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 HIDES and SKINS 
 
 M 
 
 FROM THE ANIMAL'S BACK 
 TO THE TANNERY DOOR 
 
 Written by Specialists and Authorities in the 
 
 Several Departments of the Hide 
 
 and Skin Industry 
 
 Chicago, U. S. A. 
 
 SHOE AND LEATHER WEEKLY 
 
 1912 
 
^ 
 
 <v 
 
 Copyright, 1912, by 
 
 A. H. LOCKWOOD, 
 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
 ,/ 
 
 
 ©CI.A316436 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 This volume is issued in response to a demand for 
 information in respect to hides and skins. Articles bear- 
 ing on this subject appear from time to time in the 
 trade press, but, as far as our observations go, there 
 is no bound compilation of data on this important 
 department of the leather industry. It has often been 
 said that the literature of tanning is not extensive. 
 If this be so, it may be declared that there is a very 
 decided necessity for a book dealing with hides and 
 skins in their raw state. 
 
 In this volume it is aimed to deal with the raw 
 material of tanning from the animal's back to the 
 tannery door. Thus it will be seen that we end our 
 discussions where the tanning books begin them. It 
 would seem that the manufacture of leather is of suffi- 
 cient importance to justify the publication of many 
 works on hides and skins alone. This volume may be 
 considered a pioneer in that it breaks practically new 
 ground. There are no books extant from which we 
 could gather information supplementing them with 
 matter of our own, as is usually the procedure in com- 
 piling a new work on a well-worn subject. 
 
 It is not possible that any one man could have 
 written all the matter herein contained. The sub- 
 ject is so complex and covers such a wide range that 
 many authorities were of necessity called upon to 
 write chapters concerning the branches upon which 
 they are specially well informed. With the exception 
 
HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of three articles read before the American Leather 
 Chemists' Association, all the chapters are original and 
 are here printed for the first time. Contrary to the 
 course sometimes pursued, the matter in this volume 
 is not a collection of reprints from trade journals. 
 
 This book deals with a business subject, and no at- 
 tempt has been made to assume a lofty or scientific 
 tone. For the most part, the articles and chapters are 
 written by plain, practical men, who, while making 
 no pretensions to literary style, are experts in their 
 several departments. 
 
 It is generally understood that the world's supply 
 of hides is not keeping pace with the requirements of 
 the leather manufacturers. The United States always 
 has been a large importer of hides and skins, because 
 of the inadequacy of the domestic supply. In recent 
 years the scarcity of raw material for tanning has 
 become more acute. It was this condition which com- 
 pelled Congress to repeal the duty on hides in the 
 revenue law of 1909. Although enjoying equality of 
 opportunity with other manufacturing nations in re- 
 spect of hides, the tanners of the United States are 
 becoming more and more dependent upon foreign 
 sources of supply. Many tanners who formerly used 
 hides of domestic origin exclusively, now are com- 
 pelled to import a large proportion of the raw ma- 
 terial they consume. In view of this condition, it 
 was thought that some information in book form 
 about foreign hides would be welcomed by the trade. 
 
 The take-off, curing and handling of packer hides are 
 very thoroughly gone into. Packer hides, as sold by 
 the great beef firms of Chicago, are universally con- 
 sidered to be the best in pattern and condition. They 
 
FOREWORD 
 
 bring at least two cents a pound more than hides 
 taken from the same grades of cattle by local butchers 
 and farmers. It is therefore of the highest impor- 
 tance that all slaughterers of cattle should obtain all 
 available information which will enable them to im- 
 prove the quality and value of their hides. 
 
 This work is primarily a text-book, and would not 
 be complete did it not give many points that are 
 everyday knowledge to the experienced handler of 
 hides. Because of the thorough manner in which the 
 subjects are treated, the volume will be valuable 
 alike to well-versed men and the younger generation 
 who must ultimately take their places. 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 HIDE FIBRE. D 
 
 Page 
 
 The Basic Condition — Preservative Processes — Distinc- 
 tion of Hide Fibre — Structure of the Hide — Fibre and 
 Gelatin — Decomposition of Hide Fibre — Methods of 
 Curing — Imperfect Drying — Temperature in Drying — 
 Salting Hides — Salt Stains — Dry Salting — Glauber Salts 
 — Disinfection of Hides — Effect of Tanning Upon Fibre 
 — Vegetable Tannins I 
 
 DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS. 
 Packer Hides. 
 
 Introductory — The Slaughtering Process — The Kosher 
 Process — Skinning the Head — Perfectly Flayed Hides 
 — Government Inspection — The Coolers — Oleo Oil 
 and Oleo Stearine — Inedible Fats — Selecting, Grading 
 and Salting the Hides — Animal Heat in the Hides — 
 Building the Hide Packs — Proper Method of Salting — 
 Temperature of the Hide Cellars — Cattle Switches — 
 Taking Up the Hides — Taking Out Hides — Rolling 
 Hides — Tying Hides — Hide Rope — Marking Hides — 
 Horn and Wire Scratches — Manured Hides and Tare 
 — Grubbing Hides — Pates and Shanks — Packer Hide 
 Selections — Spready Native Steers — Texas Hides — Butt 
 Branded Steers — Colorado Steers — Branded Cows — Na- 
 tive Cows — Native Bulls — Branded Bulls 1 1 
 
 Country Hides. 
 
 Introductory — Country Hide Selections — Heavy Cows — 
 Buff Hides — Extreme Light Hides — Kipskins — Over- 
 weight Kipskins — Calfskins — Domestic Calfskins — 
 Slunk Skins — Country Bull Hides — Bulls Under Sixty 
 Pounds — Glue Hides — Horsehides — Hogskins — Sheep 
 Pelts— Dry Hides 41 
 
 General Information — Packer Hides. 
 
 Outside Hide Deliveries — Hide Market Barometers — Na- 
 tive and Branded Seasons — Summer Hides — Average 
 Shrinkage — Cash and Credit — Carlots and Less Than 
 Carlots — History of Hide Tariffs 50 
 
HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 General Information — Country Hides. 
 
 General Market Information — Reporting the Markets — 
 Buying Hides Flat — Bundle Condition — Influence of 
 of the Seasons Upon Packer and Country Hides — 
 Country Selections and Deliveries — Southern Hides 
 and Cattle Ticks 55 
 
 General Information — Packer and Country Hides. 
 
 Grubbing Dates on Hides — Price Reductions on Kosher 
 Hides — Measurements of Spready Hides — Hide Selec- 
 tions for Various Leathers — Rules on Tare — Grubs in 
 Hides — Small Country Packer Hides — Suggested Re- 
 forms in the Hide Trade — Arbitrary Grubbing Dates 
 — The Brokerage System — Packer Hide Cellar Test — 
 Building Shingled Packs — Frozen Hides — Horsehides 
 — Pulling and Pickling Sheepskins — Black Hides 61 
 
 Anthrax With Special Reference to Suppression. 
 
 Nature and History of the Disease — Persistency of In- 
 fection — Danger in Tannery Effluent — Forms of the 
 Disease — The Anthrax Bacillus — Methods of Combat- 
 ing Infectious Diseases — Anthrax and Texas Fever — 
 Vaccination as a Preventive — Pasteur's Experiments — 
 Immunization — Anthrax in the Mississippi Delta — Suc- 
 cessful Tests — Other Preventive Measures 75 
 
 Disinfection of Hides. 
 
 Government Disinfection Law — Methods of Disinfection 
 — Anthrax — Disinfection of Fleshings, Hide Cuttings, 
 Parings or Glue Stock — Disinfection of Hides — Disin- 
 fection of Glue Stock 03 
 
 Progress and Prospects of Tick Eradication. 
 
 District Afflicted — Beginning of Tick Eradication — Some 
 Obstacles to Progress — Tickicides — Prospects for the 
 Future * 100 
 
 Directions for Constructing a Vat and Dipping Cattle to 
 
 Destroy Ticks. 
 
 Arsenical Dips — Preparation and Use of Arsenical Dips 
 — Diluting the Solution — Stock Solution — Precautions 
 on the Use of Arsenic — Method of Dipping — Speci- 
 fications for the Construction of a Concrete Cattle Dip- 
 ping Vat — Excavation — Forms — Concrete — Water- 
 proofing — Exit Incline — Slide — Dripping Pen — Chute — 
 Bill of Materials — Lumber for Dripping Pen — Hard- 
 ware and Iron Work — Concrete for Vat — Dripping 
 Pen and Chute 107 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 THE HIDE AND SKIN TRADL IN GREAT 
 
 BRITAIN. 
 
 Early Legislation — The King James Act — Penalty for 
 Bad Flaying — The Collection, Distribution and Sale of 
 Hides — Modern Methods of Buying — The Market 
 System — Hide Market or Auction Methods — Inspec- 
 tion and Weighing — Improvements Through Organ- 
 ization — Further Reforms Projected — Anglo-American 
 Hides — Varieties of Cattle and Hides — Foreign Trade 
 in British Hides — Imports of Hides — Hides Tanned 
 in England — Disposal of Sheepskins — Inspection Com- 
 mittees — Horsehides and Calfskins 122 
 
 EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS. 
 
 Introductory — Marketing Hides in France — Paris Auc- 
 tions — Sales to America — Notes on German Hide Cure 
 — Thuringen Rules for Takeoff — Italian Hides and 
 Their Treatment — Causes of Salt Stains — Salt Dena- 
 turing — Belgian Hides and Skins 137 
 
 SOUTH AMERICAN HIDES. 
 
 Frigorifico Hides — Salting, Disinfection and Trim — 
 Saladero Hides — Prices and Sales Methods — Dry Hides 
 — Damage by Ticks — How Hide Trades Are Financed. 149 
 
 MEXICAN HIDES AND SKINS. 
 
 General Information — Slaughtering — Methods of Drying 
 Hides — Classification — Wet Salted Hides — Goatskins — 
 Deer, Hog and Slunk Skins — General Absence of Cattle 
 Disease 155 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS OF AUSTRALIA. 
 
 Australia as a Hide Producing Country — Abattoir Hides 
 — Dairy Hides — Farmer Hides — Australian Sheep 159 
 
 DANISH CALFSKINS. 
 
 General Good Qualities — Green and Dry Skins and 
 Weights — How Shipped — Vealskins 162 
 
 NEW ZEALAND SHEEP AND LAMB PELTS. 
 
 Rapid Increase in Trade — Points of Origin — Methods of 
 Takeoff — United States Tanners Largest Users — Uses 
 These Skins Are Put To — Principal Export Cities.... 164 
 
HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 RUSSIAN PONY SKINS. 
 
 Yearly Output — All Flint Dried — How Cured — The Se- 
 lections — General Takeoff Poor — Nijni Sales — Sold on 
 Letters of Credit — Russia Colt Skins — Principal Pro- 
 ducing Section — Average Kill — Selections — Horse 
 Fronts 166 
 
 GOATSKINS. 
 
 Their Importance as a Raw Material — The Goat a Meat 
 Animal — Sources of Goatskin Supply — Methods of Col- 
 lecting and Preserving — Methods of Curing — Collect- 
 ing the Skins — Trade Affected by Seasons — Long and 
 Short Hair — Age of the Skins — Use of Naphthaline — 
 Arsenicated Skins — Goatskins of the World 169 
 
 European Countries. 
 
 Spain — Germany — Italy — Austria-Hungary and the 
 Balkan Countries — Bulgarian, Macedonian, Monte- 
 negro, Thessalian and Ordinary Greek Skins — Bul- 
 garian, Roumanian and Adrianople Skins 176 
 
 Asia Minor. 
 
 Turkey — Russia — Petropawl Goat — Turkestan Goat — 
 Bokhara Goat 181 
 
 North Africa. 
 
 Algeria — Tunis — Tripoli — Morocco — Mogadure — 
 Egypt and the Soudan 183 
 
 South Africa. 
 
 Capetown Skins — Algoabay Skins — Kaffir Skins 186 
 
 Northeast Africa and Arabia. 
 
 Gizan and Jaddah — Abyssinia — Massowah — Somaliland — 
 Mogdishur — Mombassa — Zanzibar 187 
 
 India. 
 
 Patnas — Pokahs — Dinajpores and Daccas — Kushtias and 
 Daissees — Oudhs and Agras — Punjab — Southern India. 192 
 
 China and Java. 
 
 Tientsin — Hankow — Honan — Shanghai — River Goat — 
 Javas 196 
 
 South America and Mexico. 
 Argentine — Brazil — Mexican Skins 200 
 
CONTENTS 
 
 THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEATHER 
 
 INDUSTRY IN ITS RELATION TO THE 
 
 WORLD'S HIDE SUPPLY. 
 
 Value of Statistics— Less Demand for Beef— Revolution 
 in Cattle Trade— Increase of Dairy Cattle— Cattle Sup- 
 ply of the World— Expansion of Foreign Trade—In- 
 creased Domestic Consumption of Leather— Goatskins. 202 
 
 THE COMPOSITION OF LEATHER FROM 
 
 DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HIDE— 
 
 THE IMPORTANCE OF A PROPER 
 
 SAMPLE FOR ANALYSIS. 
 
 Introductory— Need of a Representative Sample— Differ- 
 ence in Fibre— Difficulty in Obtaining Proper Samples 
 —Results of Analysis 2I0 
 
 THE CHARACTERISTICS AND COMMERCIAL 
 ADAPTABILITY OF HIDES. 
 
 Dry Hides— Salted Hides— Anglo-American Hides- 
 Domestic Hides— Packer Hides— Selections of Packer 
 Hides— Grubbinc Dates— Tare— Tare Before Weighing 
 —Country Hides— Percentage of Leather From Differ- 
 ent Hides — Discussion on Salt Stains 216 
 
 GLOSSARY. 
 
 Trade Terms With Their Definitions Alphabetically Ar- 
 ranged 2 3° 
 


HIDES and SKINS 
 
HIDE FIBRE 
 
 By ROBERT W. GRIFFITH 
 
 It is a basic condition upon which the production of 
 leather depends that the original fibre of the hide or skin 
 remains intact, and indeed the whole art of tanning is 
 directed towards the preservation of the fibre, so that a 
 state in which the fibres retain their original pliability and 
 tensile strength is common to the raw hide as well 
 as the leather. It was well understood by old-time tan- 
 ners that the processes involved in transforming hides into 
 leather did not tend towards an improvement in the de- 
 sirable characteristics of the former, but the tendency 
 to rapid decay made it absolutely necessary that some 
 process which preserves the fibre be employed in order 
 that the hide could be made serviceable for the varied 
 uses to which it is put. 
 
 Preservative Processes. 
 
 These preservative processes, which are now called 
 tannages, were originally very crude, but the number of 
 such processes in use today is almost innumerable, and 
 their action on raw fibre so varied and complex that 
 science, which has done so much to indicate the way. 
 has hardly kept pace with practice. Although tanning 
 can be properly described as a preservative process on 
 hide fibre, it is not proof against the influences which 
 bring about the disintegration and decay of the fibres. 
 1 raw fibre decays very quickly by putrefaction, due to 
 bacteriological action, which liquefies it: the tanned fibre 
 undergoes a process of disintegration which, however, 
 may occupy many years to bring about. 
 
 Although the tanning processes cause a disturbance 
 
 in the original fibre formation, it is very desirable that 
 
2 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 this formation should be interfered with as little as pos- 
 sible, but the exigencies of modern demands in the case 
 of heavy leathers bring about a distention of the fibres 
 to almost their fullest extent in order that the interfibre 
 spaces can be filled with a heavier material than nature 
 has provided. 
 
 Distinction of Hide Fibre. 
 
 Hide fibre is distinct in every characteristic from 
 all other organic fibres produced by natural growth, such 
 as cotton, wool, wood, etc. The cell walls of vegetables 
 do not contain nitrogen, whereas all the cell walls of hide 
 fibre do, and on scientific grounds there appears to be 
 little possibility of producing a fibrous substitute for 
 leather, which is made by a preservative process from 
 hides and skins. It is true that all organic fibres are cellu- 
 lar, but the hide fibre has a certain elasticity peculiar to 
 itself, which gives it greater tensile strength than other 
 fibres, but it is in the wonderful interweaving of those 
 fibres together in the corium, or true skin, that nature 
 far excels the cunning of human handicraft, and its suc- 
 cessful imitation makes the production of leather from 
 other than hide fibres a very remote possibility. 
 
 Structure of the Hide. 
 
 The hide or skin, when performing the functions for 
 which it was originally designed, is not only a covering 
 for the animal, but is an essential part of that complex 
 system upon which life depends and is an organ of 
 secretion and provides a channel for the elimination of 
 many organic impurities and also possesses the sense of 
 touch. In general principle the skins of all mammalia are 
 the same. The skin consists of two parts, the outer, called 
 the epidermis, and the inner, or true skin, is called the 
 corium, and it is with the latter that the art of leather 
 manufacture has to deal, because the epidermis is not 
 strictly a fibrous structure and, in fact, is entirely different 
 and owes its origin to a different layer in the germinal cell. 
 The epidermis forms a separate but very thin skin, and it 
 
HIDE FIBRE 3 
 
 is untannablc and to a certain extent waterproof, so that 
 in the preservation of the complete hide structure the pene- 
 tration of the tanning agent takes place from the corium. 
 The epidermis is commonly spoken of as having two lay- 
 ers, the heavy layer and the mucous layer. This is due 
 to the fact that in the growing of the epidermis the cells 
 based on the true skin grow outward, which, as they are 
 pushed by growing cells further from their source of 
 nourishment, become dead and flat, similar to scales. The 
 epidermis layer produces the hair and hair sheaths, the 
 sebaceous, or flat glands, the sudoriferous, or sweat 
 glands, and other structures of a horny character, such as 
 horns, hoofs, claws and finger nails, which are anal- 
 ogous to exaggerated hairs, such as are seen in the 
 quills of a porcupine. 
 
 Although the various structures which have been named 
 as arising from the epidermis are very different in their 
 outward appearance, they are all constituted of simple 
 animal cells, differing only in size and shape and secret- 
 ing cell walls of keratin or horny matter, a substance 
 which is nearly allied chemically to coagulated albumen. 
 
 The epidermis layer is entirely dependent for its 
 growth upon the nourishment which it derives from the 
 lymph of the true skin. The chemical behavior of the 
 epidcrmical structures is very different to that of the 
 true skin. On boiling in water the latter forms gelatin, 
 whereas the former arc not at all easily soluble in water, 
 even under pressure. The alkaline sulphides render the 
 keratins very soluble, but do not readily attack the 
 corium, or true skin, and this fact is made use 'if in 
 practice for removing the hair preparatory to tanning. 
 
 Fibre and Gelatin. 
 
 As far as it has been determined there is apparently no 
 chemical difference between the hide fibre and gelatin, 
 with the exception of an unknown quantity of water, but 
 there is a very pronounced physical difference. The fibre 
 "I the hide or skin is completely dissolved on boiling in 
 water and is entirely lost and cannot be reformed by any 
 
4 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 subsequent process. This is caused by a total destruction of 
 the cell walls of the fibre, which, being of the same com- 
 position as the gelatinous liquid contained within the cell, 
 takes up an equal quantity of water and forms a homo- 
 geneous mass on cooling. All organic cellular fibres do 
 not act in this way; for instance, cotton fibre, when in a 
 solution of amyl acetate, can be precipitated in a fibrous 
 state by the addition of gasoline. The chemical reactions 
 of gelatin are practically identical with those of hide 
 fibre, and a close study of the behavior of the former is 
 invaluable towards aiding a scientific manipulation of the 
 latter. 
 
 Decomposition of Hide Fibre. 
 
 But it is not the present purpose to discuss the prop- 
 erties and behavior of gelatin, because little, if anything, 
 can be added to the work which Procter has already pub- 
 lished on the subject. Let us rather return to the con- 
 sideration of hide fibre in its original state and endeavor 
 to emphasize the results of simple observation in an ef- 
 fort to eliminate a common tendency on the part of 
 chemists in making laboratory deductions to attribute ef- 
 fect to other causes than the condition of the fibre. Now, 
 having regard to the susceptibility of the fibre in the 
 fresh hide to rapid putrefaction, it is evident that it is 
 necessary to arrest this as quickly as possible in view of 
 the fact that the process of decay sets in immediately 
 that the flaying of the hide is completed, and in order that 
 a hide may become a marketable commodity it undergoes 
 a treatment, which is a method for its temporary preser- 
 vation. Such treatment is not at all in the nature of a 
 tannage and is generally referred to as a "cure." 
 
 Methods of Curing. 
 
 There are a variety of methods for curing hides 
 peculiar to the locality from which the hides emanate, 
 and it is in one of these conditions that hides are re- 
 ceived by the tanner. It is apparent that the nature of 
 the "cure" must have some influence upon the hide 
 
HIDE FIBRE 5 
 
 fibre and to some extent influence the character of the 
 leather, irrespective of the tannage employed. 
 
 The simplest form of cure consists in the process of 
 drying the hide by exposure to the sun and air, which 
 is the method commonly adopted in most tropical coun- 
 tries. The success of this method depends upon the evap- 
 oration of the moisture held within the fihres slowly and 
 evenly, yet completely, and as all putrefaction requires 
 moisture, it follows that the elements of decay are sus- 
 pended temporarily. A hide thus treated is known as a 
 flint dry hide. Although this form of cure has the ad- 
 vantage of simplicity, its effect upon the fibre is sometiiiK s 
 very complicated, and unless carried out with some de- 
 gree of care it becomes the foundation of considerable 
 trouble in the subsequent tannery processes. With the 
 evaporation of the moisture from the hide fibre consider- 
 able shrinkage takes place, by which the fibres are drawn 
 tightly together, and as the hides are dried without pre- 
 viously washing, all the albuminous matter and free gel- 
 atin surrounding the fibres are dried with them and form 
 a hard, solid mass resembling glue. 
 
 Imperfect Drying, 
 
 1 f the hide dries too quickly the result is that both 
 surfaces of the hide harden with the contraction of the 
 fibres before the moisture in the middle of the fibre has 
 been evaporated, so that this moisture is imprisoned, as 
 it were, and provides a medium by which bacteria can be 
 nourished at the expense of the fibre, with the result 
 that it is completely destroyed where this action has taken 
 place. One of the greal difficulties attending damage 
 of this kind is that it is impossible to detect it in the 
 hide until the hide ha- reached the tanner and has gone 
 through the beamhouse processes, and very frequently it is 
 ii"t observed until the leather made from such damaged 
 hides is cut, when it will be seen that the leather splits 
 into two pieces withoul difficulty. An examination of 
 leather <■> damaged under an ordinary magnifying gla<- 
 shows the broken fibre a- if tin- ends had been fused. 
 
6 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 It frequently occurs in damage of this nature that it 
 extends to almost the length of the fibre, leaving the sur- 
 face of the grain and flesh intact, but before the beam- 
 house processes are completed these give way and a 
 hole is made in the hide. 
 
 Temperature in Drying. 
 
 The temperature at which hides are dried is of con- 
 siderable importance to their subsequent manipulation in 
 the tannery. Eitner, who has experimented in this direc- 
 tion, states that the ideal conditions for drying hides 
 would be in a vacuum at a temperature of 15 degrees cen- 
 tigrade. Hides dried at a temperature of 22 degrees cen- 
 tigrade in the sun soak back in 48 hours. Dried at a 
 temperature of 35 degrees centigrade, artificially, hides 
 required five days to soften, in each case without mechan- 
 ical aid. Hides dried at 60 degrees centigrade in an arti- 
 ficial heat refused to wet back by any method sufficient 
 for tanning purposes. 
 
 The influence of temperature upon hide fibre is obvi- 
 ously of great importance, and low-drying temperatures 
 are the best suited. Albumen coagulates at a temperature 
 of 60 degrees centigrade, so that such a temperature af- 
 fects the albuminous matter in hides. Hide fibre in a 
 moist condition, at a sustained temperature of 35 de- 
 grees centigrade, rapidly deteriorates, chiefly from bac- 
 terial activity. On account of the protection which the 
 fibre of the true skin receives from the epidermis, hides 
 do not appear to be much affected, so far as their struc- 
 ture and tensile strength are concerned, after a quick 
 immersion in water at a temperature of 50 degrees cen- 
 tigrade. 
 
 Salting Hides. 
 
 The other of the two most common methods em- 
 ployed in curing hides is that of salting. This is car- 
 ried out in two ways — first, that of spreading common 
 salt on the flesh side of the fresh or green hide, and 
 known as green salted hide, and the second is known as 
 
HIDE FIBRE 7 
 
 ''dry salting ;" the hide after being salted in the fresh 
 state is spread out and dried in the sun. 
 
 Common salt is preservative in the sense that it 
 possesses antiseptic properties, but is not a disinfectant. 
 In a solution of water it has a solvent action upon hide 
 fibre, but its action in "curing" or preserving hide fibre 
 is due to the property which it possesses of taking up 
 water, and this it takes out of the fibre, thus dehydrating 
 it or, in other words, it acts as a drier on the fibre. The 
 influence of salt upon the fibre from the tanners' point 
 of view is decidedly beneficial. Its use upon the hide 
 permits of a ready diffusion of water into the fibre in 
 the process of soaking, and the hide is very readily 
 softened without much mechanical aid. 
 
 In soaking the hides preparatory to tanning a con- 
 siderable part of the salt is removed from the hide, but 
 its complete removal from the fibre is scarcely practical, 
 even if it were desirable, which, however, is not the 
 case. The influence of salt upon the fibre can be observed 
 very strikingly in the case of a flint dry hide which has 
 been given a brine bath as a second soaking in the process 
 of softening. The result is a great improvement in the 
 subsequent leather. It would be of considerable advan- 
 tage, wherever practical, where dried hides are tanned, 
 to salt them after properly soaking and allowing them 
 to lie in a small pile for a few weeks, then washing and 
 treating the hides as if they were regular green salted 
 hides. 
 
 Salt Stains. 
 
 One of the troubles arising from the use of common 
 salt is what is known as salt stain. This is due to the 
 presence of iron in the form of ferric chloride in the salt, 
 but this only occurs generally in rock salt and can usually 
 be avoided by employing salt of greater purity. Fre- 
 quently stains occur en hides, (\uc to the use of stale salt ; 
 that is, the salt which is shaken off the hides preparatory 
 to their being folded for shipping. Tin's salt carries with 
 it considerable blond and organic matter from the flesh 
 
8 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of the hides and this, accumulating, is finally deposited 
 on a hide, to the detriment of that particular hide. It 
 is obvious that as the salt crystals become coated with 
 albuminous matter they cannot be as efficient in their 
 action as fresh salt, and the use of such salt is not advis- 
 able. 
 
 To further lessen the tendency to salt stains, hides 
 should not be stored in a clamp atmosphere. There is no 
 doubt but that it can be demonstrated that the use of 
 clean recrystallized salt avoids so-called salt stains. 
 
 Dry Salting. 
 
 Dry salted hides are not salted in the initial stage of 
 the curing process with the same care that a packer hide 
 is given, and the material used for salting is more fre- 
 quently a saline earth. The additional process of drying 
 the hide safeguards it from any injury which the impuri- 
 ties contained in the saline earth may be apt to cause. 
 In India what are known as plaster cured hides are really 
 dry salted, the natives employing a saline earth for that 
 purpose. Procter carefully investigated the chemical con- 
 stituents of this earth and found it to be composed prin- 
 cipally of sodium sulphate (glauber salts) with only traces 
 of common salt (sodium chloride) present. This sug- 
 gests the experiment of substituting anhydrous glauber 
 salts for common salt for curing fresh slaughtered hides 
 and this can be very successfully done to some advantage 
 because the resulting leather is "fuller." 
 
 Glauber Salts. 
 
 It is known that sodium chloride has a tendency to 
 produce flatness in leather whereas sodium sulphate has 
 not this characteristic, and although in tannery processes 
 the salt employed in the cure of the hide is largely re- 
 moved, traces of it exert some influence, not necessarily 
 objectionable, upon the fibre, the effect of which may 
 sometimes be found upon the resulting leather. Although 
 the higher cost of anhydrous glauber salts, over crude 
 common salt, may constitute an objection to its larger 
 
HIDE FIBRE 9 
 
 use as a substitute for the latter, there is no doubt but 
 that in the manufacture of certain kinds of leather like 
 chrome tanned upper leather, the result obtained by the 
 use of glauber salts fully compensates for the slight in- 
 crease in cost. 
 
 The influence of the method of curing the hide is very 
 important upon the leather made from such a hide and a 
 study of the effect of the "cure" upon the fibre is of con- 
 siderable value. 
 
 Disinfection of Hides. 
 
 The influence of disinfectants which are frequently em- 
 ployed upon hides must not be overlooked because of 
 their possible effect upon the fibre, depending, of course, 
 upon the nature of the materials employed for disinfect- 
 ing. The mercuric salts, for example, form insoluble com- 
 pounds with albumen, and formaldehyde has considerable 
 influence upon the fibre, entering as it does into intimate 
 combination with it and producing a "tanning" effect. 
 
 Effect of Tanning Upon Fibre. 
 
 Dealing with so delicate an organic structure as hide 
 fibre, it is frequently impossible to determine with any 
 great certainty the exact causes which produce certain 
 defects, but with the introduction of systemized tannery 
 methods, the element of chance is being rapidly elimi- 
 nated. The fact should never be lost sight of that the 
 hide fibre is the first and last consideration and that the 
 value of all processes depends upon their effect upon the 
 fibre. The action of depilitants and of beamhouses proc- 
 esses in general is pretty well known, if but imperfectly 
 understood. Apart from the chemical action of the ma- 
 terials employed in the beamhouse the influence of time 
 and temperature upon the hide in the "white" or pelt 
 condition cannot he n*' 1 carefully controlled. 
 
 The action of tanning materials, both mineral and vege- 
 table, upon hide fibre, is varied, ami apart from the 
 characteristics of each material, uniformity of effect de- 
 pends upon the exercise of great care and control of the 
 
10 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 material or combination of materials employed. It is not 
 within the scope of the present chapter to discuss in detail 
 the different characteristics and properties of the various 
 materials which are employed in the conversion of hides 
 into leather, but having regard to the influence of the two 
 great classes of materials, mineral and vegetable, upon 
 the fibre, the popular idea that the chrome tannage pro- 
 duces a tougher fibre than the vegetable tannages is not 
 strictly true so far as the actual tannages are concerned. 
 Great tensile strength in hide fibre depends upon the 
 amount of moisture which the tanning material permits 
 the fibre to retain, and although in the finished condition 
 chrome tanned leather frequently proves to be the 
 stronger, this is largely due to the water emulsions of oil 
 which are used in the fat-liquoring process, applied to the 
 fibre while still wet from the tan bath. Chrome tanned 
 leather thoroughly dried direct from the tan bath has no 
 remarkable tensile strength, but perhaps the most striking 
 feature possessed by chrome tanned fibre is the property 
 of being able to resist the action of boiling water. 
 
 Despite the fact that the alum in alum tanned leather 
 can be removed from the fibre by washing and conse- 
 quently is not very intimately combined with the fibre, 
 in combination with common salt, which is hygroscopic 
 and retains moisture tenaciously, such leather i's often of 
 extreme toughness. 
 
 Vegetable Tannins. 
 
 Each of the vegetable tannins possesses characteristics 
 peculiar to itself in its effect upon hide fibre, and in prac- 
 tice it is of course customary to employ combinations of 
 materials according to the results desired. In some ex- 
 periments made with leather tanned throughout with 
 single materials the greatest tensile strength was found 
 to be in a chestnut tannage, followed closely in this re- 
 sped by a straight quebracho tannage. Oakwood and 
 hemlock were about equal and strangely enough oak bark 
 gave very poor results in tensile strength of fibre but in 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 11 
 
 this respect a straight myrobolan tannage gave the weak- 
 est fibre of all the materials tested. 
 
 Vegetable tanned hide fibre does not offer much resist- 
 ance to high temperatures in water, but is not much 
 affected if not exposed too long to its influence, but a 
 low temperature in water if sustained for several hours 
 has a pronounced detrimental effect. 
 
 DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 
 PACKER HIDES 
 
 The slaughtering of cattle on an immense scale by 
 the great dressed meat and provision firms of the 
 United States resulted in the systematization of the 
 industry and the output of hides as nearly perfect 
 as is possible in a natural product. Hides and skins 
 are made by nature on the backs of animals, and of 
 necessity differ in size, weight, substance and qual- 
 ity. They are subject to injury from horn and wire 
 scratches, the attacks of insects and branding and in 
 transit from the ranges or feed lots to the stockyards 
 may be damaged by drovers' prods or concussion with 
 each other and the sides of the cars. Many of these 
 contingencies are unavoidable, but it has been found 
 practicable because of operation upon a large scale 
 greatly to reduce the damages incurred through un- 
 skilful or careless flaying. The packers have, as 
 nearly as possible, reduced to a science the prepara- 
 tion of green salted hides for the market and hence 
 every detail of their operations should be considered. 
 
 Much remains to be done, however, in the Southern 
 States. American steers have increased $7 per cent in 
 value since the beginning of a tick eradication cam- 
 paign by the Department of Agriculture, in co-opera- 
 tion with the several states. The annual loss in each 
 county ranged from $150 to $50,000 before the cam- 
 paign began, but now are "practically none" or "very 
 
12 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 small." The average number of cattle lost yearly in 
 each county has dropped from 895 to 20, or 15.3 to 1.3 
 in percentage. It is unfortunate that little or nothing 
 has been done or even is projected towards the miti- 
 gation of the damage done to hides by grubs. In sev- 
 eral European countries vigorous action has been 
 taken by organizations of tanners looking towards the 
 prevention of the cattle grub or warble. The percent- 
 age of grubby hides in the United States seems to be 
 larger each year and the evil here is more acute than in 
 countries where remedial measures are enforced. 
 
 The beef animal after passing through the usual 
 routine of raising and fattening for market is shipped 
 to the stock yards and sold to a buyer for some killing 
 establishment. All purchases of a given grade of cat- 
 tle at simlar prices are placed in one drove and receive 
 a lot number, which figure is used in designatng the 
 various by-products through their course of manufac- 
 ture. In addition to this lot number, each bullock is 
 numbered consecutively from one up, as killed. These 
 figures are used whenever possible on the various by- 
 products, such as cuts of beef, etc. The system is 
 costly, but beneficial in that errors are avoided and 
 easily traced when made. 
 
 The Slaughtering Process. 
 
 After the bullock is the property of the killer, it is 
 placed in its respective lot and sent to the slaughter 
 house. ^ Cattle are driven slowly and allowed suffi- 
 cient time to cool off. If hurried and not permitted to 
 cool, the beef shows bloodshot after being chilled. It 
 is the usual custom to install the killing department 
 on the upper floors of the building, as the cattle can 
 walk up runways and the beef and by-products be sent 
 to the loading platforms by gravity, thus saving con- 
 siderable expense over the old way of killing on the 
 ■■wer floors and hoisting the beef to coolers above, 
 iiach lot is driven to the killing floor in its turn 
 
 1 wo animals go into each knocking pen, there being 
 usually half as many pens as there are beds for skin- 
 
. 
 
 
 
 
 *&4t - > 
 
 j '' ■ .„•; 
 
 
 ( 
 
 i- '- V 
 
 ■ m 
 
 '■ ■ ■ 
 
 ' -7' 
 
 - V*^' 
 
 » f 
 
 
 1FwJl 
 
 ' # 1 
 
 
 
 < 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 13 
 
 ning. An electrc prod is used occasionally to hasten 
 beasts which are slow or timid about entering the 
 knocking pens. The "knocker" uses a light sledge 
 fitted with a ilexible hickory handle, and strikes each 
 animal a blow on the forehead between the eyes, or 
 more than one blow if the creature does not drop im- 
 mediately. In most cases the skull is broken by the 
 first blow and the animal loses consciousness and is 
 thereafter dead as far as physical pain is concerned. 
 
 When the gate of the movable pen is lifted by 
 mechanical means, the floor also is raised to a sharp 
 angle and the senseless bullock slides to the sticking 
 bed. Sometimes it happens that the bullock is only 
 dazed and recovers its senses enough to regain its feet. 
 Maddened by pain and practically sightless, it rushes 
 around, goring hanging cattle and causing a great deal 
 of excitement. The best way to capture and subdue 
 such an animal is to hamstring it by the aid of a knife 
 fastened on the end of a long pole. 
 
 The dead animal is shackled by passing a chain 
 around both the hind legs, although one leg is suffi- 
 cient. Some packers prefer the latter method, as it 
 allows one free leg, which, by its incessant kicking, 
 helps drain all blood out of the animal. The chain is 
 attached to a hoist and the animal is raised and hung 
 off on a wheeled hook, called a truck, suspended from 
 a rail. The sticker inserts his knife up through the 
 sticking piece in the neck and severs the jugular vein. 
 The cut is made vertically, so as not to mar the pattern 
 of the hide. After the knife is up far enough, it \? 
 turned crossways and the vein cut. 
 
 The Kosher Process. 
 
 When killing cattle for Kosher purposes, according 
 to the rabbinical law, the bullock is nol knocked sense- 
 less, bu1 simply shackled and the hindquarters raised 
 sufficiently SO that just the neck and head are resting 
 on the floor. Then the Rabbi blesses the animal and 
 makes one downward slicing cut with his long knw< 
 
14 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 back of the jaw, almost severing the head from the 
 spinal column. The "header" then removes the head, 
 continuing the regular method of killing. 
 
 Skinning the Head. . 
 
 The header sticks his knife in at the top of the 
 head and the cut is made across to the left side of the 
 animal's face. The cut is then continued downward 
 along the left side through the nostril and the hide 
 raised off the face. The cheeks are skinned out and 
 the under side opened from the sticking cut through 
 the center of the lower lip. This leaves the face, or 
 pate, of the animal on the right side of the hide and 
 allows it to lie flat in the packs. The head is then 
 severed from the neck at the top column joint. The 
 horns, if any, are sawed off of the head, which is then 
 taken away to be trimmed. When the header finishes 
 his operation, the animal is still allowed to hang and 
 drain of all blood; usually two or three animals are 
 hanging thus, head downward. Each in turn is low- 
 ered to the floor, laid on its back and held in this posi- 
 tion by a pritch pole, placed just behind the brisket 
 and foreleg, on either side. The front and hind leg- 
 gers then take the animal and remove the duclaws and 
 feet, at the same time taking out the sweetbread. The 
 windpipe and weasand are also taken out. 
 
 In removing the front feet, cut the cord, which con- 
 tracts the hoof to an unnatural position, and then 
 make the cut upward on the right side, leaving both 
 duclaw holes on the left side, gradually cutting in to- 
 ward the center at the knee. Remove the foot at the 
 joint. In the hind legs the same operation is per- 
 formed, except that the cut from the duclaws to the 
 knee is made in the center, the opening being made 
 with the point of the knife, blade upward. The open- 
 ing cut. however, is made as in the foreleg and started 
 upward on the right side. The "ripper-open" next 
 follows, opening the bullock from the sticking cut to 
 the tail. The next man to work on the animaf has the 
 most important task to perform, as any error or acci- 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 15 
 
 dent mars the hide or spoils the appearance of the beef 
 by little cuts made with the point of the knife, and 
 termed "black-eyes." 
 
 Perfectly Flayed Sides. 
 
 The "Moorsman," or sider, as he sometimes is called, 
 places his knife under the hide about the middle of the 
 belly, on the side opposite from the pritch pole, and 
 cuts along to the brisket and back to the inside of the 
 hind leg close to the tail, lifting the hide away from 
 the beef. He then makes, failing if inexperienced, a 
 hide of perfect pattern. After cutting down the side 
 of the animal, he makes the cut at the brisket and 
 foreleg, a most important one, as if inperfectly done, 
 too much of the hide is left on the neck, whereas, the 
 most valuable portions are the sides and back. Make 
 the downward cut from the opening in the center of 
 the bullock, far forward, a trifle in advance of the front 
 of the foreleg, lifting the hide and skinning slantingly 
 backwards to the knuckle joint at the rear of the fore- 
 leg. On the hind leg the cut is made about three or 
 four inches from the tail, cut being made upward to 
 the back of the hind leg at the knee joint, there con- 
 necting with the hind legger's cut. 
 
 After completing this side of the bullock, the floor- 
 man tips the bullock sufficiently to remove the pritch 
 pole and place it on the other side, so that he can skin 
 oul that side of the bullock. The "caul puller" next 
 removes the caul fat and the breast sawyer opens the 
 breast bone. Spreaders are then placed in the gams of 
 the hind legs and the animal is hoisted until only the 
 fnrequarters rest on the floor. While in this position 
 the "tail puller" pulls the hide off the tail, taking the 
 entire tail bone out. The "rumpcr" follows the tail 
 puller and cuts the hide away from the base "I the tail 
 and the rump. 
 
 The bullock is then hoisted 1" the half hoisi where 
 the fell cutters remove the hide from the hind legs, 
 around the "round." Then the fell pullers take the 
 
16 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 hind shanks of the hide and pull while the fell beaters 
 pound the hide with the back edge of cleavers. The 
 skin of the animal is very tight in this quarter and the 
 hide has to be pulled off, as knife work should result 
 in a great many damaging cuts and scores. The "gut- 
 ters" remove the entrails while the bullock is on the 
 half hoist, allowing the government inspectors to ex- 
 amine them for diseases. 
 
 Government Inspection 
 
 Should the bullock be infected with a disease detri- 
 mental to the public health, the entire carcass, or in- 
 fected quarter, if the disease be local, is sent to the 
 tank to be rendered into inedible tallow. The gov- 
 ernment's inspectors are all graduate veternary sur- 
 geons and thoroughly capable in this line of work. The 
 "backers" continue the process of skinning by drop- 
 ping the hide to the shoulders of the carcass. The 
 tail sawyers then insert ring spreaders in the back of 
 the carcass about eight inches from the tail and saw 
 down to this point. The spreaders make this sawing 
 easier than if they were not placed there, something 
 on the order of a wedge inserted in a board by a car- 
 penter when ripping. The splitters sever the carcass 
 into two portions down to the shoulders. This is im- 
 portant work, as improper splitting hurts the sale of 
 the beef. The carcass is then hoisted and hung off 
 "ii wheeled trucks, so that the forequarters can be 
 worked upon. The hide droppers skin out the neck 
 and forelegs, which thus takes the hide off the carcass. 
 The chuck splitter then severs the carcass into two 
 halves and the scribe sawyer breaks the spinal col- 
 umns. He uses an arc-shaped saw, set in a heavy block 
 of wood, with a handle on it. His work consists of 
 marking the blade bones and breaking them with a 
 blow from the side of the block of wood in which his 
 saw is set. The breaking of the bones in this, manner 
 makes the ribs and chucks look better, as if the beef 
 v. as of very good thickness with plenty of fat in it. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 17 
 
 The Coolers. 
 
 The carcass after being washed with warm water 
 is weighed, tagged with the lot and bed number and 
 placed in the coolers to chill. The coolers are raised 
 to a temperature of about fifty degrees and are grad- 
 ually worked down to about thirty-six degrees in forty 
 to forty-eight hours after filling with beef. If the beef 
 is chilled too fast the animal heat has not time enough 
 to escape. After being properly chilled the beef is 
 then loaded in cars and distributed to the wholesale 
 and retail markets of the country. The cattle heads 
 after being dropped on the killing floor are trimmed of 
 meat, lower jaw taken off and brains removed. The 
 feet are cooked to soften the hoofs, which are removed 
 and dried. The shins are sawed at both ends, so as 
 to allow the marrow to cook out. Skulls, jaws, knuck- 
 les and shins are placed in vats and cooked to remove 
 the tallow. The entrails are stripped of fat and refuse, 
 turned, washed and salted in respective grades and 
 selections. 
 
 Oleo Oil and Oleo Stearine. 
 
 The edible fats from the entrails and casings along 
 with the caul fats are chilled in water to remove ani- 
 mal heat and then converted into oleo stock. The 
 edible fats after chilling are hashed and melted. The 
 settlings are drawn off and the remainder in the ket- 
 tles drawn into trucks and allowed to cool. When 
 ready, the contents of these coolers are placed in 
 cloths, piled in a hydraulic press and put under enor- 
 mous pressure to remove the oil, termed oleo oil, the 
 product remaining in the cloths being oleo stearine. 
 The stearine is shaken from the cloths, packed in bar- 
 rels and shipped to soapmakers, compounders and tan- 
 ners. 
 
 Inedible Fats. 
 
 The inedible fats from the killing and working 
 floors are sent to the tank house, where they are placed 
 in large tanks and cooked under pressure. The set- 
 
18 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 tlings from these tanks are pressed and dried and the 
 tallow put in tank cars or tierces. The blood from the 
 cattle is pumped into large tanks and cooked. Then it 
 is placed in press cloths and put under pressure to 
 remove the tank water. The cooked blood is put 
 through steam dryers to remove the remaining mois- 
 ture, when it is then fit for commercial purposes. 
 
 Selecting, Grading and Salting the Hides. 
 
 After the hide is dropped from the carcass, it is 
 spread out on the floor and inspected for cuts and 
 scores. When imperfections are found they are called 
 to the attention of the workman making them. The 
 hides are then thrown into a chute leading to the hide 
 cellar, where they are again inspected for cuts, scores 
 and other imperfections and sorted into the different 
 classes and weights. The ears are split by making 
 one or two cuts through the cartilage. This is done 
 so that they will lie flat in the packs. The different 
 grades of each lot are weighed separately and records 
 kept for shrinkage and stock purposes. The hides., 
 after weighing, are taken to their respective packs ac- 
 cording to grades. 
 
 Animal Heat in the Hides. 
 
 Workmen in the hide cellar are generally two hours 
 behind the killing gang. This is for the purpose of 
 allowing the animal heat to escape from the hides be- 
 fore they are salted. Two hours is a sufficient length 
 of time to effect this. Usually the following method 
 is pursued : Enough hides are left over from the pre- 
 ceding day's killing to keep the green hide gangs busy 
 for two hours, at which time they can begin work upon 
 the fresh stock. The hides left over night are spread 
 out on the floor in front of their respective packs. If 
 the weather or cellar is warm they are leached out 
 with a little fine salt. During the summer months all 
 hides, whether fresh or held over, are leached in this 
 manner. It is good practice and undoubtedly saves a 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 19 
 
 great many dollars above the expense of doing- this 
 work. 
 
 Building the Hide Packs. 
 
 Number two rock salt is used in salting packer hides. 
 The packs are built as flat and even as possible, so as 
 to retain the brine. They are also made long and low 
 to accomplish this purpose. This keeps the shrink- 
 age down to a low point and maintains the hides in 
 good merchantable condition. Short high packs show 
 
 The accompanying cut shows the manner of making a corner 
 on the pack with a butt of a hide. Ruled lines denote hair side of 
 hides. 
 
 the greatest shrinkage. To build a regular pack begin 
 an edge at the back of the section selected, folding the 
 hides about a foot from the center, in a line with the 
 outside edge of the neck. First throw some salt on 
 the bare floor, so that the hair sides of the bottom 
 hides will be protected with brine. In making the cor- 
 ners, put in the edge or bark spread, leaving the butt 
 of the hide hanging over the edge of the park. 
 
 After salting the Forward portion and folding over, 
 turn the butt up as for an edge. Spread out the short 
 
20 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 shank, in the corner, diagonally, cover with salt and 
 fold over, being sure that there is plenty of salt in the 
 pocket in the corner. This salt in the corner in addi- 
 tion to curing the hide surface tends to build up the 
 pack, keeping it uniform. The hides are folded over 
 on the edges so that there will always be a sloping sur- 
 face to keep the brine within the pack and not allow 
 it to run off except by percolation. After the back 
 edge and corners are put in, start at the rear of the 
 pack and make a side edge on each side. When laying 
 the hides down for the edges, put them on close to- 
 gether so as to build up. Place the hides about two 
 feet apart, leaving that much of the hide underneath 
 showing. In addition to putting them close together it 
 is well to allow the hide to sag a little when holding up 
 the outside portion for filling with salt. This allows a 
 lot of salt to fall in this lap, which can be retained 
 there to help build up to outside edge. Fold the hide 
 over, allowing this sag to remain there and then gently 
 pull toward the center of the pack until it is just on 
 the edge. Never try to pull the top flap back, unless 
 the whole hide is pulled with it, and then there is 
 danger of dragging salt off the hide underneath. 
 
 After making the back and side edges, the spreads 
 can be put in. In making the spreads the heads of 
 the hides are always placed in the center of the pack. 
 On the side edges the heads are to the front, and in 
 the back and front edges to the center. Corners can 
 be made with heads as well as butts of the hide, but 
 the latter lie best in the pack and retain more pickle. 
 Start the first spread about three feet inside the side 
 edge, commencing at the back of the pack and spread 
 thin for a low shrink and close together for a high 
 one. As a rule the packers leave about two or two 
 and a half feet of the hide underneath showing. When 
 one side is spread, repeat on the other side of the 
 The second spread is then ready to be put in. 
 I lace the hides just the same as in the first spread, but 
 put the butts of the hides on the side edges, with tails 
 
The manner of placing hides on the side edge Is accurately 
 shown In this cut. One hide has been left out nt the buck dec "f 
 
 the pack to show the butt of the bide used in making th rner. 
 
 The bide lefl out should be placed the same ae the others on the 
 side edge, bul ti the butl of the pack, After two Bide edges and the 
 back edge of the pack have been built, the Brat Bjpread is ready 
 to be put on. ns will be Bhown In th< • bo I cut. Hair side of the 
 hides is shown by the ruled lines. 
 
22 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 and tag ends turned in and a small quantity of salt 
 under them. When both sides are thus spread, put in 
 the center and last spread of the fill. Heads can be 
 placed either way to fill holes to bring the whole pack 
 up level with the side edges. If there is a deep hole 
 in some spot, throw the head, neck and one shank over 
 into it, or for a small one lay a shank or one side of 
 the head over. See that all ears are spread flat and 
 salted. 
 
 All humps in the pack caused by badly split ears or 
 edges and corners of the hide dragged over should be 
 stepped on so that salt grains will adhere to these 
 spots. Never drag hides over a pack, as the salt is 
 carried off and hairslips result. It is best to have two 
 men, one at the head and the other at the butt of the 
 hide, to lift them over to the spot where they have to 
 be laid. The man at the butt of the hide takes the 
 tail in one hand and the shanks in the other, hair side 
 out, while the other workman takes both sides of the 
 head in one hand and the shanks in the other. When 
 the hide is ready to be laid down, the men should drop 
 the lower side of the hide and then turn the upper 
 side over with one motion. The salt on the hides un- 
 derneath will not be disturbed if hides are handled 
 in this manner. The man on the butt of the hide has 
 charge of building the pack properly. The man on 
 the head of the hide follows his lead in every opera- 
 tion. When the spreads are being put in, the front 
 edge can be built up. Use the spread hides as the 
 front is reached, lapping them over at the front 
 to form the edge, and placing others in to build up 
 even with the rest of the pack. Go through this same 
 performance in subsequent edges and spreads until the 
 pack is completed. 
 
 Proper Method of Salting. 
 
 For ordinary-sized green hides of about seventy 
 to ninety pounds in weight use a number eight 
 scoop shovel, which holds thirty-five to forty pounds 
 
iii the 
 side nl" the 
 bide had 1 
 lap mi the 
 
 lciinipanylntr <ut, the first 
 pack, with Hi.- id.- i-il..-.- and 
 
 ten left out al the back edK< 
 first hide of the first Bpreaa 
 
 pread Is shown on the left 
 .liner hides showing. < >n<.- 
 nf the pack to Bhow the 
 The hide left out should 
 be placed on top <>f the hair side of the lapped bide at the bad 
 edge. The ruled 'In.-s denote the hair side Of the hides Hid. - 
 are placed In ;i similar manner almiK the other side of the pack 
 and second spread put on. 
 
 23 
 
24 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of salt. The old rule of a pound of salt to a pound 
 of hide is. a good one to follow. Salt is scattered from 
 the shovel with a sweeping motion, letting the salt 
 leave the shovel at the heel as much as possible. 
 Every square inch of the hide should have a piece of 
 salt on it. Salt throwers become very expert at this 
 work, which is one of the primary reasons that hair- 
 slipped hides are a rarity in packer stock. The longer 
 the pack the less the shrinkage, as there are then a 
 greater number of hides with no folds in them. Every 
 fold is estimated to show a double shrinkage, com- 
 pared with the same amount of surface unfolded. 
 The hair side of every fold should have salt scattered 
 on it to prevent sticking, heating and hair slips. 
 Low-built packs show a less shrinkage than high ones, 
 from three and a half to four feet is the average height 
 of the packs built by the prominent killers. After the 
 pack is completed put plenty of salt over the top, so 
 that not a particle of the hides is showing. This is to 
 make a brine to keep the top hides moist. The hides 
 in the bottom of the pack are always in the best con- 
 dition. 
 
 A pack that is built in two days will cure quicker 
 and the hides will come up in better condition than 
 one that requires fifteen or twenty days to make, for 
 the reason that the fresh hides going on the pack for 
 the lengthened time are making fresh brine, which 
 goes through the pack and does not give the older 
 hides a chance to get in condition. A pack that is 
 built right and complete in two days will purge in five 
 days and be ready to take up in two weeks, while a 
 pack taking longer to build will not be in condition for 
 delivery for thirty days after closing. 
 
 Hides packed in the manner described can be kept 
 without examination for a year or more. With any 
 less salt on them the hides will have to be torn out 
 sooner, as the salt loses its strength in that much less 
 time. About forty per cent of the salt is lost in curing 
 with new salt. Use new salt on hides to remain in 
 
The ser-ond spread is placed along the side edge as shown In 
 the above diagram, both sides of the pack being built in this 
 manner. The last spread la then put on, which completes the "fill," 
 the hides being placed with heads one way "i another to tin holes. 
 The diagonal lines in tin- above drawing represent the flesh Bldea 
 cf the hides in the Brst apread underneath, while the straight lines 
 denote the hair side. As in the cut showing the Brst spread, one 
 hide has been left out at the back edge of the pack to Bhow the 
 manner of folding the tlrst hide to help build up file back edge- 
 
26 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 pack for a long period, so as to avoid rust spots, 
 which are caused by the salt giving out and the de- 
 caying process setting in. This will not happen in 
 packs which have plenty of salt to make brine. Old 
 salt, or second salt, as it is generally called, can be 
 used on hides which do not remain in pack for any 
 great length of time. However, it is better to wash 
 this salt thoroughly to get the dirt and small particles 
 out of it. In salting green hides a gang consists of 
 two spreaders, one salt thrower and a salt trucker. 
 Forty hides an hour is the schedule for such a gang. 
 A double gang requires two men throwing hides on 
 the pack, two spreaders, two salt throwers and two 
 salt truckers. These men put down eighty hides an 
 hour. Hides are cured and ready for shipping in two 
 to four weeks, but it is usually four to six weeks before 
 tanners will take them out. 
 
