigrants brought over 
 
AMUSEMENTS 305 
 
 their habit of celebrating Christmas with a tree and gifts, and 
 a joyous hoHday season, and the custom spread to famihes 
 of other races. Thanksgiving was a day only for New Eng- 
 land people and their descendants. 
 
 One of the amusements was the traveling show, especially 
 the circus, with its bareback riders, its live elephants, its 
 comical clowns, and its green young man who tried to ride the 
 trick mule and turned out to be one of the circus hands. 
 
 Few people could afford to take long journeys, and trips 
 to Europe were as uncommon as trips to India nowadays. 
 Hardly anybody in the North thought of a summer vacation; 
 a few found their way to Clifton Springs, or Saratoga, or 
 Niagara Falls. Most children, both boys and girls, had the 
 delight of running barefoot much of the summer. Southern 
 families who could afford it took their carriages in the summer 
 and drove off into the mountains to visit such places as the 
 Natural Bridge of Virginia, White Sulphur Springs, and the 
 Mammoth Cave of Kentucky. 
 
 Interior of an old country school in Alabama 
 
 246. Common Schools and Grade Schools. — By 1840 the 
 northern states all had a complete common school system 
 intended to reach every corner and hamlet. Public town and 
 village schools existed in most of the southern states; and 
 North Carolina tried to build up a rural system. The purpose 
 was to give to every white child an opportunity for what we 
 
306 YOUNG AMERICA 
 
 call a "common school education "; that is, reading, writing, 
 arithmetic, geography, and spelling. In time these schools 
 were gradually divided into two types, common or district 
 schools, and grade schools. 
 
 The country district school was open to all the nearby 
 children; one teacher in one room taught the boys and girls of 
 all ages. Those schools usually had poor buildings and appa- 
 ratus. Many were taught by young people who had no train- 
 ing but that of the district school. 
 
 In places where the children were numerous 
 enough to be assorted, ward or grade schools 
 were organized, but they were poorly housed, 
 and had a changing list of teachers. In many 
 cities schools were controlled by politicians 
 who put their own friends in with little re- 
 gard for their ability. Hence principals and 
 teachers might lose their places if a Whig or 
 a Democratic school board or committee was 
 elected. 
 
 The dififerent grade schools in the cities 
 were for a long time disconnected from 
 one another. Then city school superintend- 
 ents were appointed to study the best 
 methods, to keep the various schools in 
 
 A schoolboy's carica- n i i ah 
 
 ture of his teacher, Imc, and to direct all the teachers. All 
 the later historian, gQj-^g Qf ways of interesting children were 
 
 Bancroft "^ ,,•• im a 
 
 mvented, such as singing geography. A 
 whole school would sing, to the tune of " Pop goes the 
 Weasel," 
 
 " State of Maine, Augusta, on the Kennebec River, 
 State of Maine, Augusta, on the Kennebec River, 
 Florida, Tallahassee, is an inland city, 
 Florida, Tallahassee, is an inland city." 
 
 New writing books were introduced with clear and beauti- 
 ful script, especially the Spencerian system. Children did 
 their figuring on slates, in rattling wooden frames. Better 
 textbooks were written, though the school histories of the 
 
SCHOOLS 
 
 307 
 
 United States still dealt with little except the American 
 Indians and the battles of the Revolution. 
 
 247. Secondary Schools. — A few colonial New England 
 towns set up public Latin schools (§59), and in 1821 Boston 
 added an English high school for boys. Some other northern 
 and western cities took up the idea, which had been a favorite 
 notion with Thomas Jefferson. These high schools were ex- 
 cellent schools with wide-awake principals and teachers. They 
 taught English liter- 
 ature, Latin, Greek, 
 algebra and geome- 
 try, physics, chemis- 
 try, and astronomy 
 from textbooks, 
 aided by experi- 
 ments shown by the 
 instructor. They 
 made much of " rhe- 
 toricals"; that is, 
 declamations, es- 
 says, and debates ; 
 they gave a good all- 
 round training, and 
 some of them pre- 
 pared for college. 
 
 Most boys who 
 wanted to go to col- 
 lege studied with a 
 tutor, perhaps the 
 village minister. In all parts of the country existed academies 
 and other private schools with moderate fees and good teachers. 
 "Spelling-down " contests drew out not only school children but 
 older men and women. Singing schools were a great advantage, 
 for they prepared a lifelong pleasure by teaching young people 
 how to read music and to use the voice, and made possible 
 the chorus choirs and congregational singing in churches. 
 
 248. Education of Girls. — Girls did not fare so well as boys 
 in education. The>' shared the district and ward schools, but 
 
 A Woman's Rights meeting about i860 
 
3o8 
 
 YOUNG AMERICA 
 
 beyond that point they went to "select schools"; that is, 
 private schools with a fee; or to boarding schools where they 
 had poor teaching and were expected to learn little except 
 " accomplishments," such as playing on the piano, drawing 
 and painting, and singing. Between 1840 and i860 a few 
 separate high schools were set up for girls; and in a few cities, 
 among them Philadelphia, Providence, and Cleveland, public 
 high schools were open to boys and girls, who were educated 
 together in a very wholesome way. The teaching force in- 
 cluded both men and women, who felt a strong personal 
 interest in the welfare and training of the pupils. 
 
 However defective the 
 schooling of girls, the country 
 abounded in well educated 
 women who became active in 
 all the reform movements of 
 the time. Frances Wright was 
 a leader in what we should now 
 call a kind of " settlement " 
 work for negroes. Lucretia 
 Mott, a Quakeress, and Julia 
 Ward Howe were noted speak- 
 ers in the antislavery cause. 
 " Fanny Fern," whose real 
 name was Mrs. Sara P. W. 
 Parton, was a clever writer in 
 Mary Lyon founded a famous 
 girls' school at Mount Holyoke. In 1833 the new frontier 
 college of Oberlin (Ohio) opened its doors to women — the first 
 college to award them the A.B. degree. 
 
 249. Colleges and Professional Schools. — From 1820 to 
 i860 the colleges grew rapidly in numbers and several state 
 universities were founded, which had the whole or part of their 
 support out of the state treasury. The first of these, the 
 University of Virginia (1825), was equal to any of the northern 
 institutions of the time. It occupied a beautiful group of 
 buildings designed by Jefferson, most of which are still 
 standing. 
 
 Mary Lyon, founder of Mt. Holyoke Col- 
 lege. From a miniature of 1832 
 
 newspapers and magazines. 
 
COLLEGES 
 
 309 
 
 In 1837 the state of 
 Michigan provided for 
 a state university, 
 which was not opened, 
 however, until 1841. 
 
 North CaroHna and 
 South CaroUna also 
 made some provision 
 for state colleges. In 
 1862 the federal gov- 
 ernment gave a mag- 
 nificent land grant to 
 every state in the 
 Union, out of which in 
 the course of years 
 grew over sixty state 
 agricultural colleges. 
 
 A few schools for 
 engineers and scien- (. > n>troii Pub. co. 
 
 tiflC men were estab- Part of the colonnade at the University of Virginia 
 
 lished before 1861, some as parts of public or private univer- 
 sities; others as separate schools, such as the Rensselaer 
 Polytechnic Institute of Troy, New York. West Point, New 
 York, was made a first-class school for the training of soldiers, 
 and during the Mexican War a gov'ernment naval academy 
 was set up at Annapolis, Maryland. From these two schools 
 came many famous generals and admirals. 
 
 250. Summary. — Since so many chapters have been 
 devoted to thr work of public men, business men, farmers, and 
 railroad men, it is fitting that one chapter be devoted especially 
 to the lives of the children and youths seventy-five years ago. 
 
 Young people, three quarters of a century ago, were of the 
 same make-up as young people nowadays — healthy, lively 
 boys and girls. Families lived more inside their own houses 
 than they do now, and perhaps parents were better acquainted 
 with their own children. 
 
 Nearly all children did some work — some of them in cruelly 
 hard employments in mills and mines; most of them shared 
 
3IO YOUNG AMERICA 
 
 light indoor and outdoor work on their own farms and in their 
 own houses. Boys, especially in the North and West, had a 
 chance to earn a living, and to work up into good places. For 
 girls there was little paid employment except teaching, 
 domestic service, and mill work. On the plantations the half- 
 grown colored children worked like their elders. 
 
 Play was not organized into regular sports as it is now, but 
 children in neighborhoods played big-side games together, and 
 boys swam, drove, and rode horses. There were few theaters. 
 Dancing and card-playing were frowned upon, though allowed 
 in many places. 
 
 Regular school and college vacations were short, but rural 
 schools were held less than half of the year. There were few 
 holidays, and very little going away from home for the summer 
 except in the South. Country district schools and town grade 
 schools existed in the northern and western states, and town 
 schools in the South, all with poor buildings and apparatus, 
 and untrained teachers. But city systems were begun with 
 skilled superintendents. A few public high schools for boys 
 were founded before 1850. 
 
 Girls were admitted to the district and grade schools, and 
 some of them went to boarding schools. At last a few high 
 schools were opened to them; in a few places boys and girls 
 were educated together. One college gave girls a chance to 
 take the A.B. degree. 
 
 Some of the colleges grew into universities, and several state 
 universities were founded, and a new kind of technical school 
 was set up for training engineers and scientific men. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Histories. Boone, Education in the Un. States, pt. iii. — Brown, 
 Making of Our Middle Schools, chs. xi-xv; Origin of Am. State Universities. 
 
 — Johnson, Old-Time Schools and School-Books. — Mayo, Common Schools. 
 
 — Thwing, Hist, of Higher Education in Am., chs. x-xv. 
 
 Sources. Hart, Source Readers, III. nos. 12, 26, 105-115. — Old South 
 Leaflets, nos. 109, 135, 144, 145. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Alcott, Little Women. — Aldrich, Story of a 
 Bad Boy. — - Clemens (Mark Twain), Tom Sawyer. — Eggleston, Hoosier 
 Schoolboy. — Hale, New England Boyhood. — Harland, When Grand- 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 311 
 
 mamma was New. — Harris, Uncle Remus. — Hoar, Autobiography, I. 
 (lis. iv, vi, vii. — Howells, A Boy's Town. — Humphrc>-, When I was a 
 Little Girl. — Larcom, New England Girlhood. — Muir, My Boyhood and 
 Youth. — Peabody, Harvard Reminiscences. — Stoddard, Boy Lincoln; 
 SnltUlo Boys. — Venable, Buckeye Boyhood. — Warner, Being a Boy. 
 Pictures. Goodrich (Peter Parley), Pictorial Hist, of U.S. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§242) I. What was the ordinary family life of children about 1850- 
 1860? 2 (for an essay). Accounts of child life by those who were then 
 children, t,. What was the usual home life? 4. How were some chil- 
 dren named? 5 (For an essay), .\crount of some boy who Tuade his own 
 way. 
 
 (§ 243) 6. What were the outdoor tasks of boys antl girls? 7. What 
 were the indoor tasks of girls? 8. What were the money-earning occu- 
 pations of girls and boys? 9. How did southern children live? 
 
 (§244) 10. What were the ordinary outdoor sports of children? 11. 
 What were their ordinary indoor amusements? 
 
 (§ 245) 12. What were the ordinary sessions of schools and colleges? 
 13. What were the usual holidays? 14. What traveling amusements were 
 there? 15. What sorts of journeys and trips did well-to-do people take? 
 
 (§ 246) 16. How were the country schools carried on? 17. How were 
 city schools organized? 18 (For an essay). A day in country schools of 
 that period. 19. What sort of books and apparatus did children use in 
 school? 20 (For an essay). Accounts of old school books. 
 
 (§ 247) 21. How were the high schools carried on? 22. What special 
 schools and schooling did children enjoy? 23 (For an essay). .Accounts of 
 singing in a choir. 
 
 (§ 248) 24. How were girls educated? 2-,. Xame some famous women 
 leaders and writers of this period. 
 
 (§ 249) 26. How did the colleges and universities develop? 27. How 
 did scientific and technical schools develop? 28 (For an essay) . Student's 
 life in a college of the period. 
 
 HART =; sen. HIST. 
 
CHAPTER XXIII 
 SECTIONAL FEELING (1850-1860) 
 
 251. New Leaders (1850-1860). — For several years after 
 the Compromise of 1850 politics were rather tame. Nobody 
 any longer urged a United States Bank. No party urged a 
 high tariff; the low duties laid by Congress in 1846 were made 
 still lower in 1857. No one urged money appropriations for 
 internal improvements, for Congress made immense land 
 grants to railroads (§230). The result was that in the presi- 
 dential election of 1852 there were really no great questions 
 upon which the parties divided, and Franklin Pierce of New 
 Hampshire was easily elected President by the Democrats over 
 General Winfield Scott, the Whig candidate. 
 
 Between 1845 and 1852 the country lost by death ex-Presi- 
 dents Jackson and John Quincy Adams, and the " Great 
 Triumvirate " of Webster, Clay, and Calhoun. Their places 
 in public life were taken by younger leaders, who felt that 
 they represented not only the sections from which they came 
 but the whole country. The most eminent of these statesmen 
 are the following: 
 
 William H. Seward, who had been Whig governor of New 
 York, became the champion of the eastern opponents of 
 slavery. He was an ardent and impulsive man, who often 
 said more than he intended — in spite of his most intimate 
 political friend, Thurlow Weed, the Whig " boss " of New 
 York, who tried to keep him from being too radical. He 
 gave great offense to the South by speaking of " a higher law 
 than the Constitution," meaning the law of liberty. 
 
 Jefferson Davis, a Kentuckian by birth and one of the 
 leaders in Mississippi, was the leading southern Democrat, 
 and after Calhoun's death became the best-known proslavery 
 statesman. He believed that slavery was the source of south- 
 
 312 
 
NEW LEADERS AND NEW CITIZENS 
 
 313 
 
 ern wealth, and ought to be defended liy parties and pubHc 
 men. 
 
 Salmon P. Chase, born in New Hampshire, went into the 
 practice of law in Cincinnati. He soon became the ablest 
 western abolitionist, and as a lawyer defended several aboli- 
 tionists who were sued for aiding fugitives. He believed in 
 action against slavery, and helped to build up several succes- 
 sive antislavery parties. 
 
 Stephen A. Douglas, a Vermonter by birth, spent most of 
 his life in Illinois, where he became a Democratic leader. 
 He was always greatly 
 interested in the West, 
 and favored canals and 
 railroads. As to slavery, 
 he was indifferent; the 
 moral argument against it 
 did not seem to reach his 
 mind. 
 
 252. New Citizens 
 (1850-1860). — Political 
 conditions were somewhat 
 changed by the constant 
 arrival of thousands of 
 immigrants, many of 
 whom, at the end of fi\e 
 years, became naturalized 
 citizens and joined one of 
 the existing political 
 parties. The Democratic party was especially- })()i)ular among 
 the Irish and the Germans. In 1851 the American people 
 were stirred up by a visit from Louis Kossuth, who had been 
 the leader in an attempt to set up a republic in Hungary. 
 
 In the ten years from 1850 to i860 there were over two and 
 a half million immigrants. A large emigration started from 
 Ireland in 1846 because of a famine, and nearly all the large 
 cities of the northern United States received thousands of 
 Irishmen. Many of the other immigrants were exiles from 
 Germany, where revolutions broke out in 1848 and many- of 
 
 Stephen A. Douglas, 1813-1861 
 
314 
 
 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 Carl Schurz, as an officer in the army of the 
 United States 
 
 those who took the popular side had to leave that country. 
 Among the highly educated and strong men who thus came 
 
 to the United States was 
 Carl Schurz, who became 
 a thorough and patriotic 
 American. 
 
 Part of this steady drift 
 of immigrants from abroad 
 found its way to the West 
 by the old water route 
 through the Erie Canal and 
 the Lakes, and by the new 
 railroads. The first rail- 
 road from the East reached 
 Chicago in 1853 and that 
 city at once began a won- 
 derful growth. Hundreds 
 of thousands of easterners 
 also went out west. There 
 the foreigners and the native Americans began life side by 
 side under like conditions, went to school together, worked 
 together, joined the same churches, societies, and orders, and 
 showed that the LInited States was a "melting pot" for all 
 kinds of peoples. 
 
 253. National Issue of Slavery (1850-1860). — Though the 
 old political questions had lost their force, there was one 
 issue that aroused the bitterest personal and sectional feeling. 
 This was slavery, which was steadily gaining ground in the 
 South. All hope that it would die out of itself was now at an 
 end, for the 760,000 slaves of 1790 (§ 130) had increased to 
 nearly 3,500,000. The territory open to slavery was also en- 
 larged through the annexation of Texas and the chance to in- 
 troduce slaves into New Mexico (§§ 236, 237). 
 
 Southern leaders such as Jefferson Davis now took the 
 ground that slavery was a good thing which ought to be ex- 
 tended further. The only way to bring about this result was 
 to annex new territory, and President Pierce did his best to 
 add to the Union the slaveholding island of Cuba. Cuba 
 
SLAVERY ISSUES 315 
 
 could not be annexed without the consent of the northern 
 members of Congress, and this was never given. 
 
 Nowadays, when slavery has entirely disappeared, it is 
 hard to realize how strong and how important it seemed. 
 About 8000 leading southern families owned at least three 
 fourths of all the slaves, and took the lead in business, social 
 life, and politics. The small slaveholders, thousands of 
 whom owned only one slave apiece, the non-slaveholding 
 farmers, and the poor whites (§ 196), all felt that they belonged 
 to the master class, for they might own slaves sometime. 
 Practically the whole white population of the South agreed 
 with the statement later made by Alexander H. Stephens, a 
 southern leader. In 1861 he declared that the strength of 
 the South " rests upon the great truth that the negro is not 
 equal to the white man; that slavery ... is his natural and 
 normal condition." In addresses, newspapers, and books, 
 they stouth' defended slavery. 
 
 254. Proslavery Arguments. — The arguments in defense 
 of slavery were about as follows: (i) It was a boon to the 
 negro to bring him from Africa into a Christian country; 
 and slavery was Christian because it was practiced by the 
 Hebrew patriarchs, such as Abraham. (2) Sla\ery was good 
 for the negro, who was happy in his lot and otherwise would 
 starve. (3) Slavery made it possible to do work which white 
 men could not be hired to do. (4) If the negroes were not 
 kept as slaves, they would rise and exterminate the white 
 people. (5) Slavery supported a desirable class of masters 
 who had time to culti\'ate their minds and carry on the gov- 
 ernment. (6) The social life and Inisiness of the South were 
 founded upon slavery, and emancipation would mean ruin for 
 all classes. (7) To admit that slavery was wrong would brand 
 as criminals all the sla\eholders, including the best men and 
 women in the South, and would blacken the memory of their 
 fathers and grandfathers. 
 
 255. Antislavery Arguments. — In the North, sla\ery 
 had practically ceased to exist. There were no great land- 
 owners, and the two classes who had the most votes and 
 exercised the greatest political power were the independent 
 
T,l6 SECTIONAL KEELING 
 
 farmers and the wage earners. Both classes looked on slav- 
 ery with dislike and suspicion because the slave owners looked 
 down on all those who had to work with their hands; and it 
 seemed unjust to free workers that a few persons should be 
 alloA^ed to take all the profits from the labor of slaves. 
 
 The abolitionists kept up a rousing agitation through pub- 
 lic meetings, newspapers, and books. James Russell Lowell 
 aided the cause with bitter satires upon the southern slave- 
 holders, expressed in Yankee dialect in his Biglow Papers. 
 Besides the abolitionists there were thousands of antislavery 
 men, including Abraham Lincoln and William H. Seward, who 
 hated slavery, though they did not call themselves abolitionists. 
 
 The main arguments thus put forward were about as fol- 
 lows: (i) Slavery was contrary to Christianity, for it denied 
 the equality of all human souls in the sight of God. (2) Slav- 
 ery was contrary to the principles of human freedom stated in 
 the Declaration of Rights and the Declaration of Independence 
 (§§92, 112). (3) Slavery was brutal and cruel, and stunted 
 the minds and souls of the negroes. (4) Slavery had a bad 
 effect on the morals of the whites. (5) Skive labor was 
 crude and wasteful, and really did not pay. (6) Slavery was 
 so weak and worthless that its supporters were afraid to allow 
 it to be discussed in public. (7) Slavery was against modern 
 civilization, and for that reason weis prohibited in Europe 
 and in every part of North and South America, except Brazil, 
 Cuba, Porto Rico, and the United States. 
 
 The case against slavery was put in a thrilling form in the 
 novel called Uncle Tom's Cabin, written by Mrs. Harriet 
 Beecher Stowe, a northern lady who had seen a little of 
 slavery in Kentucky. It was a story of both the bright and 
 the dark sides of slave life. But the public was most inter- 
 ested in the dark side, in the cruel master Legree, and the 
 heart-rending fate of Uncle Tom. The southerners thought 
 this picture of slavery unreal, but the book was read all over 
 the United States and was translated into many languages. 
 Millions of readers both in America and in Europe were led 
 by it to believe that slavery was contrary to religion and 
 humanity. 
 
ABOLITIONISTS AND FUGITR'ES 
 
 317 
 
 256. Fugitive Slaves (1850-1860). — The dark side of 
 slavery was brought home to northern people by thousands 
 of runaway slaves. When they passed across Mason and 
 Uixon's line (§ 123) they found a secret organization of 
 abolitionists, called the " Underground Railroad," which car- 
 ried fugitives from house to house on regular routes, till 
 they crossed the boundary into Canada. There they were 
 safe, because Great Britain had prohibited slavery in all her 
 colonies. 
 
 The United States provided a law for the recapture of 
 fugitive slaves, but 
 some of the northern 
 states passed Personal 
 Liberty Laws w'hich 
 forbade all aid to slave 
 hunters by state offi- 
 cials or jails. A few 
 states directly inter- 
 fered with the work- 
 ing of the national 
 Fugitive Slave Law. 
 Wisconsin state courts 
 said that the Fugitive 
 
 Slave Law was itself void because it was contrary to the 
 higher law of the Constitution. 
 
 Many abolitionists would not hestitate to break that law 
 openly by taking fugitive slaves out of the hands of their 
 owners. The most striking instance was that of a slave- 
 holder named Gorsuch, who in 1851 came from Maryland to 
 find some runaway slaves whom he knew to be in a house in 
 Christiana, Pennsylvania. Armed negroes inside warned 
 him not to enter, but he said, " I'll have my property or I'll 
 lose my life." He made a rush for the house and in a minute 
 he was shot, and the fugitives escaped and were never found. 
 Such interference with the law was felt by the South to show 
 hostile feeling among the northern people. 
 
 257. Kansas-Nebraska Bill (1854). — By the Missouri 
 Compromise of 1S20 (§ 191) slavery was " forever" prohibited 
 
 ^-^as 
 
 Unpacking a fugitive slave, Henry " Box " Brown, who 
 was sent in a crate from Baltimore to Philadelphia 
 
31! 
 
 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 in every part of the Louisiana cession north of 36° 30', excej3t 
 in the state of Missouri. Most people supposed that this 
 compromise was final and beyond repeal. Senator Douglas 
 of Illinois, however, was a great believer in the right of " pop- 
 ular soxereignty," by which he meant that the people in any 
 state or territory ought to settle their own affairs, including 
 slavery. A territorial government was needed west of the 
 Missouri River. Hence in 1854 Douglas brought in a bill 
 for the organization of the territory of Nebraska, which was 
 
 SCAUF or M^£s I MEx,- "V^""§-. '<^ \ \ 
 
 ICR) ::0u atX) 4IX) I *- O I — — ..^-— ^-■' 
 
 Western territories in 1854, showing the effect of the Compromise of 1850 and of 
 the Kansas-Nebraska Bill 
 
 soon changed so as to provide for creating the two territories 
 of Kansas and Nebraska. 
 
 Some action was needed and this bill would probably have 
 gone through without trouble had not Douglas put into it 
 his principle of popular sovereignty, which would allow the 
 settlers in the territory to do as they liked about slavery, 
 notwithstanding the Missouri Compromise. Douglas tried 
 to dispose of that difficulty by adding to his bill the statement 
 that the Compromise of 1850 (which related to New Mexico) 
 had " superseded " the Compromise of 1820 (which related 
 to the Louisiana Purchase). 
 
THE REPUBLICAN PARTY 319 
 
 The antislavery men at once saw that the real purpose of 
 the bill was to make a slave state out of Kansas, so as to give 
 the South something to balance the admission of California 
 as a free state (§ 240). They accused Douglas of turning Kan- 
 sas over to the South, in the hope that the southerners would 
 vote for him for President. In spite of all their efforts, the 
 bill was passed, and the two territories were organized. 
 
 258. The Republican Party (1854-1856). — To Douglas's 
 surprise the Kansas- Nebraska Bill brought about a great 
 political change. Just at this time arose the Native American 
 party, usually called the " Know-nothings," whose main prin- 
 ciple was that no foreigners ought to hold office. This party 
 lasted only a few months, but in the elections to Congress in 
 1854 the Know-nothings made combinations with the "Anti- 
 Nebraska men," a name given to both Whigs and Democrats 
 who would not accept popular so\ereignty for the territories. 
 At the same time appeared a new political party which called 
 itself the Republican party. These three elements elected 
 about half of the members of the jiew House of Representa- 
 tives which would sit from 1855 to 1857, and that prevented 
 the proslavery men from doing anything towards making 
 Kansas a slave state until after the next national election. 
 
 The Republican party included Free-soilers of 1848 (§ 238), 
 antislavery Whigs, of whom Seward was the chief, and anti- 
 slavery Democrats, such as Chase. Thus was brought about 
 what the South had long expected and feared — a national 
 party which was determined that slavery should spread no 
 farther. 
 
 The Republican party had an issue right before it. Settlers 
 were hurrying into Kansas. Proslavery men from Missouri 
 and other slave states brought a few slaves; other southern 
 immigrants had no slaves and wanted none. In the East, 
 emigrant aid societies raised funds to send out northern 
 farmers, all antislavery men and many of them abolitionists. 
 At the first territorial election (1855) hundreds of men, com- 
 monly called " border ruffians," who did not live in Kansas 
 crossed o\'er and outvoted the settlers who were on the ground. 
 For months there was practically a civil war in the new terri- 
 
320 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 tory between the border ruffians and the antislavery men. 
 The friends of the free-state men in Kansas gave the name 
 of " Bleeding Kansas " to this unhappy controversy. 
 
 259. Growth of the Republicans (1856-1858). — When the 
 presidential election of 1856 came along there were three parties 
 and candidates: (i) The Republicans put up John C. Fre- 
 mont of California (§ 234), a young man new to politics, who 
 was popular with the " first voters." (2) The Democrats 
 nominated James Buchanan of Pennsylvania, an old-line poli- 
 tician who was friendly to slavery. (3) The Know-nothings 
 and what was left of the Whig party supported Millard Fill- 
 more (§ 240). The Republicans carried all the northern and 
 northwestern states except five, but Buchanan was elected. 
 
 The Republicans had elected many state governors. Sen- 
 ators, and Representatives, and looked forw^ard with hope 
 to the next presidential election. They were much aided in 
 their effort to secure friends and voters by the action of the 
 Supreme Court of the United States in the Dred Scott case 
 in 1857. That court, under the guidance of Chief Justice 
 Taney, thought that it could settle once for all the question 
 of slavery in the territories, by deciding that neither Congress 
 nor a territorial legislature could forbid slavery in a territory. 
 Therefore it held that the Missouri Compromise of 1820 had 
 always been void because contrary to the higher law of the 
 Constitution. If that were correct, nobody could prevent 
 slavery in a territory, not even the people living there. 
 
 260. Lincoln-Douglas Debate (1858). ^ President Bu- 
 chanan decided that the best way to stop the troubles in 
 Kansas was to make it a state; and in 1857, he arranged that 
 a convention should meet at Lecompton and frame a state 
 constitution. It was a proslavery body and put in force a 
 proslavery constitution without proper opportunity to the 
 people to vote for or against slavery in the new state. 
 
 Buchanan then tried to induce Congress to make Kansas 
 a slave state whether the people wished it or not. This was 
 so opposed to the whole idea of popular sovereignty that 
 Douglas fought against the Lecompton constitution with all 
 his might and defeated it in Congress. 
 
LlNCOLxN Ax\l) DOUGLAS 32 T 
 
 Throughout this turmoil a country lawyer named Abraham 
 Lincoln was living quietly at Springfield, Illinois. He had 
 served in the state legislature and one term in Congress, but 
 for several years had been out of public life. In 1858 the 
 Illinois Republicans chose him to be their candidate against 
 the mighty Douglas, for election to the United States Senate. 
 Lincoln had the courage to challenge Douglas, the fiercest 
 and ablest stump speaker in the country, to a series of joint 
 debates. 
 
 At last came the opportunit>' for which Lincoln had waited. 
 In seven hot debates, from end to end of the state, he defended 
 his great doctrine that " a house divided against itself cannot 
 stand . . . this go\ernment cannot endure permanently half 
 slave and half free." He denied the value of popular sov- 
 ereignty, and compelled Douglas to admit in the so-called 
 " Freeport Doctrine," that perhaps the people of a territory 
 might prevent slavery by " unfriendly legislation." This 
 statement enabled Douglas to win the election for the Senate. 
 Rut Jefferson Davis and his friends would have nothing to 
 do with a man who would not defend slavery through thick 
 and thin, and looked on him as an enemy. As for Lincoln, 
 his ability and eloquence placed him at once among the great 
 leaders of his part\- and the strongest champions of antislavery. 
 
 261. John Brown's Raid (1859J. — In 1859 the country 
 was startled by an attempt to induce slaves to run away and 
 form camps in the mountains where they could fight their 
 masters. John Brown, a strong abolitionist and at one time 
 a Kansas free-state settler, with eighteen followers- captured 
 the town of Harpers Ferry in Virginia and took possession 
 of the government arsenal there. Brown failed to induce 
 many negroes to join him, and after hours of fighting he was 
 captured by marines commanded by Col. Robert E. Lee. 
 
 He was duly charged with murder and treason against the 
 state of Virginia had a fair and open trial, and was condemned 
 and executed. Though he had caused the death of several 
 innocent persons, he maintained to the last that he had done 
 a good action. His courage impressed even his jailers; and 
 the abolitionists and many others saw something heroic in a 
 
322 
 
 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 man thus risking his Ufe for lowly people whom he had never 
 seen. 
 
 262. New Territories and States (1854-1859). — After the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, there were seven territories: Kansas, 
 Nebraska, Washington, Oregon, Minnesota. New Mexico, 
 and Utah. The last mentioned made trouble for the United 
 States in this period. It was inhabited chiefly by Mormons, 
 or members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints, 
 which had been formed about thirty years before. The Mor- 
 mons went from New York to Ohio, then to Missouri, and 
 from there to Nauvoo, Illinois. Their leader or prophet, 
 Joseph Smith, was killed by a mob (i 844) . Their new prophet, 
 Brigham Young, advised them to move out to the far West. 
 They settled near Great Salt Lake, and set up the tem- 
 porary, so-called "State of Deseret." When the United 
 
 States created the ter- 
 ritory of Utah in 1850 
 (§240), Young was 
 appointed gox-ernor. 
 
 Siilt Lake lay on the 
 main highway across 
 the continent. Lines 
 of " ov'erland mail 
 coaches " ran from the 
 Missouri Ri\er to Cali- 
 fornia; a pony express 
 carried mails at the rate of ten miles an hour, day and night ; and 
 wagon trains of emigrants were constantly passing over the 
 route. Many complaints were made by the emigrants to Cali- 
 fornia and Oregon that the Mormons interfered with them. 
 One party was murdered at Mountain Meadow, Utah, and it 
 was claimed that the Mormons were responsible for the attack. 
 When President Buchanan appointed another governor than 
 Young, the Mormons set up the objection that nobody had a 
 right to enter the territory without their leave. The Presi- 
 dent was obliged to send out troops (1857), who occupied the 
 territory and protected the federal ofificials and the trouble 
 at last subsided. 
 
 The pony express. Mail and valuable packages were 
 carried by relays of riders along a line of stages 
 
NEW TERRITORIES AND STATES 
 
 323 
 
 The territory of Minnesota was admitted in 1858 as the 32d 
 state in the Union. The population was already about 160,000, 
 for it was a prairie region with good wheat land, which attracted 
 settlers from the other states and from foreign countries. 
 
 llil 
 
 in J.i 
 
 
 ILi I 
 
 Capitol building, St. Paul, Minnesota, built in i8q8 1Q04 
 
 Oregon grew more slowly, but emigrants kept coining in by 
 the Oregon Trail and by sea. They settled mostly along the 
 Columbia Riv^er and in the broad and fertile Willamette 
 Valley. Besides farming they had a timber trade from the 
 enormous trees that grew there, and the salmon fishery was 
 valuable. In 1859 Oregon was admitted as the 33d state in 
 the Union with about 50,000 inhabitants. This made eight- 
 een free states, as against fifteen slave states, and no further 
 slave state was in sight unless Kansas could be forced to accept 
 slavery. 
 
 263. Election of i860. — As the country approached the 
 election of i860 the Republicans were growing stronger while 
 the Democrats were divided. Four tickets were nominated, 
 as follows: (i) The regular Democratic convention at 
 Charleston broke up; part of the delegates assembled again 
 and nominated Douglas. (2) The extreme proslavery Dem- 
 ocrats held a separate convention and nominated Breckin- 
 ridge of Kentucky. (3) The old Whigs who had not joined 
 
324 
 
 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 cither the Democratic or the RepubHcan party formed what 
 they called the Constitutional Union party, and nominated 
 Bell of Tennessee. (4) The Republicans held a rousing con- 
 vention in Chicago. Seward expected their nomination, but 
 Abraham Lincoln was nominated as a western candidate. 
 
 Lincoln was born in Kentucky and brought up in the states 
 of Indiana and Illinois, where there was much sympathy with 
 slavery. He was nominated because he was almost the only 
 man in the West who was not afraid of Douglas and because 
 he had a reputation for clear thinking and strong speaking. 
 He was not an extreme man and saw no reason why the South 
 should object to his presidency. 
 
 It was a confused campaign. Breckinridge had very few 
 votes in the North, and Lincoln hardly any in the South. Lin- 
 coln received a total of 1,900,000 votes against 1,400,000 for 
 Douglas and 1,400,000 for the other two candidates together. 
 
 bers indicate '~—l"~\^ 
 ■toral votes \ 
 
 Lincoln and Hamlin 
 Breckinridge and Lane 
 Douijlas and Johnson 
 Bell and Everett 
 
 How the states voted in the presidential election of i860 
 
 But though nearly a million more \'Otes were cast for the other 
 three candidates together than for Lincoln, he carried every 
 one of the northern and northwestern states, and that gave 
 him a majority of the electoral votes. The only question was 
 whether he would be President of the whole Union or of only 
 
ELECTION 01- i860 
 
 325 
 
 part of it; for threats were already made that if he were 
 elected the South would withdraw from the Union. 
 
 264. Summary. — This chapter deals with the last ten 
 years before the Civil War, in which the North and the South 
 grew to dislike and 
 distrust each other, 
 because of the ex- 
 istence of slavery. 
 
 A new body of 
 political leaders 
 came forward, of 
 whom the most 
 noted are Seward, 
 Jefferson Davis, 
 Chase, Douglas, 
 Stephens, Lincoln, 
 and Buchanan. 
 Immigrants poured 
 into the country 
 and many of them 
 took an active part 
 in politics. 
 
 The North and 
 the South were 
 now divided about 
 slavery. The 
 South felt that 
 their profits and 
 their poli t ical 
 strength depended 
 upon it and de- 
 fended it as good for the negro and the white population. 
 The abolitionists and antislavery men dencnmced skuery 
 with all their might, as unchristian, contrary to popular 
 government, and bad for both negroes and masters. The 
 most powerful attack upon slavery was the no\el. Uncle 
 Tom's Cabin. Fugitive sla\es brought tales of their experi- 
 ences to the North, and the Personal Liberty Laws passed 
 
 Statue of Abraham Lincoln by Saint-Gaudens, in 
 Lincoln Park, Chicago 
 
326 SECTIONAL FEELING 
 
 by some of the northern states gave great offense to the South. 
 Some fugitives were arrested by violence. 
 
 A new stage of the antislav^ery conflict began when the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill was passed in 1854, which made it 
 possible to create a slave state in Kansas. The result was 
 the formation of the Republican party, a large national anti- 
 slavery organization. The Republicans were not quite able 
 to elect a President in 1856, but were aided by the popular 
 opposition to the Dred Scott decision and by the Lecompton 
 constitution. 
 
 Abraham Lincoln came out as the antislavery champion, 
 and opposed Stephen A. Douglas. John Brown, by his raid 
 in Virginia, showed to what extremes some abolitionists 
 would go. Two new states were admitted to the LInion, 
 Minnesota and Oregon, both of them free. In the election 
 of i860 the Democrats were divided and Lincoln was elected 
 President, receiving few votes except in the free states; and 
 threats of secession were made. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, no. 24. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 202, 
 203, 206. — Smith, Parties and Slavery. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, ch. xxiii. — Chadwick, Causes of Civil 
 War, chs. i-viii. — Elson, Side Lights, I. chs. xiv-xvi, H. ch. i. — Hart, 
 Monroe Doctrine, ch. ix. — MacDonald, From Jefferson to Lincoln, 151- 
 247. — Smith, Parties and Slavery, chs. i-iv, vi-xviii. — Wilson, Division 
 and Reunion, §§ 87-102. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, nos. 2, 17, 23. — Caldwell and Persinger, 
 Source Hist., 418-432. — Hart, Contemporaries, IV. §§29-52; Patriots 
 and Statesmen, V. 130-259. — James, Readings, §§84, 85. — Johnston, 
 Am. Orations, U. 268-340, HL 3-207. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, 
 nos. 108-116; Select Docs., nos. 84-97. — Old South Leaflets, nos. 82-85, 
 107, 151. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Brooks, Boy Settlers (Kansas). — Brown, 
 S. A. Douglas. — Chamberlin, John Brown. — Conway, Pine and Palm. 
 
 — Eggleston, Two Gentlemen of Virginia. — Hough, Purchase Price. — 
 Morgan, The Issue. — Page, In Die Virginia. — Smedes, Southern Planter. 
 
 — Stowe, Uncle Tom's Cabin. — Trowbridge, Neighbor Jackwood. — 
 Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, 11. 47-68. 
 
 Pictures. Sparks, Expansion of Am. People. — Wilson, Am. People, 
 IV. 
 
referencp:s and questions 3.?7 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 251) I. Why was party spirit low in the election of 1852? 2. What 
 changes were there in political leaders? 3. What kind of statesman was 
 William H. Seward? Jefferson Davis? Salmon P. Chase? Stephen A. 
 Douglas? 
 
 (§ 252) 4. How did immigrants affect parties? 5. What made immi- 
 gration lively about 1850? 6. What effect had immigration on the West? 
 
 (§ 253) 7. How did slavery affect public feeling? 8. How did slavery 
 affect foreign policy? 9. What was the influence of slavery in the South? 
 10 (For an essay). Life on a great slave plantation. 
 
 (§ 254) II. What were the main arguments in favor of slavery? 
 
 (§255) 12. Why was slavery disliked by the North? 13 (For an essay). 
 Account of an abolitionist meeting. 14. What were the main arguments 
 against slax'ery? 15. What was the effect of Uncle Tom's Cabin? 
 
 (§256) 16 (For an essay). Experiences of a fugitive slave. 17. What 
 was the "Underground Railroad"? 18. What were the Personal Liberty 
 Laws? 19. Why did the rescue of fugitive slaves arouse the South? 20 
 (For an essay). The Christiana fugitive slave case. 
 
 (§ 257) 21. How did the Missouri Compromise work? 22. What was 
 the doctrine of popular sovereignty? 2t,. What was the Kansas-Nebraska 
 Hill? 24. Why (lid the antishwcry men oppose the bill? 
 
 (§258) 25. What was the "Know-nothing" party? 26. How did the 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill affect the political parties? 27. How was the Re- 
 publican party formed? 28. What was the cause of the troubles in Kan- 
 sas? 
 
 (§ 259) 29. What was the result of the election of 1856? 30. What was 
 the Dred Scott case? 
 
 (§ 260) 31. What was the Lecompton constitution? ^2 (For an 
 essay). Account of the debates between Lincoln and Douglas. 33. What 
 was the Freeport Doctrine; and why was it bad for Douglas? 
 
 (§261) 34. What was the John Brown raid? 35 (For an essay). Ad- 
 ventures of John Brown. 
 
 (§ 262) 36. How did the Mormon church arise? 37 (For an essay). 
 The Mormon emigration to Salt Lake. 38. How did troubles arise in 
 IHah? 39. When and how was Minnesota admitted to the L'^nion? 40. 
 When and how was Oregon admitted? 
 
 (§ 263) 41. Who were the candidates for the presidency in i860? 42. 
 (For an essay). Nomination of Lincoln at Chicago. 43. What was the 
 result of the election? 
 
328 
 
CHAPTER XXIV 
 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR (1860-1863) 
 
 265. Secession. — Though Lincohi would ha\e been satis- 
 fied simply to stop slaver\- from spreading further, South Car- 
 olina at once called a convention, as had been done in 1832 
 (§212), to speak the mind of the people of the state. In the 
 midst of this excitement Congress met (December 3), and Presi- 
 dent Buchanan sent in a message which argued that no state 
 has a right to secede from the Union, but if a state does secede, 
 the Federal gox'ernmcnt has no right to prevent it. 
 
 Such weak reasoning could not hold South Carolina l)ack. 
 On December 20, a convention passed an ordinance declar- 
 ing that the state was no longer a part of the Lhiion; and 
 the Charleston newspapers began to print dispatches from the 
 North under the title " Foreign Intelligence." 
 
 All parts of the state obeyed the ordinance, except three 
 forts in Charleston harbor which had been built by the Fed- 
 eral government and held Fed- 
 eral troops. While commis- 
 sioners were in Washington 
 demanding that these forts 
 should be given up. Major 
 Anderson, who was in com- 
 mand, moved his troops (De- 
 cember 26) from the weak 
 Fort Moultrie to the strong 
 Fort Sumter. Buchanan was 
 
 ready to turn Fort Sumter Charleston Harbor and Fort Sumter 
 
 over to South Carolina, and thereby to admit that a state 
 
 could secede. His Cabinet prevented this. From that 
 
 time he was a mere figurehead ; he had no power as 
 President. 
 
 H.\RT S SCH. HIST. - ly 
 
 ?29 
 
330 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 As had been planned beforehand, six more states quickly 
 seceded, taking in the whole belt from South Carolina to 
 Texas; but the eight other slave states held off. Delegates 
 from the seceded states formed at Montgomery, Alabama, a 
 government which they called the Confederate States of 
 America (February, 1861), and Jefferson Davis was chosen its 
 President. Nearly all the United States arsenals, public build- 
 ings, forts, and navy yards in the South were seized. Volunteer 
 soldiers were drilling all through that section; but the south- 
 erners could not believe that the North would fight, and for 
 several months they allowed the United States still to carry 
 their mails. 
 
 266. Attempts to Compromise (1860-1861). — What could 
 be done to save the Union? Many southern men loved it; 
 among them was Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia (§253), 
 who urged that there was no good reason for secession. Why 
 could not some law or constitutional amendment be passed 
 that would satisfy both parties? 
 
 Special committees were appointed in both houses of Con- 
 gress to work on this problem, but neither Jefiferson Davis, 
 who represented the South, nor Seward, who was spokesman for 
 the Republicans, would make concessions that the other side 
 could accept. We now know that Abraham Lincoln advised 
 his friends not to vote for any compromise that would allow 
 the South to annex more slave territory and admit more slave 
 states; and everybody thought that unless slavery could 
 have more room it would surely die out. Nevertheless, Lin- 
 coln could not believe that the South really meant to leave 
 the Union. 
 
 The compromise committees failed, as did other plans. 
 When Congress expired (March 3, 1861), it was clear that the 
 seven Confederate states meant to stay out of the Union ; and 
 therefore the only good that compromise could do would be to 
 keep in the Union all or part of the eight other slave states. 
 Meanwhile twelve southern Senators and thirty-one members 
 of the House had left Congress. All this while Major An- 
 derson, with his little garrison, was holding on in Fort Sum- 
 ter, waiting for orders from the new President. 
 
RIGHT OR WRONG OF SECESSION 33 1 
 
 267. Right or Wrong of Secession (1861). — When Lincoln 
 was inaugurated (March 4, 1861) secession was already a fact. 
 When the southern members withdrew from Congress the 
 northern majority admitted Kansas as a free state, with 1 10,000 
 people. This made thirty-four states, but seven of them 
 had ceased to take any part in the Union. The critical ques- 
 tions were: Would the other slaveholding states follow? 
 Would all the nineteen free states stand by the United 
 States government in resisting secession? 
 
 Here was one of the many cases where what people think is 
 as important as what they do. Without doubt most of the 
 southern people thought secession was right; it was believed 
 and taught by their great public men, like Calhoun, and Jeffer- 
 son Davis, and Alexander H. Stephens. Most of the thinking 
 men and women of the South considered the Union to be what 
 it was called in nulUfication times, a " compact between 
 sovereign states" (§213). If the North would not stand by 
 the Constitution as the South understood it, and protect 
 slavery, the southerners held that they were released from all 
 obligations to the Union, and could secede. They looked on 
 secession as one of the rights which by the Constitution 
 were " reserved to the states respectively or to the people." 
 Hence, they alweiys resented being chilled " rebels "; they said 
 that they were not in rebellion, but were carrying on a " war 
 between the states." 
 
 A few of the northern people accepted that doctrine, and many 
 more thought that if the southern people were bent on secession 
 there was no use in trying to stop them. Horace Greeley was 
 writing day after day in the Ne^i' York Tribune, " Let the 
 erring sisters go in peace." William Lloyd Garrison (§204) 
 was pleased at the idea of at last being rid of the slave- 
 holders. 
 
 Yet by far the greater number of northerners believed with 
 Webster that the Union was "a people's government"; that 
 the Constitution bound every state that had ratified it, 
 and every new state that had been admitted into the Union; 
 and that secession was nothing but treason and rebellion. 
 They felt that the United States of America was greater than 
 
332 
 
 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 the states, and that to break up the Union was also a sin in 
 the sight of God. 
 
 Many southerners who sincerely loved the Union, such as 
 Robert E. Lee, believed that if their state seceded, they were 
 morally bound to go along. We must respect their honesty, 
 
 but we must also re- 
 spect the honesty of 
 General Winfield Scott, 
 Admiral Da\'id Farra- 
 gut, and scores of other 
 southerners who saw 
 their duty differently, 
 and gave their loyalty 
 and service to the 
 United States, though 
 their own states 
 seceded. 
 
 268. Real Reasons 
 for Secession (i86ij. 
 — In any case, most 
 northern people and 
 some southerners felt 
 that there was no 
 danger to the South 
 which required seces- 
 sion. The Democrats, 
 who were not hostile 
 to slavery, would still 
 have a majority in the 
 Senate, and perhaps in 
 the next House, and 
 the majority of the 
 Supreme Court favored slavery; the President would be the 
 only antislavcry part of the government. Let us set down 
 the main reasons put forward by the southern secessionists 
 for their action : 
 
 (i) The northern states woukl not perform their duties; 
 an evidence was the Personal Liberty Laws (§ 256) which 
 
 General Robert E. Lee, 1807-1870 
 
REASONS FOR SECESSION 333 
 
 interfered with the capture of fugitive slaves. — On this point 
 Lincoln advised that, as far as such laws were contrary to the 
 Constitution, they should be withdrawn. 
 
 (2) The North was banded together to prevent the further 
 spread of sla\'ery. — This was the main reason for secession as 
 stated in the southern newspapers, speeches, and addresses 
 prepared by the seceding conventions. 
 
 (3) The strong language of the abolitionists against " our 
 domestic institutions" could no longer be borne. ^ Robert 
 Toombs of ( icorgia said that the matter would be settled if tht- 
 North would call slavery right. 
 
 (4) Whatever Lincoln might do, the North as a section was 
 opposed to sla\ery and would use its majority of states and 
 voters to destroy slavery. — That fear was justified though the 
 danger was not yet close. 
 
 On the other hand, the Republicans, who were now made 
 up nearly eciualK' of former Whigs and former Democrats, 
 stated their complaints about as follows: 
 
 (i) The South had for years browbeaten the North, and 
 had tried to stop the discussion of slavery in public meetings, 
 in newspapers, and even in Congress. 
 
 (2) The South had annexed Texas and New Mexico so as 
 to provide more slave states, and was trying to annex Cuba 
 for the same purpose. 
 
 (3) The South demanded that the northern states should 
 allow slaveholders to hold slaves in the free states for short 
 periods. 
 
 (4) The South had broken the sla\'ery compromises and the 
 Constitution, and was willing to destroy the Union which had 
 (lone so much for both sections. 
 
 269. Outbreak of War (April, 1861). — It chanced that the 
 issue soon changed from arguments about secession to the vital 
 question whether Fort Sumter should be given up to the south- 
 ern Confederacy. In January, Buchanan's administration 
 sent the merchant steamer Star of the West to carry provisions 
 to the garrison; but it was fired upon by the South Carolina 
 batteries, and turned back. After that everybody waited 
 till Lincoln should be inaugurated. 
 
334 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 As soon as the new President appointed a new Cabinet, he 
 asked for its advice about Fort Sumter. If he strengthened 
 the fort the Confederacy would surely attack it; but to give 
 it up would be an admission that South Carolina had a right 
 to secede. Lincoln was convinced that in either case war 
 would break out; for if the North and the South could not 
 agree under a joint Federal government, how could they be 
 friends as two rival nations? 
 
 Lincoln, therefore, made up his mind to send provisions to 
 Fort Sumter by a war fleet. In fulfillment of a promise, he gave 
 notice that he had decided on such miction; but the Confeder- 
 ate government hesitated to issue orders to attack. Robert 
 Toombs said it would bring on war, but President Davis 
 made the final decision, and early on the morning of April 
 12, i86i, the Confederate batteries opened fire. The garri- 
 son defended itself, till the buildings were set on fire by the 
 shells, and the masonry was smashed. The Federal fleet 
 arrived but lay helpless outside the harbor,- the entrance to 
 which was covered by Confederate batteries. After thirty 
 hours of bombarding, the fort was so damaged that Anderson 
 surrendered. 
 
 This result was fortunate for the North, for actual war was 
 begun by an attack upon the flag of the United States. Lin- 
 coln at once appealed to all the states which had not seceded, 
 to furnish militia to put down " an insurrection." Four more 
 states forthwith seceded — Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and 
 North Carolina. Federal troops were soon sent to the other 
 border slave states. Delaware was loyal to the Union, 
 Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri were divided, though 
 apparently in all three the majority was for the Union. The 
 Germans of St. Louis helped to prevent their state from seceding. 
 
 The eleven states which had combined as the Confederate 
 States of America set up their capital at Richmond, Virginia. 
 All the remaining twenty-three states stood by the Union, 
 though California and Oregon were too far away to take a 
 serious part in the struggle. 
 
 270. Campaign of i86i. — The United States was in no 
 condition to carry on war. Out of 2300 military and naval 
 
CAMPAIGN OF 1 86 1 
 
 335 
 
 officers 550 joined the Confederacy; the few thousand troops 
 were scattered in the West; and some of the best vessels 
 of the little navy fell into the hands of the Confederates. 
 Washington was in sight of the Virginia hills which the Con- 
 federacy claimed as a part of its territory. President Lincoln, 
 who, under the Constitution, was commander in chief of the 
 
 
 The " White House of the Confederacy," Richmond, Va. This was Jefferson 
 Davis's home during the war and is now fitted up as a museum of Con- 
 federate relics 
 
 army and navy, was not a military man; and many of the 
 officers had seen little service in the field. 
 
 The southerners, on the other hand, were directed by 
 President Davis, who had been a good officer in the Mexican 
 War, and then Secretary of War. They were used to outdoor 
 life and military weapons, and they had a score of ports out 
 of which they expected to send their cotton, and into which 
 military supplies were to come from abroad. 
 
 Most foreign observers who watched the beginning of the 
 war expected that the Confederacy would succeed, but three 
 
336 
 
 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 things were not foreseen by the South: the fighting spirit of 
 the North, the blockade of the southern coast, and the cour- 
 age of Abraham Lincoln. In a few weeks 90,000 men, mostly 
 volunteers, were sent to the front. Washington was protected 
 by new forts manned by these volunteers, and an army was 
 
 McClellan'a Peninsular Campaign 1862 
 . ^.. Grant's March to Richmond 
 and Appomai 
 > Sheridan's Shenando: 
 
 and March t 
 
 .>_-> Lee E March to Gettjsburg " ~ Ljf "'* I'^VT.tft^^'*" 
 
 SCALE OF M CES JlcConilf lls%-u. V,-* """""'"''--^ "*' 
 
 i 
 
 y Carlisle 
 
 landoah Campaign f^ pj,-^ E-''T''r\ N- 
 
 I to Petersburg ghifi^risbut'g^--* s.Kj^frg,. 
 
 The campaigns of the Civil War in the East 
 
 raised in the West which occupied St. Louis, Louisville, and 
 other important points. 
 
 The first serious fight was the battle of Bull Run (or Manas- 
 sas, as it was called by the southerners), July 21. 1861. The 
 Union army along Bull Run, composed chiefly of raw and un- 
 trained troops, attacked the Confederates. After a hard day's 
 
CAMPAIGN OF 1 862 337 
 
 fight they were beaten by equally raw and untrained southern 
 troops and retreated in a rout to the shelter of Washington. 
 Instead of giving way, Congress and the President were nerved 
 by this defeat to prepare for a big war; and in the course of a 
 year about 660,000 troops were raised by the North, and 
 probably 400,000 or 500,000 in the South. 
 
 Meanwhile the Federal navy department was bending every 
 energy to build up a blockading fleet. It put into service 
 old ships of war, merchant steamers, ferryboats, tugs, sailing 
 vessels — anything to cruise off the southern ports and to 
 capture vessels bound in and out. In a few months these 
 ships had such a tight grip that the South was not able to 
 send out the cotton crop of 1861 and later years, and quanti- 
 ties of military stores were captured on their way into the 
 Confederac\-. 
 
 271. Campaign of 1862. — The first big defeat of the Con- 
 federates was in the West, where they held southern Kentucky 
 and the Mississippi River below the Ohio. General Ulysses S. 
 Grant, a former army officer, was put in command of a Union 
 army which captured forts Henry and Donelson near each 
 other on the Tennessee and Cumberland rivers (February, 
 1862; map page 362). That compelled the Confederates to 
 give up Kentucky and to loose their hold on Missouri. Two 
 months later Grant was attacked and his army forced back at 
 the battle of Pittsburg Landing (or Shiloh). But the Con- 
 federate commander, Albert Sidney Johnston, was killed and 
 the Confederates retreated. Then the Union troops and 
 gunboats pushed down the Mississippi River as far as the 
 strong fortifications of Vicksburg. 
 
 A few weeks after Shiloh, a Union fleet under Flag Officer 
 (later Admiral) Farragut ascended the Mississippi from the 
 Gulf of Mexico and took the city of New Orleans (April 25), 
 which was held to the end of the war. This was a terrible 
 blow to the South, for that city was a great cotton-shipping 
 port. 
 
 General George B. McClellan was put in command of the 
 eastern army. During the winter and spring he was drilling 
 a great army at Washington, and in April he set out to capture 
 
338 FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 Richmond, by coming up the peninsula between the James 
 and York rivers. Just as he was about to move, a Confeder- 
 ate ironclad called the Virginia, which was rebuilt from the 
 old frigate Merrimac, came out of Norfolk. The only force 
 to oppose her was a few wooden ships of war. The Merrimac 
 easily defeated and sank the Congress and the Cumberland , 
 whose old-fashioned cannon made no impression on her iron- 
 clad hull. There was almost a panic in Washington, where 
 it was expected that the Merrimac would come up the Potomac. 
 
 Next day (March 9) a little craft called the ifoni/or appeared 
 at Newport News. She was built by a Swedish engineer named 
 Ericsson, on a new plan, with big guns in a revolving turret. 
 The Monitor dared to engage the big Merrimac in this, the 
 first sea fight in history between ironclad vessels. At the end 
 of the fight the Merrimac retired to Norfolk, and never again 
 performed any service for the Confederacy. 
 
 McClellan moved slowly up to a point within sight of Rich- 
 mond, where for several days the two great armies fought 
 each other. Joseph E. Johnston, in command of the Confeder- 
 ates, was wounded, and Lee was put in command and con- 
 tinued till the end of the war. McClellan was beaten with 
 great loss and obliged to fall back to the James River, where 
 the gunboats could support him. 
 
 If McClellan lost his nerve. President Lincoln did not. 
 Three times more during the year 1862 the Union army of 
 the Potomac engaged in battle with the Confederate army of 
 Virginia. Part of it was beaten at second Bull Run. At 
 Antietam (September, 1862) it won a victory, but the Con- 
 federate army almost held its own, and withdrew in good 
 order. Finally, the Union army made a desperate attack at 
 Fredericksburg, but was defeated. Meantime the western 
 army under its great generals. Grant and Sherman, was 
 getting ready to force open the Mississippi. 
 