 Temperature of the Hide Cellars. 
 
 To obtain the best results in curing hides, the cellars 
 should be kept at an even temperature. Hide shrink- 
 ages are lighter in cold cellars and heaviest in the 
 warm ones. Expert hide receivers take the tempera- 
 ture of the cellars into consideration when demanding 
 their tare allowance. A cold, damp cellar is to the 
 packer's advantage, while a warm one is distinctly in 
 the hide buyer's favor. A happy medium in the matter 
 of temperature is, therefore, to be desired. As a gen- 
 eral rule, the prominent packers endeavor to keep their 
 cellars at about fifty-five to seventy degrees, although 
 sometimes outside cellars register as high as eighty. 
 Brine pipes are usually run through the cellars to keep 
 them cool and uniform the year round. Draughts 
 should be avoided in hide cellars, as the circulating 
 air has a tendency to increase the shrinkages. Some 
 packers have their hides packed on two floors, one 
 above the other, and the hides in the upper floor al- 
 ways are the driest, which, of course, means a higher 
 shrinkage. Hide cellars, as a rule, are on the lower 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 27 
 
 floors, usually below the ground level, with coolers 
 above, all of which aids in keeping- the hides moist and 
 in good merchantable condition. 
 
 Cattle Switches. 
 
 The switches are cut off of the hides in the cellar 
 at the chute where the hides are inspected by the cellar 
 men. They are trimmed off about twelve to fourteen 
 inches from the butt of the hide. It is not advisable 
 to leave too much of the tail on the hide, as it makes 
 but poor leather, and at the same time too much hide 
 on the hair switch is useless, as it adds unnecessary 
 weight if switches are shipped. Switches are salted 
 with fine salt in one large pile. Put plenty of salt on 
 them, working it into the hair as much as possible. 
 To accomplish this purpose the switches may be wet 
 lightly with a strong brine. Great care should be ex- 
 ercised in salting the switches to prevent their heat- 
 ing. The pile should be looked at frequently and at 
 the first sign of heating should be torn apart and re- 
 salted with new salt. When they are sold they gen- 
 erally go at straight count with the stumps out. This 
 is the usual method in the large packing plants. Some 
 killers, however, sell their switches on a killing count, 
 one switch for every bullock killed, when figuring for 
 payment. This method does away with tedious count- 
 ing. In the country hide market, where the average 
 weight of hides is lighter, and the switches, therefore, 
 much smaller, thev are sold at a fair count, several 
 small switches being counted as one. 
 
 Taking Up the Hides. 
 
 Taking up hides requires seventeen men to make a 
 full gang. Men who are proficient in this class of work 
 can put up six hundred to a thousand hides, as to 
 grades and selections, in a day. It takes two men pull- 
 ing the pack, four shakers, two rolling hides, three 
 tying and testing for weights, two to three sweeper-. 
 
28 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 three piling and one salt trucker. As the pack is built 
 from the rear forward it is torn out from, front to the 
 back. The two pack pullers should know how packs 
 are built so that work will not be delayed. The loose 
 salt is dragged to the front of the pack on the hides. 
 The hides are shaken of all salt, the four shakers each 
 taking a corner of the hide and shaking it twice on a 
 frame, called a horse. This horse is a scantling net- 
 work four by seven feet on legs two and a half feet 
 high and is placed in front of the pack being taken up. 
 The hides are then dragged over a beaver to re- 
 move grains of salt which still adhere to the hide. 
 The beaver is usually made of wood in a triangular 
 shape, higher than it is wide at the base, or it can be 
 made of a hide rolled up lengthwise, hair side out, with 
 plenty of salt in it. The hides, after passing over the 
 beaver, are then spread out on the floor, hair side up, 
 and then turned flesh up and swept of every particle 
 of salt adhering to them. They are also inspected for 
 cuts, scores, hairslips, brands and cows and steers. 
 After rolling up in the respective first and second 
 selections they are tied and tested for weights, heavies, 
 lights and extreme lights. 
 
 Taking Out Hides. 
 
 In taking out hides, the receiver watches to see 
 that the proper classes and grades of hides are given, 
 surplus salt swept off, number two hides properly 
 marked, manures counted, heavy, light and extreme 
 light hides kept separate and tare and percentage of 
 grubs estimated. Number two hides are rolled up in 
 an opposite manner from the first grade; for instance, 
 the number one hides are rolled up hair out and the 
 seconds flesh out. The reverse is usually the method 
 of procedure, as there are more number one hides. 
 These, when rolled up with the hair in. retain more 
 moisture than if rolled up the other way. keeping the 
 hides in good, workable condition until they reach the 
 tanneries, where they are placed in packs or piled in 
 
' DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 29 
 
 bundles. The shrinkage in transit is also less and 
 the grain of the hide is preserved better. 
 
 Rolling Hides. 
 
 The proper manner of rolling hides is as follows: 
 Throw in the head and neck, even with the front legs, 
 then fold over the belly of the hide on both sides. The 
 fold is not a wide one, just enough to square up the 
 hide nicely. The man at the butt then throws the 
 hind shank lengthwise on this fold and the man at the 
 head does the same with the front shank. Do not 
 throw the shanks under the belly, but on top, as the 
 former method is productive of hair slips, caused by 
 heating, while in the latter procedure there is plenty 
 of air circulating around all parts of the hide. The 
 two men then take one outside edge and fold it in to 
 the center of the back, repeating with the other edge, 
 and then placing these two folds together in one. The 
 butt is then thrown forward beyond the middle and 
 the forward portion of the fold is placed on top of the 
 part already folded, and then the butt is again folded 
 over even with the break in the second lap, thus mak- 
 ing a neat bundle which can be tied in a very work- 
 manlike manner. The man at the butt of the hide has 
 charge of the rolling of the hides, the man at the head 
 following his lead, so that the work can be done with 
 speed and neatness. See cut on page 58. 
 
 Tying Hides. 
 
 When tying hides, ropes about seven feet long are 
 used. A hide knot is tied in one end of the rope. This 
 is the same as a nautical bowline knot, which holds 
 the loop without slipping and at the same time allows 
 the knot to be untied very easily. The man who is 
 tying the hide places the rope under the hide as it 
 lies on the floor crosswise of the last fold and slips 
 the rope through the loop, drawing it taut and drag- 
 ging the hide over on the round end of the fold. Ex- 
 perts in this line of work give the bundle a sudden jerk, 
 which puts the rope around the whole bundle, permit- 
 
30 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 ting of quick tying. The bundle, after being tied 
 tight, is placed in its respective pile. 
 
 Hide Ropes. 
 
 There are numerous grades and qualities of hide 
 rope, from two-ply sisal to five-ply jute. The two-ply 
 sisal rope weighs the least of any of the others in 
 the unoiled grade and is also the most expensive. 
 Lightweight ropes are wound into ropes of one hun- 
 dred strands, while the heavier weight ropes contain 
 only fifty strands to the coil. The ropes come rolled 
 up in a large coil weighing from one hundred and fifty 
 
 The nautical bowline knot is used in making the loop on hide 
 strings for tying hides in bundles. The accompanying cut is very 
 clear in showing the manner of making the knot. In tightening 
 the knot, pull the main strand and the end of the string. This knot 
 will not slip and is exceedingly easy to loosen, by bending it until 
 the end becomes loosened. 
 
 to two hundred and twenty-five pounds. The strand 
 is unwound as needed and cut up into suitable lengths, 
 about seven feet for heavy hides. The rope, of course, 
 is sold as hide, when weighed up, and for this reason 
 a medium-weight quality is usually selected. One 
 hundred strings of two or three ply sisal rope will 
 weigh about nine pounds, while the heavy jute rope 
 averages about eighteen pounds to a hundred strings. 
 Any rope weighing under ten pounds to the hundred 
 strings is acceptable to the buyers, but they enter a 
 vigorous protest and demand an additional tare if any. 
 heavier weight is used. It is only unscrupulous sellers 
 who will endeavor to sell this extra weight in hide 
 rope. 
 
W 
 DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 31 
 
 Marking Hides. 
 
 Some tanneries have elaborate systems of checking 1 
 and re-checking results on every car of hides they tan, 
 and for this purpose mark every hide as taken up with 
 a design, figure or mark on the butt of the tail. As a 
 general rule, however, it is only in sample lots of 
 hides that tanners desire the stock marked, as they 
 usually know what returns they can expect on hides 
 they have handled before through the tanneries. The 
 tool for marking the hides is generally a die set in a 
 special hammer head, this being hit with a hammer 
 or the impression made with the die without the aid 
 of another tool. Tanners, by this means, are enabled 
 to identify the hides in a certain carload and watch the 
 results closely through the entire course of manufac- 
 turing and selling. 
 
 Horn and Wire Scratches. 
 
 Packer hides show horn scratches, owing to the 
 class of cattle usually purchased by the killers, but 
 with the improvement of range conditions, horned cat- 
 tle are being bred out or dehorned. But this improve- 
 ment is offset by the increase in the number of wire 
 scratches every hide carries. With the dividing of the 
 vast ranges into small farms and ranches, barbed wire 
 was employed by the many land owners in fencing 
 their domain. Barbed wire is a cheap and effective 
 fencing material, but it damages hides to a great ex- 
 tent. One encounter with barbs is usually enough for 
 most cattle, but the grain of the hide always carries 
 the marks. 
 
 Manured Hides and Tare. 
 
 A manure is estimated to weigh three pounds, but 
 if the manured spot is heavier than this, additional 
 manures are counted. The number of manures on a 
 hide is limited only by its size. In selecting for 
 weights, the scale beam is set to allow for a pound test 
 tare. Tare allowance is usually agreed upon between 
 
32 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 the cellar foreman and buyer's receiver. Some of the 
 packers, however, insist upon a sweep tare. Ten hides 
 are selected, five by the buyer's man and five by the 
 seller's representative. The hides, are taken from the 
 pile of bundled hides, which are usually placed in 
 an out-of-the-way place until ready to ship. The 
 bundle on top of the pile is lifted and the one under- 
 neath taken for one of the ten hides, and the same 
 method is pursued in getting the other nine, selected 
 promiscuously from the pile. A correct proportion of 
 the different weights is taken. The ten hides are 
 then carefully weighed, opened up and the surplus salt 
 and water swept off. This operation is supposed not 
 to occupy a longer time than two hours. The hides 
 are then rolled up and weighed again, the difference in 
 the two weights being taken as the basis for tare al- 
 lowance on the car in question. Each carload taken up 
 is treated in the same manner. As a general rule, 
 however, the tare on the car of hides is mutually 
 agreed upon by the buyer and seller, based upon the 
 condition of the hides as they are being taken up. 
 
 Grubbing Hides. 
 
 The percentage of grubs in a car of hides taken up 
 is generally agreed upon between the cellar foreman 
 and the buyer's representative. However, if an agree- 
 ment cannot be reached on this question, either party 
 can demand twenty hides for grubbing purposes. The 
 hides are procured in the same manner as for sweep 
 tare. Other methods are also followed. Disinter- 
 ested parties may pick out the hides or else they can 
 be thrown off of the truckloads as. weighed, one from 
 an occasional load. Technically speaking, one grub 
 constitutes a number two hide, as the clear hide is 
 spoiled by the grub hole. However, in the interest 
 of speed and economy, the packers and tanners agree 
 upon the grubbing privilege. The number of hides 
 containing live grubs in the twenty hides selected for 
 grubbing determines the percentage for the car lot in 
 
In this picture the bullocks have been skinned down to the shoul- 
 ders and the carcass split into two halves. The hide dropper 
 takes the hide off the shoulders, forelegs and neck and the 
 chuck splitter severs the shoulders, making two sides of the 
 carcass. The meat is then run into a cooler and the hide 
 dropped down to the hide cellar. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 33 
 
 question. Number one hides only are grubbed. Sec- 
 onds on a cut selection are already imperfect. 
 
 After having grubbed twenty hides, should either 
 party be dissatisfied with the result, they can demand 
 an additional twenty hides for further grubbing. The 
 result of the grubbing of the last twenty hides is con- 
 sidered along with the first twenty in computing the 
 percentage of grubs in the carload. In other words, 
 the percentage of grubs is figured on the whole forty 
 hides grubbed. This can be followed out again, an- 
 other twenty hides being taken, the grubbing on the 
 sixty hides being final, but it is seldom that even forty 
 hides are taken. 
 
 The hides selected for grubbing are spread out on 
 the floor, one by one, as needed, and the receiver's 
 agent proceeds to locate as many grubs as possible, up 
 to five. He cuts the scurf and loose flesh away from 
 the body of the hide with his knife — in New York a 
 spade is used — until the hide surface is clearly ex- 
 posed. The grubs can then be plainly seen and 
 skewered. When five grubs are found another hide is 
 laid on the floor. Usually, when four, and sometimes 
 three, grubs are found, the remaining one or two are 
 there, if sought for diligently. It is the boast of some 
 expert grubbers that they have never gotten up from 
 a four-grub hide. There are times, however, when 
 five are difficult to locate, even after securing four of 
 them. The time of grubbing is not limited, but it is 
 not supposed to be lengthened beyond a reasonable 
 period for scrutinizing every hide carefully. 
 
 Pates, and Shanks. 
 
 Tanneries which are not equipped to handle offal 
 leathers properly, or do not want to bother with this 
 class of stock, occasionally purchase trimmed hides, 
 pates and shanks off. The packers will trim off the 
 pates or pates and shanks whenever buyers desire this 
 done. Both sides of the head and the ears are taken 
 off with one cut straight across the hide at this point, 
 
34 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 and the shanks are removed just above the duclaws. 
 The buyer pays for these trimmings at the regular 
 price of the hides, but later is given a credit, usually 
 of 50c to 85c a hundred pounds for their weight. The 
 packers sell the pates to tanners of offal, or if there 
 is no call for this stock, put them in with the shanks 
 and tag ends and dispose of them as glue stock. 
 
 Packer Hide Selections. 
 
 Native steers are steer hides free of brands, and are 
 graded in weights, as follows: Heavy hides, above 
 60 pounds; light hides, between 50 and 60 pounds, 
 and extreme light hides, under 50 pounds and down 
 to overweight kips, 35 pounds cured weights. When 
 steers are sold as killed, the lights go in the lot at 
 one cent less than the heavy price, which is always 
 the basis quoted, and the extreme lights at two cents 
 under the heavy rate. The heavy weights are some- 
 times sold by themselves, for special leathers, belting 
 butts, for instance; but as a general rule most of the 
 tanners of native steers want light and extreme lights, 
 and the lighter the average the better they like them. 
 The heavies alone are slow sale when offered sepa- 
 rately, and for this reason packers generally insist on 
 their going in with the lot. Kosher hides are included 
 in regular lots at %c reduction, or, if sold alone, go 
 at value. Native steers are grubbed from January 
 1 to June 1. Number two hides out at one cent re- 
 duction from the respective first selections. 
 
 Spready Native Steers. 
 
 Spready native steers, when sold as such, are strictly 
 number one stock, free from grubs and all other im- 
 perfections. The spread of these hides across the 
 shoulders just back of the brisket is supposed to meas- 
 ure six feet and six inches, in the West, and six feet and 
 eight inches in the eastern markets, where kosher 
 stock is largely killed. Packers usually salt the num- 
 ber one and two spreadies in the same pack, and 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 35 
 
 the tanner's agent throws out the seconds, which are 
 generally sold separately, at value. Some of the kill- 
 ers will not grade out spreadies in the very grubby 
 season unless there is a very good call for them. Each 
 spready steer hide is grubbed from January to June. 
 Hides with four grubs go as number ones. 
 
 Leather from these hides goes largely into furniture 
 and automobile upholstery. Many years ago spread- 
 ies brought much lower prices than native steers, as 
 the tanners of regular leather did not want such a 
 thin, flabby hide. Nowadays this selection brings the 
 top price of the list. Kosher spready native steers 
 have to measure six feet and eight inches in the west- 
 ern markets to merit this designation, cured measure- 
 ments. Allow four inches on green hides for shrink- 
 age to cured measurements. 
 
 Of late it has been customary to sell spready native 
 steers covering two periods of the year. They are 
 generally sold January to June kill and June to Jan- 
 uary kill. The latter selection usually has the best 
 call, for upholstery leathers, while January to June 
 hides are not so suitable for this purpose. They are 
 very grubby in the winter months, and not many are 
 made in this season. Some packers will not grade out 
 spreadies in the grubby period. 
 
 Spready native cows are number one native cow- 
 hides measuring six feet and four inches across the 
 shoulders. In the country market this selection is 
 generally graded at six feet and three inches, with some 
 of the dealers insisting upon six-feet-and-two-inch 
 hides going in with the regular spreadies. Number 
 two spready cows are sorted on a one-grub selection 
 in addition to the ordinary second selection for cuts, 
 scores, hair slips, etc. They are sold at value, with 
 seconds a cent less, or at ruling prices if sold alone. 
 
 Heavy native cows are also sought after eagerly on 
 account of the good demand for upholstery leathers. 
 The eastern tanners, centered in Newark, N. J., who 
 are the principal users of these hides, come into the 
 
36 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 market early in the spring or summer and purchase 
 their year's supply, taking hides ahead for six to 
 eight months. Hides for upholstery leathers have to 
 be choice in quality, and winter hides are therefore un- 
 fit for this purpose. 
 
 Texas Steers. 
 
 Texas steers are branded range steers from Texas, 
 generally, but not necessarily. Their quality for sole- 
 leather purposes is their principal asset. The hide is 
 a narrow one, especially so through the shoulders, and 
 very plump, having a feel almost like sole leather, 
 even when in the green state. The original Texas 
 steer was a long-horned yellow beast, called a "yellow- 
 jacket." This animal was the product of the range, 
 nourished on what little rough stuff he could find 
 growing in those semi-arid sections, and hardy enough 
 to withstand the rigorous winters. His strength went 
 principally to the hide, which protected him in hot and 
 ccld weather. Occasionally a few of these "bone- 
 crates" are seen at the "yards," but they are growing 
 scarcer, as, with improved conditions on the ranges, 
 the quality of the beef is raised where formerly scant 
 attention was paid to providing fodder and shelter 
 for stock. 
 
 The same weight selections apply to Texas steers 
 as are noted under native steers. In direct opposi- 
 tion to the native steers, heavy Texas sell better than 
 lights, being in good demand for sole leather. Not 
 many of the sole-leather tanneries are equipped to 
 handle light and extreme light weights in tanning. 
 The two latter-named grades sometimes sell at a dis- 
 count of from a cent and a quarter to a cent and a 
 half from the heavy price, when moved separately or 
 with heavies, as to the state of the market and unsold 
 stocks. The usual one-cent spread is adhered to un- 
 der normal conditions. On the other hand, this spread 
 may be shortened to less than the usual cent differen- 
 tial due to existing market conditions. 
 
> 
 
 DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 37 
 
 Some "fed stock" pass with the range Texas, but if 
 they show "manures," are generally thrown out, as 
 good Texas cattle have no opportunity to gather 
 dirt. Free-of-brand steers at Texas points are always 
 sold at Texas steers. The grubbing privilege on 
 Texas steers extends from November i to June i. 
 Number two hides go at the usual one-cent reduc- 
 tion from the number one price, of their respective 
 selections, or at value if sold alone. 
 
 Butt Branded Steers. 
 
 Butt-branded steers have a brand on the rump, 
 generally on one side only, although it makes no 
 difference if there are marks on both sides. The brand 
 must not extend over eighteen inches up from the 
 butt of the hide, otherwise it is a Colorado steer. They 
 are graded in the three weights — heavies, above 60 
 pounds; lights, 50 to 60 pounds, and extreme light 
 weights, 25 to 50 pounds. The price is graded at the 
 usual one-cent reductions on the lights and extreme 
 lights.. It is very seldom that there are any extreme 
 light butts made, they usually going into Texas 
 steers under normal conditions. Whenever any are 
 found they are, as a rule, put right in with the lights 
 at the same price, or thrown out altogether, a good 
 many of the tanneries not being equipped to handle 
 hides under 50 pounds in weight. This selection is 
 more on the free-of-brand order on account of the 
 great amount of clear space on the hide. Butt-branded 
 steers are usually received in quantities at the yards 
 during the winter months, the native season. They 
 are used for purposes similar to native steers in the 
 summer period and go into sole leather in the winter, 
 when they are unfit for high-class leathers requiring 
 choice hides. Kosher butt brands go out at the usual 
 %c reduction from the list price of the various grades, 
 when included in regular lots, or at value if disposed of 
 separately. The grubbing privilege extends from Jan- 
 
38 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 uary i to June I. Number two hides go out at the 
 usual one-cent reductions from the first selection in 
 the various weights. 
 
 Colorado Steers. 
 
 Colorado steers are side-branded stock, marked on 
 one or both sides. They are longer through the 
 brisket, producing a greater spread across the shoul- 
 ders than Texas steers, and have a flabby feel on ac- 
 count of the spongy nature of the hide, due to im- 
 proved breeding. They are selected for the three 
 weights — heavies, over 60 pounds ; lights, 50 to 60 
 pounds, and extreme lights, 25 to 50 pounds. Very 
 few extreme lights are made, as they go into Texas 
 steers when found. Lights go at the usual one-cent 
 reduction from the heavies, and the extreme lights at 
 one cent under lights, when included with regular lots. 
 As is the case with butt brands, however, very few 
 extreme lights are found, and they sometimes go right 
 in with the lights, at the same price, or else put in 
 with the extreme light Texas steers. Kosher Colo- 
 rado steers go at %c reduction from the list price of 
 regular lots, or at value if moved alone. The grub- 
 bing privilege extends from December 1 to June 1. 
 Number two hides go at the usual one-cent discount 
 from number one price in the various weights. 
 
 Branded Cows. 
 
 Branded cows are simply branded cows. They are 
 not selected for weights, being sold flat in this re- 
 spect. The average weight is generally much below 
 Texas steers, and koshers are seldom found in this 
 grade. When located Koshers go out at *4c reduc- 
 tion. As is the case with Texas steers, this selec- 
 tion does not show heavy in manures. It is grubbed 
 from November 1 to June 1. Grubs generally come in 
 early at Texas points and leave early, so that the 
 grubbing dates could very well be advanced thirty 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 39 
 
 days and still remain satisfactory to all parties. Sec- 
 onds out at one cent discount from the number one 
 price. 
 
 Native Cows. 
 
 Native cows are free of brands and graded in two 
 weights; over 55 pounds and under 55 pounds, the 
 former termed heavies and the latter lights. Each 
 selection is sold at value, with seconds at the usual 
 one-cent discount. Three selections are made by some 
 packers when wanted — over 55 pounds, heavies ; 45 
 
 The splitting of the ears on green hides is clearly shown in the 
 accompanying cut. One cut with the knife is all that is necessary 
 to lay the ear open, so that it will lie flat in the packs. 
 
 to 55 pounds, lights, and 25 to 45 pounds, extreme 
 lights. Each grade is moved at value, as noted above. 
 These selections are grubbed from January 1 to June 
 1, with koshers at l / 2 c reduction on the heavies and 
 j4c off on the straight lights, or lights and extreme 
 lights, as to the way they are graded. Extreme lights 
 seldom bring any premium over the straight lights, 
 as the killers generally will not make the 45 to 55 
 pounds selection unless they can dispose of the ex- 
 treme lights at the same price. In the country market 
 the weights 25 to 45 pounds are eagerly sought on 
 
40 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 account of the good demand for patent leather. These 
 hides are worked into a variety of leathers. 
 
 Native Bulls. 
 
 Native bulls are free-of-brand bulls and stags, sold 
 flat, as to ones and twos, and not grubbed. Bulls are 
 characterized by their tough pate, thick, ribby neck 
 and thin butt. There are few koshers. Most of the 
 packers will make special selections and weights in 
 this grade, as to tanners' wants. Heavy bulls are 
 sorted at 75 or 85 pounds as to buyers' desires. 
 
 Spready native bulls are seldom sorted out by the big 
 packers. Brokers sometimes make this selection them- 
 selves, selling the various grades to different tanners. 
 Packer native bulls, spready and narrow, are always 
 sold at a flat price. Spready native bulls measure six 
 feet across the shoulders, just behind the brisket, and 
 are strictly number one hides. They are sold at value 
 with the seconds also at the ruling market price. 
 
 Branded Bulls. 
 
 Branded bulls and stags are sold flat as to price and 
 not grubbed throughout the year. The southern points 
 of slaughter are in the best demand, as they run 
 lighter in average and more uniform in thickness. 
 They have the tough pate, thick neck and thin butt, but 
 not relatively so prominent as native stock. Mexican 
 bulls are sometimes hard to distinguish from Texas 
 steers for this reason. Native bulls in Texas go as 
 branded. There are few koshers. Light average bulls 
 work well into sole and harness leather. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 41 
 
 COUNTRY HIDES 
 
 In the United States all domestic green salted hides 
 not taken off at the large packing plants are termed 
 country hides. In many instances they are from the 
 same kinds of cattle which are killed by the packers. 
 
 Country hides differ principally from packer stock 
 in that the flaying is poorly and imperfectly done, with- 
 out any uniform system or pattern. They are seldom 
 delivered out of first salt. Cut, scored and poor-pat- 
 terned hides are the usual run of country deliveries. 
 The hides originate with the farmers and country 
 butchers, who either salt them a little or sell them 
 green to small country collectors, who in turn put 
 the hides in pack, wetting them plentifully and dis- 
 pose of them to tanners or larger dealers. As a 
 general rule the tanners decline to operate directly in 
 the country, as they cannot get the selections and 
 weights desired in sufficient quantities. 
 
 The larger dealers select the hides purchased in 
 the country into the several weights and grades of 
 steers and cows, branded and native, so that buyers 
 can get almost any selections and weights wanted. 
 Butt-branded hides are included with the natives and 
 kosher stock is sold with the regular stuck-throats, 
 unless otherwise specified by buyers. Cut-throat 
 country hides are subject to a discount of twenty- 
 five cents per hide when so stipulated by the buyer. 
 Country hides, as a rule, receive so many wettings 
 and are resalted with dirty, fine sale so often that they 
 have a dark flesh color and lose a portion of the sub- 
 stance needed to make leather. 
 
 The number two selection is effective on hides with 
 cuts, scores, grubs, hairslips or of poor pattern. A 
 hide with a cut near the edge which can be trimmed 
 out without spoiling the pattern is a number one, if 
 so trimmed. Hides, with many cuts, scores or hairslips 
 are thrown out as glues and sold at their value. "Pep- 
 perboxes," or very grubby hides, also go as glue stock. 
 
42 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 In curing country hides, fine salt is generally used. 
 If the hides are salted in small piles, one hide on top 
 of the other, flesh side up, with new, fine salt, they 
 will cure in less than three days, at which time they 
 are ready to be placed in regular packs, but if stock 
 is put in regular packs green, allow more salt and a 
 longer time to cure, say, a little over a week, although 
 less time may do. 
 
 As a general rule the hides have the sinews and 
 tail bones left in, with the cheeks in also. The tanners 
 or dealers who purchase these hides have a hard time 
 getting the sellers to trim off this refuse, but the tan- 
 ners cannot use it and do not have to purchase it along 
 with the hides when buying from the larger dealers. 
 
 Country Hide Selections. 
 
 Heavy country steers are free of brands over 60 
 pounds in weight and are sold at value. Seconds go 
 at the usual one-cent reduction. One grub consti- 
 tutes a number two hide. Every hide in the country 
 market has to be grubbed. There is no grubbing priv- 
 ileges, such as scrutinizing twenty hides as a basis 
 for the percentage on the car. One grub whenever 
 found makes a second-grade hide. Butt-branded steers 
 go in with the natives in the regular grade, unless 
 strictly free of brand stock is specified by the pur- 
 chaser. Light steers are sometimes sold at one cent 
 discount, but generally are moved alone at value or 
 in buff weights. 
 
 Heavy Cows. 
 
 Heavy cows are free-of-brand cows over 60 pounds 
 in weight, but sometimes are sold as low as 50 pounds 
 when middleweight hides are slow of sale and heavies 
 in demand. Market conditions govern the price of this 
 selection, with the seconds at one cent discount. One 
 grub whenever found constitutes a number two hide, 
 with the other imperfections also counting in this 
 respect. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 43 
 
 Buff Hides. 
 
 Buffs are free-of-brand cows and steers 45 to 60 
 pounds in the Chicago market and 40 to 60 pounds in 
 most of the other hide centers. The great demand for 
 extreme light hides is the cause of the shortening of 
 the weight of this selection in the primary market. 
 No one seems to know exactly the origin of the word 
 buff as applied to this selection of hides, but it is gen- 
 erally thought to apply to the class of leather orig- 
 inally made from these weights, called "buffed stock." 
 The term ''light cows" is sometimes applied to this 
 grade, and is directly applicable, as the weights agree 
 with the light selections in the packer hides. The 
 steers in this selection are sometimes sold out and 
 called light steers, 50 to 60 pounds. As a general rule 
 there are not many steers in the buffs, as country 
 butchers slaughter cows principally, while the steers 
 are fattened by the farmers and feeders for shipment 
 to the "yards." There is no custom-made law com- 
 manding that the steers be sold along with the cows 
 in buff weights, but they are generally included by the 
 sellers unless there is a good demand for light steers. 
 The number two hides go at a cent a pound less than 
 the sale price when included with regular lots, or at 
 value if disposed of separately. In the winter period 
 seconds, when moved alone, sell at more than the usual 
 cent discount, while in the summer, when the hides 
 are good, some lots go at }^c under the number one 
 rate. This is largely due to the fact that there are 
 many hides in the lots with one clear side. This can 
 only be done in the summer hair season. Hides with 
 one clear side in former years were sold as the "B" 
 selection and usually went at half a cent under the 
 number one price. This grading was dropped, as the 
 tanners refused to buy it any more, feeling that they 
 would relatively cheapen their purchases by getting 
 them along with the regular number twos. Native and 
 butt-branded bulls under 60 pounds and butt-branded 
 
44 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 steers and cows go in with the buff weights. One grub 
 designates a number two hide. 
 
 Extreme Light Hides. 
 
 Extremes are free-of-brand cows and steers 25 to 
 
 45 pounds in the Chicago market and 25 to 40 pounds 
 elsewhere. The heavy demand for this weight of hides 
 by tanners of side upper and patent leather is re- 
 sponsible for the lengthening of the weight selection 
 in this market. When the buffs or middle weights are 
 not in good request this selection is sometimes sold 25 
 to 50 pounds, making only two selections in native 
 stock, extremes and heavy cows. Seconds go at the 
 usual one-cent reduction from the number one price 
 with regular lots, or at value if moved alone. There 
 is generally a good demand for seconds in all weights 
 for cheap leathers, so that dealers can improve the 
 quality of their regular stock by selling a larger per- 
 centage of number ones. In the winter months, how- 
 ever, there are few buyers for seconds. Bulls and 
 butt-branded hides in these weights go right in with 
 the extremes. One grub makes a number two hide. 
 
 Kipskins. 
 
 Kip skins are free-of-brand cows and steers, 15 to 25 
 pounds, with bull calves included. Branded and run- 
 ner kip (runts) are sold at value. Packer skins are 
 sold flat, but on country lots a reduction of a cent and 
 a half is allowed on seconds. Grubby skins go as 
 seconds whenever found. In the winter months this 
 selection is extremely poor in quality and is difficult to 
 move. 
 
 Overweight Kipskins. 
 
 Overweight kips range at 25 to 35 pounds and are 
 sorted in the regular manner for ones and twos, with 
 the seconds at the one-cent reduction from the first 
 selection. Grubby hides are classed as seconds, or, if 
 "pepperboxes," go out as glues. In the winter season 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 45 
 
 this selection is undesirable, as the hides are poor in 
 quality and the hair is very long. They are sold at 
 value. 
 
 Calfskins. 
 
 Calfskins range at 8 to 15 pounds in the country 
 market and in the packer market all skins under 15 
 pounds, except slunks, are sold as calfskins. Light 
 calf in the country market are sorted at 7 to 8 
 pounds and deacons at under 7 pounds. They are 
 sold by the piece at value. Deacon skins with a good 
 spread are sorted as light calf. Deacons go at 20c 
 under the light calf rate, which is the governing ar 
 tide for these two weights. Runty packer deacons are 
 generally thrown in the slunk pile. Calfskins are sold 
 at value, with seconds at a cent and a half reduction 
 from the number one price. Packer calfskins are sold 
 at a flat price for ones and twos. The skins are graded 
 into various selections, as to quality. City skins out 
 of first salt are moved separately and outside cities; 
 first salted or resalted are also classed by themselves. 
 Country skins make up the remainder of the divisions, 
 being poorly taken-off stock, meaty and poor in pat- 
 tern. In the East, calfskins are trimmed, heads and 
 feet off, and sold flat, as to ones and twos, by the piece, 
 at value. In the western markets skins are untrimmed 
 and usually have the tailbone and sinews in. Calfskins 
 come freely during April, May and June and are light 
 in weight. Tanners during these months usually want 
 a heavyweight skin for winter wear, while in winter, 
 when skins are heavier, they want light ones for spring 
 and summer shoes. 
 
 Domestic Calfskins. 
 
 As a general rule, calfskins are of better take-off 
 than hides. This is occasioned largely by the methods 
 employed in their slaughter and sale. In certain sea- 
 sons of the year, the packers sell large numbers of 
 calves with the skins on. The skins are taken off the 
 
46 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 cold calves by the market butchers in the cities who 
 are proficient in this line of work. The packing house 
 workmen also take off a perfect patterned skin, as the 
 animals are skinned while warm. Country butchers 
 and dealers who make a specialty of this class of work 
 purchase and kill calves, sending them to the cities in 
 the state where killed, owing to the rigorous govern- 
 ment inspection laws. These calves are simply dressed, 
 the skin being left on, which is afterward sicinned by 
 the city market butchers. A very small proportion of 
 the calfskins in America are of poor take-off and pat- 
 tern due to these conditions of slaughter and sale. 
 
 In most of the cities rendering concerns call at the 
 various butcher shops daily and collect the bones, 
 scrap meat and calfskins. These collectors in turn salt 
 the skins and usually sell them out of first salt to larger 
 dealers or tanners direct. It will thus be seen that on 
 the average calfskins in America are of good pattern, 
 in excellent fresh condition and suitable for conversion 
 into colored leather. 
 
 Slunk Skins. 
 
 Slunk skins are unborn calves and are sorted into 
 two divisions, skins with the hair on and hairless. 
 Slunks are sold per piece at value. 
 
 Branded country hides have brands on one or both 
 sides of the hide and are sold flat at value, as to per- 
 centage of steers included, take-off and condition. It 
 is usually customary to figure l / 2 c advance for hides out 
 of first salt and bundle condition over packed stock. 
 Branded hides are graded in two weights, under and 
 over forty pounds, light and heavy hides, respectively. 
 
 Country Bull Hides. 
 
 Bulls, native and branded, are sold separately and at 
 value. Number two bulls go at the usual one-cent 
 discount. The weight selection on this grade of hides 
 is over 60 pounds. Tanners can get heavy or light 
 averages. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND kKINS 47 
 
 Bulls Under Sixty Pounds. 
 
 In country hide classifications, a bull hide under 
 sixty pounds in weight is classed as a buff hide. How- 
 ever, certain of the larger tanners who, in a meas- 
 ure, can enforce their demands insist upon all staggy 
 hides being thrown out of the buff weights and sold 
 separately as bulls. These bulls and stags under sixty 
 pounds in weight are much more desirable than the 
 regular bulls over sixty pounds, but are not worth 
 regular buff hide prices. In packer hides, a bull or 
 stag hide is sold as such, no matter what the weight 
 may be. 
 
 Glue Hides. 
 
 Glue hides are both cows and steers of all weights, 
 sold on the market at value on a flat basis. What 
 constitutes a glue hide is occasionally the cause of 
 much argument. If the hide is tainted, salt-rusted so 
 that the hair slips, very badly grubby (pepperboxes) 
 or very irregular-patterned hides, practically pieces of 
 hides, they are classed as glues. 
 
 Horsehides. 
 
 Horsehides are sold by the piece, as to size and 
 condition of the butt of the hide. The butts are 
 trimmed off and sold for export for use in boots in 
 Russia, where a thick, non-porous leather is wanted on 
 account of the cold and snow. The nature of the 
 horse butt makes it ideally adaptable for this purpose. 
 Tails and manes are not sold with the hide unless 
 their value is added to the sale price. The hide should 
 be free from cuts, scores, brands or dragged spots, 
 and especially so on the butt for twenty-one inches up 
 from the tail on large hides to merit the number one 
 grade. The butts are trimmed off twenty-one inches 
 up from the tail, the cut being made clear across the 
 hide at this point, taking the two hind shanks as well. 
 The fronts are sold and used in this country for glove 
 
48 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 and shoe leathers principally. Seconds, cut, scored and 
 dragged hides go at $1.00 reduction from the number 
 one price. Ponies, glues and colts are sold separately, 
 by the piece, at value. 
 
 Hogskins. 
 
 Hogskins are sold flat per piece. These skins are 
 usually badly cut and a strictly number one skin is a 
 rarity unless there is a lot of fat left on it. Butchers 
 generally want to sell as much of the fat with the 
 meat as possible, which is responsible in a large meas- 
 ure for the great number of cuts. Skins clear of cuts 
 across the shoulders are the most valuable, as they 
 are then suitable for pad saddles and other articles 
 requiring a clear piece of hog leather. Of late years, 
 however, these skins have been worked into a variety 
 of leathers, so that the old grading is becoming obso- 
 lete. If the skins are badly cut they go out as glues, 
 which sell with the pigskins at half price. 
 
 Sheep Pelts. 
 
 Sheepskins are taken off the animal by opening the 
 belly, legs and head with a knife, and pulling the skin 
 off the carcass, so as to avoid cutting the pelt. When 
 pulling, the skins are kneaded with the hands, as they 
 will tear if pulled hard. The shanks are generally cut 
 off, as there is no wool on them and they are not 
 needed for leather. The skins are salted liberally with 
 new, fine salt, piled one on top of the other, flesh side 
 up. Piles should not be too high. As they grow in 
 height the slope at the edges increases until the top 
 layers will not hold the salt. After lying for a week 
 or so, according to the quantity of salt used, they are 
 ready to be taken up and shipped. The wool is pulled 
 off the skins and the slat is pickled to keep it in 
 merchantable condition, or else tanned immediately. 
 All grades of sheepskins are saved. Small lambs, 
 known as spring lambs, throw skins about the size of 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 49 
 
 an ordinary suitcase, but as the animal grows larger 
 the prefix "spring" is dropped and they become lambs 
 until the first clipping, when they are known as shear- 
 lings, along with the other shorn sheepskins. After 
 an animal has been shorn it becomes a sheep in stock 
 parlance. During the wool season, skins are graded 
 for heavy and light weights, the dividing line being at 
 12 pounds green weight. The lightweight skins usu- 
 ally bring about th^: same price throughout the sea- 
 son, providing the market shows no material change, 
 while the heavy skins become more valuable as the staple 
 of the wool lengthens. Some heavy skins weigh as 
 high as thirty pounds. When the shearing season 
 opens, some lots of siheep are sold to the killers imme- 
 dately afte r shearing, and the skins have very little 
 wool on them. They are known as clips and bring a 
 poor price, the slat representing about the only value 
 in them. Sheepskins are always sold at value on the 
 market, the different grades bearing no relation to each 
 other in price considerations. 
 
 Dry Hides. 
 
 Domestic dry hides are sun or shade dried hides 
 of all weights, cows and steers. They are graded into 
 heavies over 16 pounds ; trimmed, heads and shanks off, 
 and untrimmed the full hide and lights under 16 
 pounds. Skins are sorted under 6 pounds. The sec- 
 onds sometimes go at one cent reduction, but a flat 
 price is usually paid for both grades. Untrimmed 
 stock sells at a cent under the trimmed rate. Glues 
 and dry salted stock are sold at value. Fallen hides 
 in the above selections generally sell at about three 
 cents under the trimmed heavyweight price, according 
 to the condition of the market. The best hides are 
 taken off by butchers from cattle they slaughter. 
 These are called flint-dried, while murrain hides are 
 known as fallen stock. 
 
50 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION— PACKER HIDES. 
 
 Outside Hide Deliveries. 
 
 All of the packers have packing plants at outside 
 points and, therefore, have hides to sell at these places. 
 In order to simplify the buying and at the same time 
 allow a wider field of operations, all hides sold are 
 moved as if sold direct from Chicago. The freight on 
 every car of hides from an outside point is paid by the 
 packer to Chicago, should they go through this mar- 
 ket, or the freight is equalized for eastern shipment. 
 Equalized freight means that the difference in rate 
 between the point of origin and the Chicago rate to 
 destination is paid by the packer. In former years 
 all trades were made with Chicago freight allowed 
 from outside points. Some tanners were able to ob- 
 tain an advantage until the equalized basis was in- 
 stituted. This latter method of selling hides is uni- 
 versal now. Every tanner who buys packer hides at 
 no matter what point pays freight from Chicago only. 
 
 Hide Market Barometers. 
 
 Branded cows and extreme light Texas steers usu- 
 ally bring about the same price, with the steers some- 
 times at Y^z premium, owing to a better demand. 
 Butt-branded steers follow native steer prices up and 
 down throughout the summer months, the native pe- 
 riod, but more closely trail the Colorado fluctuations 
 in the winter, when sole leather tanners are the prin- 
 cipal buyers. Colorado steers take their cue from 
 light Texas steer prices. Native cows more closely 
 follow the native steers variations and country buff 
 prices in the light weights. Heavy native cows and 
 bulls are ruled principally by the law of supply and 
 demand, which is also the monitor in the other selec- 
 tions, all other rules to the contrary notwithstanding. 
 When certain leathers are in feverish demand, the 
 hides from which they are made rise in price, but the 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 51 
 
 above guides have been rather closely followed in 
 recent years. 
 
 Native and Branded Seasons. 
 
 Branded and native cattle come to the stock yards 
 in certain seasons. The native cattle are received in 
 large numbers in the winter months, especially steers 
 from the feeding stations. Native cows are received 
 largely in the winter, when they throw heavy hides 
 principally owing to the long hair and dirt in it, while 
 the light hides predominate in the summer run on 
 account of the short hair and clean condition of the 
 hide. Branded cattle are received mostly in the sum- 
 mer and fall, principally the latter period. Range 
 cattle, after being fed on grass through the summer, 
 are shipped in as fast as fit, and in the fall, up to the 
 first heavy snow, come in large numbers. The first 
 severe storm on the ranges stops the run automatic- 
 ally. Butt-branded steers come in the winter months, 
 along- with the fed native steers, as they are on this 
 order of cattle. Colorado and Texas steers and 
 branded cows constitute the run of branded cattle. 
 
 Summer Hides. 
 
 Summer hides are more desirable, owing to their 
 short hair and consequent reduction in moisture-car- 
 rying capabilities, and also to their uniform plump- 
 ness, the animal strength going more largely to hide- 
 making than hair. In the winter the animal puts on 
 hair at the expense of the hide substance. The hide 
 itself loses its plumpness and becomes flabby to the 
 feel, the long hair also carrying moisture and ma- 
 nure, on which proper allowance is difficult to agree 
 upon. Cattle hair brings a poor price compared with 
 the cost of it on the hide, and, therefore, long-haired 
 hides are studiously avoided by most tanners. There 
 are certain kinds of leathers requiring choice hides, 
 which qualifications winter hides do not fill. The 
 
52 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 long-haired stock is generally turned into sole leather 
 in the very grubby periods, like the February and 
 March killings. The shrinkage on winter hides in 
 transit is much greater than on stock of summer 
 slaughter. 
 
 Average Shrinkage. 
 
 Packer hides are noted for their almost perfect 
 flaying, the percentage of seconds ranging from half 
 of one per cent to three per cent on ordinary-sized 
 packs. The average shrinkage on summer green hides 
 is about eighteen per cent, and on winter haired stock, 
 thirteen per cent. However, there is one of the "big 
 six" packers who builds his packs in such a manner 
 that at least twenty-one per cent of the green weight 
 is lost in curing in the summer. Shrinkages as low as 
 eight per cent have been obtained with particularly 
 dry green hides put in special packs and delivered 
 with normal tare under favorable conditions. An aver- 
 age yearly shrinkage is about fifteen to sixteen per 
 cent. 
 
 Cash and Credit. 
 
 All grades and classes of hides are cash commodities 
 and subject to sight draft. This is especially so in the 
 packer market. Some country dealers allow credit of 
 thirty to ninety days to special customers. This prac- 
 tice has become more prevalent of late years. Some 
 of the tanners are well able to pay cash for their raw 
 material, but are endeavoring to buy hides on the 
 same basis as leather is sold, so that they will not have 
 such large amounts of capital tied up in raw stock. 
 
 After hides are weighed in the packers' cellars, the 
 weight sheets are sent to the auditing office, where 
 they are figured up and sight draft with bill of lading 
 attached put through the regular banking channels. 
 Ihis is also done in the country deliveries when the 
 terms are cash. When credit is given, a due bill or 
 note is taken from the buyer. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 53 
 
 Car Lots and Less Than Car Lots. 
 
 Cattle hides and calfskins are scheduled for freight 
 purposes as third class, when shipped by local freight, 
 and as fifth class in carloads. The minimum weight 
 on carloads from the West into Chicago is 30,000 
 pounds; from the Northwest, 26,000 pounds, and from 
 Chicago east, 36,000 pounds are required to obtain the 
 carload rate. The number of hides considered neces- 
 sary to make up a carload vary according to the av- 
 erage weights. Packer light native and branded cows 
 are generally shipped a thousand in a car, while six 
 hundred heavy Texas steers are required to make car 
 weight. Five hundred native bulls of heavy average 
 are a carload. 
 
 There are no imperative rules governing the number 
 of the various grades of hides required to make car- 
 load sales of hides. The quantity is usually specifically 
 stated in addition to the fact that a car is sold. For 
 instance, "A," a packer, sells to "B," a tanner, a carload 
 of butt-branded steers. The confirmation usually 
 states that "one car, 600 hides," is booked to the buyer 
 with usual terms and conditions. The same condition 
 exists in the country market ; the number of hides 
 should be specified when buying and selling carload 
 lots alone. Six hundred heavy steers in the country 
 market are supposed to make car weight, the same 
 number of heavy cows, eight hundred buffs, one thou- 
 sand extremes or fifteen hundred kip skins. From 
 three to five thousand calfskins are loaded into a car, 
 according to the season of the year and average weight 
 of the skins sold. 
 
 History of Hide Tariffs. 
 
 An examination of all the revenue bills of the United 
 States shows that hides and skins were admitted free 
 of duty for seventy-eight years and were dutiable at 
 various rates and for different periods, amounting in 
 all to about thirty years prior to the enactment of the 
 
54 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Dingley law in 1897. Hides and skins were first taxed 
 August 30, 1842, the object of the bill being to in- 
 crease the revenues. The vetoes of President Tyler of 
 two tariff bills had caused a treasury deficit, and hides 
 and skins were taxed five per cent ad valorem. By 
 the act of March 3, 1857, the tariff was reduced to four 
 per cent. The act of March 2, 1861, put the rate back 
 to five per cent and it so remained until the act of 
 August 5, 1861, when almost everything was taxed to 
 produce revenue to carry on the civil war, and the 
 duty on hides and skins was increased to ten per cent. 
 This duty remained in force until the act of June 6, 
 1872, when hides and skins were put upon the free list, 
 where they remained undisturbed in any of the general 
 tariff revisions until the Dingley bill, which taxed 
 hides of cattle fifteen per cent, became a law June 24, 
 
 1897. 
 
 It will be seen from this brief history that hides 
 prior to 1897 were free except during short periods 
 when the government needed revenue, and that the 
 tax was never more than ten per cent and was always 
 made to apply to all descriptions of hides and skins. 
 The Dingley law, therefore, was a new departure in 
 hide tariffs which proved burdensome and oppressive 
 in its operation. It made the duty five per cent more 
 than it had ever been before and taxed cattle hides 
 only, leaving all other kinds of hides and all descrip- 
 tions of skins on the free list. 
 
 The Payne bill became a law August 5, 1909. It 
 restored cattle hides to the free list which had been 
 dutiable since 1897. 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS B5 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION— COUNTRY HIDES. 
 
 General Market Information. 
 
 It would be well for the country collectors to con- 
 sider closely the deliveries which Chicago dealers are 
 compelled to give purchasing tanners in order to move 
 less desirable grades of hides and also the close scru- 
 tiny which each hide bears and the attention given 
 by tanners to proper condition on regular lots. Hides 
 delivered to tanners from prominent dealers" in Chi- 
 cago and other centers are practically in as good con- 
 dition as packer hides, except that they are resalted 
 and not a bright color on the flesh. 
 
 Local operators who buy hides from first collectors 
 are compelled to accept purchases under trying con- 
 ditions if the market is in their favor, but are treated 
 royally and urged to accept more hides than the pur- 
 chase calls for if the market declines before delivery 
 and is in the seller's favor. Dealers endeavor to keep 
 their trade as much as posible and put up with a good 
 many of these inconveniences to do it. City dealers 
 contend with many small irritations in accumulating 
 stocks of hides which are delivered in a standard 
 manner to tanners at various graded prices. 
 
 Reporting the Markets. 
 
 The trade papers, while serving a good purpose, are 
 sometimes responsible for some of the inconvenience 
 suffered by dealers. Faulty and incorrect informa- 
 tion is published occasionally by some reporting 
 agencies, or enlightening details are hidden when 
 transactions are published which have an unnatural 
 effect upon values. Space is so limited in sheets re- 
 porting conditions daily that a good deal of qualifying 
 data must be omitted, under the impression that what 
 is not published is understood by the subscribers. For 
 instance, kip skins are usually quoted in a wide range 
 during the winter months, the inside figure being the 
 
56 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 market price for the poorer qualities and the outside 
 figure for the best grades, with intermediate qualities 
 at proportionate values. Other selections are quoted 
 in the same way. When the range is about a quarter 
 or a half a cent, the higher price is usually the one 
 asked for seasonable stock and the inside figure the bid 
 of tanners, the last figure paid or the ruling nominal 
 market. 
 
 There also seems to be an impression among some of 
 the subscribers to daily hide market reports that 
 when a sale is quoted at a price — for instance, ioj^c 
 for buffs running fifty per cent seconds — a flat price 
 is meant. This is incorrect. The idea sought to be 
 conveyed is that there was a sale at io^c, with half 
 of the lot seconds at the usual one-cent discount. Up- 
 to-date reporting agencies always quote the highest 
 grade in the various selections such as number one 
 hides or heavy hides, without qualifying them, while 
 subsidiary grades and selections are properly qualified 
 when quoted. Many matters are mentioned in these 
 reports which are entirely clear to the market-wise, but 
 somewhat vague to the inexperienced reader. To this 
 end it would be well for subscribers to write for spe- 
 cific information governing points in doubt. The in- 
 formation would be cheerfully given and at the same 
 time would furnish an index which would be closely 
 watched in the future, thereby benefiting the quality 
 of the service rendered to subscribers. 
 
 Buying Hides Flat. 
 
 With the stiff competition for hides among buyers 
 from first collectors and butchers, it has become some- 
 what of a custom to buy hides on a flat basis in the 
 country. That is, the numbers one and two hides are 
 bought without selection, at the same price. Dealers 
 many times have organized to suppress this custom, 
 but have^ always been unsuccessful. This method of 
 buying hides puts a premium upon poor flaying, as the 
 farmer or butcher who kills the animal knows that all 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SrvINS 57 
 
 the hides will sell at an equal price, whether ones or 
 twos. However, buyers endeavor to buy hides on a 
 relative selected basis, by keeping track of the numbers 
 one and two hides in the previous lots. The buyer 
 who has purchased similar lots before of course has 
 the advantage of knowing about how the hides will 
 run, but buyers with no previous experience will prob- 
 ably pay dearly for their first purchases. This method of 
 buying hides is unsatisfactory to both dealers and first 
 collectors. Dealers are willing and even anxious to 
 buy hides on a selected basis, but butchers decline to 
 do business in this manner, and the competition for 
 hides compels a continuance of the old faulty system. 
 
 Bundle Condition. 
 
 Country hides are sometimes delivered in bundle 
 condition. This is largely true of country branded 
 hides, but the native selections are sometimes deliv- 
 ered in this manner. Bundle condition means that the 
 hides were not placed in packs for wetting and re- 
 salting, but are delivered in the original manner as 
 received from the country collecting agencies. Bundled 
 hides are usually in dry condition and bring a 
 premium over hides which have been repacked and 
 treated in the usual manner. A small tare is allowed 
 on bundled hides. 
 
 Influence of the Seasons, Upon Packer and 
 Country Hides. 
 
 The spread or difference in price between packer 
 and country hides, on account of the superior quality 
 of the former, varies with the seasons of the year and 
 the grades of hides in demand for certain kinds of 
 leathers. For purposes of comparison, country buff 
 hides may be considered with packer light native cow 
 rates. In the summer time, when hides are short- 
 haired, the normal spread between the prices of these 
 two selections is a cent to a cent and a half per pound, 
 while in the winter the difference is about two to two 
 
68 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 and a half cents per pound. Of course, this is not in- 
 variably followed. Existing conditions of demand have 
 an influence upon prices. There are times when a 
 disparity of over three cents a pound exists between 
 
 The accompany 
 when bundling. Th 
 
 I 
 
 ing cut shows the correct way to fold hides 
 row in the head and fold the belly of the hide 
 in, laying the shanks back on the belly. Repeat on the other side 
 and then fold together, as shown by the dotted lines. After this 
 has been done roll the hide into a bundle in three folds. Ruled 
 lines on the cut denote hair side. Hides may be rolled either flesh 
 or hair side out. 
 
 these selections. Another fact is that packer hides are 
 sold with the calendar month of slaughter designated. 
 Country hides, however, are not disposed of in this 
 way. These hides are usually three months from date 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 59 
 
 of slaughter in getting to the primary market. Long- 
 haired country hides continue coming to the Chicago 
 market well into the summer. On the other hand, 
 short-haired hides are received up to and beyond the 
 Christmas holidays. In the spring and early summer, 
 when packer hides are advancing in value, country 
 stock may be stationary or even declining. When 
 packer hides are deteriorating in condition, country 
 buffs may bring almost as much as packer light native 
 cows, owing to the country hides being prime in 
 quality. 
 
 Country Selections and Deliveries. 
 
 Country hides under normal conditions, when re- 
 ceived in the dealers' warehouses, are opened and 
 sorted into the various grades and selections and piled 
 in an out-of-the-way place until sold. Then the selec- 
 tion disposed of is put in a regular pack, being liberally 
 sprinkled with water to add weight and make the hides 
 supple and uniform in condition. 
 
 After lying in pack for a day or so, the hides are 
 taken up out of pack and placed in banks. Two men 
 take each hide, one at the head and the other at the 
 tail, folded in the middle, hair side out, and lay them 
 on the floor, piling one on top of the other until there 
 are about a hundred and fifty to two hundred hides in 
 the bank, according to the grade of hides sold. Addi- 
 tional banks are built until enough hides are banked 
 for the next day's work. The banks are usually started 
 late in the afternoon and at the commencement of 
 work the following morning are ready to be taken up. 
 They are spread out on the floor, after shaking over a 
 horse, one at a time, flesh and hair side up, alternately, 
 and selected for ones and twos, the different grades 
 being rolled up, hair and flesh side out, as to selection. 
 
 About two to three days are required to deliver a car 
 of country extremes, buffs or heavy hides. The hides 
 are weighed after sorting and then loaded into cars 
 to be shipped to purchasers' plants. Calf and kip skins 
 
60 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 are usually banked in large, round piles or over barrels. 
 Sometimes as many as two thousand skins are banked 
 in the large piles, while the barrels will not hold many 
 more than two hundred. After being banked over 
 night the skins are selected. Each skin is examined 
 and thrown in its respective pile, as to grades and se- 
 lections, and then rolled up in bundles. Kip skins are 
 put three in a bundle and calfskins five in a bundle. 
 Deacons and light calf are rolled up with as many 
 skins as can comfortably be tied up, as they are sold 
 by the piece and have no tare allowance. 
 
 The usual tare in the country market is two pounds 
 on bulls, a pound to a pound and a half on buffs and 
 heavy hides, a pound on extremes and a pound to a 
 pound and a half a bundle on calf and kip skins. There 
 is no tare on horsehides or hogskins, these being sold 
 by the piece. 
 
 Southern Hides and Cattle Ticks. 
 
 Cattle in the southern states of America are af- 
 flicted with cattle ticks, which fasten upon the hide of 
 the animal and subsist upon its blood. The ticks make 
 small holes in the hides, which cause the leather to 
 appear peppered with black marks. It is for this rea- 
 son, principally, that tanners are averse to using south- 
 ern hides in the native varieties. Southern hides are 
 selected for weights the same as in the Chicago coun- 
 try hide market, but all lots are sold flat as to price 
 of numbers one and two hides. Their value varies as 
 to the section from which they originate, also as to 
 the quality of the flaying and condition of deliveries. 
 These hides originate principally in the territory 
 bounded by the Ohio and Mississippi rivers, being of 
 the least value in the southeastern portion of the 
 United States. Southern hides from the northern sec- 
 tions, along the Ohio River, are the most valuable, as 
 they are less affected by ticks. 
 
 The North American fever tick ("margaropus annu- 
 latus say") is the transmitter of splenetic or Texas cattle 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 61 
 
 fever. It is estimated that this pest causes a direct loss 
 of $40,000,000 a year in the United States. The indirect 
 loss no one can compute. Two peculiarities of this 
 tick should render its control comparatively easy. It 
 is practically restricted to cattle as a host, and it does 
 not fall to the ground for the purpose of moulting. 
 Its failure to exist on other hosts renders it practical 
 to free areas of infestation in a comparatively short 
 time by the simple device of keeping the cattle out. 
 Likewise the dipping or greasing of cattle is a certain 
 and economical method of eradication. The agricul- 
 tural department of the United States government is 
 making efforts to instruct farmers, and commendable 
 progress has been made. 
 
 GENERAL INFORMATION— PACKER AND 
 COUNTRY HIDES. 
 
 Grubbing Dates on Hides. 
 
 The grubbing privilege on American packer hides 
 commences November 1 on Texas steers and branded 
 cows; December 1, on Colorado steers, and January 
 1 on all other grades of packer hides. Grubbing ceases 
 on May 31 on all selections. 
 
 Price Reductions on Kosher Hides. 
 
 All kosher-killed hides sell at y^z under the price 
 paid for stuck-throat stock, when included with regular 
 lots, with the exception of heavy cows, which go out 
 at y 2 c reduction in the packer market. When moved 
 alone, they are sold at value. Country kosher hides 
 generally go out at 25c allowance on each cut-throat 
 hide, when so stipulated in the contract. No reduc- 
 tion on packer kosher bulls. 
 
 Measurements of Spready Hides. 
 
 Spready hides are measured across the shoulders just 
 behind the brisket. Spready native steers measure six 
 
62 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 feet six inches; kosher, spready native steers, six feet 
 eight inches; spready cows, six feet four inches; 
 spready country cows as low as six feet two inches; 
 spready bulls, six feet. 
 
 Hide Selections for Various Leathers. 
 
 Sole leather can be made from all weights of hides, 
 according to weight of leather desired ; usually made 
 from branded hides, although native cows and steers 
 are used when prices are right, usually in the grubby 
 season. Harness leather is usually made from native 
 cows and steers with some butt-branded steers and 
 light bulls utilized occasionally. Upper leather is 
 usually made from light hides under fifty pounds. 
 Kip and calf skins are tanned whole, while heavier 
 weights are split into sides. Patent leather is gen- 
 erally made from extreme light hides of clear grain. 
 Lace leather is made from extreme light hides. Fancy, 
 strap and bag leathers require cow hides, which are 
 split into various thicknesses and weights. Leather 
 belting is usually made from native steers, the butts 
 only being used for high-grade belts. Furniture and 
 carriage leather, from spready hides. 
 
 Rules on Tare. 
 
 Sweep tare requires the sweeping of ten hides, the 
 difference in the before and after sweeping weights 
 being taken as the tare on the car in question. For 
 instance, ten hides before shipping weigh 680 pounds 
 and after sweeping 660 pounds; the difference, 20 
 pounds, is the tare allowance; 20 pounds on ten hides, 
 or two pounds a bundle. More usually the tare al- 
 lowance is agreed upon between buyer and seller when 
 hides are being taken up, when the actual condition of 
 the hides can be observed. 
 
 Grubs in Hides. 
 
 Grubs or warbles which infest American hides 
 throughout the winter cause great damage. This is 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKxNS 63 
 
 largely due to erroneous impressions of cattle men re- 
 garding- the operations of the flys and grubs. The fly 
 (Hypoderma Lineta, called in England Hypoderma 
 Bo vis) attaches its eggs by a sticky substance to the 
 hair on the flanks and heels of the cattle. The animal 
 licks the eggs off and many of them are swallowed. 
 The heat of the body hatches the eggs. The resulting 
 grub works its way through the animal tissues slowly, 
 usually breaking through the weasand. By early win- 
 ter the grub is underneath the hide at the middle of 
 the back and ready to emerge in the spring, at which 
 time they emerge. Cattle and hide men erroneously 
 continue under the impressions that the fly deposits its 
 egg in the hide of the animal at the center of the back 
 and that the larvae lie dormant until spring. Hide 
 men will agree that when the grubs first show in the 
 hides in early winter, they are noticeable, but that it 
 is impossible to punch the hole through with the 
 skewer, showing that the grub works its way to the 
 hide from the inside of the animal. 
 
 The flies infest the pastures in dry, warm weather. 
 They create no damage in shaded pastures or those 
 with abundant water for the cattle to wade and lie in. 
 Damp, cool summers are fatal to these flies. In dry 
 seasons their destruction is extremely difficult, as it is 
 only in the larval stage that they can be killed. In the 
 early spring, when the grubs are ready to emerge, they 
 can be extracted by a slight pressure with the thumbs 
 and then killed in a poison solution. In other coun- 
 tries, where these pests are much more prevalent, this 
 subject is receiving serious consideration from trade 
 organizations and by the respective governments. 
 
 Small Country Packer Hides. 
 
 The United States Government has instituted a rig- 
 orous system of inspection and control of the meat 
 packing industry. This has resulted in numerous 
 small packing plants springing up throughout the 
 many states of the Union where formerly severe com- 
 
64 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 petition prohibited their establishment. These small 
 plants produce hides of good pattern, well taken off 
 and cured. Many of these small packers take the hides 
 off as carefully as the more prominent killers, and 
 the prices they realize are generally well within the 
 range of the big packer hides, considering that not as 
 many sorts, selections and privileges are given. The 
 take-off and cure of some of the smaller packers can be 
 improved upon. One of the flagrant errors is in not 
 splitting the ears of the hides. When the ears are not 
 split, humps are made in the packs and the salt does 
 not adhere to these spots. Hides in such packs, if left 
 any length of time are liable to show hair-slipped spots. 
 The remedy is so simple and so little extra labor is 
 required, that it must be from lack of knowledge that 
 the practice is continued. One cut through the center 
 of the cartilage of the ear is sufficient to make it lie 
 reasonably flat, while two cuts, judiciously made, will 
 avoid all danger. Care should be taken in making the 
 cuts to avoid damaging the hide surface of the neck 
 with the blade of the knife. Another prevalent mis- 
 take is leaving the duclaws on the shanks. One cut 
 when the feet and legs are being skinned is sufficient 
 to remove a duclaw, and aside from the damage to the 
 knife edge, which can be remedied with a few rubs on 
 the steel, nothing is lost by removing them. The eight 
 duclaws on each bullock will not weigh a quarter of a 
 pound, so there is no money to be gained by leaving 
 them on. The tanners prefer hides with ears split and 
 duclaws off. Killers who perform these inexpensive 
 favors have a strong talking point when submitting 
 their offerings to buyers. See cut on page 73. 
 
 Suggested Reforms in the Hide Trade. 
 
 The tanners of the United States through their na- 
 tional associations have endeavored to rectify the 
 fixed reduction on the second grade of hides. It is the 
 custom in Europe to purchase all second grade hides 
 at a percentage reduction, the fixed rule being ten 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 65 
 
 per cent less than the rate paid for number one hides. 
 Thus if number one hides bring fifteen cents a pound, 
 the seconds are included at a cent and a half less or 
 thirteen and one-half cents a pound. In America it 
 has been the custom to include all second grade hides 
 at one cent a pound reduction. This was inaugurated 
 many years ago when hides were selling at under ten 
 cents a pound. Within recent years, however, since 
 the scarcity of cattle has become a factor in the tan- 
 ning industry the cent differential on seconds is de- 
 clared to be out of line with the foreign markets, where 
 it is possible to obtain a percentage discount on all 
 second grade hides. American hides, within recent 
 years, have averaged between eleven and fifteen cents 
 a pound, in some instances certain selections touching 
 twenty cents a pound. Tanners are agitating to obtain 
 some concession in this matter. 
 
 Prominent packers and hide dealers threaten to in- 
 augurate the old "B" selection on hides should tan- 
 ners insist upon a percentage basis for seconds In 
 this event almost every second grade packer hide 
 would be rut into the "B" class, as they are gen- 
 erally only damaged on one side. Thus if seconds 
 go at a ten per cent reduction the "B" selection would 
 be sold at a five per cent discount. To illustrate: with 
 the first grade of hides at fifteen cents a pound, the 
 "B" grade would bring fourteen and a quarter cents 
 a pound and the seconds thirteen and a half cents a 
 pound. Accepting this view of the case tanners would 
 pay slightly more for damaged hides than under the 
 present system of purchasing. 
 
 Arbitrary Grubbing Dates. 
 
 Tanners are endeavoring to regulate the grubbing 
 periods. The pronounced scarcity of cattle in propor- 
 tion to the per capita consumption of leather within 
 recent years has changed conditions in the raw mate- 
 rial markets. Formerly it was usual for prominent 
 killers to enter the winter season with practically all 
 
66 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of the previous winter's hides unsold. Tanners, under 
 these conditions, were enabled to purchase the hides of 
 poor quality strictly on their merits, according to per- 
 centage of grubs in the months on which no grubbing 
 was allowed and to insist upon large credits for ma- 
 nure and tare. Packers, within recent years, owing to 
 the scarcity of hides have kept closely sold up and 
 ahead on their slaughter. Tanners were forced to 
 take grubby hides on which no grubbing was allowed 
 at full prices. To rectify this, through their associa- 
 tions they have endeavored to institute reforms. Texas 
 steers and branded cows are grubbed from November 
 i, Colorado steers from December i, and all other se- 
 lections but bulls from January i. In all cases the 
 privilege ceases on the first of June. Grubs noticed 
 early in the Southern markets, due to warm weather 
 early in the year, leave much sooner than in the North- 
 ern sections. Northern hides do not show grubby as 
 early as Southern stock and the pests damage the 
 hides for at least a month later than in the Texas se- 
 lection. Tanners' desires in the regulation of this evil 
 are varied. Some hold that the grubbing dates should 
 be graduated as to the killing points, the same dates to 
 remain in force throughout the middle sections of the 
 United States. Others insist that the period of grub- 
 bing should be lengthened two months, one month be- 
 fore and one month after the present dates. Others 
 insist that hides should be grubbed every month in the 
 year, the same as in country hides, one grub to con- 
 stitute a second grade. Under the present system 
 twenty hides from every car taken up and shipped are 
 scrutinized. This was instituted in the interest of 
 speed and economy, as the clear hide is damaged with 
 even one grub. Every hide in the twenty selected for 
 grubbing in which five grubs are found is a second 
 and from the number found the percentage of dam- 
 aged hides in the car in question is ascertained. Thus 
 if ten hides have five grubs in them, fifty per cent of 
 the hides, or half the billing weight, is figured at a 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 67 
 
 cent a pound less. Killers insist that grubby hides 
 are on the order of the "B" grade, as the grubs are 
 only found in the center of the back and as the hide 
 is split the damage is greatly minimized. The grub- 
 bing dates and percentage reduction on seconds prom- 
 ised to be a long drawn out affair, with the killers in 
 a position to insist upon the retention of the present 
 rules from the fact that cattle are not being killed in 
 sufficient quantities to keep pace with the demands for 
 leather. 
 
 The Brokerage System. 
 
 Hides are a cash commodity and are in such con- 
 dition that claims growing out of condition, selection, 
 delivery, etc., are extremely hard to adjudicate. Their 
 value is so great that it is expedient for purchasers 
 to use every precaution against loss. Tanners whose 
 business is not large enough to employ resident repre- 
 sentatives at the hide centers, find it advantageous 
 to buy raw material through reliable brokers. The 
 larger tanning concerns maintain offices and employ 
 experts to watch market conditions and supply the 
 tanneries with stock. Smaller tanners, who endeavor 
 to purchase advantageously, employ brokers. Some 
 of the smaller tanners think it profitable to purchase 
 direct from the slaughterers, and the killers endeavor 
 to encourage this class of buying. 
 
 The brokerage system is undoubtedly profitable to 
 tanners, as is evidenced by the volume of sales made 
 under the system. Hide brokers are traders thor- 
 oughly familiar with the killers and the market. 
 Weekly market letters to clients contain reviews of 
 recent trading, recount the offerings of the various 
 packers and forecast the probable trend of the market. 
 Close association with buyers and sellers and daily 
 activity in the market make the broker an expert. 
 Clients place their orders with him and are notified 
 of their acceptance. 
 
 The closing dates of the various packs purchased 
 are ascertained, and when they have lain in salt a 
 
68 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 sufficient length of time, are taken up. The broker 
 employs an inspector in this department, as high- 
 priced hides with proper delivery are generally cheap. 
 The broker's receiver sees that the proper classes of 
 hides are given, all salt swept off, tag ends trimmed, 
 firsts and seconds properly rolled and tied, and an 
 equitable grubbing and tare allowance given. Item- 
 ized weights of every truckload of hides are taken 
 and the car is properly sealed, routed and billed. The 
 smaller tanner who deals direct with the killers un- 
 doubtedly gets good service, but it would seem from 
 the number of firms doing a brokerage business in 
 hides that their limited remuneration is saved many 
 times over to tanners who deal with them. 
 
 Packer Hide Cellar Test. 
 
 Observations covering a period of years at the older 
 points of slaughter in the middle West and on the 
 Missouri River have furnished the following compila- 
 tion of figures, which is self-explanatory. In recent 
 years a lighter weight class of cattle is being killed, 
 which would make a slight difference in the green and 
 cured weights. The appended figures were compiled 
 on all classes and grades of hides, except bulls, both 
 native and branded. 
 
 Average weight green, 71 lbs. 
 
 Average weight cured, 60 lbs. 
 
 Space required in pack, 1.33 cu. ft. 
 
 Weight per cu. ft. cured, including salt, 72 lbs. 
 
 Average height of pack, y/ 2 ft. 
 
 Salt used in curing, 38 lbs. 
 
 Time required to cure, 22 days. 
 
 Average shrink, 16 per cent. 
 
 Average cost of handling, green, 4c. 
 
 Average cost of handling, cured, 4c. 
 
 Building Shingled Packs. 
 
 In certain of the Eastern hide markets in former 
 years it was the custom of some of the hide salters to 
 
69 
 
 DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 build what were called shingled packs. The hides 
 were lapped over one another like wooden shingles are 
 laid. Salt was first scattered on the floor selected for 
 the pack and one hide was spread hair side down and 
 salted with regular salt. Then another hide was placed 
 on top of this one. About three-quarters of the hide 
 underneath was covered, subsequent hides being placed 
 alternately on each side of the pile, until the pack could 
 be built no higher. The pack when finished resembled 
 a hummock, the outside edges of the hides slanting- 
 down much in the same manner as sheepskins are salt- 
 ed in piles. Fine salt was usually used, as rock salt in 
 the coarser grades would not stick on the sloping sides 
 of the pile. The hides purged quickly, as there were 
 no retaining edges to hold pickle and were of a nice 
 bright color. Hides salted in this manner were of so 
 much better quality than ordinary packed stock that 
 a oreat premium had to be paid for them and tannery 
 results justified the added first cost. This manner 01 
 salting has become obsolete in recent years, as too 
 much°room was required to build the packs and not 
 enough killers would build packs in this manner to 
 warrant tanners specializing in this class of raw ma- 
 terial. Delivery of these hides was much the same as 
 at present, except that the tare allowance was much 
 smaller. 
 
 Frozen Hides. 
 
 Tn the northern sections of the United States and 
 all of Canada, during the winter months, frozen hides 
 are produced in large numbers because of the extreme 
 cold. Most of the country slaughtering establish- 
 ments of the small butchers are unheated and the 
 workmen who kill and skin the cattle devote most 
 of the time to the care of the beef while it is warm. 
 The hides, therefore, receive but scant attention until 
 the more 'important work is completed. When the 
 butchers turn to the hides, the cold has already acted 
 upon them and some are frozen and others nearly so. 
 Freezing does not injure a hide. The butchers roll 
 
70 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 them in bundles and hold them until the arrival of 
 the hide buyers. Frozen hides usually do not have 
 any salt put on them, although some butchers do 
 place some in the bundles. The salt does not have 
 time to take action before the hide becomes frozen. 
 Unscrupulous butchers sometimes place feet, bricks, 
 stones or other refuse within the bundles, knowing 
 that the hides cannot be examined until thawed out, 
 when there is less chance that the deception will be 
 discovered, because of their mixture with other lots 
 of frozen hides. 
 
 The thawing of frozen hides is accomplished by 
 placing them close to a stove, but care must be taken 
 that they are not placed too close to the fire, as they 
 will scorch and the burned part will not tan. Some 
 of the larger Chicago hide dealers have specially-con- 
 structed rooms in which the frozen hides are placed, 
 no hide touching another, and steam run through coils 
 to raise the temperature of the room. The hides are 
 opened and turned as the thrawing proceeds. After 
 thawing, the hides return to the green state, are placed 
 in packs to cure and are handled the same as other 
 country hides. 
 
 In collecting these frozen hides from the country 
 butchers, scale weights are taken and an allowance 
 made for shrinkage. The allowance for this purpose 
 is not fixed by any agreed rule, each buyer making the 
 best terms possible. Green hides during the winter 
 months usually shrink about an average of 12 per 
 cent. An allowance of 12 per cent would, therefore, 
 not be out of line, but it is seldom that better than 
 4 to 8 per cent is granted by the butchers when sell- 
 ing the hides. 
 
 Horsehides. 
 
 Several conditions are responsible for the difference 
 in quality of summer and winter horsehides. Sum- 
 mer lots contain a great number of hides taken from 
 animals which have died from exhaustion. Usually 
 they are not skinned promptly and lie in the sun 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 71 
 
 sometimes several days before being attended to. De- 
 composition is going on all the time. The short hair 
 does not afford protection and dragged spots are 
 often noticeable. A summer horsehide is not as thick 
 or as tough as a winter one. Winter hides result 
 largely from accidental deaths, the cities furnishing 
 most of the hides in this season of the year. In con- 
 sequence, they are more frequently from large, healthy 
 animals. Slippery pavements cause the most of these 
 accidental deaths. The horses being in their prime 
 the hides are full of life, so to speak, and similar in 
 quality to the hides of cattle taken off in the slaughter- 
 ing plants. Winter horse hides have a greater thick- 
 ness than the summer ones and are much tougher. 
 Horses which die in the winter or have to be killed 
 due to serious accidents, do not suffer through de- 
 composition, owing to the cold retarding this condi- 
 tion. Winter and summer hides alike are bought by 
 the piece, but buyers pay as much as 50 cents more for 
 winter hides than summer ones. 
 
 Pulling and Pickling Sheepskins. 
 
 When the sheep and lambskins are taken off the ani- 
 mals by the killers, they are dropped down into a cool 
 cellar and spread out on the floor and allowed to lie 
 there several hours to permit the animal heat in the 
 skins to escape. After this leaching process is com- 
 pleted, the skins are placed in piles and salted. One 
 skin is placed on the bare floor and salted with fine 
 salt, and others are placed on top, each being salted 
 separately. The number of skins placed in these piles 
 is regulated largely by the seasons. In winter the 
 piles may contain as many as twenty-five to thirty- 
 five skins, while in the summer season, ten to fifteen 
 skins are salted in each pile. Where the cellars are 
 cooled artificially, the number of skins in each pile 
 remains about the same the year round, occasional 
 inspection being required so that signs of heating may 
 be detected. 
 
72 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 After lying in the salt for a week or so, the skins 
 are fully cured and are then ready to be taken out 
 and shipped to pulleries. During- the summer season 
 great care must be exercised in the selection of cars, 
 if shipment is likely to be delayed in transit, or if the 
 destination is far away. Sheepskins with the wool 
 on heat rapidly, and to avoid this, some pullers insist 
 upon cattle cars being used during the warm weather. 
 Others require the cars to be refrigerators and iced, 
 while others are content with having the side and end 
 doors slightly open and cleated. Some of the large 
 American meat packers have their own pulling es- 
 tablishments and do not perform the salting operation, 
 the skins being taken from the leaching floor direct to 
 the pullery in the green state to be further treated. 
 
 Salted skins when ready to be treated for pulling 
 are placed in vats and barrels containing fresh water. 
 They are allowed to remain in the fresh water from 
 twelve to twenty-four hours in order to remove the 
 salt. When they have become freshened, they are 
 ready to be put through the depilatory process. Green 
 skins direct from the leaching floors of the packing 
 houses are also ready for the depilatory. 
 
 The freshened skins and the green skins are painted 
 on the flesh side with a solution of sulphide of so- 
 dium. This solution loosens the wool. When the de- 
 pilatory has been painted on the skins, the flesh side 
 is folded together, either lengthwise or crosswise, 
 and placed in rows and piles to allow the depilatory 
 to take hold on the wool and release it. Other 
 methods are followed. Skins are sometimes hung 
 up in the hot room overnight, which causes the skins 
 to heat, allowing the wool to be slipped from the slat. 
 This is termed sweating. When painted skins have 
 been lying in the piles for a sufficient length of time, 
 from twelve to twenty-four hours, the wool is re- 
 moved by stripping it over a beam with special hand 
 tools. 
 
 The wool from the skins is then dried and sorted 
 
DOMESTIC HIDES AND SKINS 73 
 
 into the various grades and selections, sacked, and is 
 then ready for sale and shipment to the woolen mills. 
 The skins, or slats as they are termed in America, are 
 placed in a paddle-wheel vat to remove the depilatory, 
 limes being used for this purpose. Some pullers ad- 
 vocate immersion in the paddle-wheel vat for about 
 twenty-four hours, the skins then being placed in 
 still-liming vats, where they are allowed to soak from 
 five to seven days, which will effectually offset the 
 action of the sulphide of sodium. Other pullers only 
 put the slats in the still limes, without using the pad- 
 dle wheel, for a day, but the former process is con- 
 sidered to be the better method. 
 
 After the slats have been returned to the fresh 
 state, they are put through the beam house to be 
 fleshed. They are then placed in pickle vats to cure. 
 The pickle is made of a strong brine solution. After 
 being fully cured they are then placed in barrels and 
 the coopered barrels rilled with a fresh pickle. Tn this 
 condition they are shipped to sheepskin tanners, who 
 have to return them to the fresh state before they can 
 be tanned. Pickled skins will keep indefinitely with- 
 out sustaining any injury from decomposition. 
 
 Before the cattle feet are skinned, the dewclaws should be cut 
 off, the dotted lines in the accompanying diagram being fully 
 explanatory. Dewclaws cannot be made into leather and their 
 presence on the hides often causes humps in the packs on which 
 the salt will not lie, thereby causing hairslips. 
 
 Black Hides. 
 
 Black hides are sorted out in either the country or 
 packer market. The winter season is the period when 
 these hides are the most desirable, as they are wanted 
 
74 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 for robes and coats, for which purpose a long-haired 
 hide is desired. This selection sells, flat for number 
 one and two hides, practically all being grubby. They 
 are taken, cows and steers together, over 35 pounds, 
 although some coat tanners insist upon a heavier 
 weight average. 
 
 U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF STAT/ST/CS. 
 
 navftcs in smjcs nsp*eecNT Nu/ioot in tmocvanos 
 
 /».k» J—— 
 
 »« — 
 
 3?/ 
 
 
 ■—-—»« ^<-i* 7 ^ 
 
 9 R • IT"'5£ 
 
 CATTLE ~*\ A \»/--, 
 
 OTHER THAN MILCH COWS, JjtZ If' ' cV" 
 
 VCIMBER OF IN THOUSANDS V y^ 
 JANUARY t, /S/2. \i 
 
 UA/nCD STATES 
 
 \ szseo thousand 
 Cattlc. 
 
 J/S.DtyWfTAtENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUREAU OF S7MTIST/C&. 
 
 - ^fZpVACS IN STATCS /KftteSCNT NUM0UT IN THOUSANDS. 
 
 <" ON ntAMS ANDK4HSZ3) 
 
 NUMBER OF IN THOUSANDS 
 JANUARY /,I9I2. 
 
 'AIITCD STATCS 
 699D&USAAV 
 Milch Cows. 
 
ANTHRAX WITH SPECIAL REFER- 
 ENCE TO SUPPRESSION 
 
 By HENRY J. WASHBURN, U. S. Bureau of Animal 
 
 Industry 
 
 Nature and History of the Disease. 
 
 Anthrax may be defined as an infection due to spe- 
 cific bacilli which may attack every species of do- 
 mestic mammal, and for this reason may become one 
 of the greatest scourges of animal life. Man is by no 
 means immune, although, fortunately, the malady as 
 it appears in the human subject is usually less acute 
 than the form seen in cattle and sheep. This is prob- 
 ably due to the fact that the lesions in man occur most 
 frequently from infection of the surface of the hands or 
 feet, while cattle and sheep are more likely to swallow 
 the infectious germs with their food, thus giving the 
 germs immediate entrance into the animal system, 
 where they can exert their most harmful influence 
 without check or control. 
 
 Historians record an outbreak of anthrax in the 
 south of Europe in 1613 which started with the cattle 
 and spread from them to the populace, ultimately be- 
 coming a veritable scourge and causing the death of 
 more than 60,000 people. From this it is very evident 
 that the disease was far more virulent and far more in- 
 clined to attack all species of mammals during these 
 earlier centuries than it is at the present day. It is 
 even recorded that many deer and other varieties of 
 game animals were destroyed during these early pe- 
 riods. 
 
 At the present time cattle md sheep are the chief 
 sufferers, and the outbreaks appear to be limited to 
 
76 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 animals that run upon low, moist lands of a more or 
 less mucky character. In certain regions of the coun- 
 try where the land is mainly hilly, it has been found 
 that pastures exist in which there are wet, low places, 
 and that anthrax appears every season among the cat- 
 tle of these farms if they are allowed to pasture upon 
 these damp areas, but when good fences are built 
 around them and the stock is kept upon the dry por- 
 tions of the pasture the disease quickly disappears. 
 Should the fence become broken down, allowing cattle 
 to invade the infected area at certain seasons of the 
 year, they are very likely to contract anthrax. In fact, 
 certain plats of ground of this description have been 
 found to retain the germs of anthrax for several years, 
 a circumstance which has led many investigators to 
 declare that the anthrax organism has the capability of 
 growing from year to year without any artificial aid or 
 cultivation, if only planted upon suitable soil; that it 
 will sprout and grow, producing the plant and later the 
 seed, thus providing a perpetual source of infection for 
 the stock that may chance to be allowed to linger on 
 this area of growing anthrax plants. 
 
 Persistency of Infection. 
 
 Because of the remarkable . tenacity with which 
 certain plots of ground retained their infection, Pas- 
 teur in 1880 reached the conclusion that the carcasses 
 of animals dying from anthrax, even though deeply 
 buried, retained their many infectious organisms and 
 supplied them with such an amount of nutriment that 
 they continued to multiply for years, and in this way 
 produced an immense underground supply of virulent 
 anthrax organisms. He decided further that these liv- 
 ing infectious germs might be brought to the surface at 
 any time through the agency of earthworms, and that, 
 having reached the surface, they offered a very serious 
 menace to any live stock that might wander into that 
 vicinity. These suggestions were very generally ac- 
 cepted by the medical fraternity and for some years 
 
ANTHRAX 77 
 
 were taught as illustrative of the manner in which an- 
 thrax lurks in certain localities for years at a time ; but 
 later investigations by Kitasato have shown that spore 
 formation by anthrax bacilli is very incomplete at a 
 depth of 18 to 20 inches below the surface of the 
 ground, and at even greater depths must be greatly 
 suppressed by the presence of the products of decom- 
 position. Koch has further stated that earthworms are 
 incapable of taking up anthrax spores and bringing 
 them to the surface. 
 
 Nevertheless, the fact remains that certain circum- 
 scribed areas of ground remain dangerous to stock 
 from year to year. It is still an unsettled question 
 whether the anthrax germs grow and multiply each 
 season upon infected lands when conditions of mois- 
 ture and warmth become favorable or whether the 
 ground becomes infected at some certain time with 
 bacilli, from which spores develop, which remain near 
 the surface of the ground for years or until taken up by 
 some susceptible animal. 
 
 Careful experiments have proven that anthrax 
 bacilli flourish and retain their virulent properties in 
 stagnant water for at least twelve months, and certain 
 authorities claim to have observed them multiplying 
 with no other nourishment than that afforded them by 
 muddy water. 
 
 A look at some of the most seriously infected lo- 
 calities in this country will help us to understand the 
 conditions which tend to perpetuate the infection. 
 Upon the rice plantations of the South, where the fields 
 are annually submerged to favor the starting of the rice 
 plants, many of the animals used in the cultivation of 
 the crops contract anthrax and die as a result if driven 
 over the infected lands after the water has subsided 
 and a few days of hot weather have intervened. 
 
 Danger in Tannery Effluent. 
 
 Where tanneries are located upon or near to streams 
 there is great danger that anthrax will be brought to 
 
78 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 them upon hides and then be scattered over the low 
 lands lying downstream from the point where the tan- 
 ning process is carried on. This state of affairs exists 
 especially near to those tanneries which work upon 
 goat or sheep pelts from foreign countries. Infection 
 in the form of spores adheres to these hides so per- 
 sistently that ordinary fumigation fails to destroy it, 
 and repeated outbreaks of the disease occur wherever 
 such skins are unpacked and manufactured into leath- 
 er. In making mention of this danger Professor Law 
 writes : 
 
 "Since 1892 anthrax has prevailed along the banks 
 of the Delaware River for a distance of 40 miles in 
 New Jersey and Delaware, destroying from 70 to 80 
 per cent of the farm stock. The great morocco indus- 
 try on this river draws infected hides from India, 
 China, Russia, Africa, and South America, and the 
 spores are carried and distributed by the hides." 
 
 Delafond studied the vitality of anthrax bacilli in 
 i860. He placed some blood from a sheep dead of 
 anthrax in a glass container to which free access of air 
 was granted. This was kept in a cool place at a tem- 
 perature ranging variously from 45 degrees to 60 de- 
 grees F. (10 degrees to 15 degrees C). When exam- 
 ined at the end of the fourth day it was found that the 
 length of the filaments was increased, but that their di- 
 ameter had remained unchanged. After eight to ten 
 days their length was four or five times as great as 
 when first brought under observation, thus proving 
 that a veritable growth of the bacillus had taken place 
 outside of the animal body and without the presence of 
 animal heat. 
 
 In a letter from China to the London Lancet we 
 read: 
 
 "The disease which has been destroying cattle 
 throughout this district continues its ravages, though 
 with diminished virulence, probably because there is 
 now a scarcity of susceptible cattle. The mortality has 
 varied from 50 to 75 per cent of the infected animals. 
 
ANTHRAX 79 
 
 To determine the extent of the disease I made inquiry 
 as to the number of hides exported during the first 
 three months of this year. They say that more than 
 260,000 left Peking - , and that half a million would not 
 be too high an estimate for the whole district. As no 
 cattle are being slaughtered, this represents, approx- 
 imately, the loss of cattle from the plague. 
 
 "The foreign firms that export hides, wool, bris- 
 tles ,and hair are in the hands of Chinese middlemen 
 who roam about the interior buying here and there 
 from the agricultural classes. I have been over some 
 of the factories in Tientsin and have observed the steps 
 they take to clean the stuff before its export. Bristles 
 and hair are thoroughly well boiled in soda solution, 
 wool is roughly carded and shaken free of as much 
 dust as possible by machinery, and hides are sorted 
 out and packed with naphthaline. The exporters claim 
 that any further disinfection than is now given would 
 spoil their goods and increase their expenses. 
 
 "The real difficulty does not lie with the Bacillus an- 
 thracis but with its spores, whose natural resistance 
 is increased by their being embedded in the grease and 
 dirt of the material while it is being dealt with in 
 wholesale bulk in China. There can be little doubt 
 that the passage home through the Indian Ocean and 
 the Red Sea in the warm hold of a ship is all-conducive 
 to their propagation and preservation, so that when 
 the time comes for bristles and hair being carded and 
 separated out by workers at home these spores are 
 liberated in an active condition, ready for human in- 
 fection to a much greater extent than is the case in 
 China." 
 
 Aside from the danger of direct infection to ani- 
 mals pasturing on infected areas, there exists the add- 
 ed danger of inoculation through the agency of hay 
 or other crops that have been grown upon infected 
 areas of land. The process of drying and curing the 
 hay or forage does not lessen this danger, for drying 
 favors the development of spores, and these, mingling 
 
80 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 with the dust and fragments of the dried forage, may 
 be taken up by the wind and blown about, or may 
 cause serious damage' simply by being eaten by sus- 
 ceptible animals. 
 
 Forms of the Disease. 
 
 The disease may appear in one of three forms — 
 apoplectic, acute, or subacute. 
 
 The apoplectic form is most frequently seen at- 
 tacking cattle or sheep at the beginning of an outbreak 
 before the animals of the vicinity have developed any 
 degree of natural immunity to the infection. Here the 
 animals present symptoms of cerebral apoplexy. They 
 reel and fall, bloody liquid flows from the body open- 
 ings, and death soon follows. If the body is opened 
 and search is made for evidence of disease, it may be 
 quite impossible to detect any definite lesions or any 
 change in the tissues. 
 
 The acute form of the disease develops more slow- 
 ly, but becomes well established in- twelve to twenty- 
 four hours after the premonitory symptoms are no- 
 ticed. In these cases the fever is intense (104 degrees 
 to 107 degrees F.). The animal is greatly prostrated. 
 Cerebral congestion causes excitement, which is fol- 
 lowed by drowsiness and staggering gait. There is fre- 
 quent passage of bloody urine, followed by convul- 
 sions and death. In this type of the disease, as well as 
 in the apoplectic form, post-mortem examination of 
 the carcass may fail to reveal any definite lesions. 
 
 The third form of anthrax, the subacute, is the 
 most common. The symptoms are like those of the 
 acute form except that they are of slower development. 
 Instead of becoming established in twelve to twenty- 
 four hours, one to seven days may be required. The 
 fever is very high. Serious colics are often present. 
 Local anthrax tumors appear externally, first near the 
 shoulders, neck, and head, and are usually due to local 
 injury or bruising, which gives rise to a collection of 
 bacilli within the blood vessels of the part, whose re- 
 
ANTHRAX 81 
 
 suiting inflammation gives rise to the swellings or car- 
 buncles. These tumors are at first hard and circum- 
 scribed, but later become cold, insensible, diffuse and 
 fluctuating. An examination of the carcass of an ani- 
 mal dead of anthrax of the subacute form will prob- 
 ably show many lesions or alterations. Hemorrhages 
 may be found in almost all parts of the body. Serous 
 infiltrations may be present beneath mucous mem- 
 branes and skin. There will be swelling of the spleen, 
 the liver, and the kidneys, and the blood will be of a 
 muddy or tarry appearance and incoagulable. The 
 cavities of the body contain more or less bloody effu- 
 sion, and the lymphatic glands are swollen and con- 
 tain small hemorrhages. The red blood cells have be- 
 come broken down in large numbers and the serum 
 of the blood has been markedly reddened. The walls 
 of the intestines may appear perfectly normal, but 
 hemorrhages are frequently seen, especially in the 
 walls of the duodenum. 
 
 The subacute form is the one most commonly met, 
 and it is the only form which responds favorably to 
 treatment. Death ensues so quickly in the other two 
 forms that attempts at treatment are of but little use. 
 
 Isolated or sporadic cases are usually of the sub- 
 acute form, and are frequently limited to the forma- 
 tion of a tumor or carbuncle at the point of the body 
 at which the infective germs first gained their entrance. 
 
 The Anthrax Bacillus. 
 
 The anthrax bacillus is a straight rod with ends 
 slightly concave. It can not grow without the presence 
 of air, but will grow in temperatures ranging from 
 55 degrees to 106 degrees F. It is not capable of mo- 
 tion. It measures 4 to 6 u in length and about iu in 
 breadth. The bacilli multiply by fission, or dividing 
 into two, or they may multiply much as corn does by 
 the formation of seeds or spores, which sprout and pro- 
 duce a new anthrax plant when placed under suitable 
 conditions. This simile may be carried further, for. 
 
82 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 like a tender blade of corn, the anthrax plant or bacil- 
 lus may be destroyed very easily by the application of 
 heat or cold, but the seed or spore will resist consider- 
 able heat and is unaffected by freezing, still retaining 
 its virulence in spite of being subjected to either tem- 
 perature. 
 
 When cultivated artificially and grown in the 
 laboratory, a luxuriant growth may be obtained by 
 planting upon any of the culture media commonly used 
 for bacterial growth. The organisms grow rapidly and 
 produce dense, thick clumps on potato, gelatin, agar, 
 or other solid material. They grow with equal readi- 
 ness in fluid media such as beef broth, milk, etc., but 
 will not produce spores while growing in media of 
 this character, as spores can not develop except in the 
 presence of free air or oxygen. 
 
 Methods of Combating Infectious Diseases. 
 
 Whenever attempts are made to control or sup- 
 press an infectious disease a thorough study of its 
 character must be made, as the measures to be applied 
 will very largely depend upon the results of such in- 
 vestigation. Take foot-and-mouth disease, for in- 
 stance. This has become so firmly established in the 
 flocks and herds of certain European countries, espe- 
 cially in th esoutheastern portion, that it is considered 
 almost an endemic, and while the stock owners are 
 constantly trying to suppress the disease, they never 
 go at it with the fixed purpose of obtaining its com- 
 plete eradication. But in this country the circum- 
 stances are very different. Here the outbreaks have 
 only occurred after long intervals, and in every in- 
 stance, save one, have been traceable to some definite 
 source. The number of animals attacked in each out- 
 break has been comparatively small. Hence, in view 
 of the rapid transmission of the infection, not alone 
 by sick animals, but by men, dogs, or chickens that 
 may chance to come in contact with infected cattle or 
 stables, any dallying, experimental measures must not 
 
ANTHRAX 83 
 
 be considered for a moment; and, taking this view of 
 the matter, the immediate slaughter of all infected and 
 exposed susceptible animals has been insisted upon 
 each time that the disease has appeared within the bor- 
 ders of this country. 
 
 Anthrax and Texas Fever. 
 
 How very different is the method of dealing with 
 Texas fever. But these differences of treatment are- 
 only such as are demanded by the differences in the 
 characters of the two infections. Texas fever is known 
 to be dependent for its origin upon the bite of an in- 
 fected cattle tick, by means of which the minute para- 
 site which destroys the blood cells of its victims gains 
 entrance to the circulatory system, and multiplying 
 rapidly breaks down so many blood corpuscles that fa- 
 tal fever quickly results. To obviate this disease, all 
 that is necessary is to keep the cattle free from con- 
 tact with infectious ticks or to immunize them by the 
 careful application of blood or ticks under proper pre- 
 cautions. Present endeavors of the Bureau of Animal 
 Industry toward the suppression of Texas fever are 
 being extended along these very lines. By establish- 
 ing and maintaining the Texas fever quarantine line, it 
 is preventing southern cattle from bringing dangerous 
 ticks into northern pastures where their presence 
 would quickly act as a scourge. The Bureau is also 
 doing an immense amount of work in removing all in- 
 fectious ticks from certain regions of the South, not 
 with a view to saving the cattle of these regions from 
 death from Texas fever, because they have become 
 immune to that disease, but for the purpose of making 
 these cattle more valuable than thev are at present, as 
 they may be given free bills of health for shipment to 
 northern points and northern markets just as soon as it 
 can be shown that they originate in tick-free districts. 
 
 There are a number of serious contagious dis- 
 eases which terminate fatally in almost every case of 
 attack. For these no treatment is attempted, but pre- 
 
84 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 ventive measures may be applied with the greatest as- 
 surance that further spread may be stopped. Such is 
 rabies. Once the disease develops, no known treat- 
 ment will avail to save the patient's life; but if inocu- 
 lative treatment is applied soon after the victim is bit- 
 ten by the rabid dog the chances for recovery are ex- 
 cellent. 
 
 In studies of the various infectious diseases it has 
 been found that one of the most desirable means of 
 preventing their extension is to furnish the susceptible 
 and exposed animals with artificial immunity. This is 
 the case with tuberculosis, blackleg, anthrax, rabies, 
 hog cholera, Texas fever and the like. Many animals 
 prove to be naturally immune to these diseases, while 
 others must be made immune by inoculation with suit- 
 ably prepared materials before they are able success- 
 fully to withstand attacks from the specific organisms 
 which cause the several maladies. 
 
 Educated investigators the world over have expended 
 a vast amount of effort and study in attempts to 
 discover and perfect the most effective and at the 
 same time the most practicable means of immunizing 
 animals against the more destructive of the infectious 
 diseases. Immense amounts of money have been ap- 
 propriated for the advancement of these researches, 
 both from governmental sources and from gifts of pri- 
 vate wealth. The goal sought by these searchers along 
 lines of agricultural interest is the discovery of some 
 means by which immunity may be conveyed to a large 
 number of animals readily and at slight expense. 
 
 Vaccination as a Preventive. 
 
 Satisfactory immunity is readily granted to cattle at 
 the present time against the ravages of blackleg or symp- 
 tomatic anthrax, through the injection beneath the skin 
 of the susceptible animal of some material containing the 
 living but weakened germ of the disease. The amount of 
 this material is so graduated that it causes the prompt 
 development of the very disease that is being guarded 
 
ANTHRAX 85 
 
 against, but only in a mild and comparatively harm- 
 less degree. There is considerable elevation of tem- 
 perature, and there may even be limited tumor forma- 
 tion, but only in the rarest cases does this type of 
 blackleg, that has been intentionally produced by in- 
 oculation, progress so far that the animal is seriously 
 injured. The value of artificially produced immunity 
 in the struggle against this disease is shown by the 
 fact that the losses of young cattle which reached from 
 15 to 20 per cent in certain infected localities previous 
 to the discovery of vaccine treatment, have been re- 
 duced to one-half of 1 per cent at the present time 
 where vaccines are used. 
 
 It is at once apparent that hard and fast conclu- 
 sions cannot be drawn favoring vaccination against 
 anthrax from results obtained in the suppression of 
 blackleg by the use of blackleg vaccine. But there are 
 a sufficient number of points of similarity between the 
 two diseases to justify considering the two together. 
 They are so similar that for many years no distinction 
 was made between the two maladies, but all cases were 
 called anthrax. 
 
 The successful vaccination of cattle against either 
 of these two troubles must consist in giving the ani- 
 mal that is to be safeguarded a sufficiently severe at- 
 tack of the disease that is feared to provide the body 
 tissues with such a degree of resistance that no germs 
 can be taken into the system in fatal numbers and re- 
 main to find lodgment and nurture there. After such 
 vaccination the animal is safely protected and can go 
 with perfect safety into fields that would have proven 
 deadly before the vaccination was performed. 
 
 Just how this immunity is obtained is still an open 
 question, but it is very manifest that the attenuated or- 
 ganism is able by its growth to affect the tissues (some 
 say the animal cells, others the fluid tissues) in such a 
 manner that virulent organisms of the variety present- 
 ed in the vaccine cannot possibly thrive, and with- 
 
86 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 out the rapid multiplication of virulent organisms within 
 the animal tissues there can be no disease. 
 
 Blackleg vaccine is prepared from the affected 
 muscle of an animal dead of that disease. Anthrax 
 vaccine is produced by the cultivation in beef broth of 
 pure cultures of anthrax bacilli, hence may be manu- 
 factured in unlimited quantities without having re- 
 course to any animal suffering from the disease. 
 
 Pasteur's Experiments. 
 
 Starting with a thrifty culture of anthrax bacilli 
 growing in a flask of bouillon, Pasteur, in 1881, by a 
 series of experiments found that subjecting ii to a 
 temperature of 108.5 degrees F. for twelve days would 
 so lower the virulence of the organisms that they would 
 only exceptionally cause death when injected into rab- 
 bits. Continuing the attenuation by subjecting the ba- 
 cili to the same degree of heat for twelve days longer, or 
 twenty-four days in all, he discovered that he had in his 
 possession a living culture of anthrax bacilli that had lost 
 its power for killing cattle, sheep, rabbits or guinea 
 pigs, although still capable of killing white mice. This 
 was the beginning of the practical preparation of an- 
 thrax vaccine, for he soon found that cattle or sheep 
 when inoculated with the culture of twenty-four days' 
 attenuation would survive the treatment and would 
 gain a very material power in resisting infection from 
 inoculations with bacilli of a high degree of virulence. 
 This power of resistance is needed to enable them to 
 withstand the injection of the second and stronger 
 vaccine, which, having been subjected to attenuating 
 heat for only twelve days, is possessed of considerable 
 virulence. 
 
 In his early investigations he made experiments 
 upon a flock of 50 sheep. Half of these were vaccinated 
 with his attenuated culture of anthrax bacilli. Twelve 
 days later they received an inoculation with stronger 
 vaccine, and forty days after this the whole flock was 
 inoculated with a virulent anthrax culture. Two days 
 
ANTHRAX 8? 
 
 later the vaccinated animals were all sound, while the 
 checks were all dead. 
 
 Following this striking demonstration by Pasteur, 
 60,000 sheep and 6,000 cattle were at once treated in 
 France. The following year the same form of treat- 
 ment was applied to 270,000 sheep and to 55,000 cattle. 
 Since that time this method of vaccinating against an- 
 thrax has found very general application in France 
 whenever losses have occurred, making it evident that 
 certain fields or pastures have become infected with 
 anthrax bacilli. As a result, Nocard and Leclainche 
 state that anthrax has disappeared from many sections 
 in which it formerly decimated the live stock and that 
 the medical doctors at the same time reported a disap- 
 pearance of malignant pustules from among their hu- 
 man patients. 
 
 Immunization. 
 
 Soon after this method of immunization by the use 
 of attenuated cultures had become suitably tested and 
 perfected in France, steps were taken to supply vac- 
 cinating material to other countries, and reports of its 
 successful application were soon received from Russia. 
 South America, Australia, and other lands. 
 
 Other investigators, fearing to use the living anthrax 
 bacillus, even though greatly attenuated, have turned 
 their attention to the production of a serum that should 
 possess immunizing powers equal to those of the at- 
 tenuated organism. The immunity granted by serum 
 inoculations becomes effective very quickly, but does 
 not last long unless reinforced by the addition of 
 virulent material at about the time that the serum is 
 injected. At first the virulent material was injected 
 a few days after the serum had been applied, but the 
 latest recommendations are that they should be given 
 simultaneously ; wherefore it is now customary to in- 
 ject immunizing serum into one side of the animal's 
 neck and virulent serum into the other side before re- 
 leasing it. 
 
88 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Very interesting facts have been disclosed through 
 the efforts of various investigators to perfect sera for 
 immunizing in outbreaks of anthrax. It is well known 
 that a very small amount of virulent blood will serve 
 to convey the disease from an anthrax carcass to a 
 healthy animal. A fly can easily carry enough on his 
 proboscis to kill a horse. It may safely be admitted 
 that a single drop is sufficient to cause the death of 
 a horse; yet Sobernheim has, by means of repeated 
 injections, using cultures gradually increasing in viru- 
 lence, produced such a high degree of immunity in 
 a horse that it withstood the injection into its veins 
 of 500 c. c. (about 17 fluid ounces, or more than a 
 pint) of the most virulent anthrax culture obtainable. 
 This is a good illustration of the word "immunity." 
 It is something that this horse in question has re- 
 ceived into his system through the several inoculations 
 of sera that enables him to receive unharmed an in- 
 jection of living anthrax fully ten thousand times as 
 large as the amount that would have sufficed to kill 
 him previous to his immunization. 
 
 Another peculiarity discovered by investigators 
 along these lines is that a culture of anthrax bacilli 
 that has once been attentuated can then be cultivated 
 indefinitely without necessarily causing any altera- 
 tion in the degree of its virulence. If we let 100 
 represent the virulence of an active, fresh culture, and 
 10 the degrees of virulence in one that has been 
 greatly attenuated, it has been repeatedly shown that 
 one can cultivate the attenuated germs for many gen- 
 erations without causing any observable alteration 
 from this virulence rating of 10; yet it only requires 
 the single passage of this material through a white 
 mouse to restore its virulence at once to approxi- 
 mately 100 
 
 Anthrax in Mississippi Delta. 
 
 In this country the Delta lands of the Mississippi 
 Valley are most thoroughly permeated with anthrax 
 infection. The losses through anthrax have there 
 
ANTHRAX 89 
 
 been enormous, due in great measure to the large 
 number of valuable mules owned and worked upon 
 the sugar plantations. Dr. W. H. Dalrymple has for 
 years been engaged in fighting this plague in 
 Louisiana, and he reports as follows on the results of 
 preventive inoculation : 
 
 "Perhaps the most convincing evidence of the bene- 
 ficial effect of this method of prevention in Louisiana 
 is the fact that those localities which suffered most 
 from yearly, or at least periodic, epizootics of anthrax, 
 before vaccination became so generally adopted, have 
 experienced the past summer a wonderful degree of 
 immunity from the disease which, I think, we must 
 attribute to the fact that the use of the lymph is 
 now almost general in these sections and that greater 
 attention is being directed to the more careful dis- 
 posal of the dead animal, our people more fully ap- 
 preciating its being the chief source from which this 
 most deadly disease is spread. 
 
 "I believe we are gradually solving the anthrax 
 problem in the Pelican State, and the progress we have 
 already made is, I think, considerable and fairly satis- 
 factory when we take into account the enormous and 
 visionary ideas which prevailed up to ten or twelve 
 years ago regarding the true nature of the disease and 
 the most potent factors in causing its spread. 
 
 "I question very much if ten years ago a single dose 
 of preventive vaccine was used or an anthrax carcass 
 destroyed as a sanitary precaution against the spread 
 of the disease in our state. To-day there are probably 
 40,000 or 50,000 doses of vaccine used, and carcasses 
 are being much more carefully looked after, which I 
 feel indicates some progress at least." 
 
 The material which Doctor Dalrymple used so suc- 
 cessfully and which called forth the above encourag- 
 ing report was manufactured in accordance with Pas- 
 teur's findings and consisted of a double inoculation 
 with attenuated anthrax cultures. 
 
90 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Successful Tests. 
 
 In carrying out tests for the determination of the 
 reliability of attenuated living cultures the Bureau 
 of Animal Industry has succeeded in immunizing test 
 animals to such a perfect degree that they were able 
 to withstand subcutaneous injections of extremely 
 virulent anthrax cultures. Cattle, sheep, goats, 
 burros and a mule were subjected to these fortifying 
 inoculations, and were later proven to be immune to 
 anthrax. The first injection caused but slight dis- 
 turbance of the health of any animal, and only slight 
 elevation of temperature. The second injection re- 
 sulted in somewhat higher temperatures, and in a 
 few cases in transient indifference to feed. The final 
 test of their immunity was made with a pure culture 
 of anthrax bacilli of the highest degree of virulence 
 obtainable. The application of this severe test soon 
 resulted in very high temperatures and in rather gen- 
 eral refusal of feed for a day or two; but this test 
 far exceeded in severity any chance for infection that 
 the animals could have incurred by pasturing over 
 infected lands. Pure anthrax bacilli were forced into 
 the tissues in great numbers, and the ultimate survival 
 and full recovery of the animals after this severe 
 treatment offers the best possible argument in favor 
 of preventive inoculation in all cases in which animals 
 are positively known to be exposed to contact with 
 anthrax bacilli in infected stables or pastures. 
 