 272. Vicksburg and Gettysburg (1863). — In the summer 
 of 1863 two campaigns, one in the West and one in the East, 
 virtually decided the outcome of the war. Grant was a man 
 of whom Lincoln said, "I can't spare this man; he fights." 
 Convinced that the fortress of Vicksburg was not too strong 
 
VICKSBURG AND GETTYSBURG 
 
 339 
 
 to be taken, Grant circled around the city, south, east, 
 north, and then west till he came up against its defenses. 
 
 Union trenches around Shirley House at Vicksburg, 1863. From a war-time photo- 
 graph. The soldiers lived in the dugouts 
 
 The earthworks of the two armies are still preserved and make 
 one of the most interesting parks in the world. After heavy 
 fighting on the fiver and on land, Vicksburg surrendered 
 (July 4). Lincoln thankfully said: "The Father of Waters 
 again goes unvexed to the sea." 
 
 In the East, after defeating the army of the Potomac at 
 Chancellorsville, Lee made what proved to be the last attempt 
 to penetrate the North by a southern army. York and other 
 towns in Pennsylvania were captured by the Confederates, 
 and Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York were alarmed. 
 General George E. Meade was put at the head of the Union 
 army and threw it across the path of Lee at Gettysburg. On 
 the third day of terrible fighting, Lee made his last effort, by 
 ordering Pickett's division of 15,000 men to charge on the 
 Union lines (July 3). The gallant effort failed; a few Con- 
 
340 'FIRST PERIOD OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 federates reached " the high tide of the Confederacy" on the 
 ridge south of the town, but the attack was hurled back. The 
 next day the Confederates retreated, and from that time to 
 the end of the war Lee's army was on the defensive. 
 
 273. Summary. — This chapter describes the secession by 
 the southern states and the first two years of the consequent 
 Civil War. 
 
 South Carolina led in secession. In spite of Buchanan's 
 weak objections, the state withdrew December 20, i860. 
 Major Anderson then moved his troops to Fort Sumter. 
 Buchanan was willing to surrender that fort but was overruled. 
 Six states followed South Carolina at once and all efforts to 
 stop secession by compromise failed. There was a warm dis- 
 cussion of secession on both sides, each accusing the other of 
 unfriendly acts. 
 
 Except the futile attempt to relieve Fort Sumter by the 
 Star of the West, the Federal government did nothing until 
 Lincoln became President. He decided to try to reenforce 
 Fort Sumter, whereupon the Confederate government fired 
 upon it and easily captured it (April" 14, 1861). Four more 
 southern states at once seceded, leaving twenty-three on 
 the northern side. 
 
 The United States had a very small army and it took some 
 time before either side was able to go to war. In the first 
 battle of Bull Run, the Union troops were defeated, and in 
 1862 they were several times defeated in the East. The 
 North set up a successful blockade, and in 1862 took New 
 Orleans. The western army of the Union pushed down 
 through Tennessee, fighting hard at Pittsburg Landing, and 
 then along the Mississippi River. In 1863 Vicksburg was 
 taken and Lee's army was defeated at Gettysburg. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Chadwick, Causes of Civil War, 244. — Dodge, Bird's-Eye 
 View of Civil War. — Hart, Epoch Maps, no. 13; Wall Maps, nos. 15, 16. 
 — Hosmer, Appeal to Arms. — Sanford Am. Hist. Maps, nos. 26, 27. 
 
 Histories. Chadwick, Causes of Civil War, chs. ix-xix. — Dodd, 
 Expansion and Conflict, chs xiv, xv. — Hosmer, Appeal to Arms, chs. 
 i-xiii, xv-xix. — Paxson, Civil War, 20-86, 91-101, 1 13-144, 159-171. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 34 1 
 
 — South in Building of Nation, I-III. — Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
 §§ 103-106, 108, 112. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 452-460. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, IV. §§ 53-74, 102-120; Patriots and Statesmen, V. 261- 
 305; Source Book, §§ 1 13-123; Source Readers, IV. §§29-61, 74-96. — 
 James, Readings, §§86-88. — Johnston, Am. Orations, III. 230-329, IV. 
 16. — .Kicffcr, Recollections of a Drummer Boy. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Cable, Kincaid's Battery. — Ci'Al War 
 Stories retold from St. Nicholas. — Ege;leston, Rebel's Recollections; Master 
 of Warlock. — Forrest, Student Cavaliers (Confederate army). — King, 
 The Iron Brigade. — Otis, With Grant at Vickshur g. ^ScoWixrd, Ballads 
 of Am. Bravery, 61-1 12. — Stoddard, Long Bridge Boyj. — Stratemeyer, 
 Defending His Flag. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, II. 68-185. 
 
 Pictures. Century Co., Battles and Leaders. — Frank Leslie's Weekly. — 
 Harper's Weekly. — Miller, Photog. Hist, of the Civil War. — Wilson, 
 Am. People, IV. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 265) I. How did President Buchanan look on secession? 2. How 
 did South Carolina act? 3 (For an essay). Account of Anderson in F"ort 
 Sumter. 4. How was the Confederate States of America formed? 
 
 (§ 266) 5. What efforts were made to save the Union? 6. Why did 
 the attempt at compromise fail? 7. How did secession affect Congress? 
 
 (§ 267) 8. When and how was Kansas admitted to the Union? 9. 
 What did the southern people think about secession? 10. Why did some 
 northerners favor secession? 1 1. What was the main opinion in the North 
 about secession? 12 (For an essay). Was a southern man bound to follow 
 his state if it seceded? 
 
 (§ 268) 13. W'hat were the main reasons put forward to defend secession? 
 14. What were the main northern complaints against the South? 
 
 (§ 269) 15. How flid Fort Sumter come to be significant in the quarrel? 
 16. Why did Lincoln finally decide to hold the fort? 17 (For an essay). 
 Account of the capture of Fort Sumter. 18. How were the border states 
 divided on secession? 19. How did the northern states stand on secession? 
 
 (§ 270) 20. W'hat was the condition of the United States army and navy 
 in 1 861? 21. Why did the South expect to succeed? 22. What gave the 
 North the hope of success? 23 (For an essay). Account of the battle of 
 Bull Run. 24. How were the northern army and navy raised? 
 
 (§ 271) 25. How were the Confederates pushed back in the West in 
 1862? 26. How far did the North capture the Mississippi? 27 (For an 
 essay). The fight between the Monitor and Merrimac. 28. What was 
 the result of the campaign against Richmond? 29. What other battles 
 occurred in the East during 1862? 
 
 (§ 272) 30. How did Grant take Vicksburg? 31. What was the result 
 of the battle of Gettysburg? 32 (For an essay). Pickett's charge. 
 
CHAPTER XXV 
 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CIVIL WAR (1861-1865) 
 
 274. Resources of the Sections. — The "South" in the 
 spring of i86i meant the area in the control of the government 
 at Richmond. It lay south of the Confederate military line, 
 which ran from lower Chesapeake Bay through Virginia, 
 Kentucky, and Missouri to the Indian Ter- 
 ritory. The two sections were unequal in 
 population, for to the north of this line 
 lived about 22,000,000 people, to the south 
 of it about 9,000,000. In the North were 
 about 5,000,000 able-bodied white men, in 
 the South about 1,500,000. 
 
 The sections were unequal also in the 
 means of providing for and transporting 
 soldiers and supplies. The North had the 
 advantage in furnishing muskets, cannons, 
 tents, clothing, and food for the soldiers and 
 the people. The North had 22,000 miles 
 of railroad, and held the interior water route 
 of the Hudson River, Erie Canal, and Great 
 Lakes, and also the Ohio River from Pitts- 
 burgh to Cairo. The South had 9000 miles 
 of railroad and (till 1862) held the lower 
 Mississippi to its mouth. 
 
 The North had iron works in New York, 
 
 Sword and sash worn , . , z-m • i r^ i 
 
 by a surgeon in the Pennsylvania, and eastern Ohio;' the South 
 Civil War ^^^^ ouly One large iron works, that at Rich- 
 
 mond. The North had shipyards and a great fleet of mer- 
 chant vessels; the South owned and built few ships. On 
 the face of it the Federal power was from two and a half to 
 three times as strong as the Confederate. It is no wonder 
 
 342 
 
THE SOUTHERN STATES 343 
 
 that at the beginning the northern people felt confident of 
 success. 
 
 275. The Confederate States of America. — On the other 
 hand, the South had many natural advantages for making 
 war. The most obvious was a belt of rugged and wooded 
 mountains stretching from the neighborhood of Washington 
 to northern Alabama. The war had to be fought at the two 
 ends of that barrier, and it was almost impossible to cross it 
 with a large army. 
 
 In public spirit the Confederate government could count on 
 almost the whole southern people, while many peace Demo- 
 crats in the North were opposed to the war. Eastern Ken- 
 tucky and Tennessee were loyal to the Union, but their aid 
 was offset by secessionists and Confederate soldiers living in 
 Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri. 
 
 The South could not draw upon the negroes for soldiers; but 
 great numbers went with the armies to drive horses and cook, 
 to build forts and take care of the wounded. Above all they 
 tilled the fields and raised the food for the armies. If the 
 negroes had ever shown any signs of rising and massacring 
 the whites, the southern armies would have had to give up 
 fighting the Union troops and turn back to their own homes; 
 but the slaves showed a sti'ong affection for their masters. 
 
 Both sides had good material for soldiers. Southern 
 young men were more used to outdoor life and to handling 
 weapons; but it turned out that men from northern towns 
 and cities stood the hardships and dangers of war as well as 
 the farmers' boys. Still, judging by previous wars, it seemed 
 likely that the 2,000,000 men who were first and last enlisted 
 in the northern armies would never be able to subdue the 
 1,100,000 who were enrolled in the southern armies. 
 
 276. Raising Troops. — The first need of armies is men. 
 Almost every soldier of the regular army, then 16,000 strong, 
 stood by the Union in 1861, while half the southern officers 
 in that army resigned and joined the Confederacy, including 
 most of the later commanders of armies. New soldiers had 
 to be raised by both sides. Both sides followed the bad ex- 
 ample of earlier wars (§ 98) and depended on volunteers or- 
 
344 
 
 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CR'TL WAR 
 
 ganizecl in poorly drilled militia regiments. As the war went 
 on, many of the old regiments of a thousand men were worn 
 down to a few hundred; instead of filling them up, new regi- 
 ments were raised with new sets of ofificers. 
 
 After two years of fighting not enough men came forward 
 as volunteers, and both sides resorted to " conscription," 
 as people called the process of enlisting able-bodied men 
 whether they liked it or not. The South finally called into 
 service every able-bodied white man between 17 and 50 years 
 
 of age, which General 
 Grant called "robbing 
 the cradle and the 
 grave." Public senti- 
 ment helped conscrip- 
 tion in the South and 
 kept down the number 
 of skulkers and de- 
 serters. 
 
 In 1863 a list was 
 made up of the able- 
 bodied northern civil- 
 ians in order that a 
 certain number should 
 be " drafted " by lot. 
 This led to a terrible 
 riot in the city of New 
 York. Negroes were 
 hunted through the 
 streets, a colored orphan asylum was burned, and over a 
 thousand people were killed or wounded. The riot was put 
 down only by sending regiments of troops from the 
 front. 
 
 Yet only a few thousand men were thus added to the army. 
 To avoid the draft many indi\iduals hired substitutes to go 
 into the army for them. Cities, states, and towns ofTered 
 heavy bounties in money, often as much as $1200 in cash. 
 This attracted a class of " bounty jumpers," who would enlist, 
 desert, and enlist again to get another bounty. 
 
 Johnny Clemm, twelve years old, the youngest boy 
 in the Union army, 1862 
 
THE NOKrUKkX STATES 345 
 
 277. The Union Government. — The President and Con- 
 gress at Washington also had their troubles. Congress voted 
 men and money freely, but set up a Committee on the Conduct 
 of the War, which went around to the camps, took testimony, 
 and dro\e the generals almost frantic. Congressmen wanted 
 commissions as army ofificers for themselves and their friends. 
 Some were made generals who had hardly smelled powder, 
 such as Butler and Banks of Massachusetts and McClernand 
 of Illinois; and several such generals turned out to be poor 
 commanders. 
 
 By the end of the war the Union learned that none but 
 trained soldiers can command armies successfully; and sooner 
 or later all the large armies were placed under graduates 
 of West Point — among them McClellan, Grant, Sherman, 
 Sheridan, Thomas, Rosecrans, and Meade. 
 
 Although the North harl many factories and could buy 
 freel>- in Europe, the armies were not always well supplied; 
 for contracts were made in a hurry and contractors did not 
 scruple to enrich themselves at the expense of the goxernment. 
 Yet this grasping for office and commissions and profits was 
 far outweighed by the patriotic feeling of Congress, and by 
 the sacrifices of the people in support of the war. 
 
 278. Northern Leaders. — Congress in Washington was 
 full of able men who meant to have a share in carrying on the 
 goxernment. One of the strongest Senators was Charles 
 Sumner of Massachusetts, an out-and-out abolitionist and 
 profound hater of all slaveholders. In the House, Vallandig- 
 ham of Ohio was the leader of the peace Democrats; he was 
 finally tried by court-martial and sent across the military lines 
 into the Confederacy. 
 
 Sexeral remarkably able statesmen were in the President's 
 Cabinet. William H. Seward, as Secretary of State, made 
 it his business to persuade foreign nations that the North 
 would surely win, and to prevent any recognition of the 
 southern Confederacy as one of the nations of the world. 
 Salmon P. Chase in the Treasury thought out plans for 
 taxes and currency, banks and loans, and somehow man- 
 aged to raise the money with which to enlist, equip, arm, and 
 
' ' President Lincoln hated to sign the death warrant of deserters ' 
 
ABRAHAM LINCOLN 347 
 
 support the soldiers. Edwin M. Stanton, Secretary of War, 
 had the temper of a Tartar, and was harsh, bitter, and un- 
 reasonable, but was honest and a good manager. Gideon 
 Welles was Secretary of the Navy and guided his department 
 in the " anaconda policy " of beating the Confederacy by 
 gradually shutting it ofif from commerce and intercourse with 
 foreign nations. 
 
 In the states several great " war governors " helped the 
 government at Washington — especially Governor Andrew 
 of Massachusetts, Governor Morgan of New York, Governor 
 Brough of Ohio, Governor Curtin of Pennsylvania, Governor 
 Morton of Indiana, and Governor Yates of Illinois. Minis- 
 ters such as Henry W'ard Beecher, editors such as Horace 
 Greeley, poets such as Longfellow, Lowell, and Whittier, all 
 helped to rouse the heart of the northern people and to keep 
 them up to their work. Among the writers of humor the 
 most amusing was " Artemus Ward," who said that he was 
 willing to sacrifice all his wnfe's male relatives to the cause of 
 the Union. 
 
 279. Abraham Lincoln. — By common consent Abraham 
 Lincoln is the greatest American of the Civil War period. 
 Lincoln never forgot that he was born in Kentucky, and he 
 understood the southern people; but in his make-up and point 
 of view he was a strong westerner. Yet when he came to 
 the presidency he was thought by many, even in the West, 
 to be only a chea{) country lawyer. 
 
 There was little in his training and habits to suggest a 
 great man. His clothes did not fit him; he was fond of telling 
 funny stories; he would see all his callers. Poor and friend- 
 less soldiers, and mothers of soldiers, could always find their 
 way to the great President, and he would help them. He 
 hated to sign the death warrant of deserters, for, said he, 
 " I am trying to evade the butchering business." 
 
 Upon this backwoods rail-splitter fell the duty of com- 
 manding two million soldiers, and he showed good judgment 
 in military afTairs, though he always deferred to the generals. 
 He kept writing to them, urging them to stick to their work. 
 For instance, "If the head of Lee's army is at Martinsburg, 
 
 hart's SCH. hist. — 20 
 
348 
 
 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 and the tail of it between Fredericksburg and Chancellorsville, 
 the animal must be very slim somewhere. Could you not 
 break- him? " Again, " Follow on his flank, . . . shorten- 
 ing your lines while he lengthens his. ... If he stays where 
 he is, fret him and fret him." And 
 again to Grant, " I have seen your 
 dispatch expressing your unwillingness 
 to break your hold where you are. 
 Neither am I willing. Hold on with 
 a bulldog grip, and chew and choke as 
 much as possible." 
 o^^^^^ Lincoln was the best politician of his 
 
 \^S^^^^^^^^ time, and the country came to learn 
 ',O^H[^^^^^^ that this tall, lank man in the White 
 JHQUit \ House made up his own mind, and 
 
 that he could not be frightened or 
 driven out of his policies. In the elec- 
 tion of 1864 he was easily elected over 
 General McClellan, who was the Demo- 
 cratic candidate. 
 
 Lincoln's greatness was due chiefly 
 to his wonderful power of knowing 
 what was going on in the hearts of 
 the people. His brief speeches are full 
 of noble spirit, of thoughts as true for 
 the South as for the North. " No- 
 where in the world," said he, " is pre- 
 sented a government of so much liberty 
 and equality. To the humblest and 
 poorest amongst us are held out the 
 highest privileges and positions." 
 " Government of the people, by the 
 people, for the people shall not perish 
 from the earth." " With malice toward none; with charity for 
 all; with firmness in the right, as God gives us to see the right." 
 280. The Confederate Government. — The Confederate 
 "provisional Constitution" drawn up hastily in 1861, and 
 the " permanent Constitution " adopted by state ratifying 
 
 Official, 1863 
 Confederate flags 
 
THE CONFEDERATE GOVERNMENT 
 
 349 
 
 conventions in 1862, were strong for state rights, and they 
 recognized the right of secession; but during the war the gov- 
 ernment at Richmond was most in the minds of the southern 
 people. The first necessity was to beat the northern army. 
 For that purpose much of the power was centered in the hands 
 of President Davis. The two houses of Congress were weak 
 and usually sat in secret session. 
 
 The Confederate government was always in money diffi- 
 culties. It could not ship enough cotton through the block- 
 ade to Europe to fur- 
 nish needed funds and 
 make purchases. 
 E\erything was bor- 
 rowed that could be 
 borrowed, at home and 
 abroad. The govern- 
 ment also issued hun- 
 dreds of millions of 
 dollars in paper money, 
 which lost value till it 
 was a saying in Rich- 
 mond that a lady car- 
 ried her money to 
 market in a basket and 
 brought home her pur- 
 chase in her pocket. 
 
 281. Southern 
 Leaders. — The South 
 was so absorbed in 
 
 the war that the ablest men sought service in the field. 
 Two of them stand out among the great Americans, Lee and 
 Jackson. Robert E. Lee was a member of a wealthy Virginia 
 family. He studied at West Point, served in the Mexican 
 War, and in 1861 was offered the command of the Union 
 army. But he "followed his state" and resigned from the 
 army, quickly rising to be the highest general in the Con- 
 federate service. Brave, modest, frank, humane, Lee was a 
 model soldier and the type of a Christian gentleman. He 
 
 stonewall " Jackson. From a photograph, 1861 
 
350 
 
 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 gathered about him a fine body of corps commanders, including 
 such men as Early, Longstreet, Ewell, A. P. Hill, and " Jeb " 
 Stuart, a dashing commander of cavalry; and they served 
 with him throughout the war. 
 
 Another remarkable soldier and unusual man was Thomas 
 J. Jackson, commonly called "Stonewall" Jackson, because 
 at Bull Run somebody said, that Jackson's men stood "like 
 a stone wall." He was a very religious man and strict with 
 himself and with his troops. He is renowned for the length 
 
 and quickness of his 
 marches, so that his 
 men came to be 
 called " Stonewall 
 Jackson's foot cav- 
 alry." He was bold 
 — almost rash — 
 and several times at- 
 tacked the Federal 
 lines when he was 
 supposed to be miles 
 away. Jackson was 
 accidentally killed 
 by his own men at 
 the battle of Chan- 
 cellorsville (1863). 
 
 Jefferson Daxis 
 was the most power- 
 ful member of the 
 Confederate government and was a strong force in the struggle. 
 His Cabinet was always rather weak, and since he was an 
 experienced military man, few people disputed his judgment 
 about military movements. All the generals were bound to 
 obey him, as their commander in chief. The labors and the 
 ner\'ous strain of his office told upon him. He had few 
 confidants and intimate friends; and when the tide turned 
 against the Confederacy, some of his people held him respon- 
 sible for the defeat which he had striven with all his power 
 to prevent. 
 
 " Stonewall Jackson's foot cavalry ' 
 
NORTHERN PEOPLE 
 
 351 
 
 282. Northern People at Home. — The war was a part of 
 the Hfc of every city, town, and v^illage in the North. While 
 one brother fought, another brother carried on the farm or 
 
 During the Civil War envelopes 
 beating patriotic emblems 
 and cartoons were much used 
 
 the store, and took care of the family. 
 \Miile the husband was with his regi- 
 ment, the wife drew her little children \^'^ 
 around her and waited for news. Ladies' Aid Societies were 
 formed to make haversacks and mittens for the soldiers, to 
 send jellies and delicacies to the sick, and to provide lint 
 and blankets for the wounded. Young ladies volunteered 
 as nurses and lived through the horrors of hospitals full of 
 men torn to pieces by shot and shell. Children played soldier, 
 built little forts, and made imitation paper money. Sanitary 
 Fairs were held for the benefit of the soldiers in all the large 
 cities, with restaurants and concerts and theatricals and 
 speeches, and the sale of knickknacks at any prices that 
 visitors would pay. 
 
 In the field the Sanitary Commission and Christian Com- 
 mission followed the armies and helped take care of the sick 
 and wounded. After great battles, thousands of wounded 
 men were sent back to the hospitals, carried in jolting wagons, 
 in springless freight cars, on the open decks of steamboats, 
 feverish, starved, thirsty, delirious, screaming with awful 
 pain. You cannot have war without such sufTering. Twice 
 as many men died of disease as of wounds; for though there 
 
352 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CIML WAR 
 
 were doctors and medical supplies, nobody then knew how 
 to stop such diseases as malaria, typhoid fever, and yellow 
 fever. 
 
 Throughout the land, ministers preached from their pulpits 
 urging the people to support the war. War meetings were 
 held and, when those present were aroused, they were asked 
 to come forward and enlist in the army. Letters were mailed 
 in patriotic envelopes bearing pictures of soldiers and cannons, 
 or the American eagle. The whole North was aflame with 
 excitement and hatred of the " rebels." 
 
 283. Southern People at Home. — A like passionate spirit 
 filled the southern heart, a like excitement, a like hatred of 
 the " Yankees." Nevertheless the soldiers of the two armies 
 in the field were not so unfriendly; on both sides they learned 
 that the men in the other uniform were not thieves and cut- 
 throats. The pickets often had jolly talks across the lines 
 when " Johnny Reb " would bring out his tobacco and 
 trade with " Yank " for coff'ee. Whenever either army was in 
 the enemy's country, horses and cattle were carried away, 
 and some houses were looted. But the men of both sides 
 were kind to the women and children of their enemies. 
 
 The war came even closer home to the South than to the 
 North, because nearly all the active men were in the army. 
 It was fearful to be at the front and feel a bullet crashing 
 through the bones of the arm or leg; but it was almost as 
 bad for a girl to wait in a far-off country town for the weekly 
 stage, bringing the news of the last battle, and to run down 
 the column of killed and wounded till her finger rested on 
 the name of a brother or a lover. The southern women, like 
 the northern, did everything they Jcnew how to do for their 
 brave boys at the front; and they saw to it that few of the 
 boys lost the chance to be brave by failing to enlist. 
 
 The South suffered for want of the usual food and clothing 
 because the blockade kept out most of the luxuries, and the 
 army needed a large part of the necessaries. When people 
 wore out their imported dresses, they had to wear calico or 
 homespun. Toward the end of the war the railroads were so 
 broken up that it was hard to carry food, and both the soldiers 
 
Korthera and Southern pickets exchanging supplies 
 
354 THE PEOl'LE DURING THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 and the people at home suffered for the commonest supplies. 
 Yet to the last the South never lost its pluck, and it was 
 beaten at the end only because it had expended all the avail- 
 able means of the country in money, supplies, and men. 
 
 284. Greenbacks, Gold, and Silver (1861-1865). — The Civil 
 War raised many new business questions which deeply inter- 
 ested the country. The first was that of currency (§ 82), 
 the money that passed from hand to hand. When the war 
 broke out, gold and silver very soon disappeared from cir- 
 culation, for everybody wanted to keep them as long as 
 possible. The banks " suspended specie payments," by refus- 
 ing to redeem their notes, and the only money in circulation 
 was state bank notes, and postage stamps for small change. 
 
 As a quick means of raising money, the United States 
 government issued " legal tender notes " (1862), commonly 
 called " greenbacks." These were paper notes which every- 
 body was obliged to receive in payment of debts. The only 
 thing that gave to the notes a value was the promise of the 
 United States to redeem (§ 185) them sometime. As the pros- 
 pects of success in the war began to look dark, the promise 
 seemed doubtful, and hence the value of a dollar note became 
 less than that of a gold dollar. Before the war was over, paper 
 money fell so low that a greenback dollar was not worth more 
 than sixty cents in gold. The United States set up a system 
 of national bank notes to take the place of the state bank 
 currency. These notes circulated everywhere in the North 
 alongside the greenbacks. 
 
 285. Summary. — This chapter describes the condition of 
 the people, the armies, and the governments on both sides, 
 outside of the military movements, and sketches the personal 
 character of some of the principal leaders of both North and 
 South. 
 
 The North had a decided advantage in numbers, in able- 
 bodied white men, in transportation, and in manufactures. 
 The South had the advantage of situation and of habits of 
 outdoor life, and it made some use of the negro population. 
 Both sides first called for volunteers and later compelled men 
 to serve by conscription. The northern Congress interfered 
 
FINANCES 355 
 
 with the army and some unfit civilians were made generals. 
 The successful commanders were nearly all graduates of West 
 Point. There were many strong men in Congress, the Cabi- 
 net, and the state governments, but the greatest American 
 citizen of this period was Abraham Lincoln, who showed 
 genius in both administrative and military affairs, and laid 
 down noble principles of popular government. In the South 
 most of the distinguished men served in the army. Jefferson 
 Davis was the leading figure as President and actual com- 
 mander of the armies. 
 
 The burden of the war went back to the homes on both 
 sides and every effort was made to aid in the support and 
 comfort of the troops. The civilians suffered almost as much 
 as the soldiers. Both sides grew accustomed to paper money, 
 which in the North was, at one time, worth only 60 per cent 
 as much as gold. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Histories. BassetL, Un. States, ch. xxvii. — Elson, Side Lights, II. 
 ch. ill. — Hosmer, Outcome of Civil War, chs. i, iv, xv, xvi. — Moore, 
 Industrial Hist., 363-368. — Paxson, Civil War, 189-207; New Nation, 
 ch. i. — South in Building of Nation, IV. 487-552, V. 146-497 passim. — 
 Southworth, Builders of Our Country, II. ch. xxiii. 
 
 Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, IV. §§ 75-101, 121; Source Readers, 
 IV. §§99-109. — -Hill, Liberty Docs., chs. xxi, xxii. — ^ James, Readings, 
 §92. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 108-144; Select Statutes, 
 nos. 1-48. — Old South Leaflets, no. 182, 192. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Alcott, Hospital Sketches. — Andrews, Per- 
 fect Tribute (Lincohi). — - Brooks, Washington in Lincoln's Time. — 
 Chestnut, Diary from Dixie. — Churchill, The Crisis. — Eggleston, 
 Southern Soldier Stories. — Hale, Alan without a Country. — Harris, On 
 the Plantation. — Holmes, My Hunt after " the Captain." — Lowell, 
 Poems. — Page, Among the Camps; Two Little Confederates. — Stoddard, 
 Battle of New York (Draft riots). — Trowbridge, Cudjo's Cave (Tenn.). — 
 Wheelwright, War Children (North). — Whittier, Poems. 
 
 Pictures. Af enter, serial no. 52. — See also refs. to ch. xxiv, above. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§274) I. What was meant by the "South" in 1861? 2. How did the 
 sections compare in population and resources? 3. How did they compare 
 in transportation? 
 
356 THE PEOPLE DURING THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 (§ 275) 4. What were the natural advantages of the South for making 
 war? 5. How did the negroes aid the South? 6. How did the sections 
 compare in lighting men? 
 
 (§ 276) 7. How were officers and soldiers raised during the war? 8. 
 How did conscription and draft work in the North and the South? 9. 
 Who were the bounty jumpers? 10 (For an essay). The draft riots in 
 the city of New York. 
 
 (§ 277) II- What were the difficulties of the Union government in carry- 
 ing on war? 12. How were the commanding generals selected? 
 
 (§ 278) 13. Mention some of the leaders in Congress. 14. Who were 
 Lincoln's principal advisers in the Cabinet? 15. Mention some of the 
 principal leaders in the country at large. 
 
 (§ 279) 16. What made it hard for Lincoln to win public confidence? 
 17 (For an essay). Life of President Lincoln in the White House. 18. How 
 did Lincoln carry on the war? 19. How was he reelected President? 20. 
 What made him great? 
 
 (§ 280) 21. How was the southern Confederacy governed? 22. How 
 did it raise funds? 
 
 (§ 281) 23 (For an essay). Personal life and character of Robert E. 
 Lee. 24. Mention some other Confederate commanders. 25. What made 
 "Stonewall" Jackson great? 26. How did JefYerson Davis carry on the 
 Confederacy? 
 
 (§ 282) 27. How did the northern people at home aid in the war? 
 28 (For an essay). Home life during the war. 29. What was done for 
 the sick and wounded? 30. What was done to arouse public sentiment? 
 
 (§ 283) 31. How did the troops behave in the field? 32. What did the 
 southern women do for their cause? 33. What sort of privations did the 
 South suffer? 34 (For an essay). Life in a southern city during the war. 
 
 (§ 284) 35. What was the northern currency early in the war? 36. 
 What were legal tender notes and why did they lose value? 
 
CHAPTER XXVI 
 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR (1863-1865) 
 
 286. First Steps of Emancipation (1861-1862). — Though 
 the main cause of the war was the difference of opinion 
 between the North and the South with regard to slavery, both 
 sections for a time kept that issue in the background. Presi- 
 dent Lincoln feared that otherwise the border states would 
 join the Confederacy. 
 
 Nevertheless the war brought about many diflficult ques- 
 tions regarding slavery. The first was what to do with the 
 fugitive slaves who came into the Union camps. Notwith- 
 standing the Fugitive Slave Law, antislavery officers would 
 not return them to their owners; and General B. F. Butler 
 at Fort Monroe called them " contraband of war." They 
 were not really that, but the name contraband stuck to them. 
 In the second place, Congress took the South- on its own 
 ground that the slaves were property, by passing acts under 
 which slaves were "confiscated " if used in aid of the war, 
 or if owned by " rebels " as the Confederates were called. 
 That practically meant that such slaves were set free. 
 
 Congress proved to be more radical than Lincoln at the 
 beginning of the war, and in 1862 emancipated all the slaves 
 in the District of Columbia, paying the masters $300 for each 
 slave. Then Congress, in defiance of the Dred Scott decision 
 (§ 259), abolished slavery in every territory, without compen- 
 sation to the owners. Later (1864) Congress repealed the 
 F"ugitive Slave Law, so that not even border-state masters 
 could recover their runaw^ay slaves. 
 
 Everybody knew that in wars directed against slavehold- 
 ing countries, the general of an invading army might declare 
 the slaves free. Two Union generals, Fremont and Hunter, 
 issued proclamations freeing the slaves within their military 
 
 357 
 
358 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 districts, but Lincoln felt it necessary to cancel their orders. 
 He thought it best to persuade the border-state people to 
 set their slaves free and to accept a payment for them from 
 the government. 
 
 287. Emancipation by the President (1862-1863). — In 
 the fall of 1862 Lincoln felt that something new was needed, 
 for things were not going well for the North. The western 
 troops were checked on the Mississippi River, and the eastern 
 army was again beaten at Bull Run (§ 271). France and 
 England seemed on the point of recognizing the Confederacy 
 as an independent nation, and that might end the blockade. 
 And it was becoming hard to raise the necessary troops, 
 though there were thousands of negroes within the Federal 
 lines who could be made into soldiers. 
 
 Hence Lincoln drew up a Proclamation of Emancipation 
 (September, 1862), announcing that, unless the southern 
 people yielded, he would soon set free all the slaves within 
 the seceding states. Lincoln's own explanation was, " We 
 had about played our last card, and must change our tactics, 
 or lose the game." The Proclamation of Emancipation was 
 to apply only to those parts of the United States which were 
 behind the Confederate lines, where the government could 
 not reach the slaves. It did not apply to the border states 
 which were loyal to the Federal government. Still slavery 
 soon ceased to be of much consequence in these states, for 
 thousands of slaves ran away and nobody would bring them 
 back. 
 
 Between 1863 and 1865 four states prohibited slavery on 
 their own account. Three of them were Missouri, Maryland, 
 and Tennessee, which were occupied in great part by Federal 
 troops, so that the secessionists and slaveholders had little 
 chance to protest. The western counties of Virginia, lying 
 between the Shenandoah Valley and the Ohio River, had long 
 been discontented, and took this opportunity to set up a 
 separate state for themselves. Congress admitted them as 
 the state of West Virginia in 1863 — the 35th state with 
 390,000 people — really as a punishment to the people of 
 the main state of Virginia for joining in secession; and it was 
 
EMANCIPATION BY THE PRESIDENT 
 
 359 
 
 Monument to Colonel Robert G. Shaw on Boston Common. 
 In 1863 Col. Shaw led the first negro regiment sent to 
 the field from the free states 
 
 made a condition that the new state constitution should pro- 
 vide for emancipation. 
 
 As soon as Lincoln's proclamation was issued, the enlist- 
 ment of negro troops 
 began, partly in the 
 North but mostly 
 among the refugees 
 in the South. In 
 the course of the 
 war 186,000 black 
 soldiers were added 
 to the army. The 
 war was so close that 
 they probably 
 turned the scale in 
 favor of the North. 
 
 A final Proclama- 
 tion of Emancipation was issued January i, 1863. It applied 
 to all the eleven seceding states, except Tennessee and small 
 parts of Virginia and Louisiana which were occupied by Union 
 troops. The South jeered at a proclamation which they said 
 could never be carried out, and for some time it was not very 
 popular in the North. 
 
 Lincoln came slowly to this policy of emancipation, but 
 he felt that the time had arrived to break up the system 
 of slavery. He later said of himself: " I am naturally anti- 
 slavery. If slavery is not wrong, nothing is wrong. I cannot 
 remember when I did not so think and feel. ... I have 
 done no official act in mere deference to my abstract judgment 
 and feeling on slavery. ... If God now wills the removal 
 of a great wrong, and wills also that we of the North, as well 
 as you of the South, shall pay fairly for our complicity in that 
 wrong, impartial history will find therein new cause to attest 
 and revere the justice and goodness of God." 
 
 288. War on the Sea (1861-1865). — When the war broke 
 out, the Union kept most of the vessels of the navy. The 
 Confederates were obliged to rebuild old vessels and to con- 
 struct new ones under great hindrances. Nevertheless, they 
 
360 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 fitted out several powerful ironclads, of which the Merrimac, 
 which they renamed the Virginia, was one (§271). 
 
 The Americans in all their previous wars had freely cap- 
 tured the enemy's merchant ships (§ 102). When a few small 
 vessels were armed by the Confederates in 1861 and began to 
 capture Union merchantmen, the Unionists forgot all past 
 experience and insisted that the Confederate warships and 
 privateers were nothing but pirates. On the other side, the 
 
 Confederates com- 
 plained bitterly of 
 the blockade, which 
 grew more and more 
 close every month. 
 To evade it, block- 
 ade runners were 
 built, small swift 
 steamers painted 
 lead color, which 
 plied back and 
 forth from the 
 British West Indies 
 to Charleston and 
 Wilmington and a 
 few other ports; 
 but many of them 
 were captured. In 
 1864 Admiral Farragut closed the port of Mobile to the block- 
 ade runners. 
 
 The United States government was at last obliged to admit 
 that regular cruisers and privateers were not pirates; but 
 the blockade made it hard for the Confederates to send out 
 commerce destroyers. Hence their agents in England bought 
 old vessels and ordered new ones in British shipyards, and 
 commissioned them as ships of war. The most famous was 
 the Alabama, a wooden screw steamer of about 1000 tons. 
 Although the United States minister, Charles Francis Adams, 
 demanded that she be seized, the British government delayed, 
 and the vessel slipped out of port. Guns and a crew were 
 
 statue of Admiral Farragut by Saint-Gaudens, Madison 
 Square, New York 
 
WAR ON THE SEA 
 
 361 
 
 sent to her from England, and she was the means of capturing 
 68 American merchant ships. As these prizes could not be sent 
 in to Confederate ports, many of them were burned at sea. 
 
 The northern people were for several reasons bitter against 
 England: (i) for showing friendship to the Confederacy; 
 
 (2) for allowing ships of war to be built in a neutral country; 
 
 (3) for not seizing 
 the Alabama when 
 she came i n t o 
 British colonial 
 ports. In 1864 the 
 Alabama was sunk 
 in a sea fight off 
 the French coast, 
 b >' the United 
 States ship Kear- 
 sarge; but sexeral 
 other Confederate 
 ships of war re- 
 mained at sea and 
 made many cap- 
 tures. All this time 
 the United States 
 was buying all sorts 
 of military supplies, except ships, from England and other 
 countries. Though the ruling aristocracy in England favored 
 the Confederacy, the middle class and the working men sided 
 with the \orth; and neither Great Britain nor any other 
 nation came to the point of recognizing the southern Confed- 
 eracy as independent. 
 
 289. Campaigns of 1 863-1 864. — Soon after the victories 
 of \'icksburg and C^icttysburg (§ 272) a great Union army 
 under Rosecrans was badly defeated by the Confederates 
 under Bragg at Chickamauga (September, 1863), just south 
 of the Tennessee River. General Thomas with the left wing 
 of the Union arm\- stood his ground, and earned the name of 
 the " Rock of Chickamauga." The whole army withdrew 
 to Chattanooga, where General Grant was put in command, 
 
 
 HI 
 
 II 
 
 ^^^H^V^ 
 
 
 
 ' 
 
 ^ 
 
 w 
 
 
 ^1 
 
 M 
 
 
 l 
 
 
 ^^^gg 
 
 
 
 ^R. 
 
 ^ . 
 
 --^K 
 
 <r 
 
 _-y,.0f^y^^.. 
 
 ■B 
 
 ^H 
 
 
 M^r^ 
 
 mm^ 
 
 Merchant ship shelled by the Confederate cruiser Alabama 
 
362 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 with Sherman and Thomas next to him. In three days' 
 hard fighting against the army of Bragg, the Union troops 
 took Lookout Mountain and Missionary Ridge above Chatta- 
 nooga. Thereupon the Confederate army retreated, but 
 though beaten it was still in the field. 
 
 When fighting was resumed in the spring of 1864, Grant 
 was put in command of all the Union land forces, and he made 
 Sherman commander of the western army. Grant took 
 
 nfs Caui^aigii 1302 
 == Brag»'s Campaijn 18(52 
 ■ ' I Rosecrans' Campaiju 13G2 
 =»=■ Grant's Campaisn 18G2 
 
 Morgan's Raid 1SG3 
 
 > Sherman's March 18G4 
 
 SCALE OF MILES 
 50 IIH) 150 
 
 Western and southern campaigns in the Civil War 
 
 personal command in the East and marched southward in 
 May. In a few hours he met Lee's army in a piece of rough 
 country called the Wilderness, north of Richmond (May 5). 
 In several days' fierce fighting he found himself blocked, and 
 drew back. This was the eighth time the two armies had 
 met, and never yet had the Army of the Potomac been ordered 
 forward after such a check; but Grant simply turned to the 
 left and started south again, fighting battle after battle, 
 
END OF THE WAR 363 
 
 until he stood before Petersburg, a few miles from Richmond 
 (map, page 336). In six weeks Grant lost about 55,000 men, 
 but he was a commander of wonderful courage and endurance, 
 plain, simple, and dogged; and he simply held on. 
 
 Meanwhile, Sherman was fighting his way from Chatta- 
 nooga south through the mountains to Atlanta, opposed by 
 General Joseph Johnston. Sherman had a decidedly larger 
 force, and showed great ability in driving the enemy before 
 him with few pitched battles. He reached and captured 
 Atlanta. 
 
 While Grant was besieging Petersburg, Sherman made a 
 " march to the sea." With 60,000 men he started from At- 
 lanta, crossed the state of Georgia, and came out at the port 
 of Savannah. The rest of his army he left under Thomas, 
 but a bold attack by Hood compelled part of it to retreat 
 northward. At Nashville, Hood was at last defeated in a 
 fierce battle (December, 1864), and the fighting in the West 
 was practically ended. 
 
 290. End of the War (1865). — In the early period of the 
 war the Confederate cavalry was much the better. Such 
 leaders as " Jeb " Stuart and Forrest raided the Union lines, 
 destroyed wagon trains, and even made some hurried forays 
 into the northern states. As the Union cavalry improved, 
 it caused the same kind of trouble to the other side. General 
 Philip H. Sheridan, who began as an infantry officer, came 
 to have command of a cavalry corps, then of an army of 
 50,000 men. Yie was a hard fighter and will always be re- 
 membered for his campaigns and harrying of the country in 
 the Shenandoah Valley. 
 
 During the winter of 1864-65 the Union troops lay in the 
 trenches around Petersburg, their lines within a few hundred 
 yards of the Confederate works. In the spring, Lee at last 
 abandoned Petersburg and with it Richmond. After six days' 
 pursuit Grant hemmed in Lee's army, and on April 9, 1865, 
 the 27,000 troops that remained with the Confederate colors 
 surrendered at Appomattox. 
 
 Sherman at the same time was marching up from Georgia 
 through the Carolinas. After his army took the city of 
 
364 
 
 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 Columbia it was burned, either by accident or by men acting 
 without orders. Sherman was furious toward the enemies 
 who had fought so long, and he took little pains to protect 
 the countryside as he passed; but there is no evidence that he 
 
 intended to destroy the 
 city of Columbia. 
 
 Johnston's army, the 
 last considerable Con- 
 federate force still in 
 arms, surrendered to 
 Sherman at Raleigh, 
 North Carolina. Some 
 hot-heads had talked 
 about " dying in the 
 last ditch," but Lee 
 and Johnston gave the 
 example of accepting 
 the defeat and its con- 
 sequences. President 
 Davis was captured 
 and made a prisoner; 
 but Grant would not 
 allow any of the Con- 
 federate military 
 for their service in the 
 
 Lieutenant General Ulysses S. Grant, 1822-1885 
 
 officers to be arrested or harmed 
 Confederacy. 
 
 On an evening almost exactly four years from the firing on 
 Fort Sumter, Lincoln was shot by a bad iind reckless man, 
 who had the folly to think that it would please the South to 
 remove the President. In fact, he murdered the man who 
 at this critical moment best understood the South, who was 
 most anxious to restore it to the Union, and who could have 
 carried the northern people with him. The whole North was 
 plunged into gloom, for Lincoln's death was like the loss of a 
 member of five million families. 
 
 291. Cost of the War. — Nobody can measure the real 
 cost of the Civil War. Who can put a money value on the 
 miseries of the sick, wounded, and dying, the crushing grief of 
 
COST OF THE WAR 3^5 
 
 their families, and the despair of widows and orphans.-' But 
 we can calculate the number of lives sacrificed and the money 
 expended. 
 
 In that part of the South which joined in secession there 
 were about 1,400,000 grown men and about 270,000 boys who 
 came to be old enough to serve before the war was over. 
 Out of these 1,670,000 white men, the astonishing number 
 of 1,100,000 to 1,250,000 enlisted in the Confederate army 
 for longer or shorter terms. It is a reason for pride to the 
 whole southern people that three fourths of their white men 
 went into the army; there is hardly anything like it in his- 
 tory. It was possible only because the slaves stayed at home 
 to do the hard work. If General Lee had had his way, some 
 of the negroes would have been armed and put into the field 
 in the last months of the war. 
 
 On the northern side the able-bodied adults, with the boys 
 who came to military age, numbered over 5,500,000, or nearly 
 three and one half times the white men of the South. Out 
 of this number more than 2,000,000 individuals enlisted, in- 
 cluding nearly 200,000 negroes; of these many reenlisted, so 
 that about 3,000,000 enlistments are recorded. The number 
 of 5,500,000 includes about 1,000,000 adult foreigners who 
 were in the northern states when the war broke out, and of 
 whom probably a fourth enlisted. 
 
 The death loss of the southern army was 94,000 killed in 
 action and died from wounds, and 164,000 died from disease, 
 a total of 258,000. On the Union side the death loss was 
 360,000. Counting the later deaths of wounded and diseased 
 men, it would not be too high to put the total cost of the war 
 at about 800,000 lives. 
 
 The North spent about 4000 million dollars, including the 
 expense of the states and local governments, while the South 
 spent the value of about 150?) million dollars measured in gold. 
 The northern states saw few invasions, and suffered little 
 from destruction of property; but wherever the armies marched 
 in the South, houses and especially stores of cotton were 
 burned ; and at the end the South was almost drained of 
 money, goods, and supplies. Besides the 5500 millions paid 
 
 Hart's sch. hist. ^21 
 
366 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 out by the two governments there was a loss of the productive 
 labor of those who were in the war, so that the total money 
 cost was not far from 7000 millions of dollars. 
 
 The slave owners, both in the seceding and in the loyal 
 border states, as a result of the war lost slave property valued 
 at about 2000 millions. This was not a real money loss to the 
 South for the former slaves were still there; they continued to 
 work on the land, and the South continued to profit by their 
 work, which was all that made them valuable as slaves. When 
 things settled down, the former owners got a smaller share of 
 the annual product and the former slaves got a larger share, but 
 in the end the total to be divided was larger. One of the rea- 
 sons why the South has become so well off since the war is that 
 free labor makes a country richer than slave labor. If slaves 
 and slave labor could make the South really wealthy, what 
 was it that gave greater wealth to the northern states at that 
 time and also to the South after it lost slavery? 
 
 The loss of men and money and labor was the price which 
 the country paid to settle once for all two questions: (i) 
 whether slavery should continue anywhere in the United 
 States; (2) whether the secession of a state from the Union 
 should be accepted as allowable under the Federal system of 
 government. Since that time nobody has wanted to restore 
 slavery; and everybody is now sure that if any group of 
 states should secede at any time hereafter, the rest of the 
 states would unite to deny any right of secession, and would 
 support the Federal government in subduing the would-be 
 seceders. 
 
 292. Summary. — This chapter is devoted to the emanci- 
 pation of the slaves, and the conclusion of the Civil War. 
 
 During the war slavery ceased in the United States except 
 in Delaware, Kentucky, and Tennessee, (i) Thousands of 
 slaves escaped from their masters in the border and seceding 
 states. (2) Congress abolished slavery in the District of 
 Columbia and the territories. (3) By Lincoln's Emancipa- 
 tion Proclamation, slavery was declared abolished in the 
 eleven seceding states, except Tennessee and small parts of 
 Virginia and Louisiana. This action applied to negroes inside 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 367 
 
 the Confederate lines, so it would have had no effect if the 
 Federal arms had not been victorious. (4) Missouri, Mary- 
 land, Tennessee, and West Virginia emancipated their slaves. 
 
 Fighting went on at sea throughout the war. The South 
 built a few ships of war and bought or built others in England, 
 especially the Alabama, which made numerous captures. 
 
 From August, 1863, to April, 1865, fighting continued, 
 both east and west. After a series of hard battles in and 
 near Chattanooga, the way was opened for a campaign 
 southward to Atlanta and thence to Savannah, so that the 
 Confederacy was almost cut in two. In the East, Grant 
 took command of the Federal army, which was hardly a 
 single day out of gunshot range from the enemy from May, 
 1864, to April, 1.865. After desperate fighting in the fields 
 and the trenches, Lee's army was worn down till it had to 
 surrender. Lincoln was assiissinated a few days after the 
 end of the war. 
 
 More than 3,000,000 men served on one side or the other, 
 of whom about 800,000 lost their li\'es, and. the war cost 7000 
 millions of dollars. The main effects were to destroy slav- 
 ery, and to pro\e that the right of secession could never be 
 admitted by the I'nion. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Epoch Maps, nf). 8; Wall Maps, nos. 16, 17. — Hosmer, 
 Outcome of Civil War. — Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, nos. 27, 28. 
 
 Histories. Dodd, Expansion and Conflict, ch. xvi. — Elson, Side 
 Lights, II. ch. vi. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., ch. xxiii. — Hosmer, 
 Outcome of Civil War, chs. ii, iii, v-xiv, xvii. — Paxson, Civil War, 86- 
 90, 101-112, 144-158, 171-189, 208-247. — Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
 §§ 110-116. 
 
 Sources. Harding, Select Orations, no. 26. — Hart, Contemporaries, 
 I\', §§ 122-140; Source Book, §§ 120-126; Source Readers, IV. §§ 18- 
 2^., 62-98. — James, Readings, §§ 89-91. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Altsheler, Before the Dawn. — Brady, On 
 the Old " Kearsarge." — Coffin, Redeeming the Republic; Freedom Tri- 
 umphant. — Collingwood, Blue and Grey. — Cooke, Mohun. — Gordy, 
 Am. Leaders and Heroes, ch. xxv. — Goss, Jed. — Scollard, Ballads of 
 Am. Bravery. — Soley, Sailor Boys of 'd/. ^ Thomas, Captain Phil. — 
 Tomhnson, Young Blockaders. — Trent, R. E. Lee. — Wallington, Am. 
 Hist, by Am. Poets, II. 186-274. 
 
 Pictures. Century Co., Battles and Leaders of the Civil War. — See 
 also refs. to ch. xxiv, above. 
 
368 CONCLUSION OF THE CIVIL WAR 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§286) I. How did the war bring out new slavery questions? 2. What 
 were the confiscation acts? 3. What action did Congress take against 
 slavery? 4 (For an essay). P^ugitive slaves in Union camps. 5. Why 
 did Lincoln not free the slaves in the field of war? 
 
 (§ 287) 6. What reasons were there for freeing the slaves in 1862? 7. 
 What was the Proclamation of Emancipation? 8. What states emanci- 
 pated the slaves during the war? 9. When and how was West Virginia 
 admitted to the Union? 10. What military aid did the negroes render to 
 the North? 11. What was the final Proclamation of Emancipation? 12. 
 Why did Lincoln emancipate the slaves? 
 
 (§288) 13. How did the South build a navy? 14. How was the block- 
 ade evaded? 15 (For an essay). Life on a blockade runner. 16. What 
 were the Confederate commerce destroyers? 17 (For an essay). Life 
 on the ship Alabama. 18. Why did the North think England unfriendly? 
 
 (§ 289) 19. Why was Thomas called the " Rock of Chickamauga "? 20. 
 How were the Confederates driven out of Chattanooga? 21. How did 
 Grant and Lee fight the campaign of 1864? 22 (For an essay). Inci- 
 dents of Sherman's march to the sea. 23. What were the last battles in 
 the West? 
 
 (§290) 24. How was the Union cavalry developed? 25 (For an essay). 
 Surrender of Lee's army at Appomattox. 26. How did Sherman march 
 through the Carolinas? 27. Why was no Confederate officer punished 
 after the war? 28. How did the war finally come to an end? 29. Why 
 was Lincoln's death a misfortune to the South? 
 
 (§ 291) 30. How did the white men of the South take part in the war? 
 31. How did the men of the North take part? 32. What was the death 
 loss? 33. What was the money cost? 34. How did the war affect slave 
 property? 35. What questions were settled by the war? 
 
CHAPTER XXVI I 
 RECONSTRUCTION (1865-1869) 
 
 293. What was Reconstruction ? — When the fighting 
 ceased and the southern soldiers went home in the spring of 
 1865, it seemed to many people in both North and South 
 that the trouble was all over. The effort to break up the 
 Union had failed; the Union had been in existence all the 
 time; all that was necessary was to fill up the Senate and the 
 House by admitting members from the seceding states, 
 which for four years had not been represented there. 
 Then the country was to go on as though nothing had 
 happened. 
 
 It soon became clear that the problem was not so simple 
 as all that. Great changes had come about in the South. 
 The negroes were free; the southern people and the southern 
 states had gone through a terrible crisis. The Union was 
 shaken and battered and needed " reconstruction." It was 
 like a great engine that had gone through a fire and could 
 not work again until the injured parts were restored. Yet the 
 Union could not be reconstructed without taking into ac- 
 count the following difficulties: 
 
 (i) The southern states were not in the same condition as 
 the northern states, for, during four years, they had ceased 
 to act as members of the Union, and most of them had made 
 new constitutions which recognized the southern Confederacy. 
 They would have to remake those constitutions before they 
 could again fit into their old places. 
 
 (2) The white men of the South had nearly all taken some 
 part in the Civil War. Many northern men did not trust 
 them to aid in a genuine reconstruction; and some north- 
 erners thought that the leaders ought to be tried and exe- 
 cuted for treason. 
 
 369 
 
370 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 (3) The emancipated negroes in the South, commonly 
 called " freedmen " at that time, were very ignorant and 
 helpless. Thousands of them had wandered from their home 
 plantations and it was hard to get them back to their regular 
 work. The North thought that they needed aid and protec- 
 tion from the Federal government. 
 
 In the North the only authorities having the actual power 
 to reconstruct the Union were the President and Congress. 
 In Congress the Republicans had a large majority as long as 
 the southern members were kept out; hence they could do 
 what they liked against the Democratic minority. The 
 President, however, had the veto power and it required two 
 thirds of both Houses to pass a law over his veto. 
 
 Much, therefore, depended on the new President, Andrew 
 Johnson, who as Vice President took Lincoln's place. He 
 was a southerner, from east Tennessee, which remained loyal 
 to the Union. By origin he was a " poor white " (§ 196), and 
 he hated the wealthy slaveholders and believed that secession 
 had been a slaveholders' plot against the interests of the 
 small farmers, who made up the larger part of the popula- 
 tion. His plan was to bring the southern states back into 
 the Union by putting the state offices in the hands of the 
 poor whites; and the former planters were to be shut out 
 altogether on the ground that they were " rebels." 
 
 294. Reconstruction of the States. — President Johnson 
 argued that the states could not secede (§ 265) and had never 
 really seceded, and therefore must still be in the Union. Fol- 
 lowing out a plan which Lincoln had favored, he directed that 
 in each of the former Confederate states a new constitution 
 should be adopted and new members of Congress should be 
 chosen. When Congress met in December, 1865, members 
 presented themselves from nearly all these states. To John- 
 son's mind the Union thus was restored, and could go for- 
 ward just as it did before the war. 
 
 Congress did not like that idea, and decided not to admit 
 these members-elect. The President tried to check the action 
 of Congress; but the Republicans passed fifteen bills over 
 his veto. Among them was a Reconstruction Act (1867) 
 
SOUTHERN STATES AND PEOPLE 371 
 
 under which the seceding states were forbidden to come back 
 until they had allowed the negroes to vote in elections and 
 had shut out the old white leaders from politics. Meantime 
 the South was governed by generals of the army, backed by 
 United States troops. Some of the northern leaders, espe- 
 cially Thaddeus Stevens of Pennsylvania, wanted to punish 
 the people of the southern states by these hard conditions; 
 others felt that the southerners could not be trusted to do 
 justice to the negro or to perform their duties to the Union. 
 
 Slowly new legislatures were chosen, partly by negro votes, 
 and they all contained some negro members. Two sorts of 
 leaders came forward to guide the new governments. If 
 they were northern men who had come down to settle in the 
 South, they were called " carpetbaggers "; if they were native 
 southerners, they were called " scalawags." The reconstruc- 
 tion governments were thus thrown into the hands of ignorant 
 men and tricky politicians. The effect on the negroes and 
 the white people will be considered in a later chapter. One 
 by one the states were re-admitted by act of Congress, until 
 in 1 87 1 Georgia, the last of the eleven former seceding states, 
 was again admitted to the Union in full standing. 
 
 295. Reconstruction of the Southern "Whites. — The only 
 man brought to trial for treason was JefTerson Davis. After 
 he had spent two years as a prisoner in Fort Monroe, the 
 federal courts dismissed the case on legal points. Their real 
 reason was that it seemed absurd to select one man for pun- 
 ishment out of the millions who had helped to make war on 
 the Union. Davis was therefore set free. 
 
 Thousands of southerners received pardons from President 
 Johnson; and then he put forth a general amnesty procla- 
 mation, pardoning all who had not been active in the war. 
 In the end the only penalty inflicted by the federal govern- 
 ment on the southern leaders was to prohibit them for a time 
 from holding office under the United States or under any 
 state (Fourteenth Amendment). 
 
 Nevertheless the people of the South suffered intensely. 
 Many rich men were reduced to poverty. For example, 
 one gentleman of Mississippi, who had formerly owned 200 
 
372 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 slaves, became poor and made a point of doing his own wash- 
 ing. A splendid example of patience and loyalty to the United 
 States was set to the South by General Robert E. Lee, who 
 accepted the result and settled down quietly. Most of the 
 other Confederate generals returned to their plantations or 
 to business. The southern people still had pluck and energy; 
 the master minds in the South were still those of the former 
 leaders and planters, and they went to work to make the best 
 of their unhappy condition. 
 
 296. Reconstruction of the Negroes. — President Lincoln 
 had a plan of colonizing all the freedmen outside of the 
 country; that would have removed the negro question. But 
 who could carry away 4,000,000 human beings? And what 
 would large areas of the South do without laborers? Yet 
 the negroes were a serious problem. Only a twentieth of 
 them could read and write. Except for a few who had been 
 free before the war, they had no land, no money, no property. 
 They did not know how to manage plantations or to carry on 
 business by themselves. They could work for other people, 
 but otherwise seemed a dead weight on the community. 
 
 A large part of the negroes were still on the plantations 
 where they had been slaves, and remained there to work for 
 wages. The South still looked on them, however, as an in- 
 ferior and dependent race which through lack of experience 
 could not be trusted to look out for itself. Therefore, during 
 1865 several of the states passed " vagrant laws," which 
 obliged negroes to choose an employer and to keep steadily 
 at work for him. 
 
 These vagrant laws seemed to the North a proof that the 
 whites did not mean well by the freedmen, and that the 
 Federal government must protect them. At first the Federal 
 soldiers were expected to see that they were well used. The 
 next step was to set up a Freedmen's Bureau by act of 
 Congress. It picked up wandering negroes, fed the starv- 
 ing, started schools, and settled quarrels with the white 
 people. 
 
 297. Reconstruction Amendments (1865-1871). — After a 
 few years most of the troops were withdrawn and the Freed- 
 
AMENDMF.NTS 373 
 
 men's Bureau was given up. That left the negroes under the 
 laws and constitutions of the reconstructed states; i)ut the 
 Republicans asked what there was to prevent the states from 
 changing those constitutions, and virtually restoring slavery, 
 as soon as they got back into the Union. 
 
 Therefore, the changes brought about by the war were 
 secured by three constitutional amendments (See Appendix): 
 
 (1) Just at the end of the war, Congress under Lincoln's 
 guidance drew up a Thirteenth Amendment to the Constitu- 
 tion, which prox'ided that slavery and involuntary servitude 
 should cease everywhere in the United States. The neces- 
 sary three-fourths majority of all the states was secured, and 
 in 1865 the amendment became a part of the Constitution. 
 That was the end of slavery, for the amendment was a higher 
 law, above the action of any state (§ 127). It was this amend- 
 ment that abolished slavery in Kentucky and Delaware. 
 
 (2) The negroes were now free; but were they citizens? 
 That is, were they members of the states and the Union 
 on the same footing as white people? Even in some of the 
 northern states, they could not be witnesses in court against 
 whites, and their children were not allowed in the public 
 schools. To cover that point Congress submitted the Four- 
 teenth Amendment (1866), which provided that " all persons 
 born or naturalized in the United States . . . are citizens 
 of the United States and of the state wherein they reside." 
 The amendment alsf) forbade the payment of any public debts 
 incurred in the South for the support of the war. It was rati- 
 fied in 1868, but would hardly have gone through, had not 
 some of the southern states been compelled to ratify it before 
 they could gi-t back into the Union. P'rom that time negroes 
 in every state have been entitled to the same rights and the 
 same protection as white people. The amendment also made 
 the Federal governmenta kind of guardian of their rights. 
 
 (3) At the beginning of the Civil War free negroes could 
 not vote in any state of the Union, except in fivT New Eng- 
 land states and in New York. The abolitionists nevertheless 
 argued that negroes had the same natural rights (§ 255) as 
 whites, and should be given the suffrage. Lincoln gradually 
 
EASTERN UNITED STATES 
 EMANCIPATION 1863-1865 
 
 p. 1 1 Emancipation hy President's 
 
 v^^^'"!^^^ s I I proclamation, Jan 1^ "■""• 
 
 \t.yipigo 
 
 I Emancipation by state action, 
 J 1863-1865 
 
 ] Emancipation by the Thirteenth 
 J Amendment, 186i5 
 
 Date of admission of 
 
 West Virginia, 1863 . '?-'/0^/^ 
 
 Its consecutive order of 
 
 k iktf-'^ t'~'--^\i '^^ <! 11 P •" ^--i ° i Its consecutive order of ^_^ IQu«*«'^/^/\/j "^ cS 
 
 X FK"- ^jN^U'^'^^r — JsTa.^^?>S^^— l^y Railroads in 1880 . 
 
 M. 
 
 mMV^O 
 
 >Mon 
 tence 
 
 
 ^^^S^:;^^^Wladelpliia 
 
 
 
 
IMPEACHMENT OF THE PRESIDENT 375 
 
 inclined to this view. Toward the end of the war he asked 
 " whether some of the colored people may not be let in, as, for 
 instance, the very intelligent, and especially those who have 
 fought gallantly in our ranks." This idea was taken up by 
 Congress in the reconstruction acts. Then, lest the southern 
 states might take the suffrage away again, a Fifteenth Amend- 
 ment was submitted and was ratified in 1870, to the effect 
 that no person should be deprived of suffrage on account 
 of " race, color, or previous condition of servitude." 
 
 298. Impeachment of the President (1868). — All the way 
 through the reconstruction the President and Congress were 
 at odds. Johnson was rough and ill-mannered and some- 
 times sneered at what he termed " a body called, or which 
 assumes to be, the Congress of the United States." When 
 he could not come to an understanding with the Republicans 
 he made friends with the Democrats. (\)ngress on its side 
 browbeat him, and passed a Tenure of Office Act to prevent 
 him from removing officers (1867). In 1868 the Republi- 
 cans were so furious that they tried to remove him from office 
 by impeachment, on the charge that contrary to this law he was 
 trying to remove the Secretary of War, Stanton. The real 
 offense was that he would not join in the radical spirit of 
 Congress. It would have been a dangerous thing for the 
 welfare of the country to remove a President simply because 
 Congress did not like him; and it was fortunate that the 
 votes for conviction were one short of the necessary two thirds. 
 
 In the presidential convention of 1868, General Grant was 
 nominated b\' the Republicans. The Democrats began to 
 pull themselves together again, and put up Horatio Seymour 
 of New York, a man of high character. Grant was easily 
 elected, though the Democrats polled nearh- 3,000,000 votes. 
 Some of that party wanted to upset reconstruction and the 
 constitutional amendments; but most of them took the 
 ground that they must accept things as they found them, and 
 start anew. 
 
 299. Reconstruction in Business and Transportation. — In 
 ' 1865, when the South was almost ruined, the Xorth was more 
 
 prosperous than ever before in its history. During the Civil 
 
376 
 
 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 War, manufacturers were busy not only on their usual orders, 
 but also in furnishing enormous quantities of supplies for 
 the army and the navy. Foreign commerce was lively, not- 
 withstanding the captures of vessels by Confederate cruisers 
 (§ 288). The great source of wealth was, however, the steady 
 growth of farm regions, villages, and cities throughout New 
 England and the middle states and the rapid growth of popu- 
 lation in the West. This made business of all kinds lively. 
 Factories, mines, and banks also increased rapidly. 
 
 To carry all this new business railroads were spreading 
 like magic. Short lines were built right and left. Long 
 lines were linked together until one could ride in a sleeping 
 car with only one change from New York to St. Louis or 
 Chicago. Great factories for building locomotives sprang up. 
 Iron works were busy rolling railroad iron and making ma- 
 terials for all kinds of manufactures. 
 
 The first train over the Cential Pacific Railroad, 1869. From an old print 
 
 The great railroad event of this period was the beginning 
 of the Pacific Railroad. California stood by the Union dur- 
 ing the war, but the Pacific coast was a long way off and needed 
 some connection closer than overland mail coaches and pony 
 expresses (§ 262). In 1862 Congress took up the familiar 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND BUSINESS 377 
 
 idea of a Pacific railroad and made great grants of public land 
 to aid in the building of certain specified lines from Omaha, 
 Lake Superior, and Kansas City to the Pacific coast. To a few 
 roads the government also lent money. With this powerful 
 aid the Union Pacific Railroad Company in 1869 completed 
 a road from Omaha to Ogden, near Great Salt Lake, where 
 it met the Central Pacific Railroad which ran on to San 
 Francisco. This was the first transcontinental railroad line 
 (map, page 386). 
 
 300. Financial Reconstruction (1868-1875). — Though the 
 people were rich, the United States government was poor, 
 for at the end of the war it owed about 3000 million dollars. 
 On this immense sum it had to pay interest; and it had prom- 
 ised to repay the debt eventually in " coin." To make 
 good this promise some of the heavy war taxes were kept in 
 force. No gold or silver was in circulation, and the green- 
 backs and national bank notes were the only currency. People 
 who wanted gold had to buy it at a premium, so that some- 
 times a thousand dollars in greenbacks might not buy more 
 than six hundred dollars in gold coin. 
 
 As people came to have more and more confidence that 
 the United States would pay all its debts, the greenbacks went 
 up in value and the gold came down. This seemed a great 
 hardship to men who had borrowed money in greenbacks when 
 they had a low value measured in gold, and were now called 
 on to repay in greenbacks representing more gold; in effect, 
 they had to pay more wheat or corn or manufactured goods 
 than the\' had received. On the other hand, the holders of 
 government bonds had lent money when greenbacks were low, 
 and were getting their money back when greenbacks were 
 high, so that some of them received nearly twice what they 
 had paid. These people were popularly called " bloated 
 bondholders." 
 
 Meanwhile the government debt was being paid off and 
 much money was made by business men. There was a boom 
 in all kinds of business. Thousands of miles of railroad were 
 built out into the West, where there was little or no popula- 
 tion, because the owners of the road expected to make money 
 
378 RECONSTRUCTION 
 
 by bringing people out and settling the country. A Home- 
 stead Act of 1862 allowed settlers to take up 160 acres of land 
 free of payment. The thing was overdone, so that in 1873 
 there was a serious commercial panic. Many banks, business 
 houses, and railroads went bankrupt, and it was several years 
 before business recovered. 
 
 301. Summary. — This chapter describes how the United 
 States was reconstructed after the Civil War by acts of Con- 
 gress and three constitutional amendments. 
 
 When the Civil War ended it seemed easy to settle the 
 difficulties by carrying out the principle that the states had 
 not seceded. It was quickly seen, however, that the state 
 governments, the white people, and the negroes in the South 
 were all in a changed condition. President Andrew Johnson 
 undertook to prepare the states to come back directly; but 
 Congress stood in his way, and by its two-thirds majority 
 made such laws as it liked, overriding the President's vetoes. 
 
 The decision of Congress was that the states must stay out 
 of the Union until they came back on such terms as Congress 
 should impose. They must admit negroes to their elections 
 and governments. This process of reconstructing the states 
 lasted from 1865 to 1871. 
 
 After vainly trying to convict Jefferson Davis of treason, 
 Congress gave up the idea of punishing the white people in 
 the South except by shutting them out temporarily from 
 public offices. 
 
 For the negroes, three constitutional amendments were 
 adopted: (i) The Thirteenth Amendment declared them all 
 free. (2) The Fourteenth Amendment declared them citi- 
 zens under the protection of the federal government. (3) The 
 Fifteenth Amendment assured them of the right to vote. 
 
 The Republicans came within one vote of removing Presi- 
 dent Johnson. The North came out of the war rich and 
 prosperous, and able to pay heavy taxes; but it was disturbed 
 by the use of greenbacks, which passed at a discount, as meas- 
 ured in gold. Meantime settlement was spreading and new 
 railroads were building, especially lines to the Pacific coast 
 under government aid. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 379 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Dunning, Reconstruction, 82, 114. — Hart, Epoch Maps, no. 7; 
 Wall Maps. ^Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 210. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 594-626, 640-644. — Dunning, Re- 
 construction, chs. i-viii. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., 407-420. — Haworth, 
 Reconstruction and Union, 7-43. — Paxson, New Nation, 26-/[g. — South 
 in Building of Nation, IV. 553-626. — Wilson, Division and Reunion, 
 
 §§ 125-133- 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., 466-477. — Harding, 
 Select Orations, nos. 29-31. — Hart, Contemporaries, IV. §§ 141-155, 162; 
 Source Book, §§127-131. — Hill, Liberty Docs., ch. xxiii. — James, 
 Readings, § 93. — Johnston, Am. Orations, IV. 129-188. — MacDonald, 
 Doc. Source Book, nos. 145-173; Select Statutes, nos. 49-84. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Glasgow, Voice of the People. — Hale, Mrs. 
 Merriam's Scholars. — Page, Red Rock. — Thanet, Expiation. — Tourgee, 
 Fool's Errand. 
 
 Pictures. Frank Leslie's Weekly. — Harper's Weekly. — Wilson, Am. 
 People, V. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 293) I. What did many people think about the problem of recon- 
 struction? 2. What changes had come about in the South during the war? 
 3. How were the southern states affected? 4. How were the white 
 southerners affected? 5. How were the freedmen affected? 6. Who^had 
 power to reorganize the Union? 7. What was President Johnson's point 
 of view? 
 
 (§ 294) 8. How did Johnson try to reconstruct? 9. What was the 
 plan adopted by Congress? 10. How were new governments formed in 
 the South? 
 
 (§295) II (For an essay). Jefferson Davis in prison. 12. How were 
 southern leaders treated? 13. How did they receive reconstruction? 
 
 (§ 296) 14. What was the condition of the negroes? 15. What laws 
 were passed regarding them? 16 (For an essay). Life among the freed- 
 men just after the war. 17. What did the Federal government do for 
 them? 
 
 (§ 297) 18. Why were constitutional amendments needed? 19. What 
 was the Thirteenth Amendment? 20. What was the Fourteenth Amend- 
 ment? 21. What was the Fifteenth Amendment? 
 
 (§ 298) 22. Why was an effort made to impeach the President? 23. 
 How did it result? 24. What was the result of the election of 1868? 
 
 (§ 299) 25. What was the state of business during the war? 26. How 
 did the railroads prosper? 27. How were the Pacific railroads built? 
 28 (For an essay). An early rail trip across the continent. 
 
 (§ 300) 29. What was the currency during the war? 30. How did the 
 greenbacks affect business? 31. How was the West settled after the war? 
 
CHAPTER XXVIII 
 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE (1870-1885) 
 
 302. The West in 1870. — Until the Civil War, the West 
 stopped near the Mississippi River; but in a few years an- 
 other larger West stretched beyond, with a scattered popula- 
 tion pushed out in advance of the railroads. In 1870 about 
 7,000,000 people, in addition to 250,000 Indians, were living 
 in the section between the Mississippi and the Pacific coast, 
 including the former slave states of Missouri, Arkansas, Louis- 
 iana, and Texas. Except for the mining camps in Nevada, Colo- 
 rado, Idaho, and California, the far West was almost entirely 
 a farming and cattle-raising region. 
 
 The western plains and valleys of the Rocky Mountains 
 long abounded in buffaloes, excellent for food and covered 
 with a valuable pelt. The fur traders killed out part of them 
 (§ 157), and the farmers helped the Indians to finish the de- 
 struction; so that after 1875 not a tenth of the immense 
 herds was left. 
 
 No effort was ever made to raise bufifaloes on a large scale, 
 but the cattle brought over by the old Spaniards multiplied 
 until there were millions on the great plains of Texas and 
 farther north. The different owners of cattle ranches had 
 each a mark that was branded on the calves, and each tried 
 to keep his herds together. Then the cattle were driven north 
 to the railroads, by w^hich they were shipped alive to Chicago 
 and other places, to be killed and packed. Some live cattle 
 were carried as far as the eastern coast cities, and shipped in 
 steamers across the sea, especially to England. It was a 
 good business, and cattlemen who had little at the start often 
 became rich. 
 
 303. The Pacific Slope. — Still farther to the westward 
 was another cattle-raising region in California; but so many 
 
 380 
 
THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 381 
 
 Memorial Arch, Leland Stanford University, California. The architect designed 
 the buildings after the style of the old Spanish missions 
 
 settlers poured in that much of the grazhig land was turned 
 into plowed fields, and California raised an immense wheat 
 crop for export. Spanish land grants were bought up by 
 Americans and became vast private estates, some of them 
 including 20,000 or 30,000 acres. The Californians explored 
 their own state and found several superb mountain valleys, 
 of which the Yosemite with its waterfalls 2,500 feet high is 
 the most magnificent. They also discovered several groves 
 of big trees, three or four thousand years old. 
 
 Farther up the coast the principal product at this time was 
 the magnificent timber of Oregon and Washington, including 
 many trees ten feet in diameter at fifteen feet above the 
 ground. Oregon was developing a farming region in the broad 
 valleys of the Willamette and the Columbia (§ 262), and small 
 settlements were already made at Spokane Falls and Walla 
 Walla, and at Seattle and Tacoma on Puget Sound. After a 
 long dispute with Great Britain the beautiful group of San 
 Juan Islands in the waters separating Vancouver Island from 
 the mainland was acknowledged to belong to the United 
 States (1872). 
 
 Far to the north another stretch of Pacific coast was added 
 in 1867 by annexing Alaska, then called Russian America 
 
382 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 (§233). The Russians made up their minds that it was not 
 worth while to keep the region, and Secretary Seward quickly 
 accepted their offer to sell it for $7,200,000. The new pos- 
 session included islands stretching almost to the coast of Asia, 
 the valley of the great Yukon River, and thousands of islands 
 otT the coast, as far south as 54° 40' (map, page 8). Nobody 
 then realized how rich Alaska was in various sorts of wealth: 
 gold, coal, and copper; fur-bearing seals; and salmon and 
 other fish. 
 
 304. Interior Territories and States (1861-1876). — After 
 the Civil War, settlers poured into the great interior country 
 beyond the Missouri River, and there was a brief rush east- 
 ward from California across the Sierra Nevada. These settle- 
 ments made it necessary to create seven new territories, as 
 follows: Colorado, Nevada, and Dakota (1861), Arizona and 
 Idaho (1863), Montana (1864), Wyoming (1868). 
 
 Nevada was admitted to the Union as the 36th state in a 
 great hurry in order to get its electoral vote for 1864 (map, page 
 432). It then contained only 40,000 people, chiefly engaged 
 in mining. Nebraska included valuable prairie lands and was 
 on the line of the new Pacific railroad. It was duly admitted 
 in 1867 as the 37th state with 100,000 people, practically all 
 of them farmers. 
 
 One of the scenic wonders of the great interior was made 
 known in 1869, when a bold set of government explorers went 
 down the Colorado River in a boat, through the Grand Can- 
 yon. The next year a private exploring party pushed its way 
 into the extreme headwaters of the Yellowstone River, about 
 which trappers told wonderful tales; and there they found 
 great waterfalls and hot springs and rock terraces and foun- 
 tain-like geysers, which since then have been the admiration 
 of thousands of visitors. 
 
 Colorado seemed very far away. Most of its settlers 
 reached it by a long journey in " prairie schooners"; that is, 
 big covered wagons, very much like the old Conestoga wagons 
 (§ 176). Some of them were marked " Pikes Peak or Bust." 
 The state was admitted to the Union (the 38th state) in 1876. 
 The emigrants then hardly realized the resources of the state 
 
Old FaiUifu] Geyser, in Yellowstone Kational Park, regularly spou 13 
 
 up a column of hot water every sixty-five minutes, to a 
 
 height of one hundred twenty-five feet 
 
384 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 in cattle, grain, and fruit, or the magnificence of the natural 
 scenery. By 1880 the state had a population of 194,000. 
 
 Midway in the interior were the flourishing settlements of 
 the Mormons. By 1870 there were 87,000 people in their 
 territory of Utah (§262), including some " Gentiles," as the 
 non-Mormons were called. The new Pacific railroad in 1869 
 brought in more outsiders and travelers; and the attention 
 of the country was thus called to the fact that the Mormon 
 Church allowed plural marriages. Brigham Young, the 
 Prophet of the church, had about twenty wives. Congress 
 made various efforts to stop this practice of polygamy, and 
 some of the leaders were sent to prison for it. The contro- 
 versy for many years prevented Utah from being admitted 
 as a state. 
 
 305. Far Western Indians. — As the western settlers ar- 
 rived, they found themselves in close contact with strong 
 and warlike tribes of Indians, especially the Sioux, the Modocs, 
 and the Apaches. In 1862 and in 1866 there was war with the 
 fierce Sioux; and after the discovery of gold in the Black 
 Hills, these Indians fought again in 1876, under the leader- 
 ship of Sitting Bull, Crazy Horse, and other chiefs, tr\'ing to 
 keep the miners out of their countr\'. During the Avar the 
 Sioux surrounded and massacred to the last man two hundred 
 and sixty cavalrymen under the command of General Custer. 
 In 1872 about eighty Modoc warriors under the command 
 of Chief Jack, took refuge in the lava beds of northern Cali- 
 fornia and for months kept up a running fight with the soldiers. 
 The Apaches, a brave and ferocious tribe of horse-riding In- 
 dians, infested the routes from Texas through New Mexico and 
 Arizona, and were not afraid to attack detachments of the 
 regular army. 
 
 President Grant began what was called the " peace policy " 
 of settling all the Indians on reservations (map, page 432), 
 and planting schools and missions among them. The spread 
 of railroads and settlements aided in that work, and the Indian 
 wars practically came to an end in 1886. Since then the gov- 
 ernment has kept up schools on the reservations, and has sent 
 chosen Indian boys and girls to some eastern schools. 
 
INDIANS AND PUBLIC LANDS 385 
 
 The government has used all its influence to induce the 
 Indians to break up their tribes and take up separate farms 
 " in severalty," as it is called, one for each family, and thus 
 to live Mke white men. 
 
 306. Public Lands. — As fast as the Indians were pacified 
 and made treaties giving up their lands, white settlers came 
 in. In addition to the Preemption Act of 1841 (§218) Con- 
 gress passed a Homestead Act in 1862 (§ 300), by which any 
 head of a family, even though a recent immigrant, could take 
 up 160 acres of land, live on it five years, and then get the title 
 to it by paying fees of about $25. In ten years 28 million 
 acres were thus occupied. The settler could also take up 
 another 160 acres by preemption, paying $200 for it; and 
 (after 1873) he could take up 160 acres more, keep trees grow- 
 ing on forty of the acres for eight years, and then get a title 
 free. 
 
 Much of the good land lay far from routes of travel, and 
 therefore the government from time to time added to the 
 prodigious land grants made in 1862 (§ 299) for constructing 
 a group of railroads extending from the Missouri River to the 
 Pacific Ocean. Such roads received the alternate sections 
 or checkers of land, each a mile square, within a belt forty 
 miles broad along the length of the road. Some roads had 
 an eighty-mile belt. The other squares were reserved for 
 private settlement under the Homestead Act, or could be 
 bought by preemption at double price ($2.50) an acre. 
 
 Unfortunately Congress assumed that most of the govern- 
 ment land was " arable," that is, good for farming; and it 
 did not reser\'e lands which had a special value for their min- 
 erals or water privileges, as might easily have been done. 
 After many years Congress did make an extra charge for 
 timber and stone lands, but little pains was taken to collect 
 the extra price. It was years before Congress began to charge 
 a higher price for coal lands, which might be worth a hundred 
 or even a thousand dollars an acre. Nor was any eff'ort made 
 to keep control of river waters which were of special value to 
 cattle owners, or which could be carried aside by canals and 
 used to irrigate land that would otherwise be worthless. Any 
 
 hart's sch. nisT. — 22 
 
386 
 
 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 man owning a claim fronting on the river could use the 
 water, or sell it to his neighbors, as he liked. 
 
 Transcontinental railroad lines 
 
 307. Western Transportation. — In 1869 there was only 
 one line of railroad from the East to the Pacific coast. Fifteen 
 years later there were five, besides many cross lines and con- 
 necting lines. The most important through routes were: 
 (i) the Northern Pacific from Lake Superior to Tacoma and 
 Seattle on Puget Sound; (2) the Union Pacific and Oregon 
 Short Line from Omaha to Portland on the Columbia; (3) the 
 Union Pacific and Central Pacific route from Omaha via 
 Salt Lake City to San Francisco; (4) the Atchison, Topeka, 
 and Santa Fe from Kansas City to Los Angeles; (5) the 
 Southern Pacific from New Orleans to Los Angeles. 
 
 Among the men who built and managed these lines were 
 Stanford and Huntington of the California roads, Villard of 
 the Northern Pacific, and Palmer of the Atchison. 
 
TRANSPORTATION AND MINING 387 
 
 All the roads mentioned had land grants (§ 306), and Con- 
 gress voted land also to the Texas and Pacific west from Lou- 
 isiana, to the California and Oregon, and to some other shorter 
 lines. A few received from the government an advance of 
 money which finally amounted to over 60 million dollars, and 
 had to be repaid. 
 
 308. Mining in the West. — Just before the Civil War 
 some gold placers (§ 222) were found on the eastern slope of 
 the Rocky Mountains near Denver, and the gold was traced 
 back to quartz " lodes " or ledges of rock. About 1859 silver 
 was found east of the Sierra Nevada; and at Virginia City 
 was opened the Consolidated Virginia silver mine, one of the 
 most valuable that the world has ever seen. First and last, 
 silver to the amount of 300 million dollars was taken out 
 of it. 
 
 Whenever a new " strike " was made, hundreds of miners 
 rushed to it, but after the surface was skimmed little more 
 could be done without expensive machinery and costly work- 
 ings. In 1876 a great strike of silver was made at Leadville, 
 which is situated very nearly at the source of the Arkansas 
 River. Subsequently copper was found at Clifton and other 
 places in Arizona, and at Butte and the surrounding country 
 in Montana. 
 
 For a long time nobody paid much attention to the western 
 coal, but deposits were at last found in Colorado, Wyoming, 
 Washington, Utah, Montana, and New Mexico. This made 
 it possible to work profitably gold, silver, and copper ores 
 which required intense heat. These processes led to the 
 building of enormous smelters near Denver, Butte, and else- 
 where. 
 
 Many of the mining towns decayed, but scores of them re- 
 mained and made a market for neighboring farmers; that 
 encouraged " ranches," as farms are often called in the far 
 West. The business of the mines attracted railroads and 
 banks and corporations of all kinds. Some of the pioneers 
 saw rich cities grow up in what were once their farms, with 
 great buildings and thousands of busy men and women. 
 Eastern investors who realized the richness of the West sent 
 
388 
 
 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 money there and lent it to enable the West to build more 
 railroads and cities and factories, and to open more mines and 
 ranches. 
 
 309. Foreign Immigration. — Among the farmers, ranch- 
 men, and miners in the far West in 1870 were about a million 
 
 foreign immigrants. People 
 poured into the United 
 States from Europe so 
 fast after the Civil War 
 that in the >'ear 1870 five 
 and a half millions of the 
 white population consisted 
 of foreign - born persons 
 and their children. Of 
 these nearly a third were 
 of Irish birth or race; 
 about another third were 
 German - speaking: 
 800,000, or about 
 a seventh of the 
 whole, were Eng- 
 lish, Scotch, and 
 Welsh; half a 
 million came from 
 Canada; and a quarter of a million were Scandinavians. In 
 California, Oregon, and Nevada lived about 55,000 Chinese, 
 a few of whom were brought East and became laundrymen, 
 cooks, and factory hands. 
 
 After 1870 most of the foreign immigrants crossed on 
 steamers of regular lines such as the Cunard, Guion, Inman. 
 and White Star lines from Liverpool, the Anchor line from 
 Glasgow, the French line from Havre, the Hambut-g American 
 and North German Lloyd lines from Germany. These ships, 
 though still small and uncomfortable even for cabin passen- 
 gers, between i860 and 1880 carried most of the four million 
 immigrant passengers. 
 
 Nearly half of the immigrants settled along or near the sea- 
 coast where they landed, and they formed Irish and German 
 
 ^"^ 
 
 Memorial to John Bo'/le O'Reiliv, Uie noted poet and 
 journalist, who came as an immigrant to Boston in 
 1869 
 
IMMIGRATION 
 
 389 
 
 sections in New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore. There 
 were similar colonies of foreigners in Milwaukee, Cleveland, 
 Chicago, Cincinnati, and other large cities; for example, 
 a Bohemian quarter in Cleveland, and a Scandinavian ele- 
 ment in Minneapolis. About a third of the immigrants were 
 distributed in the old 
 northwestern states, and 
 in Missouri and Texas. 
 
 Only about a twenty- 
 fifth of the immigrants 
 were found in the for- 
 mer seceding states. 
 There the rough labor, 
 such as railroad build- 
 ing and tilling the large 
 plantations, was almost 
 all done by negroes ; and 
 there was not much 
 chance for a foreign 
 man or woman looking 
 for work. The cities 
 were fewer than in the 
 North, and there was 
 little government land 
 to be had. Hence, out- 
 side of the large cities 
 there were few foreign 
 immigrants in the 
 South. 
 
 310. Home Emi- 
 gration. — Just as in 
 colonial times, the 
 
 settlers at the frontiers were in large part immigrants from 
 communities farther east. Even in the East a fifth of those 
 born in any particular state sooner or later moved to another 
 state. In Nebraska, in 1880, four fifths of all the people living 
 there were not born in that state. Some far western settlers 
 moved a score of times; and in cities like Omaha and Denver 
 
 The Statue of Liberty greets immigrants entering 
 New York Harbor. This giant bronze figure was 
 presented to America by France in 1886 
 
390 
 
 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 might be found residents coming from thirty different 
 states. 
 
 These different kinds of people all had something to bring 
 with them: New Englanders carried along their school 
 system; southerners brought their method of county govern- 
 ment; New Yorkers were used to business on a large scale; 
 French and Swiss immigrants were skilled in vine growing; 
 Irishmen knew how to raise cattle; Germans were fond of 
 music; the Swiss were builders of good roads. Most of the 
 immigrants found work or made work, and the great West 
 could not have been built up so quickly without the aid of 
 the foreign-born laborers and their children. 
 
 m- 
 
 Immigrants from Germany, Ireland, and Scandinavia in home costumes 
 
 Among these immigrants the Irish, English, Scotch, Welsh, 
 and part of the Canadian immigrants spoke English before 
 they arrived; and most of the other races learned it after a 
 few years. The children usually learned both the home speech 
 and English. Among the grandchildren English would 
 probably be the only language spoken in the family. 
 
 311. Checks on Immigration. — So welcome were the immi- 
 grants that for half a century all were received, of whatever 
 color, race, language, or condition: the strong and the weak, 
 the well and the sick, good people and criminals, members 
 of many races and of nearly all churches. They included 
 
CHECKS ON IMMIGRATION 39I 
 
 Catholics, whether Irish, German, French, Austrian, or 
 Hungarian, and members of almost every Protestant denomi- 
 nation in the world. Roman Catholics, Greek Catholics, 
 Jews and Protestants, Hindu Brahmanists, Chinese followers 
 of Confucius, and Japanese Buddhists, ^ — all were free to build 
 churches and temples, and to practice their own form of 
 religion. 
 
 Since carrying passengers from foreign countries is con- 
 sidered to be a part of commerce with foreign nations, only 
 the federal government could prevent immigrants from coming 
 in, or could keep out any classes or races. The welcome to 
 immigrants was so broad that for many years the only limi- 
 tation laid down by Congress was that the officers of all 
 arriving ships must make a written report of the number of 
 immigrant passengers on board. Laws were then passed to 
 secure to these immigrants proper quarters, food, health, and 
 decency while on the voyage. 
 
 In 1875 Congress began to shut out convicts and certain 
 other classes of immigrants; and the list was enlarged till it 
 now includes persons who have been convicted of crime, luna- 
 tics, people who cannot support themselves, contract laborers 
 who come on a promise by some one in America to give them 
 employment, polygamists, people with contagious diseases, 
 openly immoral persons, and anarchists. 
 
 312. Chinese Immigration. — Although the Chinese were 
 much in demand as laborers, it was objected that they lived 
 by themselves; few of them learned English; they did not 
 bring their families; all intended to go back to China in course 
 of time; and they were accused of working for lower wages 
 than white men. Under the laws of the United States no 
 person born in China could become a citizen of the United 
 States, but a child born over here of Chinese parents was a 
 citizen under the Fourteenth Amendment (§ 297). 
 
 In the three Pacific states and Nevada it was thought unde- 
 sirable to admit an indefinite number of such foreigners, who 
 could not be expected to learn our language, laws, or govern- 
 ment. The Chinese government cared little about their 
 laborers in America, and after long discussions it was agreed 
 
392 THE WEST AND THE PACIFIC SLOPE 
 
 (i88i) that Congress might forbid the coming of all except the 
 four special classes of travelers, merchants, students, and diplo- 
 mats. Some Chinese laborers managed to slip in, in spite of 
 the law, but the number in the country in 1910 was reduced 
 to about 72,000. 
 
 313. Summary. — This chapter tells of the West and far 
 West, during and after the Civil War, and of the means of 
 transportation and of the results of immigration. 
 
 The region west of the Mississippi was rich in land suit- 
 able for farms and for cattle; and the mountains abounded 
 in minerals. California came to be a wheat-growing state, 
 and along the Pacific coast valuable timber was cut. By the 
 annexation of Alaska the United States secured a region which 
 proved later to have great resources. The interior country 
 developed very rapidly into territories and then into states: 
 Nevada, Nebraska, and Colorado were admitted to the Union, 
 while Utah was delayed. 
 
 The last of the Indian wars came between 1870 and 1886; 
 and though several commands of United States troops were 
 beaten, in the end all the Indians had to yield and go upon 
 reservations, where they could have schools and learn to farm. 
 
 The ending of Indian wars opened the way for settlers who 
 were attracted by the Land Acts of 1862 and 1873. The 
 policy of the government was to give the land away, so far as 
 could be, to actual settlers. Many of the far western com- 
 munities were mining camps, which grew up around discov- 
 eries of gold, silver, copper, and coal. 
 
 The rapid settlement of the West was aided by immigration 
 from foreign countries. Another western element was the 
 native-born people who moved out of the older states. By 
 immigration laws, Congress began to shut out convicts, con- 
 tract laborers, and others, and also Chinese laborers. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Epoch Maps, no. 14; Wall Maps. — Shepherd, Hist. 
 Atlas, 203, 210. — Sparks, Nat. Development, 242, 266. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 676-691, 774. — Paxson, New Nation, 
 20-25, 142-151. 154-157. — Sparks, Nat. Development, chs. xiv-xvi. 
 — Wilson, Division and Reunion, §§ 145-147. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 393 
 
 Sources. Heiri, Contemporaries, IV. §§ 163, 204. — |aines, Readings, 
 §96. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Adams, Log of a Cowboy. — Altsheler, Last 
 of the Chiefs (Iiuliaiis, Custer). — Bindloss, Cattle- Baron s Daughter. — 
 Clemens (Mark Twain), Roughing It. — Custer, Boy General. — Forsyth, 
 Story of the Soldier. — Garland, Little Norsk (Farms). — (irinnell. Story 
 of the Indian. — Hough, Story of the Cowboy. — King, Campaigntng with 
 Crook; Colonel's Daughter (Army); Tonio. — Miles, Personal Recollec- 
 tions. — Otis, Seth of Colorado. — Shinn, Story of the Mine. — Stoddard, 
 Little Smoke (Indians). — Warman, Story of the Railroad. — Wister, The 
 Virginian. 
 
 Pictures. Andrews, Last Quarter Century. — Dunbar, Llist. of Travel 
 in Am. — Frank Leslie's Weekly. — Harper's Weekly. — Mentor, serial nos. 
 7, 60, 83, 85, 92. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§302) I. How did the West develop? 2 (For an essay). Buffalo 
 hunting. 3. How was the cattle industry carried on? 
 
 (§ 303) 4- How did California develop? 5. How did Oregon and 
 Washington develop? 6. How was Alaska annexed? 
 
 (§304) 7- What new territories were created after i860? 8. How and 
 when was Nevada admitted to the Union? 9. Colorado? 10 (For an 
 essay). Exploration of the Colorado River or of the Yellowstone region. 
 II. How did the territory of Utah develop? 
 
 (§305) 12. What caused the Indian wars? 13 (For an essay). Cus- 
 ter's last fight; or the Modoc War. 14. What was done to civilize the 
 Indians? 
 
 (§ 306) 15. How could public lands be taken up? 16. What were the 
 first railroad land grants? 17. What were the defects in the land policy? 
 
 (§ 307) 18. What were the principal Pacific railroads? 19. What aid 
 did the government give the railroads? 
 
 (§ 308) 20. What new gold and silver mines were opened? 21 (For an 
 essay). Visit to a gold mine or a silver mine or a copper mine. 22. How 
 were mines an advantage to the country? 
 
 (§ 309) 23. P>om what foreign countries did immigrants come? 24. 
 How were the immigrants transported? 25 (For an essay). An in>mi- 
 grant's voyage across the Atlantic. 26. How were immigrants distributed 
 throughout the country? 27. Why did few immigrants settle in the South? 
 
 (§ 310) 28. How was the West settled? 29. What ideas did immi- 
 grants bring into the West? 30 (For an essay). An immigrant family 
 settling in the W'cst. 31. What languages did the immigrants speak? 
 
 (§311) 32. What were the religions of the immigrants? 33. What 
 were the early restrictions on the immigrants? 34. What were the later 
 restrictions? 35 (For an essay). Some queer immigrants. 
 
 (§ 312) 36. What were the objections to Chinese immigration? 37. 
 What restrictions were placed on the Chinese? 
 
CHAPTER XXIX 
 
 POLITICS AND PARTIES (18691885) 
 
 314. President Grant (1869-1877). — When Ulysses S. 
 Grant of Illinois became President in 1869, he was popular in 
 the North because of his success as a general, and because of 
 his simple, unassuming life; while his generous treatment of 
 the officers and men of Lee's army at their surrender (§ 290) 
 had gained him some friends in the South. He had never 
 been in politics and felt that he was elected by the people and 
 was not obliged to take orders from the leaders of the Repub- 
 lican party- 
 Grant was a military man who looked upon himself much 
 as Andrew Jackson had done (§ 208), as a kind of commander 
 in chief of the civil government. Hence he expected the 
 members of his Cabinet to accept his directions, and he stood 
 by certain personal friends even after they were generally 
 supposed to be dishonest. 
 
 The civil service of the government was in bad shape; few 
 men could get into the minor positions except by the favor, 
 or as it is usually called " influence," of some Senator or 
 member of the House. President Grant induced Congress 
 to pass an act by which at least some of the clerks in Wash- 
 ington could be selected without political influence. The 
 Congressmen much disliked this interference with their power 
 to recommend persons for office, and they soon cut off the 
 necessary funds, so that the whole effort was a failure. Later 
 on, Grant quarreled with Senator Sumner and other powerful 
 Republicans, and they interfered with some of his favorite 
 plans. 
 
 He used his veto power right and left, vetoing about as 
 many bills as all previous Presidents together. He was an 
 honest, patriotic President, but unfortunately his adminis- 
 
 394 
 
PRESIDENT GRANT'S ADMINISTRATION 
 
 395 
 
 tration came in a time of great wastefulness and dishonesty 
 in both state and national governments. 
 
 315. Dark Side of Government (1869-1877). — War time 
 with its big government contracts and rapid ways of making 
 and losing money had a bad effect on the methods of public 
 and private business. Informers lay in w^ait in the federal 
 customhouses to pounce on some failure to carry out the law. 
 A Whisky Ring in 1875 defrauded the government out of large 
 sums. Later, Secretary Belknap, one of the Cabinet, was 
 caught selling privileges granted by his department, and had 
 to resign in disgrace. 
 
 It was even worse in some of the cities — especially in New 
 York, where in 1869 a politician named Tweed got control of the 
 county government which was connected with that of the city. 
 With the aid of city officials, and by the use of fraud and bogus 
 contracts, he and his friends succeeded in stealing nearly a hun- 
 dred million dollars 
 in three years. 
 
 Some of the 
 newspapers never 
 ceased to protest. 
 Tweed did not 
 mind that, because 
 so many of his fol- 
 lowers could not 
 read. Then an art- 
 ist named Thomas 
 Nast began, by the 
 art of political car- 
 toons, to attack 
 Tweed and his cro- 
 nies in Harper' sWeekly . A Democratic leader, Samuel J. Tilden, 
 exposed this ring of robbers, and Tweed was sent to prison. 
 
 316. Breakdown of Reconstruction (1869-1874). — Presi- 
 dent Grant had large powers over the reconstructed states, 
 which were passing through the bitter experience of the car- 
 petbag go\'ernments (§§ 294, 328). Several of them suffered 
 from plunderers as bold and corrupt as the Tweed Ring. 
 
 'Twas him." A political cartoon by Thomas Nast, show- 
 ing Tweed (the largest figure) and other members of the 
 Tweed Ring trying to clear themselves of blame 
 
396 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 Taxes were increased, and money was borrowed which was 
 then wasted or stolen. Within a few months after Virginia 
 was restored to the Union, the "Conservatives" — that is, 
 the white voters acting in the Democratic party — recovered 
 the control of the state government; and in most of the other 
 southern states the same thing soon happened. 
 
 To break the hold of the negro Republican vote, several 
 secret societies were formed by the southern whites, of which 
 the most famous was the Ku-Klux Klan. At first it con- 
 sisted of young men who thought it a kind of joke to ride 
 about the country rigged out as headless ghosts, and thus to 
 frighten the negroes. This practice quickly grew into a sys- 
 tem by which many negroes and some whites were whipped, 
 driven out of the country, or shot. As soon as the negroes 
 took the hint and stopped voting, most of the so-called " Lower 
 South " — the belt of states from South Carolina to Texas — 
 elected Democratic legislators and Congressmen. 
 
 Congress tried to stop this movement and to put down these 
 societies by passing severe measures commonly called " Force 
 Bills," intended to protect the negro voters by the use of fed- 
 eral troops. On the other hand. Congress took off the " disa- 
 bilities " which had prevented the old leaders from holding 
 office (§294). The result was that in the election of 1874, 
 often called the " tidal wave," several former Confederate 
 generals were chosen to Congress. Nine years after the Civil 
 War, therefore, the southern states had managed to set aside 
 the greater part of the reconstruction measures. 
 
 317. Party Politics (1869-1S76). — In the presidential elec- 
 tion of 1872 Grant was opposed by Sumner, Schurz, and other 
 Liberal Republicans, who joined with the Democrats to 
 support Horace Greeley (§ 267). Grant was easily reelected 
 though the Democrats carried six southern states. 
 
 After that year the southern Democrats gradually united 
 in what was called the " solid South," which at every election 
 supported the Democratic candidate, whoever he might be. 
 The great cities became very important in elections, for the 
 party that could carry New York, or Chicago, or San Francisco 
 expected also to carry the state in which the city was situated. 
 
RECONSTRUCTION AND PARTIES 397 
 
 During this whole period the RepubHcan party appealed 
 for votes on the ground that it had successfully carried on the 
 Civil War and reconstruction. One of the campaign cries 
 of the Republicans was, " We vote as we shot." The other 
 side accused them of " waving the bloody shirt"; that is, of 
 always arousing northern feeling against the South. 
 
 The Thirteenth (emancipation) Amendment was little 
 questioned, for nobody any longer wanted slavery; but the 
 Democrats disliked the Fourteenth (citizenship) Amendment 
 and the Fifteenth (negro suffrage) Amendment (§ 297). 
 Since most of the New England and the northwestern states 
 were safely Republican in politics, the balance of power came to 
 lie in three " doubtful states," New^ York, Ohio, and Indiana. 
 Hence, for many years the candidates on both sides w-ere usu- 
 ally chosen from one or another of those states. 
 
 Besides the two main parties, at every presidential election 
 would appear one or more " third parties." The western 
 farmers in 1867 formed a national order which they called 
 the " Patrons of Husbandry"; each local society connected 
 with it was called a " Grange." The Grangers nominated 
 no tickets, but other farmers' organizations did so. In some 
 states they succeeded in getting control of the legislature, 
 which began to regulate the railroads. In 1872 for the first 
 time the National Prohibition party put up a candidate, and 
 the Labor Reform party polled 29,000 votes. In 1876 the 
 Greenback party, which wanted to pay the rest of the public 
 debt in paper notes, polled 82,000 votes. 
 
 318. Cuba and the West Indies (1868-1870). — It will be 
 remembered that President Pierce in the fifties wanted to 
 annex Cuba, which was a colony of Spain (§ 253). It was not 
 done, and the United States kept on good terms with Spain 
 and had a profitable trade with the island. In 1868, part of 
 the people of Cuba revolted and formed what they called 
 a -republican government, made up partly of whites and 
 partly of negroes. For ten years a civil war raged in the 
 island with great destruction of life and property. 
 
 The United States government took no part, either for or 
 against the insurgents, and when difficulties arose President 
 
398 
 
 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 Grant prevented war by the United States to aid the insur- 
 gents. The Cubans finally gave up the struggle in 1878, on 
 condition that they should have a reformed government, and 
 that the slaves should be emancipated. 
 r^AN appeautcT^^ -^ ^^^ years earlier Brazil had also eman- 
 cipated her slaves, so that slavery now 
 ceased in every part of America. 
 
 Though President Grant did not want 
 Cuba, he was anxious to annex the republic 
 of Santo Domingo, and he made a treaty 
 to that effect with the negro government 
 of the country (1869). To Grant's great 
 chagrin, the people of the United States 
 were not interested and the Senate re- 
 fused to ratify it; and from that time to 
 the Spanish War of 1898 no territory was 
 annexed by the United States in the West 
 Indies. 
 
 319. The Disputed Election of 1876. 
 — The Democrats looked for^vard with 
 hope to the election of 1876, and nomi- 
 nated a strong candidate in Samuel J. 
 I 1795-1818*^ Tilden of New York, a noted reformer 
 
 (§315)- The friends of President Grant 
 tried to renominate him for a third term, 
 but the Republican convention passed him 
 by, and also declined to nominate James G. 
 Blaine, who had been Speaker of the 
 House. Governor Hayes of Ohio was 
 selected as a compromise candidate. 
 
 The main discussion in the campaign 
 was whether free government would perish 
 and all the results of the Civil War be lost 
 in case a Democrat were elected President. 
 185 electoral votes were needed to elect; 
 votes came to be counted, Tilden proved to 
 He had carried the solid South (except 
 
 1S77 
 Growth of the flag. Notice 
 that after 1795 there were 
 fifteen stripes and stars; 
 then, since 1818, thirteen 
 stripes, and a star for 
 each state 
 
 and when the 
 
 have 184 sure votes. 
 
 three states) and Connecticut, Indiana, New Jersey, and New 
 
ELECTION OF 1 876 399 
 
 York. Florida, South Carolina, and Louisiana were claimed 
 by the Republicans, because they were sure that great num- 
 bers of negro voters had been shut out; and by the Demo- 
 crats because they believed that the Republicans had falsely 
 counted the votes that were cast. There was good ground for 
 both of these charges. The result was that the two parties in 
 those states filed conflicting returns with the government at 
 Washington. 
 
 Since the laws of the United States did not clearly state 
 who should decide between two sets of electoral returns, a 
 special Electoral Commission was created by an act of Con- 
 gress (1877), with power to break the deadlock. It consisted 
 of eight Republican members and seven Democrats; and by 
 a vote of 8 to 7 it decided every question in favor of the Re- 
 publicans. Hayes was therefore declared elected by 185 to 
 184, a majority of one electoral vote. 
 
 President Hayes was a high-minded and straightforward 
 man, but half the voters in the United States thought that 
 he had not been fairly elected, and he was not able to carry 
 out any strong policy. The Democrats had a majority in the 
 House during the whole four years of his administration, and 
 in the Senate for two years. Hayes formed a good Cabinet 
 in which Carl Schurz (§252) was a member. The principal 
 thing that Hayes did was to call the troops back out of the 
 South, so that the federal government could no longer under- 
 take to protect the negro by armed force. 
 
 320. Greenbacks (1865-1879). — The old issues of the 
 Civil War were wearing out; the things that really interested 
 the voters were such matters as the tariff, -the regulation of 
 railroads, and particularly the currency, that is, the money 
 which circulated among the people. For fourteen years after 
 the Civil War people continued to use and handle paper 
 money; even the small change as low as three cents, for a 
 long time, was made up of paper " fractional currency," often 
 called " shinplasters." It was, however, very inconvenient 
 to do business with foreign countries, because they would 
 not take our paper money and insisted on gold and silver; and 
 these metals stood at a premium. As late as 1876 it took 
 
400 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 about eleven dollars in greenbacks to buy a ten-dollar gold 
 piece. 
 
 The western and southern farmers thought that greenbacks 
 were good enough for anybody. There was a widespread 
 belief in " inflation "; that is, in increasing the amount of the 
 currency by issuing paper money. People forgot the expe- 
 rience of the Civil War, which was that the more paper money 
 is put out, the less a paper dollar will buy. A dqllar was 
 understood to mean a certain weight of gold or silver in a coin ; 
 and the paper notes were promises to pay specie dollars. 
 
 Congress in 1875 finally resolved to make that understand- 
 ing good by "resuming specie payment"; that is, by paying 
 gold or silver dollars to any one who cared to present a paper 
 dollar at the treasury. Of course, if there was only a little 
 gold on hand, there would be a rush to get it. Therefore, 
 John Sherman, Secretary of the Treasury, got together the 
 great sum of $140,000,000 in gold; and since 1879 anybody 
 may at any time present greenbacks to the government and 
 get gold for them at their face value. 
 
 321. Gold and Silver Money. — Until nearly 1879 ordinary 
 people bothered little about gold and silver coin, because 
 there was none in circulation; that is, passing from hand to 
 hand. In 1878 a long and bitter conflict arose over " the 
 free coinage of silver." The cause of the trouble is hard to 
 make clear in a few words, but was about as follows: 
 
 Up to the Civil War the country had been used to what is 
 called " bimetallism "; that is, both gold and silver were cir- 
 culated and were used as a standard for paper notes. When 
 people agreed to pay a " dollar " they meant either a coin that 
 contained 371.25 grains of silver, or one that contained 23.2 
 grains of gold. The silver dollar thus had about sixteen times 
 the weight of the gold dollar. Congress established this par- 
 ticular ratio because the market value of gold was about six- 
 teen times that of silver; this was due in part to the fact that 
 it usually cost the miners sixteen times as much to mine and 
 sell a pound of gold as a pound of silver. A pound of gold 
 was, therefore, worth sixteen times as many dollars as a pound 
 of silver. This is the so-called " i6-to-i " ratio. 
 
GOLD AND SILVER MONEY 
 
 401 
 
 For many years anybody who liad gold bullion or silver 
 bullion could take it to the mint and the government would 
 coin it for him into dollars. For instance (after 1834), if he 
 had 2320 grains of gold he would get $100 in gold coin; if he 
 offered 37,125 grains of silver he would get $100 in silver. 
 This was called " free coinage." Silversmiths, however, would 
 pay more than $100 for 37,125 grains of silver bullion; there- 
 fore, very little silver was brought to the mint, and in 1873 
 Congress stopped making silver dollars ; that is, it would not 
 take any more silver 
 bullion and return 
 dollars. 
 
 Just then, rich silver 
 mines were discovered 
 in Montana, Idaho, 
 Arizona, Colorado, and 
 elsewhere (§ 308). In 
 1878 the owners of 
 those mines demanded 
 that Congress should 
 give them back their 
 former right of free 
 coinage; that is, the 
 right to turn their bul- 
 lion into the mint and 
 receive its weight in 
 silver dollars. Silver, 
 however, was now so 
 plentiful that anyone who had gold to the weight of one hun- 
 dred dollars could buy with it a weight of silver which if coined 
 would make about one hundred and ten dollars; that is, in- 
 stead of 16 to I, the market ratio between gold and silver had 
 fallen to 18 to i. Some years later it fell to about 32 to i. 
 
 It is not essential to remember exactly what is meant by 
 "ratios" and "bimetallism" and "16 to i." The main 
 point is that the siKer miners could get much more in gold 
 or goods for their silver if the government would take it and 
 give them the same weight of silver dollars for it. They 
 
 hart's SCH. hist. — 2i 
 
 Storing sacks of money in a United States mint 
 
402 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 thought they had as good a right to that privilege as the gold 
 miners had to get gold dollars. The " goldbugs," as the 
 friends of gold coinage were called, pointed out that in most 
 European countries gold was the only standard. They in- 
 sisted that all the holders of government bonds and paper 
 money ought to be paid in gold and not in the cheaper metal, 
 silver. They declared that bimetallism was absurd because 
 the cost of getting the two metals was so changed that the 
 ratio between them altered almost from month to month. 
 
 322. The Silver Question in Politics (1878-1900). — It 
 happened that the goldbugs were strong in the eastern states 
 and the silverites out west, where the silver was mined. The 
 western and southern farmers, and some eastern farmers also, 
 thought that the rich people of the East were making more 
 profit than they were entitled to and that free silver on a 
 l6-to-i basis would result in transferring part of that profit 
 to them. The free-silver men were only partly successful. 
 They secured from Congress the Bland Act (1878), named for 
 a Missouri member of Congress who pushed it. The silver 
 owners did not get free coinage, but the government under- 
 took to buy a large amount of silver every year and to coin 
 it into silver dollars. This process did not raise the market 
 price of siher, which kept falling year after year. It took 
 about an ounce of silver to make a silver dollar; but anybody 
 who had sixty cents in gold could go out and buy an ounce 
 of silver. 
 
 This did not please the silver miners or the people in the 
 states that produced silver, and in 1890 they were strong 
 enough in Congress to pass the Sherman Silver Act, by which 
 the treasury was to buy still more silver. In 1895 the act 
 was repealed. In the election of 1896 the friends of free silver 
 were defeated; and in 1900, after twenty-two years' struggle, 
 Congress made gold the standard metal so . hat holders of all 
 the bonds and notes of the government now have a right to 
 demand gold in payment. 
 
 323. President Arthur and the Civil Service (i 880-1 888). — 
 In 1880 the Democrats nominated for President, General 
 Winfield S. Hancock of Pennsylvania, one of the bravest 
 
THE CIVIL SERVICE 403 
 
 officers of the Civil War. The RepubHcans again refused 
 to nominate Grant for a third term; Mr. Blaine was also 
 passed by (§ 319), and the convention settled on General 
 James A. (.arfield of Ohio. The Greenbackers again put up 
 a candidate and got 300,000 votes. New York was carried 
 for the Republicans by a narrow majority and that gave Gar- 
 field enough electoral votes to elect him. 
 
 He had been in office but four months when he was shot by 
 a disappointed office seeker, and Chester A. Arthur of New 
 York, the Vice President, came into office. The attention of 
 the country was called to the bad features of the spoils system 
 (§210). Everybody knew that the goxernment employees 
 were holding their offices by doing party work and subscribing 
 to the party funds. A civil service reform act was therefore 
 favored by men of both parties, and the Pendleton Act for that 
 end was readily signed by President Arthur (1883). 
 
 This act provided that: (i) The President might set off 
 part of the employees into "the classified service"; and no- 
 body could enter that service except by standing high in 
 a competitive examination. (2) No government employee 
 could be removed for refusing to do party work. (3) A Civil 
 Service Commission was to carry out this plan. President 
 Arthur applied the scheme to a few thousand employees, 
 and every President since has increased the list. At present 
 it includes nearly all the men and women who draw a regular 
 salary from the United States government. 
 
 Several states and many cities have adopted the system. 
 It breaks up the practice of turning out faithful employees 
 simply in order to fill the places with political friends, and 
 the governments that adopt it gain the benefit of long and 
 skilled service by public employees. 
 
 324. Presidential Election of 1884. — In the elections of 
 1882 several strong Republican states elected Democratic 
 governors. In New York, Grover Cleveland, previously 
 mayor of Buffalo, swept the state and proved to be a remark- 
 ably strong governor. Hence in 1884 the Democratic conven- 
 tion put up Cleveland for the presidency. The Republicans 
 after a long struggle nominated James G. Blaine (§ 319). He 
 
404 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 was an able and popular man, who for years was a member 
 of Congress from Maine and was chosen Speaker of the House. 
 He belonged to what was called the " stalwart " wing of the 
 Republican party — the wing that was still talking about 
 " reconstruction," the " colored vote," and the " rebels." 
 Though a remarkably adroit politician, Blaine made many 
 enemies by sharp personal attacks on other public men. 
 
 The Democrats declared that the government needed to be 
 reformed, and Blaine was charged by some Republicans with 
 using his office to enrich himself. The " Mugwumps," a 
 group of Republicans chiefly from Massachusetts and New 
 York, refused to support Blaine and voted for Cleveland. 
 In New York the election was again close (§ 323), so that the 
 Democratic plurality was only iioo in a total vote of about 
 1,200,000. However, that carried 36 electoral votes, which 
 with those of Connecticut, Indiana, New Jersey, and the solid 
 South elected Grover Cleveland President. He was duly in- 
 augurated in March, 1885. 
 
 325. Summary. — This chapter narrates the political 
 events, elections, and controversies during the four Republican 
 administrations from 1869 to 1885. The most striking events 
 in the period are the struggle between the Republican and 
 Democratic parties every four years to get possession of the 
 national government. 
 
 President Grant was an upright and vigorous man who tried 
 to improve the government but could not seem to cut loose 
 from bad friends. It was a time of many frauds in govern- 
 ment, such as the Whisky Ring and the Tweed Ring in the 
 city of New York. 
 