 The material used in vaccinating against anthrax has 
 many dangerous properties, since it contains living 
 anthrax organisms; hence it should never be used 
 except in regions in which the disease has already ap- 
 peared, and it should be used only by qualified veteri- 
 narians, as careless handling might result in the seri- 
 ous extension of the very disease that it was desired 
 to eradicate. Vaccines for this work should be ob- 
 tained from reliable manufacturers, as the use of 
 weakened or diluted material can only lead to disap- 
 pointing results. 
 
ANTHRAX 91 
 
 The season of the year in which the vaccination is 
 undertaken makes considerable difference in results, 
 for it has been shown that there is a natural tendency 
 toward the suppression of the disease in the infected 
 plats of ground during the winter months. 
 
 Other Preventive Measures. 
 
 In future attempts to eradicate anthrax from in- 
 fected districts preventive inoculation will undoubtedly 
 play a very important part. But there are many other 
 steps which should be taken into consideration in addi- 
 tion to the vaccination. Infected areas should be thor- 
 oughly drained and kept under cultivation for some 
 time before attempts are made to pasture stock upon 
 them. Sunlight greatly hinders the development of 
 anthrax bacilli, and the repeated stirring of the soil 
 favors the action of the sun's rays. 
 
 The complete destruction of all anthrax carcasses is 
 also a very important matter. This is best accom- 
 plished by burning, but as this method of disposal 
 is impractical in many localities, deep burial may be 
 practical instead. Covering the carcasses within their 
 graves with quicklime adds another valuable precau- 
 tion against further dissemination of the infection. No 
 animal dying from anthrax should ever be skinned or 
 cut open, as the blood from such sources is one of 
 the most dangerous means of spreading the infection, 
 being charged while in the animal with great numbers 
 of bacilli, which quickly turn into spores as soon as 
 spread about upon the surface of the ground. All 
 discharges from the body openings should also be 
 burned or buried deeply, as these are frequently of a 
 virulent character. 
 
 One of the most common obstacles to sanitary po- 
 lice control of outbreaks of anthrax is the opposition 
 of the owners of the affected animals to any regulation 
 which requires them to dispose in a safe and satis- 
 factory manner the cadavers of animals dying from 
 the disease. Many localities have failed to secure legal 
 
92 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 enactments demanding suitable destruction of in- 
 fectious carcasses, and others which have laws upon 
 their statute books have an opposing public opinion 
 that largely nullifies the real intent and purpose of 
 the law, with the result that carcasses filled with 
 deadly material are allowed to lie about in the fields 
 to be scattered by prowling dogs or birds; or they 
 may be dragged to the nearest stream and thrown into 
 the water, only to be floated along bearing their in- 
 fection to neighboring properties. A little practical 
 application of the golden rule by interested stockmen 
 would, under these circumstances, not only prove 
 beneficial to their neighbors, but the benefits would be 
 felt upon their own properties in later seasons. It 
 is imperative that all carcasses of animals dying from 
 anthrax should be safely burned or buried if the 
 eradication of the infection is ever to be reached. 
 
 There are some encouraging features to be noted in 
 connection with outbreaks of anthrax. One of these 
 is the limitation of the infection to certain restricted 
 areas. Another is that the disease does not sweep 
 across a whole state in a few days, as foot-and-mouth 
 disease is inclined to do. A third is that drainage 
 of the infected parcels of ground usually removes the 
 danger. So let those who have suffered losses of 
 stock from anthrax take courage and resolve to ward 
 it off in the future by fencing, draining, and plowing 
 infected plats, by burning or burying deeply all in- 
 fected carcasses, and by the vaccination of the healthy 
 animals that are unavoidably exposed. Such methods 
 will lessen the losses and cause the gradual disappear- 
 ance of the plague. 
 
DISINFECTION OF HIDES 
 GOVERNMENT DISINFECTION LAW 
 
 The revenue law of the United States enacted in 
 1909 contains the following: 
 
 Sec. 12. That the importation of neat cattle and the 
 hides of neat cattle from any foreign country into the 
 United States is prohibited; provided, that the oper- 
 ation of this section shall be suspended as to any- 
 foreign country or countries, or any parts of such 
 country or countries, whenever the Secretary of the 
 Treasury shall officially determine and give public no- 
 tice thereof, that such importation will not tend to the 
 introduction or spread of contagious or infectious dis- 
 eases among the cattle of the United States ; and the 
 Secretary of the Treasury is hereby authorized and 
 empowered, and it shall be his duty, to make all nec- 
 essary orders and regulations to carry this section into 
 effect, or to suspend the same as herein provided, and 
 to send copies thereof to the proper officers in the 
 United States and to such officers or agents of the 
 United States in foreign countries as he shall judge 
 necessary. 
 
 Sec. 13. That any person convicted of a willful 
 violation of any of the provisions of the preceding 
 section shall be fined not exceeding five hundred dol- 
 lars, or imprisoned not exceeding one year, or both. 
 in the discretion of the court. 
 
 The following official circular was issued May, 
 1910: 
 
 Treasury Department, Office of the Secretary, 
 
 Washington, May 2, 1910. 
 To Officers of the Customs and Others Concerned : 
 In accordance with the recommendation of the Sec- 
 
94 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 retary of Agriculture made in pursuance of the act of 
 February 2, 1903 (32 Stat., 791), the following regula- 
 tions governing the disinfection of hides of neat cat- 
 tle imported into the United States are issued to take 
 effect June 1, 1910, and will supersede the regulations 
 heretofore prescribed by Department Circular No. 52, 
 of October 20, 1909 (T. D. 30053). 
 
 A certificate signed by the American consular of- 
 ficer for the district from which the hides were shipped, 
 showing disinfection by one of the methods herein- 
 after described, will be required upon the entry of all 
 hides of neat cattle which have not been subjected to 
 a process of tanning, including calfskins and hide cut- 
 tings or parings, or glue stock, with the following ex- 
 ceptions, which exceptions will not be made, however, 
 in case of importations from districts where anthrax 
 is prevalent. 
 
 1. Hides, whether wet or dry, the product of, and 
 imported from any part of North America. 
 
 2. Hard, sun-dried hides, also old and worn-out 
 articles of manufacture, made from raw hides, such as 
 loom pickers and mallet heads, imported as glue 
 stock. 
 
 3. Hides and hide cuttings and parings, or glue 
 stock, which have been lime dried after soaking for 
 forty days in a strong lime wash made by slaking 
 quicklime in water and containing sufficient lime to 
 be of a creamy consistency. 
 
 4. Abattoir hides, the product of Sweden, Norway, 
 New Zealand, Australia, or Great Britain, when ac- 
 companied by a certificate of an official veterinarian 
 showing that the same were taken from cattle free 
 from disease at the time of their slaughter. 
 
 5. Hides taken from American cattle killed in lair- 
 ages in Great Britain. 
 
 Methods of Disinfection. 
 
 Except in the case of hides shipped from districts 
 where anthrax is prevalent, disinfection by any one 
 
DISINFECTION OF HIDES 95 
 
 of the three following methods will be permitted, un- 
 der the supervision of a representative of the consul : 
 i. By immersion in a I to 1,000 solution of bichlo- 
 ride of mercury. 
 
 2. By immersion in a 5 per cent solution of carbolic 
 acid. 
 
 3. By exposure to the fumes of -sulphur dioxide in 
 a room tightly closed in which the hides shall be sus- 
 pended separately in such a manner that there may be 
 a free circulation of the sulphur fumes and that all 
 parts of the surface of such hides may be acted upon ; 
 provided, that there be at least 4 pounds of sulphur 
 burned for every 1,000 cubic feet of air space, and 
 the room shall be kept closed and the hides subjected 
 to the sulphur fumes for at least six hours. 
 
 Anthrax. 
 
 In the case of hides shipped from districts in which 
 anthrax is prevalent, disinfection by immersion for 
 at least thirty minutes in a 1 to 1,000 solution of bi- 
 chloride of mercury only will be permitted, and disin- 
 fection by such method will be required of all hides of 
 neat cattle and hide cuttings and parings, or glue 
 stock, without exception, imported from any country, 
 when shipped from districts in which anthrax is 
 known to the consul to be prevalent at the time of 
 shipment. Consular officers in districts in which an- 
 thrax^ is prevalent should refuse to certify invoices 
 covering hides for shipment to this country unless 
 such hides are disinfected in the manner above pro- 
 vided. 
 
 Certificates of disinfection will be required upon 
 the entry of hides, the product of countries other 
 than those of North America, if imported via ports 
 of such jatter countries, and such certificates will also 
 be required upon the entry of hides produced in any 
 part of North America if imported via another country 
 and landed and transshipped in that country. 
 
 Hides of a character requiring disinfection under the 
 
96 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 provisions of this circular, which are not accompanied 
 by a proper certificate of disinfection will be treated 
 as prohibited importations and refused entry. Disin- 
 fection of such hides on the dock of the importing ves- 
 sel upon arrival in this country, or their entry for 
 transportation to another country across American 
 territory, will not be permitted for the reason that the 
 landing of diseased hides from the importing vessel or 
 their passage through the United States would tend to 
 the dissemination of cattle diseases in this country. 
 
 This circular does not apply to goatskins sheep- 
 skins, or to articles manufactured from the hides ot 
 
 The regulations herein provided do not in any way 
 modify or affect any regulations under the quaran- 
 tine laws of the United States. 
 
 Charles D. Norton, Acting Secretary. 
 
 Disinfection of Fleshings, Hide Cuttings, Parings or 
 
 Glue Stock. 
 
 Amendment of Department Circular 23 of May 2, 
 1910 (T. D. 30583), relative to disinfection of flesh- 
 ings, hide cuttings, parings or glue stock. 
 
 Treasury Department, September 10, 1910. 
 To Officers of the Customs and Others Concerned : 
 
 In accordance with a recommendation by the Secre- 
 tary of Agriculture, dated the 13th instant, the De- 
 partment's Circular No. 23 of May 2, 1910 (T. D. 
 30583), is hereby so amended as to no longer require 
 the production of certificates of disinfection upon the 
 entry of fleshings, hide cuttings, and parings, or glue 
 stock, when the same is shown by the consular invoice 
 used upon entry or by a consular certificate, to have 
 been lime dried, after soaking for forty days in a 
 strong lime wash made by slaking quicklime in water 
 and containing sufficient lime to be of a creamy con- 
 sistency, or to consist of glue stock which has been 
 dried by exposure to the action of the sun and air for 
 a sufficient time to render each piece of the hardness 
 
DISINFECTION OP HIDES 97 
 
 of a sun-dried hide, provided that a certificate in proper 
 form is filed with the American consul by the exporter 
 showing that none of the products shipped were taken 
 from animals affected with anthrax. 
 
 It is the purpose of this amendment to permit the 
 entry of glue stock of the character above described 
 when imported from any country or district notwith- 
 standing the limited prevalence of anthrax therein, 
 without requiring the same to be disinfected in the 
 manner prescribed by the said circular. 
 
 Charles D. Hilles, Assistant Secretary. 
 
 Disinfection of Hides. 
 
 The exception in Circular No. 23 of May 2, 1910 
 (T. D. 30583), relative to abattoir hides, extended to 
 include such hides, the product of Denmark. 
 
 Treasury Department, December 6, 1910. 
 To Officers of the Customs and Others Concerned : . 
 
 In accordance with the recommendation of the Sec- 
 retary of Agriculture the following regulation in T. 
 D. 30583 (Circular 23) of May 2, 1910, is hereby ex- 
 tended so as to include in exception four abattoir 
 hides, the product of Denmark: 
 
 A certificate signed by the American consular officer 
 for the district from which the hides were shipped, 
 showing disinfection by one of the methods herein- 
 after described, will be required upon the entry of all 
 hides of neat cattle which have not been subjected to 
 a process of tanning, including calfskins and hide cut- 
 tings or parings, or glue stock, with the following ex- 
 ceptions, which exceptions will not be made, however, 
 in case of importations from districts where anthrax 
 is prevalent. 
 
 4. Abattoir hides, the product of Sweden, Norway, 
 New Zealand, Australia, or Great Britain, when ac- 
 companied by a certificate of an official veterinarian 
 showing that the same were taken from cattle free 
 from disease at the time of their slaughter. 
 
 James F. Curtis, Assistant Secretary. 
 
98 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Disinfection of Glue Stock. 
 
 Treasury Department, October 28, 191 1. 
 To Officers of the Customs and Others Concerned : 
 
 The Secretary of Agriculture advises the depart- 
 ment that it has been represented to his department 
 by a delegation of glue manufacturers of this country 
 that the material in which they are particularly inter- 
 ested, so far as the regulations in connection with dis- 
 infection are concerned, consists of dry limed flesh- 
 ings, which material is scraped or shaved from the in- 
 ner surface of limed hides or hides which have been 
 subjected to a liming process principally for the pur- 
 pose of depilation preparatory to tanning. 
 
 The Secretary states that it would appear, there- 
 fore, that the fleshings removed from the inside of the 
 hides, like the hair which is removed from the outside 
 during this processing, should be exempt from the 
 disinfection requirement as applying to hides of neat 
 cattle under the provisions of T. D. 30583 and the 
 amendment thereto, T. D. 30913, and he requests that 
 the Secretary of State be asked, in view of the char- 
 acter and treatment of this material, to instruct the 
 American consuls at Madras and other foreign ports 
 at which dry limed fleshings are accumulated or are 
 hereafter offered for shipment, to permit the same to 
 come forward, until further notice, without disinfec- 
 tion and without certification other than that such 
 shipments consist exclusively of dry limed fleshings. 
 The opinion is expressed, however, by the Secretary 
 of Agriculture that this exemption should not apply 
 to cuttings or trimmings from the edges of hides, or 
 pieces of hides, which represent the hide in its full 
 thickness or entirety, as such cuttings or trimmings 
 should be subject to the same requirements as the 
 hides themselves. 
 
 The Secretary of State has this day been requested 
 to instruct the consular officers concerned in accord- 
 ance with the foregoing. 
 
DISINFECTION OF HIDES 99 
 
 T. D. 30583 and 30913, of May '* and September 10, 
 1910, respectively, are, therefore, hereby amended ac- 
 cordingly. James F. Curtis, Assistant Secretary. 
 
 Disinfection of Glue Stock. 
 
 Treasury Department, January 18, 1912. 
 To Collectors and Other Officers of the Customs : 
 
 Referring to the opinion of the Secretary of Agricul- 
 ture, published in T. D. 31960 of October 28, 191 1, 
 that cuttings or trimmings of hides contained in ship- 
 ments of dry limed fleshings should be subject to the 
 same requirements as the hides themselves, that offi- 
 cer states that his department has been informed that 
 the American consular officer at Madras, India, re- 
 fuses to allow dry limed fleshings to come forward 
 on account of containing a few pieces of dry limed 
 hide cuttings or trimmings. 
 
 The secretary states that a limited amount of these 
 dry limed trimmings mixed with the fleshings is not 
 objectionable, as they are trimmed from the same hides 
 as the fleshings during the processing which they re- 
 ceive prior to tanning, and he requests that the Sec- 
 retary of State be asked to instruct the American con- 
 sular officers at Madras and other ports at which dry 
 limed fleshings are accumulated, or are hereafter of- 
 fered for shipment, to permit such fleshings to come 
 forward until further notice without disinfection or 
 certification other than that the fleshings are dry 
 limed. 
 
 The Secretary of State has this day been asked to 
 instruct the consular officers in accordance with the 
 lequest of the Secretary of Agriculture. 
 
 A. Piatt Andrew, Assistant Secretary. 
 
PROGRESS AND PROSPECTS OF TICK 
 ERADICATION 
 
 By COOPER CURTICE, D. V. S., M. D. 
 
 The southern portion of the United States has long 
 been afflicted by the presence of the cattle tick Mar- 
 garopus annulatus. These ticks spread the infection 
 of the disease known as Texas fever of cattle and 
 often infest cattle so numerously as to stunt their 
 growth and seriously affect their condition. Their 
 presence necessitates a quarantine under which cattle 
 from the infected regions may be shipped to other 
 parts of the country only under certain restrictions 
 and for immediate slaughter. The ticks also largely 
 prevent the introduction and breeding of fine stock. 
 The damage and losses caused by these parasites are 
 enormous, being estimated at from $40,000,000 to 
 $200,000,000 a year. 
 
 Systematic cooperative work by the Federal Gov- 
 ernment and the affected States for the eradication of 
 these ticks has now been in progress nearly five years, 
 and it is opportune to pause and look over the field 
 to ascertain what has been accomplished, what ob- 
 stacles have been encountered, and what may be done 
 to assist in the further prosecution of the work. 
 
 The Beginning of Tick Eradication. 
 
 At a meeting of the commissioners of agriculture 
 of cotton-growing States held in Raleigh, N. C, in 
 1899, the Hon. S. L. Patterson, commissioner of agri- 
 culture of North Carolina, directed the writer to pre- 
 sent the aim of that department in improving the 
 cattle industry by tick eradication. From this begin- 
 ning until 1906 twelve counties in that State had been 
 
CATTLE TICK 101 
 
 released from quarantine and fifteen mountain coun- 
 ties had been permanently protected from the hith- 
 erto perennial threat of a federal cattle quarantine. 
 The commissioners' association and various allied or- 
 ganizations, influenced by the eradication work of 
 North Carolina and the results obtained by Federal, 
 State and other investigators, together with the grow- 
 ing necessity of ameliorating the effects of the boll- 
 weevil invasion, prevailed upon the United States 
 Congress to make an appropriation in 1906 to empower 
 the United States Secretary of Agriculture to inau- 
 gurate a plan of cooperation with the authorities of 
 Southern States in the eradication of the cattle tick. 
 The Federal appropriation for the fiscal year ended 
 June 30, 1907, was $82,500, and for 1908, $150,000. 
 Annually since then $250,000, a sum sufficient to meet 
 the advances of those States interested in the work, 
 has been appropriated. It is probable that succeed- 
 ing Congresses will continue to meet the demand for 
 future cooperation in the degree that States show real 
 interest and actively engage in tick eradication. 
 
 In 1906 there were fifteen States more or less in- 
 fested with cattle ticks. These contained 929 coun- 
 ties that were quarantined to prevent the cattle from 
 carrying the ticks into uninfected territory. While 
 preparing to cooperate with the Southern States, the 
 Chief of the Bureau of Animal Industry, to whom the 
 Federal work had been assigned, ascertained that but 
 seven States had laws which would enable the bureau 
 to cooperate with them. Work was begun in these, 
 viz. : Virginia, North Carolina, Georgia, Kentucky, 
 Tennessee, Oklahoma and California. Since then other 
 States have enacted laws and undertaken cooperation, 
 notably South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, and 
 Arkansas. 
 
 Some Obstacles to Progress. 
 
 Ignorance has been a great obstacle at all stages. 
 While leaders in communities are informed concern- 
 
102 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 ing the benefits of eradicating the ticks, they are in 
 the minority, and educational processes must still go 
 on. The opposition is fortified with certain attendant 
 drawbacks which are sometimes pointed out, and by a 
 vast amount of misinformation, which must be cor- 
 rected. At the preliminary meeting of those inter- 
 ested in tick eradication held in Richmond, Va., in 
 1905, Dr. Tait Butler, then State veterinarian of North 
 Carolina, took occasion to say to doubting members: 
 "But it is being done; it has been done." If the doc- 
 tors disagreed then, how much could have been ex- 
 pected? And how much can now be expected of him 
 who lives isolated and reads not, or, reading, doubts? 
 But it is upon this man — the farmer who has seen 
 ticks all his life and knows no facts to point out their 
 potency for harm — that States and counties are de- 
 pendent for hastening the work. 
 
 Rapid progress in tick eradication is dependent in 
 large part upon the thorough control exercised over 
 the cattle during summer, fall, winter and spring, that 
 they may not scatter ticks which may eventually infect 
 other cattle or reinfect themselves through the seed 
 ticks. The custom of turning cattle out to range 
 through the unfenced swamps and roadsides prevents 
 any tick eradication in many counties. The custom al- 
 most universally followed throughout the South of 
 turning out cattle after the crops are gathered and let- 
 ting them roam at large until the spring crops begin 
 to grow has prevented success in many counties where 
 tick eradication has been undertaken. Counties where 
 this is permitted are known as "free-range" counties, 
 while those having laws against cattle running at large 
 are known as "stock-law" counties. When stock-law 
 counties have been cleaned further effective work must 
 wait until "stock-law" is adopted in the free-range 
 counties. Cleaned cattle will always be more or less 
 exposed to the ticks in the infected free-range regions. 
 
 Another class of obstacles lies in the methods of 
 eradicating ticks. The surest methods, those depend- 
 
104 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 ing on pasture rotation or feed-lot systems, fail be- 
 cause they are not used. Rotation is but exception- 
 ally practiced. There are few fences other than the 
 single pasture fence in the stock-law counties and the 
 crop fence in the free range. These methods are prac- 
 tically and theoretically the best, but only those peo- 
 ple conversant with the long educational campaign de- 
 signed to bring about crop rotation and diversification 
 of products can realize why they are not adopted. It 
 is the free winter pasturage which costs the southern 
 farmer so much. 
 
 Tickicides. 
 
 There are left the tickicides, including oils, crude 
 petroleum, and arsenical solution. They are applied 
 by hand swabbing, by spraying, or in dipping vats. 
 The methods are successful in the order named, the 
 last being the best. In every county there are a num- 
 ber of doubting people who grudgingly make a show 
 of disinfecting cattle. There are others who will not 
 disinfect unless repeatedly urged. Such as these are 
 careless about the material used and about the applica- 
 tion. They fail of success for a long time. There is 
 still another class who really try to do their best. They 
 may be misguided in the kind of remedy used ; they 
 may purchase what agents direct, but the material fur- 
 nished may prove wrong; either it is too weak in the 
 strength advised, or if oil it will not emulsify in the 
 hard waters of the county. Too often the work is 
 put off until large ticks have developed. The result is 
 bad ; no good is accomplished, and the season passes. 
 The end is retarded. 
 
 More recently, however, arsenic solution has been 
 willingly adopted by ever-growing numbers. It is 
 sometimes applied by hand, but oftener by spray 
 pumps or in the vat. In one county over 125 vats 
 have been made ; in other counties from 25 upward. 
 Tn some cases the counties pay for the cement and dis- 
 infectant used, and the people of the communities fur- 
 
CATTLE TICK 105 
 
 nish gravel, sand, lumber and labor. The farmers 
 drive their cattle to these vats at stated times twice a 
 month and dip them, the process often being super- 
 vised by the agent. The cattle being thoroughly im- 
 mersed, all ticks are wet in the solution. The errors 
 of greasing methods by hand and spray pumps are 
 avoided. The arsenic solution, being cheaper and less 
 injurious to the cattle, is preferred to the oil. The 
 public vat with arsenic solution is succeeding easily 
 where other methods have failed. Each State should 
 adopt and use it wherever possible. 
 
 It is recognized that ticks are the principal, if not 
 the only, cause of depression of the cattle industry in 
 the South, as the necessary feed may be easily raised 
 there when cattle are considered to be worth the 
 trouble. Tick eradication will thus build up another 
 southern industry and help to maintain cotton produc- 
 tion through the manure, a by-product of cattle feed- 
 ing. Further, the cottonseed meal now sent elsewhere 
 for feeding cattle and making commercial fertilizer 
 will be retained for the same purpose at home, and 
 the loss now incurred by its shipment will thus be 
 stopped. 
 
 When these facts are thoroughly recognized, and 
 the southern planter is brought face to face with the 
 boll weevil, tick eradication will receive the attention 
 it merits. 
 
 Prospects for the Future. 
 
 The fact that one-fifth of the infested area has been 
 cleaned in the past five years does not afford grounds 
 for estimating future progress. It is not reasonable to 
 conclude that because the area cleaned was situated 
 along the northern boundary it was easier to clean, 
 and therefore that the remainder will require a propor- 
 tionately longer time, or that because four-sevenths of 
 the remaining counties are free-range territory this 
 condition will indefinitely prolong the work. On the 
 one hand, better methods will hasten work, and, on 
 
106 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 the other, stock law may be adopted any year. It is 
 true that tick eradication as now conducted waits on 
 stock-law sentiment to prevail. Perhaps the demon- 
 strated success of the work in one-seventh of the 
 counties will prove an object lesson that will go far 
 toward overcoming obstacles in the remaining area. 
 There is hope that tick eradication, which has so far 
 gone falteringly ahead, will soon advance with firmer 
 tread toward its goal. 
 
 The cost of tick eradication to the Federal Govern- 
 ment up to date has been less than $1,000,000. Ex- 
 cluding over 40,000 square miles of semiarid lands re- 
 leased in California leaves 100.000 square miles disin- 
 fected at a cost to the Federal Government of less than 
 $10 per square mile. The cost to the States and coun- 
 ties has so far been much less, and there seems to be 
 no prospect of its becoming more than that. The cost 
 to the farmer is so quickly repaid by the well-being 
 and improvement in cattle that all complaint of in- 
 crease in taxes is quieted as eradication proceeds. 
 
 As one-seventh of the tick-infested territory has 
 thus been cleaned at a cost to the Government of less 
 than $1,000,000, the other six-sevenths would, at the 
 same rate, require about $6,000,000. The estimated 
 cost to any State may be attained by multiplying its 
 infected mileage by $10. It is probable that this cost 
 will be maintained whether a State requires five or 
 twenty years to complete disinfection. 
 
DIRECTIONS FOR CONSTRUCTING 
 
 A VAT AND DIPPING CATTLE 
 
 TO DESTROY TICKS 
 
 By H. W. GRAYBILL, D. V. M., and 
 W. P. ELLENBERGER, D. V. S. 
 
 Arsenical dips as agents for destroying cattle ticks have 
 come into much favor during the past few years. This 
 has been due to their efficacy, cheapness, the ease with 
 which they are prepared, and the comparatively slight 
 injury they cause to cattle when properly prepared and 
 used. Homemade dips as the ones most commonly used 
 and are quite satisfactory in every way when ordinary 
 care is used in their preparation. Recently there has been 
 placed on the market a proprietary concentrated arsenical 
 dip which has given good results. This dip is prepared 
 for use by diluting it with cold water in the proportions 
 of i to ioo. The only advantage in such a dip is that 
 comparatively little time is required in preparing the 
 bath, but this advantage is largely counterbalanced by the 
 fact that it is more expensive than a homemade dip. 
 
 Preparation and Use of Arsenical Dips. 
 
 The formula most commonly used in making an arsen- 
 ical dip is the following : 
 
 Sodium carbonate (sal soda) . . .pounds 24 
 Arsenic trioxid (white arsenic) . . .do. . 8 
 
 Pine tar g allon x 
 
 Water sufficient to make 500 gallons. 
 
 If for any reason a stronger dip is desired, 25 pounds 
 of sodium carbonate and 10 pounds of arsenic trioxid 
 
108 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 may be used in place of the amounts given in the above 
 formula. The stronger clip is required by the regulations 
 of the Bureau of Animal Industry in the dipping of cat- 
 tle which are to enter interstate commerce from quar- 
 antined areas, but for ordinary eradication work when 
 immediate removal of the cattle to tick-free areas is not 
 contemplated it will probably be best to use the weaker 
 solution, and this is especially true during hot weather 
 and when the animals are to be treated every two weeks. 
 
 In preparing the dip a large caldron or galvanized tank 
 is required for heating the water in which to dissolve the 
 chemicals. Thirty or forty gallons of water should be 
 placed in the caldron or tank and brought to a boil. The 
 amount of sodium carbonate indicated in the formula is 
 then added and dissolved by stirring. When this is ac- 
 complished, the required amount of arsenic is added and 
 dissolved in a similar manner. The fire is then drawn, 
 and the solution permitted to cool to 140 F., or this 
 process may be hastened by the addition of cold water. 
 The pine tar is then added slowly in a thin stream and 
 thoroughly mixed with the solution by constant stirring. 
 This solution is diluted to 500 gallons before using. 
 
 If a larger caldron or tank is available for preparing 
 the dip, a greater quantity of solution may be prepared at 
 one time, always, of course, in the same proportion as the 
 above. In this way the time required in preparing the 
 amount of solution necessary to fill a vat is reduced con- 
 siderably. In case it is necessary to use a smaller con- 
 tainer, say of about the capacity of 25 gallons, only half 
 the amount of solution indicated should be prepared at 
 one time, the quantities of ingredients used being half 
 those in the formula. This will, however, require so 
 much time in preparing the amount of solution necessary 
 to fill a vat that when possible it is advisable to provide 
 a larger vessel for dissolving the chemicals. 
 
 The caldron or tank and utensils used in preparing the 
 dip should be kept free from grease or oil, as small 
 quantities of these may envelop particles of arsenic and 
 prevent or hinder the solution of the arsenic. It should 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 109 
 
 also be borne in mind that when hard water is used in 
 the preparation of the dip the dissolving of the sodium 
 carbonate (sal soda) in the boiling water results in the 
 formation of a fine white or gray insoluble powder or 
 precipitate of lime salts which may be taken for undis- 
 solved arsenic, and thus lead to the belief that all of the 
 arsenic has not gone into solution. 
 
 Diluting the Solution. 
 
 The arsenical solution may be poured into the vat as 
 rapidly as it is prepared until the amount required to fill 
 the vat, when properly diluted, has been made. The most 
 convenient way of diluting the solution is to run the 
 water into the vat through a hose or pipe. The capacity 
 of the vat at the depth to which it is necessary to fill it 
 for dipping, if not known, should be calculated, and for 
 future convenience the water line should be plainly 
 marked at some point on the wall of the vat. After the 
 exact amount of solution necessary to furnish diluted 
 dip to fill the vat has been prepared and placed in the 
 vat all that is necessary is to allow water to flow into the 
 vat until the surface of the dip reaches the mark made 
 on the side of the vat. For example, if the capacity of 
 the vat is 2,000 gallons, then four times the amount of 
 solution necessary to make 500 gallons of dip should be 
 prepared, placed in the vat, and the latter filled with 
 water to the 2,000-gallon mark. In case the vat leaks it 
 will be necessary to modify the above procedure by plac- 
 ing the concentrated arsenical solution necessary to fill 
 the vat in barrels and only placing it in the vat when the 
 latter is nearly filled with water, being careful to note, 
 however, that there is ample capacity remaining so that 
 when the solution in the barrel is added the dip surface 
 will not be above the mark to which the vat is to be filled. 
 
 The capacity of the vat planned at a depth of 5 feet 
 3 inches is 1,470 gallons. In order to fill it to that depth 
 with dip it will be necessary to prepare two batches of 
 concentrated dip each containing the ingredients neces- 
 sary for making 500 gallons of diluted dip and a third 
 
H0 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 batch containing 7 pounds 9 ounces of arsenic and 22 
 pounds 3 ounces of sodium carbonate in case 8 pounds of 
 arsenic are being used to the 500 gallons, or 9 pounds 7 
 ounces of arsenic and 22 pounds 8 ounces of sodium car- 
 bonate in case 10 pounds of arsenic are being used to the 
 500 gallons. 
 
 Stock Solution. 
 
 When for any reason it is not convenient to follow the 
 above method of diluting the dip, a stock solution may be 
 prepared in which the quantity of ingredients for 500 
 gallons of diluted dip are dissolved in 50 gallons of water. 
 Nine parts of water to 1 part of this stock solution will 
 then give the proper dilution. The stock solution is 
 found very convenient for replenishing the dip in a vat 
 when it has become too low for dipping. A stock solu- 
 tion should not be made in more concentrated form than 
 that given (50 gallons of stock for 500 gallons of dip), 
 as the pine tar does not remain properly mixed when the 
 solution is too concentrated. 
 
 The arsenical dip may be left in the vat and used re- 
 peatedly, replenishing it with the proper quantities of 
 water and stock solution when necessary. When, how- 
 ever, the dip becomes filthy through the addition of man- 
 ure and dirt carried in by the cattle, the vat should be 
 emptied, cleaned, and filled with fresh fluid. The fre- 
 quency with which this should be done must be left to 
 the owner, as the condition of the dip at any period 
 after it has been made depends on a variety of conditions, 
 such as the number of cattle dipped, the frequency of the 
 clippings, etc. Even though the dip may not become 
 very filthy, its efficacy decreases somewhat on standing, 
 owing to gradual oxidation of the arsenic. It is therefore 
 advisable to recharge the vat if the dip is more than a 
 month or six weeks old, irrespective of its condition as 
 to cleanliness. 
 
 At the conclusion of each dipping it is well to mark 
 the position of the surface of the dip on the side of the 
 vat in order to determine at the next dipping whether 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 111 
 
 there has been a change in the level of the dip. If the 
 surface of the dip has fallen and it is known that the vat 
 does not leak, there has been a loss of water by evapora- 
 tion and Consequently an increase in the strength of the 
 dip. In order to bring the dip down to its former strength 
 water should be run into the vat until the dip surface 
 reaches the mark made at the last dipping. If the fall has 
 been due to the vat leaking, the strength of the dip has not 
 been altered and consequently water alone should not be 
 added. If the dip surface has been raised by rain the 
 amount of water added in this way should be determined 
 by calculation, and for every nine gallons of water one 
 gallon of the stock solution previously mentioned should 
 be used. 
 
 When not in use the vat should be tightly covered with 
 a waterproof cover to prevent evaporation on the one 
 hand and further dilution by rain on the other hand. Se- 
 curely covering the vat when not in use also lessens the 
 risk of accidental poisoning of stock and human beings. 
 
 Precautions in the Use of Arsenic. 
 
 On account of the fact that arsenic is a dangerous 
 poison, great care must be observed in making and using 
 the arsenical dip. From the time the arsenic is procured 
 from the druggist until the last particle of unused residue 
 is properly disposed of, the most scrupulous care should 
 be taken in handling it. Guessing at weights or measures 
 or carelessness in any particular is liable to result in great 
 damage, and not only may valuable live stock be de- 
 stroyed, but human beings may lose their lives as well. 
 
 Persons using the dip should bear in mind the possi- 
 bility of absorbing arsenic through cuts, scratches, or 
 abrasions of the skin and also by inhalation of vapors 
 from the boiler in which the dip is prepared. It should 
 be remembered that the, absorption of even very small 
 quantities of arsenic, if repeated from day to day, is 
 liable ultimately to result in arsenical poisoning. 
 
 Cattle should always be watered a short time before 
 they are dipped. After they emerge from the vat they 
 
112 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 should be kept on a draining floor until the dip ceases 
 to run from their bodies ; then they should be placed in 
 a yard free of vegetation until they are entirely dry. If 
 cattle are allowed to drain in places where pools of dip 
 collect, from which they may drink, or are turned at once 
 on the pasture, where the dip will run from their bodies 
 on the grass and other vegetation, serious losses are liable 
 to result. Crowding the animals before they are dry 
 should also be avoided, and they should not be driven 
 any considerable distance within a week after dipping, 
 especially in hot weather. If many repeated treatments 
 are given the cattle should not be treated oftener than 
 every two weeks. 
 
 In addition to properly protecting vats containing 
 arsenical dip when not in use, another precaution must be 
 observed when vats are to be emptied for cleaning. The 
 dip should not be poured or allowed to flow on land and 
 vegetation to which cattle or other animals have access. 
 The best plan is to run the dip into a pit properly pro- 
 tected by fences, and the dip should not be deposited 
 where it may be carried by seepage into wells or springs 
 which supply water used on the farm. 
 
 The above precautions are given to inform persons not 
 familiar with arsenic of its poisonous nature and the care 
 that should be observed in its use, and to stimulate a 
 proper care in those who know its poisonous nature and 
 yet might be careless or who may not know all the pre- 
 cautions that should be observed. Unfortunately, how- 
 ever, the giving and emphasizing of such precautions 
 have had the effect of arousing unwarranted fear of 
 arsenic on the part of some stockmen and farmers, and 
 have caused them, for a time at least, to refuse to under- 
 take its use in treating cattle for ticks. For the benefit 
 of those who may unduly fear arsenic because of what 
 has been said, it should be stated that when reasonable 
 care is observed in following the precautions given the,re 
 is little danger of losses occurring. The arsenical dip has 
 been extensively used during the past five years in tick- 
 eradication work in the tick-infested area, and consider- 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 113 
 
 ing the number of cattle that have been dipped the losses 
 have been very small. Some of these losses have been 
 definitely traced to carelessness, and there is little doubt 
 that if it had been possible to investigate all losses the 
 majority of them would have been found to be due to 
 this cause. 
 
 Method of Dipping. 
 
 The procedure to be followed in dipping animals on a 
 farm depends on the end that is sought in undertaking the 
 treatment. If it is simply desired to reduce and keep 
 down the infestation of ticks on a farm, it will only be 
 necessary for the owner to keep his animals under obser- 
 vation and dip them when, according to his judgment, 
 treatment is necessary to keep the ticks under control. 
 Such a procedure may well be followed where the regu- 
 lar tick eradication is not under way ; that is, in instances 
 in which it is not yet practicable or expedient to rid 
 farms completely of ticks. 
 
 If, however, it is desired to rid the farm completely 
 of ticks — and this should be the purpose in every case 
 in which it is practicable and expedient — it will be nec- 
 essary to dip all cattle, and also any horses, mules, or 
 asses that may harbor the cattle tick, at regular intervals 
 until all ticks have disappeared from the farm. The 
 purpose of such dipping is to prevent as nearly as possible 
 any engorged females dropping to the pasture and there 
 laying eggs which in time may develop into young ticks. 
 In order to do this it is necessary to dip at intervals short 
 enough so that no tick after getting on the cattle will have 
 time to mature and drop off before the next dipping. An 
 interval between dippings of two weeks is considered 
 most satisfactory. This interval, however, may be in- 
 creased somewhat if necessary, but it should never be 
 greater than three weeks. 
 
 In freeing a farm of ticks the dipping should not be 
 discontinued until it has been determined with certainty 
 that the cattle and premises are free of ticks. It should 
 be borne in mind that it is almost impossible to deter- 
 
114 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 mine by a few inspections, even if carried out with great 
 care, that animals are free from ticks. If the treatment 
 is discontinued and a few unobserved ticks are still on 
 the animals, these, on maturing and dropping, are likely 
 to give rise to a new brood of young ticks. Moreover, 
 even if the cattle are actually free from ticks, the fact 
 should not be lost sight of that there may still be engorged 
 females, eggs, and seed ticks on the premises. This is 
 most likely to be the case during the colder part of the 
 year when the development of the tick on the ground 
 progresses slowly and also when any seed ticks that may 
 be present are likely to be slow in reaching the cattle be- 
 cause of inactivity resulting from the low temperature. 
 
 Specifications for the Construction of a Concrete Cat- 
 tle-Dipping Vat. 
 
 The site selected for the location of the vat should be 
 dry and of sufficient size to admit of the construction of 
 the chute, the dripping pen, and at least two additional 
 pens — one for holding the cattle prior to dipping and 
 the other for retaining them after dipping' until sufficiently 
 dried. 
 
 Excavation. 
 
 The excavation should be made i foot wider and i foot 
 longer than the inside dimensions of the vat and should 
 conform to its shape. The inside dimensions of the vat 
 are shown on the drawings (Fig. i) and are as follows: 
 Length at top of vat, 26 feet; bottom 12 feet. Width at 
 top, 3 feet; at bottom, i l / 2 feet. Depth, 6*/2 feet. 
 
 The sides and bottom of the excavation should be firm 
 and solid, as they are to serve for the outside forms in 
 casting the concrete. If it is necessary to do any filling 
 in order to conform to the shape of the vat, the filling 
 should be puddled and thoroughly rammed until solid, 
 because the stability of the concrete depends on the 
 foundation. 
 

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116 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Forms. 
 
 The wooden forms should be constructed of i-inch 
 boards and 2 by 4 inch braces, the boards being nailed to 
 the outside face of the braces, as shown in the drawings. 
 The sides and end walls should be built 8 inches higher 
 than the surface of the ground, which should be level. 
 
 Concrete. 
 
 The concrete should be made of 1 part of cement, by 
 measure, 2.y 2 parts of sand, and 5 parts of broken rock 
 or gravel. The cement should be of a standard brand of 
 Portland, the sand clean and coarse, and the broken rock 
 from about ^-inch pieces to not larger than will pass in 
 every direction through a i-inch ring. 
 
 Mixing. — The mixing should be done on a tight 
 wooden platform or in a tight box. The sand and stone 
 should be measured in a bottomless box, 2^ feet long 
 by 2 feet wide by 1 foot deep, having a capacity of 5 
 cubic feet. A convenient size of batch to mix is one con- 
 sisting of 2 bags of cement, 1 measure (5 cubic feet) of 
 sand, and 2 measures (10 cubic feet) of stone. 
 
 The sand is measured out first and the cement emptied 
 on top, after which the two materials are thoroughly 
 mixed together, dry. In the meantime the stone may be 
 measured out and thoroughly drenched with water. The 
 cement-sand mixture is mixed with water and the result- 
 ing mortar then combined with the stone. The stone 
 should be shoveled on the mortar, which has been previ- 
 ously spread out in a thin layer. Mixing should continue 
 until the stone is thoroughly coated with mortar, more 
 water being added during the mixing process if neces- 
 sary. 
 
 Laying. — Before laying the concrete the molds should 
 be set and thoroughly braced into place. The side forms 
 may be suspended in the excavation with their lower 
 edges 6 inches from the bottom by means of crosspieces 
 nailed to the uprights and of sufficient length to rest on 
 supports located several feet from the edges of the ex- 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 117 
 
 cavation. The concrete for the bottom a-d incline is de- 
 posited first, this mixture being of a consistency that 
 water will flush to the surface on ramming. The mix- 
 tures for the sides and end should be very wet and should 
 be thoroughly puddled into place. The consistency of 
 the concrete for the side walls should be such that it will 
 run off the shovel unless handled quickly. 
 
 The laying of the concrete should be done, if possible, 
 in one operation, in order that there may be no joints be- 
 tween the new and old work. If it becomes necessary 
 to lay the concrete on two or more days the surface on 
 which the new concrete is to be deposited should be 
 washed thoroughly clean and coated with grout of pure 
 Portland cement and water mixed to the consistency of 
 cream. The new concrete should be placed before the 
 grout has set. Extreme care should be taken to prevent 
 dirt from falling in on top of the deposited concrete. 
 
 The forms should not be removed until the concrete is 
 set, which in moderate weather will have taken place in 
 about 24 hours. In damp, cold weather at least 48 hours 
 should be allowed before removing the forms. It will be 
 advisable, especially in water-soaked ground, to allow the 
 forms to remain in place for one week before removal. 
 
 Finishing Coat. — Before applying the surface coat 
 dampen the walls and floor thoroughly. Cover the entire 
 exposed surface of the floor and walls with a coating 
 one-half inch thick of cement mortar composed of Fort- 
 land cement 1 part, sand 2 parts. Coating to be floated 
 and troweled to a smooth finish. 
 
 Waterproofing. 
 
 If the earth around the vat is thoroughly drained the 
 vat may be waterproofed by painting the surface coat, 
 but painting the surface will not give satisfactory results 
 if there is ground water to seep in. The paint may be 
 good hot pine tar, or gas-house tar cut with naphtha or 
 gasoline and applied with a brush, or after the mortar 
 coat has hardened the inside of the vat may be painted 
 with an oil-cement paint made as follows : Mix enough 
 
118 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 water with Portland cement to make a fairly stiff paste ; 
 add to this 5 per cent of heavy petroleum residuum oil 
 based on the weight of the cement, and mix thoroughly 
 until the oil entirely disappears, then add more water 
 and stir until a paint of the consistency of cream is 
 formed. This paint should be applied with a brush and 
 should be well rubbed into the surface. Should the mor- 
 tar coat be omitted the paint coat should be applied di- 
 rectly to the surface of the concrete. 
 
 Exit Incline. 
 
 As the exit incline is to have a false wooden floor, it 
 will be necessary to embed iron bolts in the concrete, to 
 which the wooden floor may be fastened. Before the con- 
 crete incline is laid embed in the dirt three pieces of 
 2 by 4 inch scantling, placed at the top, center, and bot- 
 tom of the incline. The bolts should extend through 
 these pieces and should be placed with the head next to 
 the dirt. The bolts should be long enough to extend 
 through the concrete and the inch boards of the floor, so 
 that the wooden floor may be securely fastened. 
 
 Slide. 
 
 Cover the slide with a sheet of boiler iron properly 
 fastened to the cement. 
 
 The cover of the vat consists of two leaves hinged on 
 posts set 3 feet in the ground along each side of the vat. 
 The leaves are 2 feet 6 inches wide, and when open rest 
 against the upper part of the posts to which they are 
 hinged and serve as splash boards. The details of the 
 hinge used and the method of setting it are shown in the 
 drawings. When the leaves are open their lower edges 
 are just above the top of the side walls, which are given 
 a slope inward for the purpose of conducting the dip 
 running from the splash boards back into the vat. Re- 
 movable doors should be constructed to close the triangu- 
 lar openings left at the ends of the vat when the cover 
 is closed. The hinges may be made by a blacksmith. 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 119 
 
 Dripping Pen. 
 
 Construct a dripping pen about 12 by 15 feet at the 
 head of the exit incline. The floor should be of concrete 
 prepared as previously described for the vat and laid in 
 a similar manner. The floor should be pitched toward 
 a corner of the pen, where a pipe should be laid in the 
 floor to carry the drippings into a barrel sunk in the 
 ground. The drippings thus caught may be returned to 
 the vat after settling. The floor should be roughened to 
 prevent the cattle from slipping. 
 
 Chute. 
 
 The chute leading to the vat should be built 30 inches 
 wide and 20 feet long, and the receiving and retaining 
 pens should be of a size to take care of the animals to 
 be dipped. 
 
 Bill of Materials for Vat, Dripping Pen and Chute. 
 Lumber for Forms. 
 
 8 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 14 feet long. 
 13 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 12 feet long. 
 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 9 feet long. 
 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 6 feet long. 
 2 pieces 1 by 12 inches by 4 feet long. 
 8 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet long. 
 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 7 feet long. 
 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 6 feet long. 
 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 4 feet long. 
 2 pieces 2 by 4 inches by 2 feet long. 
 7 pieces 1 by 6 inches by 12 feet long for crosspieces 
 for inside of forms. 
 
 Lumber for Dripping Pen. 
 
 7 pieces 6 by 6 inches by 10 feet long for posts. 
 
 10 pieces 1 by 8 inches by 16 feet long for side rails 
 of pen. 
 
 5 pieces 1 by 8 inches by 12 feet long for side rails of 
 pen. 
 
120 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 5 pieces i by 8 inches by 8 feet long for side rails of 
 
 pen. 
 
 The covers can be made from the lumber used in mak- 
 ing the forms, and the lumber for the exit incline can be 
 gotten in the same way. 
 
 The 4 by 4 inch posts to which the cover is hinged may 
 be made from 2 by 4 stuff by spiking together. 
 
 End form to be made solid. 
 
 Hardware and Ironwork. 
 
 6 bolts, ]/ 2 by 10 inches, with nuts and washers, for 
 false floor of incline. 
 
 1 sheet of ]A, -inch boiler iron cut to shape of slide; 
 plate bored and countersunk for four screws. 
 4 pairs hinges for covers. 
 
 3 heavy T hinges and screws for gate of dripping pen. 
 1 heavy iron bolt to fasten gate. 
 
 Concrete — Vat. 
 
 Cement, io^4 barrels (42 bags). 
 Sand, 2>Ya cubic yards. 
 Stone, 6% cubic yards. 
 
 Dripping Pen and Chute. 
 
 Cement, 5^2 barrels (22 bags). 
 
 Sand, 1^4 cubic yards. 
 
 Stone, 3^2 cubic yards. 
 
 A 26-foot vat has been used extensively for eradication 
 purposes with satisfactory results. However, if it is de- 
 sired to lengthen the body of the vat on account of large 
 numbers of cattle to be treated, or to make it conform to 
 the bureau's requirements for the treatment of cattle for 
 movement as non-infectious, there should be added to 
 the amount of concrete material for each lineal or run- 
 ning foot, cement, 0.37 barrel; sand, 0.12 yard; stone, 
 0.24 yard. 
 
 By some a dripping chute is regarded more satisfactory 
 than a dripping pen. One of the advantages that it has 
 is that the cattle are held in line in the order in which 
 
DIPPING FOR TICKS 121 
 
 they have been dipped, thus making it possible to remove 
 one or more of them at a time as soon as they have 
 drained sufficiently, in order to make room for others. In 
 using the dripping pen this is not practicable and it is 
 necessary to wait until the last animal dipped has drained 
 sufficiently and then remove them all together. 
 
 In case it is desired to construct a dripping chute it 
 should be located at the head of the exit incline in line 
 with the vat. It should be about 36 inches wide. The 
 length will depend on the number of cattle it is desired 
 to accommodate at one time, it being necessary to allow 
 4 to 5 feet for each. A length of from 20 to 40 feet is 
 considered a convenient size for small herds. The floor 
 should be made of concrete and sloped toward the vat. 
 The dip should not be permitted to run directly into the 
 vat, but should be collected in a barrel to settle, as shown 
 in the case of the dripping pen. The floor at the sides 
 should be raised about 2 inches in the form of a curb 
 to keep the dip from running off. 
 
THE HIDE AND SKIN TRADE IN 
 GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 During the past fifty years the hide and skin trade 
 of Britain has seen many changes, and, in some re- 
 spects, it has undergone a complete transformation. 
 From a comparatively low-priced by-product, hides 
 have become elevated into a commercial position 
 which has brought about startling changes in the 
 method of collection, preservation and distribution, 
 and at the present time so great is the scramble for 
 British hides that tanners are faced with the real 
 difficulty in making — or attempting to make — low- 
 priced leather from dearer and dearer raw material. 
 Of course, hides have now become an international 
 product, so that conditions approximate practically 
 all the world over. 
 
 Early Legislation. 
 
 Before proceeding, however, to discuss modern con- 
 ditions prevailing in the British hide business, it may 
 be of interest to briefly note that the question of the 
 proper preservation and flaying of hides has been 
 made the subject of legislation from very early times 
 in Britain. This was probably due to the fact that 
 a proper supply of hides for turning into leather for 
 military purposes was regarded as a prime necessity 
 of the times, as it is obvious the abundant supply 
 of foreign hides now so common was not available 
 at the periods mentioned. The various butchers', 
 tanners' and other trades guilds of the period also took 
 care of the hide supply, and a search in connection 
 with some of the old documents bearing on the sub- 
 ject yields a good deal of quaint and useful informa- 
 tion as to the regulations prevailing. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 123 
 
 In a book of this sort, however, which deals with 
 the business side of the question, it will be impossible 
 to fill much space by quoting such matter. Still, it 
 is interesting just to mention one or two extracts from 
 old Acts of Parliament which have a bearing on 
 the subject. 
 
 The King James Act. 
 
 In 1604, during the reign of King James, an Act 
 was passed which included the following clause: 
 
 "Be it enacted by the King's most Excellent Majesty, 
 the Lords Spiritual and Temporal, and Commons of 
 the present Parliament assembled, and by the au- 
 thority of the same, That from and after the Feast of 
 St. Bartholomew the Apostle, next coming, no 
 butcher, by himself or by any other person, shall 
 gash, slaughter or cut any hide of any deer, bull, steer 
 or cow in slaying thereof, or otherwise,- hereby the 
 same shall be impaired or hurt, upon pain of forfeiture 
 for every hide so gashed, slaughtered and cut, twenty 
 pence; and that no butcher shall water any hide ex- 
 cept only in the months of June, July and August, 
 nor shall offer or put to sale any hide being putrefied 
 and rotten, upon pain of forfeiture for every hide so 
 watered and for every hide so putrefied and rotten, 
 and offered or put to sale, three shillings and four- 
 pence." 
 
 The Act, from which the above is extracted, re- 
 pealed a statute of Queen Elizabeth and all former 
 statutes, so that it is clear the hide question was an 
 important one, even at these early times of English 
 history. 
 
 The matter seems to have reached another stage 
 during the reign of Queen Anne, as the Act of James 
 was repealed and another Act passed, from which the 
 following extract is taken : 
 
 Penalty for Bad Flaying. 
 
 "Penalty on gashing hides and skins and for the 
 better preventing the gashing and cutting of any hides 
 
124 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 in slaying thereof, whereby the same shall be impaired 
 or hurt, it is hereby enacted that from and after the 
 four and twentieth day of June, one thousand seven 
 hundred and eleven, if the raw hide of any ox, bull, 
 steer or cow, or the skin of any calf, shall wilfully or 
 negligently be gashed, slaughtered or cut in the slaying 
 thereof, or being gashed, slaughtered or cut, as afore- 
 said, shall be offered to sale to any butcher, or other 
 person or persons whatsoever, then in every such case, 
 the butcher or other person who impaired or hurt the 
 said hide, by gashing, slaughtering or cutting, as 
 aforesaid, or the person offering the same to sale, 
 shall, for every such offence, forfeit and pay the sum 
 of two shillings and sixpence for every such hide, and 
 one shilling for every such calve-skin, to wit, one 
 moiety thereof to the poor of the parish where the 
 same shall be found or offered for sale, and the other 
 moiety thereof to such persons as will seize, inform 
 or sue for the same." 
 
 There is no doubt that in later times, when these 
 Acts became obsolete, the quality of the flaying, 
 preparation and preservation of hides steadily de- 
 teriorated, and it is only in comparatively recent times, 
 when hides became scarce, and their uses increased 
 to a very large extent, that any attention has been 
 devoted to an improvement in one of nature's best 
 productions, impossible to replace or add to, as live 
 stock is not raised for the covering but for the meat 
 produced. 
 
 As mentioned before, a great deal of attention was 
 paid to hides by the various ancient corporations, 
 and protection was followed out in a way which looks 
 archaic and quaint at the present time. Trading was 
 only allowed within certain local limits, while all sorts 
 of artificial barriers were raised to prevent the free 
 trading in raw stock as we have it in the twentieth 
 century. Just one old case may be quoted, perhaps, 
 as throwing an interesting light on the subject. From 
 an old Nottingham record, it appears that in the year 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 125 
 
 1396 the inhabitants of two English ^ounties were in 
 the habit of visiting the great weekly market, and a 
 man attended from Breedon, in Derbyshire, with a 
 load of hides. Four townsmen complained to the 
 authorities that "they had spoken with him for the 
 aforesaid hides, and were all but agreed as to the 
 price, when a culprit came secretly and bought for a 
 greater sum," etc. What the decision arrived at was, 
 does not seem to be very clear, but if matters of this 
 kind were given much attention to at the present time, 
 it is likely some of our trade associations would have 
 little else to do except settle such disputes. 
 