 Reconstruction broke down. The southern whites, when 
 left to themselves, took back their old leaders and elected 
 Democrats. The negro vote was much lessened by the action 
 of secret societies, especially the Ku-Klux Klan, and no act 
 of Congress could stop the movement. 
 
 C^.rant was reelected in 1872; but the Civil War spirit was 
 d\'ing out and the Democrats gained ground. The farmers' 
 organizations and the Greenbackers were organizing third 
 parties. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 405 
 
 In 1S7O the Democrats almost elected Samuel J. Tilden, 
 but by the decision of an Electoral Commission (1877) Hayes 
 of Ohio was seated as President. He recalled the troops from 
 the South. 
 
 The greenback controversy was settled by the resumption 
 of specie payments in 1879. Just at this time a new trouble 
 arose because the government no longer allowed free coinage 
 of silver at 16 to i. It was settled for a time by the Bland 
 Act of 1878. 
 
 General Garfield of Ohio was elected President by the 
 Republicans in 1880, but was assassinated early in his term. 
 Under his successor, Chester A. Arthur, a bill was passed for 
 reforming the civil service. In the election of 1884 a Demo- 
 crat, Grover Cleveland, was chosen President, after 24 years 
 of Republican administration. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Dunning, Reconstruction. — Sparks, Nat. Development. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 626-719. — Beard, Contemporary Hist., 
 1-4, 50-54, 90-132. — Dunning, Reconstruction. — Elson, Side Lights, 
 II. chs. ix-xii. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., 420-464. — Hart, Monroe 
 Doctrine, cii. xi. — Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, 43-119. — 
 Paxson, New Nation, 49-133. — Sparks, Nat. Development, chs. vi-xii, 
 xvii, xix. — Wilson, Division and Reunion, §§ 134-141, 151. 
 
 Sources. Caldwell and Persinger, Source Hist., §§ 478-483. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, IV. §§ 156-161, 168-177; Source Book, §§ 132-137. — 
 James, Readings, §§94-98. — Johnston, Am. Orations, W. 238-269, 
 296-328, 367-420. — MacDonald, Select Statutes, 85-109. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Burnett, Through One Administration. — 
 Clemens (Mark Twain), Gilded Age. — • CuUoni, Fifty Years. — Sherman, 
 Recolleciions. 
 
 Pictures. Andrews, Last Quarter Century. — Frank Leslie's Weekly. — 
 Harper's Weekly. — Mentor, serial nos. 77, 85. — Paine, Thos. Nasi (Car- 
 toons). — Scribner's. — Wilson, Am. People, V. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 314) I. What kind of man was President Grant? 2. What did 
 Grant do to improve the civil service? 3. Was Grant a successful Presi- 
 dent? 4 (For an essay). Good points about Ulysses S. Grant. 
 
 (§ 315) 5- What troubles arose in the national government? 6. What 
 was the Tweed Ring and how was it defeated? 
 
406 POLITICS AND PARTIES 
 
 (§ 316) 7. How did the South treat the reconstruction governments? 
 8. What was the Ku-Klux Klan? 9. How did reconstruction work out? 
 
 (§ 317) 10. What was the result of the election of 1872? 11. What was 
 the "solid South"? 12. Why were cities important in politics? 13. 
 How were [politics affected by memories of the Civil War? by the consti- 
 tutional amendments? 14. What were the principal "third parties"? 
 
 (§ 318) 15. How was the United States interested in Cuba? 16 (For 
 an essay). Scenes in Cuba. 17. How was slavery ended in America? 
 18. Why was Santo Domingo not annexed? 
 
 (§ 319) 19- W'hat were the issues of the election of 1876? 20. What 
 was the dispute over the election? 21. How was it settled in 1877? 22. 
 What kind of President was Hayes? 
 
 (§ 320) 23. Why was the currency of the country inconvenient? 24. 
 Why was paper money popular? 25. How were specie payments resumed? 
 
 (§321) 26. What was bimetallism? 27. What was the "i6-to-i" 
 ratio? 28. What was free coinage? 29. Why did silver coinage cease in 
 1^73-'' 30. Why did silver miners desire free coinage of silver? 31. Why 
 did the silver men and gold men clash? 
 
 (§ 322) 32. Why was free silver popular? 33. What was the Bland 
 Act? 34. How did the silver question end? 
 
 (§ 323) 35- What was the result of the election of 1880? 36. How did 
 Arthur become President? 37. What was the Pendleton Civil Service 
 Act? 38. How has civil service reform affected states and cities? 
 
 (§ 324) 39- Who were the candidates in the election of 1884? 40. Who 
 was chosen President? 
 
CHAPTER XXX 
 THE NEW SOUTH (18691885) 
 
 326. Poverty of the South (1865-1890). — One plain 
 
 result of the Civil War was that the seceding states and parts 
 of the border states were ruined (§§ 291, 295). Large amounts 
 of property had been destroyed by the armies on both sides. 
 The four cotton crops raised from 1861 to 1864 could not be 
 shipped during the war because of the blockade; and as the 
 Union armies advanced, the cotton on their line of march 
 was seized. Some landed estates were confiscated or sold for 
 taxes by the federal government; and Charleston, Richmond, 
 and other cities suffered from terrible fires. 
 
 When the war ended, business was in confusion in the South. 
 The specie, stocks of goods, and other savings had disappeared. 
 The railroads were worn out. For a time there was no 
 currency, for both Confederate and state paper notes were 
 worthless. The state governments were heavily in debt; but 
 their most dreadful loss was that of nearly 300,000 of their 
 most vigorous men in the war. 
 
 Nevertheless the South had two great assets: a country 
 rich in natural resources, and a people who had the courage to 
 react from the losses of the war. Good land abounded, espe- 
 cially the rich black cotton lands of the lower South. Corn 
 could be raised anywhere for food; cotton would pay for flour 
 and salt meats from the North. The southerners speedily 
 found a market for the valuable red and yellow pine which 
 stretched in a broad belt from North Carolina to Arkansas. 
 Underneath the mountains were enormouj; stores of coal and 
 iron, which as yet had hardly been touched. On the coast lay 
 beds of phosphate rock, which would enrich the cotton fields. 
 In Louisiana and Texas were great deposits of salt and oil. 
 With laborers and a new business organization there would 
 
 407 
 
408 THE NEW SOUTH 
 
 soon be plenty of cotton, tobacco, corn, vegetables, pig iron, 
 and lumber, to use and to sell. 
 
 327. Negro Problem (1865-1885). — The first necessity for 
 the South was labor. The old farmers who worked their own 
 land returned to their farms; but the only supply of laborers 
 for wages was the former slaves. Contrary to expectation 
 few of the negroes went north, because most of them wanted 
 to work on plantations. Many of the former owners, or their 
 sons, were deaid. How could the negroes be supported? 
 There were no savings; and the field hands, unless they 
 could draw pay every month, would starve. Somebody must 
 come forward to find the means to furnish them with food 
 while the crops were growing, or else the work must stop. 
 Many plantations changed hands; some were cut up into 
 small farms which were bought by former poor whites, who 
 thus raised themselves above the conditions of the period be- 
 fore the war (§ 196). 
 
 The freedmen were employed on the plantations on various 
 terms and conditions: (i) The " wage hands " received 
 money wages and bought their own supplies — ■ so did the 
 masons, blacksmiths, and carpenters in the cities. (2) Part 
 of the negroes were "furnished"; that is, were allowed a 
 certain amount each month in purchases at the planta.tion 
 store. . (3) A large number were " share hands "; that is, they 
 worked a small tract on a plantation and got advances of 
 supplies till the crop was sold. Then the planter figured up 
 the amount produced and allowed to the workers from one 
 third to two thirds of the proceeds, according to the previous 
 bargain. 
 
 Hundreds of thousands of freedmen somehow got it into 
 their minds that the United States government was going to 
 give each family " 40 acres and a mule." Though land was 
 very cheap, few negroes had money, and not many knew 
 how to save enough to pay for land. On the other hand, 
 most white landowners would rather have the negroes work 
 for them than sell them land and see them work for themselves. 
 Still, many freedmen bought land, especially along the sea 
 islands of South Carolina and Georgia. 
 
NEGR(^ PROBLEMS 409 
 
 The negroes were free to move about, and a small part of 
 them went into the towns and cities. There was work on 
 the wharves, loading and unloading vessels, on the railroads 
 and steamboats, in the tobticco factories and cotton presses 
 and iron works; and mechanics and domestic servants could 
 always find employment at fair wages. 
 
 328. Negro Suffrage. — The freedmen, as free citizens, 
 were members of the community. Negro crimes were dealt 
 with by the regular courts and juries. By the Fifteenth 
 Amendment the states were forbidden to take away the 
 suffrage because of previous slavery (§ 297). Negroes could 
 also hold office and become county commissioners and mem- 
 bers of the legislatures and even governors. Twenty negroes 
 in all had seats in the national House of Representatives, and 
 there were two negro Senators. 
 
 Perhaps the South might have become used to negro suf- 
 frage, especially by intelligent colored men; but the states 
 found themselves governed by a combination of white men, 
 many of bad character, and of ignorant negroes who a few 
 months before were bond slaves. Northern states and cities 
 suffered at that time and long afterward from corrupt legis- 
 lators; and perhaps for that reason they were not so much 
 shocked by the carpetbag governments of the South. But 
 those governments have left unhappy memories in the minds 
 of the fair-minded people, both North and South. 
 
 In some states, such as South Carolina, the white people 
 paid most of the taxes, but the money was spent by 
 negroes and white men led by corrupt whites. In a few 
 states, especially Louisiana, the whites attempted to break 
 up these governments by armed revolutions, but the troops 
 under orders from Washington protected the carpetbaggers. 
 The carpetbag governments, except in Florida, South Caro- 
 lina, and Louisiana, lasted only two or three years, for the 
 Ku-Klux Klan (§ 316) caused the negroes to stay away from 
 the polls. It is Jiard to say now what would have happened 
 if negro suffrage could have had a longer trial, till the freedmen 
 learned to divide their votes between the great parties, in- 
 stead of always voting one ticket. 
 
410 
 
 THE NEW SOUTH 
 
 In most of the former border states and in Texas, the 
 colored men continued to vote, so that several hundred thou- 
 sand negro votes have been cast at every presidential election 
 since the Civil War. Elsewhere in the South, only a few thou- 
 sand have gone to the polls. Since 1876 the negroes have 
 not controlled any state or county governments, even where 
 nine tenths of the inhabitants were colored. All the laws 
 which govern them are made and carried out by white men. 
 
 329. Advance in 
 Education. — The re- 
 construction govern- 
 ments did some good 
 things. One of them 
 was to provide for free 
 common public schools 
 in every southern 
 state, which were in- 
 tended to give the boon 
 of education to every 
 child, white or black. 
 All these schools, or- 
 ganized by white 
 people, provided sepa- 
 rate rooms and teachers 
 for the negro pupils. 
 In Charleston and a 
 few other places, white men and women taught the negro 
 schools, but the almost universal rule was that none but 
 negroes should teach negroes. 
 
 Since there was then no class of educated southern negroes, 
 these teachers had to be trained either in state normal schools, 
 which were slowly provided, or else in schools like Hampton 
 in Virginia and Tuskegee in Alabama, which were chiefly 
 supported by gifts from the North. 
 
 In the thinly settled country districts sopie white children 
 and many negro children were provided with no schools, or 
 the poorest kind of buildings and teachers. Still these rural 
 schools have done good; for in 1870 about 32 per cent of the 
 
 Statue of Margaret Haughery, the " Orphan's Friend," 
 in New Orleans. She ,was an angel of charity to 
 white and black alike. This is the first statue 
 erected in memory of a woman in the TJnited States 
 
COTTON 41 1 
 
 grown men and women in the South could not read or write, 
 and by 1910 the number was reduced to 16 per cent. 
 
 The southern people actively began to build up white col- 
 leges and universities. The public high schools were slower 
 in starting. Nevertheless the South took its place alongside 
 the North and the West in its desire to give its young people 
 at least the chance of a good education. 
 
 330. Cotton. ^ Large expenditures for education were 
 possible because of the rising profits from the southern farms, 
 and especially from cotton. Cotton is measured in bales of 
 about 500 pounds each; and the " bumper crop " of i860 was 
 nearly 5,000,000 bales. For some years after the war it was 
 only half as much, but prices were about twice as high as 
 before. In 1884 the crop was 5,700,000 bales, which brought 
 in about $240,000,000. It has since gradually risen to 
 16,000,000 bales (1914). 
 
 The advantages of cotton are that it grows in just such 
 warm, moist climates as that of the lower South, can be raised 
 by unskilled labor, and can always be sold for cash. It was 
 found that some of the phosphate rock along the Atlantic 
 coast could be made the basis of just the kind of fertilizer that 
 cotton needed; and this made it possible to raise crops on 
 poorer soil than before, and to restore worn-out lands. Nearly 
 half the crop was raised by whites and negroes who owned 
 land of their own and could raise only a bale or two of 
 cotton. 
 
 The profits of cotton are much increased by selling the seed, 
 which is always worth at least a tenth as much as the cotton 
 fiber. It contains a very good oil which when pressed out 
 can hardly be distinguished from olive oil. The rest of the 
 seed is made into oil cake, a good food for cattle. 
 
 The South also raised a tobacco crop, — nearly all in the 
 border states, — a small rice crop in South Carolina, and some 
 sugar in Louisiana. For their own use the people raised corn 
 and vegetables, and it was found that the coast of Virginia 
 and the Carol inas was near enough to the northern cities so 
 that "truck farming" paid; that is, the raising of fruits and 
 vegetables on a large scale for the northern market. 
 
412 
 
 THE NEW SOUTH 
 
 331. Mining and Manufactures. — Not till about 1870 did 
 the South begin to make use of the immense quantities of 
 coal and. iron ore in central Alabama, Tennessee, West Vir- 
 
 An iron mine in Alabama 
 
 ginia, and elsewhere. Blast furnaces were built for making pig 
 iron, and rolling mills for bar iron, rails, and steel. Such cities 
 as Birmingham in Alabama, Chattanooga in Tennessee, and 
 Roanoke in Virginia, became centers of this great industry. 
 
 It was found that negro labor was well adapted for the work, 
 and pig iron could at most times be made cheaper in Alabama 
 than anywhere else in the world. Virginia coal, especially the 
 " Pocahontas " variety, proved excellent for the use of ocean 
 steamers. Cheap iron and coal made it possible to start fac- 
 tories of various kinds, such as the Locomotive Works in 
 Richmond. 
 
 The South turned to cotton mills, in the hope of using the 
 cotton near the field where it was grown, and thus saving the 
 freight to the North. The main difficulty was the labor. 
 Negroes were tried, but somehow they did not seem to be 
 adapted to mill work. Then thousands of poor white families 
 were induced to come to the mill towns, where father, mother, 
 
MANUFACTURES AND TRANSPORTATION 
 
 413 
 
 and children could find work at fair wages. Immense cotton 
 mills were put up at Columbia in South Carolina, Columbus 
 in Georgia, Tallassee in Alabama, and many other places, 
 where they utilized some of the excellent water power. Many 
 thousand skilled workmen were drawn in by these industries; 
 and the small farmers who did not go into the mills could 
 make a better living than before by selling their farm products 
 to the cities. Hence prosperity was distributed among several 
 classes of the population. 
 
 332. Transportation. — All the improvements of the South 
 depended on a better system of transportation. Steamboat 
 traffic, especially on the Mississippi, was at its high point. 
 Steamers raced all the way from St. Louis to New Orleans. 
 Steamers arrived from foreign countries at Norfolk, Savan- 
 nah, Mobile, New Orleans, Galveston, and some other ports. 
 
 Bales of cotton ready for shipment, Savannah 
 
 The southern railroads were practically rebuilt, with large 
 extensions. In 1870 the South had only 15,000 miles out 
 of the total of 53,000 miles in the United States. In 1890 the 
 railroads of the South had increased to 51,000 miles out of a 
 total of 164,000 miles in the United Stales. 
 
414 
 
 THE NEW SOUTH 
 
 The short separate routes were Hnked up into several great 
 systems. All the big rivers were bridged, including a great 
 bridge across the Mississippi at Memphis. The southern 
 railroads had a wider gauge than the northern, but by 1896 
 all had been narrowed a few inches to correspond with the 
 other roads in the country. Much of the money for these 
 big enterprises was borrowed in the North or in Europe; but 
 the South had good credit, and states, railroads, and banks 
 
 found no difficulty in 
 getting all the money 
 that they needed for 
 their development. 
 
 333. Wealth and 
 Prosperity. — The 
 growth of the South was 
 shown also in its cities. 
 The urban population 
 slowly increased from 9 
 per cent in i860 to 12 
 per cent in 1890. Part 
 of the wealth of the re- 
 gion was going into new 
 buildings and schools, 
 into streets and street- 
 car lines, into parks and 
 boulevards. 
 
 Interior cities grew fast; among them were Atlanta, Mont- 
 gomery, and Memphis. Out in Texas the struggling towns 
 changed into such prosperous cities as Houston and Dallas. 
 New Orleans lies a hundred miles from the sea. In 1879 the 
 great engineer. Captain Eads, built jetties which narrowed 
 the mouths of the Mississippi so that the immense volume of 
 water coming down the river would scour out deep channels. 
 This opened New Orleans to the big steamers. 
 
 The great need of the South was the right kind of laborers. 
 The field hands were not very steady, and though they usually 
 made contracts for a year, they used often to drift away in 
 the middle of the season. The town negroes were partly me- 
 
 Interior of a cotton mill 
 
WEALTH AND PROSPERITY 415 
 
 chanics and partly li\ed by small jobs, the women supporting 
 many of the families by housework or laundry work. 
 
 Nevertheless the South began to come forward very fast. 
 A cotton exposition was held in 1881 in Atlanta, which taught 
 the people how much could be done in making up their own 
 cotton into cloth. Part of the profits of the plantations and 
 factories went into new banks. In all the cities and prosper- 
 ous towns good houses, business blocks, and public buildings 
 were built. By about 1890 the South had risen out of the 
 po\crty resulting from the Civil War. 
 
 334. Summary. — At the end of the war the South was 
 almost ruined; but it abounded in rich land, and unworked 
 forests and mines, and the people had the courage to begin 
 again. A new sy^stem of plantation work was started, most 
 of the negroes receiving a monthly allow^ance in food and 
 supplies. Some of them bought land for themselves. 
 
 Under the Fifteenth Amendment, negroes had a vote on the 
 same terms as white people. The whites laid the corruption 
 of the carpetbag governments to negro suffrage; therefore, 
 in the lower South, negroes were prevented from voting. 
 
 Free public schools w^ere provided in all the southern 
 states, for both whites and negroes. The town schools were 
 fairly good, but in the thinly settled country, the schools 
 were generally poorly taught. For higher education there 
 were state universities and private colleges, and also several 
 schools and colleges for the negroes which were kept up 
 largely by gifts from the North. 
 
 Cotton came back to its old importance in the South. 
 Truck farming for the northern markets sprang up along 
 the Atlantic coast. By the use of cottonseed for its oil, the 
 value of the cotton crop was increased. 
 
 Rich mines of coal and iron ore were opened, and several 
 large manufacturing cities grew up. The cotton mills gave 
 employment to thousands of the former poor whites, and 
 were very profitable to the owners. The old water lines were 
 again busy, especially the Mississippi River, and railroads 
 were built from end to end of the South. 
 
 The result of all this activity was that slowly the South 
 
41 6 THE NEW SOUTH 
 
 became well off. The cities grew last and new ones sprang 
 up. The mouth of the Mississippi was opened to large 
 steamers. Negro field labor was unsteady, but there were 
 plenty of whit • and black mechanics; and by the year 1890 
 the South was richer and more prosperous than ever before. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Histories. Beard, Contemporary Hist., 4-26, 46-49. — • Coman, In- 
 dustrial Hist., 307-312. — Dewey, National Problems, ch. x. — Fish, 
 Dev. of Am. Nation., 433-437. — Hart, Southern South. — Paxson, New 
 Nation, ch. xii. — -South in Building of Nation, VI, X. — Wilson, Di- 
 vision and Reunion, § 144. 
 
 Sources. Harding, Select Orations, nos. 32-34. — Hart, Contemporaries, 
 IV. §§203, 205, 208. — James, Readings, §103. — Old South Leaflets, 
 no. 149. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Craddock, Young Mountaineers. — Dickson, 
 The Ravenels. — Dunbar, Folks from Dixie. — Grady, New South. — 
 Harris, Uncle Remus. — Jervey, Elder Brother. — Page, The Southerner. 
 — Smith, Col. Carter of Carterjville. — Washington, Up from Slavery. — 
 Wilson, Southern Mountaineers. 
 
 Pictures. Andrews, Last Quarter Century. — Century. — Dunbar, Hist, 
 of Travel in Am. — Harper's Monthly. — Metitor, serial no. 131. — Scribner's. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 326) I. What was the economic and business condition of the South 
 after the war? 2. What were the business advantages of the South? 
 
 (§327) 3- What were the labor difficulties in the South? 4. How were 
 the freedmen employed? 5. What did the negroes do for themselves? 
 
 (§ 328) 6. How did the negroes stand in the eyes of the law? 7. How 
 did negro suffrage work? 8. How were the last carpetbag governments 
 overthrown? 9. What political right have the negroes kept? 
 
 (§329) 10. How were schools organized in the South? 11 (For an 
 essay). Education at Hampton or at Tuskegee. 12. How did the edu- 
 cation of the whites progress? 
 
 (§ 330) 13. How did the cotton crops increase? 14 (For an essay). 
 Life on a modern cotton plantation. 15. How was the growth of cotton 
 extended? 16. What other products come from cotton? 17. What other 
 crops were raised in the South? 
 
 (§ 331) 18. How did iron and steel making grow up in the South? 19. 
 How did cotton mills arise? 
 
 (§ 332) 20. How were southern railroads extended? 21. How did the 
 South raise money for such improvements? 
 
 (§ 333) 22. How did prosperity appear in the southern cities? 23 (For 
 an essay). Construction of the Eads jetties. 24. What were southern 
 labor difficulties? 25. What were the evidences of prosperity? 
 
CHAPTKK XXXI 
 BUSINESS AND LABOR (1869 1890) 
 
 335. Inventions. — All sections and all industries shared 
 in the benefit of the many inventions that relieved the 
 muscles of men and animals; but none was so valuable as a 
 new process for making steel cheaply. An Englishman named 
 Bessemer discovered (1864) how to make steel out of cast iron 
 so that it cost no more than ordinary rolled iron, while it was 
 much harder, tougher, and stronger. 
 
 This discover}- at once cheapened transportation, for it be- 
 came possible to use steel rails instead of the weaker wrought- 
 iron rails. The steel rail was so strong that heavier locomo- 
 tives could be used, and they could draw heavier trains, which 
 could carry more freight. The same tough and cheap steel was 
 used in ships and for framing high buildings, which gradually 
 developed into the modern skyscrapers. Cheap steel meant 
 cheaper machines and tools of every kind. 
 
 The tall buildings could not have been put up or used with- 
 out elevators, which came into wide use in hotels, office build- 
 ings, factories, and some priv^ate houses. Vessels were quickly 
 loaded and unloaded by steam power, and a machine was in- 
 vented which would lift up an open steel car holding fifty 
 Ions of coal and tip it over sidewise so that the coal could run 
 into a coal pocket or a vessel. 
 
 Electricity had years before been harnessed for human use 
 by the telegraph (§224). In 1876 Alexander Graham Bell 
 perfected the electric telephone, a device by which the vibra- 
 tions that cause sounds can be transmitted over a wire and 
 heard at the other end. In a short time this little device 
 grew into an enormous business with millions of telephones 
 and many thousands of employees. The same year, Thomas 
 
 HARTS SCH. HIST. — 24 41" 
 
4i8 
 
 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 A. Edison invented the 
 phonograph, by which 
 the sound vibrations 
 can be recorded on a 
 disk or cyHnder and 
 t h e n reproduced. 
 This developed into a 
 great business of sup-, 
 plying talking 
 machines and dicta- 
 phones; that is, ma- 
 chines which will auto- 
 matically take down 
 and record conversa- 
 tions. 
 
 Electricity was also 
 applied to lights: 
 first the big and 
 costly arc lights, then 
 the incandescent 
 lamps, which give 
 abundant light with 
 very little heat. 
 336. House and Farm Inventions. — Great office and 
 apartment buildings could not have been inhabited by millions 
 of people had not new means been discovered of furnishing 
 heat. Hot-air furnaces worked well in moderate-sized houses; 
 and the kitchen stoves and open fireplaces were aided by base 
 burners, oil stoves, and gas stoves. For larger buildings and 
 many small ones, steam or hot-water systems were put in. 
 
 The housekeeper found many new conveniences for furnish- 
 ing and preparing food. Canned meats, vegetables, and fruits 
 were furnished by the million cans. Ice was stored in the 
 colder parts of the country and made artificially in factories 
 in the South; and that made it possible to keep food stored 
 in large and small refrigerators. Cereals, coconuts, raisins, 
 and many other food products were packed in parcels. A 
 great industry was introduced by canning the abundant salmon 
 
 Thomas A. Edison in his laboratory 
 
HOUSE AND FARM INVENTIONS 
 
 419 
 
 and other fish of the northwest coast (§ 303). An immense fruit 
 business was built up, with daily steamers bringing bananas 
 and other tropical fruits from the West Indies, Central 
 America, and Florida; and California oranges found a large 
 sale throughout the Union. 
 
 Two machines that made a great difference in American 
 life were the typewriter and the bicycle, introduced about 
 
 The development of the bicycle, 1818 -1915 
 
 1880. The typewriter at once gave employment to thousands 
 of men and women; and the method of dictating letters and 
 documents to stenographers to be copied out on the typewriter 
 was a great convenience to business and professional men. 
 The bicycle, which at first was a tall and clumsy machine, 
 was soon developed into a low, compact affair, on which a 
 sturdy rider could travel as much as a hundred miles in a day. 
 
 Modern combined harvester and reaper at work in Washington 
 
 Mowers, reapers, and other farm machinery were improved. 
 Harvesting machines were built to be drawn by forty horses; 
 as these cross the fields, they leave the grain cut, threshed, 
 and tied into bags. In some parts of the country farmers 
 
420 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 used natural gas for heating and lighting, and everywhere the 
 farm telephone proved a blessing. 
 
 After 1896 the government helped to make farm life attrac- 
 tive by introducing a system of rural free delivery by which 
 letters were brought to the gateway of the farm. The state 
 and national governments also worked to improve the condi- 
 tions of the farmer by showing how to use better seed, how to 
 feed cattle, and in general how to get the largest return from 
 the farm. 
 
 337. Large Corporations (1865-1885). — Before the Civil 
 War some railroad corporations began to combine into 
 larger corporations. For instance, m 1853 five short lines, 
 situated between Albany and Bufifalo, were united into the 
 New York Central Railroad. In 1869 Cornelius Vanderbilt 
 added the Hudson River Railway and thus made a line four 
 hundred and fifty miles long from New York to Bufifalo, 
 with many branches. About forty local telegraph companies 
 combined into the Western Union Telegraph Company. 
 
 Manufacturing companies also began to combine. A new 
 industry sprang up about i860 when large quantities of 
 heavy mineral oil, called petroleum, were discovered in western 
 Pennsylvania; like deposits were found later in many other 
 parts of the country. By a cheap and easy process of " refin- 
 ing," a beautiful illuminating oil, as clear as water, could be 
 drawn from petroleum. For about ten years the refining was 
 done by small firms and companies. Then appeared (1870) 
 the Standard Oil Company of Cleveland, which built immense 
 oil refineries, and obtained such favorable freight rates that it 
 drove many of the other refineries out of business. Finally it 
 built a pipe line from the Pennsylvania oil fields to the sea- 
 coast, and could get along without the railroads. 
 
 This idea of " combining " to secure control of some one line 
 of industry spread throughout the country. It was applied to 
 the making of sugar, of hardware, of cordage, of spool cotton, 
 and of many other products. Individuals and firms did not 
 like to see business slipping out of their hands, but for a long 
 time they could find no way of preventing these combinations, 
 which came to be called " trusts." 
 
BUSINESS AND LABOR ORCiANlZATlOXS 
 
 421 
 
 338. Labor Organizations (,1865-1886;. — Previous to the 
 Ci\il W'iir the onh' national labor unions were those of skilled 
 workmen, such as the printers or the molders. The miners and 
 railroad men were not organized into unions, and few employ- 
 ers of any kind had trouble with their employees. Most of 
 the owners and managers had started as wage workers, knew 
 their hands personally, and if there was any dispute could talk 
 things over in a friendly way. 
 
 During and after the war more powerful organizations were 
 formed, such as the Brotherhood of Locomoti\'e Engineers 
 (1863). The first successful national union open to workmen 
 of all trades was the Knights of Labor (1869). Both the 
 special unions and this general union always desired to put for- 
 ward their officers to settle disputes with local shops or rail- 
 roads, instead of leaving the settlement to committees from the 
 local unions; but man\- employers refused to talk over labor 
 troubles with anybod\- except men in their own employment. 
 
 Garment niakers at work in a shop in New York 
 
 The labor unions were ver>' anxious to secure agreements 
 for the " closed shop," by which they meant that no person 
 should be employed in any shop or works unless he was a 
 member of the local union in his trade. Many employers 
 insisted upon the " open shop," by which they meant that 
 
422 
 
 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 they should be free to employ any man whether he belonged 
 to a union or not. Many employers went further and refused 
 to employ a man unless he would agree not to join the 
 union. 
 
 It was easy to see that the railroad men had a very strong 
 position, because if they struck and the railroads did not run, 
 
 Swing bndge over the Chicago River. Drawn from a photograph made before the 
 
 fire in 1871 
 
 most factories and mines would have to shut down. The 
 first great test of the strength of the railroad organization was 
 made in 1877 by a strike which began in Pittsburgh and spread 
 to many other places. Unfortunately for the men's cause, 
 rioters. took advantage of the situation to set fire to trains, 
 freight houses, and buildings; and they could not be put 
 down except by calling out United States troops. 
 
 A new national organization now arose called the Amer- 
 ican Federation of Labor, which was a union not of men, 
 but of labor unions; and it was governed by conventions 
 of delegates from those unions. Since the federation con- 
 trolled unions all over the country, labor leaders worked by 
 what they called "sympathetic strikes"; that is, if a strike 
 were going on in one shop or trade, they would call out the 
 men in other shops or trades, so as to compel the employers 
 
STRIKES AND CALAMITIES 423 
 
 to come to terms. They tried to make the employers " recog- 
 nize the union "; that is, agree in case of disputes with their 
 workmen to discuss matters with officers of the American 
 Federation. 
 
 339, Calamities. — In the midst of great prosperity, the 
 people of the United States suffered from many local accidents. 
 Floods repeatedly swept down the Ohio River, destroying 
 millions of dollars' worth of property; the Mississippi broke 
 its levees, and submerged thousands of square miles. No 
 other civilized country had so many flimsy buildings. Be- 
 cause of wooden construction a fire in Chicago in 1871 swept 
 through the heart of the city with a loss of 190 million dollars. 
 The next year a similar fire burned about half the business 
 section of Boston with a loss of 73 millions, and since that 
 time Baltimore and San Francisco (1906) have suffered in 
 the same way. All these cities quickly recovered; but the 
 annual fire loss of the United States amounted in this period 
 to about $100,000,000. 
 
 Carelessness was chiefly responsible for the terrible forest 
 fires which raged in Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and 
 out on the Pacific coast, destroying immense amounts of 
 timber that will never grow again. Another class of accidents 
 came from weak dams. The giving way of such a dam in 
 western Pennsylvania in 1889 caused the almost total destruc- 
 tion of the flourishing city of Johnstown and a loss of over 
 2000 lives. 
 
 340. Railroad Building. — All this time new railroads were 
 being built from St. Louis and Kansas City southward to New 
 Orleans and (ialv^eston. In course of time the railroads sup- 
 planted the' steamboats, till the Mississippi River was almost 
 deserted. It was a period of " railroad kings." Cornelius 
 Vanderbilt of New York extended the New York Central 
 Railroad (§ 337) b\- a network of railroads leading from 
 Bufi"alo to Cleveland. Columbus. Cincinnati, St. Louis, and 
 Chicago; and the whole system was called " the Vanderbilt 
 roads." Another system of the same kind was the Pennsyl- 
 vania Railroad, of which the president was Thomas Scott. It 
 consolidated with lines from Pittsburgh west to Cleveland, 
 
424 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 Toledo, Cincinnati, Chicago, and St. Louis, and built east- 
 ward from Philadelphia to the city of New York. 
 
 These two were the greatest and richest railroad companies 
 in the East, but there were several other railroads from the 
 Atlantic coast to the West, especially the Erie, the Baltimore 
 and Ohio, and the Chesapeake and Ohio; and they tried to 
 take business away from the two big systems by making 
 lower rates. This led to " railroad wars " in which passenger 
 rates were cut as low as one dollar from Cincinnati to Wash- 
 ington. To stop these wars the various roads formed what 
 they called a " pool," in which each of the competing railroads 
 was to have a certain percentage of all the through freight 
 that was offered. 
 
 341. Rapid Transit. — Meanwhile population was pouring 
 into the cities till it was difficult to get about in the rush 
 hours. The old-fashioned horse cars were slow, and crowded 
 the streets. As business increased, the " franchises " — the 
 right to run cars through the streets — ■ came to be valuable. 
 When they ran out, the companies tried to get new grants 
 on the old terms, — that is, without any payment to the 
 cities, — and that led to contests and scandals. 
 
 The city of New York sought relief by chartering companies 
 (1870) to build elevated roads, which were really iron or steel 
 bridges running lengthwise through the streets, and carrying 
 light passenger trains. This example was later followed by 
 Brooklyn (afterwards annexed to New York) and by Boston, 
 Chicago, and Philadelphia. 
 
 For driving street cars on the surface lines, compressed air 
 and steam were tried without success, and then came the 
 cable system, first used in the steep streets of Sa*n Francisco 
 (1873). Through a slot between the rails a grip reached down 
 from the cars and caught hold of a cable which was running 
 steadily in one direction and drew the car along. Later came 
 the electric trolley lines. 
 
 342. Improvements in Transportation. — The consolidation 
 of railroad lines into systems, and the improved tracks, loco- 
 motives, and air brakes enabled the railroads to reduce their 
 freight rates. With the big new cars one train crew could 
 
improvp:ments in transportation 
 
 4^5 
 
 handle as many tons of freight as would have needed live tram 
 crews in earlier years. A saving was made also by the build- 
 ing of bridges to take the place of expensive ferries. The first 
 great bridge in the East 
 was that across the 
 Hudson at Alban\ in 
 i866. By I 885 the 
 Ohio, Missouri, and 
 Mississippi rivers were 
 bridged at about forty 
 points. The great rail- 
 road systems made 
 through trains possible. 
 Several roads built their 
 own sleeping cars; then 
 companies were formed 
 to operate sleeping cars 
 on long runs; but in the 
 end the Pullman Car 
 Company secured this 
 business on nearl\ all 
 the systems. Parcels 
 weighing more than 
 four pounds were not 
 received in the United 
 States mail till 191 3. 
 
 Meanwhile the small express companies gradualK combined, 
 until nearly all the business was done by five companies: the 
 Adams, the American, the United States, the Southern, and 
 the Wells, Fargo and Co. rhe\- ow ned no cars, but collected 
 packages, sent them b>- the railroads, and (Iclixcred them at 
 the other end. Their rates were high, and ihv'w profits large. 
 Mail and telegraphic communication was nuicli improved. 
 All the little local telegraph companies finally came into 
 one or the other of two main systems, the Postal Telegraph 
 and the Western Union (§ 337). Long-distance telephoning 
 was a new and valued means of carrying on business at a 
 great distance. The United States government soon after 
 
 Building a steel bridge 
 
426 
 
 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 the Civil War improved its postal service by delivering letters 
 in cities, by selling money orders, and by providing special 
 railroad cars in which mail could be sorted while the train 
 •was in motion. In later times it added other improvements, 
 such as rural free delivery (§ 336), postal savings banks (1910), 
 and the parcel post (1913). 
 
 343. Water Routes and the Isthmus Canal. — Great 
 changes came about in water transportation. Most of the 
 old canals (§ 186) went out of use and the great interior river 
 routes slowly lost business. On the Great Lakes, shippers 
 developed a trade of carrying coal up the Lakes and bringing 
 back iron ore and grain in big steamers. On the ocean, lakes, 
 
 
 Side-wheel steamboats racing on the Mississippi River. From a lithograph of i860 
 
 and rivers, screw propellers took the place of most of the old- 
 fashioned side- wheels on steamers. In 1869 the White Star 
 line from New York to Liverpool began to build a larger type 
 of steamers, so fast and so well designed that they could travel 
 on schedule time in nearly any kind of weather. 
 
 One of the greatest enterprises for trade and commerce 
 ever undertaken was a canal across the narrow Isthmus of 
 Panama. Old ideas for a canal from the Gulf of Mexico to 
 the Pacific were revived after the Suez Canal was opened from 
 the Mediterranean to the Red Sea (i86g) by the French 
 engineer De Lesseps. He next proposed to build a canal 
 across the narrow part of America, and selected the Panama 
 
WATER TRANSPORTATION 
 
 427 
 
 route as shorter and easier than tlie route across Nicaragua. 
 A canal across Panama would be only fifty miles long from 
 sea to sea, the land was only three hundred feet high, and 
 De Lesseps thought he could cut a channel down to sea le\el. 
 A French company was 
 formed for that pur- 
 pose (1878), but Presi- 
 dent Hayes said that 
 any such canal would be 
 part of the coast line of 
 the United States. 
 
 344. Complaints 
 about Transportation. 
 — After 1873 the rail- 
 roads were not so popu- 
 lar as they had once 
 been. Many of their 
 managers forgot that 
 all American railroads 
 and steamers were 
 "common carriers"; 
 that is, that they were 
 bound by law to accept 
 all the freight and pas- 
 sengers that came to 
 them, and to make the 
 same charges to all for 
 the same service. Some of them gave special secret rates to 
 large shippers or personal friends. They looked on railroading 
 as a private business, and considered that they had the right 
 to charge such rates, to pay such wages, and to run such trains 
 as suited themselves. 
 
 It was hard to find out whether the shippers were treated 
 alike, for the roads were not obliged to print or publish their 
 rates. For example, they could make a special rate for those 
 who shipped so many hundred carloads a year, and that 
 might apply to only one favored company. Under the 
 pool system (§ 340) freight was sometimes sent by one rail- 
 
 A great modern trans-Atlantic liner beside the earliest 
 ship of the same line, to show the comparative size 
 
428 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 road when the shipper desired it to go by another Hne. Thou- 
 sands of favored people received passes for themselves and their 
 families, while others made up the cost by paying the regular 
 fares. Small railroads were sometimes crowded hard by the 
 large systems. 
 
 Man)' shippers objected to the " short-haul " system, 
 which meant that railroads would charge more to send freight, 
 say from New York to Toledo, than from New York to Chi- 
 cago — a longer haul b}- 250 miles. Rates were often so made 
 as to help a particular city or corporation against other 
 cities or business men. Some railroad olBcers held stock in 
 sleeping-car lines, fast freight lines, express companies, and 
 companies formed to build the railroads; and they made 
 contracts with themselves, giving themselves larger profits 
 than other stockholders. 
 
 Very little could be done by the state governments to curb 
 the railroads, because they were such a tremendous power in 
 polities. In some states they succeeded in having their friends 
 elected to the legislatures; and for years it was difficult for a 
 man who openly opposed the railroads to secure election to 
 an important public office. On the other hand the railroads 
 made possible the rapid settlement of the West and the wealth 
 of the East. By 1885 it was clear that nothing but the national 
 government could control the great railroads, which were rich 
 and powerful, and which stretched through many states. 
 
 345. Summary. — This chapter records the growth of 
 inventions, of large and powerful business and labor organiza- 
 tions, and of new systems of transportation by land and water, 
 down to 1890. 
 
 The progress of in\ ention made it possible to do more work 
 with less manual labor than formerly. Factories, private 
 business, homes, and farms used new machinery of many kinds. 
 
 As wealth and business increased, great business corpo- 
 rations sprang up, some of which were called trusts. The 
 workmen on their side began to organize in a stronger way 
 with powerful central unions. This led to strikes, and the 
 workmen no longer felt that their interests were the same as 
 those of the employers. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 429 
 
 The country suffered from great floods and storms, and 
 carelessness in building caused terrible fires. 
 
 The railroads of the East, South, and West were extended 
 and short lines were linked into systems, of which the strong- 
 est were the New York Central and the Pennsylvania. In 
 the cities the old-fashioned horse cars were given up for ele- 
 vated roads and cable systems, and the trolley car system was 
 invented. Many great bridges were built for highways and 
 railroads. 
 
 Freight rates were reduced, and ihe ruiniing of through trains 
 with sleeping cars was made easy by consolidated lines. The 
 express business came into the hands of five strong companies. 
 The old canals were little used. New and larger steamers were 
 used on the Great Lakes and in the ocean trade. The Presi- 
 dent was aroused when the F"rench undertook to build a ship 
 canal across the Isthnms of Panama. 
 
 The railroads, although under the law they were common 
 carriers, made distinctions between cities, lines of business, 
 and individual shippers. Under the short-haul principle they 
 would often make lower rates for long distances than for short 
 distances. A feeling arose that the big corporations and espe- 
 cially the railroads needed regulation, 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Dunning, Reconstruction, 224. — Sparks, Nat. Development, 
 206. 
 
 Histories. Beard, Contemporary Hist., 27-41, 67-76, 143-163. — 
 Bogart, Economic Hist., chs. xxii-xxiv, xxvii, xxx. — Coman, Industrial 
 Hist., 285-307. — Dewey, National Problems, 40-56, 1 17-123. — Moore, 
 Industrial Hist., 317-324, 468-480. — Paxson, New Nation, 67-79, 92- 
 97, 1 19-124. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, chs. xxvii, xxx. — 
 Sparks, Nat. Development, chs. i-v, xiii, xviii. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 34. — Commons, Documentary Hist. 
 of Am. Industrial Society, IX, X. — Hart, Contemporaries, I\'. §§ 162, 
 165. — James, Readings, § 97. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Bacheller, Cricket Heron. — Century. — 
 Foote, Cceur d'Alene. — Harper's Monthly. — Harper's Weekly. — How, 
 /. B. Eads. — Raymond, Peter Cooper. — Scribner's. 
 
 Pictures. Bogart, Economic Hist. — Coman, Industrial Hist. — Frank 
 Leslie's Weekly. — Harper's Weekly. — Mentor, serial no. 87. — Scientific 
 American. 
 
430 BUSINESS AND LABOR 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 335) I- What were the principal inventions of this period? 2. How 
 did cheap steel affect industry? 3 (For an essay). A visit to a steel 
 plant. 4. What were the most important electric inventions? 
 
 (§ 336) 5. What were the most important household inventions? 6. 
 What new machines for general use affected industry? 7. What were the 
 most important farm inventions? 8. What was done to make farm life 
 attractive? 
 
 (§ 337) 9- How were railroads gathered into large systems? 10. How 
 was the oil industry developed? 11 (For an essay). Visit to an oil well. 
 12. What were the trusts? 
 
 (§ 338) 13. How were disputes at first settled between employers and 
 employees? 14. How were labor unions formed? 15 (For an essay). A 
 meeting of a labor union. 16. What was the policy of the unions as to 
 settling disputes? 17. What is the closed shop? 18. How did the rail- 
 road strikes result? 19 (For an essay). The railroad strike of 1877. 
 20. What were the methods of the labor federations? 
 
 (§ 339) 21. What calamities befell the country? 22. What damage 
 was caused by fire and flood? 23 (For an essay). The Johnstown flood; 
 or the San Francisco fire. 
 
 (§ 340) 24. What railroad systems were built up? 25. How were "rail- 
 road wars" settled? 
 
 (§ 341) 26. How were street railroads managed? 2^. What are fran- 
 chises? 28. What caused the building of elevated roads? 29. What were 
 cable cars? 
 
 (§ 342) 30. How was railroad service improved? 31 (For an essay). 
 The building of a bridge across the Ohio or across the Mississippi. 32. How 
 was the express business carried on? 33. How were means of communica- 
 tion improved? 
 
 (§ 343) 34- How was water transportation improved? 35 (For an 
 essay). A steamer trip on the Great Lakes or along the Atlantic or along 
 the Pacific coast. 36. What were the plans for a canal across the Isthmus 
 of Panama? 
 
 (§ 344) 37. What is a "common carrier"? 38. What privileges did 
 favored patrons of the railroads receive? 39. What was the "short-haul " 
 system? 40. What could the states do to control the railroads? 41. 
 W^hat did the railroads do for the country? 
 
CHAPTER XXXII 
 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS (1885-1897) 
 
 346. President Cleveland (1885-1889). — When the new 
 Presideiu caiiie into office in March, 1885 (§324). the Repub- 
 licans felt as though the sky were going to fall. Some "stal- 
 wart " Repul)licans predicted that the colored people would 
 again be made slaves, and that the Confederate Iwnds would 
 be paid off by the national government. 
 
 President Clexeland had had little political experience and 
 was not much known outside of New York state. He was a 
 gruff, plain man with a set purpose to make a strong govern- 
 ment. He felt that such a government ought to keep up the 
 financial system of banks and corporations that then existed. 
 He Avas opposed to the protective tariff which was strongly 
 supported by the Republican part\-, and he meant to hit it 
 hard. He had no powerful personal friends and backers and 
 his only hope of success was that the people would approve 
 the things that he wanted to do. 
 
 There had been Republican Presidents without a break for 
 twenty-four years, and few Democrats were in federal offices. 
 The Democratic politicians, therefore, were in favor of turning 
 out many of the officeholders, on the ground that they had 
 been using the time paid for by the gov^ernment in working 
 for the Republican party. Cleveland called such party work- 
 ers " offensi\e partisans," and removed over 3000 persons. 
 Subordinates were dismissed right and left so that after a 
 few years most of the employees of the government were 
 Democrats. Still, Cleveland did not disturb the small clas- 
 sified service, which had been set up by President Arthur 
 (§ 323); and just at the end of his term he added o\'er 5000 
 railway mail clerks to that service. 
 
 431 
 
I .2 1 f .1 I - 5 I 
 
 illlDDDO 
 
NEW STATES 
 
 433 
 
 347. New States (1889-1890). — During his administra- 
 tion Cleveland signed bills looking to the admission of four 
 new states; and in November, 1889, they all came into the 
 Union: (i) North Dakota (39th state) was a prairie farming 
 region, extending across the upper Missouri Valley, with rich 
 wheat lands. The po])ulation at the time of admission was 
 about 190,000. (2) South Dakota (40th state) included a rich 
 
 Com Palace at Mitchell, South Dakota. The outside of the entire building is 
 decorated with ears of corn of various colors 
 
 prairie belt in its eastern section and a mountainous, mining 
 count r\- in liie west. Its population was 330,000. (3) Mon- 
 tana (41st state), with a population of 130,000, made a huge 
 state nearly as large as Wisconsin, Indiana, and Illinois to- 
 gether. Its chief industry was cattle ranching, with some 
 mining. (4) Washington (42d state) held 350,000 people. It 
 was an immense state including a magnificent seacoast and a 
 large part of the Columbia River Valley. 
 
 In 1890 came two more states: (i) Idaho (43d state) was a 
 large lumber and mining region with some rich land and a 
 population of 90,000. (2) Wyoming (44th state) had then 
 the small population of 62,000 but a large area of grazing and 
 mineral land. At the northwestern corner is the wonderful 
 Yellowstone geyser region. 
 
434 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 Most of tilt' twehc Senators from the six new western states 
 were in fa\()r of a silver coinage, and their presence aided in 
 the passage of the Sherman Silver Act oi 1890 (§ ^22). 
 
 348. Tariff Discussion (1883-1889;. - The protective tariff 
 which had been made during the Ci\ il War was not a party 
 question; duties were made high because the United States 
 needed money. After the war man>' of the high duties were 
 reduced. The United States kept up the tax on liquors and 
 tobacco, and for the ten years from 1880 to 1890 the income 
 of the government was many millions larger than its outgo, 
 so that every year there was a surplus in the treasury. 
 
 One way of avoiding the surplus was to spend more money; 
 another way was to reduce the tariff. In 1883 an attempt was 
 made to carry out the latter method, but the majority of 
 Congress wanted to keep up the system of protection to 
 American industries (§ 184), and they passed a new tariff act 
 in which many duties were increased. 
 
 The Democratic party was in general against the high tariff, 
 and President Cleveland took up the question as the most 
 important issue before the people. In 1887 he sent to Con- 
 gress a message insisting that the tariff be revised so as to 
 make it more reasonable and more consistent with itself; and 
 that it be reduced so as to prevent a surplus and to cheapen 
 the cost of goods. He said something must be done, because 
 " it is a condition which confronts us — not a theory." 
 
 On that issue he was renominated by the Democrats and 
 appealed to the country in the election of 1888. The Re- 
 publicans put up Benjamin Harrison of Indiana, a grandson of 
 President William H. Harrison, hoping that he could carry that 
 close state. New York by a small majority chose Republican 
 electors, and as in 1884 (§324) the large electoral vote of New 
 York turned the scale. At the same time the Republicans 
 secured a majority' in both houses of Congress. 
 
 349. Tariff Arguments. — The election of 1888 was the first 
 clear test in many years of what the American people thought 
 about the tariff. From 1 8 16 to 1833 (seventeen years) there 
 had been a series of protective tariffs, which caused the nulli- 
 fication act of South Carolina (§ 212).- From 1833 to 1861 
 
TARIFF QUESTIONS 435 
 
 (twenty-eight years) was an era of low tariffs. From i86i to 
 1883 (twenty-two years) the tariff rates were raised or lowered 
 according as the government needed money. From 1883 to 
 191 3 (thirty years), there was constant discussion about the 
 desirability of a high tariff, and six different tariff laws were 
 passed . 
 
 The talk and agitation in Cleveland's administration 
 brought out the fact that the voters of the country were about 
 equally divided between the friends of high duties and those of 
 low duties. Most of the Republicans were protectionists, and 
 most of the Democrats were low-tariff men. The southern 
 farmers and planters and part of the western farmers wanted 
 low duties, so as to keep down the cost of the goods that they 
 bought; but some of the farmers, especially in the eastern 
 states and the new silver states of the Northwest, favored 
 protection, because they thought it built up manufacturing 
 cities which would buy their products. 
 
 How did the various sections in the Union divide upon this 
 important question? The workmen in factories in the East 
 and the middle states which were benefited by protection, 
 especially in the wool and cotton mills and the iron works, 
 naturally voted for a tariff in favor of the industries which 
 they were helping to build up. The city of New York, as the 
 greatest port in the country, preferred low duties that would 
 bring about a lively commerce. Southern manufacturers of 
 cotton and iron wanted a tariff on those products. 
 
 Some of the arguments for protection by high tariff have been 
 stated earlier in this book (§ 184). It is interesting to know 
 some other arguments, which came to the front after 1880: 
 (i) The tariff diversified industry; that is, it helped to de- 
 velop mines and manufactures in the United States as well as 
 farming. (2) The tariff raised wages. (3) It was fair to buy 
 of Americans and sell to them rather than to do business with 
 people in foreign countries. 
 
 Among the modern anti-tariff arguments were the following: 
 (i) The tariff fostered trusts and monopolies. (2) The tariff 
 produced more revenue than was needed for national expenses 
 and thereby caused extravagance. (3) The tariff raised the 
 
 HARTS SCH. HIST. — 25 
 
436 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 cost of living. (4) Protection played into the hands of great 
 manufacturing corporations, which subscribed large sums to 
 the party campaign funds and then demanded favors in the 
 tariff acts. 
 
 All these arguments had some weight and it was hard to 
 balance them and decide which was the best course. During 
 Benjamin Harrison's administration (i 889-1 893) the Republi- 
 cans did not reduce the taxes on imports but spent the sur- 
 pluses as they came along on public buildings, on pensions to the 
 Civil War veterans and their widows, and on a new navy, 
 which was begun in Arthur's administration. 
 
 350. Three New Tariffs (1890-1897). — Between 1890 and 
 1897 three different tariff laws were passed. Each was drawn 
 up by a committee of the House of Representatives, called the 
 Ways and Means Committee; and each was named after 
 the chairman of that committee because he naturally had 
 great influence over what went into the bill. 
 
 In 1890 the chairman was William McKinley of Ohio, one 
 of the ablest and most popular members of Congress. He had 
 been a soldier boy in the Civil War and was remarkable for his 
 cordial nature and his good temper. His " McKinley Bill," 
 as passed by the Republican majority in 1890, made the duties 
 on the average about one tenth higher than they had been 
 before. Within a few weeks after the bill went into effect it 
 was noticed that the prices on dress goods and some other 
 things had suddenly gone up much more than one tenth. 
 That made the bill so unpopular that the Democrats were able 
 to carry the elections for the House of Representatives that 
 fall (1890). 
 
 The presidential election of 1892 was somewhat confused by 
 a new third party. For several years western and southern 
 farmers had been joining a new order called the " Farmers' 
 Alliance." That movement led to a " People's party," mem- 
 bers of which were commonly called " Populists." In the 
 campaign of 1892 they put forward a candidate. General 
 Weaver, who drew away many Republican votes. They 
 carried four states in the West, including Kansas, and cast a 
 total of more than a million votes. 
 
NEW TARIFFS 437 
 
 Harrison and Cleveland were again nominated for the presi- 
 dency by the Republican and Democratic parties, and made 
 the most of the tariff issue as presented by the McKinley Bill. 
 Cleveland carried New York, Connecticut, New Jersey, Indi- 
 ana, Illinois, Wisconsin, and the states of the solid South and 
 was elected. For the first time since 1856 the Democrats 
 gained control of the presidency, House, and Senate, all at the 
 same time. 
 
 The Democratic majority was strong enough in the House 
 to dreiw up and pass a new tariff bill first called the "Wilson 
 Bill." This bill would have considerably reduced the duties 
 of the McKinley Bill, but when it went to the Senate se\'eral 
 high-tarifi" Democratic Senators, under the leadership of Gor- 
 man of Maryland, raised some of them again. The House 
 finally gave in and accepted the rates proposed by the Senate. 
 The Wilson-Gorman Tariff Act (1894), which came out of 
 this squabble, turned out to be not much lower than the 
 McKinley tariff after all. 
 
 When the Republicans came into power again they passed 
 the Dingley tariff (1897), which raised the duties higher 
 than in the McKinley Bill. These frequent changes were bad 
 for business because no importer or manufacturer knew what 
 to expect. 
 
 351. Interstate Commerce (1887). — While the people were 
 busy discussing the siKcr question (§322) and the tariff" ques- 
 tion, a third issue came up that had to be settled. This was 
 about the railroads, which owned property worth thousands 
 of millions of dollars and were forming huge systems (§ 340). 
 
 Several states tried to hold them in check through railroad 
 commissions, fjeginning in 1869. These commissions soon 
 found that they could affect only the movement of " intra- 
 state traffic"; that is, of business which started and came to 
 its destination within the boundaries of a single state. The 
 moment a passenger or shipment was carried across a state 
 boundary it became "interstate" commerce, which by the 
 federal Constitution was handed over to the sole control of 
 the United States government. Hence a strong and growing 
 pressure was exerted upon Congress, to create a national 
 
438 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 commission to regulate the interstate commerce which was 
 more than four fifths of the whole railroad business. 
 
 After several years of discussion in Congress, the Interstate 
 Commerce Act was passed in 1887. It was a complicated law, 
 but the spirit of it was that the railroads must make equal 
 rates to all users, must not charge more for a short haul 
 (§ 344) than for a longer haul over the same line, must post 
 printed rates, and must keep accounts in a form directed by 
 the Commission. An Interstate Commerce Commission was 
 provided to apply the law. 
 
 This bill was very important, for it created a means of 
 controlling the railroads, no matter how rich and influential. 
 Some time passed before the railroads could really believe that 
 the Commission was in earnest; but when they disputed its 
 decisions, Congress came forward and made the law stronger. 
 For example, the railroads had to adopt safety couplings and 
 other life-saving devices, and were forbidden to grant passes 
 to interstate passengers. 
 
 Some of them tried to get around the law by charging equal 
 rates and then paying to favored shippers a " rebate " ; that is, 
 a secret deduction on the freight bill. That practice also had 
 to be forbidden. In course of time the Pullman Car Company 
 and the express companies were brought under the rules of the 
 Interstate Commerce Commission, which reduced their rates 
 (1910). 
 
 The railroads discovered that the control of the Commission 
 took away many drawbacks in their business, such as the 
 pressure for free passes and special rates. They then sought 
 to aid in the enforcement of the laws. 
 
 352. American Neighbors. — For years, the United States 
 had been at peace with all European countries. Nevertheless 
 things had not been going smoothly with some. American 
 nations; for the Latin American states (§ 192) did not justify 
 the hope that they would become peaceful republics like the 
 United States. 
 
 Mexico in particular went through about fifty years of dis- 
 order and civil war, one revolution after another. During 
 our Civil War the French tried to seize the country; but the 
 
AMERICAN NEIGHBORS 
 
 439 
 
 United States, following 
 the polic>' of the Mon- 
 roe Doctrine (§ 193), 
 made it clear that 
 Mexico must not be a 
 French colony, and the 
 French troops hurriedly 
 left (1867). Aftersomc 
 years Porfirio Diaz be- 
 came the head of the 
 state; he enlisted a 
 strong army and for 
 about thirty years kept 
 Mexico in order (1878- 
 191 1). He induced 
 Americans to build rail- 
 roads connecting with 
 the United States and 
 to invest money in 
 mines and ranches. 
 
 The United States came into close relations with the inde- 
 pendent little kingdom of the Hawaiian Islands in the Pacific. 
 In 1893 Hawaiian citizens of American blood brought about 
 a revolution, set up a republic, and asked the United States 
 to annex the islands. President Cleveland refused because he 
 thought that American ships and marines had had too much 
 to do with the revolution. Five years later, however (1898), 
 Congress passed an act for annexing the Heiwaiian Republic, 
 which became a regular territory of the United States. 
 
 Besides Mexico, there were three well-governed Latin- 
 American countries which later were called the " A. B. C. 
 powers": (i) The old La Plata colonies, now called Argen- 
 tina; (2) Brazil, which became a federal republic in 1889; (3) 
 Chile, on the west coast. Most of the other Latin American 
 countries were weak and cursed with revolutions. Any ad- 
 venturer who could raise a band of armed men and capture 
 the capital might make himself president or dictator till he 
 was put out of ofifice or killed by another dictator. 
 
 Coconut palms in the Hawaiian Islands 
 
440 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 In the weaker South American countries, trouble constantly 
 arose because Americans doing business there were liable to 
 plunder and personal abuse. Year after year these govern- 
 m.ents agreed to arbitrations or treaties or promises to pay 
 money which was not paid, till the patience of the United 
 States was severely tried. James G. Blaine, as Secretary of 
 State under President Arthur (1881) and also under President 
 Harrison (1889), tried hard to put an end to their differences. 
 A Pan-American Congress was called at Washington, to which 
 most of the Latin American powers sent delegates (1890), and 
 Blaine did his best to induce them to stop their wars against 
 one another. 
 
 The old-fashioned Monroe Doctrine had not been called 
 into play for a long time, when Venezuela and Great Britain fell 
 into discussion about the boundary of the little English col- 
 ony of Guiana. In 1895 Richard Olney, then Secretary of 
 State, maintained that the Monroe Doctrine forbade Euro- 
 pean powers to take disputed territory from any American 
 state and notified the British government that it must give 
 up or arbitrate. President Cleveland in a public message 
 indicated that the United States would fight if necessary in 
 defense of this principle. The British government was sur- 
 prised to discover that the American people supported the 
 President in his view and it hastened to agree to an arbitra- 
 tion. It then proved that the British claim to territory had 
 been a reasonable one. From that time, however, the Eng- 
 lish were aroused to a sense of the importance of keeping on 
 good terms with the United States. 
 
 353. Free Silver in the Election of 1896. — In 1893, the 
 year before the Wilson tariff was passed, another commercial 
 panic came on, which was thought to be caused by the fear of 
 the people that they would be obliged to take silver instead of 
 gold for their greenbacks. Congress under very strong pres- 
 sure from President Cleveland stopped the purchase of silver 
 (1893). The free-silver men throughout the country looked 
 upon this action as a trick of the goldbugs (§321) and felt sure 
 that if only the government would again allow free coinage of 
 silver, the market price would surely rise. 
 
ELECTION OF 1 896 
 
 441 
 
 Since President Cleveland was clearly in favor of using gold 
 as the only standard, the Democratic party refused to follow 
 him. In their nominating convention of 1896, William J. 
 Bryan of Nebraska was put forward as the champion of the 
 silver men, and though he was hardly known in the East he 
 was nominated for the presidency with great enthusiasm. 
 The Republicans nominated McKinley, who was a gold man, 
 and their convention declared that their party was in favor 
 of the gold standard. After a spirited 
 contest, McKinley was elected. 
 
 If, as Mr. Bryan thought, there was 
 not enough gold in the world to serve 
 as standard for the world's business, the 
 time had come to dig more gold. In 
 1896 placer gold was discovered in the 
 Klondike River, which was one of the 
 upper waters of the great Yukon, and 
 another strike was made at Cape Nome 
 in Alaska. There was a rush of miners, 
 and so much gold came from Alaska and 
 from new mines elsewhere that gold be- 
 gan to go down in \ alue, or silver began 
 to come up — nobod\' knows which. In 
 1900 Congress adopted the gold stan- 
 dard (§§ 321,, 322). Within a few years, 
 the country began to complain that 
 there was too much gold; for the more 
 gold there was, the higher the cost of 
 li\-ing rose. 
 
 354. Summary. — This chapter takes 
 u[) the political and party questions of 
 the two Democratic administrations of 
 Grover Cleveland and the midway Re- 
 publican administration of Benjamin 
 Harrison. 
 
 President Cleveland came into power in 1885 with little 
 previous experience, but showed himself a leader. In the two 
 years 1889 and 1890, six northwestern states were added to 
 
 Totem pole of Alaskan Indians, 
 now in Seattle, Washington 
 
442 DEMOCRATIC ADMINISTRATIONS 
 
 the Union. The tariff question, which had been raised by the 
 tariff of 1883, divided the two parties. The RepubHcans got 
 control and passed the McKinley tariff of 1890. Various new 
 arguments for and against the tariff were launched. Cleve- 
 land and a Democratic Congress were elected in 1892 and 
 passed the Wilson tariff of 1894. 
 
 After long discussion, the Interstate Commerce Act was 
 passed in 1887, by which the railroads were much restricted 
 and a commission was appointed to supervise them. 
 
 The Latin American countries gave some trouble through 
 their revolutions and injuries to the persons and property of 
 Americans. A Pan-American Congress was held, and Presi- 
 dent Cleveland applied the Monroe Doctrine against action 
 by Great Britain thought unfriendly to Venezuela. 
 
 The free-silver contest arose again in the election of 1896, 
 but Bryan, the Democratic candidate, was defeated, and the 
 discovery of gold in Alaska and elsewhere helped to put an end 
 to the problem. In 1900 gold was made the money standard 
 of the United States, 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Dewey, National Problems. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 203. 
 
 Histories. Bassett, Un. States, 709-781. — Beard, Contemporary 
 Hist., 41-46, 100-142, 164-198. — Coman, Industrial Hist., 313-341. — 
 Dewey, National Problems. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., 464-482. — 
 Hart, Monroe Doctrine, ch. xii. — Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, 
 ch. vi. — Paxson, New Nation, 132-187, 208-256. — Wilson, Division 
 and Reunion, §§ 149-150, 152-156. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 6. — Hart, Contemporaries, IV. 
 §§164-167, 170-173, 178, 179. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 
 180-183; Select Statutes, nos. 1 10-126. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Atherton, Senator North. — Cullom, Fifty 
 Years. — Foraker, Busy Life. — Ford, Honorable Peter Stirling. — Hoar, 
 Autobiography. — Payne, Mr. Salt. 
 
 Pictures. Andrews, Last Quarter Century. — Century. — Harper's 
 Monthly. — Harper's Weekly. — Scribner's. — Wilson, Am. People, V. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 346) I. Why did some people distrust President Cleveland? 2. 
 What kind of man was he? 3 (For an essay). President Cleveland's life 
 in the White House . 4. How did he treat the civil service? 
 
ref?:rences and questions 443 
 
 (§ 347) 5- What new states came into the Union in 1 889-1 890? 6. 
 How (lid their admission affect the silver question? 
 
 (§ 34^) 7- How did the tariff affect the income of the government? 8. 
 What was the tariff of 1883? 9. How did the election of 1888 come out? 
 
 (§349) 10. How has the tarifT developed since 18 16? 11. How did the 
 farmers look on the tariff? 12. How did the geographical sections divide 
 on the tariff? 13. What were the principal arguments for a protective 
 tariff? 14. What were the arguments against it? 15. How did Congress 
 dispose of the surplus revenue? 
 
 (§ 350) 16. What was the McKinlcy tariff? 17. What was the Popu- 
 list party? 18. How did the election of 1892 come out? 19. What was 
 the Wilson tariff? 20. What was the Dingley tariff? 
 
 (§351) -I- How did the states try to regulate the railroads? 22. What 
 is interstate commerce? 23. What is the Interstate Commerce Commis- 
 sion? 24. How was the Interstate Commerce Act enlarged? 25. What 
 efforts were made to evade the act? 
 
 (§ 352) 26. How did the Latin American states carry on their affairs? 
 27 (For an essay). A trip to Mexico or Central America or the Hawaiian 
 Islands. 28. How was Mexico governed? 29. How was the Hawaiian 
 Republic formed? 30. What were the "A. B. C. powers"? 31. What 
 troubles arose in Latin America? t,2 (For an essay). A Latin American 
 revolution. 33. What was the purpose of the Pan-American Congress of 
 1890? 34. W'hat was the quarrel between Venezuela and Great Britain? 
 35. How did the LInited States settle it? 36 (For an essay). A visit to 
 South America. 
 
 (§ 353) 37- What was the result of stopping the purchase of silver? 
 38. How did the election of 1896 come out? 39. How was the gold supply 
 enlarged? 40 (For an essay). Experience of a gold miner in Alaska. 
 
UNITED STATES 
 
 AND ITS 
 
 POSSESSIONS 
 
 SHOWING 
 
 STEAMSHIP AND CABI.K 
 COMMUNICATIONS 
 
 120 Longitude """^ ^' 
 
 Longitude 
 
 444 
 
445 
 
CHAPTER XXXIII 
 
 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS (18971907) 
 
 355. President McKinley. — Business was good after 1896. 
 The bitter quarrels about free silver died down, and Mc- 
 Kinley's genial character made him a strong and popular 
 President. No one else in his time knew so well how to smooth 
 
 out difficulties in Con- 
 gress, and even his po- 
 litical enemies admired 
 him. His warmest 
 personal friend was 
 Senator Mark Hanna of 
 Ohio, who had brought 
 about McKinley 's nom- 
 ination , but who did not 
 attempt to control the 
 policy of the President. 
 The strongest member 
 of the Cabinet was 
 John Hay, formerK- 
 private secretary to 
 Abraham Lincoln. As 
 McKinley's Secretary 
 of State, he was very 
 successful in smooth- 
 ing out troubles in our 
 relations with other 
 countries. 
 
 356. Cuba (1895-1898). — It will be remembered that Cuba 
 was upset by a civil war from 1868 to 1878 (§318). Similar 
 trouble broke out in 1895, when a revolution was set on foot by 
 a group of educated and able people, aided by funds supplied 
 
 446 
 
 William McKinley, 1843-1901 
 
CUBA 447 
 
 by Cubans living in the United States, and supported by white 
 people and freed slaves. They set up what was called a 
 " Cuban Republic," though it was without a capital, an 
 organized government, or a real army. 
 
 The United States was stirred up by this revolution; first, 
 because it disturbed the heavy trade between the mainland and 
 Cuba, especially in sugar; second, because Cuba lay only a 
 hundred miles from the southern end of Florida, and many 
 Americans wanted to annex it. 
 
 The Spanish government sent over about a hundred thou- 
 sand soldiers, and both sides raided and burned the towns and 
 plantations and sugar-cane fields. The Spanish governor, 
 General Weyler, issued an order for " reconcentration " ; that is, 
 he compelled the country people to come in off their farms and 
 stay inside the Spanish lines. When thus taken away from 
 their homes they had not sufficient food and many of these 
 poor people died of hunger. 
 
 Most of the Americans felt a sympathy for the Cubans, who 
 seemed to be doing what had been done by the Revolutionary 
 patriots of 1775; and more than twenty little " filibustering " 
 expeditions were fitted out to carry men and military supplies 
 to their assistance. President Cleveland did what he could 
 to keep this country neutral by stopping the filibusters; but 
 Spain took great offense, and some American newspaper cor- 
 respondents and others who went to Cuba were arrested. 
 
 357. Outbreak of the Spanish War (1898). — President 
 McKinley asked the Spanish go\ernment to give the Cubans 
 "autonomy"; that is, che right to govern themselves in local 
 matters. In Fel)ruary, 1898, the American battleship Maine, 
 which was lying in the harbor of Havana, was blown up by a 
 torpedo or mine from the outside. Though we now feel sure 
 that the Spanish government neither desired nor supported 
 such an act, it aroused a hostile feeling in the United States. 
 
 The home government of Spain offered to do almost any- 
 thing to prevent war, but President McKinley and his ad- 
 visers decided that this country must put an end to the 
 Spanish control over Cuba. Hence, at his recommeiulation 
 Congress voted (April 20, 1898) that the American arm\- and 
 
448 
 
 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 San,tiagQ^d.e, Gtfba 
 
 navy should turn the Spaniards out. Included in the resolu- 
 tion was the so-called "Teller Resolution," in which Congress 
 promised that the island should be given back to its own 
 people. Spain accepted the resolution as a declaration of 
 war. 
 
 358. Course of the Spanish War (1898). — The first fighting 
 was in the far-off Philippine Islands (§ 14). Commodore (later 
 Admiral) Dewey was sent with a squadron of steel armored 
 ships to Manila Bay, and found a weak Spanish fleet lying off 
 the arsenal of Cavite. In a fight of a few hours (May i, 1898) 
 the Spanish fleet was destroyed. 
 
 A second fleet under Admiral Cervera crossed the ocean 
 from Spain and put into the Cuban harbor of Santiago. A 
 
 few weeks later a little American 
 army of about 17,000 men under 
 the command of General Shafter 
 landed near Santiago. His force 
 moved overland and fought the only 
 land battles of the Cuban war, at 
 El Caney and San Juan Hill. The 
 total loss to the Americans was only 
 1500. Cervera's ships made a dash 
 to the sea but were caught in a running fight by Adm.iral 
 Sampson's fleet, and not a Spanish vessel escaped. Santiago 
 then surrendered. An army sent out under General Miles 
 occupied the island of Porto Rico, almost without firing a shot. 
 A month later the city of Manila surrendered to troops sent 
 out from the Pacific coast. Thus the Spaniards were defeated 
 in every fight by land or sea. 
 
 • 359. How the War was Carried On (1898). — After war was 
 declared, the American people learned that they were not pre- 
 pared for even so small a contest. The American liavy was in 
 good shape and well drilled. But the American land forces 
 before the war were only about 26,000 in all, and were so 
 scattered that hardly one full regiment could be brought 
 together. Just as in the Revolution, the War of 1812, and the 
 Mexican War, the government depended on state militia. A 
 few states had well-drilled regiments; from other states, men 
 
 Santiago de Cuba and vicinity 
 
EVENTS OF THE WAR 
 
 449 
 
 ^•'i'^'-t., ■ 
 
 Charge of American troops at El Caney 
 
 came into service with no guns or uniforms and no trained 
 officers. 
 
 About 250,000 men were soon under arms, but some of them 
 were camped in unhealthful places and drank bad water; thou- 
 sands were stricken down with typhoid fever and other diseases 
 which might have been prevented. The confusion and excite- 
 ment were such that men were sent to Cuba on one ship, their 
 horses on another, and their field guns on another. After the 
 war, Elihu Root of New York became Secretary of War, and 
 showed great ability in reorganizing the army. 
 
 Men and officers were brave and willing, but it was a cruel 
 hardship to die of disease in the camps without ever seeing an 
 enemy. Among the volunteers public attention was especially 
 directed to the Rough Riders, a regiment of cavalry raised by 
 Leonard Wood, who had been an army surgeon, and Theo- 
 dore Roosevelt, who had been Assistant Secretary of the Navy. 
 That part of the regiment which went to Cuba under the 
 command of Roosevelt fought well in the confused battle of 
 San Juan. 
 
450 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 The total death loss of the United States army was about 
 3000 killed and died of disease; but 250,000 men were added 
 to those who would sometime ask for pensions. The money 
 cost of the war was about 165 millions. 
 
 360. Disposition of Cuba and Porto Rico (1898-1909). — 
 After three months' hopeless struggle the Spanish government 
 asked for peace. Hostilities ended in August, and four months 
 later a treaty was signed in Paris by which Spain gave up Cuba 
 and Porto Rico in the West Indies, and the Philippines and the 
 island of Guam in the Pacific Ocean. The United States paid 
 Spain 20 million dollars, which was intended to be a kind of 
 purchase money for the Philippines. 
 
 This treaty left the United States free to deal with Cuba 
 according to its judgment, and the promise made by the Teller 
 Resolution (§ 357) that Cuba should not be annexed, was 
 honorably kept for the new republic. A small American army 
 remained in the island until a permanent Cuban government 
 could be formed. In 1902, the army was withdrawn and the 
 Cubans were left with a government of their own. 
 
 In fact, Cuba remained under the protection of the United 
 States, for the new republic was obliged to accept the so-called 
 " Piatt Amendment" (1901), which was an act of Congress 
 providing that Cuba must grant the United States some sites 
 for naval stations, and must agree not to enter into any rela- 
 tions with foreign countries which might interfere with Cuban 
 independence or which were opposed to the wishes of the 
 United States. 
 
 The United States also reserved the right to send troops back 
 to Cuba if the native government could not keep order; and 
 when a revolution seemed likely in 1906 troops were sent there 
 and remained three years. One of the advantages of these 
 two occupations was that the olihcers and soldiers of the Ameri- 
 can army set up schools, cleaned the cities, and discovered that 
 yellow fever was carried by a mosquito and could be stamped 
 out by keeping the mosquito away from yellow-fever patients. 
 
 It was thought best to end the Spanish rule in America 
 altogether, and therefore the island of Porto Rico was annexed 
 outright. It was a rich island with a mixed white and negro 
 
NEW DEPENDENCIES 45 1 
 
 population of about i ,000,000. Congress set up a government 
 there which was controlled by officers appointed from Wash- 
 ington. On the other hand, the island received the great 
 advantage that goods passing between the states and Porto 
 Rico in either direction were free from customs duties. 
 
 361. The Philippine Islands (1898-1908). — When the war 
 began nobody expected that it would bring to the United 
 States a large number of islands in the Pacific. In the course 
 of the war the Hawaiian Islands (§ 352) were annexed ; and the 
 little island of Tutuila in the Samoan group was acquired by 
 treaty in 1900. Guam was taken from Spain because it was 
 a convenient naval station on the route across the Pacific 
 Ocean. 
 
 By the acquisition of the Philippine Islands, the United 
 States received more than 3000 separate islands with an area 
 of nearly 115,000 square miles, which is about -the area of the 
 states of New^ York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and Mary- 
 land. The population included about 1,000,000 uncivilized 
 people, and 7,000,000 Christians of the Malay race, subdi- 
 vided into groups of tribes, each speaking its own language. 
 
 The Filipinos for some time had been trying to set up an 
 independent government under the leadership of Aguinaldo. 
 Therefore, it seemed unkind for the United States to turn 
 them back to the Spaniards. Several European powers had 
 colonies on the eastern and southern coasts of Asia, and it 
 seemed a fine thing that the United States should also have a 
 foothold in that part of the world. The Philippine Islands 
 were supposed to be rich and offered an opportunity to invest 
 American capital. 
 
 President McKinley finally decided to take the islands; 
 but the natives, who had organized an army to drive out the 
 Spaniards, turned against the Americans. For tAvo years they 
 carried on what they considered a patriotic war of defense 
 against the invaders; the United States considered it an armed 
 insurrection and subdued it. 
 
 After a hard fight the Filipinos had to give in and Congress 
 then set up for them an " insular government " in which the 
 main features were a governor-general and a commission of 
 
452 
 
 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 nine members, appointed by the President. In 1907 Congress 
 set up an "insular legislature." Since the Filipinos were gov- 
 erned against their will by the United States, it seemed fair 
 that they should be allowed to trade freely, without paying any 
 duty in our customhouses. Accordingly in 1909 Congress 
 allowed Philippine products to come into the United States 
 free of duty. 
 
 President McKinley's course in favoring war, in conquering 
 
 the Philippine Is- 
 lands, and in hold- 
 ing them, was not 
 accepted by all the 
 American people. 
 The "Anti-Imperi- 
 alists" tried to pre- 
 vent the Senate 
 from ratifying the 
 treaty of peace, and 
 criticized the policy 
 of trying to plant 
 colonies in tropical 
 and far distant re- 
 gions. Neverthe- 
 less the people 
 seemed to approve 
 of McKinley's pol- 
 icy, for in 1900 he 
 was easily elected 
 President a second 
 time over Bryan. 
 He was a man who 
 sincerely desired that his country should be both strong and 
 just; and he was advancing in a great career when he was shot 
 by an obscure and worthless man (September, 1901). 
 
 362. President Roosevelt (1901-1909). — By the death of 
 President McKinley, the Vice President, Theodore Roosevelt, 
 was brought to the White House. The new President was a 
 remarkably active man, who had served in the New York 
 
 Theodore Roosevelt 
 
THE PANAMA CANAL 453 
 
 legislature, had been head of the national Civil Service Com- 
 mission, Police Commissioner of New York, and a soldier in 
 the Spanish War. His career brought him so sharply before 
 the public that he was elected governor of the state. of New 
 York (1899). Thomas C. Piatt, the Republican boss of that 
 state, arranged to force upon Roosevelt the nomination as 
 Vice President to get him out of state politics and in an office 
 where he would have little influence. The unexpected result 
 was that he became President. 
 
 Roosev-elt was by nature inclined to strike out for himself. 
 He had been brought up among eastern moneyed men and 
 understood their way of thinking; he had also lived much in 
 the far West and knew the needs of the people there. He 
 was very direct and positive, and liked to see things done. 
 
 Such a man had a great opportunity, because after the 
 Spanish War the American people began to look upon them- 
 selves as a " world power " which must take new responsibili- 
 ties in America and in Asia. Hence a great public interest 
 arose when (1900) the Boxer Rebellion broke out in China, 
 and the foreign diplomats and their families were shut up in 
 Peking. A small American force joined other forces from 
 European countries and Japan in the rescue of the beleaguered 
 men and women. The other powers wanted to take territory 
 from China, but Secretary Hay laid down what he called the 
 "open-door" policy; that is, every part of China must be 
 equally open to the trade of every foreign country. 
 
 363. The Panama Canal (1899-1904). — Another evidence 
 that the United States had become a world power was the 
 taking over of the Panama Canal as a national public work. 
 The French canal company (§343), after spending hundreds 
 of millions of dollars, was obliged to give up; the employees 
 died from malaria and yellow fever, and the money gave out. 
 Some American capitalists attempted to construct a rival canal 
 across the Nicaragua route. In 1900 a skilled and thorough 
 commission of engineers reported to the United States govern- 
 ment that it had better use the Nicaragua route, because the 
 French company was still in possession of the Panama route 
 and was asking too large a sum for it. 
 
454 
 
 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 When President Roosevelt came- into office (1901J he went 
 to work systematically to clear the way for the canal. First, 
 John Hay secured from Great Britain a treaty giving up any 
 claim which that power might have in the canal. Then the 
 
 republic of Colombia, 
 within whose territory 
 the French canal lay, 
 offered to make a treaty 
 which would enable the 
 United States to build 
 the canal (1902); but 
 after it was accepted at 
 Washington the Colom- 
 bian Congress would 
 not ratify it. A few 
 weeks later the people 
 of Panama revolted and 
 set up a separate gov- 
 ernment. President 
 Roosevelt at once seized 
 the opportunity, recog- 
 nized and protected the new republic, and made a treaty with 
 it (1903) by which the United States practically annexed a 
 "canal zone" ten miles wide across the Isthmus (map, pages 
 8-9) . The French company accepted $40,000,000 cash for its 
 interests and the building of the canal was soon under way. 
 
 364. The Monroe Doctrine (1902-1904). — The Colom- 
 bians insisted that the United States had made a plot to take 
 away their isthmus, and for years remained resentful. Other 
 Latin American powers felt unfriendly towards the United 
 States, partly because the American tariff interfered with their 
 trade, but chiefly because they thought the Monroe Doctrine 
 (§ 193) claimed authority over them. The doctrine was really 
 intended for the protection of the weaker states. For example, 
 when Germany was supposed to be looking for a place to plant 
 colonies, and had difficulty with Venezuela (1902), President 
 Roosevelt insisted that no territory should be occupied in 
 America by any European power. 
 
 {c) Keyi,toHe View Co. 
 American steam shovel at work on the Panama Canal 
 
THE MONROE DOCTRINE 455 
 
 A new difficulty now appeared in applying the Monroe 
 Doctrine. If foreign countries could not occupy territory, 
 how were they to collect the claims that were always arising 
 in those poorly governed countries? To meet this point the 
 " Drago Doctrine" was suggested by an Argentine states- 
 man, to the effect that armies and navies should never be used 
 to collect the claims on debts and contracts. 
 
 If the Drago Doctrine was reasonable, what should be done 
 if in Latin America foreign citizens were killed or their property 
 was seized? Who could compel those powers to behave, if not 
 the United States? To take that responsibility would make, 
 our government a kind of policeman for other neighboring 
 American powers. President Roosevelt accepted that re- 
 sponsibility for Santo Domingo by making a treaty (with the 
 consent of the Senate) whereby a financial officer was put in 
 charge of the treasury there with instructions to see that the 
 foreign debts were paid (1907). 
 
 President Roosevelt's policies seemed to be popular with 
 the voters. When the election of 1904 came around, the 
 Democrats nominated Judge Alton B. Parker of New York, but 
 he did not carry a single northern state. The Republicans 
 nominated Roosevelt, who received a plurality of 2,500,000 
 votes. 
 
 365. Summary. — This chapter recounts the great change 
 that came over the United States through a war with Spain in 
 1898, and the annexation of islands in the West Indies and the 
 Pacific Ocean. 
 
 President McKinley proved to be a strong and popular 
 President. He found the Cubans in a state of insurrection 
 against Spain, and the American people strongly sympathized. 
 The blowing up of the battleship Maine, and the feeling that 
 the Spaniards would never govern Cuba justly, caused Congress 
 to declare war on Spain in 1898. There were two naval fights, 
 one in Manila Bay and one outside the Cuban harbor of Santi- 
 ago. The onl\' serious land fighting was the battle of San 
 Juan near Santiago, and the siege of Manila in the Philippine 
 Islands. The Spaniards were demoralized and gave up the 
 fight. 
 
 HARTS SCH. HIST. — 26 
 
456 
 
 THE SPANISH WAR AND ITS RESULTS 
 
 A country school in Porto Rico 
 
 (, I .\i-:^»iiin Traveltalks 
 
 The United States was able to send only 17,000 troops to 
 Cuba, and most of the losses of the war were from disease. 
 The state militia was not in good condition and the War 
 Department was not able to handle the war properly. 
 
 Spain ceded to the United States, Porto Rico, Guam, and 
 the Philippine Islands; and Cuba was turned over to its own 
 people. A government was provided for Porto Rico with 
 liberal privileges of trade. The Filipinos for two years re- 
 sisted the Americans, and then received a government which 
 was mostly outside of their control, but later they were allowed 
 free trade with the United States. 
 
 By the death of President McKinley, Theodore Roosevelt 
 became President and was active in pushing the interests of the 
 American people in all parts of the world. He broke through 
 the opposition of the French canal company and of Colombia, 
 and thus prepared the way for a Panama Canal. He also 
 made a new statement of the Monroe Doctrine, according to 
 which the United States was to take the responsibility for 
 keeping order, in the Latin American states in order to pre- 
 vent foreign invasion. 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 457 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Wall Maps, nos. 23, 24. — Latane, Am. as a World Power. 
 — Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, no. 32. — Shepherd, Hist. Atlas, 216. 
 
 Histor.es. Bassett, Un. States, chs. xxxvii, xxxix. — Beard, Con- 
 temporary Hist., 199-228, 275-282. — Fish, Dev. of Am. Nation., ch. 
 xxvii. — Paxson, New Nation. — Wilson, Div. and Reunion, §§ 157-166. 
 
 Sources. Am. Hist. Leaflets, no. 34. — Hart, Contemporaries, \W 180- 
 196; Source Book, §§ 140-144. — Hill, Liberty Docs., ch. xxiv. — James, 
 Readings, §§ 99-102. — MacDonald, Doc. Source Book, nos. 184-187. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Brooks, War with Spain. — Collingwood, 
 Cruise of the " Thetis " (Cuban insurrection). — Dillon, The Leader 
 (Politics). — Evans, Sailor's Log, chs. xxxiv, xxxix. — Forbes, Philip- 
 pines under Am. Rules. — Gordy, Am. Leaders and Heroes, ch. xxvi. — 
 King, Captured (Philippines). — Scollard, Ballads of Am. Bravery, 138- 
 157. — Wallington, Am. Hist, by Am. Poets, U. 328-368. 
 
 Pictures. Harper's Pictorial Hist, of the War with Spain. — Harper's 
 Weekly. — Leslie's Official Hist, of the Span.- Am. War. — Mentor, serial 
 nos. 15, 89. — Scientific American. — Wilson, Am. People, V. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 355) I- What kind of President was McKinley? 
 
 (§356) 2. What was the "Cuban Republic"? 3. Why was the United 
 States interested in Cuba? 4. How did the Spanish War proceed? 5 (For 
 an essay). The Spanish War. 6. What was "filibustering"? 
 
 (§ 3v57) 7- How was the Maine destroyed? 8. Why did Congress vote 
 for war with Spain? 9. What was the Teller Resolution? 
 
 (§ 358) 10. How did the war affect the Philippines? 11. What hap- 
 pened in Cuba? 12 (For an essay) . The message to Garcia. 13. What 
 was the general result of the war? 
 
 (§ 359) 14- How was the American army raised? 15 (For an essay). 
 The Rough Riders. 16. How was the army taken care of? 
 
 (§360) 17. What territory did the United States annex? 18. How was 
 Cuba treated? 19. What was the Piatt Amendment? 20. How was 
 Porto Rico treated? 
 
 (§ 361) 21. What did the country gain in the Pacific? 22. Why were 
 the Philippines annexed? 23. How were the Filipinos governed? 
 
 (§ 362) 24. How did Roosevelt become President? 25. What kind of 
 President was he? 26. What was the Boxer Rebellion? the "open door "? 
 27 (For an essay). A visit to China. 
 
 (§ 363^ 28. What efforts were made to construct an Isthmus canal? 
 29. How did the United States proceed in building the canal? 30. How 
 was the title to the Panama Canal acquired? 
 
 (§ 3<'h) 31- What is the Monroe Doctrine? 32. What is the Drago 
 Doctrine? 33. What was Roosevelt's policy toward other American 
 countries? 34. How did the election of 1904 come out? 
 
In a steel miil— rolling plates 
 
CHAPTER XXXIV 
 
 BIG BUSINESS (1890-1916) 
 
 366. Big Advantages for Business. — While Congress and 
 the President were making laws and carrying on war and 
 dealing with foreign nations, the people of the United States 
 were growing every year more numerous, rich, and powerful. 
 For this prosperity several reasons may be mentioned: 
 
 (i) The people were constantly gathering in the gifts of 
 nature. They were 
 using more and 
 more of the big 
 trees, the deposits 
 of ore and coal, the 
 oil and gas found 
 deep underground, 
 the fish of the sea, 
 the rich farming 
 soil. Never had 
 the country known 
 such a production 
 of timber, minerals, 
 and crops. 
 
 (2) This use of 
 the wealth of 
 nature was possible 
 because the United 
 States was an industrious country. The strong and hard- 
 working people, whether native or foreign-born, accomplished 
 more in a year than any like number of people elsewhere in 
 the world. They made much use of machinery, so that a 
 given number of workers on the farms, in the shops and fac- 
 tories, or down in the mines could produce large amounts in 
 proportion to their numbers. 
 
 459 
 
 Machine for transferring ore from boats to freight cars, at 
 one of the ports on Lake Erie 
 
460 
 
 BIG BUSINESS 
 
 •"■"-V.- 
 
 Wright aeroplane in 1908 
 
 (3) The United States had good railroads and waterways, 
 so that the products of each section could easily reach the 
 markets of the country and of the world. 
 
 367. Progress of Invention (1890-1916). — The United 
 States was the most inventive country in the world. The 
 gasoline engine was perfected about 1900, 
 and its use rapidly spread over the world. 
 It furnished great power with a small 
 weight of machinery and was especially 
 used for automo- 
 biles, motor 
 cycles, power 
 launches, and 
 aeroplanes. Wire- 
 less telegraphy, 
 invented by an 
 Italian, was 
 quickly perfected 
 and widely used. Typesetting machines, fast presses, and 
 quick photography made it possible to issue cheap illustrated 
 daily newspapers. Cheap cameras that took instantaneous 
 pictures were sold by hundreds of thousands, and the great 
 invention of moving pictures 
 made a new amusement for 
 millions of people. 
 
 The transportation of pas- 
 sengers on streets and roads 
 in the United States was 
 greatly improved in this 
 period; practically all of the 
 surface street cars in the whole country and some regular rail- 
 road trains were moved by electric power, and both electric 
 motors and gasoline engines came into use for carriages and 
 trucks. The more cars, the worse the crowding in the streets; 
 so in 1894 Boston began to build "subways"; that is, tunnels 
 under the streets. By 1916 such subways were built or build- 
 ing in various cfties, especially New York, Philadelphia, and 
 Chicago, to a combined length of i lo miles. 
 
 Early type of automobile 
 
TRANSPORTATION 46 1 
 
 Automobiles made a great change in street and road travel. 
 The whale country abounded in automobile busses, automo- 
 bile stages, automobile sight-seeing cars, automobile trucks, 
 and hundreds of thousands of private cars. Surveyors, 
 doctors, manufacturers, traveling salesmen, and many other 
 business men found that the automobile enabled them to do 
 twice as much work as before. 
 
 Boulevard in Kaiis.i-^ C 
 
 368. Good Roads. — The United States was far behind 
 European countries in its streets and roads. In many cities, 
 the ordinary pavements were made of rough cobblestones. 
 Since wood was very cheap, a system of wood pavements, 
 came into use which made a beautiful and smooth roadway. 
 The next improvement was the asphalt pavement made of a 
 thick tarry material imported, from Trinidad. In the open 
 country the situation was bad because most of the old pikes 
 and plank roads (§ 229) had worn out and had not been re- 
 newed. In rich states like Illinois, roads were so poor in rainy 
 weather that sometimes for weeks together farmers could not 
 get to the nearby railroad towns to ship their produce. There 
 and in other states came an era of macadam roads or brick 
 pa\ements on many countr\- highways. 
 
 The automobiles helped to soKe the road. problem because 
 they depended on a reasonably hard and even roadway. The 
 result was that city people, farmers, and other users of the 
 
462 
 
 BIG BUSINESS 
 
 roads combined to demand something better, and started the 
 " good roads " movement, which became especially strong after 
 
 Dirt road before improvement 
 
 Good country road 
 
 1905. Many states, both east and west, appropriated large 
 sums out of the public treasury — $50,000,000 at one time in 
 New York — to build good roads; and the counties and towns 
 also spent money freely. Americans for the first time learned 
 the lesson that good roads, by making heavier loads possible, 
 are worth more than they cost. 
 
 369. Advantages for the People. — Great improvements 
 were made in the daily life of the people. The state universi- 
 ties undertook to aid the farmers to raise better cattle, to take 
 better care of milk, to make better butter and cheese, to select 
 the seed for their crops, and to use proper fertilizers. All these 
 things increased the products of the farms. The technical 
 schools helped the engineers and manufacturers to find better 
 and cheaper materials and to prevent waste in the factories. 
 The public schools joined in teaching children how to help in 
 the family work; for instance, in some states there were con- 
 tests among children to see who could bake the best bread, or 
 who could grow the most corn on a given area of land. 
 
 One of the greatest improvements was in the health of the 
 people. Efforts were made to clean up the city slums in 
 which there was much disease. Vaccination was so much ex- 
 tended that smallpox disappeared from most cities. " Serums" 
 were discovered which acted in much the same way as vaccina- 
 tion against such dreaded diseases as diphtheria, typhoid fever, 
 and lockjaw. A great boon to mankind was the discovery of 
 
BUSINESS MEN 463 
 
 " antiseptic surgery," by which injured persons could often 
 be saved and operations could be performed that would not 
 otherwise have been possible. 
 
 Of course many of these advantages were shared by foreign 
 nations and some of the inventions mentioned above (§367) 
 came from foreign countries; but the Americans could make 
 better use of them because they were quick, because they had 
 a good system of education, and because they were accustomed 
 to take care of themselves and rely on themselves. 
 
 370. Big Business Men. — In the early history of the 
 United States, the men who were the leaders in public life 
 were statesmen, occupying the high offices of the nation, the 
 states, and the cities. Alongside them were men and women 
 poets, orators, gifted preachers, novelists, and historians. 
 Their renown was shared by explorers and men of adventure, 
 arctic voyagers, and world travelers. 
 
 Later, as one of the effects of the improvements in industry, 
 public attention was attracted also to highly successful busi- 
 ness men who wrote little, made no speeches, hardly appeared 
 in public, and seldom sought any office; but who affected 
 the daily life of millions of their fellow countrymen and who 
 were a great power in the development of the whole country. 
 The first men of that type to become national figures were 
 John Jacob Astor (§ 157) of New York and Stephen Girard 
 (§227) of Philadelphia, both of whom left great fortunes. 
 
 After the Civil War, a most striking business figure was 
 Cornelius Vanderbilt, who reorganized the New York Central 
 Railroad and greatly reduced the cost of railroad transpor- 
 tation (§340). Several other great fortunes were made by 
 railroad kings, particularly by James J. Hill of Minnesota, 
 builder of the Great Northern Railroad to the Pacific coast. 
 A large part of the wealth of these and other successful busi- 
 ness men was invested in the stocks and bonds of railroads 
 and other great corporations. Small investors also made use 
 of this method, because they could put a few hundred or a 
 few thousand dollars into corporations which were managed 
 by the ablest business men. Such great corporations could 
 employ the best engineers, lawyers, and scientific experts, and 
 
464 BIG BUSINESS 
 
 put large sums into buying up timberlands, water-power sites, 
 coal or ore land, mines, and building sites. The same method 
 was applied in all the cities to great department stores and 
 mail-order houses, which did business on an immense scale. 
 
 Smaller business men, firms, and corporations often felt the 
 pressure of these large enterprises, and protested against what 
 they called the " trusts." The result was a tide of feeling 
 against the railroads which were joining into larger and larger 
 systems, and also against large corporations of any kind. 
 
 Nevertheless, there was a constant tendency for small 
 corporations to roll into larger ones, and for larger ones to 
 join into still bigger concerns. The small Atlantic steamship 
 lines were combined into great companies, some of which 
 owned hundreds of vessels and built ships of 50,000 tons 
 burden. Companies which carried on the business of supply- 
 ing the everyday necessities of life were combined and enlarged 
 into more powerful units. 
 
 All over the world there was the same tendency. Great 
 oil companies were formed by the Germans and the Russians, 
 great iron companies by the English. Some such combi- 
 nations, as, for instance, that of the copper trade, included 
 both foreign and American producers. 
 
 371. Monopolies and Trusts. — It was natural that, as 
 the country grew larger and business increased, there should 
 be larger corporations, some of which were big enough to con- 
 trol a considerable part of some one line of business. Such 
 corporations were accused of trying to create "monopolies" 
 in their lines of business, so that small concerns could not 
 compete with them. Attacks on the big corporations, com- 
 monly called " trusts," were carried into the state legislatures; 
 and many laws were passed by the states to prevent the big 
 concerns from taking advantage of smaller concerns. At the 
 same time, efforts were made to regulate the great railroads, 
 which were the largest, richest, and most powerful corpora- 
 tions in the country. 
 
 But, because of differences in state laws, there was difficulty 
 in regulating railroads, manufacturing concerns, or other 
 kinds of cori)orations doing an interstate business. Further- 
 
MONOPOLIES AND TRUSTS 465 
 
 more, when goods are carried from one state to another, the 
 business comes under the control of the United States Con- 
 gress; hence, this so-called " Antitrust " war was carried 
 over into Congress. Several national laws were passed, of 
 which the most important was the " Sherman Antitrust 
 Act " of 1890. This was intended to prevent monopolies 
 in such trade or commerce as was carried on from one state 
 to another. The corporation could be kept in check by 
 regulating that part of its business which extended from one 
 state into another. 
 
 Modern Mallet articulated locomotive 
 
 Once started in this idea, Congress proceeded to regulate 
 the business of putting up salted or canned meats (1906); 
 and in the same year passed a national " Pure Food and 
 Drugs Act." In 1909 a tax was laid on corporations, large 
 and small; in 1914 the " Clayton Act " against trusts was 
 passed. Congress (1914) provided for a " Federal Trade 
 Commission," which was to act toward ordinary corporations 
 much as the Interstate Commerce Commission (§351) acted 
 toward the railroads. A " Child Labor Act," passed in 1916, 
 forbade the carrying of goods from state to state, if made by 
 child labor under forbidden conditions. 
 
 372. Government Business. — Besides this regulation of 
 business by the states and by the federal government, several 
 lines of important business have been carried on at the ex- 
 pense of, and for the benefit of, the public. Among them are 
 the following: 
 
 (i) Several cities, especially Detroit and Cleveland, tried 
 to get control of the trolley lines within their limits and 
 run them as a public service. This plan did not succeed, 
 
466 BIG BUSINESS 
 
 but the cities of New York, Philadelphia, and Boston built 
 and owned long subways; and San Francisco built and ran 
 municipal trolley lines. 
 
 (2) The states carried on workshops and farms in connec- 
 tion with their prisons, and several owned state forests. 
 Some of them provided a public supply of vaccine to prevent 
 smallpox, and of antitoxin to cure other diseases. 
 
 (3) The federal government carried on many kinds of 
 business. It has two large printing houses in Washington. 
 It keeps up factories of arms and military material at Spring- 
 field, Rock Island, and elsewhere. In its navy yards it builds 
 and repairs war vessels. Ever since the Revolution, it has 
 carried on a post-office business, and forbids any one else to 
 carry sealed letters for profit. In 1913, it set up a parcel 
 post in competition with the express companies. Recently it 
 has provided a system of postal savings banks, all over the 
 country. The government owns many ship canals, including 
 the immense Panama Canal, and is also the sole owner of the 
 Panama Railroad and a new railroad in Alaska. 
 
 (4) Many of the cities, towns, and villages carried on the 
 business of furnishing water, gas, and electric light to all who 
 chose to pay for those services, and also furnished electric 
 power. A few cities have run public newspapers, milk sta- 
 tions, medical dispensaries, and even theaters. 
 
 At every presidential election since 1892, there has been a 
 " Socialist " candidate, representing a body of people now 
 numbering several millions, who would like to have the 
 government take over all the business of the country — 
 railroads, factories, stores, and everything else. No country 
 in the world has ever carried out this idea. It would involve 
 the breaking up of all private business, and the giving up of all 
 private ownership in land. It would put into the hands of 
 those who might be elected as heads of the government, the 
 right to decide what should be the labor and the pay of every 
 man and woman in the country. Mining, manufacturing, 
 transportation, and even farming would be carried on by 
 state officials. Every workman and workwoman would be 
 on salary, and all the profits would go to the government 
 
GOVERNMENT BUSINESS 467 
 
 to be used for the common welfare. Quite distinct from the 
 SociaHsts is a small body of " Anarchists," who denounce all 
 government. 
 
 The sense of a close relation between government and busi- 
 ness was shown by adding three new departments to the 
 Cabinet. In 1889 a Secretary of Agriculture was appointed, 
 in 1903 a Secretary of Commerce, and in 19 13 a Secretary of 
 Labor. The War of 191 7 with Germany made it necessary 
 for the United States to take control, for the time, of the 
 railroads, coal industry, certain food supplies, merchant ship- 
 ping, and other lines of business. 
 
 373. Summary. — This chapter describes the great re- 
 sources of the country, the growth of powerful corporations 
 called trusts, and the efforts to control them. 
 
 The United States has become one of the strongest nations 
 in the world. This is due to the natural riches of the country, 
 to the character of the people, and to new inventions. But 
 some of these advantages were absorbed by a small number of 
 shrewd and farseeing men. The conditions of the times made 
 very rich men and wealthy families possible. Firms and 
 companies were combined into large corporations. 
 
 The first attempt to regulate business corporations by act 
 of Congress was the Sherman Antitrust Act in 1890; then 
 laws were passed for pure food and drugs. These were fol- 
 lowed by the Clayton Antitrust Act, the Federal Trade Act, 
 and the Child Labor Act. 
 
 Besides trying to control big business, the cities, the states, 
 and the national government took over some kinds of busi- 
 ness ; and new commissions and officials were created to super- 
 vise and control business. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Wall Maps, nos. 19, 21. 
 
 Histories. Bassetl, Un. States, 731-744, 829-834. — Beard, Con- 
 temporary Hist., 229-274, 296-316, 331-336. — Bogart, Economic Hist., 
 chs. xxv-x.\xii. — Coman, Industrial Hist., 347-369. — Dewey, National 
 Problems, chs. xii, xviii. — Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, 196-218, 
 228-231. — Moore, Industrial Hist., 428-438, 480-491. — Paxson, New 
 Nation, 164-168, 293-323. 
 
468 BIG BUSINESS 
 
 Sources. Beard, Readings in Am. Government, ch. xxxii. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, IV. § 201. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Brown, Through the Mill (Child labor). — 
 Carnegie, Gospel of Wealth. — Connolly, Jeb Hutton. — Drysdale, Fast 
 Mail. — Hill, Highways of Progress. — Hurt, Scarlet Shadow. — Kipling, 
 Captains Courageous. — Merwin and Webster, Calumet "K" ; Short- 
 Line War. — Mitchell, Organized Labor. — Paine, Cadet of the Black Star 
 Line. — Rocheleau, Great Am. Industries. — Tarbell, Standard Oil Com- 
 pany. 
 
 Pictures. Bogart, Economic Hist. — Coman, Industrial Hist. — 
 Scientific American. — See also refs. to ch. xxxv. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 366) I. What were the main reasons for the prosperity of the country? 
 
 (§ 367) 2. What are the important modern inventions in machinery.-* 
 in transportation? 3. How did automobiles affect business and social life? 
 4 (For an essay). An automobile trip. 
 
 (§ 368) 5. How were pavements and roads improved? 6. What was 
 the "good roads" movement? 7 (For an essay). Old-fashioned roads. 
 
 (§369) 8. How was the condition of the people improved by education? 
 9. How was it improved by attention to health? 10. How did Americans 
 compare with foreigners? 
 
 (§ 370) II. What kind of people early became leaders? 12. How did 
 successful business men come to the front? 13. How did their leadership 
 in business help the small investor? 14 (For an essay). The business 
 career of Cornelius Vanderbilt or of James J. Hill. 15. How did great 
 corporations arise? 
 
 (§ 371) i6. What were monopolies and trusts? 17. Why did the states 
 find it hard to regulate the trusts? 18. What was the Sherman Antitrust 
 Act? 19. What other acts did Congress pass to regulate business? 
 
 (§ 372) 20 (For an essay). City-owned street railroads in Cleveland or 
 in Detroit or in San Francisco. 21. What kinds of business were carried 
 on by the states? by the federal government? by the cities? 22. What 
 was the Socialist idea of business and government? 23. How did the 
 federal government enlarge its control of business? 
 
CHAPTER XXXV 
 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE (1900-1916) 
 
 374. Population and Cities. ^ The nuniljcr of people in the 
 United States grew rapidly. From about 4 million in 1790 
 it rose to about 100 million of " continental " population in 
 1916; besides nearly 10 million in Hawaii, Porto Rico, and the 
 Philippines. Nearly a third of the continental population 
 Hved in the old South, and about a fourth lived west of 
 the Mississippi River. More than 30 million out of the .100 
 million lived in cities. 
 
 Most of the great cities lay along the Atlantic coast, the 
 Great Lakes, the Mississippi River, and the Pacific coast. 
 These crowded centers brought many new problems for law- 
 makers and officials. Millions of foreigners, many of whom 
 could not speak English, had to be taken care of. The build- 
 ing of " sky-scraper " business blocks and office buildings 
 brought much of the business into small areas in each city; 
 
 
 
 
 i 
 
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 i n!in 
 
 
 A 4«>i:Ut 
 
 -i^ . 
 
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 Jl^ 
 
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 li' i| 
 
 
 ^3iHi 
 
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 iS^SJl 
 
 
 ss 
 
 (c) Detroit Pub. Co. 
 "Sky-scraper" oflBce buildings in lower New York 
 
 and hundreds of thousands of people had to be carried into and 
 out of the business centers every day. Most cities had a 
 crowded and unwholesome " slum " district, which needed 
 regulation. The great numbers of children needed new 
 
 469 
 
470 
 
 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE 
 
 schools and playgrounds. Parks and boulevards were pro- 
 vided, and some cities began to tear down and rebuild on a 
 better and more healthful plan. 
 
 375. Native Bom and Immigrants. — Notwithstanding the 
 checks laid upon immigrants (§ 311) the number kept rising. 
 
 ,300,000 
 ,200,000 
 ,100,000 
 .000,000 
 900,000 
 800,000 
 700,000 
 600,000 
 500,000 
 400,000 
 300,000 
 200,000 
 100,000 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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 The distance of the curve from the base shows the number of immigrants entering the 
 United States every year since 1820 
 
 In the twenty years from 1893 to 191 3 they were 13,900,000. 
 In this immense number were few of the English, Germans, 
 Irish, and Scandinavians who had previously been the princi- 
 pal immigrants. The majority were now Italians, Portuguese, 
 Hungarians, Croatians, Russian and Polish Jews, Bohemians, 
 Bulgarians, Albanians, French Canadians, Mexicans, Greeks, 
 and even Turks, Syrians, and Arabs. 
 
 The effect of immigration was somewhat reduced by about 
 700,000 American farmers from the northwestern states, who 
 crossed the border to take up Canadian wheat lands; and 
 hundreds of thousands of Italians and others went back to 
 Europe. During the Great War in Europe, also, immigration 
 was small. The census of 1910 showed that out of 82 million 
 white people in the continental United States, 13 million were 
 foreign born and 19 million more were children of foreign-born 
 parents; probably 18 million more were grandchildren of 
 
NATIVE BORN AND IMMIGRANTS 
 
 471 
 
 '^. 
 
 ^ 
 
 Pcrc 
 
 ontage -, -<J.^^_.;^ 
 Under 5 \ ~ 
 
 
 ^^■^^^; 
 
 5 to 10 
 
 
 10 to 15 
 
 
 15 to 25 
 
 
 25 to 35 
 
 This shows the distribution of immigrants in 1910. For example, they were between 10 and 
 IS per cent of the population in Ohio but less than 5 per cent of the population in Kentucky 
 
 foreign-born persons. Therefore, at least 50 million immi- 
 grants or children and grandchildren of immigrants were alive 
 in the United States in 1910, against 32 million descended 
 solely from the people, mainly English or English-speaking, 
 who were in the coun- 
 try before the Revolu- 
 tion. 
 
 The immigrants were 
 scattered all over the 
 Union, though only one 
 sixteenth of them were 
 in the southern states. 
 Although there were 
 so many unskilled 
 laborers seeking em- 
 ployment, most of them 
 found work; and hun- 
 dreds of thousands Sod house of immigrant family on the prairie 
 
 were able to buy little homes and to become full-fledged 
 Americans. The public schools proved to be a great aid in 
 assimilating these people of many kinds. 
 
472 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE 
 
 Various attempts were made to shut out part of the immi- 
 grants. A small head tax was raised to $8 for each immigrant 
 (1917). Sick, helpless, and diseased people, even if they had 
 only a slight trouble with the eyes, were sent back to Europe. 
 In 191 7 an act was passed over the veto of President Wilson 
 which excluded all grown people who could not read some 
 language. 
 
 376. Chinese and Japanese. — The census of 1910 showed 
 71,000 Chinese and 72,000 Japanese in our country. The 
 Chinese, under the law excluding Chinese laborers (§ 312), 
 were diminishing. Since there was no law against the immi- 
 gration of Japanese, the people of the Pacific coast were afraid 
 that great numbers would come over and form permanent 
 settlements. In 1906 the school authorities of San Francisco 
 for a time excluded all Japanese from schools for white chil- 
 dren. The Japanese government, however, stopped the de- 
 parture of laborers from Japan, without any formal agreement 
 to that effect. 
 
 Later the state of California passed an act forbidding 
 Japanese to acquire land (1913), an act which the Japanese 
 government resented. Chinese and Japanese students and 
 business men were welcomed, but there was strong objection 
 to receiving Asiatics in large numbers. Doubtless there would 
 be just such objections in Japan if scores of thousands of 
 American laborers were to settle down there and compete 
 with the native laborers. 
 
 377. Place of Women. — The first societies for women's 
 rights began nearly a hundred years ago, and were intended to 
 secure for women greater control of their own property and 
 children. The next step was the better education of girls, in 
 common schools, then in public high schools, then in most of 
 the western colleges and universities (§ 248), and in some 
 eastern ones. A special group of colleges, of which Vassar 
 was the first, was founded for the separate college educa- 
 tion of girls. " Coordinate colleges " w^ere founded alongside 
 Harvard, Columbia, Western Reserve, and some other men's 
 universities. 
 
 Better education fitted women for new chances of business 
 
PLACK OF WOMKN 
 
 473 
 
 and cinploNHK'nt, and nian\- became inspectors, clerks, ste- 
 nographers, librarians, sali'swonicn, bookkeepers, and man- 
 agers and owners of stores. Factories took from the home 
 many of the old-fashioned industries, such as spinning, weav- 
 ing, and making clothing. This set free great numbers of 
 women who found employment in the textile mills and in 
 
 Wellesley College for women. The main building here shown was erected in 1876 
 
 Other lines of work not requiring great manual strength. 
 A few women became lawyers, doctors, ministers, architects, 
 journalists, and college professors. In some states, after 
 1869, women were given the right to vote on the same terms 
 as men, beginning in the frontier states where women took a 
 large part in the new settlements. 
 
 Education, votes, and employment for women all depended 
 upon a growing belief that they had an important part in 
 public and commercial life, and that they must take a new 
 place in the work of making the United States great. There- 
 fore women were chosen as managers of charitable societies, 
 as presidents of women's colleges, as workers in social settle- 
 ments; and in some states they became superintendents of 
 city schools and of state school systems and even members of 
 
 hart's sen. HIST. 27 
 
474 
 
 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE 
 
 Frances E. Willard 
 
 legislatures. Some of them, such 
 as Frances E. Willard and Jane 
 Addams, headed reform move- 
 ments. 
 
 378. Labor. — No questions 
 were more serious from 1890 to 
 I9l6than those concerning labor. 
 Employees felt that nothing but 
 organizations of the workmen 
 could resist combinations of the 
 employers ; so as fast as the trusts 
 grew, labor unions also grew. 
 Various attempts were made to 
 unite these workmen's organizations. The American Federa- 
 tion of Labor took in most of the skilled trades (§ 338). In 
 the Rocky Mountain section the Western Federation of 
 Miners controlled the local miners' unions in many regions. 
 Special unions were formed to protect workers in the " sweat 
 shop " industries, carried on in dwellings, at low wages and 
 in poor conditions. 
 
 The rivalry between big interests and labor unions led to 
 many violent strikes. In 1902 an informal commission was 
 appointed, which successfully settled a strike of the coal 
 miners in eastern Pennsylvania. Two years later the miners 
 and the state authorities in Colorado came almost to civil 
 war. Many strikes occurred among the employees of traction 
 companies, and passengers who continued to use the cars 
 were often badly handled. Some unions did their best to 
 keep their members orderly; but the hoodlums of the cities 
 made use of the excitement of strikes to fight, and resisted 
 the police as well as the militia which were called out. 
 
 These organized efforts by laborers and their friends, to- 
 gether with other causes, brought about such important results 
 as higher wages, shorter hours of labor, and weekly payments; 
 state and national laws limiting child labor, requiring proper 
 safeguards in the use of dangerous machinery, and providing 
 for compensation to be paid for injuries or death of workmen, 
 caused by their work. 
 
LABOR AND EDUCATION 475 
 
 379. Societies. — Societies of all kinds flourished in these 
 prosperous times. The great secret orders grew (§ 200) and 
 several new ones sprang up, such as the Elks, the Moose, and 
 the Catholic order of the Knights of Columbus. Politicians 
 founded societies and clubs of their friends and followers. 
 Reform societies were established to spread information on 
 such questions as child labor, the short ballot, and prison 
 management. The descendants of soldiers of Colonial wars 
 and the Revolutionary War, the War of 1812, the Mexican 
 War, and the Civil War formed patriotic orders. It was an 
 era of societies. 
 
 One of the most striking things at this time was the way in 
 which the country took up the idea that people who had the 
 same interests ought to join in national associations. Not 
 only the labor men but the employers formed unions which 
 met from time to time in mass meetings or in conventions of 
 delegates, to decide upon their course of action. The ministers, 
 doctors, engineers, and men and women of many other callings 
 formed great national societies, some of which had thousands 
 of members. Some of the fraternal orders counted more than 
 a million members, including subordinate societies of women 
 and young men. An example of the great national societies 
 was the National Education Association which was started in 
 1857; in 1900 it had only 2500 members, but in 1915, the 
 active paying membership was 7000 and the annual meetings 
 were attended by as many as 13,000. 
 