 An extract from the Northampton "Liber Custo- 
 marium," an old book, in which all the local customs 
 of the town were duly set forth, must conclude the 
 brief historical references to ancient English hide 
 trading. This is dated 1460, and it is stated herein : 
 
 "No stranger may buy hides or pelts but in time of 
 fair. 
 
 "No man of Northampton to go out of the town at 
 none of the gates for to meet the men of the country 
 that bring hides or wool to sell, but to buy in the 
 market only. 
 
 "No butcher henceforth to haunt the butchery as a 
 master till he have given to the town three shillings 
 and sixpence, as in old time they were wont to give." 
 
 The first proviso was evidently designed to protect 
 the local tanning industry, as monopoly and protec- 
 tion seem to have been the first principle of medieval 
 local legislation. It is obvious the local authorities 
 were bound to grant an exception at fair times, other- 
 wise the rustic sellers would hardly have brought 
 produce to suit the convenience of the town people. 
 It is also curious to note that butchers were not al- 
 lowed by custom or law to go out of the town to 
 sell their output of hides. 
 
 Tanned leather, by the way, was also later on 
 taxed by the British Parliament, and was in fact only 
 freed from this impost about a century ago. The re- 
 
126 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 moval, however, of all the absurd restrictions to the 
 hide and tanning business has been a good thing for 
 the various branches which have continued to pros- 
 per, and still continue to do so under a more up-to- 
 date and enlightened regime. 
 
 The Collection, Distribution and Sale of Hides. 
 
 Until a few years ago, before the idea of hide and 
 skin depots and hide markets was developed, hides 
 from the cattle slaughtered by various butchers were 
 sold to the local tanners, fellmongers, tallow chan- 
 dlers, country carriers, etc., who either came to the 
 slaughter house and bought up the goods or made 
 short contracts for them. The system was not very 
 satisfactory for many reasons, as much time and 
 money were spent in going around and collecting the 
 hides and skins, bargaining for them, and getting 
 them to their final destination. This system, however, 
 continued in force until railway communication be- 
 came more general, but with the present input of some 
 of the big yards, which work in two or three thousand 
 hides weekly, it would hardly be a practicable proposi- 
 tion. Obviously, all sorts of hides had to be taken, 
 the collection including steer — or oxhides, as they are 
 called in England — cowhides, calfskins and sheep- 
 skins. The inconvenience in handling such a mixed 
 collection is obvious, and need not be enlarged upon. 
 
 This old method is still followed out in some out 
 of the way districts, where railway communication is 
 bad or uncertain. Tanners or dealeis send their carts 
 for the few hides and skins available, and prices are 
 fixed according to circumstances. Few cheap hides, 
 however, are now to be had, as the leather trade pa- 
 pers regularly publish the average prices obtained at 
 public markets, while brokers regularly send out 
 schedules of prices to the most remote country 
 butchers, often with an offer to purchase the entire 
 production at market prices. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 127 
 
 Modern Methods of Buying. 
 
 In some districts, tanners and fellmongers send out 
 their own buyer to visit the butchers almost every 
 day, who fix the rates for the hides and skins; in 
 others they contract monthly with the butchers for 
 the best skins. Generally speaking, hides are con- 
 tracted for at so much per pound, or per stone of 14 
 pounds, say, from under 60 pounds and over 60 pounds, 
 the prices varying according to the quality of the 
 hides. 
 
 hides. Formerly, hides were bought with the horns 
 and skull attached, but a few years ago, mainly owing 
 to the influence of the various tanners' federations, an 
 improvement was brought about in this direction, so 
 that now tanners, at all events, get a fair proportion 
 of hide, and not a quantity of bone and horn, which 
 not only was useless, but cost money to transport both 
 to and away from the yard. 
 
 Unfortunately, there are still a few tanners in 
 Britain who prefer to stick to the old methods of 
 purchasing hides with horns, skull, etc., attached, 
 but practically all the leading hide and skin markets 
 sell them without these encumbrances. 
 
 The Market System. 
 
 When the idea of establishing hide and skin mar- 
 kets came into existence, the scheme was opposed 
 in many directions, many tanners professing to object 
 to the tried and established method of collecting their 
 raw material. Many of them spent large sums in the 
 attempt to destroy the modern system, but eventually 
 it became established, and to-day few tanners, except 
 the very small ones, urge much objection to buying 
 their hides from markets, properly prepared, graded 
 and weighed to suit their own special requirements. 
 
 Apparently, when the idea of hide and skin markets 
 was first brought forward, the scheme was not re- 
 garded as a money-making concern, but was primarily 
 introduced to ensure the butchers a fair market price 
 
12 8 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 for their by-products. Commission charges were sim- 
 ply taken to pay expenses, but the success of the 
 project attracted some of the cuter commercial spirits, 
 and the markets were in many cases turned into lim- 
 ited companies and showed a good profit on the 
 
 business. 
 
 Hide Market or Auction Methods. 
 
 Hides and skins are received at the various markets 
 from all sorts of sources, and on arrival are all se- 
 lected, classed, and placed in piles not exceeding 30 
 hides. The selection is mainly according to weights, 
 viz. : 49 pounds and under, 50 to 59 pounds, 60 to 69 
 pounds, 70 to 79 pounds, 80 to 89 pounds and 90 pounds 
 and over. These market hides have the shanks cut off 
 square at the hocks and knee. The lips and all super- 
 fluous parts of the hides are cut away, and the weights 
 marked on the butt end near the tail, this being the 
 green net weight of the hide, after deducting an al- 
 lowance settled by the hide classer for wet, manure, 
 or any other additional adhering substance showing 
 at time of weighing. 
 
 Inspection and Weighing. 
 
 In most markets, hides are weighed on a special 
 scale and a clerk checks every weight before the hide 
 is booked. From this book they are again checked 
 out, and invoiced to the tanner. Some great hide 
 centers, such as Newcastle and Liverpool, have an 
 independent inspector, who classes for all the local 
 markets. As in America, hides are classified according 
 to quality, substance, flaying, warble holes and gen- 
 eral condition, some markets bearing a good name for 
 their goods, others being held under suspicion. 
 
 Improvements Through Organization. 
 
 Of late years a good deal of attention has been paid 
 to the hide question by the British trade press, the 
 tanners' federations, and several special authorities 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 129 
 
 who have studied the question. All sorts of estimates 
 have been made as to the annual loss 'brought about by 
 cuts, wide scratches and warble holes. Deputations 
 have waited on the leading government officials con- 
 nected with the Board of Trade, and it would seem as 
 if a great improvement is to be brought about in the 
 very near future. In many cases good, work is being 
 done in this direction by the hide and skin markets, 
 which offer premiums to slaughtermen who send in 
 fairly perfect hides. In 191 1, for instance, the total 
 number of hides inspected by the Newcastle Hide In- 
 spection Society was 88,027, the classification being as 
 follows: First class, 38,279; second class, 47,736; third 
 class, 2,012. In this particular case, there was a de- 
 cline in the number of first-class hides, as compared 
 with the previous year, warbled hides being specially 
 on the increase. In fact, the report issued in con- 
 nection with this market states that out of the total 
 number of hides inspected, probably not 20 per cent 
 are free from the ravages of this pest. 
 
 It is calculated by competent authorities that about 
 80 per cent of the hides slaughtered in the United 
 Kingdom are now handled by established markets ; 
 the tanners can either attend the market auctions or 
 they may employ a commission agent, who will prob- 
 ably buy for him at a lower price than he could him- 
 self. The hides are usually sold by catalogue at the 
 larger markets, such as Bermondsey (London), New- 
 castle, Leeds, Liverpool, Bristol, Birmingham, Shef- 
 field, etc., and, although all sorts of tricks are alleged 
 against the regular attendants, yet on the whole the 
 system works well, and, in any event, tanners are 
 now more or less assured of obtaining hides suitable 
 for their special or particular trade. 
 
 Further Reforms Projected. 
 
 The conditions appertaining to the purchase of hides 
 have not been regarded as very satisfactory in Britain 
 for some time, and all sorts of suggestions have from 
 
13 o HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 time to time been made by the various federations. 
 It is now proposed that the various local associations 
 shall appoint small committees, annually elected, 
 which shall be made up of tanners, commission agents 
 and hide brokers in the locality of each market who 
 will deal with complaints. It is also suggested that 
 the classification and weighing shall be carried out 
 by chosen men supervised by the committee, under a 
 standard which is to be settled by the tanners' federa- 
 tion. All hides are to be weighed, and stamped on 
 the flesh side or tail with the marks A. B. or C. 
 It is also suggested that markets or approved collec- 
 tions inspected by a federation shall be registered, and 
 that buying shall be only made through these regis- 
 tered channels. 
 
 The above are about the latest proposals put for- 
 ward by the tanners' federations, and deposits of cash 
 and certain guarantees are made in connection with 
 the scheme. The slight cost of the above scheme is 
 to be borne by the buyer and seller of the hides, and 
 is to be collected by the selling broker. 
 
 During hot weather, English market _ hides are 
 slightly salted to preserve them ; those which have to 
 travel long distances by rail or ship are of course 
 heavily salted, all being baled up and tied in con- 
 venient bundles with stout cord. 
 
 Anglo-American Hides. 
 
 As regards the treatment of hides taken from Amer- 
 ican cattle slaughtered at such ports of entry as Dept- 
 ford, Birkenhead, etc., these are usually well flayed 
 and of good quality, and are regularly sold at high 
 prices to British and foreign tanners. When the 
 turn of the market is favorable to the transaction, 
 certain selections are re-shipped to the United States, 
 small plump best hides, for instance, suitable for 
 best classes of leather belting being often returned to 
 the United States in this manner, A good deal of 
 nonsense, by the way, is talked about this phase of 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 131 
 
 the hide business in Britain by ardent political pro- 
 tectionists, and at the last parliamentary elections it 
 was often stated that there was a proviso in the sell- 
 ing agreement — always insisted on by American cattle 
 shippers — that the hides from the cattle were to be 
 re-shipped to the land of their birth. In some cases, 
 politicians even went so far as to tell their audiences 
 that this was a strict provision under the Dingley 
 tariff. 
 
 At these depots of slaughter, hides are often salted 
 down in large quantities, as many as 1,200 often being 
 placed in one stack. They are carefully selected, 
 weighed and salted, all the outer edges being turned in 
 toward the center of the pile. Every attention is paid 
 such hides, and no doubt we are largely indebted to 
 some of the big American packers, who have depots on 
 this side, for the increased care and attention hides 
 have been shown during the past few years. 
 
 Varieties of Cattle and Hides. 
 
 In a review of this sort, it is not necessary to devote 
 much space to a consideration of the various breeds 
 of cattle or the sort of hides obtained from them. 
 Mention might, however, be made of a few repre- 
 sentative classes. Kyloes are considered the best, 
 as they throw a level stout hide, as the beasts ma- 
 ture slowly. They are very square and short legged in 
 the pure-bred classes. Runts, or Welsh, or a similar 
 hide, and are suitable for tanners who wish to turn 
 out a stout butt. Another good class is the Aberdeen 
 Angus, which possesses a smooth coat and are a va- 
 riety of black-polled cattle from the north of Britain. 
 Galloways are a similar hide, but are rather smaller, 
 and throw a somewhat plumper hide than the Angus. 
 These representative breeds are considered to be 
 about the best hides in Britain, and formerly brought 
 about a penny a pound more than other hides of- 
 fered. Hides lighter in substance, however, are now 
 rather more required, so that the difference is not now 
 
132 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 so marked, although in many markets they are still 
 given a special classification in the regular schedule. 
 A fine spready hide is also obtained from the Here- 
 ford breed, these being favored by harness and belting 
 makers. The Devon breed of cattle are also much 
 esteemed, and produce a good pattern hide, which is 
 useful for many purposes in leather manufacture. 
 
 Foreign Trade in British Hides. 
 
 A moderate business is done in connection with 
 the export of hides and skins of British origin, America 
 at times taking fair quantities of hides from our mar- 
 kets when prices warrant it. The quantities and 
 values of hides exported taken from cattle slaughtered 
 in the United Kingdom for the past three years were 
 as follows: 1909, 285,084 cwts. (value, £800,812) ; 1910, 
 196,962 cwts. (value, £552,021), and 1911, 215,901 
 cwts. (value, £594,843). In 191 1 the destination of 
 this quantity of tanners' raw material was as follows : 
 Germany, 59,562 cwts. ; United States of America, 
 84,117 cwts.; Canada, 26,691 cwts.; other countries, 
 45,531 cwts. 
 
 Imports of Hides. 
 
 Against this there is a very large import of hides 
 into Britain from practically every corner of the 
 world. The abundant supply of raw foreign material 
 being taken special and full advantage of by the 
 large sole and dressing leather tanners of the north 
 and western parts of England. A good deal of this 
 material arrives at the Thames riverside wharves in 
 London, and is there classified, graded and weighed, 
 prospective buyers being allowed the opportunity of 
 visiting the wharves and inspecting samples of the 
 lots on offer. Here valuations are marked off by them 
 on catalogues, and in due course the buyer or his 
 broker bids for the hides in open competition at the 
 periodical auctions which are held several times a 
 year in Mincing Lane, London. 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 133 
 
 Hides Tanned in England. 
 
 A vast amount of the quantity of dry, dry salted and 
 wet foreign hides which goes to London is, however, 
 again re-exported, but, after allowing for this, dry 
 hides to the value of £784,570 were worked into 
 British tanyards in 191 1, as compared with £974,775 
 in 1910. Wet foreign hides worked in during 191 1 
 amounted to the very large figure of £1,661,278, as 
 compared with £1,890,953 in the previous year. It 
 is certain, therefore, that British tanners are very 
 largely dependent on the foreign sources of supply for 
 their raw material. It is not too much to say that, 
 had this supply not been available of late years, the 
 sole-leather trade would have been in a bad way, as a 
 good and cheap mixed tanned sole leather has been 
 produced from foreign hides, which has effectually 
 competed with the import of American hemlock and 
 Australian tannages. 
 
 Disposal of Sheepskins. 
 
 Many of the above remarks apply with equal force 
 to sheepskins, as regards the collection and distribu- 
 tion of this raw material. Sheepskins, however, are 
 not sold by weight. The)' are received at the market 
 by the skin classer or his assistant, and are marked on 
 the catalogue according to the system in vogue at 
 the place. Such marks as XX. X., A. B. C. D. are 
 often favored; in other centers they are classed as 
 firsts, seconds, thirds, fourths, etc. Shorn skins are 
 a separate class, as are lambs, and wool skins which 
 have been clipped once. Lambs which have grown 
 out of the real lamb stage are classified as Hogs, 
 Hoggetts or Tegs, according to the locality in which 
 they are sold, but the letters A, B and C are generally 
 in use as classing terms in all markets. 
 
 Inspection Committees. 
 
 In some of the leading markets, such as Newcastle 
 and Liverpool, there are buyers and sellers who form 
 
134 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 a hide and skin inspecting- committee, which appoints 
 a man to pass or grade the hides or skins into the 
 various classes. This individual is termed a hide 
 inspector, and is quite independent, as he is not em- 
 ployed by the selling broker alone, but, as stated, paid 
 and controlled by the inspection committee. 
 
 In classing sheepskins in British markets, atten- 
 tion is paid to the size of the. pelt, the quality of the 
 flaying, the condition of the flesh side, scabs, spoilt 
 places, quantity and quality of wool and the amount 
 of damage this has received by tar, dips or dyes. A 
 good deal of experience, tact and skill is required in 
 a skin classer, who has to strike a balance of equity 
 between the sender and the buyer of the skin. On 
 the whole, however, the system works fairly well, and 
 is productive of plenty of competition between fell- 
 mongers who regularly attend the various markets. 
 The fellmongers are loud in their complaints that the 
 values of wool skins have been forced up to a point at 
 which there is neither profit nor pleasure in doing busi- 
 ness. This, however, seems common to the buyer of 
 all kinds of tanners' raw materials, but as the gen- 
 eral business seems a flourishing one, it is quite likely 
 fellmongering or wool pulling is quite as profitable 
 a business as most other sections of the hide or leather 
 trades. 
 
 Horsehides and Calfskins. 
 
 In dealing with the British hide and skin trade, it is 
 not necessary to take up much space by dealing with 
 horse and calf skins. The trade done in these direc- 
 tions is only a moderate one, and, in the case of horse- 
 hides, seems to be a steadily declining section, owing 
 to the rapid displacement of the horse by mechanical 
 traffic. Probably a great part of the horsehides col- 
 lected and sold on our markets, and by private dealers, 
 find a market abroad, quite a big business, compara- 
 tively, being done with the United States, where they 
 are used largely for heavy glove work, enameling, etc. 
 Almost the only outlet for the salted butts now seems 
 
GREAT BRITAIN 
 
 135 
 
 to be Russia, where they are still us^.d for converting 
 into waxed leather for the high boots favored by cer- 
 tain classes of wearers. In England, horse slaughtering- 
 has to be licensed by the local authorities, and, as 
 the business is not much liked, licenses are now seldom 
 granted, especially in great centers of population. 
 
 Quite a fair quantity of British horsehides find their 
 way to the Continent, especially to Germany, where 
 they are either bark-tanned and dressed for enamel- 
 
 The green weight of hides, in certain sections of England, as 
 credited to the local butcher, is usually marked on the butt of the 
 hide, near the tail, with knife cuts. Strokes crossing the horizontal 
 line represent twenty pounds each and those above the line ten 
 pounds each. Figures under ten pounds are made in Roman nu- 
 merals under the horizontal line. In the above cut the weight of 
 ninety-eight pounds is expressed. 
 
 Jn France a similar method is followed, the weight being given 
 in pounds of half a kilogramme (50 kilos equals 110 pounds). The 
 above cut is self-explanatory in regard to this method. 
 
 ing, or turned into chrome leather for imitation box 
 leather. 
 
 However collected, whether from the slaughterers 
 or from other sources of supply, horsehides are usu- 
 ally classified at the recognized markets into firsts, 
 seconds, thirds and fourths quality, and are sold by 
 the piece. Like all raw stock, however, their value is 
 steadily advancing, and as the supply will in all prob- 
 ability decline as motor traffic increases, there is every 
 
136 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 reason to believe values of this class of stock will 
 reach abnormal figures. 
 
 Compared with the great veal-eating country of 
 Germany, or even France, the amount of calfskins 
 handled in Great Britain is very small, and this is one 
 reason perhaps why such progress has been made in 
 the calf leather trades on the continent of Europe. 
 Calfskins are collected and handled much as described 
 in the remarks on hides, most of) the recognized mar- 
 kets regularly receiving small supplies every week. 
 They are usually classified as follows : Seventeen 
 lbs. and over, 9 lbs. to 16 lbs., 5 lbs. to 8 lbs., and un- 
 der 5 lbs. Kipcalf and casualty or damaged calf are 
 scheduled under special headings. There are no re- 
 liable statistics available showing the amount or value 
 of exported calfskins of British origin, but at times 
 fair-sized parcels of skins leave this country for the 
 United States, the cheaper and "kip" classes being 
 most favored when the market permits of large deals. 
 On the other hand, quite a fair-sized trade is done 
 with the continent in raw calf, many of our tanners of 
 straight-tanned and chrome calf depending for their 
 supply of raw stock on regular parcels of Dutch, 
 French, Swedish, Danish or other skins. 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Of late years, owing to comparative scarcity and 
 high prices, to say nothing of the increasing uses to 
 which leather is put, hides and skins have received mucn 
 more attention in Europe than was formerly the case. 
 Efforts have been made, and with a great amount of suc- 
 cess, to obviate the loss caused by bad salting, warbles 
 and careless flaying, and at the first Conference, of the 
 Leather Trades held in Turin in September, 191 1, quite 
 a large proportion of the Agenda was devoted to subjects 
 connected with the raw materials of the tanners' in- 
 dustry. In some cases government attention has been 
 given the methods of preserving and curing hides, whilst 
 the various technical schools, butchers' and tanners' as- 
 sociations have also been directed to a betterment of such 
 questions as the prevention of warbles and improved 
 methods of flaying. Much, however, remains to be done 
 before wastage is stopped, but the advances made in the 
 past, and the attention given the question at the present 
 time, augur well for the future. 
 
 It is impossible in the space at disposal to enter fully 
 into the subject, as it is a very large and comprehensive 
 one. In such a continent as Europe, parts of which are 
 big centers of population, whilst others are sparsely popu- 
 lated, one can hardly deal with the methods followed out 
 all over the continent. However, enough may be said to 
 give readers a general idea of conditions and to show 
 that, at any rate, in some countries, the value of hides 
 and skins is fully recognized by the care and treatment 
 they receive. 
 
 Marketing Hides in France. 
 
 In France, especially in such towns as Paris, it is 
 becoming more and more the custom for country butchers 
 
138 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 to send their hides and skins to the local hide markets 
 for sale at the periodical auctions. In centers where 
 butchers are not organized on the co-operative and 
 profit sharing principle, butchers send their goods to 
 salters, with instructions that they should be sold for 
 their account by auction. These auctions, as a rule, 
 take place in each district at regular intervals of about 
 once a month. 
 
 In France, the selling conditions vary in each district ; 
 in some places hides are sold with the horns and skull 
 bones taken out, whilst in others they are allowed to re- 
 main in, and allowance is made in the weight for ad- 
 hering dirt and manure. Although efforts have been 
 made by parties interested, it has not yet been possible 
 to obtain any agreement or cohesion between these auc- 
 tions, or to get them to adopt any uniform method of 
 sale. Still, butchers and tanners are steadily working 
 away in this direction, and it is highly probable that in 
 time uniformity in the collection, distribution and sale of 
 raw hides and skins will be the outcome. 
 
 Paris Auctions. 
 
 The most important French auctions — and in some 
 respects perhaps the most important in Europe — are the 
 Paris monthly sales. These usually last three days, and 
 something like 30,000 hides and 40,000 calf skins are 
 offered and sold, buyers attending from all parts of 
 Europe, and many of them having large commissions to 
 execute at times on American account. The hides are 
 graded up into heavy ox, medium ox, and small ox, cows 
 being scheduled as heavy cow and light cow. Other 
 classes include light bull and heavy bull, medium calf, and 
 light and extra heavy calf. 
 
 The Paris hides being sold in the green state, the 
 quantities scheduled in the catalogues represent what each 
 butcher is likely to produce during the coming month. 
 In reality, the buyer buys for forward delivery, and by 
 bidding for a lot, one is really buying a butcher's produc- 
 tion of hides and skins for the next following month. 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 139 
 
 Bids are made for ioo half kilos, equal to about ioo 
 lbs. English, and the bids advance by quarter francs. 
 The catalogues show what prices were obtained for each 
 lot at the preceding month's auctions, a useful guide to 
 prospective purchasers. 
 
 Many of the hides taken off in Paris are from public 
 abattoirs, and are, in consequence, well flayed and 
 treated. The usual run of hides are very spready, but 
 are well grown, and are bought chiefly for the manufac- 
 ture of carriage leathers and high grade belting leathers. 
 France, being also a large veal consuming country, is a 
 large supplier of calf skins, and French square-trimmed 
 skins are well known all over the world where a fine 
 and well-patterned skin is required for upper stock, book 
 binding or high class leather manufacture generally. 
 
 Sales to America. 
 
 Naturally, Paris hides and skins are fully appreciated 
 by American tanners, and when the price is favorable, 
 almost the entire offering is bought up on American ac- 
 count. The business done is at times worked through 
 dealers, but this is often very unsatisfactory to tanners, 
 as when an unscrupulous dealer is unable to obtain the 
 genuine Paris slaughter, he at times ships country hide? 
 and skins, faked up to resemble the Paris goods as much 
 as possible. The better plan is to buy through a broker 
 who, for a small commission, will secure just the right 
 kind of hide or skin required. These brokers, by the 
 way, also look after the salting, curing, and shipping, 
 any in many ways study the interests of their clients in 
 a way which is a very direct money saving proposition. 
 
 Notes on German Hide Cure, Etc. 
 
 Of late years the thrifty Teuton has paid special at- 
 tention to various methods of hide cure and distribution, 
 with excellent results. A good general outline of the 
 careful methods followed may be gathered from the 
 rules for flaying and salting laid down by the Union of 
 Thuringen Tanners, which are as follows : 
 
140 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Thuringen Rules for Take-Off. 
 
 Every bide is to be flayed from the beast direct into 
 a basket beneath. Here it is left to drain and cool Flay- 
 ing into a basket has the advantage that the grain side 
 remains quite clean and dry, and thus blood spots and 
 other damage is avoided. For beating out the hide, 
 special rounded hammers are used, which make any 
 damage to the hide by cutting impossible. All hides are 
 to be salted as soon as possible after cooling, in any case 
 not later than the day of flaying. For this they are, 
 after being cleaned from any adhering dirty matter, laid 
 flat, spread out flesh side up on a low stretcher, which 
 is higher in the middle than at the sides, and every part 
 of the flesh side is sprinkled with about 25 per cent of 
 green weight of salt. 
 
 Heavy parts of the hide, such as the head, are specially 
 well salted, and the slightly stuck together edges are to be 
 opened out and carefully sprinkled with salt. Too much 
 salting never hurts. 
 
 The underside must be so arranged that all the salt 
 water can flow away easily without soiling the lowest 
 hide. In this way 100 to 150 hides can be easily laid one 
 upon the other. The heads are not placed one upon the 
 other, but laid near each other alternating above and 
 below. By heavy salting a layer is formed under which 
 the blood, water, etc., can easily run away without soiling 
 the grain side of the hide lying next above. If the hides 
 are sufficiently well salted, they can lie on the pile for a 
 whole week and take no harm. Hides or parts of hides 
 which are not salted stiff after two days, or on which no 
 more free sale is to be found, must be resalted. 
 
 As blood, and the liquids of the hide, decompose in 
 warm weather at least within a few hours, and in this 
 condition are no longer fluid, so the draining off of the 
 fluid of the hide and therefore proper preservation by the 
 penetration of a strong solution of salt into the center 
 of the hide is impossible if salting is not done immedi- 
 ately after the hide has cooled. 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 141 
 
 The firmer and stiffer the hide becomes on the pile, the 
 more fluid is drained from it, the better it is preserved, 
 and the better is the resulting return in hide substance 
 and leather. 
 
 The salting and storing must take place in a cool 
 place. The hides must be protected against draughts and 
 sunshine to avoid drying up. Direct sunlight favors the 
 commencement of decomposition. On dried-out spots the 
 salt crystallizes out and makes in conjunction with blood 
 salt spots, and the so-called "salt eating," i. e., small 
 holes on the grain side, which greatly reduce the value 
 of the hide. 
 
 After 4 to 6 days, when the hides are ''salt hard," they 
 are bundled up and tied. It would be wrong to tie the 
 hides up into bundles immediately after salting ; the 
 undrained-off water would remain in the hide and no 
 proper preservation would ensue. The grain side would 
 be soiled by blood stains and "salt-eating" would arise. 
 Before salting the hides must be protected from frost and 
 freezing, which alters the fibre texture mechanically, and 
 later causes a weak, porous leather. Salted hides are not 
 so susceptible to frost, because a saturated solution of salt 
 only freezes at a very low temperature. 
 
 Calf skins are to be salted in the same way as hides. 
 They are also laid upon each other flesh side up, care- 
 fully salted and left lying 3 to 4 days. In packing in 
 bundles each two skins can be laid flesh side together. 
 For salting only fresh unused salt must be used. 
 
 As a denaturing agent, alum is to be avoided, as it 
 partially tans the skin and makes difficult the proper 
 softening and slacking, and frequently causes spots of 
 calcium sulphate which renders unhairing impossible. 
 
 The most useful method of denaturing is with a quar- 
 ter per cent of petroleum, or about three per cent of 
 calcium soda. This latter seems to be the best, as 
 petroleum or petroleum residue, if not well mixed with 
 the salt, causes greasy spots on the hide which lime cannot 
 touch. 
 
142 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Italian Hides and Their Treatment. 
 
 The Italian hide trade is an important one, and for 
 certain purposes, such as high grade sole leather, Italian 
 hides are second to none, especially those obtained from 
 Northern Italy. Of late years, a good deal of trouble 
 has been caused by the materials used in connection with 
 the denaturization of the salt used, a process rendered 
 necessary by the fact that salt is dutiable in most Euro- 
 pean countries. This question was fully discussed at the 
 Turin conference above mentioned, when a useful paper 
 on the subject was read by Dr. Baldracco of the Royal 
 Italian Tanning School, on a series of experiments and 
 observations made by himself and Sig. Camilla Romana. 
 The experiments were undertaken in consequence of ap- 
 peals made by several hide and skin associations in 
 France, when the investigators were empowered to in- 
 vestigate the causes of so-called salt stains, and to en- 
 deavor to find methods which would lead to their pre- 
 vention. After fully investigating all the work previously 
 done in connection with the matter, the investigators came 
 to the conclusion that the gist of the question could be 
 summarized by the following two queries : 
 
 Causes of Salt Stains. 
 
 (i) Are the so-called salt stains produced by the 
 decomposition of various matters, such as blood, al- 
 buminoids, etc., which exist in the hides themselves at 
 the time of salting? 
 
 (2) Are the so-called salt stains produced by the 
 mixture of substances contained in the salt itself, or 
 are they contained in the materials used in the denaturing 
 of the salt ? 
 
 The investigators, it appears, confined themselves to the 
 second question, as they hoped that the first would be 
 investigated by those competent, whilst the second would 
 be of most practical value to the tanner. Admitting that 
 the salt most suitable for hide preservation was sea salt, 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 143 
 
 they devoted their attention to a long series of experi- 
 ments, the results of which are herewith appended. 
 
 Report i. 
 
 Salt Denaturing. 
 
 The formulas for salt denaturing, furnished by the 
 Italian Minister of Finance on the conclusion of the de- 
 liberations of the council appointed for the investigation 
 of the matter, were as follows : 
 
 (a) Sodium sulphate of potassium chloride 10 per cent 
 
 (b) Alum, or any other substance such as 
 
 aluminum sulphate 15 per cent 
 
 Petroleum 0.25 per cent 
 
 The Technical Council for Salt, however, rejected the 
 proposal to reduce the amount of sulphate of sodium for 
 denaturing to 5 per cent, and forced them to the con- 
 clusion that the different substances such as sulphate of 
 sodium, aluminum sulphate, alum, etc., which would not 
 be allowed as denaturing materials alone, must be mixed 
 with petroleum or naphthaline before use. 
 
 The Italian Tanners' Association offered an objection 
 to the use of alum or aluminum sulphate, whilst they ad- 
 mitted as acceptable sodium sulphate and i potassium 
 chloride. The investigators then tried the effect of the 
 addition of borax, using the following formulae for de- 
 naturing in experiments on salting: 
 
 (1) Common salt not denatured 15 per cent 
 
 (2) Sulphate of sodium 10 per cent 
 
 Petroleum 0.25 per cent 
 
 (3) Potassium chloride 10 per cent 
 
 Petroleum 0.25 per cent 
 
 (4) Sulphate of sodium 5 per cent 
 
 Petroleum 0.25 per cent 
 
 (5) Sulphate of sodium 5 per cent 
 
 Naphthaline 1 per cent 
 
 (6) Borax 10 per cent 
 
 Petroleum 0.25 per cent 
 
 (7) Borax 10 per cent 
 
144 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 In their report the experimenters state the skins were 
 covered uniformly with salt and allowed to lie in pile for 
 48 hours, folded in the usual manner and allowed to re- 
 main for a month. After the expiration of this period, 
 they were closely inspected, washed, and placed in a lime 
 to which sodium sulphate had been added. After un- 
 hairing, fleshing and deliming, the skins were again 
 carefully inspected and the following results were noted : 
 
 Denaturing 
 
 Agent as Above. Character of Pelt. 
 
 (1) Blue spots on flesh and grain 
 
 (2) Blue spots and faint blue shades 
 
 (3) Blue spots and strongly marked shades 
 
 (4) Blue spots and shades. 
 
 (5) Blue stains less marked than 2 and 4 
 
 (6) Blue shades very slight 
 
 (7) Blue shades more marked than 6. 
 
 The conclusions drawn from the above were as fol- 
 lows : 
 
 (1) The causes of the characteristic blue stains must 
 be looked for in the salt itself (Experiment No. 1). 
 
 (2) By the use of salt denatured by the use of potas- 
 sium chloride, the blue stains are less than is the case 
 with denatured salt. 
 
 (3) The use of salt denatured by the use of sodium 
 sulphate, the stains were still less. 
 
 (4) Where borax is used for the denaturing of the 
 salt, the stains were very slight, consisting of light blue 
 shades, and no pronounced spots. 
 
 The investigators in their report called attention to 
 formulae 6 and 7 for denaturing, and to the fact that 
 the spots remained throughout the whole tanning process. 
 The light shades, however, vanished almost completely 
 in the first acid liquors of the vegetable tannage, and in 
 the pickling process which preceded the chrome process. 
 The conclusions arrived at were that preference must be 
 given to borax for denaturing materials. 
 
 The work described in the above report was continued, 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 145 
 
 and experiments were made with denaturing salt with 
 potassium bichromate, whilst experiments were also made 
 with salting with especially pure salt. This latter was 
 made in ordinary way, greater care, however, being taken 
 in purification, contact with iron vessels being avoided. 
 
 Experi- 
 ment. Salt Composition. Observations on Pelt. 
 
 8. Purified common salt not 
 
 denatured White flesh and grain, 
 
 ; with light spots on the 
 flesh 
 
 9. 15 per cent refined table 
 
 salt Same as 8 
 
 10. 15 per cent purified salt 
 
 denatured with 0.017 
 
 per cent potassium 
 
 bichromate, 10 per cent 
 
 sodium sulphate, 1 per 
 
 cent naphthaline White flesh and grain, 
 
 light shade on flesh 
 ir. 15 per cent purified salt 
 
 denatured with 0.017 
 
 per cent potassium 
 
 bichromate, 10 per cent 
 
 sodium sulphate, 1 per 
 
 cent naphthaline, 5 per 
 
 cent borax Flesh and grain verv 
 
 -^- '-'■'*• white and no colora- 
 
 is jh> "■?' '%.. ~ . tion 
 
 The first experiment confirmed the previous statement, 
 that the main cause of the salt stains was to be found 
 in the salt itself, as the use of purified salt almost caused 
 the stains to disappear. Experiment 10 showed that the 
 formula proposed by the Government should be given 
 the preference. Experiment 11 confirmed the preliminary 
 results in regard to the beneficial results likely to be ob- 
 tained by the use of borax as a denaturing agent. The 
 investigators came also to the conclusion that when a 
 
146 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 pure salt is used, the No. 10 formula was a suitable one 
 for the denaturing of salt, the use of borax being allow- 
 able for those who desired it. 
 
 The above data was read at the Turin Conference of 
 the Leather Trades, and its provisions received much con- 
 sideration from the chemists and tanners present. 
 Amongst the official resolutions passed was one suggest- 
 ing that in the cure of hides and skins the quality of the 
 salt used should come before everything else. Only 
 such salt should be used in the manufacture in which the 
 greatest care and cleanliness had been used, avoiding 
 any which had been made in any plant containing iron. 
 If these conditions are granted, the really important point 
 was the use of borax for denaturing salt in all processes 
 for salting hides, as all the experiments made had shown 
 that the use of borax for denaturing salt were the best 
 means for avoiding salt stains on hides and leather. 
 
 Belgian Hides and Skins. 
 
 A rather important paper on The Improvement of 
 Hides and Skins was also read at the Turin Conference 
 by Mr. Emile Kemp, who attended on behalf of Belgian 
 Leather Manufacturers' Association. ■ In this he drew 
 attention to the fact that the Belgian Bourse aux Cuirs 
 had since its foundation in 1906 largely interested itself in 
 the question. After pointing out that the increased uses 
 to which leather was put had greatly changed the char- 
 acter of the article required, and that the most clever 
 tanner could not turn out good leather from bad raw 
 material, he went on to draw attention to the defects 
 caused by the warble fly, barbed wire fencing, the pres- 
 ence of dung and dirt and the effect of bad flaying and 
 cuts. An attempt was made, it was said, in 1907 by an 
 exhibition of hides, skins and leather to direct public 
 interest toward the damage done by the causes just men- 
 tioned and so much interest was evoked that further steps 
 were taken in the direction indicated. A press campaign 
 was instituted, and a second Conference called in June, 
 1909. In 1910 the Bourse aux Cuirs again had a fine 
 
EUROPEAN HIDES AND SKINS 147 
 
 exhibit of hides, skins and leather at the Brussels Exhibi- 
 tion showing the damage done by warb 1 es, wire fencing, 
 bad flaying, etc., and although this exhibit was unfor- 
 tunately burnt, it served to create a great interest in the 
 matter throughout the farming, grazing, butchering, and 
 tanning industry. A good deal of literature was also 
 distributed in connection with this subject at the exhibi- 
 tion, no less than 5,000 pamphlets being given away, 
 drawing attention to the improvements in flaying when 
 beaten off the carcass with a hammer or mallet. As a 
 matter of fact the Belgian Bourse aux Cuirs has spent in 
 four years about 10,000 francs in connection with the 
 agitation for an improvement in connection with hides 
 and skins, and the Bourse has stated in the trade press 
 that if other trade associations would take the work up 
 as well, there would soon be a vast improvement in the 
 take off and quality of the world's supply of hides and 
 skins. Even now butchers' cuts in hides are gradually 
 vanishing in Belgium, whilst the example set by this in- 
 dustrious little country is steadily being followed by 
 France, where in many cases flaying by the hammer is 
 being followed out with excellent results. In regard to 
 flaying by the hammer (la depouille au marteau) it will 
 be interesting to give here a translation of the instruc- 
 tions and a reproduction of the diagrams issued by the 
 Bourse aux Cuirs of Belgium. 
 
 Diagram 1. 
 
 The beast is placed on its back and the hide is removed 
 from the legs, which are then hooked together. The 
 opening of the hide is made in a straight line above the 
 knee and toward the beast to a length of about three 
 centimeters below the breast. 
 
 Diagram 2. 
 
 The beast is now placed on its back with the legs 
 skinned and tied together. An opening is made in a 
 straight line from the point of the chest in the direction 
 of the root of the tail. If the plan indicated in the figures 
 
148 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 i and 2 are followed out, a hide of perfect shape will be 
 the result, as shown in diagram 4. 
 
 Fig. 3- 
 
 The illustration shows that the flaying with the hammer 
 is easy and simple. After the hide is removed from 
 the flanks, so as to get a firm grip with the pincers, blows 
 are given between the hide and the flesh, and not only 
 is a perfect hide obtained, but there is no resulting injury 
 to the carcass or meat. 
 
 Diagram 4. 
 
 If the directions given in figures 1 and 2 have been 
 followed out, a fine shape will be obtained, whilst there 
 will be no damage to the edges as shown by the dotted 
 lines. By the use of the hammer it is impossible to cut 
 hides, whereas these are almost impossible to avoid when 
 the flaying knife is used. 
 
 Much attention has also been paid to the damage done 
 to hides and skins in Denmark, and extensive trials have 
 proved that the best results in regard to the destruction 
 of the warble or grub in cattle are obtained by the re- 
 moval of the larvae from the back of the living animal 
 at the proper seasons of the year. 
 
Diagram 1. 
 
 Diagram 2. 
 
Diagram 3. 
 
 Diagram 4. A Perfect Hide. 
 
SOUTH AMERICAN HIDES 
 
 The southern half of the western hemisphere fur- 
 nishes to Europe and the United States a large quan- 
 tity of wet salted and dry hides. In recent years 
 American tanners have used wet salted hides more 
 freely and are beginning to know their real value, com- 
 pared with domestic stock. 
 
 South American wet salted hides are of three classes, 
 viz., frigorificos, saladeros and mataderos. 
 
 Frigorifico Hides. 
 
 The frigorifico class is of the highest quality and is 
 taken off similar to Chicago packer stock, but is not 
 so well flayed. The labor conditions are not stable, 
 the men shift around, causing variation in the take- 
 off — sometimes better and again poorer — but mostly 
 it compares favorably with the best packer hides. 
 The slaughterers kill largely for the European markets. 
 They dress domestic cattle interbred with finer stock 
 similar to American free-of-brand beeves, although 
 still containing some of the Creole or original range 
 blood. The hides coming from a warm climate are 
 much like Texas stock. The hides are plump and the 
 fiber open, and they absorb more tannin and produce 
 very firm leather. 
 
 Salting, Disinfection and Trim. 
 
 Frigorifico hides are salted in the same manner as 
 American packer stock, but are trimmed much closer 
 and washed on both the hair and flesh sides before 
 going into pack, and therefore are very clean. They 
 are cured with coarse mineral salt, which leaves the 
 hides in a white condition. The hides, after being 
 
150 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 washed, go into a pickling vat containing strong brine 
 with five per cent bichloride of mercury, to meet the 
 requirements of the United States government. After 
 being in pickle for twelve hours, they are withdrawn, 
 put in a pile, drained off and salted. The pickle ex- 
 tracts the animal juices from the hides more quickly 
 than when they are salted in packs green from two 
 to three weeks. For this reason frigorificos cure much 
 faster than American packer hides. 
 
 Saladero Hides. 
 
 Saladero hides are from creole cattle, or those not 
 interbred, resemble old-style Texas steers, are very 
 thick and plump and have one to four brands. The 
 brands are small, generally on one butt. Saladeros 
 are not as well taken off as frigorificos, but are capable 
 of producing, at the same prices, better results, be- 
 cause they make a larger yield of leather. They are 
 suitable for sole leather only and in past years were 
 tanned mostly in Germany, France and Italy. During 
 recent years a great many have come to the United 
 States, as our tanners realized their value, compared 
 with domestic stock, and know how to handle them. 
 These hides are cured the same as frigorificos, but 
 are not so clean of flesh. 
 
 The mataderos are of the same stock as the sala- 
 deros, but are taken off by country butchers. The 
 take-off and cure are a good deal poorer and class 
 with American country hides. 
 
 Prices and Sales Methods. 
 
 The values of South American wet salted hides are 
 based on frigorifico steers. The saladeros sell on a 
 par with the frigorifics nearly all the time. The 
 mataderos bring from i^c to 2c below saladeros on 
 account of their poor take-off and cure. 
 
 Saladero and matadero killers are located through 
 the country in small places and would class with 
 American small packers' establishments. The labor 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 151 
 
 in these districts is very uncertain, hence the poorer 
 take-off. 
 
 Hides are sold flat, no selections being made for 
 weights: They run very uniform, from 50 to 75 pounds 
 average; in the summer season 57 to 60 pounds, and 
 in the winter season 60 to 67 pounds. 
 
 The seasons in South America are just the reverse 
 of the northern continent, summer here being winter 
 there. The climate is about the same. The winters 
 are not so severe — they never have snow — and, there- 
 fore, the cattle do not get so long-haired and unhair 
 more quickly in the spring, so that the short-haired 
 season is about two months longer than in North 
 America. 
 
 Calfskins are graded at 7 to 15 pounds and kip at 
 15 to 25 pounds, the same as American weights. They 
 compare favorably with the hides, the cure and take- 
 off being equal. 
 
 Dry Hides. 
 
 There are many varieties of dry hides in South 
 America. Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Montevideos and 
 Cordobas are the stable selections. They are all taken 
 off on the range. Many of the cattle are killed for 
 immediate consumption, while some die through the 
 winter season, the hides being preserved while the 
 meat is wasted. The hides are sun and air dried and 
 in many districts are poorly taken care of. A good 
 many lots run very poor, while others run good. They 
 are shipped to the markets in Buenos Aires, Monte- 
 video, etc., their names being given as of the port of 
 export, in original lots and are sorted up. Very bad 
 gluestock hides are removed. They are then graded 
 for heavy hides, 14 to 16 pounds and upward, the 
 average being 22 to 24 pounds, although sometimes 
 as high as 26 to 28 pounds. They are then sorted 
 for No. i's, No. 2's and No. 3's, and each hide is 
 marked according to the exporter's individual method. 
 Some have Nos. 1, 2 and 3, while others use letters 
 in designating the various grades. The No. 2 hides 
 
152 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 are called "desechos" in Spanish, and the No. 3's, 
 "maldesechos." The hides are sold on a flat basis, 
 to run a uniform percentage of No. 2's. Buenos 
 Aires and Montevideo hides are usually sold with 20 
 to 30 per cent seconds specified, while Entre Rios 
 are always sold free of kip and glue hides, or 14 
 pounds and upward. 
 
 These hides usually are sold on the same selection 
 for heavy and light stock, specifying 15 to 20 per cent 
 seconds. These are the highest priced hides that 
 come from South America. They class for quality 
 in this order: Buenos Aires, Entre Rios, Montevideos 
 and Cordobas. 
 
 Damage by Ticks, Etc. 
 
 South American hides are all more or less ticky, 
 depending upon the section in which they originate. 
 Some are very ticky, while others are less affected. 
 In buying dry hides the tanner has to contend with 
 damage from sunburn. Winter, fall and spring hides 
 are the best, while summer stocks are the poorest. 
 This is because of sunburns, which injure the grain 
 and oftentimes cause hides classed as No. 1 to be 
 put into gluestock. Such hides were injured in dry- 
 ing, but the damage does not show until they are 
 put into the limes and soaks. 
 
 Kip and calf skins are graded the same as in wet 
 salted stock and are sold as to quality on the same 
 selections. 
 
 The terms on dry hides are the same as on wet 
 salted stock. Sole leather tanners have bought these 
 hides for many years, are familiar with them, and are 
 buying them constantly. 
 
 Hides coming from the western part of South 
 America, such as points in Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador and 
 Columbia, are classed about the same as those men- 
 tioned above, and come largely in dry stock; very 
 few, if any, are wet salted. Some are dry salted, which 
 means half dry. Their values are based on North and 
 South American hides. 
 
SOUTH AMERICA 153 
 
 America gets from South America only the surplus. 
 The European countries have impOiced these hides 
 for years, or since the raising of cattle began, and 
 they are their main supply. They usually buy what 
 they require and the surplus comes to America. This 
 condition applies to the hide and skin surplus of the 
 world. 
 
 How Hide Trades Are Financed. 
 
 Hides are bought mostly on letters of credit, three 
 or four months, letters being issued through American 
 bankers and their London correspondents and the rate 
 of exchange is based on $4.86 per English pound. 
 Orders are given for a quantity of hides, of a certain 
 packer. They are cabled there and the purchases made 
 and reported to the tanner, after which the letters of 
 credit are issued, in the name of the party making the 
 purchase. The hides come forward in thirty to fifty 
 days, according to whether the vessels are fast or slow. 
 
 All hides are sold cost and freight New York or 
 Boston, when destined for America, which means that 
 the freight and all costs in South America are paid by 
 the seller. When the hides land they are at the risk 
 and expense of the buyer, who usually has a public 
 weigher receive, weigh and ship them at his (the 
 buyer's) expense. The insurance is also paid by the 
 buyer, as all bankers require an insurance policy to 
 cover the letters of credit in their name to insure 
 safety. This financing is done at a low rate of interest 
 through London, and the bankers are very careful that 
 the loan is secured by the goods until they are de- 
 livered to the buyer. Buyers who are responsible can 
 get these letters at three or four months, and sign 
 trust receipts when the hides arrive and pay the draft 
 when it matures. The charges for such letters of 
 credit through good bankers are usually y 2 of 1 per 
 cent for three-month letters and ^4 of 1 per cent for 
 four-month letters. Some of the smaller bankers 
 charge higher for these letters. 
 
 Hides are usually sold in advance of the kill. South 
 
154 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 American packers operate on the buyers' money all 
 the time. They sell their meat and offal before they 
 buy the cattle, giving the bankers a guarantee to 
 produce the goods or settle for the difference in value 
 at the market value at the time of delivery. This 
 business was started and built up in this way by 
 people who did not have much capital, and still con- 
 tinues along the same lines. The methods will, no 
 doubt, change more or less as American packers get 
 into the South American markets. 
 
MEXICAN HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Cattle hides of Mexican origin are desirable and of 
 good quality owing to the general absence of disease 
 among the animals of that country. The cattle are 
 smaller than the average in the United States, but their 
 hides are tough and very desirable for sole-leather pur- 
 poses. Mexican hides are somewhat on the order 
 of Texas steers and cows of former days, when the vast 
 herds roamed unprotected from the weather. Goat- 
 skins form the greater part of the supply of material 
 for making leather from Mexico, owing to their general 
 use as a farm and dairy animal. 
 
 Much difficulty has been met with in endeavoring to 
 raise pure-bred cattle, horses, etc. Many years ago 
 large herds were imported into the country in an en- 
 deavor to raise the standard of beef and draft animals. 
 Experience, however, proved that the rough and un- 
 sheltered life was too much for the well-cared-for ani- 
 mals. Better results were obtained subsequently by 
 the importation of pure-bred males only. The animals 
 brought into Mexico are more subject to anthrax and 
 cattle ticks than the native beasts. 
 
 Slaughtering. 
 
 Cattle are slaughtered by well-to-do farmers on 
 their ranches. Killing is also done by butchers, who 
 take the animals to the municipal slaughter houses 
 for this purpose. The Mexican government of late 
 years has assumed control of a line of large slaughter 
 arid packing houses. From these plants the best flayed 
 hides come. As a usual thing, the hides taken off by 
 the farmers and butchers are dried to preserve them, 
 while abattoir stock is salted, much the same as in 
 the United States. 
 
156 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Methods of Drying Hides. 
 
 Hides are dried by exposing them to the sun, or in 
 shaded sheds. The hides are hung on poles or wires, 
 flesh side out, the fold being down the center of the 
 back. Sun-dried hides are liable to harden on the 
 flesh and not allow the moisture underneath to evapo- 
 rate, while the shade-dried are preserved in a uniform 
 manner all the way through. No salt is used in pre- 
 serving dried hides. After the hides have been thor- 
 oughly dried, they are given a treatment of poison. 
 This preparation is made of either a solution of ar- 
 senic or cyanide of potassium. The purpose of this 
 application is to free the hides from destructive in- 
 sects which ruin them by eating the hide substance. 
 The poison is applied by sprinkling it in the hair, 
 which is the abode of the bugs, as they are commonly 
 called. 
 
 Classification. 
 
 There are two classifications of dried hides. Flint 
 hides are the hides of cattle which have been slaugh- 
 tered, while murrain or fallen hides come from dead 
 animals. Flint hides have a bright, live appearance, 
 while the fallen stock has a dead and dull appearance. 
 Dry hides are put up for shipment in bales of easily 
 handled size, the number to a bale being governed by 
 the class and weight of stock being shipped. They 
 are placed one on top of the other, legs in and backs 
 out, there being backs but no legs showing on the out- 
 side of the bales. Hides are piled in a compress, and, 
 when a sufficient number have been piled, they are 
 pressed in a tight, compact bale and bound. 
 
 Wet Salted Hides. 
 
 Wet-salted hides are treated in much the same man- 
 ner as packer hides in the United States. They are 
 placed in packs built to retain as much pickle as 
 possible. They are left lying in salt for thirty days 
 to thoroughly purge them of blood and foreign animal 
 
MEXICO 157 
 
 matter and then taken up, classified, bundled and 
 shipped. Mexican wet-salted hides ~ve branded and 
 are generally sold in but two classifications — cows and 
 steers — with the various weight selections, as to de- 
 mands of buyers. No poison enters into the curing 
 or preserving of wet-salted hides. 
 
 Goatskins. 
 
 Goatskins are classified as "Matanzas" and "fron- 
 tiers." The former are those that weigh 800 grams 
 (1.763 pounds) or over, and are of standard shape, 
 and well taken off. Those that do not come up to these 
 specifications are classified as frontiers. The matan- 
 zas skins are dried without using salt, after which they 
 are poisoned, similar to the dry hides and rubbed with 
 talcum dirt. Talcum dirt is found in many sections 
 of Mexican country and is a substance closely re- 
 sembling clay, being more commonly known as clay 
 dirt. The frontier skins are dried without salt and 
 subjected to immersion in clay dirt, but are not 
 poisoned, the latter operation being eliminated in pre- 
 paring the poorer quality skins for the market, or 
 when only small lots are involved. 
 
 Deer, Hog and Slunk Skins. 
 
 Deerskins and wild hogskins are dried without salt 
 and are not poisoned. Skins of the unborn calves, 
 commonly called slunk skins, are taken from the cows 
 when slaughtered and dried with salt, and poisoned, 
 good care being taken with them owing to their de- 
 sirability for use in making the better grades of 
 gloves. 
 
 General Absence of Cattle Diseases. 
 
 Anthrax seldom appears in the sections of Monterey 
 and Vera Cruz, from which ports a large part of the 
 output of goatskins is shipped, and only a very lim- 
 ited number of cases have been found for several years 
 past. Those cases discovered were almost entirely 
 
158 HIDES AND SKIN8 
 
 among the imported animals. The remedy used is to 
 kill the animal affected and burn the carcass, so that 
 the disease does not spread. Ticks are known through- 
 out the Monterey district, but can easily be controlled 
 by furnishing the animals with plenty of salt. The 
 district of Vera Cruz is not seriously affected by the 
 prevalence of tick, and, as a rule, only imported ani- 
 mals suffer. In the interior of the country, where an 
 altitude of 5,000 feet or over is reached, ticks do 
 not exist. 
 
HIDES AND SKINS OF AUSTRALIA 
 
 By WALTER HAYNES 
 
 Australia is a great hide-producing country, the 
 number of cattle increasing at a great rate during 
 the "good seasons." Unfortunately for the "squatters," 
 as well as the dairy and other farmers, the country is 
 visited periodically by droughts, which carry off many 
 thousands of cattle and sheep by starvation and thirst 
 consequent on want of herbage and water, through 
 lack of rain, the country being turned in a few months 
 from a paradise of vivid green to a barren desert, and 
 the cattle from fat, sleek, well-contented animals to 
 miserable, well nigh starved bags of bones. 
 
 The hide supply is obtained from several sources, 
 foremost being the great "squatting" or cattle-raising 
 industry. Some of the larger "runs," thousands and 
 tens of thousands of acres in extent, carry great num- 
 bers of cattle during the good seasons and from these 
 are drawn the beef supply for the different colonies, 
 and also the vast amount of chilled meat which is ex- 
 ported to Europe. The cattle are either driven by 
 road or carried by rail to the larger centers of popu- 
 lation, such as Sidney, Melbourne, Adelaide, Brisbane, 
 etc., where are situated the large killing and chilling 
 plants of the different colonies, where the cattle are 
 slaughtered and the surplus which is not wanted for 
 local consumption is chilled for transportation to 
 Europe. 
 