 380. Education and Literature. — To supplement the older 
 kinds of schools (§ 247), public evening schools and continua- 
 tion schools were organized; free public libraries furnished 
 reading matter for pupils and those who could not attend 
 school. Some states like Wisconsin provided traveling li- 
 braries sent from community to community. The endowed 
 and state universities nearly all added scientific schools or 
 departments, which taught science, engineering, architecture, 
 and like subjects, and opened their doors to women. The 
 agricultural colleges provided classes in cattle feeding, butter 
 making, stock judging, and the study of soils and seeds. 
 The great expositions, such as those in Chicago in 1893, in St. 
 
476 
 
 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE 
 
 Louis in 1904, and in San Francisco in 1915, did much to edu- 
 cate the people. Education was thought to be no longer a 
 matter s mply of books and memory, but of training in 
 practical things. 
 
 The " Tower of Jewels " and other buildings at the Panama-Pacific Exposition, 
 San Francisco 
 
 For the reading of the community, a new literature of cheap 
 newspapers sprang up, containing a vast amount of informa- 
 tion about the world. To the old-fashioned magazines were 
 added ten cent and fifteen cent magazines full of pictures, and 
 made to pay by a great number of advertisements. 
 
 A new feature of school and college life was organized athlet- 
 ics. The simple friendly games of baseball or football, or 
 contests in rowing, gave way to elaborate uniforms and prac- 
 tice grounds and coaches, to prepare for games which were 
 sometimes witnessed by 50,000 people. It was fun, it did 
 some good to athletics, and it encouraged boys and girls to like 
 outdoor life. Rowing, swimming, tennis, golf, basket ball, 
 baseball, football, soccer — all took up too much of the pupils' 
 time, but helped to make healthy bodies. 
 
 381. Summary. — This chapter deals with the social con- 
 ditions and life of the people during the early part of the 
 twentieth century. 
 
 The population of the United States rose by IQ16 to over a 
 hundred millions, nearly one third of them in cities. Immi- 
 
SUMMARY AND REFERENCES 477 
 
 grants were numerous, mostly from eastern Europe, and some 
 efforts were nuide to reduce the annual number. The Chinese 
 immigration was diminishing, the Japanese increasing. There 
 was hostihty to the Chinese and the Japanese on the Pacific 
 coast. 
 
 Women were admitted to colleges and schools, and more 
 and more employments were opened to them. 
 
 Labor organizations grew fast and secured for their mem- 
 bers many benefits, such as higher wages, shorter hours, and 
 improved methods of protecting life and health. 
 
 Social clubs and orders grew, and also literary and scientific 
 societies. Education of every kind flourished. The schools 
 were aided by libraries and special courses; and athletics in- 
 terested school and college students. 
 
 The " Old Yale Fence " around the college campus. From a painting by A. C« 
 Howland, N. A. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Sanford, Am. Hist. Maps, no. 31. 
 
 Histories. Am. Year Book, beginning 1910. — Fish, Dev. of Am. 
 Nation., ch. xxviii. — Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, 241-245. — 
 International Year Book, beginning \ear 1898. — Moore, Industrial Hist., 
 273-298. — Southworth, Builders of Our Country, II. ch. x.wiii. 
 
 Sources. Hart, Contemporaries, W. §§ 206-209; Source Book, 
 §§ 139, 145. — Articles on .American lif^ in monthly, weekly, and daily 
 periodicals. 
 
478 THE PEOPLE'S LIFE 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Abbott, Autobiography. — Addams, Hull- 
 House. — Antin, Promised Land. — Carleton, One Way Out. — Hartt, 
 People at Play. — Hecker, Woman's Rights. — McKeever, Farm Boys 
 and Girls. — Paine, College Years; Greater America. — Richardson, 
 Long Day (Working girl). — Riis, Children of the Poor; How the Other 
 Half Lives. — St. Nicholas (magazine). — Van Vorst, Woman who Toils. — • 
 Wyckoff, The Workers. 
 
 Pictures. American Forestry. — American Mag. — Century. — Cos- 
 mopolitan. — Harper's. — Independent. — Mentor, serial nos. 55, 67, 93 
 109, III. — Metropolitan. — ■ Munsey's. — National Parks Portfolio. — 
 National Geogr. Mag. — Nat. Geogr. Soc, Washington, the Nation's 
 Capital. — Outlook. — Review of Reviews. — Scientific American. — Scrib- 
 ner's. — Survey. — World's Work. — See also refs. to ch. xxxvi. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 374) I- How was the population distributed in 1916? 2. How did 
 the growth of population affect the cities? 
 
 (§ 375) 3- Of what races were the immigrants after 1890? 4. What 
 emigration was there from the United States? 5 (For an essay). The 
 different race elements in some one city. 6. What part of the population 
 was not descended from English ancestors? 7. How did the immigrants, 
 find work? 8. How was immigration reduced? 9 (For an essay). A 
 visit to an immigrant station. 
 
 (§ 376) 10. How did the Japanese and Chinese come in? 11 (For an 
 essay). A Chinese quarter in some city. 12. How were the Japanese and 
 Chinese received? 
 
 (§ 2>n) 13- How did the women get higher education? 14 (For an 
 essay). Life in a woman's college. 15. What new occupations were 
 opened to women? 16. How did women come to be leaders in public 
 affairs? 
 
 (§ 378) 17. How did the labor organizations prosper? 18. How were 
 strikes carried on? 19 (For an essay). A strike in some city. 20. What 
 improvements were made in labor conditions? 
 
 (§ 379) 21. How did societies and fraternities spring up? 22. How 
 were national organizations formed? 
 
 (§ 380) 23. What aids to public education were provided? 24. What 
 cheap reading matter arose? 25. How did organized athletics come about? 
 26 (For an essay). Early baseball. 
 
CHAPTER XXXVI 
 
 NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 (1890-1916) 
 
 382. States and Territories. — The rapid growth of popula- 
 tion spread to the far West, and between 1896 and 19 12 four 
 new states were admitted to the Union, as follows: 
 
 (i) Utah was admitted in 1896 (45th state) with a constitu- 
 tion which forever forbade polygamy. The population was 
 240,000. Utah had many valuable mines and some fruitful 
 land; and it was the first state to make large use of irrigation. 
 
 (2) The two adjoining territories of Oklahoma and Indian 
 Territory were in 1907 combined and admitted as Oklahoma 
 (the 46th state) with about 1,000,000 inhabitants. This was 
 a rich region, abounding in timber, coal, and oil, and fertile for 
 raising wheat, corn, fruit, tobacco, and cotton. When the 
 lands there were first opened for settlement, beginning in 1889, 
 there was a helter-skelter rush from the border, and the ter- 
 ritory filled up fast. The 150,000 Indians gave up their tribal 
 rights and lands (1910-1914); thus they became citizens and 
 formed the first large body of Indian voters. 
 
 (3) New Mexico had been a territory ever since 1850 
 (§ 240). A large portion of the people were of Mexican 
 blood. Part of the territory was desert, but there were rich 
 mines and some good land, especially for cattle raising. New 
 Mexico was admitted in 1912, as the 47th state, with about 
 300,000 people. 
 
 (4) Arizona, a mining and cattle-ranching territory, had less 
 available land than New Mexico, either for raising crops or for 
 cattle. There were no large rivers in the state, except the 
 Colorado, which is not much used for irrigation, but the 
 Grand Canyon of the Colorado is one of the most magni- 
 ficent places on earth (§§ i, 304). The dry and bracing 
 
 479 
 
I I Corn 
 I I Whcst 
 
 (ZZ) Rk= 
 
482 NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 
 climate of the state makes it a resort for those who need and 
 love open-air life. The population when the state was ad- 
 mitted in 1 91 2 was about 200,000. 
 
 With the admission of Arizona as the 48th state the last 
 of the territories disappeared from the so-called " continental 
 area " of the United States; but the Hawaiian Islands were 
 a territory; Porto Rico was a kind of territory; and Alaska 
 was made a regular territory with a legislature in 1912. This 
 immense region with its 591,000 square miles had then only 
 about 64,000 people. By that time the placer gold in the 
 mountain streams was about all taken, but very rich deep gold 
 mines had been opened. Along the southern coast of the terri- 
 tory, copper and valuable coal mines were discovered. Should 
 the mines develop as is expected, Alaska will sometime prob- 
 ably become a state in the Union. Next in value to the 
 mines were the coast and river fisheries. 
 
 383. Conservation (1900-19 16). — In the discussions on 
 the admission of new states and the management of Alaska the 
 question was raised whether the United States was doing the 
 best thing for the interests of the country by turning over to 
 private owners such quantities of public land. From the 
 earliest colonial days it v/as the theory that the buyer of land 
 owned all the timber that grew on it, all the minerals, oil, 
 and gas below the soil, and all the water power in the streams. 
 By 1 910 the government had given away or sold nearly all the 
 good farming or cattle land, but it still held immense areas of 
 mountains and deserts in which there were gold, silver, coal, 
 oil, and other minerals, some timber, and many magnificent 
 water powers. 
 
 About 1900 a movement began called " conservation," the 
 purpose of which was to prevent the government from turning 
 over these valuable things in the former reckless fashion. 
 The conservationists demanded that such lands should be 
 reserved; or if they were sold, the buyer should pay a price 
 that would cover the special advantages. 
 
 (i) In the western mountain districts the rivers were liable 
 to floods in winter and spring, and some of them ran almost dry 
 in summer. Why not build reservoirs, and distribute the 
 
CONSERVATION 
 
 483 
 
 water through irrigation canals to lands that otherwise could 
 not be tilled? This idea was taken up by Congress in the 
 Newlands Act (1902), which provided that all the proceeds from 
 sales of lands in the western states might be applied to building 
 reservoirs and canals. In the next thirteen years about 
 $100,000,000 was thus expended. Land thus supplied with 
 unfailing water sold as high as $40 an acre. 
 
 (2) Reservations of areas containing magnificent scenery 
 began as early as 1872; among them were such areas as 
 the Yosemite and Yellow- 
 stone parks, the Big Trees 
 of California, Pyramid 
 Lake, Mount Rainier, and 
 Glacier Park. 
 
 (3) Fearful waste had 
 taken place in the forests. 
 The government laid a price 
 of $10 an iicrc on lands that 
 had been specially called 
 timber land; but private 
 parties often stole the tim- 
 ber from government lands. 
 To stop the waste, the gov- 
 ernment began (1891) to 
 reserve national forests 
 which were extended till 
 they covered an area larger 
 than Texas. 
 
 (4) Coal lands were also supposed to be reserved, but were 
 often bought as farm land. In 1910 Congress decided that the 
 coal, oil, and gas beneath any lands sold thenceforth should 
 remain the property of the government when land was sold. 
 
 (5) Water powers in the mountains were not valuable till 
 the invention of a method for carrying electric power long 
 distances by wires. Then investors began to buy up falls and 
 rapids wherever they could be found. The federal govern- 
 ment, the state of New York, and the Dominion of Canada 
 together arranged for taking part of the water from Niagara 
 
 (c) U nderii'ood cr" L'nderuood 
 Cutting down a giant Sequoia tree, California 
 
484 NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 
 Falls for power. A dam was built at Keokuk on the Mississippi 
 River; the fall was only a few feet but the great quantity of 
 water made it valuable. Congress finally (1916) adopted the 
 principle that it would not sell or grant the water powers that 
 were then on public lands, but would lease such powers to 
 private users for terms not longer than fifty years. 
 
 The real reason for conservation was that the American 
 people had waked up to the fact that the nation owned 
 property and privileges worth .thousands of millions and that 
 they ought to be saved for the people then living and for later 
 generations, and not turned over to make a comparatively 
 small number of people rich. 
 
 384. Ballot Reform (1890-1916). — This desire to give the 
 good things to all the people and not to a few made itself felt 
 also in politics and parties. There was a feeling that somehow 
 the people did not have their own way, that the voting system 
 was clumsy and lent itself to fraud, that parties were managed 
 by a few persons, and that the voters had to accept the candi- 
 dates and the platforms set up for them by others. 
 
 Down to 1890, in all American elections tickets were printed 
 and distributed by the parties, and men were employed as 
 ticket peddlers at the polls. Crowds gathered about the ballot 
 boxes and sometimes honest voters were not allowed to ap- 
 proach. To reform this great abuse the so-called " Australian 
 ballot " system was devised by which the tickets for each 
 election — usually all on one big ballot — were printed by 
 authority of the state government for each election. This 
 ballot contained the names of all the people who had been 
 nominated for ofifice by all parties, and the voter marked 
 upon it with a pencil cross the candidates or the ticket for 
 which he wished to vote. None but the officials, and the 
 voters while casting their votes, were to remain near the 
 polls. New efforts were made to shut out fraudulent voters 
 who might try to vote on the names of the real voters. 
 
 Both the old ballot and the Australian ballot contained too 
 many names. In some states there are thirty or forty ofiticers 
 to be voted on at each election. To meet this difificulty a 
 reform was pushed called the " short ballot," w^hich simply 
 
Tin-: BALLOT AND THE SUFFRAGE 485 
 
 meant that the states and cities ought to put a very small num- 
 ber of officers before the people at each election ; and that the 
 other officers ought to be appointed by the governor or mayor. 
 This, it was thought, would bring out stronger candidates, for 
 all parties would try to put up their strongest men, and men 
 who were known throughout the state or city. 
 
 385. Changes in the Suffrage (1869 1916). — The question 
 of the ballot was closely connected with the question, who may 
 cast a ballot. In the United States most of the states allowed 
 "manhood suffrage " ; that is, any man could vote if he were a 
 citizen of the United States, were twenty-one years old, and 
 were not criminal or insane. A few states allowed no one to 
 N'ote who could not read and write; and a few others required 
 the payment of a small tax. Then, after 1890, seven of the 
 southern states eidopted new cjualifications intended to prevent 
 many of the negroes from voting. Whenever foreign men were 
 naturalized, they enjoyed the suffrage on the same terms as 
 native born citizens; and if their state had no educational 
 qualifications, they might vote, though they could not speak a 
 w^ord of English. 
 
 A part of the early movement for women's rights (§377) 
 was a demand for '' Votes for Women," which had been going 
 on for half a century. In 1869, woman suffrage was granted 
 by Wyoming, which had a small population, containing more 
 men than women. Colorado, Utah, Idaho, Washington, Cal- 
 ifornia, Arizona, Kansas, Oregon, Nevada, Montana, New 
 York, and the territory of Alaska followed. So that in 1918 
 women could vote on the same terms as men in twelve states 
 and one territory, out of forty-eight states and two territories. 
 In addition, in Illinois and several other states, women were 
 given the right to \ote for presidential electors and for some 
 state and local officers. In many other states women exercised 
 the right to vote for school officers or in local and city affairs. 
 
 In states where women could vote on the same terms as 
 men, they could also be elected to the legislatures and to 
 other offices. Man>- women were made superintendents of 
 countx', cit\', or state schools by election. In some states 
 thoN' sat on juries. A woman ineniber of Congress was 
 
486 NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 
 elected from Montana in 1916. Woman suffrage made little 
 difference with the relative strength of the political parties, 
 but it put a pressure on state governments to make reforms 
 that women believed to be needed. 
 
 386. Commission Government for Cities. — The principle 
 of the short ballot applied also in commission governments for 
 
 cities. In 1910 nearly a 
 third of the people of the 
 United States were living 
 in cities or towns, and 
 hardly a single one of those 
 governments was as well 
 managed as most private 
 corporations. 
 
 The cities laid out broad 
 streets, parks, and boule- 
 vards, put up magnificent 
 buildings and bridges, 
 spent large sums for light- 
 ing, sewerage, police, fire 
 protection, and schools, yet 
 used poor and wasteful 
 methods. The city of 
 New York raised and spent 
 about one fifth as much as 
 the national government, 
 and still had dirty streets. 
 The main trouble was that 
 the city governments were 
 clumsy and often 'fell into 
 the hands of politicians 
 who had not the ability or the public spirit to carry on 
 such immense affairs. Most of the cities were tangled up in 
 a complicated form of government. They had too many 
 councilrnen, too many aldermen, too many separate depart- 
 ments, such as streets, fire, police, or public property. The 
 cities spent too much money and gave the public too little in 
 return for their taxes. 
 
 
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CITY GOVERNMENT 
 
 487 
 
 
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 How could the municipal power be made more simple and 
 direct? In 1900 the people of Galveston, Texas, in order to 
 restore their city after a fearful storm, asked the state to give 
 them a commission of five men who should vote all the city 
 ordinances, manage eill 
 the city departments, lay 
 all the city taxes, spend 
 all the city money, and 
 appoint all the other city 
 officers. This " commis- 
 sion government" worked 
 so well that the idea 
 rapidly spread. Within 
 fifteen years it was in 
 operation in about 400 
 cities in all parts of the 
 Union. By this method, 
 if anything went wrong, 
 the failure came right home 
 to the commissioners. 
 
 337. Nominating Conventions and Primary Elections. — 
 Long experience showed that it was almost impossible to elect 
 any one to office who was not nominated beforehand by some 
 party. Whoever could control the party nominations could 
 therefore decide who should come before the voters. The 
 usual way of nominating was by conventions of delegates; and 
 shrewd party managers often controlled such delegates. 
 
 To meet this difficulty a system called the " direct primary " 
 was introduced, by which the voters belonging to a particular 
 party voted directly for one or another candidate for nomina- 
 tion. This took place at an election carried on under state 
 laws, and the men who received the most votes in the primary 
 of any particular party would be placed on the ballot as the 
 candidate of that party at the regular election. This new 
 method rapidly spread to nominations of members of the legis- 
 lature, and other state-elected officers, to Congressmen and 
 even to Senators; and it has been suggested for the nomina- 
 tion of Presidents. 
 
 The wreckage, after a fearful storm, at 
 Galveston; Texas 
 
488 NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 
 Notwithstanding the wide use of the primary, it did not 
 work perfectly. Obscure men often i)ushed themselves for- 
 ward, especially for the small offices. The most serious 
 difficulty was that only a part of the voters, sometimes less 
 than one fourth, would take the trouble to go to the primary 
 election; though a good number would turn up at the regular 
 election. 
 
 388. Parties and Bosses. — Where the state governments 
 made up an official ballot, some state official had to decide what 
 candidate was nominated by each party, and that brought the 
 parties and their organization under some control by the state. 
 The parties were all managed by national, state, city, county, 
 ward, or township political committees, which in most cases 
 practically elected themselves. 
 
 Above and behind the committees were the party leaders, 
 often called " bosses." Some of them held office for a time 
 as members of city councils, mayors, members of legislatures, 
 governors, or members of Congress. Others, and some of the 
 most important, never held any office. They -managed 
 elections, raised money, distributed offices, and decided who 
 should be put on the party tickets for election. 
 
 Some bosses were public-spirited men who aimed only to 
 bring out the vote and keep their party on the safe side, for 
 no popular government can be kept going in a big country 
 like ours without parties and political organization. Other 
 bosses, however, were corrupt leaders who were chiefly con- 
 cerned with making money out of politics. 
 
 389. Initiative, Referendum, and RecaU. — The boss sys- 
 tem extended to the legislatures and city councils. 
 
 Under the influence of bosses, legislatures sometimes passed 
 bills which their constituents did not like, or refused to pass 
 bills for which there was a strong public desire. There was, 
 however, a well-known way in which certain laws could be 
 passed over the heads of the legislators; the people could 
 vote on adopting constitutions which had been framed by a 
 convention and had never been passed on by legislatures 
 (§ no). Why not apply the same method to ordinary 
 laws? 
 
NEW POLITICAL METHODS 489 
 
 This system, which was commonly called the " referendum," 
 had been used in some foreign countries, and also for some 
 state laws; for instance, in \otes on "local option" — the 
 question of allowing the sale of liquor in a given city or district. 
 Beginning with South Dakota in 1898, the states began to 
 provide by their constitutions that an act passed by the legis- 
 lature must be voted on at a popular election before it went 
 intt) effect, if a sufhcient number of voters demanded that it 
 be so submitted. This was called "compulsory referendum." 
 
 What could be done in case a legislature refused to take 
 action which the people wished? To meet this case the " in- 
 itiative" was suggested; that is, an informal group of citizens, 
 usually fi\e or ten per cent of the xoters, might join in propos- 
 ing what they thought a proper law or constitutional amend- 
 ment. At the next election the people would have an oppor- 
 tunity to vote for or against it, without its going through the 
 legislature at all. In 19 15 nineteen states had introduced the 
 referendum and eighteen had added the initiative. A diffi- 
 culty in using the initiative and referendum was that voters 
 would not turn out in large numbers for a special election; 
 and if the propositions were to be voted on at a regular 
 election, thousands of men would vote for President, gov^- 
 ernor, and mayor, but would neglect to express an opinion 
 upon the referendum on laws or constitutional amend- 
 ments. 
 
 The initiative and the referendum were expected to secure 
 for the people the laws that they wanted. Could the same 
 principle be applied to an elective official who neglected his 
 duty or defied the laws? One way was to refuse to reelect 
 such officials; their terms were short, and they would soon 
 come to the end of their service. In some states a quicker 
 method was found in the " recall "; by this plan such officials 
 might be obliged at any time to submit to a special election, 
 which decided whether somebody else should take their 
 places. The recall was first applied to holders of small 
 offices, then to mayors of cities in Washington and California. 
 Up to 19 1 6 the rec.ill had never been used against governors 
 or other high executive officers, although such use is possible 
 
49() NEW PROBLEMS FOR AMERICANS TO SOLVE 
 
 in several states. In a few states the system also applied to 
 judges. 
 
 390. Summary. — This chapter describes new problems in 
 the public welfare and in political methods, and the novel 
 methods of the initiative, referendum, and recall. 
 
 Between 1896 and 1912 the four remaining territories in 
 the main part of the United States — Utah, Oklahoma, New 
 Mexico, and Arizona — all became states. Alaska, the Ha- 
 waiian Islands, and Porto Rico became territories. In the 
 West there was a movement for conservation: this meant the 
 holding by the government of timber and coal lands, and 
 sites for water powers and irrigation works. 
 
 Political methods were altered by the Australian ballot and 
 short-ballot systems; the suffrage in many states was ex- 
 tended to women. Commission governments were set up for 
 many cities. In politics the direct primary took the place 
 of the convention in many states. This was one of several 
 measures intended to cut down the power of political bosses. 
 
 Another method was to introduce the initiative, or popular 
 vote on law^s that had not gone to the legislature; and the 
 referendum, or popular vote on measures that had passed 
 the legislature. Several states provided for the recall of 
 public oflficers. 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Hart, Monroe Doctrine frontis; Wall Maps, nos. 20, 22, 24. 
 
 Histories. Am. Year Book, 1910-1916. — Bassett, Un. States, 711- 
 712. — Beard, Contemporary Hist., 283-296. — Bogart, Economic Hist., 
 ch. xxxiii. — Coman, Industrial Hist., ch. xi. — Moore, Industrial Hist., 
 54-60. — Paxson, New iVa/iow, 242-251, 290-334. 
 
 Sources. Beard, Readings in Am. Government, §§ 37, 45, 52-54, 162- 
 228. — Beard and Shultz, Documents on .State-wide Initiative. — Hart, 
 Contemporaries, IV. §§197, 198-200, 202. — James, Readings, §104. — 
 Monthly and weekly periodicals; newspapers. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Dunne, Mr. Dooley (several volumes). — 
 Foote, Chosen Valley (Irrigation). — Oilman, In This Our World (Verse). — 
 Irwin, Random Rhymes, etc. — Luther, The Henchtnan. — Roosevelt, 
 Autobiography. — Wright, Winning of Barbara Worth (Reclamation). 
 
 Pictures. Cartoons and other illustrations in: Collier's; Harper's 
 Weekly; Independent; Literary Digest; Outlook; Review of Reviews; 
 World's Work, etc. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 49 1 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§ 382) I. How was Utah admitted to the Union? 2 (For an essay). 
 A visit to Salt Lake City. 3. How was Oklahoma admitted? 4 (For an 
 essay). A visit to Oklahoma. 5. How was New Mexico admitted? 6. 
 How was Arizona admitted? 7 (For an essay). A visit to the Grand 
 Canyon of the Colorado. 8. How were the new territories organized? 
 9 (For an essay). A visit to Honolulu. 
 
 (§ 383) 10. To whom did minerals, water power, etc., belong? 11. 
 What is "conservation"? 12. How was irrigation provided? 13. What 
 were the reservations of scenery? 14 (For an essay). A visit to Glacier 
 National Park. 15. How were coal, oil, and gas reserved? 16. How was 
 water power reserved? 
 
 (§ 384) 17. Why were people dissatisfied with politics? 18. What was 
 the "Australian ballot" reform? 19. What was the "short-ballot" re- 
 form? 
 
 (§385) 20. What were the conditions of suffrage? 21. How did woman 
 suffrage come about? 22. What offices could women hold? 
 
 (§ 386) 23. How were cities governed? 24. What were the difficulties 
 of city government? 25. What was "commission government"? 
 
 (§ 387) 26. What were the difficulties of nominations to office? 27. 
 What was the "direct primary"? 28 (For an essay). An old-fashioned 
 nominating convention. 29. What were the defects of the primary? 
 
 (§ 388) 30. How were parties connected with the governments? 31. 
 What were "bosses"? 
 
 (§ 389) 32. What was the "referendum"? 33. What was the "com- 
 pulsory referendum"? 34. What was the "initiative"? 35 How did 
 the initiative and referendum progress? 36. What was the "recall"? 
 
CHAPTER XXXVII 
 
 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT (1905-1917) 
 
 391. President Roosevelt (1905-1909). — With the begin- 
 ning of Roosevelt's second term in 1905 came a period of great 
 changes in government and poHtics. No previous President 
 had shown such an interest in individuals, talked so freely 
 about his policies, traveled so widely, and made so many 
 speeches. The President felt that he had a majority of the 
 people behind him, and he took up the idea that the federal 
 government must further regulate the trusts and monopolies 
 and keep " big business " in order. 
 
 Steamer passing through the Gatun Locks, in the Panama Canal. The ship is towed by 
 electric engines on the tracks at each side 
 
 He was also active in foreign affairs, whether in Europe, Asia, 
 or America. In 1905, when a fierce war was going on between 
 the Russians and the Japanese in Manchuria, which was a part 
 of China, he arranged for a conference between envoys of the 
 two hostile powers at Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and they 
 made a peace acceptable to both parties. 
 
 492 
 
ROOSEVELT VXD TAFT 
 
 493 
 
 President Roosevelt was also much interested in South 
 American and Central American affairs. In 1902 and 1906 
 delegates were sent to Pan-American Congresses at Mexico 
 and Rio de Janeiro. Secretar>- Hay (§§ 355, 362) died in 1905, 
 and his successor, Elihu Root, made a brilliant Secretary of 
 State and was warmly received b\- the South Americans. 
 
 The President and his successor, President Taft, were 
 especially interested in the work on the Panama Canal. The 
 work was finally placed under the engineering management of 
 Major Goethals of the 
 United States Army, 
 and he soon " made the 
 dirt fly." The health 
 of the employees was 
 cared for by Colonel 
 Gorgas, who showed 
 great skill in saving the 
 workmen from malaria 
 and yellow fever, the 
 two deadly foes of man 
 in the tropics. In 1912 
 Congress began to con- 
 struct the necessary 
 forts to protect the 
 canal. In 1914 the 
 canal was opened for 
 traffic, having cost the 
 United States about 
 $400,000,000. It was 
 
 one of the largest and best engineering works in the world 
 and was designed to serve an immense commerce. 
 
 392. President Taft (1909-1913). — As the election of 1908 
 approached. President Roosevelt declined to consider the 
 suggestion made by some of his friends that he should stand 
 for a third term; and he put forward as his candidate William 
 H. Taft of Ohio, who was nominated without difficulty by the 
 Republicans. Bryan, who by this time was convinced that 
 tree silver was not necessary, was for a third time the Demo- 
 
 HART S SCU. HIST. — 28 
 
 William Howard Taft 
 
494 POLITICAL DEXELOPMENT 
 
 cratic candidate and gained several states for the Democrats 
 which Parker did not carry in 1904. Taft, however, was 
 elected by a plurality of a million and a quarter votes. 
 
 The new President was well trained for his high office. 
 He had been a United States judge, governor-general of the 
 Philippine Islands, and Secretary of War under Roosevelt. 
 He was a genial, broad-minded man, who liked to go about the 
 country and meet the people. Throughout his administration 
 he did his best to regulate the railroads and to prosecute the 
 trusts (§ 371), but he was against his will drawn into a con- 
 troversy about the tariff. 
 
 Some of the members of Congress from the strong Republi- 
 can states of the Northwest, especially Minnesota, had for 
 years been urging a lower rate of duty; and there was a wide- 
 spread feeling that the protected interests had been too in- 
 fluential in the framing of the McKinley tariff of 1890 and the 
 Dingley tariff of 1897 (§ 350), which was then in force. 
 
 The Republican majority in Congress therefore passed the 
 Payne- Aldrich tariff (1909), named for the chairmen of the 
 House and Senate committees that framed it. Their bill 
 decreased some duties, but raised others, especially those on 
 cotton goods. Some of the discontented Republicans voted 
 against the bill, and President Taft hesitated to sign it. 
 Finally he accepted it, and afterwards in public speeches said 
 it was the best tariff that the country ever had. Protection 
 thus became again an issue between the two great parties. 
 
 393. Insurgents and Progressives (1909-1912). — The low- 
 tariff Republicans, with a few other discontented Republi- 
 cans, were called " Insurgents," and the regular Republicans 
 were called "Standpatters." From 1910 to 1912 the In- 
 surgent Republicans called themselves " Progressive Repub- 
 licans " and carried several states, especially Minnesota and 
 California. In 191 1 "Colonel Roosevelt," as the ex-Presi- 
 dent was usually called, joined this movement. 
 
 When the presidential campaign of 1912 came on, the Stand- 
 pat Republicans supported the renomination of President Taft, 
 and the Progressive Republicans organized in support of 
 Roosevelt. The result was that in the Republican nominating 
 
ELECTION OF 1912 
 
 495 
 
 Capitol at Washington, the meeting place of Congress 
 
 convention in Chicago there were two wings contending with 
 each other to get the majority of the convention for their can- 
 didate. From several states two rival delegations appeared. 
 Taft was nominated. The Roosevelt delegates in the con- 
 vention and others organized a new Progressive party, held 
 a separate convention, and nominated Roosevelt on a plat- 
 form supporting many radical measures. 
 
 The Democratic convention was much under the influence 
 of William J. Bryan; and it nominated Woodrow Wilson, 
 governor of New Jersey. 
 
 A whirlwind campaign followed, much like that of 1840 
 (§ 232). The main questions were the tariff, the doctrines of 
 the Progressives, the characters of the three candidates, and 
 the question whether Roosevelt ought to ha\c a third term 
 as President. The result was the choice of Wilson, who re- 
 ceived 6,300,000 votes and carried forty out of the forty- 
 eight states; and the Democrats obtained control of both 
 Houses of Congress. Roosevelt had 4.100,000 votes; Taft, 
 3,500,000; and Debs, the Socialist candidate, 900,000. 
 
 394. President Wilson. — Woodrow Wilson was the first 
 President since Andrew Johnson who had been born in the 
 South; but he had spent most of his life in the northern 
 states. After holding professorships in several colleges, he 
 became president of Princeton University. In igii he was 
 elected as a Democratic reform governor of New Jersey, and 
 
496 
 
 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 niiidc such an impression on that doubtful state that he was 
 put forward for the presidency. He was a strong and per- 
 suasive writer and speaker on poHtics, and had a reputation 
 
 for courage and de- 
 cision. In the 
 campaign of 191 2 
 he used the phrase 
 the " new free- 
 dom," by which 
 he meant govern- 
 ment by the people 
 and vigor in deal- 
 ing with powerful 
 corporations; and 
 he shared the gen- 
 eral dislike of the 
 Democratic party 
 for the Payne-Al- 
 drich tariff of 1909. 
 The President's 
 general political 
 \'iews were held by 
 William J. Bryan, 
 who was made the 
 Secretary of State. 
 Mr. Bryan had 
 taken no previous 
 ofificial part in the 
 national government except four years as a member of the 
 House from Nebraska. He had, however, three times been 
 the candidate of his party for the presidency (§§ 353, 361, 392) 
 and had large influence throughout the country and within the 
 party. In 191 5 he resigned his place in the Cabinet and was 
 succeeded b>' Robert Lansing. 
 
 395. Tariff and Income Tax (1913). — Congress was called 
 in special session to revise the tariff; and under the leadership 
 of Oscar W. Underwood of Alabama, Chairman of the Ways 
 and Means Committee and leader of the Democrats in the 
 
 Woodrow Wilson 
 
WILSON'S ADMIXISTRATION' . 497 
 
 House, the Democrats framed a hill which considerably 
 lowered the duties. President Wilson revived the method of 
 making speeches direct to the members of the two Houses 
 (§ 150). His influence was great enough to turn the scale 
 and the Underwood tariff was passed (1913) with a decidedly 
 lower scale of duties. 
 
 A Sixteenth Amendment to the Federal Constitution was 
 adopted (1913), giving Congress full power to lay an income 
 tax. Consequently, to the Underwood tariff was added a 
 tax on all incomes in excess of $3000 ($4000 for husband and 
 wife) with higher rates for very large incomes. 
 
 Another long-pending change was included in the Seven- 
 teenth Amendment (adopted 1913), which required that the 
 United States Senators should thereafter be chosen by direct 
 popular vote instead of by the legislatures. 
 
 396. Federal Reserve System and Trade Commission 
 (1907-1914). — For some years the country had realized that 
 the banking system and bank notes of 1862 (§ 284) no longer 
 met the needs of the country, and leading Senators and 
 Representatives prepared a bill for a more flexible plan. 
 
 This idea was taken up by the Democratic Congress. 
 Under the leadership of President Wilson it created an elabo- 
 rate Reserve System (191 3) by which the national banks 
 were organized into groups, the whole governed by a central 
 banking board appointed by the President. The new system 
 was intended to aid small borrowers, especially in the country, 
 and to enable the banks to help each other in time of need. 
 
 The country, as well as the Democratic party itself, was 
 divided as to whether there was need of any further laws to 
 regulate the trusts. The railroads were under the Interstate 
 Commerce Commission and the Sherman Antitrust Act of 
 1890 (§371). AH corporations which did an interstate busi- 
 ness were paying taxes to the government and had to carry 
 on business under the Sherman Act. Nobody knew just 
 what that act meant, and President Wilson led the Democrats 
 in passing the act for a Trade Commission (§ 371), which was 
 to have power to investigate corporations that were suspected 
 of being trusts and to prevent their getting monopolies of busi- 
 
498 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 ness. This act closed for the time being a long series of federal 
 laws beginning with the Interstate Commerce Act in 1887. 
 It was followed in 1916 by the Child Labor Act (§ 371). 
 Altogether about twenty different statutes had been passed 
 for the better control of trusts of various kinds. 
 
 397. The Philippines. — Another troublesome question was 
 what to do with the Philippine Islands. Many of the Demo- 
 crats had opposed their being acquired in 1898 (§361); and 
 many Republican statesmen, including President Taft, felt that 
 they ought not to be held indefinitely by the United States. 
 
 From the first the Filipinos wanted to be independent. 
 They settled down under the insular government because 
 they could not help themselves. That government turned out 
 to be very efficient. It built schools and roads, improved the 
 harbor of Manila, opened up steamer lines, and helped the 
 people to sell their products. But the government was carried 
 on by white people from the United States who had not the 
 slightest idea of spending their lives in the islands. Hardly 
 any business men, farmers, or workmen went over to make 
 their homes in that country. 
 
 In 1907 when the Filipinos were first allowed to elect mem- 
 bers to an assembly, it was found that practically every 
 member of that assembly was in favor of independence. They 
 thought they could grow into a country like the empire of 
 Japan. When Wilson became President he adopted the 
 policy of giving the Filipinos a larger share in their own gov- 
 ernment, so that they might show how far they were likely 
 to govern themselves well. 
 
 398. Mexico (1910-1916). — Among the Latin American 
 neighbors of the United States, Mexico was thought to be one 
 of the richest and most promising. The country included 
 large stretches of good land for farming; the climate of the 
 high table-land on which the city of Mexico is situated was 
 healthful and bracing. There were rich silver mines in various 
 parts of the country, vast oil wells, good ports on the Atlantic 
 and the Pacific, and a population of 15,000,000. 
 
 Mexico, therefore, attracted business men with money from 
 Europe and the United States, who built railroads, opened 
 

 ^ 
 
 ;L_i„ 
 
 A sugar plantation in the Philippines 
 
500 
 
 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 mines, set up factories, built oil refineries, and carried on a large 
 business. It was a great shock to the foreign residents when 
 a revolution broke out in Mexico in 1910. President Diaz, 
 who had kept up his power for 32 years, partly by silencing his 
 enemies (§ 352), was driven out, and Madero became president. 
 A second revolution broke out and Madero was seized and 
 imprisoned by his subordinate. General Huerta (19 13), who 
 made himself dictator; and Madero was soon after found dead. 
 
 
 |i#«|^ 0^t\mmM 
 
 Landing United States troops at Vera Cruz, Mexico, 1914 
 
 President Wilson declined to recognize Huerta as president, 
 and a third revolution broke out in northern Mexico, under 
 Carranza and Villa. The United States, as a protection to 
 American citizens and interests, landed a few troops at Vera 
 Cruz (1914). Huerta resigned; and our troops were with- 
 drawn after about seven months. Meanwhile the revolution- 
 ary leaders quarreled over the presidency and fell to fighting 
 each other, ravaging their unhappy country which had seen 
 no peace for years. Carranza gained the upper hand, and at 
 last the United States, in agreement with the A. B. C. powers 
 (§352), recognized him as chief executive (1915). Early in 
 1916 Villa attacked a town on the north side of the boun- 
 dary, and an American military expedition under General 
 Pershing was sent into Mexico in pursuit. Carranza protested 
 that he could curb Villa without assistance, and the American 
 force was withdrawn early in 191 7. 
 
EUROPEAN WAR OF 1914 50I 
 
 399. European War of 1914. — In August, 1914, a terrible 
 war broke out in Europe between the " Central Powers " of 
 Germany and Austria on one side, and what was called the 
 " Triple Entente " of Great Britain, France, and Russia on 
 the other side. The danger of this war had been foreseen 
 in the ambition of Germany to extend her world trade, ac- 
 quire naval stations, and push her governing influence in western 
 Asia against Great Britain. These plans also were opposed to 
 Russia's desire to secure the water route from the Black Sea 
 through the Bosporus and the Dardanelles to the Mediter- 
 ranean. The United States was not directly interested in these 
 quarrels and wished to remain at peace with both groups. 
 Various other European powers and even distant Japan joined 
 in the war, but the United States remained neutral. 
 
 The ideas as to the rights and duties of neutrals which had 
 been worked out during the Napoleonic Wars (§ 163) and 
 the Civil War (§ 288) were again put to the proof. The 
 United States insisted on the right to trade with both groups 
 of fighting powers, but made no objection when American 
 cargoes of real contraband goods were captured on the voyage. 
 The British quickly secured command of the seas and few 
 German ships of war were able to range about and make cap- 
 tures. Hence, most of the American vessels and cargoes 
 taken were captured by the British, who laid down new rules 
 by which copper, rubber, and many other goods on their way 
 to Germany were made contraband and were therefore seized. 
 Later, the British declared a blockade of Germany. 
 
 In the meantime the Germans on their side declared that 
 all the seas around England were a "zone of war" and that 
 they would capture any merchant vessels, whether English or 
 neutral, in those waters. They were able to use only sub- 
 marines, which sank British or neutral merchantmen, in many 
 instances without giving to the peaceful passengers and crew 
 the chance to escape, to which they were entitled. On May 7, 
 1915, a German submarine without any warning sank the great 
 British steamer Lusitania, and thus took the lives of more 
 than a thousand men, women, and children, including 114 
 Americans. 
 
502 
 
 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 Against this attack on noncombatants who were taking no 
 f)art in the war, the government at Washington protested so 
 strongly that Germany finally promised to suspend sinking 
 "liners," — that is, regular passenger ships, — except after 
 due warning. 
 
 Meanwhile the increased needs for food, machinery, and 
 munitions of war made a great demand for labor, and the ex- 
 ports of the United States in 1916 amounted to more than 
 ever before in our history. 
 
 The United States had several times tried to buy three of 
 the Virgin Islands in the West Indies from Denmark. It now 
 seemed as though Germany might annex them and thus control 
 one of the main approaches to the Panama Canal. Therefore, 
 our government stepped in and in 19 17 paid $25,000,000 for 
 the islands, including a good harbor in St. Thomas. 
 
 400. Politics and Political Parties (1914-1917). — In the 
 elections of 1914, the Progressives cast only about 1,800,000 
 
 How the states voted in the presidential election of 1916 
 
 votes and in 1916 after a vigorous attempt to induce the 
 Republicans to nominate Roosevelt, the Progressive party 
 divssolved. The Republicans nominated Charles E. Hughes, 
 a Justice of the Supreme Court and former governor of New 
 
THE UNITED STATES AT WAR 503 
 
 York. The Democrats renominated Woodrow Wilson. The 
 platforms of the two parties were not very different and the 
 principal issue before the country was whether one or the 
 other of the two candidates would make the stronger President. 
 The Republican leaders demanded the repeal of the Under- 
 wood tariff (§ 395). The election was very close, but the 
 returns finally showed that President Wilson was reelected 
 by a combination of the solid South (§ 317) with an almost 
 solid far West and Pacific coast, together with several north 
 central states and one New England state. The electoral 
 vote was 276 for Wilson to 255 for Hughes. Wilson's popular 
 plurality over Hughes was about 600,000. The Socialists 
 cast about 750,000 votes. 
 
 401. The United States at War (1917). — Soon after the 
 election of 1916, President Wilson appealed to the nations at 
 war to find some way to end the conflict. Neither side was 
 ready to stop; and Germany gave notice that she would 
 proceed to ruin Great Britain by sinking without notice any 
 vessels which were bound to or from the ports of that country 
 and her allies. Then the killing and drowning of Americans 
 by German submarines began again. The United States 
 was aroused also by the discovery of plots, carried on by agents 
 of the German government, to burn and blow up factories, 
 and ships sailing from our ports, which involved the destruc- 
 tion of more American lives. 
 
 By the war in Europe Germany had gained control of a vast 
 empire, extending from the North Sea through Austria, Bul- 
 garia, and Turkey, far into Asia. The brutal treatment of 
 the people in the occupied parts of Belgium, northern France, 
 Poland, Serbia, and Armenia, caused widespread horror. 
 The German government was practically a great "autocracy," 
 — a government of military force controlled by a few men. 
 If successful in the war, it was clear that the German govern- 
 ment would continue to be a great military power, acting on 
 the principle that might makes right. This meant that other 
 countries, if they did not make themselves equally great 
 military powers, would be forced to submit to German domi- 
 nation, at least in international relations. 
 
504 POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT 
 
 At last the United States was forced into action by the 
 destruction of American life and property, and by the danger 
 to the democracy so dear to Great Britain, France, and espe- 
 cially to the United States. On April 6, 1917, Congress passed 
 a resolution declaring that Germany had brought on war with 
 the United States; and the government proceeded to raise men 
 and money, to make munitions and supplies, to build ships, to 
 lay taxes and issue bonds, and thus to prepare for a great war. 
 
 402. Summary. — This chapter describes the action of the 
 national political parties and administrations from 1905 to 
 1917, and the beginning of the war with Germany. 
 
 Roosevelt's second administration was devoted in good part 
 to securing new laws in restraint of the trusts and the rail- 
 roads. His successor, President Taft, took up a similar policy, 
 but the issue was confused when (1909) the Payne- Aldrich tariff 
 was passed and the tariff again became a political question. 
 Republicans who were dissatisfied for various reasons joined 
 in the Progressive movement, to which Roosevelt gave his 
 support. In the election of 191 2 he was a third-party candi- 
 date, but Woodrow Wilson was elected by the Democrats. 
 
 As President, Wilson pushed a policy of what he called the 
 " new freedom," aided by Mr. Bryan. Under his leadership, 
 the Democrats passed the Underwood tariff of 1913, and an 
 income tax, which was made possible by the Sixteenth 
 Amendment. A Seventeenth Amendment was also ratified, 
 providing for direct election of Senators. Congress also set 
 up a Federal Reserve System of banks and passed a Trade 
 Commission Act. 
 
 A movement with which President Wilson sympathized was 
 started to prepare the Filipinos for independence. Mexico 
 went through a series of bloody revolutions in which Americans 
 and American property were injured. In the European War 
 that began in 191 4, President Wilson carefully preserved the 
 neutrality of the United States for nearly three years. 
 
 In 19 1 6 President Wilson was reelected. The aggressive 
 acts of Germany on the seas, within the United States, and 
 her menace to the future of democracy aroused the United 
 States to war in 19 17. 
 
REFERENCES AND QUESTIONS 505 
 
 REFERENCES 
 
 Maps. Epoch Maps, no. 15. — She|)herd, Ilisl. Atlas, 179. 
 
 Histories. Am. Year Book, years 1910-1915. — Bassett, Un. Stales, 
 834-852. — Beard, Contemporary Hist., 317-331, 336-381. — Fish, Dev. 
 of Am. Nation., ch. xxix. — Hart, Monroe Doctrine, ch. xiv; National 
 Ideals; Obvious Orient. — Haworth, Reconstruction and Union, 233- 
 240. — Paxson, New Nation, 316-320, 324-342. — Wilson, Division and 
 Reunion, §§ 167, 168. 
 
 Sources. James, Readings, § 105. — Magazines and newspapers. 
 
 Side Lights and Stories. Collier's. — Harper's Weekly. — Ladies' Home 
 Journal. — Mentor. — I-loosevelt, Autobiography. — Saturday Evening Post. 
 
 Pictures. Cartoons in Literary Digest. — N. Y. Times Current History. — 
 Review of Reviews. — World's Work, etc. 
 
 QUESTIONS 
 
 (§391) I- How did Roosevelt regard the duties of the President? 2. 
 How did he show interest in foreign affairs? 3. How was the Panama 
 Canal constructed? 4 (For an essay). Roosevelt in the White House. 
 
 (§ 392) 5- How did the election of 1908 come out? 6. What kind of 
 President was Taft? 7. What was the Payne-Aldrich tariff? 
 
 (§393) 8. Who were the "Insurgents"? the "Standpatters"? the 
 "Progressive Republicans"? 9. What were the difificulties in making 
 nominations in 1912? 10. How did the election of 1912 come out? 
 1 1 (For an essay). The Republican or the Progressive or the Democratic 
 National Convention in 1912. 
 
 (§ 394) 12. What kind of man was Wilson? 13 (For an essay). 
 Wilson in the White House. 14. What part did Bryan play in politics? 
 
 (§ 395) 15- What was the Underwood tariff? 16. What was the 
 Sixteenth Amendment? the Seventeenth? 
 
 (§396) 17. What is the Reserve Bank System? 18. How were cor- 
 porations regulated? 19. What is the Trade Commission? 
 
 (§ 397) 20. What were the plans for the Philippine Islands? 21. How 
 were the Philippines improved? 22 (For an essay). A visit to Manila. 
 23. How are the Philippines governed? 
 
 (§ 398) 24. What were the conditions in Mexico? 25 (For an essay). 
 A visit to Mexico. 26. How did the Mexican revolution come about? 
 27. How did the United States act toward Mexico? 28 (For an essay). 
 The Pershing expedition to Mexico. 
 
 (§ 399) 29. What caused war in Europe? 30. What were the troubles 
 about neutral trade? 31. What were "zones of war"? 32 (For an 
 essay). The sinking of the Lusitania. 33. How did the United States 
 maintain neutrality? 
 
 (§ 400) 34. How did the election of 1916 result? 
 
 (§401) 35. Why did the United States wage war with Germany? 
 36. What is the difference between an autocracy and a democracy? 
 
APPENDIX A 
 
 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 (Agreed to, July 4, 1776) 
 
 [From a facsimile of the original parchment] 
 
 In Congress, July 4, 1776 
 
 the unanlmous declaration of the thirteen united 
 states of america 
 
 f®!)en in the Course of human events, it becomes necessary for one 
 jieople to dissolve the political bands which ha\ e connected them with 
 another, and to assume among the powers of the earth, the separate 
 and equal station to which the Laws of Nature and of Nature's God 
 entitle them, a decent respect to the opinions of mankind requires that 
 they should declare the causes which impel them to the separation. — 
 We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created eciual, 
 that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable 
 Rights, that among these are Life, Liberty and the pursuit of Happi- 
 ness. — That to secure these rights. Governments are instituted 
 among Men, deriving their just powers from the consent of the gov- 
 erned. — That whenever any Form of Government becomes destruc- 
 tive of these ends, it is the Right of the People to alter or to abolish it, 
 and to institute new Government, laying its foundation on such prin- 
 ciples and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem 
 most likely to effect their Safety and Happiness. Prudence, indeed, 
 will dictate that Governments long established should not be changed 
 for light and transient causes; and accordingly all ex|)erience hath 
 shewn, that mankind are more disposeil to suffer, while evils are suft'er- 
 able, than to right themselves by abolishing the forms to which they 
 are accustomed. But when a long train of abuses and usurpations, 
 pursuing invariably the same Object evinces a design to reduce them 
 under absolute Despotism, it is their right, it is their duty, to throw off 
 such Government, and to provide new Guards for their future security-. 
 — Such has been the jiatient sufferance of these Colonies; and such is 
 now the necessity w^hich constrains them to alter their former Systems 
 of Government. The history of the present King of Great Britain is a 
 history of repeated injuries and usurpations, all having in direct object 
 the establishment of an absolute Tyranny over these States. To prove 
 
 i 
 
11 DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 this, let Facts be submitted to a candid world. — He has refused his 
 Assent to Laws, the most wholesome and necessary for the public 
 good. — He has forbidden his Governors to pass Laws of immediate 
 and pressing importance, unless suspended in their operation till his 
 Assent should be obtained; and when so suspended, he has utterly 
 neglected to attend to them. — He has refused to pass other Laws for 
 the accommodation of large districts of people, unless those people 
 would relinquish the right of Representation in the Legislature, a right 
 inestimable to them and formidable to tyrants only. — He has called 
 together legislative bodies at i)laces unusual, uncomfortable, and 
 distant from the depository of their public Records, for the sole pur- 
 pose of fatiguing them into compliance with his measures. — He has 
 dissolved Representative Houses repeatedly, for opposing with manly 
 firmness his invasions on the rights of the people. — He has refused for 
 a long time, after such dissolutions, to cause others to be elected; 
 whereby the Legislative powers, incapable of Annihilation, have re- 
 turned to the People at large for their exercise; the State remaining in 
 the mean time exposed to all the dangers of invasion from without, and 
 convulsions within. — He has endeavoured to prevent the population 
 of these States; for that purpose obstructing the Laws for Naturaliza- 
 tion of Foreigners; refusing to pass others to encourage their migra- 
 tions hither, and raising the conditions of new Appropriations of 
 Lands. — He has obstructed the Administration of Justice, by refusing 
 his Assent to Laws for establishing Judiciary powers. — He has made 
 Judges dependent on his Will alone, for the tenure of their offices, and 
 the amount and payment of their salaries. — He has erected a multi- 
 tude of New Offices, and sent hither swarms of Officers to harrass our 
 people, and eat out their substance. — He has kept among us, in times 
 of peace. Standing Armies without the Consent of our legislatures. — 
 He has affected to render the Military independent of and superior to 
 the Civil power. — He has combined with others to subject us to a 
 jurisdiction foreign to our constitution, and unacknowledged by our 
 laws; giving his Assent to their Acts of pretended Legislation: — For 
 quartering large bodies of armed troops among us: — For protecting 
 them, by a mock Trial, from punishment for any Murders which they 
 should commit on the Inhabitants of these States: — For cutting off 
 our Trade with all parts of the world: — For imposing Taxes on us 
 without our Consent: — For depriving us in many cases, of the benefits 
 of Trial by Jury: — For transporting us beyond Seas to be tried for 
 pretended offences: — For abolishing the free System of English Laws 
 in a neighbouring Province, establishing therein an Arbitrary govern- 
 ment, and enlarging its Boundaries, so as to render it at once an ex- 
 ample and fit instrument for introducing the same absolute rule into 
 
DECLAR.ATION OF INDEPENDENCE lii 
 
 these Colonies: — For taking away our Charters, abolishing our most 
 valuable Laws, and altering fundamentally the Forms of our. Govern- 
 ments: — For suspending our own Legislatures, and declaring them- 
 selves invested with power to legislate for us in all cases whatsoever. — 
 He has abdicated Government here, by declaring us out of his Pro- 
 tection and waging War against us. — He has plundered our seas, 
 ravaged our Coasts, burnt our towns, and destroyed the Lives of our 
 jjeople. — He is at this time transporting large Armies of foreign Mer- 
 cenaries to compleat the works of death, desolation and tyranny, 
 already begun with circumstances of Cruelty & ])erfidy scarcely paral- 
 leled in the most barbarous ages, and totally unworthy the Head of 
 a civilized nation. — He has constrained our fellow Citizens taken 
 Captive on the high Seas to bear Arms against their Country, to be- 
 come the executioners of their friends and Brethren, or to fall them- 
 selves by their Hands. — He has excited domestic insurrections 
 amongst us, and has endeavoured to bring on the inhabitants of our 
 frontiers, the merciless Indian Savages, whose known rule of warfare, 
 is an undistinguished destruction of all ages, sexes and conditions. In 
 every stage of these Oppressions We have Petitioned for Redress in the 
 most humble terms: Our repeated Petitions have been answered only 
 by repeated injury. A Prince, whose character is thus marked by 
 every act which may define a Tyrant, is unfit to be the ruler of a free 
 people. Nor have We been wanting in attentions to our Brittish 
 brethren. We have warned them from time to time of attempts by 
 their legislature to extend an unwarrantable jurisdiction over us. 
 We have reminded them of the circumstances of our emigration and 
 settlement here. We have appealed to their native justice and mag- 
 nanimity, and we have conjured them by the ties of our common 
 kindred to disavow these usurpations, which, would inevitably inter- 
 rupt our connections and correspondence. They too have been deaf 
 to the voice of justice and of consanguinity. We must, therefore, 
 acquiesce in the necessity, which denounces our Separation, and hold 
 them, as we hold the rest of mankind. Enemies in War, in Peace 
 Friends. — 
 
 E2lc, tbercfore, the Representatives of the unftctJ States of SImetfca, 
 in (ieneral Congress, Assembled, appealing to the Supreme Judge of 
 the world for the rectitude of our intentions, do, in the Name, and by 
 Authority of the good People of these Colonies, solemnly publish and 
 declare, That these United Colonies are, and of Right ought to be, 
 jFree aitTi I-nTicpcnt)cnt States; that they are Absolved from all Alle- 
 giance to the British Crown, and that all political connection between 
 them and the State of Great Britain, is and ought to be totally dissolved ; 
 and that as Free and Independent States, they have full Power to levy 
 
iv DECLARATION OF INDEPENDENCE 
 
 War, conclude Peace, contract Alliances, establish Commerce, and to 
 do all other Acts and Things which Independent States may of right 
 do. — And for the support of this Declaration, with a firm reliance on 
 the protection of dixine Pro\'idence, we mutually pledge to each other 
 our Lives, our Fortunes and our sacred Honor. 
 
 JOHN HANCOCK. 
 
 [Signatures of representatives of the thirteen States, affixed under 
 date of August 2, 1776.] 
 
 NEW HAMPSHIRE. 
 
 JOSIAH BaRTLETT, 
 
 William Whipple, 
 Matthew Thornton. 
 
 MASSACHUSETTS BAY. 
 
 Samuel Adams, 
 
 John Adams, 
 
 Robert Treat Paine, 
 
 Elbridge Gerry. 
 
 RHODE ISLAND. 
 Stephen Hopkins, 
 William Ellery. 
 
 CONNECTICUT. 
 Roger Sherman, 
 Samuel Huntington, 
 William Williams, 
 Oliver Wolcott. 
 
 NEW YORK. 
 William Floyd, 
 Philip Livingston, 
 Francis Lewis, 
 Lewis Morris. 
 
 NEW JERSEY. 
 Richard Stockton, 
 John Witherspoon, 
 Francis Hopkinson, 
 John Hart, 
 Abraham Clark. 
 
 PENNSYLVANIA. 
 Robert Morris, 
 Benjamin Rush, 
 Benjamin Franklin, 
 John Morton, 
 Geor(.e Clymer, 
 
 James Smith, 
 George Taylor, 
 James Wilson, 
 George Ross. 
 
 DELAWARE. 
 Gesar Rodney, 
 George Read, 
 Thomas M'Kean. 
 
 MARYLAND. 
 
 Samuel Chase, 
 
 W'Illiam Paca, 
 
 Thomas Stone, 
 
 Charles Carroll, of Carrollton. 
 
 VIRGINIA. 
 George Wythe, 
 Richard Henry Lee, 
 Thomas Jefferson, 
 Benjamin Harrison, 
 Thomas Nelson, Jun., 
 Francis Lightfoot Lee, 
 Carter Braxton. 
 