 Abattoir Hides. 
 
 The hides from these "abattoirs" are the very best 
 in the colonies, usually being beautifully flayed, well 
 salted, and coming into market in a very fine state, 
 
160 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 practically free from cuts, blood and dirt, which cannot 
 be said for many small lots of country butcher hides. 
 The hides from the abattoirs are usually eagerly bid 
 for at the public auctions, where the great bulk of the 
 hides of the country is sold, by the tanners and ship- 
 ping agents. The hides are sent into the auction rooms 
 in Sydney, Melbourne, etc., and are calssified into firsts, 
 seconds, cuts; also different weights, as 60 pounds and 
 over 60 pounds, 55 pounds, 50 pounds, 45 pounds, and 
 on down to yearlings, wet salted, dry salted and dry. 
 
 Dairy Hides. 
 
 The dairying industry has made such tremendous 
 strides in Australia of late years that it has become 
 quite a factor in the hide trade, whole districts in each 
 of the colonies being almost entirely given up to 
 dairying, and instead of each farmer making his own 
 small quantity of butter each day, he now sends his 
 milk to the central factory, where it is tested and 
 he is paid for it according to the percentage of butter 
 fat contained in his milk, the butter being made 
 altogether and so kept at one standard of quality. 
 These thousands of farmers driving to the central fac- 
 tory each day bring in hides from cattle that have been 
 slaughtered after fattening, or from cattle that have 
 met with accident, such as getting into bogs, trees 
 falling on them, getting swept away by floods and 
 only recovered for the hides ; or, during droughts, from 
 cattle that are not considered valuable enough to 
 feed artificially and so keep alive at great expense. 
 
 These hides are usually sold to local storekeepers 
 from whom the farmer buys his stores and are taken 
 in part payment of the month's account. They are 
 salted by the storekeeper and are either sent to the 
 nearest hide auction or sold to dealers who scour the 
 country in search of hides, and who in turn either 
 sell to tanners direct or send to auction. 
 
 From these dairying districts come the greater ma- 
 jority of calfskins that are sold at auction or tanned 
 
AUSTRALIA 161 
 
 by local tanners. Dairymen or dairy farmers usually 
 kill off the bull calves soon after birth, unless they 
 are from prize stock, when they are reared for stud 
 purposes, often realizing big prices. 
 
 Farmer Hides. 
 
 The ordinary farmer also enters into the hide sup- 
 ply. He usually keeps a few cattle for supplying his 
 family wants and, perhaps, those of a few neighbors, 
 killing enough to furnish them with beef, and milking 
 enough cows to supply them with butter and milk. It 
 is a very animated scene that meets the eye of the 
 visitor to the hide auctions in the large centers of 
 Australia, where the tanners and shippers of hides 
 strive to secure each lot against keen competition. 
 
 Australian Sheep. 
 
 The sheep of Australia, being almost entirely of the 
 Merino breed, are very small and are bred for the 
 excellence of the wool, the skin being of quite a sec- 
 ondary importance. This Merino wool is the very 
 finest in the world and is a great source of wealth to 
 Australia. Sheepskins are exported in great numbers, 
 usually in the pickled state, also as basils. 
 
 Australia is not considered a great fur country, al- 
 though some furs are got from there, viz., the opossum, 
 which is a very finely furred animal, the skin of which 
 seems to be used more extensively in Europe of late 
 years. Rabbit skins, of course, are exported in many 
 millions from Australia. These animals, which were 
 imported from England, have become such a scourge 
 that whole tracts of country have been ruined by them, 
 but some slight compensation is being sought in the 
 exporting of these millions of skins, from which many 
 kinds of the more expensive fur skins are imitated 
 by the furriers of Europe and, doubtless, of America. 
 The kangaroo is an animal wearing a valuable hide 
 for shoe purposes, also for bookbinding and other 
 things where light skins are used. 
 
DANISH CALFSKINS 
 
 By VOLMER H. HOULBERG 
 
 Danish calfskins are among the best produced and 
 are always in good demand in the United States. The 
 skins obtainable in Denmark are mainly from Jutland 
 and Sueland. Jutland calfskins come either green 
 salted or sun-dried. The former weigh from five to 
 nine pounds and are sold in two special selections as 
 to weight, five to seven and seven to nine pounds. 
 They are good, plump skins with a fine grain, are well 
 taken off, have no meat and contain only about 40 
 per cent butcher-cut skins. The latter come from the 
 country districts. The shanks are trimmed three to 
 four inches below the knees and about 50 per cent of 
 the skins are headless. The Jutland district produces 
 about 125,000 calfskins yearly. All Jutland stock is 
 two-colored. The greatest demand for these skins 
 comes from Eastern tanners in the United States and 
 it is estimated that about 100,000 skins are purchased 
 by these tanners each year. They are used for both 
 colored and black finished calfskins. They are con- 
 sidered better than most domestic skins and many 
 tanners think them equal to the Swedish calfskins. 
 Sun-dried calfskins range in weight from one and a 
 half to three and a half pounds each and come into 
 the market about 75 per cent stretched and 25 per 
 cent unstretched. By stretching, it is understood that 
 the skin, when first taken from the animal, was nailed 
 to a wooden frame and dried. So far as condition is 
 concerned, sun-dried are about equal to green salted. 
 
 Sueland calfskins come all sun-dried and weigh from 
 one and a half to three and a half pounds each. About 
 10 per cent are headless. They are well taken off, 
 
DENMARK 163 
 
 free from meat and without butcher cuts. They are 
 large and spready, but thin and flanky and, of course, 
 do not bring as high prices as Jutland stock. This 
 class of skins is used almost entirely for the cheaper 
 grades of shoe leather. They are all one-colored skins, 
 red-brown, and are known as "red calf" among all 
 native collectors. They all come stretched, and during 
 the past few years a big percentage of the imports 
 to America have been used for fur purposes, being 
 less costly than pony skins, while just as good for 
 coat stock. The wet salted skins come to this country 
 in bundles of ten and the dried calfskins in bales of 
 120 to 125 skins. Calfskins from the large cities, such 
 as Copenhagen and Denmark, are put in with the 
 Jutland stock. 
 
 Vealskins. 
 In Denmark, vealskins are offered to the trade under 
 two names, Danish veal and Copenhagen veal. Danish 
 vealskins are selected from all parts of the country. 
 In weight they range from 8 to 18 pounds. They all 
 come with short shanks, tail bones and heads, only 
 about 10 per cent being sold without heads. They 
 have a very small percentage of butcher cuts, are rather 
 flanky, but have a good grain. About 10 per cent of 
 receipts are seconds. Copenhagen abattoir skins are 
 all short shanks, tail bones and heads, except about 
 10 per cent, which are sold without heads. The take- 
 off is much better than the Danish skins, and they are 
 handled with more care. They are particularly free 
 from butcher cuts and are all fine, clean skins. They 
 sell at ^c a pound more than the Danish skins. The 
 weights are the same, 8 to 18 pounds. If not pur- 
 chased from reliable dealers, there is likely to be a 
 large percentage of grasses in the Danish veals, while 
 in the Copenhagen selections there are no grasses. 
 Both Danish and Copenhagen vealskins are used prin- 
 cipally in Germany and the United States. All veals 
 are green salted, and come to this country in bundles, 
 six to the bundle. 
 
NEW ZEALAND SHEEP AND LAMB 
 
 PELTS 
 
 In late years the trade in pelts from New Zealand 
 has increased at a rapid rate. Both English and 
 American tanners are using more pelts from New 
 Zealand, which are said to be equal to those taken off 
 in other countries. The supply is large and the trade 
 with New Zealand is becoming an important adjunct 
 to the sheepskin industry. New Zealand pelts are 
 generally suitable for the requirements of both Amer- 
 ican and English tanners, but have their peculiarities. 
 
 For instance, lambs raised in the Province of Can- 
 terbury in the South Island of New Zealand are noted 
 for their pelts of large spreading pattern with even 
 substance. The Canterbury sheep pelts are mostly 
 medium to light in substance, giving a medium to fair 
 spread, and are most suitable for light work. The 
 North Island of New Zealand is noted for producing 
 some of the largest and best pelts exported from the 
 country, most of these pelts being suitable for splitting 
 and capable of giving in many instances 135 feet per 
 dozen, producing also a perfect grain and flesher. 
 However, there is a considerable loss due to the 
 method of curing and treating by the sulphuric acid 
 process. 
 
 Methods of Take-Off. 
 
 The skins are taken off the animals as soon as they 
 are killed, and carefully washed. The wool is removed 
 from practically all of the skins destined for the Amer- 
 ican trade and pickled for export in a solution of salt 
 and sulphuric acid. The American duty on wool ap- 
 pears to make it disadvantageous to ship to the 
 United States skins with the wool on. The wool is 
 
NEW ZEALAND— CHINA 165 
 
 loosened by several different depilatory processes, 
 either by sweating or by treatment with caustic soda 
 and sulphur or sulphide of sodium. Considerable of 
 the wool so removed, chiefly that around the edges of 
 the skins, is usually injured by the use of these chem- 
 icals, but this loss appears to be offset by a certain 
 amount of increased weight in the pelts. As a rule, 
 English trade seems to like the heavier pelts treated 
 by chemicals, while the American trade prefers pelts 
 from which the wool has been removed by sweating. 
 In the New Zealand trade the term "pelts" always 
 means the sheep or lamb skins without the wool. In 
 the preparation of the skins before being pickled for 
 export an ingenious American machine is used to 
 scrape off all the fleshy surfaces. The demand for 
 New Zealand lamb pelts from the United States is 
 stronger than from any other country, and it is under- 
 stood that the greater part of the pelts that go to Lon- 
 don eventually find their way to the American mar- 
 ket. The skins in addition to being tanned for sheep- 
 skin upper leather are valuable for bookbinding, 
 pocketbooks, bags, etc., and also for substitutes for 
 various fancy and high-grade leathers. The cities of 
 Christchurch, Wellington and Dunedin are the chief 
 centers of the export pelt trade in New Zealand. 
 
 CHINA HIDES. 
 
 China produces both a dry and wet salted hide that 
 are in quality about equal to the South American hides. 
 The lots vary, if anything, more than the South Ameri- 
 cans, but the best cared for hides in China are very 
 good, while the poorest are very poor. These all go to 
 Europe first and after Europe takes its supply the 
 surplus comes to America. The values of these hides 
 are always governed by North and South American 
 values. 
 
RUSSIAN PONY SKINS 
 
 By VOLMER H. HOULBERG 
 
 Russia is the main source of supply of pony skins, 
 largely used in the European and American trades. 
 The yearly output averages about 150,000 skins, prin- 
 cipally for furrier purposes, such as coats, leggings 
 and coat linings. The skins come from \y 2 pounds to 
 3^2 pounds in weight. They are all Mint-dried. In 
 the summer they are dried out of doors in the sun, and 
 in the winter are cured in drying houses by artificial 
 heat. Winter skins are more or less long-haired and 
 not as suitable for fur purposes as summer skins. The 
 animals from which these skins arc derived are seldom 
 more than fourteen days to two months old when 
 killed. The meat of the ponies is eaten by the peasants 
 throughout the country. Those skins come mostly 
 from the districts of Petropoul and a few from Mos- 
 cow. The mains and tails remain on the skins. They 
 are trimmed with long shanks and all have the heads 
 attached. Petropoul skins come with short shanks. 
 
 The Selections. 
 
 The selections on which pony skins are sold are 
 based on weights, the length of hair, glossy and moire- 
 affected skins. The take-off is not, as a usual thing, 
 good, as the skins generally have butcher cuts, which 
 do not matter when used for fur purposes. No other 
 people except the Russian peasants use the meat of 
 these animals for food when so young, consequently 
 pony skins from other countries are taken from dead 
 animals, and, as they are badly handled, are only fit 
 for whip purposes. 
 
RUSSIA 167 
 
 Most of the pony skins are sold at the Nijni Fair, 
 which is held at Nijni Novgorod, tv.o hundred and 
 seventy-six miles from Moscow, where the Volga and 
 Oka rivers meet, and situated in almost the exact 
 geographical center of Russia. As a rule, the buyers 
 are London dealers, who purchase direct from the col- 
 lectors at the fair. The skins are shipped direct to 
 England as soon as collected. They come in a dry 
 state, a hundred and fifty skins to a bundle. These 
 skins are generally well cured and are sold to Amer- 
 ican tanners on letters of credit. 
 
 Russia Colt Skins. 
 
 The principal producing sections for Russia colt 
 skins are Petropoul, Tjumen and Siberia. They are 
 taken from young horses from one to three years old. 
 The meat, like that of the ponies, is used for eating 
 purposes by the peasants of Russia and the poorer 
 classes in some parts of Europe. The average kill 
 each year runs from 400,000 to 600,000. Almost the 
 entire output comes to American tanners. These skins 
 are mostly flint-dried, with about 20 per cent brined 
 before they are dried. The latter weigh more, but 
 the strictly sun-dried are considered the best. The 
 selections are according to weight, 7 to 8, 8 to 9 and 9 
 to 10 pounds. Each skin is allowed five butcher cuts. 
 If there are more than five cuts, it is a second. Skins 
 with very bad cuts and sweated skins are classed as 
 thirds. The length of hair has nothing to do with the 
 selections. These skins are used principally for patent 
 leather in the United States. In some countries of 
 Europe the butts are used for the heads of expensive 
 drums. The skins purchased at the Nijni Fair are 
 received in America in bales of forty skins each. 
 
 Colts or horses are raised in Russia the same as 
 cows in America. The animals are herded the same 
 as cows and most of the year are obliged to get their 
 living by grazing. The peasants drink the milk of 
 
168 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 the female horses and, when killed, eat the meat. The 
 winter colt skins are long-haired. 
 
 Horse Fronts. 
 
 In Russia horsehides, the fronts only come to Amer- 
 ica, there being- no demand for cordovan leather. 
 The butts are used principally by German and Polish 
 tanners. The hides come from the same districts 
 as the colt skins and the selections are the same. 
 Collectors separate the fronts from the butts. All colt 
 and horse hides coming from Petropoul are of better 
 take-off and are better cured than those from other 
 districts. They always bring from five to ten cents 
 more per skin. Seconds are sold for 20 per cent less 
 than firsts, and thirds bring half price. This is true 
 of both colt and horse hides. Fronts come in bales, 
 thirty to thirty-five in each. All have heads on and 
 long shanks. The heavier selections of both are the 
 best sellers. 
 
Scenes at the Nijni Fair 
 
 which is held at 
 
 NIJNI NOVGOROD 
 
 2 75 miles from Moscow, Russia 
 
 * 
 
GOATSKINS 
 
 The skin or pelt of the common goat is a product 
 which, outside of the trade, is not generally recog- 
 nized at its true value. As a raw material it rates 
 in importance among the chief imports into this 
 country. Few people outside of the leather industry, 
 however, are in any degree familiar with its uses. 
 
 These are rather varied, but for the most part goat- 
 skins are manufactured into a chrome tanned leather 
 known as glazed kid. This probably consumes 90 
 per cent of the skins imported. Other uses which 
 may be mentioned are for patent or enameled kid, 
 and mat or dull kid. These leathers are all used for 
 shoe purposes. But goatskins are also used more 
 or less extensively for furniture, bag and pocketbook 
 and fancy leather. 
 
 The Goat a Meat Animal. 
 
 Goatskins are gathered chiefly from those countries 
 in which the meat of the goat forms an important 
 food product, and the skin of the animal is a result- 
 ant by-product, though, to be sure, a very important 
 one. In our own country, goat meat is not considered 
 fit for human consumption, though we are credibly 
 informed that considerable of it is sold in the guise of 
 mutton and so-called Angora venison. For the rea- 
 son stated, the United States produces only a small 
 proportion of the vast number of skins which are 
 daily put into process by manufacturers who special- 
 ize in transforming the raw goatskin into its various 
 5nished products. 
 
 Sources of Goatskin Supply. 
 
 The chief sources of supply are the Orient, Asia, 
 Africa and South America. Nearly every country, 
 
170 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 however, with few exceptions, exports goatskins in 
 greater or lesser quantities to the United States. 
 
 As may be supposed, there is a vast difference in 
 the character of the goat as it exists in each country. 
 While these differences are clearly marked with refer- 
 ence to the country of origin, the peculiar character- 
 istics inherent in the skin of the goat may be clearly 
 traced and localized within a very small compass, 
 geographically speaking, so much so, that in certain 
 countries, goatskins originating in districts which are 
 not more than fifty miles apart, have certain dis- 
 tinguishing features which plainly mark them one 
 from the other. These characteristics are most often 
 a result of the physical condition of the territory in 
 which the animals are grown and pastured, and ani- 
 mals from one section, if transferred to a different one. 
 will gradually assume most of the characteristics of 
 the goats originally bred in the new habitation, though 
 several generations may be required to accomplish 
 this. On the other hand, the original breed of goats 
 which have been transplanted in some foreign country 
 can often be traced back by virtue of their retention 
 of certain peculiarities. 
 
 Methods of Collecting and Preserving. 
 
 We shall here describe in a general way the methods 
 employed in collecting, handling and preserving goat- 
 skins, as well as their general characteristics and sus- 
 ceptibilities, and shall later detail this information 
 in considering each producing country under a separate 
 head. 
 
 The following are the principal distinguishing fea- 
 tures which mark the country and district of origin of 
 the goat, as shown in its pelt : Size, pattern, length of 
 hair, color of hair, and fineness of its texture; char- 
 acter of grain and the nature of its imperfections. 
 The characteristics just enumerated may be traced 
 even after the skin has been manufactured into leather, 
 excepting of course length of hair and its color. It 
 is quite possible, however, for experienced handlers 
 
GOATSKINS 171 
 
 of goatskin leathers to form accurate conclusions re- 
 specting the kind of skins out of which a given lot 
 of leather was manufactured. Other features which 
 are most noticeable in distinguishing skins as a class 
 while yet in the raw state are the manner in which 
 the skin has been flayed from the animal, and its 
 subsequent mode of preservation, commonly known 
 as cure. 
 
 Methods of Curing. 
 
 The ordinary methods employed for curing are as 
 follows : Sun drying, dry salting and wet salting. The 
 first method is very simple, and consists merely of 
 spreading the skins out or hanging them up exposed 
 to the sun, or, in some of the torrid countries, prefer- 
 ably in the shade, until they are quite free from mois- 
 ture. The second method is practically the same as 
 the first, excepting that the fresh skins are first 
 rubbed with salt before being dried. The third method 
 necessitates a thorough rubbing of fine salt over the 
 skins, which are allowed to remain moist and are 
 folded into small bundles; that is, each skin separately, 
 and then packed into casks. Certain advantages are 
 claimed for each of these methods, though in general 
 it may be stated that they are followed rather out of 
 custom than for any other reason. 
 
 Collecting the Skins. 
 
 In most countries goats are not raised in large 
 herds after the manner of our domestic cattle and 
 sheep raising, but are mostly produced by reason of 
 the individual ownership of one or several animals 
 by the farmers or peasants. It can be readily under- 
 stood that under such circumstances, countries such 
 as India, China and Africa, with their teeming mil- 
 lions, produce in the aggregate vast quantities of 
 skins. These are gradually gathered by small col- 
 lectors, from whose hands they pass into those of 
 the larger dealers, and thus finally find their way to 
 the larger markets where they are purchased by the 
 
172 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 exporting firms and shipped into the United States and 
 other countries In many cases the gathering of these 
 skins fro mthe more remote districts of countries such 
 as China and Africa consumes many months of time 
 and entails much labor and often hardship to those 
 occupied in the task. 
 
 Trade Affected by Seasons. 
 
 The exportation of goatskins varies in most coun- 
 tries with the season of the year, and, while in some 
 countries a fairly constant supply is available through- 
 out the year, in others the exports are largely in- 
 creased at certain periods, and diminished at others. 
 In others still, the exportation is done during some 
 particular season, after which it ceases entirely until 
 the following season. 
 
 The season of the year, by which we mean the 
 climatic conditions prevailing during that particular 
 time, also bears an important influence on the na- 
 ture of the skin and its superiority or inferiority of 
 quality for manufacturing purposes. Again, unusual 
 climatic conditions, such as drought or superabun- 
 dance of rain, also create important changes in the 
 character of the skins produced in the countries thus 
 affected. It can, therefore, be readily seen that it is 
 most important in considering goatskins in general, 
 and particularly those coming from countries which 
 are more largely affected by climatic conditions, to 
 have in mind the season of the year and prevailing 
 conditions as to whether normal or abnormal at the 
 time of shipment. 
 
 Long and Short Hair. 
 
 As a general rule, in hot countries the hair of the 
 animal is short and remains so at all times, due to 
 the comparatively uniform heat prevailing throughout 
 the year. Such countries are usually subject to a dry 
 season and a rainy one, which, to be sure, affects the 
 quality of the skins, but does not influence the hair. 
 In cold climates, goats usually take on a longer 
 
GOATSKINS 173 
 
 growth of hair during the winter season and short 
 hair during the summer season. In such countries, 
 where the change is most pronounced, and more par- 
 ticularly in the most northerly countries, it is cus- 
 tomary to shear the hair from the goats after it has 
 acquired full growth, as wool is shorn from sheep. 
 The skins from the animals so shorn naturally have 
 the characteristics of the long-haired animal, despite 
 the absence of the full growth of hair. However, if 
 the animal is not slaughtered during this period, the 
 skin will improve in quality as the season progresses, 
 and the animals receive the benefit of good pasturage. 
 The growth of hair in such cold countries is usually 
 accompanied by a sort of fine woolly undergrowth, 
 which lies close to the skin and can be noticed by 
 dividing or parting the hair. This undergrowth 
 closely resembles and performs the same function of 
 keeping the animal warm as does the fine under- 
 growth of all fur-bearing animals. From the point of 
 view respecting the influence of this undergrowth 
 upon the quality of the skin and upon the leather 
 manufactured therefrom, it may be said that in most 
 cases and in fact nearly always, it is an undesirable 
 feature, firstly, because the pelt under such condi- 
 tions is generally lacking in substance, and there- 
 fore produces thin leather; secondly, the character of 
 the grain is more inclined to be "sheepy," which term 
 is generally applied in the trade to denote that char- 
 acteristic of the grain which gives it more of the 
 quality and nature of the sheepskin than of the goat. 
 The pores of the skin instead of being marked and 
 distinct, as in a goat, are more difficult of discernment. 
 
 Age of the Skins. 
 
 Age is a feature which has a very important bear- 
 ing on the value and desirability of raw pelts. As may 
 be naturally supposed, the fresher the skin, the more 
 desirable it is for leather purposes, and the more 
 apt it is to be capable of being tanned with the best 
 
174 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 results. Age, as here applied, does not refer to the 
 age of the animal, but to the length of time which 
 has elapsed since the slaughtering of the goat. A 
 reasonable amount of age does not materially affect 
 this point, excepting in such skins as have been cured 
 or preserved in a manner other than dry salting or 
 sun drying. Some skins, which will be mentioned later, 
 are cured with a mixture of salt and manure. Others 
 are imported in a wet-salted condition, and others 
 again come from countries where salt is employed in 
 their curing which has a peculiar propensity for ab- 
 sorbing moisture. Such skins, if allowed to remain 
 in a damp place, will gradually absorb moisture and 
 become more or less wet. In this condition they are 
 liable to sweat and heat. All of the aforementioned 
 varieties should be comparatively fresh to obtain good 
 results, and by this we mean that they should not 
 be allowed to remain in a raw condition for a period 
 over one year from time of curing, though no general 
 rule can be laid down to cover this point, as a great 
 many varying conditions exist which might have a 
 large bearing or influence in particular cases. Flint 
 or sun-dried and dry-salted skins may often be kept 
 for long periods, covering three or four years, and 
 even longer, provided the skins are properly preserved, 
 without being materially injured thereby. However, 
 such skins which are by nature more impregnated 
 with natural grease or fat are more apt to suffer than 
 those which are of a drier and more fibrous nature. 
 
 Use of Naphthaline. 
 
 All skins, and particularly flint-dried skins, which 
 it is intended to keep in storage for a period of time, 
 should be thoroughly strewn with naphthaline for 
 the purpose of preventing moths and worms or bugs 
 from making depredations upon them, as well as to 
 prevent them from heating in the bales. Fresh skins 
 which are sun-dried and packed in compressed bales 
 
GOATSKINS 175 
 
 are almost certain to heat if naphthalene is not strewn 
 between the skins. 
 
 Arsenicated Skins. 
 
 In some countries the skins are arsenicated, that is, 
 dipped in a solution of arsenic, which is also a good 
 method of preventing their destruction by vermin. It 
 must be carefully borne in mind, however, that it is 
 not desirable to permit any kind of skin to become 
 thus aged before manufacture, as more difficulty will 
 then be experienced in securing good results, owing 
 to the drying out of the natural fats in the skin, and 
 a consequent weakening of the fiber. 
 
 Goatskins of the World. 
 
 In the following chapters we shall take up in- 
 dividually and consider separately each goatskin- 
 producing country in detail. It must be borne in mind, 
 however, that inasmuch as almost every country and 
 province produces some goatskins for the purposes 
 of the general information which we are seeking to 
 convey, only those countries whose production is of 
 importance will be dealt with. In some cases the 
 number of skins produced are entirely used for home 
 consumption and are seldom if ever exported to America. 
 
 The reader should also bear in mind that very often 
 the identical skins are known under several different 
 names. Some sellers designate them by the name 
 of the province from which they come, while others 
 apply to them the name of the district or even the 
 chief city in the district where they may have been 
 gathered. This may be somewhat confusing to the 
 uninitiated, but, in case of doubt, a glance at the map 
 will make things clear. 
 
 Concerning weights and selections, only those which 
 are of major importance will be noted; that is to say, 
 those which go to make up the bulk of the assort- 
 ments. There are always small percentages of skins 
 which are kept separately and may or may not be 
 included in shipments, which, however, constitute 
 
176 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 but negligible proportions of the whole, such as kids, 
 thirds, fourths, bulls, long-haired, etc. In such cases, 
 where any of these grades are contained in important 
 percentages, they will be mentioned. 
 
 EUROPEAN COUNTRIES. 
 Spain. 
 
 The goatskins produced in this country are well 
 known as being of high class in every particular. The 
 breed of Spanish goat has been transplanted into 
 various countries, particularly in certain sections of 
 North Africa, such as Algeria and neighboring coun- 
 tries, as well as in some Spanish-American coun- 
 tries, and the resultant stock in these countries is good, 
 and many of the features of the skins bespeak their 
 Spanish origin. Even in so comparatively small a 
 country as Spain, considerable differences are to be 
 noted in the quality as produced in its various districts. 
 
 The best skins are obtained in the provinces of 
 Valencia, Catelonia, Barcelona and Seville, and the 
 provinces adjacent to the Mediterranean coast. The 
 provinces lying to the north — Leon and Castille — 
 are also considered among the best for quality. All 
 of these districts consist chiefly of white-haired and 
 faun-colored skins. The district of Estremadura, ly- 
 ing on the Portuguese border, is somewhat inferior in 
 quality; the skins are inclined to be thinner in sub- 
 stance and in general character not quite up to the 
 first-mentioned districts. This is also due to the 
 practice of mixing in skins coming from the Portu- 
 guese side, in which the last-named deficiencies in 
 quality are much more pronounced. 
 
 The Estremadura skins contain a preponderance of 
 black and dark colored skins, and contain a propor- 
 tion of slightly longish-haired skins. It must be under- 
 stood that the comparison just made is as between 
 districts only, while, in general, all of these skins taken 
 together, represent one of the best classes of skins 
 
GOATSKINS 177 
 
 obtainable. The Spanish skin is noted for its clear, 
 fine grain, and is particularly free from imperfections. 
 The skin is of good plump texture. The skins are 
 well flayed from the animals and bear no evidences 
 of cuts or scores. They are cut open and folded once 
 down the back. "• cure, they are flint-dried, barring 
 a small proportioi which usually come salted. 
 
 The skins are usually classified for quality into 
 prime and second selections, and for weight into heav- 
 ies weighing about 14/15 kilos per dozen, and regulars 
 weighing io/ioy 2 kilos per dozen. The smaller skins 
 from the younger animals, known as Chevrettes, are 
 also classified as primes and seconds, and weigh about 
 73^/8 kilos per dozen. In addition to these, there are 
 also the small kids, which are used for glove leather 
 purposes, and a selection of extra heavies, which weigh 
 about 17/18 kilos, and which are mostly used for furniture 
 leather purposes. 
 
 Germany. 
 
 Here we have another high-class European skin, 
 which for the most part is used in the country of 
 origin. This is particularly true of the best qualities ; 
 the ordinary practice in classifying these skins is, in 
 the first place, to separate the heaviest and finest skins, 
 which constitutes the best selection, and for which 
 fancy prices are obtained from manufacturers of fancy 
 leathers, such as pocketbook, bag and furniture leather. 
 The remaining skins are classified into grades known 
 as A, B, C, which correspond to firsts, seconds and 
 thirds, and are also known as American selection, these 
 goods having been thus classified for sale to American 
 tanners. The weight of these skins is about 
 220/260 lbs. There are also the heberlinge or light 
 goat and kids, which weigh 100 lbs. 
 
 In recent years fewer of these skins have been com- 
 ing to the American market each year, owing to en- 
 hanced values, which have precluded their use for 
 glazed kid purposes. In general, the leather which 
 they produce is clear and fine grain, though they 
 
178 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 yield a considerable percentage of lightweight leather, 
 owing to the fact, as stated above, that the plumper 
 skins have already been taken out in the first instance. 
 The skins are prepared flint-dried, cut open and 
 folded once. The hair is short and mostly white. 
 
 Italy. 
 
 The skins produced in this country may be divided 
 under two main heads, northern and southern. The 
 northern skins are the better class and embrace the 
 districts of Rome, Tuscany and those districts lying 
 to the north thereof. These skins are flint-dried and 
 are selected into primes and seconds. They yield 
 good weight leather and are fairly clean on the grain. 
 In general they are considered among the better classes 
 of European skins. They are short haired, though a 
 few skins may be found with slightly longish manes 
 and butts. The southern provinces, embracing Na- 
 ples, Puglia, Calabria and the Island of Sicily, pro- 
 duce skins of considerably inferior quality to those 
 in the north. The Sicilian skins are also known as 
 Messinas and Palermos, these being the chief cities 
 from which they are exported. In general they are lighter 
 pelted and more defective on the grain than the north- 
 ern skins, the chief grain defects being pits and grubs. 
 The hair is rather longish, and not as fine as the bet- 
 ter distrcts. The Calabrian and Sicilian skins are 
 for the most part dry salted, while the other kinds 
 are partly flint and partly salted. The flint skins 
 weigh about 30/38 lbs., and the salted 28/35 lbs. P er 
 dozen. 
 
 Austria-Hungary and the Balkan Countries. 
 
 Large quantites of skins originate from this sec- 
 tion of southern Europe, and are much varied as 
 to character and appearance ; though categorically 
 starting with the best variety, they grade downward 
 from a Servian or Belgrade skin, which is a very fine 
 quality and very desirable from every standpoint, 
 
GOATSKINS 179 
 
 being of good weight and substance and fine and 
 clear grain, to the inferior qualities coming from the 
 Grecian country. Servian skins a:\> limited as to 
 quantity, and, owing to the similarity of appearance, 
 a great many skins of inferior districts are sold under 
 this name. Next to the Servians come Bosnian and 
 Croatian skins, which are slightly inferior in character 
 to the former, the chief difference being that they are 
 not quite as plump in substance and carry more de- 
 fects as to grain. A small percentage of pitted skins, 
 which are inherent in skins coming from the Balkan 
 states, may be found in these skins, but only to a 
 very small extent. The ordinary weight of the goods 
 is 320/350 lbs. per 100 pieces. 
 
 Bulgarian, Macedonian, Montenegro, Thessalian and 
 Ordinary Greek Skins. 
 
 These are mentioned in rotation in the order of 
 worth, and are more or less similar in character, but 
 the last kinds are very much more pitted than the 
 first; in fact, Thessalian and Greek skins are prac- 
 tically entirely pitted. The above-mentioned varie- 
 ties, including the Servian, Croatians, etc., are all cured 
 in the same manner. The skins are flint dry and are 
 taken off the animal in such a manner that the skins 
 remain cased — that is, not cut open — and are stretched 
 in the length. It is a general practice to insert pieces 
 of wood at the shoulders and at the butt, presumably 
 for the purpose of stretching the skins for drying. In 
 many cases this wood is far heavier than necessary 
 for the purpose, and is done in order to enhance the 
 weight, so that it is an important factor, when buying 
 any of these skins, to stipulate the percentage of wood 
 which they contain, as otherwise the average weight 
 stated is misleading and may consist of 25 per cent or 
 more of wood. The ordinary percentage of wood for 
 such skins as Sicilians, Macedonians and Montenegros 
 is 10/15 per cent; the better kinds, as previously men- 
 tioned, contain very little wood, only light twigs be- 
 
180 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 ing used for stretching purposes, instead of heavy 
 sticks. The pitted skins among these classes, particu- 
 larly in the intermediate kinds, such as Montenegros 
 and Macedonians, occur for the most part in the 
 necks of the skins, and are most often localized in a 
 small compass in that section of the skin, the balance 
 of the skin being clear and free from imperfections. 
 
 In the Greek skins, which are more seriously af- 
 fected, these pits are more general over the entire 
 skin, though in the former kinds they are chiefly lo- 
 calized at the neck. Tanners in this country are ac- 
 customed to designate skins from these districts as 
 "sore necks." 
 
 The Greek and Thessalian skins have no heads, while 
 the other kinds have the heads left on. The weights 
 are : Bulgarian, flint, about 320 lbs., salted, 400 lbs. ; 
 Macedonian, 330/340 lbs.; Thessalian, 280/300 lbs.; 
 Montenegros, 300/320 lbs. ; Greeks, 330/350 lbs. 
 
 Bulgarian, Roumelian and Adrianople Skins. 
 
 These are chiefly dry salted, though the supplies 
 from the western parts of these districts are flint-dried 
 and in general appearance similar to the above de- 
 scribed. The dry salted skins are of entirely different 
 appearance, being cut open and stretched in the or- 
 dinary way, and simply folded down the back. The 
 leather produced by these districts is similar in char- 
 acter to the other kind and subject to the same de- 
 fects. In hair they are short to slightly medium, 
 and in color, mostly dark and black. Classifying them 
 with reference to their comparative worth, they would 
 be placed in the following order : Bulgarian, Roume- 
 lian and Adrianople. 
 
 The skins coming from the western part of the 
 Balkan Peninsula, including the Greek, Thessalian, 
 Albanian and Montenegro provinces, as well as the 
 Bosnian, Croatian and Servian skins, usually find their 
 way to the port of Trieste, and are exported to the 
 United States from that port. Most of the Macedonian 
 
GOATSKINS 181 
 
 skins, as well as some of the Greek skins, are shipped 
 from Salonica; the Adrianoples from Dedeagatch, and 
 the Roumelians and Bulgarians respectively from 
 Bourgas and Varna. The weights of Roumelians and 
 Adrianoples is 320 to 340 lbs. per 100 pieces. 
 
 ASIA MINOR. 
 Turkey. 
 
 The skins originating in the various provinces of 
 Turkey in Asia are known in the trade under the 
 general title of Levant goatskins. In character, they 
 are inferior to the better classes of skins coming from 
 the Balkan provinces, being coarser in grain and tex- 
 ture. They are drysalted and cured and the skins are 
 cut open and folded flat. The skins are mostly black- 
 haired and of a coarser texture than any before de- 
 scribed, and while not considered as longhaired, it is 
 nevertheless of longer growth than most European 
 kinds, and also subject to a slight undergrowth. 
 
 On the Mediterranean side, we have the Smyrna, 
 Konieh, Anatolian and Aleppo districts, the quality of 
 which is somewhat superior to the districts lying to the 
 north on the Black Sea coast, including Trebizond and 
 Erzerum. The above described skins produce leather 
 of fair weight, though of coarse grain, and are sub- 
 ject more or less to pits and grubs. Levant skins, 
 using the general title, usually weigh about 330/390 
 lbs. per 100 pieces. 
 
 To the southeast, lies the district of Bagdad, which 
 in quality is inferior to any of the districts of this sec- 
 tion. In fact, they might preferably be considered in 
 conjunction with Persian skins produced along the 
 Gulf section of that country, to which they are similar 
 in nature. They are coarse, defective in grain, and 
 produce low-grade leather. They are also drysalted, 
 and the hair is longish and black in color. The takeoff 
 is different from most of the Levant province skins, be- 
 ing cased and stretched, rather to the length than the 
 
182 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 breadth of the skin. The usual weight is about 33/39 
 lbs. per dozen. 
 
 Russia. 
 
 This is one of the largest goatskin-producing coun- 
 tries, especially so when considered as embracing the 
 whole of the Russian Empire, including Siberia and 
 Central Asia. The supplies are chiefly brough: to the 
 fairs, which are annually held at Tjumen and Nijni, 
 Novgorod, and are collected and also sold in the mar- 
 kets of Petropawlowsk, Orenburg, Kazan, and Semi- 
 palatinsk. The ordinary Russian goat is known to the 
 trade as Petropawl goat, the city of that name being 
 the largest point of collection. In addition to this 
 kind, there are two other main varieties of skins 
 shipped from Russia — Turkestans and Bokharas. 
 
 Petropawl Goat 
 
 This description is the best of the Russian varieties 
 which are shipped in quantities to this country, not 
 considering, of course, a small quantity of skins as 
 compared to the whole, which are collected in Euro- 
 pean Russia, and which are superior to the Siberian 
 skins. Petropawl goatskins are flint-dried and mostly 
 white and light haired. The shorthaired or summer 
 skins are plump weight and yield very desirable 
 leather. The winter skins are longhaired and have a 
 woolly undergrowth ; in consequence, the pelt is thin- 
 ner and therefore not as desirable. In buying these 
 skins, one is compelled, however, to assume a propor- 
 tionate quantity of all weights and selections. The 
 goat are classified as follows : Primes, weighing 38/40 
 lbs. per dozen; winter, weighing 48 lbs. per dozen; 
 salted, of which there is usually a small proportion, 
 weighing 37/38 lbs. per dozen, and seconds, weighing 
 33/35 lb s - The skins are further classified for size 
 and weight, as follows : Werchural, prime and 
 seconds, weighing about 25 lbs. ; Mittel, prime seconds 
 and winter, weighing respectively about 20 lbs., 18/19 
 
GOATSKINS 183 
 
 lbs. and 26 lbs. ; Lack, which are virtually kids and 
 weigh about 12 lbs. per dozen. 
 
 Russian skins are best and most valuable for manu- 
 facturing purposes if quite fresh. In this condition 
 they are soft and contain a great deal of natural grease. 
 If old and stale, they are harder to handle in the tan- 
 nery and are very apt to be grain cracked. In general, 
 the Petropawl skins are fine in grain, considering the 
 size of the skins, and free from imperfections. 
 
 Turkestan Goat. 
 
 These skins, if true to their kind, are very similar to 
 the Petropawls, though not quite as good in class. 
 They are somewhat coarser haired, and have more 
 pronounced grain. The general description of quality 
 and selections of Petropawl goat, as above described, 
 would also apply in a general way to Turkestans, with 
 the exception that the latter are somewhat lighter in 
 weight. 
 
 Bokhara Goat. 
 
 These skins are coarser and more imperfect than 
 Turkestans, and subject to more imperfections of the 
 grain. A great many skins are brought into this sec- 
 tion which had their origin in Afghanistan and North- 
 ern Persia. They are prepared after the pattern of 
 Bokhara skins and have, therefore, the same general 
 appearance as the latter. This is to a great extent 
 responsible for the low quality of the goods, whereas 
 genuine Bokhara skins are really of very fair quality. 
 The goods are shorthaired and mostly black. They 
 are selected as primes and seconds, weighing about 30/33 
 lbs., and mittel, weighing about 20 lbs. 
 
 NORTH AFRICA. 
 
 Algeria. 
 
 There are three main shipping ports in this country 
 where goatskins are collected and shipped, namely: 
 Algiers, Constantine and Oran. These skins are all 
 
184 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of similar character, though each has some character- 
 istics peculiar to itself. In appearance, Algiers' goat- 
 skins are very similar to Constantine's. It would be 
 difficult to distinguish them. The latter are considered 
 a shade better in quality. Orans, in the general way, 
 are also similar to the first kinds, but are not as well 
 taken off the animals by the butchers, and may be dis- 
 tinguished by a tendency to contain a considerable per- 
 centage of more or less scored or butcher-cut skins. 
 The grain of the skins is fine and clean and the leather 
 produced therefrom is of good substance. In prepara- 
 tion they are cased and cured by drysalting. The 
 hair is fine and in summer time quite short. The win- 
 ter season skins are longer haired and the general 
 quality inferior, being thinner pelted, and not as clean 
 grain. In color, they contain a fair proportion of 
 white-haired skins and some brown and black. Oran 
 skins are considered the less valuable of the three sorts 
 owing to the defect above described. They are usually 
 classified in three weights, heavies, weighing about 
 12/13 kilos; middle, weight, io/io T / 2 kilos per dozen, 
 and lights, weighing about 8/9 kilos per dozen. For 
 quality the usual selection is for primes and seconds, 
 though some shippers have an intermediate selection. 
 
 Tunis. 
 
 From this country skins are shipped from the ports 
 of Tunis and Sfax, the general character of which is 
 quite similar. They are of the same nature as Al- 
 gerian skins, but somewhat inferior to them, being not 
 quite so fine in grain and having less substance in the 
 pelt. In other particulars, they approximate them suf- 
 ficiently not to require further comment. 
 
 Tripoli. 
 
 This country produces fairly large quantities of skins 
 which are principally collected at Tripoli and Bengazi. 
 In general character, they are plump, fine grained, and 
 produce desirable leather. They have rather longer 
 
GOATSKINS 185 
 
 hair than any of the above described skins, the color 
 of which is mostly brown and black. They are 
 mostly prepared drysalted, which cure is of a darker 
 color than the salting of Algerian skins. There is 
 also a quantity of flint-dried skins shipped from this 
 country. The salted skins are cased while the flint- 
 dry ones are mostly cut open. They are classified for 
 weight, same as Tripoli and Algiers. 
 
 Morocco. 
 
 Of the skins produced in this country those coming 
 from the northern section are the best, and of a 
 character similar to the Mediterranean countries of 
 North Africa. The best known among these are the 
 Tangiers and Fez skins. These skins are fine haired, 
 short to medium in length, and mostly of reddish- 
 brown color. They are of an earthy salt cure, brown- 
 ish in color, and the skins are cased. They are like- 
 wise subject to change in character in accordance 
 with the summer and winter seasons, summer skins 
 being the best and producing the most satisfactory 
 leather. The weights are io/n kilos. 
 
 From the southwestern section are shipped the 
 qualities known as Casablancas, Mogadores and Mar- 
 rakesh. Of these, the Casablancas are the superior 
 skins. There are two kinds of Casablanca skins, 
 which are designated respectively as red cured and 
 gray cured. The red-cured skins are mostly cased 
 and partake of the characteristics of the Tangier 
 or Fez skins, though not equal to them in general 
 quality, being longer haired and having more grain 
 imperfections. The gray skins are similar in quality 
 to Mogadore skins. 
 
 Mogadore. 
 
 This variety is much inferior to any of the pre- 
 viously-described North African skins, and are in 
 character quite dissimilar to them, and in appearance 
 as well. Marrakesh skins are to all intents and pur- 
 poses identical to Mogadores, but are usually some- 
 
186 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 what better in general quality, due to the fact that 
 they contain city-slaughtered skins, which have more 
 weight and substance. The skins are cut open and 
 are cured with a mixture of salt and camel manure. 
 They are dirty in appearance on the hair side as 
 well as the flesh, and heavily weighted by the cure. 
 Summer skins have rather short hair and the winter 
 skins longish. The latter are quite inferior in quality, 
 being thin pelted and severely grain damaged. This 
 damage is largely due to fly bites, with which the 
 skins are more or less marked. The hair is rather 
 fine in texture and of a reddish-brown color. The 
 usual weights in which they are classified range from 
 28/33 lbs. per dozen. 
 
 In buying skins of these districts, particular at- 
 tention should be paid to the freshness of the goods, as 
 they deteriorate materially with age owing to the 
 nature of their cure. 
 
 Egypt and the Soudan. 
 
 In character the skins produced in this country are 
 different from other North Africans and should, per- 
 haps, not be classed with them ; in fact, in the trade, 
 they are not considered in connection with North 
 Africans. These skins are cased and cured by dry- 
 salting. The hair is mostly black and short during 
 the summer, when the skins are at their best, and in 
 winter they are longhaired and thin pelted. The char- 
 acter of the leather which they produce is fine in 
 grain but rather flanky. The grain is quite clean 
 and free from imperfections. These goods are 
 marketed principally in Cairo and Alexandria. The 
 usual weights and selections are as follows : I heavy, 
 230 lbs.; I medium, 160 lbs.; I lights, 125 lbs.; I smalls, 
 100 lbs.; II, 100/120 lbs. 
 
 SOUTH AFRICA. 
 
 Skins in this section are generally known in the 
 trade under the general title of Capes. There are 
 three classes which, naming them in the order of their 
 
GOATSKINS 187 
 
 comparative value, are as follows : Capetowns, Al- 
 goabays and Kaffirs. These are gathered and shipped 
 from, respectively, Capetown, Port , Elizabeth and 
 East London. Though some shippers are now send- 
 ing them direct from South Africa to this market, the 
 usual custom has been to ship them all to London 
 and sold there at periodic auction sales. The Cape- 
 town and Algoabay skins are in general character 
 and quality superior to the Kaffir skins. 
 
 Capetown Skins. 
 
 These are considered as a class among the best 
 qualities of goatskins. They are good to fine grain 
 according to their size, shorthaired and plump weight. 
 In cure they are slightly brined ; they are short- 
 trimmed and packed flat with no folding. The hair is 
 mostly white and light colored. 
 
 Algoabay Skins. 
 
 These are in general character similar to the Cape- 
 towns, but slightly inferior in general quality. They are 
 somewhat heavier cured, being rather salted than brined. 
 The hair is also a trifle longer and less smooth. 
 
 Kaffir Skins. 
 
 Kaffir skins are decidedly inferior to the above 
 districts. They are darker in appearance, more heav- 
 ily cured with salt, and have longer and shaggier hair. 
 The pelt does not carry the weight which is to be 
 found in the Capetowns and Algoabays, and the goods 
 will yield less measure per pound of pelt when made 
 into leather. They are packed in a similar manner 
 to the first-mentioned varieties. 
 
 NORTHEAST AFRICA AND ARABIA. 
 
 These two countries will be considered together 
 because of the fact that while they lie on opposite 
 shores of the Red Sea, the supplies from both sections 
 are usually brought from the interior and coast points 
 
188 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 of these countries, to the city of Aden, which lies 
 just beyond the southern entrance to the Red Sea on 
 the Arabian side. Furthermore, the skins are more or 
 less of similar character, and are usually worked by 
 the same manufacturers. In the trade these skins are 
 known under the general name of Mochas. We shall 
 first describe the skins coming from the Arabian side. 
 Of these, the best known are the Hodeidah skins. 
 These skins are produced in the Yemen province and 
 are very often shipped direct from the port of Ho- 
 deidah without being first brought to the Aden market. 
 A great many skins from the Yemen province, and 
 especially so from the southeastern part, find their 
 way to Aden by means of caravans from the interior 
 and by small native boats from the coast points. 
 These skins are known as Katabi or Gataway and 
 are altogether similar, both in appearance and actual 
 worth, to the skins collected at Hodeidah. They are 
 cased and of a drysalt cure. The hair is quite short 
 and fine and in color mostly white and black. They 
 produce fine-grained leather, but are more or less 
 subject to grain scratches and are also slightly pitted. 
 The assortment made by most shippers is as follows : 
 Heavies, weighing about 2/2]/^ lbs. apiece, and regu- 
 lars, which constitute the bulk, averaging i% lbs. 
 apiece. Seconds, weighing i/io to 1/15 lbs. In addi- 
 tion to these main selections, there are also long-hairs, 
 kids and thirds. 
 
 Gizan and Jaddah. 
 
 These districts constitute the next in importance 
 in point of quantity to the Yemen skins and are very 
 similar to them in general character. In appearance, 
 they differ slightly in color and cure, which though 
 also drysalted, has a slightly reddish tinge. The hair 
 of these skins is also mostly reddish or light brown- 
 ish. The salting is smoother in appearance and not 
 quite as heavy. These skins are subject to the same 
 sort of defects as the Hodeidahs, the pits in these 
 
GOATSKINS 189 
 
 skins being more or less concentrated about the butts. 
 Weights and selections are the same as in Hodeidahs. 
 
 To the east of Aden lies the country known as the 
 Hadramut, from which supplies of comparatively 
 small quantities are received in Aden. These skins 
 are of inferior type, being mostly thin in pelt. In 
 appearance, they are the drysalted and cased, but are 
 more carefully spread. They are extremely short- 
 haired, which is mostly white. These skins are some- 
 times known as Salted Adens. The real Aden butcher 
 skins are, as the name indicates, from the animals 
 slaughtered in the city, and are usually of superior 
 quality, being taken from better-nourished animals. 
 These skins are prepared both flint and brined cure. 
 
 We shall now describe the districts on the African 
 side. 
 
 Abyssinia. 
 
 This is probably the largest producing section of 
 Mocha skins. The skins are mostly gathered in the 
 interior of the country, the best-known variety being 
 known as Herrar skins. They are collected in the 
 cities of Herrar and Addis Abeba, and thence trans- 
 ported by means of caravan and railroad to the coast, 
 whence they are shipped across to Aden. These skins 
 are flint-dried, cut open and staked out so that they 
 are quite smooth and flat. They are folded along the 
 back. The hair of these skins is quite short and fine 
 and of mixed colors. The assortment is for firsts, 
 seconds and thirds, there being usually a large pro- 
 portion of seconds, which sometimes even exceeds 
 the quantity of firsts. Prime skins are usually put up 
 to average from 1.15 to 1.25 lbs. per piece, and the 
 seconds 1 to 1.10, thirds .90 to 1 lb. per piece. The 
 leather produced from these skins is of good weight 
 and fine in grain, also fairly clear of imperfections. 
 There is a tendency, however, to the loss in works 
 of a proportion ranging sometimes as high as 10 per 
 cent, though in average not over 4 to 5 per cent. 
 
190 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Massowah. 
 
 This is the port from which the skins produced in 
 the northern part of Abyssinia are shipped to Aden 
 and the skins of this section are known by that 
 name. Those which originate in the interior section 
 are very similar to the Herrar skins just described, 
 so much so, in fact, that they may be considered in 
 conjunction with them. They are somewhat cleaner 
 in appearance, being freer from fat and flesh and, 
 perhaps, slightly better tacked out. Those skins which 
 originate nearer to the coast are of somewhat differ- 
 ent character, being chunkier and somewhat coarser. 
 They are prepared both flint-dry, opened and cased 
 and drysalted cased. They weigh as follows : flint- 
 dry, i. 20/1. 25 lbs. per piece; salted, 1. 35/1. 40 lbs. per 
 piece. 
 
 Somali Land. 
 
 The skins produced in this section are commonly 
 known as Berberahs. They are collected along the 
 Somali coast, the best skins coming from the towns 
 of Berberah, Bulhar and Zeila and their surrounding 
 country. The appearance of these skins and the man- 
 ner in which they are dried is peculiar to themselves. 
 They are flint-dried and mostly cased; they are 
 stretched in the length in such a manner that the 
 body of the skin is shrunk together. The skins are 
 nearly all white haired and exceedingly short haired. 
 The Berberah skin is the most highly valued of all 
 Mocha skin, as it produces leather of plump weight, 
 fine grain and texture. Its natural defect is chiefly 
 brier scratches on the grain, but not to any great ex- 
 tent. 
 
 The skins coming from the northeastern coast of 
 Italian Somali Land are similar to the above de- 
 scribed, but inferior in quality to them. They are 
 lighter colored, drier in feel and much more defect- 
 ive on the grain. All skins coming from Somali Land 
 contain a proportion of skins which have been branded 
 
GOATSKINS 181 
 
 by the natives. In some cases these brands are very 
 large. Such skins should of course be found in the 
 lower grades. These skins are ordinar :i y classified as 
 primes, seconds and heavies. The primes weigh i.io 
 to 1.25 lbs. per piece; the seconds 1 to 1.05 lbs. per 
 piece. 
 
 There is usually a small percentage of skins among 
 these which are cut open, and which may be packed 
 separately and weigh slightly less than the cased 
 skins. 
 
 Mogdishur. 
 
 From the southern part of the Somali Coast are 
 gathered goatskins which bear a strong resemblance 
 in character to Berberas. In appearance, however, 
 they are totally unlike them, being drysalted, and while 
 also cased, they have a different form, being dried in 
 their natural shape. The hair of these skins is white 
 and extremely short. They produce good fine grain 
 leather but contain a percentage of tainted skins. 
 They usually weigh about 1. 30/1. 40 lb. average. In 
 selection they are classified as first, seconds and 
 thirds, and usually consist of a large proportion of the 
 last two kinds. Owing to the fact that the Port of 
 Mogdishur, from which these skins are shipped, has 
 no good harbor, it is only possible to ship them during 
 October to May, when the seas are quiet. 
 
 Mombassa. 
 
 This title is given to those skins which are produced 
 in British and German East Africa or Uganda. Since 
 the opening of the Uganda Railway, these skins are 
 brought to the market in large quantities from the 
 interior. They are collected chiefly about the Lake 
 regions and thus afford transportation to the railway 
 head. 
 
 These skins are cut open, flint dried, staked out tight 
 and folded once for packing purposes. In appearance 
 they are similar to Herrar skins previously described. 
 
 The hair is short and of mixed colors. The leather 
 
192 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 which is produced by these skins is plump to fair 
 weight and good grained and fairly clear. The classi- 
 fication is for first, seconds and thirds, usually con- 
 sisting of 40 per cent to 50 per cent of firsts and bal- 
 ance seconds and thirds. 
 
 These skins usually lose from from 3 per cent to 15 
 per cent in the works, which skins cannot be detected 
 in the raw. This unfavorable feature is thought to be 
 due to improper drying of the fresh skins. 
 
 Zanzibar. 
 