 NORTH CAROLINA. 
 \\'illiam Hooper, 
 Joseph Hewes, 
 John Penn. 
 
 SOUTH CAROLINA. 
 Edward Rutledge, 
 Thomas Heyw^^rd, Jun., 
 Thomas Lynch, Jun., 
 Arthur Middleton. 
 
 GEORGIA. 
 Button Gwinnett, 
 Lyman Hall, 
 George Walton. 
 
APPENDIX B 
 
 CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect 
 union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
 common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the blessings 
 of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish this 
 Constitution for the United States of America. 
 
 ARTICLE I 
 
 SECTION I.^All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested 
 in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and 
 House of Representatives. 
 
 SECTION II. — Clause i. The House of Representatives shall be 
 composed of members chosen every second year by the people of the 
 several States, and the electors in each State shall have the ciualifica- 
 tions requisite for electors of the most numerous branch of the State 
 Legislature. 
 
 Clause 2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have 
 attained to the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen 
 of the United States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant 
 of that State in which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Clause 3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned 
 among the several States which may be included within this I'nion, 
 according to their respective numbers, which shall be determined b>- 
 adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to 
 service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three 
 fifths of all other persons. The actual enumeration shall be made with- 
 in three years after the first meeting of the Congress of the United States, 
 and within every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they 
 shall by law direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed 
 one for every thirty thousand, but each State shall have at least one 
 representative; and until such enumeration shall be made, the State of 
 New Hampshire shall be entitled to choose three; Massachusetts, eight; 
 Rhode Island and Providence Plantations, one; Connecticut, five; 
 Xew York, six; New Jersey, four; Pennsylvania, eight; Delaware, one; 
 Maryland, six; V^irginia, ten; North Carolina, five; South Carolina, 
 five; and Georgia, three. 
 
 Clause 4. W'hen vacancies hajipen in the representation from an>- 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 2g V 
 
VI CONSTITL riOX OK THE UNITED SPATES 
 
 State, the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill 
 such vacancies. 
 
 Clause 5. The House of Representatives shall choose their Speaker 
 and other officers; and shall ha\'e the sole power of impeachment. 
 
 SECTION HI. — Clause i. The Senate of the United States shall 
 be composed of two senators from each State, [chosen by the Legisla- 
 ture thereof,]^ for six years; and each senator shall have one \^ote. 
 
 Clause 2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in conse- 
 quence of the first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be 
 into three classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be 
 vacated at the expiration of the second year; of the second class, at the 
 expiration of the fourth year; and of the third class, at the expiration of 
 the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second ^'ear; [and 
 if vacancies happen by resignation, or otherwise, during the recess of 
 the Legislature of any State, the executi\'e thereof may make temporary- 
 appointments until the next meeting of the Legislature, which shall 
 then fill such vacancies.] ^ 
 
 Clause 3. No person shall be a senator who shall not haxe attained 
 to the age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United 
 States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that State 
 for which he shall be chosen. 
 
 Clause 4. The Vice President of the United States shall be presi- 
 dent of the Senate, but shall have no vote,- unless the}' be equalh 
 divided. 
 
 Clause 5. The Senate shall choose their other officers, and also a 
 president pro tempore, in the absence of the Vice President, or when he 
 shall exercise the office of President of the United States. 
 
 Clause 6. The Senate shall have the sole power to try all impeach- 
 ments; when sitting for that purpose, they shall be on oath or affirma- 
 tion. When the President of the United States is tried, the Chief 
 Justice shall preside; and no person shall be convicted without the con- 
 currence of two thirds of the members present. 
 
 Clause 7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend fur- 
 ther than to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy 
 any office of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the 
 party convicted shall nevertheless be liable and subject to indictment, 
 trial, judgment, and punishment, according to law. 
 
 SECTION IV. — Clause i . The times, places, and manner of hold- 
 ing elections for senators and representatives shall be prescribed in' each 
 State by the Legislature thereof; but the Congress may at any time, by 
 law, make or alter such regulations, except as to the places of choosing 
 senators. 
 
 1 Superseded by the Seventeenth Amendment. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF TIIK UNITED STATES vu 
 
 Clause 2. The Congress shall assemble at least once in every year, 
 and such meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they 
 shall 1)\ law appoint a difTerent day. 
 
 SECTION V. — Clause i. Each house shall be the judge oi the 
 elections, returns, and qualifications of its own members, and a majorit>' 
 of each shall constitute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number 
 may adjourn from day to day, and may be authorized to compel the 
 attendance of absent members, in such manner, and under such penal- 
 ties, as each house may pro\ide. 
 
 Clause 2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, 
 l)unish its members for disorderly behavior, and, with the concurrence 
 of two thirds, expel a member. 
 
 Clause 3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and 
 trom time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as maj' in 
 their judgment require secrecy, and the \eas and nays of the members 
 of either House on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those 
 present, be entered on the journal. 
 
 Clause 4. Neither house, during the session of Congress, shall, 
 without the consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor 
 to any other ]>lace than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 
 
 SIvCTION \T. — Clause i. The senators and representati\cs shall 
 receive a compensation for their services, to be ascertained b>- law, and 
 paid out of the treasury of the United States. They shall in all cases, 
 except treason, felony, and breach of the peace, be privileged from 
 arrest during their attendance at the session of their respecti\-e houses, 
 and in going to and returning from the same; and for any speech or 
 debate in either house, they shall not be questioned in an>- other place. 
 
 Clause 2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for 
 which he was elected, be appointed to any ci\-il ofiice under the author- 
 it\- of the United States, which shall have been created, or the emolu- 
 ments whereof shall have been increased, during such time; and no 
 person holding an>- office under the United States shall be a member of 
 either house during his continuance in office. 
 
 SECTION VII. — Clause i. All bills for raising revenue shall 
 originate in the House of Representatives; but the Senate may propose 
 or concur with amendments, as on other bills. 
 
 Clause 2. Every bill which shall ha\e i:)assed the House of Repre- 
 sentatives and the Senate, shall, before it become a law, be i:)resented to 
 the President of the United States: if he approve, he shall sign it, but 
 if not, he shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it 
 shall ha\-e originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their 
 journal, and proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration, 
 two thirds of that house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent. 
 
viii CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 together with the objections, to the other house, by which it shall like- 
 wise be reconsidered, and if approved by two thirds of that house, it 
 shall become a law. But in all such cases the votes of both houses shall 
 be determined by yeas and nays, and the names of the persons voting 
 for and against the bill shall be entered on the journal of each house 
 respectively. If any bill shall not be returned by the President within 
 ten days (Sundays excepted) after it shall have been presented to him, 
 the same shall be a law, in like manner as if he had signed it, unless the 
 Congress by their adjournment prevent its return, in which case it shall 
 not be a law. 
 
 Clause 3. Every order, resolution, or \-ote to which the concur- 
 rence of the Senate and House of Representatives ma>' be necessary 
 (except on a question of adjournment) shall be presented to the Presi- 
 dent of the United States; and before the same shall take effect, shall 
 be approved b}^ him, or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by 
 two thirds of the Senate and House of Representati\'es, according to the 
 rules and limitations prescribed in the case of a bill. 
 
 SECTION Vni. — Clause i. The Congress shall have power to 
 lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the debts and 
 provide for the common defense and general welfare of the United 
 States; but all duties, imjjosts, and excises shall be uniform through- 
 out the United States; 
 
 Clause 2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 
 
 Clause 3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among 
 the several States, and with the Indian tribes; 
 
 Clause 4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and 
 uniform laws on the subject of bankrui^tcies throughout the United 
 States ; * 
 
 Clause 5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign 
 coin, and fix the standard of weights and measures; 
 
 Clause 6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the 
 securities and current coin of the United States; 
 
 Clause 7. To establish post offices and post roads; 
 
 Clause 8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by 
 securing, for limited times, to authors and in\'entors the exclusive right 
 to their respective writings and discoveries; 
 
 Clause 9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the Supreme Court; 
 
 Clause id. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed 
 on the high seas, and oftenses against the law of nations; 
 
 Clause ii. To declare v/ai, grant letters of marc]ue and reprisal, 
 and make rules concerning captures on land and water; 
 
 Clause 12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of 
 money to that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES ix 
 
 Clause 13. To proxidc and maintain a navy; 
 
 Clause 14. To make rules for the government and regulation of 
 the land and naval forces; 
 
 Clause 15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the 
 laws of the Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 
 
 Clause 16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the 
 militia, and for governing such part of them as may be employed in 
 the ser\'ice of the United States, reserving to the States respectively 
 the appointment of the officers, and the authority of training the 
 militia according to the discipline prescribed by Congress; 
 
 Clause 17. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatso- 
 e\-er over such district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by 
 cession of j)articular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the 
 seat of the go\ernment of the Ignited States, and to exercise like author- 
 it\- o\er all places purchased by the consent of the Legislature of the 
 State in which the same shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, 
 arsenals, dock-yards, and other needful buildings; — And 
 
 Clause 18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and j^roper 
 for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other ])owers 
 x'ested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or 
 in any department or officer thereof. 
 
 SECTION IX. ^ Clause i. The migration or importation of such 
 l)ersons as any of the States now existing shall think proper to admit, 
 shall not be prohibited by the Congress prior to the \'ear one thousand 
 eight hundred and eight, but a tax or duty may be im[)osed on such 
 importation, not exceeding ten dollars for each person. 
 
 Clause 2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be 
 suspended, unless when in cases of rebellion or inx-asion the public 
 safety may require it. 
 
 Clause 3. No bill of attainder or ex-post-facto law shall be passed. 
 
 Clause 4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in 
 proportion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be 
 taken. 
 
 Clause 5. No lax or dut>' shall be laid on articles exported from 
 any State. 
 
 • Clause 6. No i)reference shall be given by an\' regulation of com- 
 merce or revenue to the j^orts of one State o\cr those of another; nor 
 shall vessels bound to, or from, one State, be obliged to enter, clear, or 
 pay duties in another. 
 
 Clause 7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury but in con- 
 sequence of appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and 
 account of the receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be 
 published from time to time. 
 
X CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 Clause 8. No title of nobilit> shall be granted b>- the United 
 States: And no person holding any office of profit or trust under them, 
 shall, without the consent of the Congress, accept of any present, 
 emolument, office, or title, of any kind \vhate^'er, from any king, prince, 
 or foreign state. 
 
 SECTION X. — Clause i. No State shall enter into any treaty, 
 alliance, or confederation; grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin 
 money; emit bills of credit; make any thing but gold and silver coin a 
 tender in payment of debts; pass any bill of attainder, ex-post -facto 
 law, or law impairing the obligation of contracts, or grant an\ title of 
 nobility. 
 
 Clause 2. No State shall, without the consent of the Congress, lay 
 any imposts or duties on imports or exports, except what may be abso- 
 lutely necessary for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce 
 of all duties and impost, laid by any State on imports or exports, shall 
 be' for the use of the treasury of the United States; and all such laws 
 shall be subject to the revision and control of the Congress. 
 
 Clause 3. No State shall, without the consent of Congress, lay any 
 duty of tonnage, keep troops, or ships of war, in time of peace, enter 
 into any agreement or compact with another State, or with a foreign 
 power, or engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent 
 danger as will not admit of delay. 
 
 ARTICLE II 
 
 SECTION I. — Clause i. The executive power shall be \ested in 
 a President of the United States of America. He shall hold his office 
 during the term of four years, and, together with the Vice President, 
 chosen for the same term, be elected as follows: 
 
 Clause 2. Each State shall appoint, in such manner as the Legisla- 
 ture thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole, number 
 of senators and representatives to which the State may be entitled in the 
 Congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office 
 of trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 
 
 Clause 3. The Congress may determine the time of choosing the 
 electors, and the day on which they shall gi\'e their votes; which day 
 shall be the same throughout the United States. 
 
 Clause 4. No person except a natural-born citizen, or a citizen of 
 the United States at the time of the adoption of this Constitution, shall 
 be eligible to the office of President; neither shall any person be eligible 
 to that office who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, 
 and been fourteen years a resident within the United States. 
 
 Clause 5. In case of the removal of the President from office, or 
 of his death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties 
 of the said office, the same shall devolve on the Vice President, and the 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES XI 
 
 Congress ina\' by law prDxick- tor the case of remo\al, death, resignation, 
 or inability, both of the President and V'ice President, declaring what 
 officer shall then act as President; and such officer shall act accordingly 
 until the disability be removed, or a President shall be elected. 
 
 Clause 6. The President shall, at stated times, receive for his ser- 
 vices a compensation which shall neither be increased nor diminished 
 during the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not 
 receive within that period any other emolument from the United States, 
 or any of them. 
 
 Clause 7. Before he enter on the execution of his office, he shall 
 take the following oath or affirmation: — "I do solemnly swear (or 
 affirm) that I will faithfully execute the office of President of the United 
 States, and will, to the best of my ability, preserN-e, protect, and defend 
 the Constitution of the United States." 
 
 SECTION II. — Clause i. The President shall be commander in 
 chief of the army and navy of the United States, and of the militia of 
 the several States, when called into the actual service of the United 
 States; he may require the opinion, in writing, of the principal officer 
 in each of the executive departments, upon any subject relating to the 
 duties of their respective offices; and he shall have power to grant re- 
 jirieves and j)ardons for offenses against the United States, except in 
 cases of impeachment. 
 
 Clause 2. He shall ha\e power, by and with the ad\ice and consent 
 of the Senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators 
 present concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and 
 consent of the Senate shall ap])oint ambassadors, other public ministers 
 and consuls, judges of the Supreme Court, and all other officers of the 
 United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise jirovidcd for, 
 and which shall be established b\ law; but the Congress may b>' law 
 vest the appointment of such inferior officers, as they think proper, in the 
 President alone, in the courts of law, or in the heads of departments. 
 
 Clause 3. The President shall have power to fill up all \'acancies 
 that may happen during the recess of the Senate, by granting commis- 
 sions w'hich shall expire at the end of their next session. 
 
 SECTION III. — He shall from time to time give to the Congress 
 information of the state of the Union, and recommend to their consid- 
 eration such measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he 
 may, on extraordinary occasions, con\ene both houses, or either of 
 them, and in case of disagreement between them with respect to the 
 time of adjournment, he may adjourn them to such time as he shall 
 think proper; he shall receive ambassadors and other public ministers; 
 he shall take care that the laws be faithfully executed, and shall com- 
 mission all the officers of the United States. 
 
Xll CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 SECTION IV. — The President, Vice President, and all civil officers 
 of the United States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, 
 and conviction of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misde- 
 meanors. 
 
 ARTICLE III 
 
 SECTION I. — The judicial power of the United States shall be 
 vested in one Supreme Court, and in such inferior courts as the Con- 
 gress may from time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both 
 of the Supreme and inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good 
 behavior, and shall, at stated times, receive for their services a compen- 
 sation which shall not be diminished during their continuance in office. 
 
 SECTION II. — Clause i. The judicial power shall extend to all 
 cases, in law and equity, arising under this Constitution, the laws of the 
 United States, and treaties made, or which shall be made, under their 
 authority; — to all cases atTecting ambassadors, other public ministers, 
 and consuls; — to all cases of admirality and maritime jurisdiction; — 
 to controversies to which the United States shall be a party; — to con- 
 troversies between two or more States; — between a State and citizens 
 of another State; — between citizens of different States; — between 
 citizens of the same State claiming lands under grants of different 
 States, and between a State, or the citizens thereof, and foreign states, 
 citizens, or subjects. 
 
 Clause 2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers 
 and consuls, and those in which a State shall be party, the Suprem.e 
 Court shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before 
 mentioned, the Supreme Court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both 
 as to law and fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as 
 the Congress shall make. 
 
 Clause 3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, 
 shall be by jury, and such trials shall be held in the State where the said 
 crimes shall have been committed; but when not committed within any 
 State, the trial shall be at such place or places as the Congress may by 
 law have directed. 
 
 SECTION III. — Clause i. Treason against the United States 
 shall consist only in levying war against them, or in adhering to their 
 enemies, giving them aid and comfort. 
 
 Clause 2. No person shall be convicted of treason, unless on the 
 testimony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in 
 open court. 
 
 Clause 3. The Congress shall have power to declare the punish- 
 ment of treason; but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of 
 blood, or forfeiture, except during the life of the person attainted. 
 
CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES xiii 
 
 ARTICLE IV 
 
 SECTION 1. — Full faith and credit shall be given in each State to 
 the public acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other State; 
 and the Congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which 
 such acts, records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect 
 thereof. 
 
 SECTION II. — Clause i. The citizens of each State shall be en- 
 titled to all privileges and immunities of citizens in the several States. 
 
 Clause 2. A person charged in any State with treason, felony, or 
 bther crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another State, 
 shall , on demand of the executive authority of the State from which he 
 lied, be delivered up, to be removed to the State having jurisdiction of 
 the crime. 
 
 Clause 3. No person held to service or labor in one State, under 
 the laws thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any 
 law or regulation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, 
 but shall be delivered up on claim of the part>' to whom such service 
 or labor may be due. 
 
 SECTION III. — Clause i. New States may be admitted by the 
 Congress into this Union; but no new State shall be formed or erected 
 within the jurisdiction of any other State; nor any State be formed by the 
 junction of two or more States, or parts of States, without the consent 
 of the Legislatures of the States concerned as w'cll as of the Congress. 
 
 Clause 2. The Congress shall have power to dispose of and make 
 all needful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other 
 property belonging to the lUiited States; and nothing in this Constitu- 
 tion shall be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United 
 States, or of any particular State. 
 
 SECTION IV. — The United States shall guarantee to every State 
 in this Union a republican form ot government, and shall protect each 
 of them against invasion, and on application of the Legislature, or of 
 the executive (when the Legislature can not be con\'ened) against 
 domestic violence. 
 
 ARTICLE V 
 
 The Congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it 
 necessary, shall propose amendments to this Constitution, or, on the 
 application of the Legislatures of two thirds of the several States, shall 
 call a convention for proposing amendments, w^hich, in either case, shall 
 be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this Constitution, when 
 ratified by the Legislatures of three fourths of the several States, or by 
 conxentions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
 ratification may be proposed by the Congress: provided that no amend- 
 
xW CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 
 
 intiiL which may be made prior to the year one thousand eigiit hundred 
 and eight shall in any manner aflfect the first and fourth clauses in the 
 ninth section of the first article; and that no State, without its consent, 
 shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the Senate. 
 
 ARTICLE VI 
 
 Clause i. All debts contracted, and engagements entered into, be- 
 fore the adoption of this Constitution, shall be as valid against the 
 United States under this Constitution, as under the confederation. 
 
 Clause 2. This Constitution, and the laws of the United States 
 which shall be made in pursuance thereof; and all treaties made, or 
 which shall be made, under the authority of the United States, shall be 
 the supreme law^ of the land; and the judges in ever>' State shall be 
 bound thereby, any thing in the Constitution or laws of any State to 
 the contrary notwithstanding. 
 
 Clause 3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and 
 the members of the several State Legislatures, and all executive and 
 judicial officers, both of the United States and of the several States, 
 shall be bound by oath or affirmation to support this Constitution; but 
 no religious test shall ever be recjuired as a qualification to any office 
 or public trust under the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE VII 
 
 The ratification of the conventions of nine States shall be sufficient 
 for the establishment of this Constitution between the States so ratify- 
 ing the same. 
 
 Done in convention, by the unanimous consent of the States 
 present, the seventeenth day of September, in the year of 
 our Lord one thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, 
 and of the independence of the United States of America 
 the twelfth. 
 In witness whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 
 
 GEORGE WASHINGTON, 
 
 President, and Deputy from Virginia 
 
 (Signed also by William Jackson, Secretary; John Langdon and 
 Nicholas Gilman of New Hampshire; Nathaniel Gorham and Rufus 
 King of Massachusetts; William Samuel Johnson and Roger Sherman of 
 Connecticut; Alexander Hamilton of New York; William Livingston, 
 David Brearley, William Paterson, and Jonathan Dayton of New Jersey; 
 Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Mifflin, Robert Morris, George Clymer. 
 Thomas Fitzsimons, Jared Ingersoll, James Wilson, and Gouverneur 
 Morris of Pennsylvania: George Reed, Gunning Bedford, Jr., John 
 
AMENDMENTS - w 
 
 Dickinson, Richard Bassett, and Jacob Broom ot Delaware; James 
 McHenry, Daniel of St. Thomas Jenifer, and Daniel Carroll of Mary- 
 land; John Blair and James Madison, Jr. of Virginia; William Blount. 
 Richard l)ol)bs Spaight, and Hugh Williamson of North Carolina; John 
 Rutlcdgc, Charles C. Pinckney. Charles Pinckne>', and Pierce Butler 
 of South Carolina; William P'ew and Abraham Baldwin of Georgia.) 
 
 AMENDMENTS 
 To the Constitution of the United States, Ratified according to the Pro- 
 visions of the Fifth Article of" the Foregoing Constitution 
 
 ARTICLE I. — Congress shall make no law respecting an establish- 
 ment of religion, or prohibiting the free e.\ercise thereof; or abridging 
 the freedom of sj^eech, or of the press; or the. right of the people peace- 
 ably to assemble, and to petition the go\'ernment for a redress ot 
 grievances. 
 
 ARTICLE II. — A well-regulated militia, being necessar\- to the 
 security of a free State, the right of the people to keep and bear arms 
 shall not be infringed. 
 
 ARTICLE III. — Xo soldiers shall, in time of peace, be quartered in 
 any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in 
 a manner to be prescribed by law. 
 
 ARTICLE IV. — The right of the people to be secure in their per- 
 sons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and 
 seizures, shall not be violated, and no warrants shall issue, but upon 
 prol)able cause, supported by oath or afifirmation, and particularly de- 
 scribing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 
 
 ARTICLE V. — No person shall be held to answer for a capital or 
 otherwise infamous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a 
 grand jury, except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the 
 militia, when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor 
 shall any person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in 
 jeopardy of life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to 
 be a witness against himself, no" be deprived of life, liberty, or prop- 
 erty, without due process of law; nor shall pri\'ate i^roperty be taken 
 for public use, without just compensation. 
 
 ARTICLE VI. — In all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall 
 enjoy the right to a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jur>- of the 
 State and district wherein the crime shall have been committed, which 
 district shall have been pre\iously ascertained by law, and to be in- 
 formed of the nature and cause of the accusation; to be confronted with 
 the witnesses against him; to have compulsory process for obtaining 
 witnesses in his favor, and to have the assistance of counsel for his 
 defense. 
 
XVI • AMENDMENTS 
 
 ARTICLE VII. ^ In suits at common law, where the value in con- 
 troversy shall exceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be 
 preserved, and no fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in 
 any court of the United States than according to the rules of common 
 law. 
 
 ARTICLE VIII. — Excessive bail shall not be required, nor exces- 
 sive fines imposed, nor cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 
 
 ARTICLE IX. — -The enumeration in the Constitution of certain 
 rights shall not be construed to deny or disparage others retained b>- 
 the people. 
 
 ARTICLE X. — The powers not delegated to the United States by 
 the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the 
 States respectively, or to the people. 
 
 ARTICLE XL — The judicial power of the United States shall not 
 be construed to extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or 
 prosecuted against one of the United States b>- citizens of another State, 
 or by citizens or subjects of any foreign state. 
 
 ARTICLE XII. — The electors shall meet in their respective States, 
 and vote by ballot for President and Vice President, one of whom, at 
 least, shall not be an inhabitant of the same State with themselves; they 
 shall name in their ballots the persons voted for as President, and in 
 distinct ballots the person voted for as Vice President; and they shall 
 make distinct lists of all persons voted for as President, and of all 
 persons voted for as Vice President, and of the number of \'otes for each, 
 which lists they shall sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat 
 of the government of the United States, directed to the president of 
 the Senate; — the president of the Senate shall, in the presence of the 
 Senate and House of Representatives, open all the certificates, and the 
 votes shall then be counted; — the person having the greatest number 
 of votes for President, shall be the President, if such number be a 
 majority of the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person 
 have such majority, then from the persons having the highest numbers 
 not exceeding three on the list of those voted for as President, the House 
 of Representatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the President. 
 But in choosing the President, the votes shall be taken by States, the 
 representation from each State having one vote; a quorum for this 
 i:»urpose shall consist of a member or members from two thirds of the 
 States, and a majority of all the States shall be necessary to a choice. 
 And if the House of Representatives shall not choose a President when- 
 ever the right of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day 
 of IVIarch next following, then the Vice President shall act as President, 
 as in the case of the death or other constitutional disability of the 
 President. The person having the greatest number of votes as Vice 
 
AMENDMENTS xvii 
 
 President, shall be the Vice President, if such number be a majority of 
 the whole number of electors appointed; and if no person ha\"e a ma- 
 jority, then from the two highest numbers on the list, the Senate shall 
 choose the Vice President; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of 
 twt) thirds of the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole 
 numlxr shall be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally 
 ineligible to the otlfice of President shall be eligible to that of Vice 
 President of the United States. 
 
 ARTICLE XIII. — Section i. Neither sla\er\- nor involuntarN- 
 servitude, except as a punishment for crime, whereof the person shall 
 ha\e been duly convicted, shall exist within the United States, or any 
 place subject to their jurisdiction. 
 
 Section 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article b\- 
 appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XIV. — Section i. All persons born or naturalized in 
 the United States, and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of 
 the United States and of the State wherein the>' reside. No State shall 
 make or enforce any law which shall abridge the pri\ileges or immuni- 
 ties of citizens of the L^nited States; nor shall any State deprive any 
 person of life, liberty, or property, without due j^rocess of law, nor deny 
 to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 
 
 Section 2. Representati\'es shall be appointed among the sexeral 
 States according to their respective numbers, counting the whole 
 number of persons in each State excluding Indians not taxed. But 
 when the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for 
 President and Vice President of the United States, representatives in 
 Congress, the executi\e and judicial officers of a State, or the members 
 of the Legislature thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of 
 such State, being twenty-one years of age and citizens of the United 
 States, or in any wa\- abridged except for participation in rebellion or 
 other crime, the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the 
 proi^ortion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the 
 whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State. 
 
 Section 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in Con- 
 gress, or elector of President and Vice President, or hold an>- ofKice, 
 civil or militar>-, under the United States, or under any State, who, 
 having previously taken an oath, as a member of Congress, or as an 
 officer of the United States, or as a member of any State Legislature, 
 or as an executive or judicial officer of any State, to support the Con- 
 stitution of the United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or 
 rebellion against the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies 
 thereof. But Congress may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, 
 remove such disability. 
 
x\iii AMENDMENTS 
 
 Section 4. The validity of the pubHc debt of the United States, 
 authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions and 
 bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall not 
 be questioned. But neither the United States nor any State shall 
 assume to pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
 rebellion against the United States, or an>' claim for the loss or emanci- 
 pation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be 
 held illegal and \oid. 
 
 Section 5. The Congress shall ha\e power to enforce, b>- apjiro- 
 priate legislation, the provisions of this article. 
 
 ARTICLE X\'. — Section i. The right of citizens of the United 
 States to \'ote shall not be denied or abridged by the United States, or 
 by any State, on account of race, color, or pre\ious condition of ser- 
 vitude. 
 
 Section 2. The Congress shall ha\e power to enforce this article 
 by appropriate legislation. 
 
 ARTICLE XVI. — The Congress shall have power to lay and collect 
 taxes on incomes, from whate\'er source derived, without apportion- 
 ment among the several States, and without regard to any census or 
 enumeration. 
 
 ARTICLE XVIl. — ^The Senate of the United States shall be com- 
 posed of two senators from each State, elected by the people thereof, 
 for six years; and each senator shall have one vote. The electors in 
 each State shall have the qualifications requisite for electors of the 
 most numerous branch of the State Legislatures. 
 
 When vacancies happen in the representation of any State in the 
 Senate, the executive authority of such State shall issue writs of election 
 to hll such vacancies: Provided, That the Legislature of any State may 
 emjiower the executive thereof to make temporary appointments until 
 the people fill the vacancies by election as the Legislature ma>' direct. 
 
 This amendment shall not be so construed as to aflfect the election or 
 term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
 Constitution. 
 
APPKNUIX C — TABLH OF INK S lA lES 
 
 
 
 ADMISSION 
 
 PREVIOUS STATUS 
 
 CENSUS 
 OF 
 
 lyio 
 
 NUMBER 
 OF REPRE- 
 SENTA- 
 TIVES 
 
 J2 
 
 Alabama 
 
 Dec. 14, 1819 
 
 Territory 
 
 2.1.38,093 
 
 10 
 
 4X 
 
 Arizona 
 
 Feb. 14, 1912 
 
 Territory 
 
 204,354 
 
 I 
 
 -5 
 
 Arkansas 
 
 June 15. 1836 
 
 Territory 
 
 1.574,449 
 
 7 
 
 .il 
 
 California 
 
 Sept. 9, 1850 
 
 Unorganized territory 
 
 2,377.549 
 
 II 
 
 .?8 
 
 Colorado 
 
 Aug. I, 1876 
 
 Territory 
 
 799.024 
 
 4 
 
 S 
 
 Connecticut 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 1.114.756 
 
 5 
 
 1 
 
 Delaware 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 202,322 
 
 I 
 
 27 
 
 Florida 
 
 March 3, 1845 
 
 Territory 
 
 752.619 
 
 4 
 
 4 
 
 Georgia 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 2,609,121 
 
 12 
 
 13 
 
 Idaho 
 
 July 3, 1890 
 
 Territory 
 
 325.594 
 
 2 
 
 21 
 
 Illinois 
 
 Dec. 3, 1818 
 
 Part of Illinois Territory 
 
 S.638,591 
 
 27 
 
 ly 
 
 Indiana 
 
 Dec. 11. 1816 
 
 Indiana Tenntory and part 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 of Michigan Territory 
 
 2,700.876 
 
 13 
 
 29 
 
 Iowa 
 
 Dec. 28, 1846 
 
 Part of Iowa Territory 
 
 2,224,771 
 
 II 
 
 34 
 
 Kansas 
 
 Jan. 29, 1861 
 
 Part of Kansas Territory- 
 
 1,690,949 
 
 8 
 
 15 
 
 Kentucky 
 
 June I, 1792 
 
 Part of Virginia 
 
 2,289,90s 
 
 II 
 
 18 
 
 Louisiana 
 
 April 30, 1812 
 
 Territory of Orleans 
 
 1.656,388 
 
 8 
 
 2,5 
 
 Maine 
 
 March 15. 1820 
 
 Part of Massachusetts 
 
 742,371 
 
 4 
 
 - 
 
 Maryland 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 1,295,346 
 
 6 
 
 (i 
 
 Massachusetts 
 Michigan 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 Part of Michigan Territory 
 
 3. .366,416 
 2,810,173 
 
 16 
 
 Jh 
 
 June 26, 1837 
 
 13 
 
 .52 
 
 Minnesota 
 
 May II, 1858 
 
 Part of Minnesota Territory- 
 
 2,075.708 
 
 10 
 
 20 
 
 Mississippi 
 
 Dec. 10, 1817 
 
 Territory 
 
 I. 797. 114 
 
 8 
 
 24 
 
 Missouri 
 
 Aug. 10, 1821 
 
 Part of Missouri Territory- 
 
 3.293.3,35 
 
 16 
 
 41 
 
 Montana 
 
 Nov. 8, 1889 
 
 Territory 
 
 376.053 
 
 2 
 
 37 
 
 Nebraska 
 
 March i, 1867 
 
 Territory 
 
 1,192,214 
 
 6 
 
 36 
 
 Nevada 
 
 Oct. 31. 1864 
 
 Territory 
 
 81,875 
 
 I 
 
 9 
 
 New Hampshire 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 430,572 
 
 2 
 
 3 
 
 New Jersey 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 2,537,167 
 
 12 
 
 47 
 
 New Mexico 
 
 Jan. 6, 1912 
 
 Territory 
 
 327,301 
 
 I 
 
 II 
 
 New York 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 9,113.614 
 
 43 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 North Carolina 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 2,206,287 
 
 39 
 
 North Dakota 
 
 Nov. 2, 1889 
 
 Part of Dakota Territory 
 
 577.056 
 
 3 
 
 17 
 
 Ohio 
 
 Feb. 19. 1803 
 
 Part of Northwest Territory 
 
 4.767. 121 
 
 22 
 
 4t> 
 
 Oklahoma 
 
 Nov. 16, 1907 
 
 Indian Territory and Okla- 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 homa Territory 
 
 1. 657. 155 
 
 8 
 
 33 
 
 Oregon 
 
 Feb. 14. 1859 
 
 Part of Oregon Territory 
 
 672,765 
 
 3 
 
 2 
 
 Pennsylvania 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 7,665,111 
 
 36 
 
 1.5 
 
 Rhode Island 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 542,610 
 
 3 
 
 S 
 
 South Carolina 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 1,515,400 
 
 
 40 
 
 South Dakota 
 
 Nov. 2, 1889 
 
 Part of Dakota Territory 
 
 583.888 
 
 3 
 
 16 
 
 Tennessee 
 
 June I, 1796 
 
 Territory South of the Ohio 
 
 2,184,789 
 
 10 
 
 .'S 
 
 Texas 
 
 Dec. 29, 1845 
 
 Independent state 
 
 3,896,542 
 
 18 
 
 45 
 
 Utah 
 
 Jan. 4. 1896 
 
 Territory 
 
 373..351 
 
 2 
 
 14 
 
 Vermont 
 
 March 4. 1791 
 
 Semi-independent state 
 
 355.956 
 
 2 
 
 10 
 
 Virginia 
 
 
 Original state 
 
 2,c6i,6i2 
 
 10 
 
 12 
 
 Washington 
 
 Nov. II, 1889 
 
 Territory- 
 
 1,141,990 
 
 5 
 
 55 
 
 West Virginia 
 
 June 19. 1863 
 
 Part of Virginia 
 
 1,221,119 
 
 6 
 
 ^o 
 
 Wisconsin 
 
 May 29. 1848 
 
 Part of Wisconsin Territory 
 
 2,333,860 
 
 II 
 
 44 
 
 Wyoming 
 
 July 10, 1890 
 
 Territory 
 
 145.965 
 
 I 
 
APPENDIX D — TABLE OF THE PRESIDENTS 
 
 o o 
 
 3 u rt a! i- 
 
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 j3 rt o o ox; 0{.- 0-5 nj 
 
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 q;;X 1^ 
 
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 N Ol O "^ CTiOO 10 in 10 f0'-<'O00-«00 >-< 
 
 ro f^-^ ^tO'^'O'+iOI^vO^vO t^oO OiOOOOOOO 
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 loo »o 00 i^ o^ o%oo o o cr. o 
 
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 S-i>^J?-i 
 
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 > >S H 2:o>f-'HjZ:?(i, C5 H ::5 oo22;.52 o zo:5 
 
 N fO TT (y^O 
 
 'O r^ 00 C% O 
 
 r*^ -f »n ^C r^oo 
 
APPENDIX E 
 
 LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS 
 
 (,This list is selected from the titles referred to in the chapter references 
 and will be found convenient for ordering books for school and public 
 libraries.) 
 
 Adams, Andy, Log, of a Cowboy. (Bost., 1903.) 
 
 Adams, Henry, History of the United States, 1801-181J. (9 \ols., \. V., 
 1889-91.) —John Randolph. (Amer. Statesmen, Bost., 1900.) 
 
 Addams, Jane, Txoenty Years at Hull House. (N. Y., 1910.) 
 
 Allen, G. \V., Our Naval War with France. (Bost., 1909.) 
 
 Altsheler, J. A., Before the Dawn. (\. Y., 1903.) — Herald of the West. 
 (N. Y., 1898.) —Last of the Chiefs. (N. Y., 1909.) 
 
 .Andrews, C. M., Colonial Period. (Home Univ. Lib., N. Y., 1912.) — 
 Colonial Self -Government . (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1904.) 
 
 .-\ntin, Mary, Promised Land. (Bost., 1912.) 
 
 Atkinson, A. M., European Beginnings of American History. (Bost., 1912.) 
 
 .-\\ery, E. \l., History of the United States and Its People. (7 vols., Cleve- 
 land, 1904-10.) 
 
 Babcock, K. C, Rise of American Nationality. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 
 1906.) 
 
 Barnes, James, For King or Country. (N. Y., 1895.) — Loyal Traitor. 
 (N. Y., 1897.) 
 
 Hassett, J. S., Short History of the United States. (N. Y., 1913.) 
 
 Beard, C. A., Contemporary American History, 1877-igij. (N. Y., 1914.) 
 
 — Readings in American Government and Politics. (Rev. ed., N. Y., 
 1913-) 
 
 Becker, C. L., Beginnings of the American People. (Riverside Hist., (iost. 
 
 1915) 
 Bindloss, Harold, Cattle-Baron's Daughter. (N. Y., 1906.) 
 Bo^art, E. L., Economic History of the United States. (2d ed., N. Y., 
 
 1912.) 
 Brady, C. T., For the Freedom of the Sea. (N. Y., 1899.) — Midshipman in 
 
 the Pacific. (N. Y., 1904.)^ — On the Old Kearsarge. (N. Y., 1909.) 
 Brooks, E. S., Iti Leister's Times. (Bost., 1886.) — Son of the Revolution. 
 
 (Bost., 1898.) — Story of our War with Spain. (Bost., 1899.) 
 Brooks, Noah, Boy Settlers. (N. Y., 1891.) — Washington in Lincoln's 
 
 Time. (N. Y., 1895.) 
 Brown, W. G., Stephen Arnold Douglas. (Riverside Biog., Best., 1902.) 
 Briice, H. A., Daniel Boone and the Wilderness Road. (N. Y., 1910.) 
 Butterworth, Hezekiah, In the Boyhood of Lincoln. (N. Y., 1892.) 
 Cable, G. \V., The Grandissimes. (N. Y., 1899.) — Kincaid's Battery. 
 
 (N. Y., 1908.) — Old Creole Days. (N. Y., 1897.) — Strange True 
 
 Stories of Louisiana. (N. Y., 1889.) 
 Chadwick, F. E., Causes of the Civil War. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) 
 Channing, Edward, History of the United States. (4 vols., N. Y., 1905-.) 
 
 — Jeffersonian System. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) 
 Cheyney, E. P., European Background. (^.Anier. Nation, N. Y., 1904.) 
 
 hart's sch. hist. — 30 xxi 
 
xxil LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS 
 
 C"liitteiiden, H. M., American Fur Tnide in the Far West. (3 vols., N. Y., 
 
 1902.) 
 Churchill, Winston, The Crisis. (N. Y., 1902.) — The Crossing. (N. Y., 
 
 1904.) 
 Clemens, S. L. (Mark Twain), Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. (N. Y., 
 
 1885, later eds.) — Adventures of Tom Sawyer. (Hartford, 1876, 
 
 later eds.) — Life on the Mississippi. (Bost., 1883, later eds.) 
 Coman, Katharine, Industrial History of the United States. (Rev. ed., 
 
 N. Y., 1910.) 
 Conant, C. A., Alexander Hamilton. (Riverside Biog., Best., 1901.) 
 Cooke, J. E., Fairfax. (N. Y., 1868.) —Leather and Silk. (N. Y., 1854.) 
 
 — Mohun. (N. Y., 1896.) — Stories of the Old Dominion. (N. Y., 
 1879.) — Virginia. (N. Y., 1903.) 
 
 Cooper, J. F., Last of the Mohicans. (Phila., 1826, later eds.) — Mer- 
 cedes of Castile. (N. Y., 1841, later eds.) — The Pilot. (N. Y., 1823, 
 later eds.) — -The Pioneers. (N. Y., 1823, later eds.) — Wept of 
 Wish-Ton-Wish. (Phila., 1829, later eds.) 
 Oaddock, C. E., Story of Old Fort Loudon. (N. Y., 1899.) — Young 
 
 Mountaineers. (Best., 1898.) 
 Dana, R. H., Two Years before the Mast. (N. Y., 1840, later eds.) 
 Dewey, D. R., National Problems. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1907.) 
 Dodd, VV. E., Expansion and ConMcl. (Riverside Hist., Bost., 191 5.) 
 Dunn, J. P., True Indian Stories. (Indianapolis, 1908.) 
 Dunning, W. A., Reconstruction. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1907.) 
 Earle, A. M , Child Life in Colonial Days. (N. Y., 1899.) — Colonial 
 Dames and Goodwives. (Bost., 1895.) — Curious Punishments of 
 Bygone Days. (N. Y., 1896.) — Home Life in Colonial Days. (N. Y., 
 1898.) — Sabbath in Puritan New England. (N. Y., 1891.) — Stage- 
 Coach and Tavern Days. (N. Y., 1900.) — Two Centuries of Costume 
 in America. (2 vols., N. Y., 1903.) 
 Eggleston, Edward, Circuit Rider. (N. Y., 1874.) — The Graysons. (N. 
 Y., 1888.) — Hoosier Schoolboy. (N. Y., 1883.) — Hoosier School- 
 master. (Chic, 1871.) — /^o:cv. (N. Y., 1878.) 
 Eggleston, G. C, Life in the Eighteenth Century. (N. Y., 1905.) — Master 
 of Warlock. (Bost., 1903.) — Our First Century. (N. Y., 1905-^ 
 
 — Rebel's Recollections. (N. Y., 1905.) — Southern Soldier Stories. 
 (N. Y., 1898.) — Two Gentlemen of Virginia. (Bost., 1908.) 
 
 Elson, H. W., Side Lights on American History. (2 vols., N. Y., 1899-1900, 
 also 2 vols, in i.) 
 
 Fish, C. R., Development of American Nationality. (N. Y., 1913.) 
 
 Fiske, John, .American Revolution. (2 vols., Bost., 1891.) — Beginnings of 
 New England. (Bost., 1889.) — Critical Period of American History. 
 (Bost., 1888.) — Discovery of America. (2 vols., Bost., 1892.) — Dutch 
 and Quaker Colonies. (2 vols., Bost., 1899.) — Mississippi Valley in 
 the Civil War. (Bost., 1900.) — Nrcv France and New England. (Bost., 
 1902.) — Old Virginia and Her Neighbors. (2 vols., Bost., 1897.) 
 
 Ford, P. L., The True George Washington. (Phila., 1902.) 
 
 Franklin, Benjamin, Autobiography. (Many eds.) 
 
 Garrison, G. P., Westzvard Extension. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) 
 
 Gordy, W. F., American Leaders and Heroes. (N. Y., 1909.) 
 
 Greene, E. B., Provincial America. (.Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1905.) 
 
 Hapgood, Norman. Abraham Lincoln. (N. Y., 1899.) 
 
 Hardihg, S. B., and Clapp, J. M., eds., Select Orations Illustrating American 
 Political History. (N. Y., 1909.) 
 
 Harland, Marion, His Great Self. (Phila., 1901.) — Wlien Grandmamma 
 was New. (Bost., 1 899.) 
 
LIST OF IMPORTANT HOOKS xxili 
 
 Harris, J. C, On the Plantation. (N. Y., 1S92.) — Uncle Remus, His Songs 
 
 and His Sayings. (N. Y., 1880.) 
 Hart, A. B., Actual Government. (Amer. Citizen Ser., 3d ed., N. Y., 1908. j 
 
 — American Nation, a History; from Original Sources by Associated 
 Scholars, (ed., 28 vols., N. Y., 1904-17.) — American History Told by 
 Contemporaries. (4 vols., 1 897-1901.) — American Patriots and States- 
 men. (Collier Classics, ed., 5 vols., N. Y., 1916.) — Epoch Maps II- 
 Itistraliug American History. (4th ed., N. Y., 1910.) — Formation of 
 the Union. (Epochs of Amer. Hist., rev. ed., N. Y., 1915.) — Foun- 
 dations of American Foreign Policy. (N. Y., 1901.) — Monroe Doc- 
 trine: an Interpretation. (Bost., 1916.) — National Ideals Histori- 
 cally Traced. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1907.) — Obvious Orient. (N. 
 Y., 191 1.) — Salmon Portland Chase. (Amer. Statesmen, Bost., 1900.) 
 
 — Slavery and Abolition. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) — Source 
 Book of American History, (ed., N. Y., 1900.) — Source Readers in 
 American History, (ed., 4 vols., N. Y., 1902-03.) — Southern South. 
 (N. Y., 1910.) — War in Europe. (N. Y., 1914.) — Wall Maps of 
 American History. (Chic, 1918.) 
 
 Hart, A. B., and Channing, Edward, eds., American History Leaflets. 
 
 (36 nos., N. \'., 1892-1910.) 
 Haworth, P. L., Reconstruction and Union, 1865-1912. (Home Univ. Lib., 
 
 N. Y., 1912.) 
 Hawthorne, Nathaniel, Grandfather's Chair. (Bost., 1840, later eds.) 
 
 — My Kinsman, Major Molyneux. (In Snow Image, Bost., 1852, 
 later eds.) — Twice-Told Tales. (2 vols., Bost., 1851, later eds.) 
 
 Higginson, T. W., Book of American Explorers. (Bost., 1877.) 
 
 Hinsdale, B. A., Old Northwest. (2 vols., N. Y., 1888.) 
 
 Hosmer, J. K., Appeal to Arms. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., igoj.) ^Outcome 
 of the Civil War. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1907.) 
 
 Howard, G. E., Preliminaries of the Revolution. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 
 1905.) 
 
 Howdls, W. D., Boy's Town.. (N. Y., 1890.) 
 
 James, J. A., ed., Readings in American History. (N. Y., 1914.) 
 
 Johnson, Allen, Union and Democracy. (Riverside Hist., Bost., 1915.) 
 
 Johnston, Alexander, and Woodhurn, J. A., eds., American Orations: 
 Studies in American Political history. (4 vols., N. Y., 1896-97.) 
 
 Johnston, Mary, Audrey. (Bost., 1902.) — Leivis Rand. (Bost., 
 1908.) 
 
 King, Charles, Campaigning with Crook. fN. Y., 1890.) — Captured. 
 (N. Y., 1906.) — Colonel's Daughter. (Phila., 1883.) — Iron Brigade. 
 (N. Y., 1902.) — Tonio. (N. Y., 1906.) 
 
 Latane, J. H., America as a World Power, iSgy-igoj. (Amer. Nation, 
 N. Y., 1907.) 
 
 l.aut, A. C, Story of the Trapper. (N. Y., 1902.) 
 
 Linderman, F. B., Indian Why Stories. (N. Y., 1915.) 
 
 Lodge, H. C, Alexander Hamilton. (Amer. Statesmen, Bost., 1900.) — 
 Daniel Webster. (Amer. Statesmen, Bost., 1900.) — -George Washing- 
 ton. (Amer. Statesmen, 2 vols., Bost., 1900.) — Story of the Rri'o- 
 lution. (2 vols., N. Y., 1898; also in i vol., 1903.) 
 
 MacDonald, William, ed.. Documentary Source Book of American History. 
 (Enlarged ed., N. Y., 1916.) — From Jefferson to Lincoln. (Home 
 Univ. Lib., N. Y., 1913.) — Jacksonian Democracy. (.Amer. Nation, 
 N. Y., 1906.) 
 
 McKeever, W. A., Farm Boys and Girls. (N. Y., 1912.) 
 
 McLaughlin, A. C, Confederation and Constitution. (Amer. Nation, 
 N. Y., 1905.) 
 
xxiv LIST OF IMPORTANT BOOKS 
 
 Merwin, H. C, Aaron Burr. (Beacon Biog., Bost., 1899.) — Thomas 
 
 Jefferson. (Riverside Biog., Bost., 1901.) 
 Moore, J. R. H., Industrial History of the American People. (N. Y., 1913.) 
 Muir, John, Story of my Boyhood and Youth. (Bost., 1913.) 
 Old South Leaflets. (General series, 207 nos. pub., Bost., 1888-.) 
 Page, T. N., Among the Camps. (N. Y., 1891.) — In Ole Virginia. (N. 
 
 Y., igio.}— Red Rock. (N. Y., 1898.) — Two Little Confederates. 
 
 (N. Y., 1888.) 
 Parkman, Francis, Conspiracy of Pontiac. (Rev. ed., 2 vols., Bost., 1870.) 
 
 — Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV. (Bost., 1877.) 
 — ■ Half-Century of Conflict. (2 vols., Bost., 1892.) — Jesuits in North 
 America. (Bost., 1867.) — La Salle and the Discovery of the Great 
 West. (Rev. ed., Bost., 1887.) — Old Regime in Canada. (Rev. ed., 
 Bost., 1895.) — Pioneers of France in the New World. (Bost., 1887.) 
 
 Paxson, F. L., American Civil War. (Home Univ. Lib., N. Y., 191 1.) — 
 Last American Frontier. (N. Y., 1910.) — The New Nation. (River- 
 side Hist., Bost., 1915.) 
 
 Price, L. L., Lads and Lassies of Other Days. (Bost., 1906.) 
 
 Riis, J. A., Children of the Poor. (N. Y., i8()2.)—-How the Other Half 
 Lives. (N. Y., 1890.) 
 
 Roosevelt, Theodore, Gouverneur Morris. (Amer. Statesmen, Bost., 1900.) 
 
 — Naval War of 1812. (3d ed., N. Y., 1883.) — Strenuous Life. 
 (N. Y., 1901.) — Winning of the West. (4 vols., N. Y., 1889-96.) 
 
 Scudder, H. E., Men and Manners in America One Hundred Years Ago. 
 
 (N. Y., 1876.) 
 Sloane, W. M., French War and the Revolution, i/j6-i/8j. (Amer. Hist. 
 
 Ser., N. Y., 1893.) 
 Smedes, S. D., Memorials of a Southern Planter. (4th ed., N. Y., 1890.) 
 Smith, T. C, Parties and Slavery. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) 
 South in the Building of the Nation. (12 vols., Richmond, 1909-.) 
 Southworth, G. V. D., Builders of our Country. (2 vols., N. Y., 1906.) 
 Sparks, E. E., Expansion of the American People. (Chic, 1900.) — 
 
 National Development, 1877-1885. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1907.) 
 Stockton, F. R., Buccaneers and Pirates of our Coasts. (N. Y., 1898.) — 
 
 Kate Bonnet. (N. Y., 1902.) — Stories of New Jersey. (N. Y., 1896.) 
 Stoddard, W. 0., Battle of New York. (N. Y., 1892.) — Boy Lincoln. 
 
 (N. Y., 1905.) — Little Smoke. (N. Y., 1891.) — Long Bridge Boys. 
 
 (Bost., 1904.) —Saltillo Boys. (N. Y., 1882.) 
 Thwaites, R. G., Brief History of Rocky Mountain Exploration. (N. Y., 
 
 1904.) — The Colonies, 14Q2-1750. (Epochs of Amer. Hist., rev. 
 
 ed., N. Y., 1910.) — Daniel Boone. (N. Y., 1902.) — Father Marquette. 
 
 (N. Y., 1902.) — France in America. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1905.) 
 Trowbridge, John, Samuel Finley Breese Morse. (Beacon Biog., Bost., 
 
 1901.) 
 Turner, F. J., Rise of the Neiv West. (.A.mer. Nation, N. Y., 1906.) 
 Tyler, L. G., England in America. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1904.) 
 Van Tyne, C. H., American Revolution. (Amer. Nation, N. Y., 1905.) 
 Washington, B. T., Upfront Slavery. (N. Y., 1901.) 
 Weeden, W. B., Economic and Social History of New England. (2 vols., 
 
 Bost., 1 89 1.) 
 Wilson, S. T., Southern Mountaineers. (N. Y., 1906.) 
 Wilson, Woodrow, Division afid Reunion. (Epochs of Amer. Hist., rev. 
 
 ed., N. Y., 1910.) — History of the Americaii People. (5 vols., N. Y., 
 
 1902.) — • New Freedom. (N. Y., 1913.) 
 Winsor, Justin, Narrative and Critical History of America. (8 vols., Bost., 
 
 1886-89.) 
 
INDEX 
 
 Diacritic marks: a as in lale; a as in fat: ii as in fir; a as in care; a as in last; ^ as in 
 fall; c, ch as in cask, chasm; g as in ice; e as in me; e as in met, berry; g as in veil; ? as 
 in term; g as in gem; g as in go; i as in tin; i as in police; n, the French nasal; o as in 
 iiole; 6 as in not; 6 as in son; 6 as in /or; Q as in do; 5 as in ne^vs; th'as in tlie; u as in /Mne; 
 u as in 7iul; u as in rude (=0); ij as in full; ii = French 11; y as in my. Single italic letters 
 are silent. 
 
 A. B. C. powers, 439, 500 
 
 Abolitionists, 253-255. 316, 31? 
 
 .\cadcniy, 175 
 
 Acadia. 59. 95. 96, 99 
 
 .\ct of Association, 125 
 
 .^cts of Trade, 65, 112, 121, 123, 127. 156 
 
 Adams, Charles F., 360 
 
 .\dams, Hannah. 87 
 
 Adams, John, 88. in, 127, 141, 145, 148, 
 
 178, 183, 200 
 President, 186, xx 
 Adams, John Quincy, 240, 255, 260, J89 
 
 President, 241, xx 
 .Vdams, Samuel, 125, 148, 183 
 Addams, Jane, 474 
 Aeroplane, 460 
 
 Africa, early voyages to, 24-25 
 Agricultural schools, 309, 475 
 .A-gMi-nal'do, 451 
 .M-a-biJ'ma, 235, 412, xix 
 Uabama, 360, 361 
 A'la-mo, 26s 
 Alaska, 36, 238, 286, 381, 382, 441, 466, 482, 
 
 485 
 Al'ba-ny (al'-), 63, 98, 233, 281, 425 
 Albany Congress, 98 
 Alien and Sedition Acts, 186 
 .Amendments to Constitution, 163, 371, 
 
 372-375. 391. 397. 409. 497 
 .Vmerica, naming of, 28 
 .American Federation of Labor, 422-423, 474 
 .Americans; see People 
 .\nmesty, 371 
 
 .Amusements, 79-80, 170, 171, 223, 302-305 
 .\narchists. 391, 467 
 -Anderson. Major Robert, 329, 330, 334 
 An'drc. Major John, 136 
 An'dros. Sir Edmund, 70 
 Annap'olis. 309 
 
 .Annapolis (Md.) Convention, 160 
 An-tie'tam, battle, 338 
 Anti-Federalists, 165. 178 
 .Ami- Imperialists, 452 
 Antimasonic party, 249 
 \ntislavery. 236, 253, 254, 255 
 
 arguments, 315-316 
 A-pa'che Indians, 384 
 \ppalach'ian Mountains, 29. 96, 100, 215, ' 
 
 233 
 -Appomat'tox, 363 i 
 
 .Apprenticeship, 171-172 | 
 
 Argent! 'na, 439 I 
 
 Arizona, 382, 384, 387, 401, 479-482, 485, 
 
 xix 
 Ar'kan-s^x, 245, 289, 334, xix 
 Arkwright, 271 
 Arma'da, Spanish, 38-39 
 Armstrong, John, 208 
 
 Army. Civil War, 33.4-335, 336, 337, 343- 
 344. 345-347. 351. 352, 365 
 
 Revolutionary War, 133-134, 144, 145 
 
 Spanish War, 448-450 
 
 War of 1812, 207-208 
 Arnold, Benedict, 134, 135, 136 
 .Arthur, Chester A., 403, 431, 436, .xx 
 -Articles of Compact, 159 
 .Articles of Confederation, 150-151, 160, 163 
 .A? 'bury, Francis, 174 
 -Asia, trade with, 15, 17, 229 
 Assembly, first, 47, 48 
 Astor, John Jacob, 197, 276, 463 
 Asto'ria, Oregon, 198, 207, 286 
 As'trolabe, 16 
 Athletics, 476 
 Atlanta, 363. 414. 4iS 
 Austin. Moses, 265 
 Australian ballot, 484 
 Autocracy. 503 
 Automobile, 171, 461 
 Autonomy, 447 
 
 Bacon's Rebellion, 69 
 Bahama Islands, 25 
 Bal-bo'a, 28 
 Ballot reform, 484-1485 
 Bal'ti-more, 108, 168, 208, 247, 277 
 Baltimore, Lord, 52 
 liank notes, 232, 354, 497 
 Banks, 156, 181, 231-232, 276, 426, 466, 497 
 Barlow, Joel, 175 
 Barry, John, 138 
 Batt.s, 71 
 
 Beane. William, 102 
 Beecher, Henry Ward, 248, 347 
 Belgium, 14, 503 
 Be-lize', 121 
 
 Bel'A'nap. William W., 395 
 Bell, Alexander Graham, 417 
 Benton, Thomas H., 259 
 Berke'ley, 66 
 ■ Bes'se-mer steel, 417 
 Bicycle, 419 
 Biddle, Nicholas, 262 
 Bienville, Celoron de. 97 
 
XXVI 
 
 INDEX 
 
 H\H business, 459, 467. 492 
 
 Big trees, 381, 483 
 
 Bimetallism, 400, 401, 402 
 
 Bir'ming/iam, 412 
 
 Blaine, James G., 398, 403-404. 44" 
 
 Bland, Edward, 71 
 
 Bland Act, 402 
 
 Blast furnaees, 412 
 
 Blockade, 185, 210, 349. 352, 358, 360, 407, 
 
 501 
 Board of Trade, 93 
 Bol'i-var, Gen. Simon, 238, 239_ 
 Hon Homme Richard {bo-nom're-shiir'), 138 
 Boone. Daniel, 102 
 Bosses, 312, 453, 488 
 Boston. 50, 83. 125. 131. 134. 168. 247, 277, 
 
 307. 423. 424. 460, 466 
 Massacre, 124 
 Tea Party, 124-125 
 Boundaries, state, 108, 157, 158, 184 
 
 V. S., 141, 194. 285, 286, 289. 291. 292- 
 
 293. 381 
 Bounty jumpers, 344 
 Bouiily lands, 158. 269 
 Boxer Rebellion, 453 
 Boycott, 124, 125 
 Braddock, Gen., 98 
 Bradstreet, Anne, 87 
 Bragg. Gen.. 361, 362 
 Brandy-wine, battle, 135 
 Bra-zil', 28, 238, 239, 398, 439 
 Breckinridge, John C., 323 
 Bridges, 116, 181, 234. 414, 425 
 British Empire, 120-122; see England. 
 