 A small quantity of skins is shipped from this 
 region. They are cased and drysalted, but not of suf- 
 ficient importance to warrant special mention. 
 
 INDIA. 
 
 This is the most important country of the world in 
 point of the production of goatskins, its shipments ag- 
 gregating upwards of 30 per cent of the entire world's 
 production. Besides the skins exported, in the raw, 
 large quantities are manufactured locally into a bark 
 tannage by native tanners. These skins are known as 
 "India tanned" and are produced chieriy in Madras and 
 some other Southern India cities, and also in Bombay. 
 
 Goatskins are produced in all parts of India, the 
 largest quantities coming from the provinces of the 
 Ganges Valley. The character of them in general is 
 what is commonly known as "hard natured," or in 
 other words firm, close fibered and containing less 
 natural fats than what is known as "soft natured 
 skins." such as European, etc. 
 
 Patnas. 
 
 The best known of India skins is the so-called Patna ; 
 indeed, Indian skins in general are very often known 
 in the leather trade as Patnas, even though they may 
 originate in districts quite remote from the Patna 
 region. They derive their name from the city of like 
 
GOATSKINS 193 
 
 name in the Province of Bengal. All skins, however, 
 from the district of Behar are known by that name. 
 
 ^hese skins are of fine grain and practically free 
 from imperfections, with the exception of one fault, 
 common to all skins of Northern India. This consists 
 of small' holes which penetrate the skin, though not 
 always entirely, and which are chiefly concentrated 
 along the backbone and near the neck. 
 
 Pokahs. 
 
 They are known as "Pokahs" and are caused by in- 
 sects which deposit their eggs under the epidermis of 
 the animals, causing small sores which develop into 
 holes. This defect is principally evident during the 
 hot and rainy season about May to December. Dur- 
 ing this period the general quality of all Northern 
 India skins is at its lowest ebb, and not only are the 
 skins more prone to grain defects, but also become 
 thinner in pelt substances. 
 
 Dinajpores and Daccas. 
 
 To the East of Patna lies that section between the 
 Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers whence come the Din- 
 ajpore skins, and from the vicinity of the lower part of 
 the latter river we receive the skins known as Daccas, 
 both of these taking their names from the main cities 
 of their respective districts. These last two kinds are 
 of a superior quality to the common type of Patnas, 
 being somewhat plumper in nature, and cleaner 
 grained. 
 
 Regular Patna goat are shipped principally dry- 
 salted. In this type of cure the skins are first cut open 
 and then tacked out very closely, the skin being 
 stretched to the utmost. The salt is then thoroughly 
 rubbed on, and the skins allowed to dry. When 
 shipped flint dried, which is rather uncommon, they are 
 treated in a similar manner, with the exception of the 
 salting process. Dinajpores and Daccas are cured dry- 
 salted, and are not tacked out in the manner of Patnas. 
 
194 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 the overstretching being eliminated. Patnas are also 
 shipped in a wetsalted condition, though only com- 
 paratively small quantities are thus prepared. In pre- 
 paring wetsalted skins, they are almost always allowed 
 to remain in their cased condition, and when still quite 
 fresh, are thoroughly rubbed with a mixture of khari 
 and common salt. They are then folded together and 
 packed in casks for shipment. Khari salt is an earthy 
 substance, which possesses cooling properties, and pre- 
 serves the skins remarkably well. Trouble is some- 
 times experienced upon the arrival of wetsalted skins 
 at their port of destination, and especially so in winter 
 time, on account of the freezing or hardening of the 
 contents of the casks. This is easily overcome, how- 
 ever, by placing them in a hot room for three or four 
 days, when they will become quite soft and moist 
 again. 
 
 Wetsalted skins also cause trouble due to what is 
 known as hair slipping. This is really a beginning of 
 decomposition, which usually affects the grain and 
 causes a "flowering." Almost always this is due not 
 to any fault of the cure, but to the fact that the skins 
 were not cured quickly enough after the animal was 
 slaughtered. 
 
 Kushtias and Daissees. 
 
 The district around the estuary of the Ganges river 
 produces the best skins coming from India. They are 
 known as Kushtias and Calcutta Daissees. They are 
 in most respects similar to the above described, but are 
 superior to them in fineness of grain, freeness from 
 imperfections, and plumpness of pelt. Of the two 
 Kushtias are the better, the qualities just mentioned 
 being more pronounced in them. These kinds are also 
 shipped in a wetsalted condition. 
 
 The drysalted skins from all of the districts above 
 mentioned are brought to the Calcutta market, where 
 they are sold in the local bazaar to the various export- 
 ing firms. They are usually selected into firsts, seconds 
 and rejects. They are classified as to weights as fol- 
 
GOATSKINS 195 
 
 lows : Extra heavies, 850/950 lb. per 500 pieces ; 
 heavies, 700/750 lb. per 500 pieces ; mediums, 500/575 
 lb. per 500 pieces; lights, 400/475 lb. per 500 pieces; 
 smalls, 300/350 lb. per 500 pieces; kids, 250/300 lb. per 
 500 pieces; heavy seconds, 750/850 lb. per 500 pieces; 
 medium seconds, 450/500 lb. per 500 pieces. 
 
 The wetsalted skins from these districts, and in fact 
 from all districts, are packed according to measure- 
 ment, the skins being measured from the butt to the 
 throat cut. They are classified as follows : 40 inches 
 and over ; 36/40 inches ; 32/36 inches ; and 28/32 inches. 
 Seconds in the same manner. 
 
 Oudhs and Agras. 
 
 To the west of the regions above described lie the 
 North West Provinces; this district may be sub- 
 divided into the districts of Oudh and Agra; from 
 these sections the skins are shipped principally wet- 
 salted, as described in the foregoing. The manner 
 of packing is the same, with the exception that in sizing 
 the standard adopted differs to the extent that the 
 smallest size runs from 28/33 inches instead of 28/32 
 inches, and the next size therefore from 33/36 inches 
 instead of 32/36 inches. The Oudh skins, which are 
 chiefly gathered in Lucknow and Cawnpore, are simi- 
 lar to the Patna skins, but not as good in general 
 quality. They are somewhat longer in hair and are 
 more pokah marked. The general shape of the skins 
 is long and narrow. Compared to these the skins com- 
 ing from the Agra section are broader patterned but 
 less plump and coarser grain. The hair is longer still, 
 especially at the butts. All of these skins are at times 
 shipped drysalted. This is accomplished simply by 
 drying out the wet skins. 
 
 Punjab. 
 
 This is a very large district, and produces large 
 quantities of skins. They are almost entirely shipped 
 drysalted ; in fact, are received in the principal market, 
 which is Amritsar, in this condition, and are also known 
 
196 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 under the name of that city. To this place are gath- 
 ered skins from a wide spread of territory, ranging 
 from Cashmere on the north to Sindh and Rajputana 
 on the south. The character of these skins is quite 
 different from those previously described. They have 
 a tendency to thinness, and the animals are larger and 
 coarser than those coming from the southeasterly sec- 
 tions. They are longer haired and of a coarser tex- 
 ture. The skins are generally sold on an all around 
 selection of 85 per cent primes and 15 per cent seconds, 
 and for weight 1,000 lbs. per 500 skins, 1,100 lbs., 1,200 
 lbs. and 1,500 lbs. All of these averages, however, con- 
 tain all sizes of skins excepting kids. 
 
 Southern India. 
 
 The general character of the goatskins in Southern 
 India differs materially from the northern kinds. The 
 grain is quite distinctive and not as fine as in the 
 northern skins. On the other hand, it is more uniform 
 and free from pokahs. The chief defect of Southern 
 India skins is briar scratches, to which they are liable. 
 The skins coming from this district are generally 
 known as Madras. Those coming from the Mysore 
 section and to the south thereof are in general qual- 
 ity superior to those from the north: These skins are 
 almost always shipped wetsalted and classified in the 
 same manner as North West Province skins. Some 
 shippers prepare their skins drysalted, in which case 
 they are usually cut open and packed flat. 
 
 CHINA. 
 
 There are three main ports from which goatskins are 
 shipped out of this country; these also being the mar- 
 kets where the skins are collected from the several 
 districts and sold to the exporter. 
 
 Tientsin. 
 
 The qualities shipped from this port are all more or 
 less of similar nature. In order of general quality and 
 
GOATSKINS 197 
 
 excellence as well as value are placed the following 
 districts : Chowching, Shantafoo, Paotingfoo and 
 Tientsin. 
 
 All of these are classified as to hair into shorthair, 
 medium-hair and longhair. The shorthair are the best 
 in quality and the medium and long next in order. The 
 bulk of the skins shipped out of this section are me- 
 dium and longhaired and black in color, the shorthaired 
 being the smallest proportion. Chowching skins are 
 usually stretched in length, Shantafoos are also 
 stretched in this manner, but rather broader than the 
 Chowchings. The other kinds are more or less square 
 shaped. These skins are all cut open and trimmed. 
 They are prepared flint dried and are not folded but 
 packed flat in compressed bales. They are fairly free 
 from grain imperfection, their chief defect lying in 
 their tendency to barrenness and main or scurf, which 
 is also known as "hoggyness." Tientsin and Paoting- 
 foo skins have also a tendency to butcher scores. For 
 selection they are usually classified into primes, sec- 
 onds and bulls. For weight the averages run about as 
 follows: Shorthaired, 160/180 lb. average per 100 
 pieces; medium haired, 180/210 lb. average per 100 
 pieces; longhaired, 200/250 lb. average per 100 pieces. 
 
 Hankow. 
 
 This port is situated about 600 miles from the mouth 
 of the Yangtse river and secures its supply from the 
 Eastern part of the province of Szechuen and the prov- 
 inces of Honan and Hupeh. 
 
 The skins coming from the province of Szechuen are 
 the most valuable brought to this market. They are 
 flint dried, mostly white in color and plump in weight. 
 They are long-necked, and are packed flat. The grain 
 is fine and free from imperfections. The bulk of the 
 skins is shorthaired and there are but small percent- 
 ages of medium and longhaired contained in them ; for 
 weight they are classified as follows : Shorthaired, 
 150/175 lb. per 100 pieces; mediumhaired, about 180/ 
 
198 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 200 lb. per ioo pieces ; longhaired, 200/225 lb. per 100 
 pieces; heavies, 200/225 lb. per 100 pieces; bulls, 275/ 
 300 lb. per 100 pieces. They are selected for primes 
 and seconds. 
 
 Honan. 
 
 The skins from this province are smaller in size than 
 the above, are chunky and have no heads. While a 
 flint dry cure, they are fleshier and not as clean as the 
 Szechuen, are classified for hair in the same manner, 
 but contain larger proportions of medium and long- 
 haired skins; in fact, the shorthair of this variety is 
 not as short as in the case of the Szechuens. The color 
 of the hair is white, grey and black, the largest per- 
 centage being of white. The weights are approxi- 
 mately the same as the above, though if anything 
 somewhat lighter. They will not make as much 
 leather per pound, however, owing to the heavier hair 
 and false weight. 
 
 The skins coming from the province of Hupeh have 
 the same characteristics as the above mentioned skins, 
 and need no further description. 
 
 Shanghai. 
 
 There are two varieties of skins shipped to this 
 market, those coming from the western part of the 
 Province of Szechuen, and those coming from the dis- 
 trict of Puchow, which are more generally known as 
 "Rivers." This variety of Szechuen goat is similar in 
 most characteristics to the above described, but differs 
 from them in fineness of texture. These are the best 
 and most valuable of all skins shipped from China. 
 They are fine grained and yield plump weight leather. 
 They are particularly free from grain defects and pro- 
 duce chiefly high grades. They are mostly black- 
 haired and practically all shorthaired, the texture being 
 very fine. They are classified for weight as follows: 
 Shorthair, 135/150 lb. per 100 pieces; heavies, 190/200 
 lb. per 100 pieces; bulls, 225/250 lb. per 100 pieces. 
 
GOATSKINS 199 
 
 There is also the usual selection for primes and seconds. 
 Though this district is closer to Hankow than Shang- 
 hai, the skins are shipped through 10 the latter port 
 owing to the fact that the merchants of this district 
 have their representatives at Shanghai. 
 
 River Goat. 
 
 This is one of the inferior classes of China skins. 
 The animals are small sized, and though the grain is 
 fine over the body of the skin, the heads and necks are 
 rather coarse and hoggy. In cure the skins are partly 
 flint dried and partly mud cured. They are cut open 
 and packed flat, have no heads and are fairly trimmed. 
 The hair is quite fine in texture and in color runs to 
 white, grey and black in about equal proportions. In 
 length it is practically all medium and long, the so- 
 called shorthaired River skins having considerable 
 length. There is considerable false weight left on 
 these skins in the shape of flesh and fat. They are 
 packed for weight about as follows : Short medium- 
 hair, 150/175 lbs. average per 100 pieces; medium long- 
 hair, 175/200 lbs. average per 100 pieces; longhaired, 
 190/220 lbs. average per 100 pieces. Selection primes, 
 seconds and kids. 
 
 All classes of China skins are marketed from No- 
 vember to May inclusive. The Tientsin varieties are 
 the earliest to be sold, and their season is over about 
 February-March. The Hankow and Shanghai mar- 
 kets range from December to May. 
 
 JAVA. 
 
 The island of Java produces comparatively few goat- 
 skins, but these are of excellent quality and deserving 
 of mention. The skins are well prepared, being cut 
 open, closely trimmed and cured flint dry. They are 
 tacked out closely and free from flesh and false weight. 
 The hair is short and fine and the leather produced 
 is plump, fine grained and free from imperfections. 
 
200 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 They are selected for quality into primes and seconds 
 and for weight from 75 lbs. average per 100 pieces to 
 105/110 lbs. These averages and those in between are 
 made up of all sized skins. 
 
 SOUTH AMERICA. 
 
 There are two large producing countries of goat- 
 skins on the South American continent — the Argentine 
 Republic and Brazil. All of the other countries, such 
 as Chili, Bolivia, Peru, Venezuela and Colombia, pro- 
 duce more or less quantities, which, however, will not 
 be detailed here. 
 
 Argentine. 
 
 These skins are better known under the name of 
 Buenos Aires, from which place they are shipped. Bet- 
 ter qualities of Buenos Aires skins come from the 
 states of Cordova, San Luis and Santafe, those com- 
 ing from the Pampas region and Tucaman and Salta 
 being inferior. The skins are of two general types, the 
 matadero or butcher skins, and the campos or country 
 skins. The first kind are well handled, being clean 
 and free from flesh and fat, while the latter are some- 
 what fleshy and earthy cured. The matadero skins are 
 flint dried, and are stretched in their natural shape, 
 folded along the back for packing purposes. Campos 
 skins are also partly shaped in this manner, and partly 
 stretched in length, the body of the skin being shrunk 
 together. In general character, the skins are plump 
 and fine grained, the chief defects being a tendency 
 towards scurf on the grain and scratches. They are 
 selected for primes and culls, also small percentages 
 of bulls and longhair. For weight they are usually 
 classified as follows : Mataderos, 8 to 9 kilos per doz. ; 
 campos, 9 to 10^ kilos per doz. 
 
 Brazil. 
 
 Skins from this country are well known to the trade, 
 as probably the highest grade of all goatskins. The 
 
GOATSKINS 201 
 
 best skins come from the state of Ceara, next in order 
 being Pernambuco and Bahia. Large quantities were 
 formerly shipped out of this country, and while there 
 are still fair sized quantities obtainable, they have de- 
 creased materially. The skins are of flint dry cure, 
 shorthaired and quite free from flesh and fat. The 
 grain of these skins is very fine and the leather pro- 
 duced is of the highest grade. The usual weight is 
 110/112 lbs. per 100 pieces for the primes; there are 
 also seconds and kids. 
 
 MEXICO. 
 
 Considerable quantities of skins are produced in this 
 country, the best qualities coming from the southern 
 portion, from the states of Vera Cruz and Oaxaca. The 
 skins are largely classified for particular cities and dis- 
 tricts, and even shippers too numerous to be men- 
 tioned here. The usual selection is for primes, which 
 are all whitehaired skins, fawn colored skins being 
 kept separately, and culls. The skins are of earthy salt 
 cure and sometimes also flint dry. The weights range 
 from 175/225 lbs. in accordance with their size and 
 cure. 
 
 Mexican skins are also known to the trade under the 
 general title of Tampicos. The skins are large and pro- 
 duce plump leather and are fairly fine grain in propor- 
 tion to their size. 
 
THE 
 
 DEVELOPMENT OF THE LEATHER 
 
 INDUSTRY IN ITS RELATION TO 
 
 THE WORLD'S HIDE 
 
 SUPPLY 
 
 Read By A. H. LOCKWOOD 
 Before the American Leather Chemists' Association 
 
 Reprinted from the Journal of the American Leather 
 Chemists' Association. 
 
 Two decades ago there was much discussion in the 
 leather industry regarding the bark supply. There 
 were predictions that hemlock bark would soon be ex- 
 hausted and our low cost red sole leather would cease 
 to be cut into cheap shoes and exported in large quan- 
 tities. In those days hides and skins were in super- 
 abundant supply and such a thing as a scarcity of hides 
 was not thought of. Today we find these conditions 
 reversed. The chrome tannage, quebracho and other 
 tanning extracts successfully have reinforced the bark 
 supply and no apprehension exists. On the other 
 hand, hides and skins appear to be decreasing stead- 
 ily in quantity, as measured by demand. To those 
 who have an aversion for statistics and remain uncon- 
 vinced when long tables of figures are shown attest- 
 ing that the slaughter of cattle is not keeping pace 
 with the increase of population, the fact that hides 
 and skins continue to advance in cost in all the mar- 
 kets of the world should be a demonstration of the 
 situation. 
 
 Value of Statistics. 
 
 It is sometimes alleged that there are no reliable 
 statistics upon which to estimate the supply of hides, 
 but the condition is neither better or worse than ob- 
 
WORLD'S HIDE SUPPLY 203 
 
 tains in other world wide commodities. There are 
 two sets of statistics purporting to give the number of 
 farm animals in the country. The Census Depart- 
 ment reports once in ten years and the Agricultural 
 Department makes an enumeration every year. The 
 U. S. Census report was announced. It gave the 
 total range and farm cattle as 61,225,791 head 
 against 67,719,410 for 1900 — a decrease of 10.6 per cent. 
 The population of the United States is 92,174,515, 
 against 75,-79,940 in 1900 — an increase of 21.3 per cent. 
 It thus appears that the cattle which produce hides 
 and the people who consume leather are numerically 
 moving in inverse ratio. If we compare the latest Cen- 
 sus Department figures with the Agricultural Census 
 of 1908, a decrease of 10,041,219 head of cattle, or 14.10 
 per cent is shown. 
 
 There are persons connected with the leather trade 
 who have the Bourbon faculty of never learning, al- 
 though they do forget frequently. Years ago they 
 adopted the postulate that hides and skins are and 
 forever must be in superabundant supply. When con- 
 fronted by facts and figures such as the live stock 
 census or the decreased slaughter of the big packers 
 they declare that the temporary scarcity will soon 
 right itself because more cattle will be raised. 
 
 Less Demand for Beef. 
 
 The plain fact many times ignored is that beef has 
 declined as a staple article of diet. Cereal breakfast 
 foods were unknown outside of Scotland when some of 
 us were boys. To-day, the grocer's shelves are filled 
 with predigested stuff ranging all the way from good 
 to bad. I venture to assert that there isn't a man in 
 this room who has had a beefsteak for breakfast this 
 morning. The millionaire, the chemist and the poor 
 newspaper man are united in the modern democracy 
 of an oatmeal, egg and grapefruit breakfast. This 
 dietary change is not a theory but a condition. The 
 refrigerator car has made it possible to transport 
 
204 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 southern fruits and vegetables to northern markets 
 and the cold storage plant enables the accumulation 
 of fish, poultry, eggs and other food products in sea- 
 son of plenty to be dispensed during all the months 
 of the year. The development of the poultry and egg 
 business is remarkable. The farm animal census is- 
 sued last month contained this significant clause: 
 "Poultry shows a greater relative increase in value 
 during the decade than the combined value of all live 
 stock, the increase amounting to nearly $70,000,000. 
 Poultry now are valued at more than $150,000,000." 
 The work of the Government Bureau of Fisheries 
 in stocking our rivers, lakes and coast waters is an- 
 other important development of the food supply. 
 
 Revolution in Cattle Trade. 
 
 This revolution in the diet of the people under the 
 operation of the law of supply and demand would have 
 lowered the price of cattle at the stock yards and beef 
 at the butchers if other circumstances had not in- 
 tervened. Coincident with the decline in the per cap- 
 ita consumption of beef was the cutting up of the vast 
 ranges into farms. The western semi arid plains made 
 economical cattle production possible. But with the 
 settlement of the country, the cowboy and vast 
 stretches of free grazing land are no more. Under 
 the old system cattle were raised on the ranges and 
 finished on corn in the middle West. One after an- 
 other the cattle feeders have gone out of business. 
 It is misleading to assume that the scarcity of cattle 
 is only a temporary condition. Cattle raisers and feed- 
 ers and the country banks which have made a spe- 
 cialty of cattle loans, nearly all have been obliterated 
 by the economic change. The distribution of cattle 
 among the states as disclosed by a census bulletin 
 issued November 21st is a demonstration of the pass- 
 ing of the cattle from the ranges to the farms. 
 
WORLD'S HIDE SUPPLY 205 
 
 Increase of Dairy Cattle. 
 
 If we take nine typical range cattle states, Mon- 
 tana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, Ari- 
 zona, Utah, Nevada and Texas, we find they have 12,- 
 745,212 head of cattle. A comparison with nine dairy 
 states, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illi- 
 nois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota and Iowa, de- 
 velops the interesting fact that these central and east- 
 ern states have 20,643,857 head. Texas is the largest 
 state in the Union and still has the largest number of 
 cattle — 6,721,502 head, or more than half the total num- 
 ber in the nine range states previously named. But 
 the New England states with New York, Pennsyl- 
 vania, New Jersey and Ohio, have 7,402,583 head. If 
 we take the eight range cattle states, exclusive of 
 Texas, there are only 6,023,710 head, against 6,066,- 
 278 head in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey 
 and Ohio. Another astonishing contrast may be made 
 between six central and eastern states, Illinois, Wis- 
 consin, Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri and New York, 
 with 16,917,465 head of cattle, and twelve western 
 states, Texas, Montana, Idaho, Wyoming, Colorado, 
 New Mexico, Arizona, Utah, Nevada, Washington, 
 Oregon and California with only 15,734,443 head. 
 Here we have six dairy states with 1,183,022 more cat- 
 tle than twelve range states. It is also worthv of note 
 that the western states are increasing their proportion 
 of milch cows. Texas now has more than a million 
 head of dairy cattle. 
 
 There is an important distinction between range 
 and farm cattle as a basis of raw material for tan- 
 ning. On the plains, steers are developed quickly 
 and shipped to the feed lots for fattening when only 
 two years old. On the farms as a rule only bull 
 calves and worn out milch cows are sold for slaugh- 
 tering. A given number of dairy cattle furnish more 
 calfskins but a smaller supply of hides than a similar 
 number of animals on the ranges. 
 
206 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Cattle Supply of the World. 
 
 According to the year book of the Department of 
 Agriculture there are about four hundred and fifty 
 millions of cattle in the world, more than half of 
 which are in North and South America. Europe and 
 Asia each have one hundred and thirty millions and 
 Africa and Oceania each have twelve millions. There 
 would seem to be a basis for some sort of hide and 
 leather Monroe doctrine concealed in the fact that 
 there are within eighteen millions as many cattle in 
 the western hemisphere as in Europe and Asia com- 
 bined. In so far as the leather making and consum- 
 ing industries can properly take political action we 
 should favor pan-American reciprocity. The North 
 and South American continents are 31.75 per cent of 
 the world's area, have 55 per cent of the world's sup- 
 ply of cattle, but have only 10.40 per cent of the world's 
 population. With the completion of the Panama Canal 
 and the institution of closer business relations with the 
 nations south of us, we should accept our manifest 
 opportunity to dominate the leather industries of the 
 world. There are millions of acres of land in Cen- 
 tral and South America exactly suited to the raising 
 of cattle. But the business must be exploited by capi- 
 tal and men from the United States, and live cattle 
 should be put on the free list. The present duty of 
 2 7/^ P er cen t i s practically prohibitive. 
 
 Years ago this high tariff was designed to stimu- 
 late cattle raising on our then unoccupied plains. 
 Those who insist upon a tariff on either cattle or 
 hides are reactionary and out of alignment with mod- 
 ern progress. 
 
 Expansion of Foreign Trade. 
 
 If trade relations were cultivated with Central and 
 South America the United States would be in a posi- 
 tion to assume a commanding position in the leather 
 industries of the world. 
 
WORLD'S HIDE SUPPLY 207 
 
 Our exports of shoes are almost equal to those of 
 the United Kingdom, but we export twenty-eight mil- 
 lion dollars' worth of leather to Great Britain's twelve 
 millions. With the preponderance of the hide supply 
 on this hemisphere and Europe, Asia and Africa de- 
 manding more leather goods, wide statesmanship 
 would suggest a rapid expansion of our foreign traffic. 
 
 There is much evidence to show that the world, 
 while consuming less beef per capita is demanding \ 
 more leather. This seeming paradox is easily ex- 
 plained. There are many substitutes for beef for food, 
 but no alternative for leather. The world could get 
 along without the flesh of cattle, but not without the 
 hides. The semi-civilized nations are adopting our 
 customs of dress, especially in shoes. Since Lord 
 Palmerston uttered his famous criticisms of the Turk 
 "What can you expect of a people who wear no heels 
 on their shoes/' slipshod methods have been corrected 
 to some extent by the introduction of European and 
 American styles. If the four hundred millions of 
 people in China should demand leather shoes as a con- 
 comitant of their new government, their wants could 
 not possibly be supplied for lack of raw material of 
 which to make leather. 
 
 Increased Domestic Consumption of Leather. 
 
 But apart from the task of civilizing the barbarous 
 nations with our improved footgear there is the much 
 less remote condition at home. Our own per capita 
 consumption of leather is increasing coincidently with 
 our declining supply of hides and skins. Experts tell 
 us that automobiles use two and a half hides each for\ 
 their upholstering. Leather furniture is in evidence in 
 all semi-public places and grows in favor for libraries 
 and dining rooms in the finest houses. The late cen- 
 sus shows a large increase of horse and mules in both 1 
 number and values so that despite the automobile, 
 harness leather will continue to be wanted in larger , 
 quantities. The Census Department preliminary re- 
 
208 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 port of the trade in harness, trunks, valises, embossed 
 leather, leather garments, etc., shows an increase in 
 the number of establishments of 24 per cent from 
 1904 and 37 per cent increase in capital invested. 
 
 The shoe industry is not conducted with a view to 
 economy of raw material. Durability is subordinated 
 to style and finish. Many of the popular kinds of 
 leather are sold without guarantee as to wear. They 
 are beautiful but fi^il and use up raw material rapidly 
 The 1909 census of the shoe industry shows an increase 
 of 63 per cent in capital invested since 1904 and the 
 gross value of product increased 43 per cent. 
 
 Goatskins. 
 
 The importance of the goat as a leather producing 
 animal should be considered in estimating the world's 
 supply of raw material. Of course, goatskins are 
 available for light weight stock suitable for fine shoes, 
 upholstery, fancy articles and decorations. The goat 
 is the chief meat and dairy animal in many countries. 
 The best available statistics tell us that there are 100, 
 957,649 goats in the world, of which less than two 
 millions are in the United States and a little less than 
 fourteen millions on this hemisphere. North, South 
 and Central America have less than fourteen per cent 
 ; of the goats of the world against 55 per cent of the 
 beef cattle. And yet our morocco manufacturers have 
 achieved a commanding position in the manufacture 
 of glazed kid. They now are exporting glazed kid to 
 the amount of about eighteen million dollars a year 
 with what may be termed the raw material situation 
 against them. They present an object lesson of what 
 should be accomplished in the heavy leather trade 
 with the preponderance of hides at hand. 
 
 Taking a broad review of the leather situation with 
 regard to the hide supply it would seem that future 
 extension depends upon producing greater quantities 
 of raw material and developing the export trade. The 
 day of small things in the leather industry is passing. 
 
CONSUMPTION OF MEAT 209 
 
 The modern tanner must be a student of the world's 
 markets and able to command sufficient capital to 
 transact a greater foreign business ixi buying hides 
 and skins and selling leather. 
 
 To this end we should demand a repeal of the Sher- 
 man Law and the inauguration of a government policy 
 designed to encourage and stimulate international 
 trade on a large scale. It is admitted that powerful 
 corporations are necessary properly to conduct big 
 business. No one will object to government control, 
 but there is a wide difference between regulation and 
 strangulation. 
 
 ANNUAL CONSUMPTION OF MEAT BY 
 
 COUNTRIES. 
 
 The annual consumption of meat per inhabitant in 
 the United States is estimated at 154 pounds; Argen- 
 tina, 282 pounds; Australia, 245 pounds; Great Britain, 
 104 pounds ; Canada, 88 pounds ; France, 73 pounds ; 
 Belgium, 68 pounds, and Italy, 26 pounds. 
 
THE COMPOSITION OF LEATHER 
 
 FROM DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
 
 HIDE, AND THE IMPORTANCE 
 
 OF A PROPER SAMPLE 
 
 FOR ANALYSIS* 
 
 By CHARLES R. OBERFELL 
 
 The analysis of a leather may be of value for a 
 number of purposes and the importance of a repre- 
 sentative sample somewhat depends on the kind of 
 leather under consideration, as well as the nature of 
 the information desired from the laboratory. For 
 illustration, if a lot of leather consists of "bellies" 
 and it is desired to know the kind and extent of 
 adulteration it is a simple problem to get an average 
 sample. If the consideration is a lot of sole leather, 
 and it is desired to know particularly the extent of 
 the tannage, the problem is complicated. Again, if 
 the chemist in his control work in the tannery desires 
 to know the particular stage in tanning to which the 
 hides have progressed, the problem of an average sam- 
 ple is further complicated, and a representative sam- 
 ple is essential if he is to obtain any exact informa- 
 tion. 
 
 This need of a representative sample from the whole 
 hide is brought about by the variation largely in the 
 physical nature of different parts. As is well known 
 the fibers on the flank parts are loose and for the 
 most part the hide is thin. Going toward the center 
 of the "butt" or part lying over the kidneys it grad- 
 
 *Read at the A. L. C. A. convention, Washington, 
 D. C, December 8, 1911. 
 
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HIDE 211 
 
 ually grows thicker and firmer until in the kidney- 
 section we have the choice part of the hide. Proceed- 
 ing- toward the head along the backbone the structure 
 gradually changes and when we reach the shoulder 
 section the hide is thicker and not so firm as the butt, 
 and this increases through the neck into the head. The 
 result of this variation in structure is a variation in 
 the quality of the leather. Parts thin and loose are 
 penetrated' rapidly by the tannin and consequently 
 more thoroughly tanned, while heavier and firmer parts 
 are less rapidly penetrated, but at the same time more 
 tannin is physically absorbed and filled in the inter- 
 stitial spaces between the fibers. We have every rea- 
 son for assuming that samples taken from these vari- 
 ous sections would give different results on analysis. 
 The same is true regarding addition of materials to 
 gain weight. The loosely constructed parts will re- 
 ceive more of these materials than the firmer parts. 
 
 In order to determine the exact conditions antici- 
 pated by the foregoing reasoning, I undertook a series 
 of analyses of leather taken from the principal sections, 
 namely, belly, shoulder and butt. 
 
 There are certain practical limitations in obtaining 
 a sample of leather, because it would be impracticable 
 to cut into pieces a whole hide to obtain the sample. 
 No one would destroy so much value for this purpose. 
 The samples analyzed were accordingly taken with the 
 idea of getting a representative one with the least 
 mutilation of the parts. Three tanned and finished 
 hides trimmed into bends, shoulders and bellies were 
 selected. From each belly a strip was taken running 
 the whole length, approximately one inch wide, from 
 the inside or cut edge. From each bend a strip two 
 inches wide was cut on the edge lying along the back- 
 bone. From each shoulder a strip the same width on 
 the cut edge adjoining the bends and on the neck end. 
 
 The head was neglected as it represents less than 
 io' per cent of the hide. 
 
212 
 
 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Figure No. i is cut of a hide showing the parts re- 
 moved for the samples. 
 
 The strips were laid off in five-inch blocks, each 
 
 block was numbered and the alternate blocks were 
 taken by selecting the even numbers on one strip 
 and the odd numbers on the next, etc. An equal 
 
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HIDE 213 
 
 amount from this sample was then finely divided as for 
 analysis. This made a total of three samples, which 
 were placed in air-tight jars. The analyses were con- 
 ducted according to the methods of this association, 
 and the results are given in Table I. 
 
 Table I. 
 
 Butt. Shoulder. Belly. 
 
 Moisture 13.16% 12.50% 13.15% 
 
 Oil 3.26 4.77 4.63 
 
 Uncombined tannin 17-59 I 9- 2 7 l 7 2 3 
 
 Uncombined non-tannin... 3.43 3.86 3.60 
 
 Combined tannin 18.21 18.83 I 9- 2 3 
 
 Hide 44-24 40.67 42.05 
 
 Ash (insoluble) 0.11 0.10 0.11 
 
 Tannage number 41.2 46.3 45.7 
 
 This gives an idea of the variation likely, as the 
 leather was standard oak tanned stock. 
 
 In obtaining a representative sample of the whole 
 hide it must be based on the relative weights of each 
 section. In this case the shoulders averaged eight 
 pounds, the bends ten pounds and the bellies five 
 pounds, or a total of thirty-eight pounds. Accord- 
 ingly, in making a composite sample fifty-three per 
 cent of the butt sample, twenty-one per cent of the 
 shoulder and twenty-six per cent of the belly was 
 used. 
 
 This analysis is given in Table II. 
 
 Table II. Composite 
 
 Sample. 
 
 Moisture 12.98% 
 
 Oil 3-93 
 
 Uncombined tannin 17-^9 
 
 Uncombined non-tannin 3.96 
 
 Combined tannin 18.92 
 
 Hide 42-42 
 
 Ash (insoluble) 0.10 
 
 Tannage number 44-6 
 
214 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 In thus working for an average sample of a whole 
 hide it will be advisable to obtain the weights of each 
 part, and when this is impossible to use average ap- 
 proximate weights. 
 
 An interesting comparison with the results on the 
 composite sample in Table II is the calculated analysis 
 from Table I made up on the same basis as the com- 
 posite sample. 
 
 Table III. 
 
 Composite Calculated 
 Sample. Analysis. 
 
 Moisture 12.98% 13.03% 
 
 Oil 3-93 3-93 
 
 Uncombined tannin 17-69 l 7-&5 
 
 Uncombined non-tannin 3.96 3.57 
 
 Combined tannin 18.92 18.60 
 
 Hide 42.42 42.92 
 
 Ash (insoluble) 0.10 0.10 
 
 Tannage number 44.6 43.3 
 
 It appears from the results that the foregoing rea- 
 soning failed in assuming that the firmest or butt part 
 of the hide has a greater physical absorption of tannin 
 as indicated by the uncombined tannin results. Other 
 assumptions as to completeness of tannage were cor- 
 rect, as there is a big difference between the butt and 
 shoulder composition. There is as much as 3.57 per 
 cent difference in the hide, taking the two extremes 
 and the greatest difference in the tannage number 
 (combined tannin -j- hide, per cent), is 5.1 per cent. 
 Also, we notice a greater penetration of oil in the 
 shoulder and belly sections than in the butt. This, it 
 seems, would indicate, as assumed, the better penetra- 
 tion in these parts of any material used for false 
 weight. 
 
 The most unlooked for result is the general agree- 
 ment between the analysis of the composite sample 
 and the belly, and this work seems to indicate that 
 where it is impracticable to obtain a general average 
 sample from the whole hide that it is possible to get 
 
DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE HIDE 215 
 
 very near the truth by taking the sample from the 
 cut edge of the belly. 
 
 These results could have been maae more conclusive 
 by additional analyses from either heavier or lighter 
 hides and from other tannages. However, this paper 
 is not the result of a special investigation for that 
 purpose, but rather the result of an investigation un- 
 dertaken in the general course of my work, to de- 
 termine how much variation might be expected in the 
 composition of leather taken from the various principal 
 parts of the hide, and I trust, as here presented, they 
 may prove of value to someone. 
 
THE CHARACTERISTICS AND COM- 
 MERCIAL ADAPTABILITY 
 OF HIDES 
 
 Read By John H. H. YOCUM 
 Before the American Leather Chemists' Association 
 
 Reprinted from the Journal of the American Leather 
 Chemists' Association. 
 
 While it is not advisable to write for technical soci- 
 eties articles which are based on commercial condi- 
 tions, yet because of the fact that so far in the 
 literature of the tanning trade no data are on record 
 bearing on the character and condition of hides, I 
 have felt it worth while to bring before this organi- 
 zation and have recorded for reference the varying 
 conditions and character of the raw material of the 
 tanning industry, particularly in view of the fact 
 that the hide represents from 60 to 70 per cent of the 
 value of the resulting leather. 
 
 In using the term hide, I refer to those pelts which 
 are usually worked into heavy leathers, as the trade 
 distinguishes lighter pelts by the term skins or kips. 
 Hides come to the tanner in two general conditions, 
 dry, and green salted ; there is an intermediate condi- 
 tion generally known as dry salted, but as there are re- 
 latively few hides on the market in this condition and as 
 they are worked in the same manner as are the green 
 salted hides, they will be included under green salted 
 hides. 
 
 Dry Hides. 
 
 Dry hides are the hides that are taken off, as a 
 rule, on the ranch or at some distance from easy trans- 
 portation points, and when taken off the animal are 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 217 
 
 usually hung flesh out and permitted to dry in the 
 sun until the 70 or 75 per cent of moisture normally 
 in the hide when taken off is reduced to 8 or 10 per 
 cent, and the pelt itself changed into a hard and im- 
 pervious horny substance. During the drying opera- 
 tion, if conditions are not suitable for rapid drying, 
 bacterial action occurs, which liquefies the fiber of the 
 hide. This, when it reaches the tanner or selector, is 
 known as a sunburn, and during the soaking operation 
 these so-called sunburned spots usually drop out. 
 Sometimes the selector can determine from the ap- 
 pearance of the dried hide the extent of the sun burn, 
 and other times the extent of the sun burn is only de- 
 termined by the tanner during the soaking and stock- 
 ing of the hides. Such hides come out and go into 
 leather of the selection known as scabs and rejects, 
 or go to pieces in working. 
 
 In trade parlance we have River Plate hides, or 
 straight hides and common hides. These two names 
 refer to practically all the dry hides coming from 
 South and Central America. The straight hides are 
 hides going into union and oak sole, harness and upper 
 as Buenos Ayres and Montevideos, taking their name 
 from the point of shipment; these hides are range 
 cattle raised under similar climatic conditions to the 
 Texas hide in the United States, but are not branded so 
 heavily as are the range hides of the United States, 
 the prevalent brand being the result of wire branding 
 which does not occasion the formation of as much 
 scar tissue as does the stamp brand of the States. 
 These hides are regarded as the best of dry hides, and 
 are largely worked into non-acid and the better grades 
 of acid hemlock. 
 
 Common hides take their names from the different 
 ports from which they are shipped or the neighbor- 
 hood in which they are taken off, such as Puerto Ca- 
 bellos, Maracaibos, Caracas, Costa Ricas, Central 
 Americas and Orinocos, and have varying character- 
 istics as to plumpness, quality of grain and ability to 
 
218 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 make gain of leather. They are worked into acid 
 hemlock in its cheaper grades, and the cheaper grades 
 of non-acid hemlock. 
 
 Other dry hides come into the market such as 
 Chinas, dry and arsenic cured Buffalos from India, 
 dry Californias, fallen Texas, etc., each having a dif- 
 ferent value depending upon the character of the skin 
 of the cattle as determined by the climatic conditions 
 of the country from which they come. This, for in- 
 stance, can best be explained by the selection known 
 as Mountain Bogotas as against Orinocos; the Moun- 
 tain Bogota cattle, being raised at high altitudes and 
 in a comparatively cold climate, are much plumper 
 than are the Orinocos which are raised in about the 
 same latitude but at low elevations. 
 
 Practically all the dry hides coming into this market 
 are prepared for tanning by the sweating process, 
 whereas practically all the salted hides are prepared 
 for tanning by liming. The dry hides, as a rule, go 
 into acid and non-acid hemlock sole leather, the salted 
 hides shipped from Argentine and Uruguay known 
 leather, although some are worked into slaughter hem- 
 lock sole. 
 
 To the tanner it is essential that the hides worked 
 by a given method of procedure in the tannery should be 
 similar in weight and character, and it is therefore 
 necessary for him to know, in the purchase of hides 
 so as to turn out a given character of leather, the 
 characteristics of the hides from different localities. 
 Therefore, a tanner making acid hemlock from Indian 
 Buffalo hides will pursue a different method in the treat- 
 ment of the hides in the tannery from that which he 
 would use in tanning acid hemlock from hides obtained in 
 Venezuela or in Central America; he would also have 
 to pursue a different method of treatment for hides 
 from Buenos Ayres or Montevideo. Buenos Ayres 
 and Montevideos are sufficiently like Texas to be 
 worked together; Central Americas and Venezuelas 
 can generally be worked together; Chinas are so vari- 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OP HIDES 219 
 
 cms in character as to make it a matter of judgment 
 what other hides can be worked with them success- 
 fully. 
 
 Dry pelts coming into this country and weighing 
 over 12 pounds in the dried condition are known as 
 hides. Pelts weighing in the dried condition between 
 12 and 5 pounds are known as kips ; under 5 pounds in 
 the dried condition are known as calf skins. Selec- 
 tions are made for hides and kips, hides tainted on 
 both sides, badly worn out on both sides, sore shoulder 
 or pox on both sides, sunburns and damage in shipment, 
 no selection being ordinarily made for grubs, ticks or 
 cuts. Practically all these hides are branded. 
 
 Salted Hides. 
 
 The salted hides that are imported from South 
 America come under three selective names : Frigorifi- 
 cos, Saladeros and Mataderos. The Frigorificos, as 
 the name indicates, are the hides taken off cattle, 
 the meat of which is shipped out of Argentine as 
 frozen meat. The Saladeros are the hides taken from 
 the smaller packing establishments throughout Ar- 
 gentine and Uruguay. The Mataderos are the hides 
 taken from the village butcher shops and the larger 
 ranches, which are brought into the market in the salted 
 condition. Few Mataderos come to this country because 
 of their poor take-off; the Saladeros take-off is about 
 equal to our country take-off, a little better if anything, 
 while the Frigorifico is equivalent to our large packers' 
 take-off. These hides are almost all wire branded, and in 
 that respect do not compare with the native selection in 
 the United States. Practically all of the Argentine and 
 Uruguay hides are staggy, that is, thick in the belly and 
 neck and comparatively thin along the backbone. 
 
 Other green salted hides imported into this country are 
 of two types : such cow hides from the north of Europe 
 suitable for buff and lace leather, and such heavy steer 
 hides from the north of Italy, from Switzerland and 
 France, as are suitable on account of their spread for 
 
HIDES AN! SKINS 
 
 carr. leather, and cm account of their 
 
 plunpness for belting and harness leather. 
 
 Z ropean hides coming to this country are branded, 
 
 irks which are more harmful to 
 grain f : scratches on our natives. The 
 
 a Eoi gn - :.- - an the Continent, and is not uni- 
 form for I spread} b ides as against Swedisli 
 cow & asa.rale s much later in the year than 
 : b ig season in the United States. In purchasir.c 
 
 s to make a grub selection at all 
 times by the agent or factor tal-: g p the hides. Xo 
 general rule as to daring of grub allowance; is ~ade on 
 foreign hiiif ;. : case in the United Sfe 
 
 Anglo-American Hides. 
 
 Another type of hide corning into the United States is 
 known as the Anglo-American, which is the hide taken 
 frorr rican cattlr s "ed to England, the hides being 
 
 returned here These are : : . s ame character as Amer- 
 ican seasonable take-off being from 30 to 40 
 5 behind that of this country. However, these hides 
 ~ked and for : ison command a slightly 
 e. These Anglo- rkans ire subject to the 
 same brand and gr t : : Arr.e~ :ir. 
 packer hi A S 3me c : : n hides from the United 
 res ire sold imdef : he term of short shanked, which 
 e hide is not taken off from the knee down. 
 :r:::er; ire r: rep ire: '■-. ~ :'r. :hf — rr.e 
 that 7 ; UoCita s are in this country, and are then 
 and sold F:r mis reas-:" the Arglo- American 
 e from 3 tc : ag : as against a like 
 It beta ; ^ :: the knee trim. 
 
 Domestic Hides. 
 
 The green salted hides sold in this country are gen- 
 knt : ~ - from their source as packer 
 
 e packer hides and co untr y hides. The (lis- 
 
 ten many of the small packers in the char- 
 -- of ti : that they produce and that of the "big 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIL-ZS 
 
 six*' is simply a matter of quantity. Many of these small 
 packers kill the same character of cattle and exercise the 
 same care in the take-off as do the "big* six," bat beca_ i e 
 cf the quantity killed by the larger packers they are able 
 to give a better selection as to weights, conditions, brands 
 and grubs than is possible for the small packer to do 
 There are, however, some ::' the small packers who take 
 off poorly, and therefore these hides must be thrown into 
 the country hide selection. Fbe country les ire the 
 hides taken off by small toca] butchers the bodes being 
 salted without regard to selection, and subsequently sold 
 to a dealer, who, after collecting from a number of the 
 country hide butchers, makes a general sele crier, fcr 
 grubs, brands, steers, cows, bulls and weights. Among 
 most of the small packers, however, a realization of the 
 value of selection exists, and natives and brands 
 and bulls are packed separately, so that the tanner ma; 
 purchase from them hides of a good selection suitable for 
 a tanner's needs. 
 
 Packer Hides. 
 
 The mode of packing or curing of hides in the Unite 
 States among the larger packers is well -s the smaller 
 packers, after removing and washing down the hides. . 
 to stage the hide and permit the excess of water from tl 
 washing down to drain off. This washing down of the 
 hide assises in the removal of the blood and manure and 
 in a way prevents salt stains. It is important in : 
 connection that the packer, to prevent salt stains should 
 use salt which has been crystallized, as it has been found 
 that mine salt not only contains iron which wiD cause 
 discoloration in the leather, but in the process of mining, 
 the dynamite used for dislodging must be exploded by 
 caps and small wires made of copper, which, if left in 
 the mine salt, will cause iiseclrration of the hides, and, 
 for certain purposes, make the hides less 
 Packer hides, after draining, are selected and placed in 
 packs in which the moisture remaining in the hide tar- 
 nishes sufheier.: -.vater fcr the diss r '.vine ::" the sal: rlace: 
 
222 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 thereon, so that the salt will form a pickle and partially 
 taw the hide. Ordinarily from 600 to 1,000 hides are 
 placed in the pack, dependent upon the weight of the 
 hide ; the time from which the last hide is placed thereon 
 until the cure is effected ranges from 30 days upwards. 
 No packer's bed of hides should be taken up, if proper 
 weights are desired, until at least 30 days have elapsed 
 from the time the last hide went into pack. 
 
 Selections of Packer Hides. 
 
 The selections of packer hides, as adopted by the pack- 
 ers, are as follows : 
 
 Spready Steers — 6 feet 6 inches and over on stuck 
 throats; 6 feet 8 inches and over on cut throats, meas- 
 ured immediately behind the brisket ; suitable for patent, 
 enamel, carriage and furniture leather; selection for 
 grubs; usually sold as of June 1st to January 1st. 
 
 Free of Brands or Native Steers — Heavy steers, 60 
 pounds and up ; spready selection taken out between June 
 1st and January 1st, remaining in January 1st to June 
 1st; grub selection January 1st to June 1st. This carries 
 the hides from 50 to 60 pounds at 1 cent less. No. 2's 
 of each at 1 cent less. Cut throat hides ordinarily sell 
 for y A cent less than stuck throat hides. Hides of the 
 native selection on steers below 50 pounds will ordinarily 
 go into native cow hides, as the extremes (under 50 
 pounds) would sell for 2 cents a pound less than heavy 
 natives, and the packer ordinarily puts these among the 
 cows. 
 
 Free of Brands or Native Cows — The packer makes 
 a selection of 25 to 45 pounds on these, which are called 
 extremes, 45 to 55 pounds, which are called buff hides, 
 and 55 pounds and up, which are called heavy cows. The 
 extremes are used in the shoe leather and lace leather 
 trade; the buffs almost exclusively in the shoe upper 
 leather trade, either in chrome grains or patent grains, 
 whereas the heavy native cows are used in the belting 
 leather trade and in the furniture and carriage leather 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 223 
 
 trade. A native hide in the United States is free of 
 brands, or is reported free of brands by the agent taking 
 up the hide. All hides of the packer; should properly 
 be taken up by an agent representing the tanner. It fol- 
 lows that there are a few branded hides found among the 
 natives by the tanner, but this results from the fact that 
 by examining the hide on the flesh side only it is impos- 
 sible to determine a wire brand or a brand that has not 
 penetrated the hide to such an extent as to show on the 
 flesh. 
 
 Texas hides are sold under the terms of heavy, light 
 and extra light. They are all branded, and no selection 
 is made other than for weights and the allowance for 
 grubs. They go entirely into the sole leather trade. 
 
 Butt branded steers are steer hides which have been 
 branded on the hip or butt. Ordinarily these show but 
 one brand. They are sold 60 pounds and over ; 50 to 60 
 pounds at 1 cent less, No. 2's of each 1 cent less. These 
 go exclusively into the sole leather trade. The extra 
 light, under 50 pounds, are usually thrown in among the 
 branded cows. 
 
 Colorados are steer hides which are side branded. No 
 distinction is made if the hide happens to have a butt 
 brand and a side brand, or two side brands, and as a 
 result, clear sides from Colorado hides do not obtain in 
 the same proportion as they do from butt brands, and 
 the brands are usually of a very much larger area and 
 the scar tissue much thicker. It is the habit among some 
 packers to select the Colorados which are plump and sell 
 them as Texas, but the Colorado' hide is not from the 
 same animal that the Texas hide comes from ; the range 
 Texas cattle are smaller, and have thicker and plumper 
 hides, and are able to produce sole leather of a character 
 which Colorados will not make. All these hides go into 
 sole leather. 
 
 Packer branded cows sell 25 pounds and up flat, ex- 
 cept for grubs. 
 
 Country native bulls are selected in such a manner 
 that the 25 to 45 pound bulls are thrown in with the 
 
224 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 cows. The 45 to 60 pound bulls are thrown in with the 
 cow selection of buff hides. The 60 pound and up native 
 bull hides are sold as such. Packer native bulls are sold 
 all weights, generally flat ; some packers allow a selection 
 for holes. 
 
 Packer branded bulls are sold as such, flat, from 25 
 pounds up, and usually go into sole leather. 
 
 The tare allowance on packer hides in Chicago and 
 western points is determined by what is known as the 
 sweep tare, that is to say, the agent acting for the tanner 
 taking up the hides picks out 10 hides which are weighed. 
 The salt is then thoroughly removed by sweeping from 
 both flesh and hair side of these hides, they are then 
 reweighed, and the difference determines the tare allow- 
 ance for that pack. However, if the seller-man acting 
 for the packer, or the broker acting for the tanner, are 
 dissatisfied with this result, 10 additional hides are taken 
 and treated in the same manner, the average loss on the 
 20 being used as the tare allowance. In New York and 
 other eastern points, the tare allowance is a matter to be 
 determined at the time of the making of the contract, as 
 for instance, July natives may be allowed i l / 2 pounds tare, 
 whereas February-March hides of the same kind would 
 be allowed 2 or 2 l / 2 pounds because of the longer hair and 
 its ability to absorb the finer particles of salt. 
 
 Grubbing Dates. 
 
 The grubbing conditions established by the packers are 
 as follows : 
 
 Native steers are permitted to be grubbed and a grub 
 allowance made between January 1st and June 1st of 
 each year, which is done by sample. 
 
 For native cows, the grub allowance is from January 
 1 st to June 1st. 
 
 Bulls, both branded and natives, are not selected for 
 grubs. 
 
 Texas steers, grub allowance, November 1st to June 1st. 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 225 
 
 Branded cows, grub allowance, November 1st to June 
 I st. 
 
 Colorados, grub allowance, December ist to June ist. 
 Butt brands, grub allowance, January ist to June ist. 
 
 Tare. 
 
 These tare allowances and grub allowances have been 
 forced upon the leather trade by the packers. In refer- 
 ence to this statement, it is well to call your attention to 
 the fact that the latter part of December native hides 
 will always run grubby, and the early part of June native 
 hides will always run grubby. The weakness of establish- 
 ing an absolute breaking point when allowance for grubs 
 is made is that on the last day of December no grub allow- 
 ance is made, whereas on the first day of January it is 
 made. Oftentimes it happens that late Decembers and 
 early Januarys will run 25 per cent grubs, and thus at 
 the breaking point the first of January, a difference in 
 the price per pound on selections or x /^ cent per pound on 
 the whole purchase of hides is sometimes made, depend- 
 ing upon the condition of the market. This explains why 
 late Decembers as a rule do not sell at as high a price as 
 early Januarys, and also why late Mays are usually 
 valued higher than are early Junes. 
 
 On account of the fact that the grub allowances and 
 tare allowances are such important items to the tanner, 
 it is always advisable to have these allowances deter- 
 mined at the time the hides are taken up. Not only is 
 this advisable because of the above mentioned facts, but 
 it is always advisable because of the fact that packs will 
 come up which contain more moisture, especially in Feb- 
 ruary and March, than is proper, causing the hides to 
 lose an excessive amount of weight from the time of 
 take-up to the time of delivery. The broker when taking 
 up hides should refuse to take up a pack when he finds 
 the conditions such as are not justified, and should de- 
 mand that before acceptance the hides coming out of 
 pack shall be staged. Packer hides should not be per- 
 mitted to be taken up and to lie for any considerable time 
 
226 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 if it is desired to make even colors in the finished leather, 
 for the reason that salt stains will invariably occur from 
 this procedure. 
 
 Tare Before Weighing. 
 