 Great Britain 
 Brook Farm. 250 
 
 Brotherhood of Locomotive Engineers, 421 
 Brotherhoods, 249-250, 475 
 Brown, John, 321 
 
 Bryan, William J., 441, 452, 493, 405, 49'' 
 Bryant, William CuUen, 176 
 Bij-eh in'an. James, 320, 322, 329, x.\ 
 Buffalo. N. Y., 247, 281, 420, 423 
 Buffaloes, 35, 380 
 
 Bull Run, battle, 336-33". 338. 350. 3.18 
 Bunker Hill, battle, 134 
 Biir-goyne', Gen., 135. 136 
 Burr, Aaron, 187, 198 
 Business, 376, 377. 407. 417-428 
 colonial. 11 2- 114 
 government. 426, 465-467 
 Business men, 463-464 
 Butler, Gen. B. F.. 345, 357 
 But/e, Montana, 387 
 Byrd, William, 78, 10S-109 
 
 Cabinet. 178-179. 467' 
 
 Cab'ot, John. 28. 45 
 
 Ca-bral'. 27-28 
 
 Cii-bririo (-brel'yo), 36 
 
 Caho'kia. 95, i39 
 
 Calamities. 423 
 
 Cal-hojin'. John C 205. 255, 261, 263, 289, 
 
 296 
 California. 287. 288, 291, 292, 293. 294. 296, 
 
 297. 376. 380. 381, 472, 485. 489. xix 
 Calvert, Cecil, 52 
 Cambridge. 50, 53, 134 
 Cameras, 460 
 Camp meeting. 226, 227 
 Canada, 99. 127. I34. I35. I45. 205. 207. 
 
 210. 38S. 483 
 Canals. 232. 264. 279-281. 426-427 
 
 See also Erie Canal. Panama Canal 
 Canning. George. 240 
 Cape Bret'on, 28 
 
 Cape of (iood Hope, 25, 26, 20 
 Capitol, U. S.. 178. 184, 207 
 Carolinas, 68-69, loi 
 
 .See also North Carolina, South Carolina 
 Carpetbaggers, 371. 305. 400 
 Car-ran 'za (-thii). 500 
 Car'ter-et. Sir George. 66 
 Cartier. Jacques (zhak kar-tya'). 36-37 
 Cartwright, Rev. Peter. 227 
 Cass. Lewis, 293 
 Cattle, 380, 384, 433. 479 
 Cavaliers. 64 
 Ca-vi'te. 448 
 Central Powers, 501 
 Cervera (thar-va'ra). Admiral, 448 
 
 8 ham-plain', Samuel de. 59, 60 
 han'cellorsville, battle, 330, 3S0 
 Charles L 50, 52, 64 
 Charles H, 64, 67 
 Charleston, S. C, 69. 108, 136, 168, 247, 
 
 264, 329. 410 
 Glisters, 19, 45, 46, 47. so, 52, 93. loi 
 /jEtiase, Salmon P., 255, 313, 319. 345 
 'I^Chattanoo'ga, 361-362, 412 
 Checks. 231 
 
 Cher-o-kees'. 33, 71, 97. 216 
 Ches'a-peake, 199 
 Chi-ca'go. 192, 226, 247, 281, 314, 380, 389. 
 
 396. 423. 424. 460. 475 
 Chickamau'ga, battle, 361 
 Chick'a-saws. 216 
 Child labor, 172, 273, 301, 474, 475 
 Child Labor .Act, 465, 498 
 Children, 79-80, 84-86, 144, 172, 175. ^^A, 
 
 250, 251, 300-309, 469 
 Chi'le. 238, 439 
 
 China, 15. 25, 26-, 229, 453. 492 
 Chinese, 388, 391-392, 472 
 Choc'taws, 216 
 Christian Commission, 351 
 Christina, Ft., 63 
 Churches, 16, 44, 45. 52, 55. 80-82, 146, 
 
 173-174. 226, 227, 248-249, 391 
 ("incinna'ti, 159, 225. 226, 247, 389, 423. 424 
 Cities, 246-247, 250. 389. 396. 414. 462, 465. 
 
 466, 469. 486, 4S7 
 Civil service, 394. 403 
 Civil Service Commission, 403 
 Civil War, 329-366 
 cost of, 364-366 
 
 military events, 333-340. 359-364 
 Clark. George Rogers. 139. 141. i58 
 Cla.ssified service, 403, 431 
 Clatsop, Ft., 197 
 Clay. Henrj-, 205, 231. 239, 260. 262, 264, 
 
 285, 289. 294. 296 
 Clay Furnace, 272 
 Clayton Act. 465 
 Clemm. Johnny, 344 
 Clermont, 219 
 Cleveland. Grover. 403. 404. 431. 434, 43,1. 
 
 437, 439, 440, 441. XX 
 Cleveland, Ohio, 225. 247. 272. 3S9. 423. 46S 
 Clinton. De Witt, 206. 232 
 Clinton, George. 183 
 Clipper ships, 258, 277 
 Clothing, 222, 223 
 
 Coal, 272. 387. 407. 412, 417. 482, 483 
 Codfish, 28, 114 
 
 Colleges, 87-88, 245, 307. 308-309. 411. 477 
 Co-lom'bi-a, 238, 454 
 Colonial System, iii 
 Colonies, 107-108 
 
 .SVe separate colonies 
 Colonists, early. 43-44 
 life of, 77-80 
 
INDEX 
 
 x.wu 
 
 Col-o-rii'ilo, 382. jK7, 40c, 485. xix 
 
 folorado River, j8j 
 
 Coluiiibia, S. C, 364, 41J 
 
 Columbia River. 185. I9S. 32i. J8i. 43.) 
 
 Columbia Univprsity, 87 
 
 Columbus, Christopher, 24-27 
 
 Columbus, Ga., 413 
 
 Commerce, 13 17, iny 230. 277, 376, 502 
 
 Commission Kovcrnnicnt. 486-487 
 
 Commitleos of CorrcstX)ndence, 125, 145 
 
 Committt-es of Safety. 147 
 
 Common carriers. 427 
 
 ( onimonwealth. 64 
 
 Compass. 15. lb 
 
 ("onitJromisL' of 1850. 2<)4-297, 318 
 
 ( Onipulsory referendum. 489 
 
 (~oncord. battle. 131 
 
 ( onestOKa wauons. 2 1 8 
 
 Confederate States of Ameriea. 330. 334. 
 
 343. 348-349 
 I (jUKress, 163 
 Connect 'ieut, 53, 56, 107, 158. 164. xix 
 
 charter. 53. 65. 70. 101, 146, 147 
 Connecticut Compromise. 162 
 Conscription. 344 
 Conservation. 385. 482-484 
 Constantinople, 13, 14. 23 
 ( tmslituliou, 2iO. 
 Constitution, 151-152. 263. 264 
 
 amendments, 371, 372-375. 397. 4uy. 497 
 
 state. 147 
 
 I'nited States. 163-163. v-xviii 
 Constitutional Convention. 160-165 
 
 compromises of. 162-163 
 Constitutional Union party, 324 
 Continental Coniitess, 145, 146, 147 
 
 First. 125. 131 
 
 Second. 131-133, 147 
 Continental System, 199, 205 
 Contraband. 185, 357. 501 
 Cooper. James F.. 79, 176 
 Copper, 382, 387. 482 
 Corn, 270, 407 
 Corn-wal'lis. Lord, 140, 141 
 Co-ro-na'do (-tho), 35 
 Corporations, 180, 181, 231, 276, 420, 436, 
 
 463, 464, 497 
 Cor'tes, Hernando, 3i, 36 
 Cotton, 236, 270, 27A, 407, 411, 412, 415 
 Cotton gin. 236. 276 
 CoM-rcurs' de bois (bwa). 76 
 Courts, county. 55 
 Creeks. 97. 216 
 Cromwell. Oliver, 64 
 Crown Point, 100 
 Cro-za/', 95, 194 
 Cuba, 100, 239. 296. 314-315. 3ii. 397-398. 
 
 446-447. 450 
 Cumberland Gap. 102 
 Cumberland Road, 233-235, 279 
 Currency. 114-115. 354, 377, 399 
 Cluster. Gen., 384 
 
 Oa-gtterre'o-typ«s. 274 
 Dakota. 382 
 
 See also N'orth Dakota. South Dakota 
 Dare. X'irginia, 85 
 Da-ri-en'. 28 
 Dauphin Island. 93 
 Dav'enport. Rev. John, 53 
 Davis. Jefferson. 296. 312, 314, 321. 330, 
 
 331. 334. 335. 349. 350, 364. 371 
 Dearborn. Ft., 192 
 Debs. Eugene \'.. 495 
 liebts, private, IS5. 156 
 
 public. 156, 158, 180, 211, 373, 377, 407 
 
 Declaration of I ndeiiendence, 148 i )9, 151. 
 
 161, i-iv 
 Declaration of Rights, 123. 125 
 Deerfield, 95-96 
 De Kalb'. 136 
 
 Delaware. 68. 108. 164. ssu 373. xi.v 
 Delaware Indians, 216 
 Demarcation line, 26-27, 28 
 Democratic party, 183, 264, 285, 313. ,\t)(t, 
 
 435. 437. 441 
 Denmark, 502 
 Denver, 387. 389 
 Deposit Act. 266 
 D6g'er-et. state of, 322 
 De Smet, Father, 288 
 De So'to, Hernando, 34 35 
 D'Es-ta/N'g'. Admiral, 136 
 Detroit', 95. 140, 207, 225. 247, 465 
 Dewey, Admiral, 448 
 Diaz (de'as). Bartholomew, 25 
 Diaz. Gen., 439. 500 
 Dickinson. John. 124 
 Dingley tariff. 437, 494 
 Direct primary. 487-488 
 Diseases, 44. 76. 78-79, 223-225, 352, 449, 
 
 462, 466 
 District of Columbia, 184, 237, 255, 296, 357 
 Dix. Dorothea. 249-250 
 Dixie. 160 
 
 Doddridge. Rev. Joseph. 217 
 Don'gan. Gov.. 66 
 Doug'las, Stephen A., 313, 318, 320, 321, 
 
 323. 3-'4 
 Draft, 341 
 
 Dra'go Doctrine. 455 
 Drake. Sir Francis. 37-38 
 Dred Scott case. 320 
 Dre.ss. 78. 85. 86. 115. 352 
 Du-fiuesne' (-kan'). Ft., 98, 100 
 Dutch, 53. 56. 62-64, 65, 67 
 Dyer, Mary, 71 
 
 Eads, Capt.. 414 
 
 East Florida. 121 
 
 East India Company, 65 
 
 Ecuador. 238 
 
 Edison. Thomas A.. 418 
 
 Electoral Commission, 399 
 
 Electricity, 128, 417, 418 
 
 Elizabeth, Queen, 37, 38, 45 
 
 Emancipation, 253. 357-359. 397 
 
 Embargo Act. 199-200 
 
 England, discoveries. 28. 37, 38 
 
 government, 19, 64. 65, 92 
 
 influence, 92, 169, 176, 390 
 
 settlements, 38, 44-54. 65-69, 93 
 
 settlers, 44, 71, 75, 92 
 
 wars with France, 92-96, 9S-100, 185 
 
 war with Spain. 38-39 
 
 See also Great Britain 
 English language. 390, 391 
 Enumerated goods. 112 
 Era of Good Feeling, 241 
 Er'icson, Leif. 2i 
 Erie, 272 
 
 Erie Canal. 221. 232-2is 
 Essex. 210 
 Europe, commerce of, 13-17, 19, 24 
 
 countries of, 13 
 
 ideas in, 16, 18-19 
 Evangelists. 248 
 Expositions, 415, 475, 476 
 Express companies. 278. 425, 438 
 
 Factories, 229. 231, 252, 271, 275, 31)1, 376 
 Fairfax, Lord, 98 
 
XX\'lll 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Far West, 288, 3JJ. iSo. 387, 453. 479. 5^3 
 
 Farm machinery, 276, 419 
 
 Farmers, 43,46, 108, 114, 169, 170-171, 222, 
 
 231, 24s, 251, 270, 276, 420, 462 
 Farmers' Alliance, 436 
 Far'raRUt, David G., 332, 337. 360 
 Federal Reserve System, 497 
 Federal Trade Commission, 465, 497 
 Federalists, 165, 183. 190. 210, 212 
 Ferillo (fa-rcl'yo). 3^ 
 Field, Cyrus. 274 
 Filibusters, 447 
 Filipinos, 451, 452, 4yS 
 Fillmore, Xlillard, 296, 320, xx 
 Finances, 159, 160 
 
 during Civil War, 345, 354, 377 
 
 during Revolutionary War, 145-146 
 Fires, 423 
 
 Fisheries, 43, S9. 114. 323 
 Five Nations, 59, 60 
 Flatboat, 215, 219 
 Flint, Timothy, 226 
 Floods, 423 
 Florida, 72, 100, 121. 239, 399 
 
 admission, 291, xlx 
 Food, 44, 79, 108, 112, 144, 171, 221-222, 
 
 250, 270, 275, 418-419 
 Force Bills, 396 
 Forests, 31, 32, 215, 229, 343, 381, 407, 423 
 
 national, 483 
 Forty-niners, 294 
 Fox, Charles James, 126 
 Fox, George, 70 
 France, alliance with U. S., 135-136 
 
 colonies, 37, 59, 62 
 
 discoveries, 28 
 
 explorations, 61-62 
 
 wars with England, 92, 95-96, yS-ioo. 
 18s, 198-199 
 
 war with U. S., 186 
 Franchises, 424 
 Franklin, Benjamin, 88, 98, 111, 123, 127 
 
 128, 141, 147, 150, 161, 170 
 Fredericksburg, battle, 338 
 Free coinage, 401, 402, 493 
 Freedmen, 370, 372, 408-410 
 Freedmen's Bureau, 372 
 Free-soil party, 293, 319 
 Freight, 427-428 
 
 Fre-mont', John C, 288, 320, 357 
 French and Indian War. 98-100 
 French Canal Company, 427, 453, 454 
 French Revolution, 184-185, 191 
 Fugitive slaves, 237, 294, 296, 317, 357 
 Fulton, Robert, 219 
 Fundamental law. 151, 152 
 Fundamental Orders, 53 
 Fur trade, 43, si. 59, 60, 107. 114. 197, 28(5- 
 
 287, 38a 
 Furniture, 78, 102, 109, 170, 230 
 
 Gadsden purchase, 292 
 
 Gag Resolutions, 255 
 
 Gage, Gen.. 131 
 
 Gal'latin, Albert, 183, 190, 205, 234 
 
 Galley slaves, 17 
 
 Galloway, Joseph, 127 
 
 Galveston, 413, 487 
 
 Ga'ma, Vas'co da, 26 
 
 Games, 302-304 
 
 Garfield, James A., 403, xx 
 
 Garrison, William Lloyd, 253, 254, 331 
 
 Gasoline engine. 460 
 
 Gates. Gen., 135, 140 
 
 Genoa, 14, 17, 25 
 
 George III, 122, 133, 141, 145 
 
 Georgia, 28, 82, 93, loi, 108, 157. 158. 164. 
 371, xix 
 
 Germans, 76, 82, 97, 174, 247, 313, 388, 390 
 
 Germantown, 68 
 
 Germany, 313, 454. .SOi. S02 
 
 _war with, 467, 503-S04 
 
 Gettysburg, battle, 339-34° 
 
 Geysers, 382, 383 
 
 G'^ent, treaty, 21 1-2 12 
 
 Gilbert, Sir Humphrey, 38 
 
 Girard, Stephen, 276, 463 
 
 Girls, 87, 174. 301. 307-30S 
 
 Goethals, Major, 493 
 
 Gold. 272-273, 294. 377, 384. 387. 400. 401. 
 402, 441, 482 
 
 Gold and silver money, 377, 399, 400-402, 
 441 
 
 Goldbugs, 402, 440 
 
 Goodyear, Charles, 275 
 
 Gorgas, Col., 493 
 
 Gor'such, 317 
 
 Government, colonial, 47, 5". 5i, 54. 55. 5'', 
 67, 121, 147 
 
 Grammar school, 86 
 
 Grand Canyon, 12, 382, 479 
 
 Grand Model, 68 
 
 Grangers, 39" 
 
 Grant, Ulysses S., 337, 33^. 344. 361. 3O2, 
 363 
 President, 375. 384. .$94. 395. 396, 398, xx 
 
 Gray, Capt., 185 
 
 Great Britain, 92, 120, 121, 317. 381, 501; 
 see England 
 during Civil War. 358, 360, 361 
 government, 121-122, 123, 126 
 treaties, 141, IS9. 186, 211, 285, 280, 291, 
 
 454 
 wars with U. S., 131-141, 205-211 
 Venezuela, 440 
 
 Great charter, 68 
 
 Great emigration, 51 
 
 Great War, 470, 501-502 
 
 Greek Empire, 13, 16, 23 
 
 Greeley, Horace, 331. 347. 396 
 
 Greenback party. 397. 403 
 
 Greenbacks, 354, 377, 399-400 
 
 Greene, Gen. Nathanael, 140 
 
 Greenland, 23 
 
 Guam (gwam), 450, 451 
 
 Gua-na-han'i. 25 
 
 Giierriere (gar-ryar'), 210 
 
 G«i-a'na, 238, 440 
 
 Gunpowder, 15 
 
 Gu'ten-berg. 16 
 
 Hai'ti, 26, 192, 193 
 
 Hale, N'athan, 88 
 
 Half -faced camp, 221 
 
 Hatf Moon. 62, 63 
 
 Hamilton, Alexander, 161, 165, 179, 180, 
 
 181, 187, 198 
 Hampton Institute. 410 
 Hancock. Gen. W. S., 402. 
 Hancock, John, 146 
 Hanna, Mark, 446 
 Har'greaves, 271 
 Harnden, VVilliam F., 278 
 Harrison, Benjamin, 434, 436, 437. 440. .xx 
 Harrison, William Henry, 204, 208, 212 
 
 President, 285, xx 
 narrower, John, 109-110 
 Hartford, 53 
 
 Hartford Convention, 211 
 Harvard, 87, 88 
 Haughery, Margaret, 410 
 Havana, 100, 447 
 
INDEX 
 
 XXIX 
 
 7Ia-W(ri'i;ui Islands, 4.50. 4(19, 482 
 Hawtliornc, Nathaniel, SI 
 Hay, John, 446. 453, 454, 493 
 Hayes, Kutir'erford B., 308 
 
 President, 399, 427, xx 
 Ihiyne, Sen.. 263 
 Haystack Movement, 249 
 Hen'nepin, Father, 61 
 Henry, Patrick, 122, 123, 148 
 Hi'ssians, 133 
 Hill. James J., 463 
 I'ispanio'la. 25, 26 
 1 lolidays. 304-30S 
 Holland, 48, 62, 65 
 Holy Alliance, 240 
 Home life, 77-79, 221-223 
 Homespun, 1 14, 222 
 Homestead Act, 378, 38s 
 Hooker, Thomas, 53 
 Hospitals, 351 
 
 Houses, 72-78, 107, 170, 221, 222 
 lloils'ton, Sam, 266 
 Howe, Elias, 275 
 Howe, Gen., 135 
 Howe, Julia Ward, 30S 
 Hudson, Henry, 62-63 
 Hudson Bay, 96 
 
 Hudson's Bay Company. 121, 286 
 lluerta (wer'ta), 500 
 Hughes (huz), Charles E., 502, 503 
 HuRMe-nots. 37, 75 
 HuiuinKton, CoUis P.. 386 
 llutcliinson. Gov., 123, 127 
 Hutchinson, Mrs. Anne, 52 
 Ihdraulic mining, 272 
 Hy-la-c6m'y-lus, 28 
 
 l-her-v\Ue', 93 
 Ice, 418 
 Iceland, 23, 25 
 Idaho. 382, 401, 48s 
 
 admis.sion, 433, xix 
 Illinoii'. 174, 221, 229, 235, 246, 485, xix 
 Imtnigrants, 43, 75, 247-2.^8, 269. 313, 388, 
 389. 390, 470-471 
 
 contributions of, 248, 304, 390 
 luimisration laws, 391-392, 472 
 Impeachment, 375 
 
 Impressment, 185, 199, 204, 20S, 211 
 Inalienable rights, 122, 149, 151 
 Incas, 3:i 
 Income tax, 497 
 Indentured servants, 109 
 Independence Hall, 148 
 Independents, 44 
 India, 15. 24. 25, 26, 100, 120 
 Indian Territory, 216, 479 
 Indiana, 139, 174, 204, 246, 397 
 
 admission, 235, xix 
 Indians,- 76-77, 97, 100, no, 134, 216-217, 
 288, 380, 385. 479 
 
 life of, 32-33. 216-217 
 
 relations with whites, 76 
 
 warfare. 77, 95 
 
 wars, 53, 69, 204, 384 
 Inflation, 400 
 Initiative, 488, 489 
 Insane, 250, 251 
 
 Insular government, 451-452, 498 
 Insurgents, 494 
 Internal improvements, 229, 233, 258, 264, 
 
 265. 281 
 Interstate commerce, 437-438, 497 
 Interstate Commerce Commission, 438, 498 
 Inventions, 273-276, 417-420, 460 
 Towa, 246, 269, 291, xix 
 
 Irish immigrants, 247 
 
 Iron, 51, 114, 271-272, 342, 376, 407, 412 
 
 Ir-o-quoii', 59, 60. 72, 97, 108 
 
 Irrigation, 385. 479. 483 
 
 Irving, Washington, 176 
 
 Isabella, Queen, 25 
 
 Island of Orleans, 100, 193, 194 
 
 Jackson, Andrew, 97, 204, 205, 209, 212. 
 216, 241. 394 
 
 President, 259. 261-265, xx 
 Jackson, Gen. Thomas J. r'Stonewall "), 
 
 349. 350 
 Jamaica, 64, 121 
 James I, 45. 46, 64 
 James II, 67, 70 
 Jamestown, 45, 69 
 Japan, 15, 25, 26, 501 
 
 and Russia, 492 
 Japanese, 472 
 Java, 62 
 
 Jay, John, 141, 179, 186 
 Jay Treaty, 186 
 
 Jefferson, Thomas, 88, 148, 151, 170, 172, 
 179, 181, 190-191, I9.t, 307, 308 
 
 President, 187, 190-200, xx 
 lenner. Dr. Edward, 225 
 Jerks, 227 
 
 John, King of England, 19 
 Johnson, ,\ndrew, 370, 371, 375, 495, xx 
 Johnson, Dr. Samuel, 169 
 Johnson, Sir William, 97 
 Johnston, Gen. .Albert S., 337 
 Johnston, Gen. Joseph E., 338, 363, 364 
 Johnstown, 423 
 
 Joint stock trading company, 45 
 Joliet (zho-lya'), 61 
 Jones, John Paul, 138 
 Juan (hoo-iln') de Fu'ca, 36, 291 
 
 Kansas, 319, 320, 322, 323, 436, 485 
 
 admission, 331, xix 
 Kansas City, 289 
 
 Kansas-Nebraska Bill, 317-319, 322 
 Kaskas'kia, 95, 139 
 Kear'ny, Gen., 292 
 Kear'sarge, 361 
 Kentucky, 140, 158, 159. 334. 337, 343. 373 
 
 admission, 183, xix 
 Ke'o-kuk, 484 
 Key, Francis Scott, 209 
 King George's War, 96 
 King Phili[), 69-70 
 King William's War, 95 
 Kings Mountain, battle, 140 
 Kitchen Cabinet, 262 
 Klondike River, 441 
 Knight, Madam, ir6 
 Knights of Labor, 421 
 Know-nothings, 319, 320 
 Knox, Henry, 179 
 Kos-suth', Louis, 313 
 Ku-Kiux Klan, 396, 409 
 
 Labor, 251-252, 414, 421-423, 474 
 
 Labor Reform party, 397 
 
 Labor unions, 273, 421-423, 474 
 
 Ladies' .Aid Societies, 351 
 
 La-fa-yet;«', Marquis de, 136 
 
 Lake Champlain. 60, 100, 135, 207, 208 
 
 Land grants, 377. 385. 387 
 
 Language, 390 
 
 Lansing, Robert, 496 
 
 La Plii'ta, 238, 439 
 
 La Sal/e', 6r 
 
 Latin America, 238-239 
 
XXX 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Lead, 229 
 
 LSad'ville, Colo., 387 
 
 Lecomp'ton, 320 
 
 Lederer, 71 
 
 Lee, Lucinda, 79 
 
 Lee, Robert E., 3^1. ii^, 33S, 310, s(\%. 3" I- 
 
 372 
 Le-6n', Pon'ce (-tha) de, 34 
 Lesseps, Ferdinand de, 426, 427 
 Letters of marque, 117 
 Lewis and Clark, 195-197 
 Lexington, battle, 131 
 Liberty party, 293 
 Libraries, 83, 108, 128, 170, 245, 475 
 Lincoln, Abraham, 221, 250, 293, 316, 321. 
 
 324, 325. 329, 330 
 President, 331, 334, 335, 338, 347-34^, 
 
 357. 358, 359, 364, 370, 372, 373, xx 
 Linsey-woolsej', 222 
 Literature, S8-89, 175-176, 475-476 
 Livingston, Robert R., 193, i94 
 Local option, 489 
 London Company, 45, 47 
 Long, Dr. Crawford W., 276 
 LonKfellow, Henry W., 347 
 Louisburg, 96, 100 
 LQ!<-ii-si-a'na, 61, 93-95, 100, 192, 193, iu4, 
 
 359. 399, 407, 409 
 admission, 197, xix 
 Lpit'is-ville, 225 
 Low Countries. 14, 17 
 Lowell. James Russell, 316, 347 
 Lower South, 396 
 Loyalists, 134, 145. I55 
 Lucas, Eliza, 87 
 Lusitiinia, 501 
 Luther, Martin, 16 
 Lynching, 145, 250 
 Lyon, Mary, 308 
 
 McClellan, George B., 337, 338, 348 
 
 McCormick, Cyrus, 276 
 
 MacDon'oug/;, Com., 208 
 
 McHenry, Ft., 208 
 
 Machines, 271, 273, 274, 276, 417, 419, 459 
 
 McKinley, VVilliam, 436 
 
 President, 441, 446, 417. 45i. 452, xx 
 McKinley tariff, 436, 437, 494 
 Ma-comfe', Gen., 208 
 Ma-de'ro, 500 
 
 Madison, James, 88, 151, 161, 162, 165, 183, 
 200, 232 
 
 President, 204-212, 230, xx 
 Magazines, 169, 476 
 Ma-gel'lan, 29 
 Magna Charta, 19, 92 
 Maine, 45, 54. 70, 207, 211. 237, 249, 285 
 
 admission, 238, xi.x 
 Maine, 447 
 Manchuria, 492 
 Mandan, Ft., 195 
 Manhood suffrage, 485 
 Ma-nil'a, 100, 448, 498 
 Manufacturing, 114, 229, 231, 236, 245, 246, 
 
 252, 271-272, 412-413, 420 
 Ma-ri-et'ta, O., 159 
 .Mar'i-on, Gen. Francis, 140 
 Mar-quette' (-ket'). Father, 61 
 Marshall, Emily, 170 
 Marshall. John, 186, 191 
 Maryland, 52-53, 68, 108, 151, 164, 358, xix 
 
 charter, 52 
 Mason and Dixon line, 160, 168, 317 
 Massachusetts, 50-52, 56, 71, 84, 107, 131. 
 147, 165, xix 
 
 charter, 70, 101, 125 
 
 Massachusetts General Court, 51, 86, 145 
 
 Matagorda Bav, 61, 194 
 
 Marir'er, Cotton, 83, 85. 87 
 
 Matthew, Father, 249 
 
 Mayfiower, 49, 85 
 
 Mayflower Compact, 49-50 
 
 Mecklenburg Convention. 148 
 
 Men-dr)-9i'no, 36 
 
 Merchants, 78, 114 
 
 Merrimac, 338, 360 
 
 Mexico. 32, Si, 34. 35, 238. 239, 241, 26s, 
 
 294, 438-439. 493 
 war with, 291-292, 498-500 
 Mi-a'mis, 97, 216 
 Michigan, 221, 281 
 
 admission, 285-286, xix 
 Miles, Gen., 448 
 
 Militia, 133, 134, 208, 210, 344. 44^ 
 Mining, 229, 272, 376, 387, 401, 412, 459, 
 
 474. 479. 482 
 Ministers. 82-83, i44. 226, 352 
 Minneapolis, 61, 389 
 
 Minnesota, 246, 247, 269, 322, 323, 494, xix 
 Minutemen, 131 
 Missionaries, 18, 59, 60, 216, 226, 249. 287, 
 
 288 
 Mississippi. 235, xix 
 Mississippi River, 34, 61, 62, 93 
 Missouri, 237. 269, 318, 334. 337, 3S8, 3^9 
 
 admission, 238. xix 
 Missouri Compromise, 237-238, 293. 3I7. 
 
 318. 320 
 Missouri River, explored, 19.5-197 
 Mo-bile'. 93. 95. 225, .360, 413 
 Mo'doc Indians, 384 
 Molasses Act, 112 
 Monitor, 338 
 
 Monopolies, 435, 464-465, 492 
 Monroe. James, 15 r, 193, 194 
 
 President, 240, 241, xx 
 Monroe Doctrine, 239-241, 286, 430, 440, 
 
 454-455 
 Monta'na, 382. 387. 401, 48s. 486 
 
 admission, 433, xix 
 Mont-caZm'. Gen.. 100 
 Montgom'ery, Ala., 330 
 Mont-re-al', 60 
 Morgan, Sir Henry, 116 . 
 Mormons, 322, 3S4 
 Morris, Gouverneur, 163 
 Morris, Robert, 146. 161 
 Mor.se, Samuel F. B., 274 
 Morton, Dr., 276 
 Alosquito, 44, 223, 450 
 Alott, Lucretia, 254. 3o8 
 Mount Holyoke College, 308 
 Mountain Meadow, 322 
 Mountain whites, 245 
 Moving pictures, 460 
 MugwXimps, 404 
 
 Names, 168, 226, 300 
 
 Napoleon, 186, 191-192, 193, 194. 198, 199, 
 
 204, 205, 211 
 Nashville, 363 
 Nast, Thomas, 395 
 National Education Association, 475 
 National Parks, 11, 12, 483 
 National^ Road, 234, 279 
 Nav'a-ho§, 33 
 Naval stores, 69, 108, 115 
 Navigation .-^cts, 65, 112, 155 
 Navy, Civil War, 337, 359-36i 
 
 Revolutionary War, 133. i36-'59 
 
 Spanish War, 448 
 
 War of 1812, 209-210 
 
INDEX 
 
 XXXI 
 
 Nrl)r;iska, .418, .jJi. 4Q^> 
 
 admission. J82, xix 
 Nc(cssil>-, Ft., g8 
 Xesro troops, 134, .550 
 NcKTOL's, sec Slaves 
 
 afti.-r Civil War, 4o«-40>) 
 
 rducation, 410-41 1 
 
 laborers, 408-409, 4 1 2 
 
 suffraKe, 400-410 
 N'elson, Lord, lOQ 
 Xc;itrals, 185, 501 
 Xe-vii'da, 382, 301, 485, xix 
 Xew Amsterdam, 63, 64, W), 85 
 New England Confederation, 56, 150 
 Xnc lingland Primer, 80 
 Xew France, 60 
 Xew fre;-doni, 496 
 Xew Hampshire, 54, 70, 107, lOo, 105, xix 
 
 constitution, 147 
 Xew Haven, 53, 56, 65 
 X'ew Jersey, 66, 67, 108, 164, 495, xix 
 Xew Mexico, 35, 36, 280, 202, 204, 206, 322, 
 384 
 
 admission, 479, xix 
 Xew Xetherland, 56, 63 
 Xew Or'le-ans, 95, 99, 100, 192, 193, 209, 
 
 22s, 247, 277. 337, 413. 414 
 Xew Providence, 138 
 Xt'w South, 407-415 
 X'ew Sweden. 64 
 
 Xew York (city), 63. 135. 168, 2^3, 247, 
 277. 300, 344, 389, 305, 396, 424, 435, 
 460, 466, 486 
 Xew York (state), 28, 66, 101, 108, 160, 175, 
 
 183, 307, 403. 404. 434. 483, 48s. xix 
 X'ew'foundland, 28, 38, so, 06, 114, 121 
 Xewlands Act, 483 
 Xewport, 135 
 
 Xewspapers, 88, 128, 155. 245, 270, 466, 476 
 XiaKara Falls, 1 1, 305, 483 
 Xi-ca-ra'Kua, 427, 453 
 X'ominating conventions, 487 
 X'orsenien, 2;^ 
 
 -X'orth, (1790) 215, (1830) 24s, (1861) 342. 
 , 345-347, 351-352, (1865) 370, 375-376 
 Xorth, Lord, 126 
 X]ortli America, interior of, 29-32 
 Xorth Carolina. 69, 108, 157, 158, 165, 184, 
 
 30s, 334. xix 
 North Dakota, 433, xix 
 
 See also Dakota 
 Northwest, 285-287 
 Northwest Territory, 158, 160 
 Nova Scotia, 28, 96. 121. 14s 
 Nullification, 263, 435 
 
 Office buildings, 41S 
 O'^le-thorpe, James, 93 
 Ohio, 174. 246, 286, 397 
 
 admission, 192, xix 
 Ohio Company, 97, 159 
 Ohio River, 215, 216, 219, 23^, 279, 281 
 Oil, 407, 420, 464. 479, 483, 498, soo 
 Ok-la-ho'ma, 479, xix 
 Olney, Richard, 440 
 Omaha, 389 
 Open-door policy, 453 
 Orange, Ft., 63 
 Orders in Council, 199, 205 
 Ordinance, Grayson's, 158 
 
 Jefferson's, 158 
 V Northwest, 158, 159 
 
 Or'e-gon, 195. 108, 286. 287. 289, 291, 293. 
 322. 381, 485 
 
 admission. 323. xix 
 Oregon Trail, 287-288, 323 
 
 O-ris'ka-ny, l)attle, 135 
 Otis, James, 123 
 
 Pacific Ocean. 29 
 
 Pak'en-/iam, Gen., 209 
 
 Pan-a-ma', 27, 28, 36, 95, 454 
 
 Panama Canal, 175. 426-427, 453-45 1. 
 
 466, 493. 502 
 Pan-American Congress, 440, 493 
 Panic, (1837) 266, (1873) 378, (1893) 44" 
 Paper money, 15. ii5, 146, 156, 211, 232, 
 
 349, 354. 300. 400 
 Parcel post, 426, 466 
 Parishes, 55 
 
 Parker, Alton B.. 455, 494 
 Parliament, 64, 121, 122, 123, 125, 126 
 Partisan Rangers, 134 
 Patents, 273, 274 
 Pat'er-.son, William, 95 
 Patrons of Husbandry, 397 
 Pa-lroons', 63 
 Pavements, 461 
 Pay ne-.Ald rich tariff, 494, 496 
 Pendleton Act, 403 
 Penn, William, 67, 68 
 Pennsylvania, 67-68, loi, 108, 131, 147, 
 
 160, 164, 168, I7S. 229, 279, 420, 474, 
 
 xix 
 University of, 88, 1 28 
 Pensions, 436 
 People, American, 12, 13, 18. 155, 169-170. 
 
 245-255, 300-309. 453. 459 
 character of, 55, 169-170, 212, 217, 24,^, 
 
 463 
 during war, 144-146. 150, 351-353 
 life of, 44, 50, 51. 75-89, 126, 169-173. 
 
 469-476 
 See also Children. Churches. Dress. 
 
 Farmers, Food, Girls, Houses, Immi- 
 grants 
 People's party, 436 
 Pe'quot Indians, 53 
 Per'ry, Oliver H., 208 
 Pershing, Gen., 500 
 Personal Liberty Laws, 317, 332 
 Pe-ru', 32, 33. 34, 238 
 Petersburg, 108, 363 
 Petroleum, 420 
 Philadelphia, 67, 73, 108, 125, 127, i3t, 135, 
 
 160, 168, 237, 247, 424, 460, 466 
 Phil'ip-pine Islands, 29, 100, 448, 450, 451- 
 
 452, 469, 494. 498 
 Phillips. Wendell, 254 
 Phonograph, 418 
 Phosphate, 411 
 Photography, 274, 460 
 Pickett's charge, 339 
 Pierce, Franklin, 312, xx 
 Pike, Lieut. Zebulon M.. 197 
 Pikes Peak, 197 
 Pilgrim Fathers, 49, 50 
 Pirates, 14, 17, 116-117, 198 
 Pitt, William, 99, 126 
 Pittsburg Landing, battle, 337 
 Pittsburgh, 98, 101, 215. 226, 247, 272, 279, 
 
 281, 422 
 Pi-zar'ro, Francisco, 33 
 Pla9'er5, 272, 294, 44i. 482 
 Planters, 55, I70, 263, 270 
 Plate fleet, 112 
 Piatt, Thomas C, 453 
 Piatt .\mendment, 450 
 Plattsburg. battle. 208 
 Play, children's, 302-304 
 Plym'outh colony, 48-50, S'', 70 
 Plymouth Company, 45 
 
XXXll 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Pocahon'tas, 46, 47 
 
 P6/k, James K., 289. 291 
 President, 202, 293, xx 
 
 Polo, Marco, 15 
 
 Polygamy, 384. 39 1. 479 
 
 Pon'ti-ac, 101 
 
 Pool system, 424, 427 
 
 Pooy Richard's Almanac, 127 
 
 Popular sovereignty, 318, 320 
 
 Population, (1689) 7i, (i75o) 75, (i79o) 
 168-169, 217, (1800) 192, (1812) 205, 
 (1810) 217, (1830) 217, 24s, 246, 
 (1861) 342, (1890) 414. (1916) 4f'9 
 
 Populists, 436 
 
 Port Royal, S9, 95 
 
 Por'to Ri'co, 239, 448, 450-451, 469, 48-2 
 
 Portsmouth, N. H., 492 
 
 Portugal, discoveries, 24, 25, 27-28 
 
 Postal savings banks, 426, 466 
 
 Potash, IIS 
 
 Pow-ha-tan', 46 
 
 Preemption Act, 269, 38s 
 
 Presidential election, (1788) 178, (1792) 
 183, (1796) 186, (1800) 187, (1804) 191, 
 (1808) 200, (1812) 206, (1824) 241, 
 (1828) 241, (1832) 262, (1836) 264, 
 (1840) 285, (1844) 289-291, (1848) 
 293. (1852) 312. (1856) 320, (i860). 
 323-324. (1864) 348. (1868) 375. (1872) 
 396, 397. (1876) 398-399, (1880) 402- 
 403, (1884) 403-404, (1888) 434. fl892) 
 436, (1896) 441, (1900) 452, (1904) 
 455-456, 494. (1908) 493-494, (1912) 
 494-495. (1916) 502-503 
 
 Princeton, 88, 495 
 
 Printing. 15. 16. 274, 460, 466 
 
 Prisoners, no, 156, 250. 475 
 
 Privateers, 92, 117, 138, 139, 209, 210, 360 
 
 Proclamation Line, 100, 10 1 
 
 Proclamation of Emancipation, 358, 359 
 
 Proclamation of Neutrality, 185 
 
 Progressive party, 494. 495. 502 
 
 Prohibition, 249. 489 
 
 Prohibition party. 397 
 
 Proprietors, 52, 53 
 
 Proslavery arguments, 315 
 
 Protective tariff, 230, 231, 241, 346, 263, 
 264, 431, 434-436, 494 
 
 Providence, 54, 236 
 
 Public land. 158. 269. 377. 385 
 
 Pueb'lo (pweb'-) Indians. 33 
 
 Pullman Car Company, 425, 438 
 
 Puncheons, 78 
 
 Pure Food and Drugs Act. 465 
 
 Puritans. 44, 45, 54. 64. 7i, 79. 85, 107 
 
 Put-in-Bay. battle, 208 
 
 Putnam, Rufus, 159 ■ 
 
 Quakers, 67, 70-71. 82, in 
 Quebec', 59. 100, loi. 121, 134 
 Queen Anne's War, 95 
 Qui-vi'ra (ke-), 35 
 
 Railroads, 281-282. 312, 314. 342. 376-377. 
 
 385, 386-387. 413-414. 420. 422, 423- 
 
 424, 427-428, 437-438. 460 
 regulation of, 428, 464-465, 494 
 Ra'ieigh. N. C, 364 
 Raleigh, Sir Walter, 38, 46 
 Ranches, 387 
 Randolph. Edmund, I79 
 Rapid transit, 424 
 Rates, freight, 427-428, 438 
 Recall, 489 
 Reconcentration. 447 
 Reconstruction. 369-378 
 
 Reconstruction Act, 370 
 
 amendments, 372-375 
 
 financial, 377-378 
 
 of business, 375-377 
 
 of negroes, 372 
 
 of southern whites, 371-372 
 
 of states, 370-371, 395-396 
 Redemptioners, 109, 171 
 Reed, Mrs. Esther, 144 
 Referendum, 489 
 Reformation, Protestant, 16, 44 
 Religion, 16, 44, 52, 53, 54. 67, 70, 71, 76, 
 
 82, 88, 155. 159. 227. 248 
 Ren-ais-saN'ce' (-e-), 15, 16 
 Republican party, 319, 320, S2j. m, 396. 
 
 397. 431. 435 
 Republicans, early, 183, 186. 206 
 Reservations for Indians, 216, 384 
 Re-vere', Paul, 131 
 Revolutionary War, 131-142, 155 
 
 people during, 144-146, 155-156 
 
 reasons for, 126-127 
 Rhode Island, 53-54. 107, 146, 160, 165, xix 
 
 charter, 6s, 70, 147 
 Rice. 236. 411 
 
 Richmond, Va.. 108. 334. 335. 342. 363, 412 
 Ri'o de Ja-net'ro (zha), 29, 493 
 Roads. 116, 181, 218. 279, 461-462 
 Ro-a-nokf', 412 
 Roanoke Island, 38 
 Robertson, James. 102 
 Rochambeau (ro-shax-bo'), 141 
 Rochester, 233 
 Rolfe. John. 46. 47 
 Roo'§e-veIt, Nicholas. 221 
 Roosevelt, Theodore. 449. 452-453. 454. 
 
 455. 456, 492. 493. 494. 495. 502, xx 
 Root, Elihu, 449. 493 
 Rough Riders, 449 
 Roundheads, 64 
 Row-galleys. 17 
 Royal province, 48, 67 
 Rubber, 275 
 
 Rural free delivery, 420, 426 
 Russia, 238, 240, 286, 382, 492, 501 
 
 Sa'ga, 23 
 
 St. Au'gus-tine, 35-36, 93 
 
 St. Leg'er, Gen., 135 
 
 St. Louis, 195. 197. 225, 226, 247, 334. 4i3. 
 
 423. 424. 476 
 St. Paul, 225 
 St. Thomas, 502 
 Salem, 50, 51. 84 
 Sampson, Admiral, 448 
 San Francisco. 36, 294, 377, 386, 423, 424, 
 
 466, 472, 476 
 San Juan (hoo-an'), battle, 44S 
 San Juan Islands, 381 
 San Mar-tin', Gen. Jose de, 23!^ 
 Sanitary Commission, 351 
 San'ta .A.n'na, Gen., 265, 266, 292 
 Santa Fe, 36, 289. 294 
 San-ti-a'go de Cuba. 448 
 Siin'to Do-min'go. 398. 455 
 Sarato'ga, 135. I44. 305 
 Scalawags, 371 
 Savannah. 108, 136, 363, 413 
 Scandinavians, 23, 247, 388 
 Schools. 86-87, 174-175. 269, 304, 305-308, 
 
 410-411, 462, 471. 472, 475 
 Schurz. Carl (shurts). 314. 396, 399 
 Schtty'ler. Gen.. 13s. 144 
 Scott, Gen. Winfield, 292, 312, 332 
 Seabury, Bishop. 173 
 Seattle, 381, 386 
 
INDEX 
 
 XXXUl 
 
 Secession, 320, 331. 332-333. 366 
 
 SSm'i-noles, 216 
 
 Senators, election of, 497 
 
 Separatists, 44, 48, 52 
 
 Se-ra'pis, 138 
 
 Servants. SS. 109-110, 171. 273 
 
 Se-v«er', John, 102 
 
 Seward, William H., 312, 316, 319, 345. 
 
 382 
 Shafter, Gen., 448 
 Shakers, 174 
 Shakespeare. 17, 18 
 Shaw, Col. Robert G., 359 
 Shawnecs, 97, 216 
 Shavs's Rebellion, IS7, 160 
 Sh6r'i-dan, Gen. Philip H., 363 
 Sherman, John, 400 
 Sherman. Roger, 161 
 Sherman, William T.. 338. 362, 363, 364 
 Sherman Antitrust Act, 46s, 497 
 Sherman Silver Act, 402, 434 
 Shipping, 229, 231 
 Short ballot, 475, 484 
 Short-haul system, 428, 438 
 Silver, 387, 400, 401, 402. 440 
 SipMx Indians, 384 
 Sitting Bull, 384 
 Six Nations, 59, 97, 139 
 Skyscrapers, 417, 469 
 Slave trade, iio-iii, 162, 237, 296 
 Slavery, 19, 43, 48, ill, 162, 172, 235-236, 
 237--238, 245, 314, 357. 3S8, 366, 373, 
 398 
 
 arguments, 315-316 
 
 in territories, 159, 293, 317-319. 320 
 Slaves, 76, 93. no, 115, 163. 252-253, 314, 
 3J5 
 
 emancipation of, 160 
 Sloop-folk, 247 
 Slums. 469 
 
 Smallpox, 79, 22s, 462 
 .Smith. Captain John, 46 
 Smith, Gerrit, 254 
 Smuggling. 112 
 Socialists, 466, 495, 503 
 Societies, 249-250, 475 
 Solid South, 396, 398, 404, 437, S03 
 South, (1790) 215. (1830) 245-246, 248, 
 (1861) 342, 352-354. (1865) 365, 369- 
 370. 407 
 South America, 27, 28, 238, 439, 440, 493 
 South Carolina, 37, 69, 108, 157, 165, 184, 
 333. 399, 409, xix 
 
 nullification. 263, 264 
 
 secession, 329. 334 
 
 See also Carolinas 
 South Dakota. 433. 489, xix 
 
 Sec also Dakota 
 Spain, and her colonies, 62, 238-239, 397, 
 447 
 
 claim to territory, 45, 68, 72 
 
 colonies of, 33-34. 36. iii. 112 
 
 discoveries, 25, 26, 34-36 
 
 war with England. 38-39. 02 
 
 war with U. S., 398, 447-450 
 Specie, 400 
 Spinning, 114, 222 
 Spoils System. 261-262, 403 
 Sp6-k;ine' Falls, 381 
 Stalwart Republicans, 404, 431 
 Stamp .Act. 123 
 Stamp Act Congress, 123 
 Standard Oil Co., 420 
 Standish. Captain Myles, 50 
 Standpatters, 494 
 Stanford, Leland, 386 
 
 Stanton, Edwin M., 347. 375 
 
 Star of the West, 333 
 
 Star-Spangled Banner, 209 
 
 State of Deseret, 322 
 
 State of Franklin, 184 
 
 State universities, 309, 475 
 
 Stav and Tender laws, 156 
 
 Steamboat, 219-221, 277, 278,388, 413. 426. 
 
 464 
 Steel. 412, 417 
 Stephens (ste'venz), .\lexander H., 315, ^30, 
 
 331 
 Steu'ben, von, 136 
 Stevens, Thaddeus, 371 
 Stock, 180. 463 
 Stou'e, Harriet Beecher, 316 
 .Street cars, 424, 460 
 Strikes, 422, 474 
 Stuart. "Jeb." 363 
 StMy've-sant, Peter, 64 
 Submarines. 501, 503 
 Subways. 460 
 Suez Canal, 426 
 Suffrage, 152, 181, 371, 373, 375. 397. 48.5- 
 
 486 
 Sullivan, Gen., 139 
 Sumatra, 62 
 
 Sumner, Charles, 254, 345, 394 
 Sumter, Ft., 329. 330. 333, 334 
 Surplus, treasurj', 266, 434, 436 
 Swedes, 63-64, 67 
 Symmes Purchase, 159 
 
 Tacoma, 381, 386 
 
 Taft. William H., 493, 494, 49S, 498, xx 
 
 Tampa Bay, 34 
 
 Tariff, (1789) 180, (1816) 230-231, (1824) 
 
 241, (1828) 241, (1832) 263, (1833) 264. 
 
 (1846) 271, 312, (1857) 312, (1883) 434. 
 
 (1890) 436, (1894) 437. (1897) 437. 
 
 (1909) 494. (1913) 497 
 Tariff arguments, 434-436 
 Tariff of Abominations, 241 
 Taxation, 122, 125, 126, 156, 160, 162. 163. 
 
 173. 175. 181, 211, 34s, 377. 434 
 Taylor, Zaeh'ary, 292 
 
 President, 293, 294, 296, xx 
 Te-cum'seh. 204 
 Te-huan-te-pec' (-wan-). 36 
 Telegraph, 274, 420, 425. 460 
 Telephone, 171, 417, 420, 425 
 Teller Resolution, 448, 450 
 Temperance, 93, 249 
 Tennessee, 140, 159, 334. 343, 358, 412 
 
 admission, 184. xix 
 Tenure of Office, 375 
 Texas, 195, 265-266, 289, 293, 294. 296. 380. 
 
 389. 407, 410, 414 
 admission, 291, xLx 
 Textbooks, 306-307 
 Thames (temz) River, battle, 208 
 Thomas. Gen.. 361, 362 
 Tilden, Samuel J., 395, 398 
 Tippecanoe'. 204, 216 
 Tobacco, 46, 47, 48, 53, 112, 236, 270. 
 
 411 
 Toleration Act, 52-53 
 Toombs, Robert, 333, 334 
 Tories, 145 
 Tos-ca-ncl'li, 25 
 Town meeting, 50, 55. 181 
 Town's/iend Acts, 123. 124 
 Tracy. Xathaniel, 136, 139 
 Trade, iii. 114, 115-116, 185 
 Traf-al-gar', 199 
 Transcontinental railroads, 377, 384, 38A 
 
XXXIV 
 
 INDEX 
 
 Transportation; see Canals, Railroads, 
 
 Roads 
 Transylvania, loi 
 Trappers, 287 
 
 Travel, 43, 44, i lO. 218-219. 305 
 'rreat^• of Paris, too 
 Treaty of 1783, 141, iS9 
 Tripk- Entente (aN-ta-Nf), 501 
 Trip'o-li, 198 
 Triumvirs. 260, 312 
 Trolley lines, 424, 465, 466 
 Truck farming, 411 
 Trumbull, John, 175 
 Trusts, 420, 433, 464-465, 492, 494, 497 
 Turkey, 23-24, 501, 503 
 Tuscaro'ra Indians, 59 
 Tus-ke'gee, 410 
 Tu-tu-i'la, 451 
 Twain, Mark, 278 
 Tweed Ring, 395 
 Tyler, John, 285 
 
 President, 288, 289, xx 
 Typewriter, 419 
 
 Uncle Tom's Cabin, 316 
 
 Underground Railroad, 317 
 
 Underwood, Oscar W., 496 
 
 Underwood tariff, 497, 503 
 
 "United States," meaning, 11, 12 
 
 United States Bank, 181, 231-232, 259, 262, 
 
 263 
 Upper Canada, 208 
 Utah, 322, 384, 48s 
 admission, 479, xix 
 
 Vaccination, 225, 462, 466 
 
 Vagrant laws, 372 
 
 Vallan'dig/tam, C. L., 345 
 
 Valley Forge, 13s 
 
 Van Buren, Martin, 259, 261, 264, 28s, 293 
 
 President, 273, 289, xx 
 Vanderbilt, Cornelius, 420, 423, 463 
 Ven-e-zue'la (-zwe'-), 238, 440 
 Venice, 14, 17 
 Ve'ra Cruz (kroos), 500 
 Vermont, 147, 160 
 
 admission, 183, xix 
 Ver-ra-za'no (-rat-sii'-), 28 
 Vespu'cius, Amer'icus, 28 
 Veto, 232, 262, 370, 394, 472 
 Vicksburg, 337, 338, 339 
 Villa, 500 
 
 Villard, Henry, 386 
 Vin-qenwes', 95, 139, 226 
 Virgin Islands, 502 
 
 N'irginia, 38, 46-48, 69, 71, 86, loi, 108, 
 125, 131. iSi, 157, 158, 165, 334, 396, 
 xix 
 
 assembly, 47 
 
 charter, 46, 47 
 Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, 186 
 \'irginia City, 387 
 Virginia Plan, 162 
 Voters, Indian, 479 
 
 negro, 396, 409-410, 485 
 
 women, 473, 485 
 
 Walla Walla, 381 
 
 War governors, 347 
 
 War Hawks, 205 
 
 War of 1812, 205-212 
 
 War with Germany, 503-504 
 
 Ward, Artemus, 347 
 
 Ward, Gen. Artemas, 156 
 
 Washington, 322, 381, 433, 485, 489, xLx 
 
 Washington (D. C), 184, 207, 208, 211, 33s. 
 
 336, 337 
 Washington, George, 88, 97-98, 109, 127. 
 133. 134. 160, 161, 162, 170, 178, 187 
 
 President, 178-183, xx 
 Wa-tau'ga Association, 102 
 Water power, 482-483, 484 
 Waterloo, battle, 211 
 Watt, James, 219 
 Wayne, Gen. Anthony, 216 
 Weaver, Gen., 436 
 
 Webster, Daniel, 205, 260, 263, 264, 285, 296 
 Weed, Thurlow, 312 
 Welles, Gideon, 347 
 Wesley, John and Charles, 82, 173 
 West, 96, 159, 205, (1790) 215. (1830) 246, 
 (1865) 376, (1869) 380 
 
 settlers, 217-218 
 
 state claims to, 157-158 
 West Florida, 121, 193, 194, 195 
 West India Company, 63 
 West Indies, 27, 51, 107, 115, 116, 121, 145, 
 
 156, 229, 360, 419, 502 
 West Point, 136, 309, 345 
 West Virginia, 358, 412, xix 
 Western Reserve, 158, 159, 192, 222 
 Westsylvania, 101 
 Westward movement, 96-97, 101-102, 170, 
 
 215-227, 269, 382, 389 
 We^i'ler, Gen., 447 
 Wheat, 270 
 Whig party, 265, 285 
 Whisky Ring, 395 
 White, Peregrine, 85 
 White'field, Rev. George, 85 
 Whitman, Dr. Marcus, 288-289 
 Whitney, Eli, 236 
 Whit'ti-er, John G., 254, 347 
 Wilderness, battle, 362 
 Wil-la'met/f Valley, 323, 381 
 Willard, Frances E., 474 
 William and Mary, 87, 88 
 Williams, Roger, 52, 54 
 Williams College, 249 
 Wilmot Proviso, 293 
 Wilson, Woodrow, 97, 472 
 
 President, 495-496, 497,498, 500, 503, xx 
 Wilson-Gorman Act, 437 
 Winthrop, John, 50, 51 
 Wisconsin, 221, 247, 291, 475, xix 
 Witchcraft, 84 
 Wolfe, Gen. James, 100 
 Women, 472-473 
 
 suffrage, 485-486 
 Wood, Col. Abraham, 71 
 Wood, Gen. Leonard, 449 
 Woolman, John, m 
 Wright, Frances, 308 
 Wyandots, 216 
 Wy'eth, N'athaniel J., 287 
 Wy-o'ming, 382, 485 
 
 admission, 433, xix 
 
 X. Y. Z. affair, 186 
 
 Yale, 83, 87, 88, 477 
 
 Yankees, 212, 352 
 
 Yellowstone, 382, 433, 483 
 
 York, Duke of, 66, 67 
 
 Yorktown, 141 
 
 Yo-sem'i-te National Park, 11, 381. 183 
 
 Young, Brigham, 322, 384 
 
 Yukon River, 382 
 
 Zone of war, 501 
 Zu'nis (-nyees), 35 
 
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