 Another point in connection with the taking up of hides 
 is that the tare allowance should be determined before 
 the hides are selected for lights and heavies. If this tare- 
 allowance is not determined first, then the breaking point 
 of the scales, as the hides come out of pack, is necessarily 
 not established. The New York practice is much better 
 in this respect than is the western practice, because in 
 the New York practice the tare allowance is established 
 in the contract, whereas in the western practice, it is 
 necessary to take a number of hides, 10 or 20, out of 
 pack as near an average as possible, before the tare allow- 
 ance can be determined. Suppose the tare allowance is 
 estimated, allowing 1 pound per hide, the scales will then 
 be broken at 51 pounds for lights and 61 pounds for 
 heavies. If it then happens that the allowance is estab- 
 lished by sweeping at 2 pounds per hide, or 52 pounds 
 and 62 pounds, then there is a considerable proportion 
 of the hides bought by the tanner which are really of 
 the lighter weight, paid for by him as being of the heavier 
 weight at 1 cent a pound difference because the breaking 
 weights had to be determined after some of the pack had 
 been selected. This is an important item to the tanner, 
 and one which necessitates careful consideration and in- 
 vestigation, and one in which the variation of a pound, 
 whether 61 or 62, may make 1-10 of a cent a pound 
 difference in the net price of the hides. 
 
 Country Hides. 
 
 The selections under country steer hides are natives, 
 No. 1 and No. 2, 60 pounds and up ; No. 1 and No. 
 2, 50 to 60 pounds ; under 50 pounds going into ex- 
 tremes and buffs. Native cows are selected as ex- 
 tremes, 25 to 45 pounds ; 45 to 60 pounds, buffs ; 60 
 pounds and up, heavies. In this connection, it might 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 227 
 
 be well to state that in country hides, bulls under 45 
 pounds will go into the cow selection of extremes ; 
 bulls from 45 to 60 pounds will go ii^o the cow selec- 
 tion of buffs; 60 pounds and up are sold as bulls. 
 Country branded bulls are sold as such, 25 pounds 
 and up. It therefore rests with the tanner or the 
 tanner's representative to see that he gets the selec- 
 tions which he buys. 
 
 Ordinarily, all seasons take-off of country hides are 
 sold to the tanner subject to a grub selection. This 
 grub selection means that any hide having one or 
 more grubs that are open from the flesh to the grain 
 is a No. 2; so also a cut more than 6 inches in from 
 the edge of the hide makes it a No. 2, provided the cut 
 passes through the hide. In some sections country 
 hides are classified as No. 2 when containing 4 or more 
 grub holes; all packer hides are No. 2 when containing 
 5 or more grub holes. The ordinary term used on 
 contracts is "cuts, grubs and No. 2, 1 cent per pound 
 less"; this applies to both heavy and light selections. 
 
 Country hide selections : 
 
 Native steers, 60 and up, No. 1 and 2; 50-60, No. 1 
 and No. 2. 
 
 Branded steers (both side and butt), 60 and up, No. 
 1 and No. 2; 50-60, No. 1 and No. 2. 
 
 Cows, light steers and bulls, natives : Extremes, 25- 
 45; buffs, 45-60; 60 and up. 
 
 Cows, branded : Extremes, 25 and up ; buffs, flat 
 for weights. 
 
 Bulls, natives: 60 and up. 
 
 Bulls, branded : Extremes, 25 and up ; buffs, flat for 
 weights. 
 
 Percentage of Leather from Different Hides. 
 
 It might be well in closing this to call the atten- 
 tion of the chemists here to the different possibilities 
 of making leather from different kinds of hide. Dry 
 hides will contain from 60 to 75 per cent of hide sub- 
 stance, while green salted hides will contain from 22 
 
228 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 to 30 per cent of pure hide substance. These variations 
 are due first, to the condition of the dry hide and its 
 length of hair and cure, and on green salted hides, to 
 the seasonable take-off of the hide, cure and condi- 
 tion, there being at least 15 per cent difference between 
 the weight of the hide taken off the same animal in 
 June and July as against February and March. This 
 may be explained by the length of hair, manure and 
 general weakness of the hide at the end of the winter. 
 It is advisable, in all cases, in comparing hides, to de- 
 pend upon the percentage of white weight, i. e., the 
 weight of the hides going into the liquor, as a meas- 
 ure of the relation of the hide resulting from season- 
 able conditions as well as take-up. It is admitted that 
 white weight does not determine scratches, grubs, 
 brands or other imperfections of the hide, but it is a 
 measure of the hide buyer's ability to purchase prop- 
 erly for the tanner's use, so that the tanner may obtain 
 the highest return from the purchased weight of hides; 
 this factor can be so accurately determined that the 
 selling weight from the white weight will not vary 
 more than 1 per cent, provided the tanning operations 
 are uniform. 
 
 Discussion on Salt Stains. 
 
 Mr. Griffith : I should like to ask Mr. Yocum in 
 regard to salted hides. The great difficulty with salted 
 hides, especially as far as the color of leather is con- 
 cerned, is salt stains. I have wondered if the difficulty 
 of salt stains as a whole could not be overcome by 
 using a better grade of salt than the packers use. The 
 common method of salting hides in Chicago in some 
 of the packing houses is to spread the salt over the 
 hide and shake it off and brush that salt up and use 
 it over again. Now in that process the salt, which is 
 rock salt in large crystals, becomes coated with albu- 
 minous matter, which carries of course a large quantity 
 of blood in which there is good deal of iron, and ti 
 seems to me it is rather obvious that the efficiency of 
 the salt is considerably affected by using over and 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 229 
 
 over again, simply because it is covered and its action 
 is prevented by the albuminous coating that it re- 
 ceives from passing over so many h ; des. I am sure 
 Mr. Yocum will be only too glad to give us the benefit 
 of his observation and experience in hides, and if 
 any of you have any questions I am sure Mr. Yocum 
 will be glad to tell you what he knows. 
 
 Mr. Yocum : In answer to the chairman's remarks, 
 I would say that if hides are taken out of pack and 
 resalted, ordinarily one gets salt stains. It is claimed 
 that this is due to dirty salt, but I have noticed that 
 resalting even with clean salt will produce a greater 
 quantity of the stain in resalted hides than if these 
 hides were worked fresh. The claim that the iron in the 
 blood is the cause of salt stains has never been dis- 
 proven, and I have considered this was the cause of 
 salt stains. A fresh hide — that is, a hide immediately 
 out of pack — worked immediately, will not ordinarily 
 show salt stains ; however, if that hide is permitted to 
 lie awhile or resalted it will ordinarily show salt stains. 
 These stains seem to appear in the locations on the 
 hide where opportunity has existed for the drying out 
 of the hide. There is a certain concern in New York — 
 hide brokers — who advise that hides should be, when 
 they are resalted, resalted with clean crystallized salt. 
 It is true that in using the crystallized salt, the hides 
 do not show as much salt stain ; so likely, judging from 
 that, the resalting operation has something to do with 
 salt stain, and it is likely that the added salt stains 
 caused by resalting are due to the condition of the 
 salt. I do not think you are quite correct in saying 
 that the albuminous matter covers up the granules of 
 the salt, say mine salt, to any extent. Probably these 
 granules act as a center to which, for some unknown 
 reason, the iron and other staining qualities concen- 
 trate themselves. 
 
 I have had occasion, in the last 4 or 5 years, to notice 
 stock with a nasty stain penetrating the hide straight 
 through — it might be as big as a half dollar and it 
 
230 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 might be larger — and I discovered that it was due to 
 the copper wires used for the explosion of the dyna- 
 mite in the mining of the salt. This wire changes to 
 copper chloride and acts as a sort of copper tannage or 
 a tannage which, after the vegetable tannin strikes it, 
 changes to a black color which cannot be bleached 
 out. 
 
 Mr. Beardmore : I would like to ask Mr. Youm 
 if he has ever noticed any bad effect on the hides from 
 the metal tags that the hide dealers put on? The 
 reason I ask the question is that I have had hides that 
 were tagged with a zinc tag which had eaten a hole 
 right through. A spot will drop out about as b>g as a 
 fifty-cent piece. That is only with the zinc tag; the 
 tin tag does not affect it. 
 
 Mr. Connelly: I would like to ask Mr. Yocum if 
 he thinks that the seasons of the year have anything 
 to do with the salt-staining of the hide. I remember 
 once in particular some hides coming out of our yard 
 that had only been out of the packer's cellar seven 
 days, and they were badly stained. We seem to get 
 so many more in the summer than the winter that I 
 wondered if the season of the year didn't affect them. 
 
 Mr. Yocum: How long had they been packed? 
 
 Mr. Connelly : I do not know that. Not over thirty 
 days. 
 
 Mr. Yocum : It is quite true that the tendency to 
 salt stain is increased as the weather gets warmer, 
 that is, there seem to be more salt stains in summer 
 than in winter hides, but I do not believe that this is 
 due to any other cause than the fact that the hides in 
 the summer are not as well washed and cooled as they 
 drop into the cellars as they are in the winter time. 
 With February-March hides a great deal more care 
 is taken to wash them down because of the manure on 
 them. More care is exercised in washing down dungy 
 hides than on June or July hides, and on account of the 
 temperature of the water and the cellar itself, the 
 hides are cooler as they go into pack. The result of the 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 231 
 
 extra washing is that the blood is then removed from 
 the hides; and the result of the cooler temperature as 
 the hides go into pack is that less- opportunity for 
 chemical change exists, and consequently less oppor- 
 tunity for salt stain. However, the instance Mr. Con- 
 nelly cites may be due to the use of dirty and old salt. 
 
 Mr. Balderston : I would like to ask Mr. Yocum 
 another question in line with what has just been said. 
 A number of articles have recently appeared in Euro- 
 pean journals on this question of salt stains, giving a 
 large number of causes to which they are attributed. 
 I cannot now state many, but there are at least a 
 dozen causes and more than half of them are due to 
 substances used in denaturing the salt, which does not 
 interest Americans ; but there is one which Mr. Yocum 
 has mentioned and I would like to ask his idea about 
 it. It is said that the blood remaining in the hide be- 
 comes a center of bacteriological action which pro- 
 ceeds even in the presence of the salt. That is, there 
 is some sort of chemical action, probably due to bac- 
 teria, which produces a stain in the hide wherever 
 blood remains. This statement is made by someone 
 who is supposed to know, and I would like to ask Mr. 
 Yocum's opinion about it. Does the presence of the 
 blood in parts of the hide make a salt stain where the 
 blood is? 
 
 Mr. Yocum : I never have done any special work 
 on the subject. I have always taken Dr. Fiebing's 
 statement that the presence of blood containing iron 
 would occasion salt stains if it was not properly 
 washed out, and yet the character of a salt stain is such 
 that it would hardly seem to be caused entirely by one 
 thing. If hides are put in bundles and piled up and 
 left for three months or so, there will be salt stains 
 across the fold of the bundle. I have read some of the 
 articles you speak of in which they say it is bac- 
 terial, a change of some of the nitrogenous material 
 into pigments of some sort, but I have also experi- 
 enced this, that where hides are unhaired and then go 
 
232 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 into acid solutions, they do not retain some of the salt 
 stains. It is only where there is an opportunity for the 
 fixation of some compound that is existing there. It 
 would be natural to conclude that the iron in the blood 
 had considerable influence on it rather than any bac- 
 teriological action, because if a given hide is put into 
 an acid solution and shows no salt stain, but when 
 put into some solution that is not so acid does show 
 salt stain, it is fair to conclude that the acid had some- 
 thing to do with its removal. It could not have any- 
 thing to do with the bacteriological action ; it would 
 be a chemical action. 
 
 Mr. Lockwood : I think the procession of events 
 during a good many years has sort of automatically 
 thrown some light on this salt stain question, and 
 what I shall say will be in line with what Mr. Yocum 
 has said. Probably a number of you remember that 
 perhaps a little less than twenty years ago there were 
 apparently more hides than the tanners could use and 
 the packers frequently carried their long-haired winter 
 hides through the summer and began to take off long- 
 haired hides again with all the previous winter's hides 
 on hand. The salt stain question was discussed 50 per 
 cent more then than it is to-day. It was a great evil, all 
 the tanners were complaining about it and the trade 
 papers were full of talk about salt stains, and of course 
 there were elaborate theories as to what caused the 
 salt stains just as you are expounding theories to-day. 
 I did not understand them then and don't to-day, as I 
 am not a chemist. But as hides began to get scarcer 
 and as packers began to do what they had never done 
 before, sell them in advance of the kill, so that they 
 did not have to carry hides any great length of time, 
 the salt stain business began to fade away. 
 
 Mr. Yocum : As Mr. Lockwood has said, there is 
 absolutely no question about the element of time en- 
 tering into the question of salt stains, but time itself 
 does not explain why we have salt stains. We cer- 
 tainly do have more salt stains on hides that have been 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 233 
 
 packed a long time or hides that have been repacked 
 than we do on fresh hides, yet the time element itself 
 will not occasion salt stains. We have to go a little 
 further back than that to determine what the action is. 
 Personally I am disposed to credit the theory, as I 
 said before, that it is caused by the iron in the haemo- 
 globin of the blood under certain conditions of moist- 
 ure, time and salt. 
 
 Mr. Morrison: While we know that time has 
 something to do with salt stains, it is evidently a fact 
 that we get more salt stains from hides that have been 
 salted with dirty salt than we do from a clean, fresh 
 salt, regardless of time, and I have found it that way 
 in my experience; but I have opened bundles of hides 
 where the salt stains along the fold were so heavy it 
 looked like a heavy rust. It goes to show that time 
 has something to do with it, but dirty salt has a good 
 deal to do with it too. 
 
 Mr. Yocum : I think Mr. Morrison is quite correct 
 in his statement, because, just as I said here a few min- 
 utes ago, there is a certain brokerage house that has 
 advised the packing of hides with clean crystallized 
 salt and they claim that they have not had anything 
 like the prevalence of salt stains that they would if 
 they had used the ordinary mine salt. 
 
 Mr. Desmond: I should think that with the condi- 
 tions ruling in the hide market now, the question of 
 time would be decided, because there are no hides left 
 in pack too long; but aside from that question I do 
 want to say that as a tanner I appreciate very much 
 that the chemists are taking up this question of raw 
 material, which forms 70 or 75 per cent of the largest 
 bill the tanners have, and probably the most uncer- 
 tain thing that the tanners have and have had for 
 twenty-five years. I believe Mr. Morrison made the 
 statement that some of the packers' hides have salt 
 stains to-day, but it is also true that here and there 
 there are lots of packer hides that have been in the 
 
234 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 salt for six to eight months, and it is possible that it is 
 those particular lots which show the salt stains. 
 
 Mr. Morrison : I admit that, but on the later 
 months' take-off, that have not been lying in the beds 
 longer than the rules call for, there will be salt stains. 
 I just mention this to show that it is not the lying in 
 the bed so long that creates all the salt stains, but that 
 we get salt stains from hides that are not laid a long 
 time in the beds. I admit there are lots of packer 
 hides to-day that have been in the packers' hands 
 longer than thirty days. 
 
 Mr. Yocum : I might say as an explanation of the 
 basis of some of my opinions, that in the last year or 
 so I have had opportunity to see the working of un- 
 salted hides to the extent of probably 20,000 or 25,000 
 hides, and I have yet to see a hide that has a salt 
 stain on it from stock that had never been in salt. 
 
 Mr. Lockwood : To really understand this matter it 
 is well to know that the length of time hides must re- 
 main in the cellars is the length of time it takes to 
 make a pack, plus the time required to cure the last 
 or top layer. It is a merchantable proposition and not 
 a mere proposition of curing hides; so that when the 
 packers are killing, they make up the different packs, 
 and of course a pack must be completed and it may 
 take a considerably longer time to complete a pack 
 of a given selection than to cure the first hides that 
 go into that pack. Therefore, while they are selling 
 them as quickly as it is possible, yet inevitably some 
 hides must remain in the pack in salt very much longer 
 than the time necessary to cure them ; so that there are 
 always hides lying in salt under every condition, much 
 longer than the time necessary to cure them. 
 
 Mr. Desmond : We had more hides than we knew 
 what to do with in 1908, and during the warm weather 
 we were compelled to resalt some of them, and of 
 course we were very careful about the salt used. It 
 was the best rock salt, and to my knowledge there was 
 not a hide in the lot that was salt stained, and I know 
 
CHARACTERISTICS OF HIDES 235 
 
 we carried some of them along six or eight months, 
 and it is quite possible that if the .investigation was 
 carried back into the packer's hide cellar and into the 
 dealer's hide cellar, a good deal of the source of the 
 salt stain would be discovered there. 
 
 Mr. Morrison : I am positive of it. I have seen 
 hides that have been in salt for six months and did 
 not show any salt stain. They could all be worked 
 into fair leather. Then again hides from the last 
 month's take-off may show salt stains. If the hide is 
 traced back to the hide cellar you will find a great 
 deal of the trouble. 
 
236 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 GLOSSARY 
 
 @ — An abbreviation used for "and," "at" and "to" in market 
 quotations, the first figure usually being the bid and the 
 latter the asked rate. 
 
 Abattoir (a-bat-wor') — A large slaughterhouse. 
 
 Aberdeen — A breed of cattle. The hides are black and long 
 haired, suitable for robes and coats. 
 
 Allowance — (See Tare.) (See Grub.) 
 
 All-weights — Hides or skins not divided into heavy, light or 
 extreme light weight classifications. 
 
 Anglo-American — Hides of American export cattle taken off 
 in England. 
 
 Angus — A breed of cattle. The hides are black and long 
 haired, suitable for robes and coats. 
 
 Anthrax — A virulent cattle disease. 
 
 April Hides — Hides taken off in the month of April. 
 
 Arsenic — A poison, used in solution, to prevent insects from 
 destroying dried hides and skins. 
 
 Auctions — (See English Hides.) 
 
 August Hides — Taken off in the month of August. 
 
 Average Weights — The total weight of heavy, light or ex- 
 treme light weights, or all weights, averaged by the num- 
 ber of pieces. 
 
 B 
 
 Back — The central or middle part of the hide. 
 
 Bank — Hides placed in uniform piles to drain off blood or 
 
 moisture. 
 Beaver — A triangular wooden frame, or other obstruction, 
 
 over which cured hides are dragged, to remove loose 
 
 salt before hides are inspected. The beaver keeps loose 
 
 salt away from the inspecting floor. 
 Bed (Killing) — The floor on which dead cattle are laid for 
 
 skinning. 
 Bed (Hide) — That part of the hide cellar floor where hides 
 
 are to be packed. The word hide-bed is sometimes used 
 
 synonymously with "hide-pack." 
 Beeves — Live steers, bulls and cows. 
 Belly — The edges of the hide. 
 
GLOSSARY 237 
 
 Big Four — The four largest American meat packers: Swift 
 & Co., Armour & Co., Morris & Co., and National Pack- 
 ing Co. 
 
 Big Six — The six largest American meat packers: Includes 
 the "Big Four" and also Sulzberger & Sons Co. and the 
 Cudahy Packing Co. 
 
 Black Hides — Long haired hides, dead black in color, se- 
 lected specially for tanning into robes and coats. 
 
 Bot-Fly — Cattle fly, which is responsible for grubs in hides. 
 
 Bovine — Quadrupeds of the genus "Bos" — as, steer, bull, 
 cow, calf. 
 
 Brand — A mark of identification on hides, made with a hot 
 iron upon live cattle, generally upon calves which roam 
 unfenced ranges. 
 
 Branded Cows — All cow hides carrying brands. 
 
 Brine — A salt solution. 
 
 Brisket — That part of the hide just behind the foreleg. 
 
 Broker — A hide buyer for the trade. 
 
 Buenos Aires — A South American port of export for dried 
 hides and skins. The term is expressed in the trade as 
 "B. A." hides. 
 
 Buffs— Country cow, steer and bull hides, 40 to 60 lbs. in 
 weight in most sections of the United States. In Chi- 
 cago, the weight range is 45 to 60 lbs. 
 
 Bull — The male of the bovine species. 
 
 Bullock — A steer or ox. In cattlemen's parlance, any beef 
 animal of heavy weight is termed a bullock. 
 
 Bundle — The hide folded and rolled into a compact form 
 suitable for tying with rope and easily handled. 
 
 Bundle Condition — Hides bought from original bundles, out 
 of first salt and usually in dry merchantable condition. 
 
 Butcher Hides — Hides taken off by country butchers, as dis- 
 tinguished from farmer and packer hides. 
 
 Butt — The rump of an animal or hide. 
 
 Butt Branded — Steer hides branded on the rump or butt. 
 
 Calf — The young of the bovine species. 
 
 Calfskin — Bovine hides or skins weighing from 8 to 15 lbs. 
 salted. The large American packers grade the weights 
 down from 15 lbs. Dried weights, 4 to 8 lbs. 
 
 Carcass — A dead animal. 
 
 Carlots — Hides and skins are usually sold in carlots. Mini- 
 mum weight is usually 36,000 lbs. (See table.) 
 
 Cased — Skins or furs pulled off the animals without cutting 
 down the belly. 
 
 Cash — Hides and skins are usually sold for cash. 
 
 Cattle — Animals of the genus "Bos," 
 
238 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Caul Fat — An edible fat used in the manufacture of oleo oil 
 and stearine. 
 
 Cellar — The place where hides and skins are salted and 
 stored. 
 
 Chicago Freight — Hides shipped to eastern buyers from 
 points west of Chicago upon which seller pays freight to 
 Chicago. 
 
 Classifications — The selections or varieties of hides and 
 skins. 
 
 Colt — A young horse. Small horse and pony hides are called 
 coltskins. 
 
 Colorados — All packer branded steers' hides except Texas 
 steers and butt branded steers. 
 
 Commission — Remuneration of hide brokers. 
 
 Condition — Applied to hides; as "bundle condition." Also 
 used in connection with special features attached to hide 
 trades. 
 
 Coolers — Refrigerated rooms for storage of meat. 
 
 Cordovan — The rump or butt of a horse hide. 
 
 Corium — The true skin, as distinguished from the epidermis. 
 
 Corn Fed — Animals fattened upon corn. 
 
 Country Hides — Hides from country sections. 
 
 Cow — The female of the bovine species. 
 
 Credit — Hides sold on credit usually are exceptional trans- 
 actions at special prices. 
 
 Culls — Badly damaged hides. 
 
 Cure — Method of preserving hides and skins from putrefac- 
 tion or injury from insects, as Salt cure, Dry cure and 
 Poison cure. 
 
 Cut — Damage to hide in flaying. Cut hides are second 
 grade. 
 
 Cut Throats — Applied to kosher hides, with throats cut cross- 
 wise, as distingiushed from stuck throats. (See Kosher.) 
 
 D 
 
 Dairy Hides — Cow hides from old animals, thin and spready. 
 They are usually short haired in winter, being mostly 
 stable fed. 
 
 Damaged Hides — Hides imperfectly flayed or with other de- 
 fects. 
 
 Dates (Grubbing) — Arbitrary dates upon which allowances 
 for grubs in hides begin or end. (See Grubbing.) 
 
 Deacon Skins — Calfskins weighing under 7 lbs. 
 
 Deerskins — The skin of a deer, usually dried in curing. 
 
 Disinfection — Treatment to prevent disease or its spread 
 among animals and workmen. 
 
 Distillery Fed — Cattle fattened upon distillery refuse. 
 
 Drop-Weights — The weight of the hide green as dropped 
 from the bullock. 
 
GLOSSARY 239 
 
 Dry Flint — The extreme of dryness in hides. 
 
 Dry Hides — All hides cured by drying, eilher sun or shade 
 
 dried. 
 Dry Salted — Hides preserved with salt and then dried. 
 Dewclaws— Horny protuberance on cattle legs. Worthless on 
 
 the hides. 
 
 Ear — Ears should be split on green hides to allow hides to 
 
 lie flat in the packs. (See diagram.) 
 Earmarks — Metal tags attached to ears of live cattle as a 
 
 mark of identification. 
 Edge (Pack) — Side, back and front edges of hide packs, spe- 
 cially built to retain brine. 
 Edible— That which may be eaten. 
 English Hides — Hides of English take-off. Usually sold 
 
 through auction houses. 
 Epidermis — The cuticle or scarf skin. The outer layer of the 
 
 skin of animals. The grain side of the hide. 
 Extreme Light Hides — The lightest selection of hides; 25 to 
 
 50 lbs. 
 Extremes — Country hides 25 to 40 lbs. in most sections of 
 
 the United States and 25 to 45 lbs. in Chicago and some 
 
 of the larger market centers. 
 
 F 
 
 Face — (See Pate.) 
 
 Fallen Hides — Hides from dead animals not slaughtered. 
 Usually applied to range cattle hides which are pre- 
 served by drying. Hides from animals dead from dis- 
 ease are termed murrain. 
 
 Farmer Hides — Hides taken off by farmers. Usually very 
 poorly flayed. 
 
 Fell — That portion of the hide on the "round" of hindleg. 
 Hide must be pulled off this portion of carcass, as the 
 hide clings tenaciously. 
 
 Felmonger — English term applied to a dealer in sheepskins. 
 
 Fertilizer — Refuse of slaughtering plants, manufactured for 
 fertilizing purposes. 
 
 Fibre (Hide) — The structure of the hide. (See special ar- 
 ticle.) 
 
 Fill — A section of a pack of hides; composed of back, front 
 and side edges and six spreads of hides. 
 
 First — Hides of the number one grade. 
 
 Flat — Hides not selected for numbers one and two or 
 weights, or taken as they run, without any selections or 
 gradings. 
 
 Flaying — The operation of taking off hides; skinning. 
 
 Flint— (See Dry Flint.) 
 
240 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Flood Hides — Hides damaged by water and sold at special 
 
 prices. 
 Flesh — The inner side of the hide — flesh side — next to the 
 
 flesh of the carcass. 
 Floorsman — Workman who skins cattle; his work consists of 
 
 flaying the hide on the side of the animal; a sider. 
 F. O. B. — Free of brands; hides from native cattle; native 
 
 cows, steers and bulls. 
 F. O. B. — Free on board. Delivery of hides by seller ends 
 
 with the loading of the car. 
 Foot — The shin bone and hoof. 
 Free of Brands — Unbranded. (See F. O. B.) 
 Frigorifico — Applied to hides taken off by South American 
 
 large packers. Handled similar to packer hides of the 
 
 United States. 
 Front — (See Horse Front.) 
 
 Glue Hides — Badly damaged hides, in decomposed state or 
 very grubby, unfit for manufacture into regular grade 
 leather. 
 
 Glue Stock — Hide trimmings, sinews, cords, etc., fit only for 
 manufacture in glue. 
 
 Goatskin — The skin of a goat. 
 
 Grades — Various classifications, selections, and varieties of 
 hides and skins. 
 
 Grain — The hair side of the hide. 
 
 Grassers — Dairy calves taken from their mothers' milk and 
 fed grass and grain. These animals show cattle hair 
 instead of veal hair. 
 
 Grass Fed — Cattle fed on grass; range cattle. 
 
 Green — Uncured hides. 
 
 Grub — Larvae of the bot, or cattle, fly. 
 
 Grub Allowance — Percentage of hides subject to price reduc- 
 tion for grub holes. 
 
 Grubbing Dates — Dates upon which the grubbing privilege 
 begins or ends. 
 
 Grub Holes — Hole caused by the larvae of the bot fly emerg- 
 ing from the hide. 
 
 H 
 
 Hair — Covering of the hide; a protection to the animal. 
 
 Hair Side — The grain side of the hide. 
 
 Hairslip — Evidence of decomposition. 
 
 Heat—Caused by sweating. The early stage of decomposi- 
 tion. 
 
 Heavy Hides — Hides over 60 lbs. in weight, except native 
 cows over 55 lbs. in weight. 
 
GLOSSARY 241 
 
 Heberlinge — Skin of young goat fed on grass; has same 
 characteristics as kipskins in cattle. 
 
 Hide — Applied to all heavy skins, especially of cattle. 
 
 Hide Cellars— Places in which hides are salted and stored. 
 
 Hide Fibre — (See Fibre.) 
 
 Hide Horse — Wooden frame over which cured hides are 
 shaken to remove salt. 
 
 Hide Inspector — Workman who attends to the proper take- 
 up, grubbing and receipt of hide purchases. 
 
 Hide Rollers — Workmen who fold and roll hides into bun- 
 dles for shipment. 
 
 Hide Rope — Used in tying hides for shipment. 
 
 Hide Sweeper — Workman who cleans hides of salt with a 
 broom when delivery is being made. 
 
 Hide Tariff — The import duty. 
 
 Hide Tiers — Workmen who tie the bundled hides, for ship- 
 ment. 
 
 Hogskin — The skin of a hog. 
 
 Hoof — Part of cattle foot. 
 
 Horns — Projections from cattle heads. 
 
 Horn Scratches — Damage done to hides by horns. 
 
 Horse Butts — The hind part of the horse hide, 18 to 21 inches 
 from the tail. 
 
 Horse Fronts — The forepart of the horse hide. All of the 
 hide except the butt. 
 
 Horse Hide — The hide of a horse. The front and butt. 
 
 Hypoderma Bovis — English warble or grub fly. 
 
 Hypoderma Lineta — American warble or grub fly. 
 
 Inedible — That which may not be eaten. Not fit for food. 
 Inspect — To grade and select hides. 
 Inspection — A scrutiny of hides for imperfections. 
 Inspector — Workman who grades and selects hides, payment 
 
 being tendered according to the various classifications 
 
 he makes. 
 Invoice — A bill for a shipment of hides. 
 
 June Hides — Hides taken off in the month of June. 
 July Hides — Hides taken off in the month of July. 
 
 K 
 
 Kid — A young goat. Leather made from mature goatskins 
 
 is called kid. 
 Kill — Slaughter for a certain period, as June kill, Week's 
 
 kill, etc. 
 
242 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Killer — Used synonymously for Packer, Slaughterer, Seller, 
 
 etc. 
 Kip — Skins, lighter than hides and heavier than calfskins, 
 
 weighing 15 to 25 lbs. 
 Knife — Instrument used in skinning cattle, trimming hides, 
 
 etc. 
 Kosher — Hides from cattle killed according to the Jewish 
 
 law, often termed "cut throats" as distinguished from 
 
 stuck throats. 
 
 Lap — The fold of the hide on the edges of the hide packs. 
 Lambskins — Skins from young sheep that have never been 
 
 shorn. 
 Leaching — Method of extracting blood and moitsure from 
 
 hides. Also applied to bark in tanning. 
 L. C. L. (Less than carload) — Small lots of hides insufficient 
 
 to make minimum loading weight; take local freight 
 
 billing; country butcher lots. 
 Light Calf — Calfskins weighing 7 to 8 lbs. 
 Light Hides — Packer hides weighing 50 to 60 lbs., except 
 
 native and branded cows; latter not selected for weights. 
 Light Native Cows — Packer native cows weighing 25 to 55 
 
 lbs. Sometimes they are sold 45 to 55 lbs., with the 25 
 
 to 45 lbs. hides called extreme light hides. 
 Long-Haired — Hides taken off cattle in the winter season. 
 
 M 
 
 Manure — Allowance for dung on hides. A manure weighs 
 
 three pounds. Enough manures are counted to cover 
 
 the amount of dirt on the hide. 
 Marking Hides — Marking hides for identification through the 
 
 tanning process by tags, brands, cuts and other marks. 
 Matadero — South American butcher or country hides. 
 Maverick — An unbranded calf on the ranges. 
 Murrain — Hides or skins from animals dead from disease or 
 
 accident. (See Fallen Hides.) 
 
 N 
 
 Native — Unbranded hides. 
 
 Neat — Belonging to the bovine species, as bulls, steers and 
 
 cows. 
 Neatsfoot Oil — Oil rendered from cattle feet. 
 Neck Spayed Brand — Mark of identification by cattlemen. 
 New Salt — Fresh salt which has not been used for salting 
 
 hides. 
 Nijni Novgorod — Great Russian hide and fur fair. 
 
GLOSSARY 243 
 
 Oleo Stearine— Residuum of oleo stock r.fter oil has been 
 
 pressed out. Oleo stearine tests 51 deg. Titre and less 
 
 than one per cent free fatty acid. 
 Oleo Stock — Product of rendered edible beef fats. 
 Oleo Oil — Edible oil resulting from the pressing of oleo 
 
 stock. 
 Overweight Kip— Hides weighing 25 to 35 lbs., usually in the 
 
 native varieties. 
 Overweights — Hides or skins slightly over the dividing 
 
 weights of the various selections and gradings. (See 
 
 Testers.) 
 Ox- — A steer. 
 
 P 
 
 Pack — A number of hides placed in a special manner for 
 curing purposes. 
 
 Packer — A large slaughterer of live stock. 
 
 Pate — The hide off the face of a beef animal. 
 
 Pattern — Shape of hide resulting from good or bad take-off. 
 
 Pelts — Skins of sheep. 
 
 Pepperboxes — Badly grubby hides. 
 
 Pickle — Salt solution resulting from the action of salt upon 
 hides. 
 
 Pickled Skins — Sheepskin slats preserved in a salt solution. 
 
 Plump — Hides of uniform thickness and solid texture. Sum- 
 mer and fall hides. 
 
 Poison Cure — A method of preserving dried hides from in- 
 jury from insects. 
 
 Pony Skins — Small horse hides. 
 
 Private Terms (P. T.) — Hides sold at prices not to be given 
 publicity. 
 
 Putting Up Hides — (See Take-up.) 
 
 Quality — Texture of hides, as summer or winter quality. 
 Quantity — The number of hides embraced in a sale or car- 
 load. 
 
 R 
 
 Raw Stock — Tanners' term for hides and skins generally. 
 Rendering — Operation of melting animal fats, into tallows, 
 
 oils and greases. 
 Ribby — Corrugated, as ribby necks or ribby shoulders. 
 Robe Hides — Long haired hides suitable for tanning into 
 
 robes and coats. 
 Rolling Hides — The operation of folding and bundling hides 
 
 for shipment. 
 
244 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Rope — (See Hide Rope.) 
 
 Rough — Not smooth, as ribby necks, rough haired. 
 
 Rump — Butt of hide or animal. 
 
 Runner-Kip — Runty kipskins — thin hide, long-haired and poor 
 
 quality. 
 Runt — A runner. (See Runner Kip.) 
 Rust— (See Salt Stain.) 
 
 Saladero— South American small packer's hides. 
 
 Salt — A mineral used in preserving hides and skins. 
 
 Salting — The operation required for the preservation of hides 
 
 and skins. 
 Salt Rust— (See Salt Stain.) 
 Salt Stain — Discolorization on hides, due to iron or copper 
 
 in salt. 
 Salt Thrower — Workman who scatters salt over hides when 
 
 put in packs. 
 Scale — Used for weighing and testing hides. 
 Scratches — (See Horn Scratches and Wire Scratches.) 
 Scurf — Loose tissue on the flesh side of the hide. 
 Second — A hide of a number two grade. 
 Second Salt — Salt which recovered and used again in the 
 
 preservation of hides and skins. 
 Selection — The act of grading hides and skins. The various 
 
 grades and classifications of hides and skins. 
 Shaking Hides — The removal of salt from hides by shaking 
 
 over a wooden frame termed a hide horse. 
 Shanks — Portion of the hide from the leg of the animal. 
 
 The legs. 
 Shearlings — Sheepskins from which the wool has been shorn. 
 Shedder — Hides from which the long hair is coming out. 
 
 Spring hides. 
 Sheepskins — Skins from all classes of sheep; usually used in 
 
 connection with wool skins. 
 Shingled Packs — Hides placed in lapped piles to cure. 
 Short Hair — Hides with summer hair. Summer hides. 
 Short Trimmed — Dried hides with heads and shanks trimmed 
 
 off. 
 Shoulder — Portion of the hide at the foreleg. 
 Shrink — The loss in weight between^ green and cured weights, 
 
 or loss in weight between billing weight and weight on 
 
 arrival at tannery. 
 Side — Portion of the hide from the side of the animal. 
 Side-Brand — Hides carrying brands on the side. Generally 
 
 steers — Colorado steers. 
 Sider — (See Floorsman.) 
 
GLOSSARY 245 
 
 Sinews — Cords in the legs. Country butchers leave these on 
 
 the hide. They are worthless, except for glue stock. 
 Skewer — Sharpened stick used in punching through grub 
 
 holes. 
 Skin — A small hide. Used to designate hides of small ani- 
 mals, as calf, kip, hog, colt, fur, etc. 
 Skinning — The act of taking off the hide of an animal. 
 Slats — Sheep and lambskins with the wool removed. 
 Slaughterer — A killer of live stock. 
 Slunk — The skin of an unborn calf. 
 Small Packer — A slaughterer of small size, as distinguished 
 
 from the "Big Six." 
 Sorting — The selection, grading and classification of hides 
 
 and skins. 
 Spayed Brand — Identification mark on live cattle. 
 Split Ears — (See Ears.) 
 Spongy — Hides with little solidity of texture. Mushy in the 
 
 feel. 
 Spores — Germs of the anthrax disease. (See Anthrax.) 
 Spread — One operation in the building of hide packs. The 
 
 range in market quotations. 
 Spreaders- — Workmen who place the hides uniformly in the 
 
 packs. 
 Spready Hides — Thin hides of over average width across the 
 
 shoulders. 
 Stag — A castrated bull. 
 
 Steer — Hides from castrated males of the genus Bos. 
 Stock — Live stock. 
 Stock Yards — Market places for the sale and slaughter of 
 
 live stock. 
 Strike Hides — Badly flayed hides taken off by novices during 
 
 strikes of expert workmen. 
 Strings — (See Hide Rope.) Average uniform length of hide 
 
 strings, seven feet. 
 Stuck Throats — Hides with throats cut lengthwise — not kosh- 
 
 ered. 
 Sweep Tare — The allowance granted for moisture in hides 
 
 when shipped. 
 Switches — Cattle tails. 
 
 T 
 
 Tags — Mark of identification for hides. 
 
 Tag Ends — Small portions of hides on edges partially de- 
 tached. 
 
 Tail — Appendage on the butt of the hide, with switch cut off. 
 
 Tail Weights — Green weights in England are marked on tail 
 with knife cuts. 
 
 Take-Off — Condition resulting from flaying, or the seasons, 
 "good take-off" or "March take-off." 
 
246 HIDES AND SKINS 
 
 Take-Up — The pulling apart of a pack of cured hides, classi- 
 fying, sorting, selecting and grading. The delivery of 
 
 hides. 
 Tankage — Refuse of slaughtering plants, manufactured for 
 
 fertilizing purposes. 
 Tare — Allowance for moisture in hides when delivery is 
 
 made. Allowance to cover shrinkage in transit. 
 Tariff— (See Hide Tariff.) 
 Testers — Hides weighing just at the test weight, i. e., light 
 
 native cows which are sold up to 55 lbs., testers' weigh 
 
 56 to 58 lbs., applicable to any grade and selection of 
 
 hides. 
 Test Weights — Weights agreed upon to test for heavy, light 
 
 and extreme light hides, as 61 lbs. and over for heavies, 
 
 51 to 61 lbs. for lights, etc. 
 Texas Steer — Hides of cattle from Texas. Branded steers, 
 
 plump, narrow through the shoulders and of solid 
 
 texture. 
 Texture — The quality of the hide fibre. The feel, as hard, 
 
 soft, spongy, etc. 
 Throat — The sticking piece. All hides are either cut or stuck 
 
 throat. 
 Tick — Insect pest causing Texas fever in cattle. 
 Tickicides — Means of killing ticks. 
 Ticky Sides — Leather showing tick marks. 
 Trade — A sale. 
 Trim — Method of shaping hides, as "long trim," "short trim," 
 
 "heads and shanks off," etc. 
 Trimmings — Pates, shanks, etc. Tag ends cut off hides, 
 
 meat, etc. 
 Tying Hides — Operation of fastening bundled hides with hide 
 
 rope, for shipment. 
 
 U 
 
 Unhairing — Process of removing the hair in the tannery. 
 Uruguay — Hides from Uruguay. 
 
 Value — The worth of hides; the market price. 
 Vat Rendering — Process of making tallows, greases, oils, 
 etc. 
 
 W 
 
 Warble-Fly (Hypoderma Bovis) — English cattle fly, causing 
 grubs in hides. 
 
 Weigh — Operation of ascertaining weight of hides in ship- 
 ment. Hides are sold by the pound and are weighed 
 before shipment. 
 
GLOSSARY 247 
 
 Weights — Classifications of hides, as green, cured, heavy, 
 light, extreme light, test, tare, etc. 
 
 White-Weight — The weight of hides after unhairing and be- 
 fore tanning. 
 
 Wire Brand — Brand on hides, made upon live cattle with a 
 heated wire. These brands are usually small and hard 
 to find. 
 
 Wire Scratches — Damage to grain side of hide, caused by 
 barbed wire. 
 
Advertising Section 
 
 Tne following pages contain display 
 advertising ox an important and interesting 
 character and are commended to the serious 
 consideration or readers or this book. 
 
 A. H. LOCKWOOD 
 
 Publisher 
 Office of 
 
 SHOE AND LEATHER WEEKLY 
 CHICAGO 
 
 June, 1912 
 
Hide Commission Merchants 
 
 Established 1873 
 
 
 
 
 We Have Every Facility 
 
 for Handling Your Stock 
 
 References: 
 
 First National Bank 
 
 of Chicago 
 
 We Have Been In This 
 Business 38 Years 
 
 We Stand Ready to 
 Show What We Can Do 
 
 WE CAN PLACE YOUR OFFERINGS 
 WIRE OR WRITE WHAT YOU HAVE IN 
 
 , Calfskins, Pelts 
 Horsehides, Tallow 
 
 Cattle Switches, Horse Tails* Etc. 
 
 JOHN MILLER & CO. 
 
 122-130 W. Michigan St. 
 CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. 
 
Forestal Tannin Co. 
 
 A. HELMRATH, President 
 
 29 BROADWAY NEW YORK 
 
 REPRESENTING 
 
 The Forestal Land Timber & Railways Co., 
 
 LTD. 
 
 Of London and Buenos Aires 
 
 LARGEST MANUFACTURFRS OF 
 
 Quebracho Extracts 
 
 "Argam" "Ordinary" 
 
 SOLID AND LIQUID 
 
 (Recently Sold Through The Argam Tannin Co.) 
 
 Sole Selling Agents for United States 
 and Canada 
 
 A. Klipstein & Company 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
M. K. Parker & Co. 
 
 Packers 
 Tanners 
 Dealers 
 
 Are among our satisfied customers. 
 We feel positive it would be to your advantage also. 
 
 WE DEAL IN 
 
 TALLOWS BONES 
 
 GREASES HORNS 
 
 STEARINES HOOFS 
 
 OILS CRACKLINGS 
 
 FERTILIZERS COOPERAGE 
 
 Put your wants before us. 
 We can make good. 
 
 M. K. Parker & Co. 
 
 607-608-609 Postal Telegragh Building 
 
 CHICAGO 
 
Pittsburg 
 Hide & Tallow Co 
 
 N. S. PITTSBURG, PA. 
 
 Packer, City and Country Butcher 
 
 HIDES, CALFSKINS 
 
 Sheepskins, Tallow, Greases 
 
 Ohio and Pennsylvania Buffs and Extremes 
 
 Spready Steers, Cows and Bulls, etc. 
 
 We deliver all Packer Hides and Skins out of 
 first salt, in original condition 
 
 CORRESPONDENCE SOLICITED FROM 
 
 TANNERS, PACKERS AND DEALERS 
 
SAVE TIME AND LABOR 
 Avoid Experiment and Loss 
 Achieve Success and Profit 
 
 IN THE MANUFACTURE OF 
 
 Chrome Leather 
 
 BY USING 
 
 TANOLIN (Dry crystal form) 
 
 The famous original "one bath" chrome tanning extract, 
 suitable for tanning all kinds of hides and skins for produc- 
 ing every variety of finished leather. 
 
 PUERINE (Dry powdered form) 
 
 Abacterial bate and dung substitute superior to and cheaper 
 than any other bate. 
 
 EMULSOL (Semi-solid form) 
 
 A reliable and uniform fat-liquor, imparting to the leachcr 
 the highest degree of softness and strength with the mini- 
 mum quantity of material at the lowest cost. 
 
 CHROMOL (Heavy liquid form) 
 
 The perfect fat-liquor for chrome leather which is to receive 
 a glazed or enameled finish. No degreasing required. 
 
 KROMOID (Solid form) 
 
 The original and unequaled filler for chrome tanned sole 
 leather, rendering the leather hard, waterproof, non-slipping 
 and exceedingly durable. 
 
 These -widely used 'materials are standardized and dependable, 
 so that in employing them the tanner can rely on obtaining the 
 
 BEST RESULTS AT LOWEST COST 
 
 Correspondence solicited not only in the English language, but 
 in the German, French and Spanish languages. 
 
 The Martin Dennis Company 
 
 859 Summer Avenue . NEWARK, NEW JERSEY, U. S. A. 
 
Internaticnal 
 Hide & Skin Co. 
 
 59 FRANKFORT ST., NEW YORK 
 
 Importers and Exporters of 
 
 HIDES and SKINS 
 
 Of All Kinds and Descriptions 
 
 Representatives in All Principal Markets and 
 Own Offices in 
 
 Hamburg, Berlin, Leipzig, London, Paris, 
 Buenos Ayres and Montevideo 
 
 The Turner Tanning 
 Machinery Co. 
 
 Main Office and Works: PEABODY, MASS., U. S. A. 
 
 Largest Producers of Hide and Leather 
 Working Machinery in the World 
 
 American Branches: 
 
 PHILADELPHIA, PA. NEWARK, N. J. 
 
 215 N. FOURTH ST. 2, 4, 6 COMMERCIAL ST. 
 
 MILWAUKEE, WIS. 
 
 346 BROADWAY 
 
 European Headquarters: The Turner Co. A. G., Frankfort a'M. 
 
A chemical laboratory devoted 
 exclusively to analysis and 
 scientific research in Leather 
 and Tanning Materials. 
 
 Tanning Research Laboratory 
 
 H. C. REED, MANAGER 
 
 227-229 FULTON STREET 
 NEW YORK 
 
 The facilities which the labor- 
 atory provides for carrying out 
 technical investigation and 
 general laboratory work are 
 open to the leather trade. 
 
NEW YORK TANNING EXTRACT CO. 
 
 NEW YORK 
 
 ARGENTINA 
 
 MANUFACTURERS OF 
 SOLID AND LIQUID 
 
 QUEBRACHO 
 
 One View of the New York Tanning Kxtract Company's 
 Plant in Argentina 
 
 CLARIFIED AND DECOLORIZED 
 UNVARYING HIGH QUALITY 
 
 OFFICE: NEW YORK 
 
 FACTORIES: ""SSSSSlJ 
 
 N. Y. 
 A 
 
Established 1900 
 
 JOHN H. YOCUM 
 
 LEATHER TRADE 
 CHEMIST 
 
 Office and Laboratory Sampling Office 
 
 325 Academy Street 150 Nassau Street 
 
 Newark, N. J. New York City 
 
 WE analyze tannin extracts, liquors, 
 sumacs, myrabolans, valonia, 
 dividivi, algarobilla, gambier, bark?, 
 spent tanning materials of all kinds, 
 leather, paints, oils, fats, greases and 
 all materials used in the tannery. 
 
 We draw Samples in New York, 
 Philadelphia and Boston 
 
 Main Office, L. D. 'Phone 3486 Market 
 Sampling Office, L. D. 'Phone 2586 Beekman 
 
B^^^^^BHCbMI 
 
 Sampson Rogers John J. Tye Frank E. Hoover 
 
 Bolles and Rogers 
 
 Dealers in 
 
 Packer, City Butcher 
 and Country Hides 
 
 — — B— g— i— HE 
 
 In All Desired Quantities, Weights and 
 Selections, also 
 
 Calfskins, Sheep Pelts, Dry Hides, 
 Wool, Tallow and Grease 
 
 129-131 West Kinzie Street 
 Chicago, 111. 
 
cKESSON & BOBBINS 
 
 91-93-95-97 Fulton St. M-,_, V ahI# 
 72-74-76-78 Ann St. IMeW YOTK 
 
 SUPPLIERS 
 
 Of All Chemicals 
 Fop the Tanners 
 
 PURE COD OIL 
 AMYLACETATE 
 
 CHLORIDE BARIUM 
 
 BICHROMATE SODA . 
 BICHROMATE POTASH 
 
 Oxalic and Acetic and Boracic Acids 
 Paraffin, Arsenic, Yellow, Saxony 
 Red, White, Powdered and Lump 
 Cutch, Soda, Glycerine, Nigrosine, 
 Yellow Prussian Potash 
 Olive Oil, Green and Yellow 
 
 McKESSON & BOBBINS 
 
 New York 
 
Stehling's Patent Portable Paddle Wheel 
 
 The above illustration shows our portable paddle wheel which 
 is now in successful ojseration washing sides and skins in the soak- 
 ing vats, and is also used for liming sides and skins in the lime 
 vats. The machine is adapted to take the place of the stationary 
 paddle wheels which are now in use, as it can be lowered and raised 
 from the vat, as well as being transferred from vat to vat by power. 
 Only one machine is required on a line of ten vats. 
 
 Chas. H. Stehling Co. 
 
 Cor. 4th and Poplar Sts. 
 
 Milwaukee, Wis. 
 
 Designers and Builders of Tanneries and all kinds of New 
 and Second-hand Hide and Leather Working Machinery. 
 
INNIS, SPEIDEN $ CO. 
 
 SUCCESSORS TO INNIS & CO. 
 Established 1816 
 
 46 Cliff Street NEW YORK 
 
 Chemicals 
 
 Extracts 
 
 Colors 
 
 BOSTON: 220 Congress St. 
 
 PHILADELPHIA: 147 So. Front St. 
 
 CHICAGO: 120 W. Kinzie St. 
 
 Alphonse Weil & Bros. 
 
 70 GOLD STREET, NEW YORK 
 
 Importers and Exporters of 
 
 Hides, Calf, Kip 
 
 Horse, Colt, Goat 
 Sheepskins, Wool, Etc. 
 
 Chicago Office, 36 La Salle St. 
 
 OFFICES AND WAREHOUSES 
 PARIS. France STRASBOURG, Germany SHANGHAI. China 
 
 RICA, Russia BUENOS AIRES, Argentine CHICAGO, Illinois 
 Agencies in Principal Markets of the World 
 
"There is nothing lil^e leather' 
 
 We supply * 
 the best which goes to mal^e it. 
 
 TANNING 
 
 MATERIALS 
 
 For Every Kind of Vegetable Tannage 
 For Every Kind of Chrome Tannage 
 
 A. KLIPSTEIN & CO 
 
 644-54 Greenwich Street, 
 NEW YORK 
 
W. L. Montgomery & Co. 
 
 22 High Street, BOSTON, MASS. 
 
 BROKERS IN 
 
 FOREIGN HIDES 
 AND SKINS 
 
 Tanning Materials, Degras 
 
 HP TT IT 
 
 MIDDLETON 
 
 SERVICE 
 
 Buying and Inspecting Packer and Country Hides 
 
 IS CONSCIENTIOUS 
 
 and 
 
 THOROUGHLY MODERN 
 
 j. a. MIDDLETON a co. 
 
 543 ROOKERY 
 209 S. La Salle St. 
 CHICAGO 
 
 TANNERS' AGENTS 
 
 Liebers, WidebrooK and Private Codes 
 
F. R WASHBURN H. R. PUFFER 
 
 Washburn & Puffer 
 
 BROKERS IN 
 
 Packer and Country 
 
 Hides 
 
 185 Summer Street 229 W. Lake Street 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 Correspondence Solicited 
 
 W. D. SMITH CO. 
 
 DEALERS IN 
 
 Chicago Packer Hides 
 
 IN ALL DESIRED WEIGHTS AND SELECTIONS 
 
 39 South La Salle Street 
 CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 Warehouse: Union stock Yards. 
 
ABE STEIN 
 
 ENRICO N. STEIN 
 
 Abe Stein & Co. 
 
 97 Gold Street 
 NEW YORK 
 
 Cable Address "Stein" 
 
 HIDES 
 
 AND 
 
 SKINS 
 
 Enrico N. Stein 
 
 London 
 
 Bombay 
 
 Calcutta 
 
 Caunpore 
 
 Delhi 
 
 Amritsar 
 
 England 
 1 
 i 
 
 India 
 
 China & Java Export Co. 
 
 Sharghai 
 
 Hankow 
 
 Tientsin 
 
 Soerabaya 
 
 Samarang 
 
 Batavia 
 
 Amsterdam 
 
 China 
 
 Java 
 Holland 
 
 Max Klein 
 
 Aden \ Arabia 
 
 Hodeidah / Arabia 
 
 Mombassa British E. A. 
 
 Marseilles France 
 
TANNERS 
 
 We are giving special attention to 
 your wants in hides and skins, both 
 foreign and domestic, and have our 
 connections in the foreign countries 
 made to protect your interests. 
 
 We are familiar with all the different 
 kinds of hides and skins from foreign 
 countries, and can give you valu- 
 able information. 
 
 Extracts: When you are in the 
 market for foreign or domestic ex- 
 tracts please wire or write us before 
 buying. 
 
 Our services are thoroughly up-to- 
 date. 
 
 The J. F. Mosser Co. mc. 
 
 BOSTON, MASS. NEW YORK CITY CHICAGO, ILL. 
 
 BUENOS AIRES, St. A. BERLIN, GERMANY 
 
 PARIS, FRANCE 
 
THE MODERN TRADE PAPER 
 
 Shoe and Leather Weekly 
 
 FOR THE 
 
 Hide, Leather, Shoe 
 
 AND KINDRED TRADES 
 
 I United States and Mexico . . $3.00 Per Annum 
 SUBSCRIPTION RATES j Canada 4.00 ' 
 
 Foreign 5.00 " 
 
 154 West Randolph Street CHICAGO, ILL., U. S. A. 
 
 The 
 
 Chicago Daily Hide Report 
 
 is acknowledged to be the most accurate 
 and reliable information published on 
 HIDES, SKINS, TALLOW, GREASE, Etc. 
 
 Compiled by expert market reporters who are among the trade in Chicago 
 
 each day up to 3:30 P. M. Mailed in the Main Postoffice before 
 
 4:30 P. M. so as to catch the fast trains. 
 
 1 Daily $7.00 Per Quarter, $25.00 Per Year 
 
 SUBSCRIPTION RATES Three Times a Week ... 15.00 " " 
 
 'Twice a Week 10.00 " 
 
 SAMPLES ON REQUEST 
 
 Published from the Offices of the 
 
 SHOE AND LEATHER WEEKLY 
 
 154 West Randolph Street, CHICAGO 
 
JUL 8 1912 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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